6th INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE

ON DEFENSIVE TECHNOLOGIES

PROCEEDINGS

Belgrade, 09 10 October 2014

Publisher
The Military Technical Institute
Ratka Resanovia 1, 11030 Belgrade
Publisher's Representative
Doc. Col Zoran Raji, PhD (Eng)
Editor
Zoran Anastasijevi, PhD (Eng)
Technical Editing
Dragan Kneevi
Liljana Kojiin
Graphic Editing
Milica Dimitrijevic
Printing
300 copies

CIP -
,
623.4/.7(082)(0.034.2)
66.017/.018:623(082)(0.034.2)
INTERNATIONAL Scientific Conference on
Defensive Technologies (6th ; 2014 ; Beograd)
Proceedings [Elektronski izvor] / 6th
International Scientific Conference on
Defensive Technologies, OTEH 2014, Belgrade,
09-10 October 2014 ; organized by Military
Technical Institute, Belgrade ; [editor Zoran
Anastasijevi]. - Belgrade : The Military
Technical Institute, 2014 (Beograd : The
Military Technical Institute). - 1
elektronski optiki disk (CD-ROM) ; 12 cm
Sistemski zahtevi: Nisu navedeni. - Nasl. sa
naslovne strane dokumenta. - Tira 300. Bibliografija uz svaki rad.
ISBN 978-86-81123-71-3
1. The Military Technical Institut
(Belgrade)
a) - b)
-
COBISS.SR-ID 210344204

6th INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE

ON DEFENSIVE TECHNOLOGIES

SUPPORTED BY

Ministry of Defence
www.mod.gov.rs

Organized by
MILITARY TECHNICAL INSTITUTE
1 Ratka Resanovia St., Belgrade 11000, SERBIA

www.vti.mod.gov.rs

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

Major General Bojan Zrni, PhD, Chief of the Directorate

of Defence Technologies, President
Major General Duan Stojanovi, Head of Planning and
Development
Major General Mitar Kova, PhD, Head of the Strategic
Planning
Major General Mladen Vuruna, PhD, Head of the Military
Academy, Belgrade
Lieutenant General Miodrag Jevti, PhD, Rector of the
University of Defence
Vladimir Bumbairevi, PhD, Rector, University of
Belgrade
Aleksandar Gaji, PhD, State Secretary of the Ministry of
Education, Science and Technological Development
Milorad Milovanevi, PhD, Dean of the Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade
Branko Kovaevi, PhD, Dean of Faculty of Electrical
Engineering in Belgrade
ore Janakovi, PhD, Dean of the Faculty of
Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade
Radomir Milainovi, PhD, Dean of the Faculty of
Security Studies, Belgrade
Goran Miloevi, PhD, Dean of the Police Academy,
Belgrade
Col. Zoran Raji, PhD, Director of the Military Technical
Institute, Vice President
Col. Slobodan Ili, PhD, Director of the Technical Test
Center, Belgrade
Col. Stevan Radoji, PhD, Chief of the Military
Geographical Institute
Nenad Miloradovi, JUGOIMPORT - SDPR, Belgrade
Miladin Petkovi, Director of " Kruik ", Valjevo
Zoran Stefanovi, Director of " Sloboda", aak
Rado Milovanovi, Director of "Milan Blagojevi",
Luani
Dobrosav Andri, Director of "Prvi Partizan " Uice
Stanoje Bioanin, Director of " Prva Iskra -namenska,"
Bari
Radomir Gromovi, Director of " Zastava oruije",
Kragujevac

Zoran Anastasijevi, PhD, Military Technical Institute,

President
Dragoljub Vuji, PhD, Military Technical Institute, Serbia
Nafiz Alemdaroglu, PhD, Middle East Technical
University, Ankara, Turkey
Col. Zbyek Korecki, University of Defence, Brno, Czech
Republic
Stevan Berber, PhD, Auckland University, New Zealand
Constantin Rotaru, PhD, Military Technical Academy,
Bucharest, Romania
Nenad Dodi, PhD, dSPACE GmbH, Paderborn, Germany
Wang Yuebing, PhD, Laboratory of Acoustics, National
Institute of Metrology, Beijing, China
Kamen Iliev, PhD, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Center
for National Security and Defence, Sofia, Bulgaria
Col. Stoyan Balabanov, Ministry of Defence, Defence
Institute, Sofia, Bulgaria
Greihin Leonid Ivanovi, PhD, State College of
Aviation, Minsk, Belarus
Brigadier General Boris Durkech, PhD, Military Academy,
Slovak Republic
Slobodan Stupar, PhD, Deputy Minister of Education,
Science and Technological Development
Col. Goran Diki, PhD, University of Defence, Serbia
Col. Boban orovi, PhD, Military Academy, Serbia
Col. Nenad Dimitrijevi, PhD, Military Academy, Serbia
Col. Miodrag Regodi, PhD, Military Academy, Serbia
Lt. Col. Dragan Trifkovi, PhD, Military Academy,
Serbia
Vlado urkovi, PhD, Military Academy, Serbia
Biljana Markovi, PhD, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Branko Livada, Luxell Technologies, Toronto, Canada
Col. Martin Macko, PhD, University of Defence, Brno,
Czech Republic
George Dobre, PhD, University Politehnica of Bucharest,
Romania
Momilo Milinovi, PhD, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Serbia
Dragutin Debeljkovi, PhD, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Serbia
Slobodan Jaramaz, PhD, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Serbia
Bosko Rauo, PhD, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Serbia
Aleksa Zejak, PhD, RT-RK Institute for Computer Based
Systems, Novi Sad, Serbia
Strain Posavljak, PhD, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Banja Luka, Republic Srpska
Fadil Islamovi, PhD, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Biha, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Tomaz Vuherer, PhD, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Silva Dobri, PhD, Military Medical Academy, Serbia
Zijah Burzi, PhD, Military Technical Institute, Serbia
Lt. Col. Ivan Pokrajac, PhD, Military Technical Institute,
Serbia
Mirko Kozi, PhD, Military Technical Institute, Serbia
Vencislav Grabulov, PhD, IMS Institute, Belgrade
Lt. Col. Ljubia Tomi, PhD, Technical Test Center,
Serbia
Nenko Brklja, PhD, Technical Test Center, Serbia

SECRETARIAT
Danica Simi, MSc, secretary
Marija Samardi, PhD
Miodrag Ivanievi, MSc
Dragan Kneevi,
Suzana Vukovi
Liljana Kojiin,

PREFACE
The Military Technical Institute, the first and the largest military scientific-research
institution in Serbia with a 66 year long tradition, has been traditionally organizing the
OTEH scientific conference devoted to the defensive technologies. The Conference is
sponsored by the Ministry of Defense and it takes place every second year.
Its aim is to gather scientists and engineers, researchers and designers, manufactures and
university professors in order to exchange ideas and to develop new relationships.
The Sixth International Scientific Conference OTEH 2014 is scheduled as follows: plenary
session with two introductory lectures, lecture on the occasion of 160 years since the birth of
Mihajlo Pupin, working sessions according to the Conference topics, exhibition of some
actual exhibits of the weapons and military equipment developed by the Military Technical
Institute.
The papers which will be presented at the Conference have been classified into the following
thematic fields:

Aerodynamics and Flight Dynamics

Aircraft

Weapon Systems and Combat Vehicles

Ammunition and Energetic Materials

Integrated Sensor Systems and Robotic Systems

Telecommunication and Information Systems

Materials and Technologies

Quality, Standardization, Metrology, Maintenance and Exploitation

The Proceedings contain 157 reviewed papers which have been submitted by the authors
from 14 different countries. I would also like to stress that 31 papers are from abroad.
The quality of papers accepted for publication achieved very high standard. I expect
stimulated discussion on many topics that will be presented during two days of the
Conference.
On behalf of the organizer I would like to thank all the authors and participants from abroad,
as well as from Serbia, for their contributions and efforts which made this Conference
possible and successful.
I would also like to thank the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia for
its financial support.
Finally, dear guests and participants of the Conference, I would like to wish you an enjoyable
stay in Belgrade and I am looking forward to see you again at the Seventh Conference.

Belgrade, October, 2014

Zoran Anastasijevi, PhD

Chairman of the Scientific Committee

CONTENTS
PLENARY LECTURES
3 AERODYNAMICS OF SEPARATED FLOW, Leonid Grechikhin
7 MODELLING OF LASER ATTACK ON AIRPLANE DURING LANDING
MANOEUVRE, Teodor Balaz, Frantisek Racek, Pavel Melsa, Martin Macko
1. SECTION : AERODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT DYNAMICS
15 DEVICE FOR MEASUREMENT MODEL ANGLE OF ATTACK IN THE T-32
WIND TUNNEL, Vladimir Lapevi, Aleksandar Viti
21 DEVICE FOR MEASUREMENT MODEL ANGLE OF ATTACK IN THE T-32
WIND TUNNEL, Vladimir Lapevi, Aleksandar Viti
26 EVALUATION OF STING DESIGN WITH INCREASED STIFFNESS FOR
THE T-38 WIND TUNNEL, Duan uri, Marija Samardi, Zoran Anastasijevi,
Zoran Raji. Habib Belaidouni
32 MEASUREMENT ACCURACY OF FLOW-FIELD PARAMETERS IN A
SUPERSONIC WIND-TUNNEL ENVIRONMENT, Dijana Damljanovi, ore
Vukovi, Boko Rauo, Jovan Isakovi, Goran Ocokolji
38 TESTING OF STANDARD MODELS IN THE LARGE-SUBSONIC WINDTUNNEL FACILITY OF VTI, Goran Ocokolji, Dijana Damljanovi, Boko
Rauo, Jovan Isakovi, ore Vukovi
44 COMPARISON OF NUMERICALLY OBTAINED 2D FLOW FIELDS FOR
THE BIONIC HIGH SPEED TRAIN CONCEPT DESIGNS INSPIRED WITH
AQUATIC AND FLYING ANIMALS, Suzana Lini, Boko Rauo, Mirko Kozi,
Vojkan Luanin, Mirjana Puhari
50 FLUTTER ANALYSIS OF MISSILE COMPOSITE FOLDING FINS, Mirko
Dinulovi, Boko Rauo, Branimir Krsti, Predrag Andri
55 NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF SUPERSONIC
TURBULENT FLOW AROUND A FINNED OGIVE CYLINDER, Dragan
Komarov, Jelena Svorcan, Jovan Isakovi, Aleksandar Bengin, Toni Ivanov
61 COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS OF UNSTEADY AERODYNAMIC LOADS
ACTING ON AN OSCILLATING WING IN TRANSONIC FLOW, Jelena
Svorcan, Dragan Komarov, Slobodan Stupar, Zorana Posteljnik, Marija Stanojevi
67 A NEW CONTROL SYSTEM FOR THE FLEXIBLE NOZZLE IN THE t-38
TRISONIC WIND TUNNEL, Biljana Ili, Mirko Milosavljevi
2. SECTION : AIRCRAFT
75 TECHNICAL PROCEDURES FOR REPAIRS OF CORROSIVE DAMAGES
ON G4-B AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE, Sonja urkovi, Vladimir Gobelji, Mirjana
Grbi
79 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY LED BACKLIGHTS: SEMIEMPIRIC LIGHT
MANAGEMENT MODELING, Branko Livada
85 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE ANALOG AND THE DIGITAL
COCKPIT OF LASTA TRAINING AIRCRAFT, Slavia Vlai, Aleksandar

VI

91
96
100

107
114
119
123
130
136
141
151
157
164
169
112

179
185
192
198.

Kneevi, Nikola Peki

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE ANALOG AND THE DIGITAL
COCKPIT OF LASTA TRAINING AIRCRAFT, Stevan Jovi, Saa Tirnani,
Zoran Ili, Nenko Brklja, Milutin Jankovi
SIMULATION AND ANALYSIS OF G/G/4 QUEUEING SYSTEM IN
SATURATION REGIME FOR SWARMING CONCEPT, Neboja Nikoli,
Momilo Milinovi, Radomir Jankovi, Olivera Jeremi
FOR AIRCRAFT TESTING COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY
AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRADITIONAL PCM DATA
ACQUISITION SYSTEM AND THE NETWORK DATA ACQUISITION
SYSTEM, Sakhr Abu Darag, Zoran Filipovi, Donia Mohammed, Dragoljub Vujic
THE SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY RELATED TO
AIRCRAFT FLIGHT TESTING, Zoran Filipovi, Sakhr Abu Darag, Donia
Mohammed, Dragoljub Vuji
COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS OF FLEXIBLE WING AERODYNAMICS,
Samah Kubba, Musaab Osman, Fatah Alrahman Albadri
AERODYNAMIC AND STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS OF SAFAT01, Rania
M Qurashi, Mohmmed Alhadi, Sakher Abudarag
CONTROLLING OF SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR DRIVE
ACTUATION SYSTEM USING MICROCONTROLLER, Raheeg Alamin,
Edward Christopher, Osman Muhammad Imam
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MILITARY HEAD-UP DISPLAY TECHNOLOGY
AND ITS APPLICATION TO MODERN FYING TRAINING, Robert Wilsey
Fraes
OPTIMAL DESIGN OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS, Nenad
Beri, Stevan Maksimovi
DESIGN OF UAV ELASTIC CORD CATAPULT, Zoran Novakovi
Nikola Medar
INVESTIGATION OF CIVIL AVIATION ACCIDENTS AND SERIOUS
INCIDENTS IN THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA, Vladan Velikovi
TAILPLANE MODIFICATION OF THE TRAINING AIRCRAFT, Vanja
Stefanovi, Boko Rauo, Ivana Ili, Vuk Antoni, Zoran Vasi
UAV GROUND CONTROL STATION, Goran Pejki, Slavia Vlai, Robert Vuli
MODEL OF EQUIPPING GAZELLE HELICOPTER FOR THE SEARCH
AND RESCUE TASKS, Goran Pejki, Slavia Vlai, Robert Vuli
IMPACT OF PILOT SEAT POSITION ON THE SEATS VIBRATION
SPECTRUM ON PISTON PROPELLER AIRCRAFT, Zoran Ili, Miroslav
Jovanovi, Rauo Boko, Stevan Jovii, Milutin Jankovi, Nenko Brklja, Miroslav
Blaanovi
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS OF THE TURBULENT AIR FLOW
THROUGH A VANED DIFFUSER TURBOCHARGER, Abdelmadjid Chehhat,
Mohamed Si-Ameur
SOME ASPECTS OF OPERATION LIFE EXTENSION OF AIRCRAFT
STRUCTURES, Stevan Maksimovi, Rodoljub Doi, Zoran Vasi
LASTA AIRCRAFT WITH TURBOPROP ENGINE - DETERMINATON
FLIGHT PERFORMANCES, PROGRAM "TURBOLASTAPERF", Kosta
Velimirovi, Nemanja Velimirovi
THE ANALYSIS OF THE AIRPLANE TRANSIENTS AFTER PILOT BAILOUT, Predrag Stojakovi, Boko Rauo, Marko Puijaevi, Miodrag MilenkoviBabi

VII

204 DETERMINATION OF THE STARTING POINT OF AIRCRAFT ATTACK

TERMINATION OVER THE GROUND TARGET IN AIRCRAFT
AUTOMATIC GUIDING MODE, Nikola Peki, Slavia Vlai, Aleksandar
Kneevi
209 ANALYSIS OF LASTA AIRCRAFT IMPROVEMENT BY INTEGRATION OF
A TURBOPROP POWERPLANT, Dragan Ili, Vojislav Devi, Kosta Velimirovi,
Vuk Antoni, Miodrag Milenkovi-Babi
216 PLM INTRODUCING PROGRAM USING LASTA TRAINING AIRCRAFT
DESIGN DATA AS BENCHMARKING OBJECTS, Zoran Vasi, Miodrag
Ivanievi, Sran ivkovi
223 APPLICATION OF INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM BY ICAO
STANDARD AND FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT APPLIED
TO ONE MULTI-PURPOSE COMBAT AIRCRAFT, Milan Petrovi, Ivan Dunji,
Jovan Jovanovi, Neboja Nerandi
3. SECTION : WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMBAT VEHICLES
229 NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF FRAGMENTATION WARHEAD
MECHANISMS, Predrag Elek, Slobodan Jaramaz, Dejan Mickovi, Nenad
Miloradovi
235 NUMERICAL aND ANALYTICAL APPROACH TO THE MODELING OF
EXPLOSIVELY FORMED PROJECTILES, Milo Markovi, Predrag Elek,
Slobodan Jaramaz, Momilo Milinovi, Dejan Mickovi
241 ATTACHMENT RESEARCH OSCILLATORY CHARACTERISTICS OFFROAD VEHICLES, Zoran Majki, Miroslav Demi, Sneana vanovi
248 INFLUENCE OF ACCURACY OF PREPARATION INDIRECT FIRING
INITIAL ELEMENTS ON PERFORMANCE OF GROUP PLATOON MISSILE
FIRING MORTARS 120 MM, Aca Ranelovi, Vlado urkovi, Tugomir Kokelj
253 EFFECT ON PERFORMANCE ACCURACY OF CORRECTIONS INDIRECT
FIRING MORTARS 120 MM, Tugomir Kokelj, Aca Ranelovi, Olgica Lazarevi
259 LONGITUDINAL DYNAMIC STABILITY INVESTIGATION FOR A
SUBSONIC CRUISE MISSILE USING A 3 DOF FLIGHT DYNAMICS
MODEL, Ahmed Osama Mahgoub, Khalid Ibrahim Bashir, Eimad Eldin El Hadi
Musa
266 TEST SIMULATOR FOR THE DISCRETE MULTI-PARAMETRIC
DECISION FLIGHT SYSTEM, Stojan Markovi, Momilo Milinovi, Nenad Sakan
269 THE METHOD FOR THE AUTOMATIC ELIMINATION OF THE EFFECTS
OF THE TERRAIN SLOPE ON THE MLRS, Milan B. Miloevi
277 SMART TARGETS SYSTEM FOR FIRE SHOOTING, Jane Stoimanov, Nenad
Jordanovski, Jugoslav Achkoski
282 INFRARED CAMOUFLAGE IN NATURAL ENVIRONMENT, Ivana Kosti,
Ljubia Tomi, Aleksandar Kovaevi, Mladen Antoni, Saa Nikoli
285 ACQUISITION AND MEASURING PROCEDURES OF COMPLEX
ELECTRICAL SIGNALS FROM COMPONENTS AND SUBSYSTEMS OF
ANTI-TANK MISSILE SYSTEM, Nenad Caki, Nataa Kljaji, Milo Kosti, Sran
Trandafilovi
289 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF ROCKET MOTOR INTERNAL
BALLISTIC COEFFICIENTS AND PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS, Saa
VIII

296
300
305
311
317
322
329
333
341

347

ivkovi, Milo Filipovi, Predrag Elek, Momilo Milinovi, Nikola Gligorijevi,

Mohammed Amine Boulahlib
A BOW THRUSTER CONTRIBUTION OF SHIP MANEUVERABILITY
IMPROVEMENT, Vojkan Mandi
NATURAL TRACKING GUIDANCE LAW WITH INDIRECT IMPACT
ANGLE CONTROL, Milo Pavi, Bojan Pavkovi, Slobodan Mandi, Danilo uk
SIMULATION OF RESISTANCE AUTOFRETTAGE BARREL USING TO
HUBER-MISES-HENCKY CRITERION, Aleksandar Kari, Saa Dimitri, Zoran
Risti
SIMULATION OF WEAPON SILENCER EXITS USING OF FUNCIONAL
DECOMPOSITION APPROACH, Neboja Hristov, Aleksandar Kari, Damir
Jerkovi, Slobodan Savi
AN APPROACH TO DESIGN OF BATTLEFIELD SIMULATOR FOR
DECENTRALIZED DATA FUSION SIMULATOR, Nadica Kozi, Predrag
Okiljevi, Ivan Pokrajac, Danilo Obradovi
AN ANALYSIS OF THE EFFICIENCY OF UTILIZATION OF INVOLUTE
CYLINDRICAL GEAR PAIRS, Predrag Dobrati, Mileta Ristivojevi, Boidar
Rosi
MODEL OF INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR SMART TARGET SHOOTING,
Mihajlo Toshevski, Boban Temelkovski, Jugoslav Achkoski
ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON OF A COMMAND GUIDANCE AND THE
COMBINATION OF PROGRAMMED AND HOMING GUIDANCE, Novak
Zagraanin, Stevica Graovac
DETERMINING OF WORKING TEMPERATURE OF ISOLATION BAR IN
"START RESISTANCE BOX" OF COMBAT VEHICLES PREHEATER
MOTOR AND INVESTIGATION OF POSSIBLE REPLACEMENT
MATERIAL FOR BAR, Dragi Lakievi, Jovan Radulovi, Goran Jerkin, Dragan
Munitlak
PROJECT MANAGEMENT PUTTING TOGETHER THE MODEL AND
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR TWO-PHASE FLUID FLOW IN THE
SMALL-ARMS BY BOX-WILLSON'S METHOD, Ljubia Tani
4. SECTION : AMMUNITION AND ENERGETIC MATERIALS

355 ANALYSIS OF LEAD REPLACEMENT IN SMALL ARMS and carbine

AMMUNITION PRODUCTION, ihailo Erevi
361 COMPARISON OF SOLID PROPELLANTS CONTAINING DIFFERENT
COMBUSTION STABILIZERS, Vesna Rodi, Mirjana Dimi
368 DEFINE METHOD VACUUM STABILITY TEST FOR CHEMICAL
STABILITY OF SINGLE BASE AND DOUBLE BASE PROPELLANTS, Bojana
Fidanovski, Mirjana Dimi , Aleksandar Milojkovi, Nataa Kariik
372 EXPLOSIVE PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING POSSIBILITIES OF
RECYCLED TRINITROTOLUENE, Slavica Terzi, Danica Simi, Uro Aneli,
Sinia Petrovi, Danka Simi
376 HIGH EXPLOSIVE PLANE-WAVE GENERATOR, Uro Aneli, Vesna
Dingalaevi
380 AN EXAMPLE OF A SUCCESSFUL EROSIVE BURNING REDUCTION IN A
SMALL ROCKET MOTOR, Mohammed Amine Boulahlib, Torche Radhia, Saa
ivkovi, Sredoje Suboti, Nikola Gligorijevi

IX

388 COMBINED INFLUENCE OF EXPLOSIVE CHARGE DENSITY AND

SCALED DISTANCE ON SHOCKWAVE OVERPRESSURE FOR CYCLOTOL
50/50, Zoran Baji, Jovica Bogdanov, Vladimir Mladenovi
392 INITIAL CHANGES OF COMPOSITE PROPELLANT MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES, Nikola Gligorijevi, Mohammed Maouche, Assia Tabouche, Chawki
Tennache, Saa ivkovi, Sredoje Suboti, Vesna Rodi
400 PREDICTION OF DETONATION CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPLOSIVES
USING STATISTICAL APPROACH, Jovica Bogdanov, Zoran Baji, Radun
Jeremi, Radenko Dimitrijevi
404 FINE GRAIN, HIGH-DENSITY GRAPHITE FOR ROCKET MOTOR
NOZZLES, Slavko Kari, Petar Lauevi, Gvozden Tasi, Vladimir Nikoli, Milica
Maretak Kaninski, Nikola Gligorijevi, Saa ivkovi
407 CHARACTERIZATION OF HYDROXYL-TERMINATED
POLY(BUTADIENE) BASED COMPOSITE PROPELLANT BINDER
CONTAINING 1,4-BUTANEDIOL, Saa Brzi, Mirjana Dimi, Sofijan Allili
412 PREDICTION OF ENERGETIC PERFORMANCES OF DOUBLE BASE
PROPELLANTS, Milo Filipovi, Aleksandar Milojkovi
418 QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE VERIFICATION OF CAST PBX
EXPLOSIVE, Danica Simi, Danilo Serdarevi, Saa Savi, Sinia Gai, Slavica
Terzi, Uro Aneli
425 IMPACT OF BLAST WAVE FROM MIXTURE OF AN AND UROTROPINE
ON CRITICAL ELEMENTS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES,
Iliyan Hutov, Radi Ganev
431 CHEMICAL STABILITY ASSESSMENT OF UNUSUAL DOUBLE-BASE
PROPELLANTS COMPOSITIONS WITHOUT A STABILIZER, Ljiljana
Jelisavac, Nikola Bobi, Slavia Stojiljkovi, Ahmed Koibi, Saa Brzi, Bojana
Fidanovski
438 CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY AND NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF
GAS BUBBLES EFFECT IN THE UNDERWATER EXPLOSION, Mohamed
Maouche, Assia Tabouche, Chawki Tennache
445 OPTIMIZATION OF CHROMATOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS FOR
SEPARATION OF DIPHENYLAMINE AND ITS NITRO AND NITROSO
DERIVATIVES BY LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY, Vesna Petrovi, Slavia
Stojiljkovi, Jelena ultans
452 REVIEW OF CRITERIA FOR CHEMICAL STABILITY ASSESSMENT
OF NITROCELLULOSE BASED PROPELLANTS BY VACUUM
STABILITY TEST, Jelena ultans, Slavia Stojiljkovi, Vesna Petrovi
457 PYROTECHNIC MIXTURES FOR INFRARED DECOY, Dragoslav Negoici,
Gordana Bokovi, Vitomir Medojevi, Dragan ebek
462 RESEARCHING OF THE INITIAL PYROTECHNIC MIXTURES, Gordana
Bokovi, Vitomir Medojevi, Mira Gojak, Dragoslav Negoici
5. SECTION : INTEGRATED SENSOR SYSTEMS AND ROBOTIC SYSTEMS
471 AN APPROACH TO DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT SIMULATOR FOR
COMINT SYSTEM FOR DECENTRALIZED DATA FUSION SIMULATOR,
Ivan Pokrajac, Nadica Kozi, Predrag Okiljevi, Danilo Obradovi
477 WAVELET ANALYSIS RADIATED HYDROACOUSTIC NOISE OF FEW
TYPE WAR SHIPS, Miodrag Vraar
X

483 MAIN DIRECTIONS OF 3D RADAR DEVELOPMENT, Sergei M.Kostromitski,

Petr N.Shumski, Igor S.Sadovski
489 A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE CFAR DETECTORS, Dejan Ivkovi,
Milenko Andri, Bojan Zrni
495 CALIBRATION OF THE OPOS ET-250 RADAR CALIBRATOR, Ivica
Milanovi, Neda Spasojevi, Mia Marku, Zoran Vignjevi
499 AN IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CORRELATIVE INTERFEROMETER
DIRECTION FINDING ALGORITHM ON MULTI-CORE DSP PLATFORM,
Velimir Vujanovi, Aleksandra Davidovi, Aleksandar Tucakovi
503 IMPLEMENTATION OF IEEE 1451.4 TRANSDUCER ELECTRONIC
DATASHEET USING AN MBED MICROCONTROLLER MODULE, Branko
Vukeli, Milo Frantlovi
507 LIGHT CONCENTRATION IN SEMICONDUCTOR INFRARED
DETECTORS FOR NIGHT VISION BY GRADED ANTIREFLECTION
LAYER INCORPORATING PLASMONIC PARTICLES, Marko Obradov, Zoran
Jaki, Dana Vasiljevi Radovi
513 A TECHNICAL SOLUTION OF THE OPTOELECTRONIC MULTISENSOR
SYSTEM, Neboja api, Nikola Jovanovi, Katarina Savi
519 STUDY OF POSSIBILITIES OF APPLICATION OF A THERMOPILE-BASED
GAS SENSOR, Danijela Randjelovi, Olga Jaki, Mile M Smiljani, arko Lazi
524 AN APPROACH FOR DEVELOPMENT OF EOB APPLICATION IN
DIRECTION FINDER FOR HF FREQUENCY RANGE, Goran Kruni, Ugljea
Dragii, eljko Jurca, Tomislav Maruna
528 AN FPGA IMPLEMENTATION OF BEAMFORMING ALGORITHM
WITH DIGITAL MEMS MICROPHONES, Iva Salom, Vladimir elebi, Milan
Milanovi, Dejan Todorovi, Mirjana Radosavljevi, Jurij Prezelj
534 OPTIMIZATION OF SIZING, LOCATION AND ORIENTATION OF
PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATOR-SENSOR PAIRS ON COMPOSITE PLATE,
Nemanja Zori, Miroslav Jovanovi, Neboja Luki, Aleksandar Simonovi, Zoran
Mitrovi, Slobodan Stupar
540 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF ACTIVE STRUCTURE DAMPING
RATIO USING DIFFERENT CONTROL STRATEGIES IN SYSTEM OF
ACTIVE VIBRATION CONTROL, Miroslav Jovanovi, Aleksandar Simonovi,
Neboja Luki, Nemanja Zori, Slobodan Stupar, Slobodan Ili
545 APPLICATION OF GOLAY COMPLEMENTARY WAVEFORMS IN PR-15
RADAR: SYSTEM ANALYSIS, aleksa j. Zejak, Slobodan Simi, Zoran Golubii
551 PR-15 RADAR SIGNALS: MEASUREMENTS AND ANALYSIS, Slobodan
Simi, Aleksa J. Zejak, Zoran Golubii
159 AN EFFICIENT SOLID STATE VHF BAND RADAR TRANSMITTER, Zvonko
Radosavljevi, Dragan Paunovi, Dejan Ivkovi, Dragan Nikoli
561 NETWORK RECONFIGURATION IN BALANCED DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS FOR ACTIVE POWER LOSS REDUCTION BY BRANCH
EXCHANGE METHOD, Branko Stojanovi
6. SECTION : TELECOMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS
569 FIR FILTER SHARPENING BY FREQUENCY MASKING AND PIPELININGINTERLEAVING TECHNIQUE, Milenko iri, Vojkan Radonji
574 TARGET RECOGNITION USING CORRELATION METHOD, Reem Eltayeb
Mohammed Abd Elrahman, Moutaman Mirghani Daffalla
XI

577 CODE SYNCHRONIZATION FOR DIRECT SEQUENCE-CODE DIVISION

MULTIPLE ACCESS, Aisha Sir Elkhatem Ali, Moutaman Mirghani Daffalla
581 TETRA SYSTEM PROPAGATION PREDICTION AND ITS COMPARASION
WITH MEASURED RESULTS, Sima Kereevi, Danilo Lazovi, Jovan Bajeti
585 MULTIBEAM RECEIVING ANTENNA AT THE MISSILE LATERAL
STRUCTURE, Zoran Golubii, Slobodan Simi, Aleksa J. Zejak
591 AN FPGA BASED GENERIC PLATFORM FOR ETHERNET
COMMUNICATION PROCESSING UP TO 10G, Saa Vukosavljev, Boris Radin,
Vladimir Marinkovi
598 ONE SOLUTION OF REAL-TIME SPECTRUM SEGMENTATION IN HF
DIRECTION FINDER BASED ON TIME-FREQUENCY-SPACE ANALYSIS,
Ugljesa Dragii, Goran Kruni, Nikola Tesli
604 THE APPLICATION OF THE TWO-DIMENSIONAL MARKOV PROCESS
FOR VIDEO CONNECTIONS ANALYSIS, Boban Z. Pavlovi, Vladimir Sua,
Jovan Bajeti, Katarina Milovac
609 DIFFERENT TYPEs OF WFQ MECHANISMS IN VOIP TRAFFIC
ANALYSIS, Vladimir Sua, Boban Z. Pavlovi, Radovan Dragovi
614 ANDROID APPLICATION FOR MOBILE PLATFORM LOCATION
TRACKING USING GPS, Dejan Gavrilovi, Aleksandar Veselinovi, Ivan Tot, Saa
Stojkovi, Aleksandar Vidakovi
617 ADSORPTION-DESORPTION BASED RANDOM NUMBER GENERATOR,
Olga Jaki, Dragan Tanaskovi, Danijela Randjelovi, Filip Radovanovi
623 INTEGRATION OF SMART HOMES IN GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR CONTROL
AND MONITOR OVER INTERNET, Dragan Rakita, Itvan Pap, Milivoj Boi,
Saa Vukosavljev
627 CLOUD COMPUTING APPLICATION IN SERBIAS DEFENSE INDUSTRY,
Aleksandar Stojanovi
7. SECTION : MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGIES
635 THE POSSIBILITY OF DECONTAMINATION OF HIGHLY TOXIC
CHEMICALS THICKENED FORMULATIONS, RADOVAN KARKALI,
ELJKO SENI, Branko Kovaevi, Dalibor Jovanovi
640 Energy Self-Sufficiency IN THE TIME OF CRISISON QUALITY OF
BIODIESEL PRODUCTION UNDER UNDEMANDING CONDITIONS, Pavle
Hadi, Dragoslava Stojiljkovi, Vladimir Jovanovi, Neboja Mani
644 DETERMINING HYDRAULIC EXCAVATOR NATURAL FREQUENCIES BY
APPLYING DYNAMIC-MATHEMATICAL MODEL, Olgica Lazarevi, Vojislav
Batini, Aca Ranelovi
649 LASER CLEANING OF TEXTILE ARTIFACTS WITH CORRODED
METAL THREADS, Slavica Risti, Suzana Poli, Bojana Radojkovi
656 MODELING OF AXISYMMETRICFLOW IN ACTIVE CORE OF THE
PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR, Mirjana Prvulovi, Milan Prokolab
Stevan Budimir, Marko Risti
660 CALCULATION OF TECHNICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
IN THE PLANT FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT, Stevan Budimir
Milan Prokolab, Zlatan Milutinovi
664 MODELING OF SPRAY DEPOSITION PROCESS FOR SUBSTRATE OF
AXISYMMETRIC GEOMETRY, Milan Prokolab, Mirjana Prvulovi, Marko Risti

XII

668 SYNTHESIS OF THE ADSORBENT BASED ON PEGYLATED CELLULOSE

FOR THE REMOVAL OF Pb(II) AND Cd(II) IONS FROM WATER, Zlate
Velikovi, Boban Aleksi, Zoran Baji
674 CHARACTERIZATION OF PDMS MEMBRANES FABRICATED BY BULKMICROMACHINING ON SILICON WAFERS, Vesna Jovi, Zoran inovi, Filip
Radovanovi, Marko Starevi, Jelena Lamovec, Mile Smiljani, arko Lazi
680 EFFECT OF SUBSTRATE TYPE ON MICROHARDNESS OF MULTILAYER
THIN FILM COMPOSITE SYSTEM, Jelena Lamovec, Vesna Jovi, Ivana
Mladenovi, Bogdan Popovi, Vesna Radojevi
684 RESEARCH AND TESTING OF NOVEL SOLID-LIQUID PHASE CHANGE
COMPOUNDS FOR THE MILITARY MICROCLIMATE COOLING
SYSTEMS, Dalibor Jovanovi, Predrag Stojisavljevi, Ljubia Tomi, Radovan
Karkali, Aleksandar Nikoli, Veselin Maslak
689 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF FRACTURE MECHANICS
PARAMETERS IN ELASTIC-PLASTIC CONDITIONS, Bahrudin Hrnjica
Fadil Islamovi, Denana Gao, Mersida Manjgo, Sra Perkovi
694 SIGNIFICANCE OF CRACKS IN THE INTEGRITY ASSESSMENT WELDED
JOINT OF STEELS FOR ELEVATED TEMPERATURE, Meri Burzi, Radica
Proki- Cvetkovi, Olivera Popovi, Uro Luki
700 THE IMPACT OF THE TYPE AND MODE OF GLASS FIBERS STACKING
ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS,
Mirzet Beganovi, Sra Perkovi, Fadil Islamovi, Burzi Zijah, Denana Gao
705 QUANTITATIVE TESTING OF THE DEFECTS IN ALUMINUM PLATES
USING PULSED THERMOGRAPHY, Ljubia Tomi, Vesna Damnjanovi, Goran
Diki, Bojan Milanovi, Boban Bonduli
710 DEPENDENCE OF RADIONUCLIDE IN SOIL SAMPLES IN THE CITY
AREA BELGRADE, Nataa Paji, Tatjana Markovi
713 APPLICATION OF THE RESRAD FAMILY CODES FOR HUMAN AND
ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS EVALUATION, Tatjana Markovi, Nataa Paji
717 ADVANCED PREPREG BALLISTIC COMPOSITES FOR MILITARY
HELMETS , Dimko Dimeski, Vineta Srebrenkoska
722 RELEASE CHARACTERISTICS OF ALGINATE AND
ALGINATE/CHITOSAN BEADS, Jovana M. Ili, Jasna T. Staji-Troi, Mirko Z.
Stijepovi, Dragutin M. Nedeljkovi, Branko M. Bugarski, Aleksandar S. Gruji
727 EXPLORING AN INTERACTIONS BETWEEN 4-ARYL-4-OXO-2-(NARYL)BUTANAMIDES AND ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE BY DOCKING
CALCULATIONS AND MOLECULAR DYNAMICS SIMULATION, Maja
Vitorovi Todorovi, Sonja Bauk
732 ENZYME-BASED TECHNOLOGIES IN DETECTION,
DECONTAMINATION AND PROTECTION FROM TOXIC
ORGANOPHOSPHATE COMPOUNDS, Sonja Bauk, Maja Vitorovi-Todorovi,
Anton Radojkovi, eljko Seni, Duan Raji
738 TESTING OF PROTECTIVE AND PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF
MEANS FOR ANTIMICROBIAL RESPIRATORY PROTECTION, Negovan
Ivankovi, Duan Raji, eljko Seni, Marina Ili, Nikola Vukovi, Radovan Karkali,
Nataa Paji
743 ANALYSIS OF ACOUSTIC CLOAKS FOR ANTI-SONAR CAMOUFLAGE
BASED ON LOCAL RESONANCE IN ACOUSTIC METAMATERIALS,
Katarina Radulovi, Zoran Jaki, Marko Obradov, Dana Vasiljevi Radovi

XIII

749 INDEPENDENT POWER AND ENERGY SOURCES FOR MILITARY

APPLICATIONS, Gvozden S. Tasi, Petar Z. Lauevi, Ivana M. Perovi, Sneana
M. Miulovi, Vladimir M. Nikoli, Milica P. Mareta Kaninski
752 DISCRETIZATION OF THE FINITE ELEMENT NETWORK ALONG THE
CRACK LINE IN THE CONCRETE, Edvin Boli, Denana Gao, Fadil Islamovi,
Mersida Manjgo
757 THE DEPENDENCE OF THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
TRIBLOCK-COPOLYMER SBM ON THE POLYBUTADIENE ISOMERS,
Dragutin Nedeljkovic, Aleksandar Stajcic, Aleksandar Grujic, Jasna Stajic-Trosic,
Jasmina Stevanovic
761 INTERLAMINAR STRESS ESTIMATION IN ISOGEOMETRIC COMPOSITE
PLATES BASED ON THE HIGHER ORDER DEFORMATION THEORY,
Ognjen Pekovi, Slobodan Stupar, Aleksandar Simonovi, Sran Trivkovi, Nikola
Petrainovi
769 FORMATION OF THE CONDUCTIVE PATHWAYS AND ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY OF THE COPPER FILLED LIGNOCELLULOSE
COMPOSITES, Miroslav M. Pavlovi, Vladan osovi, Miladin Gligori, Vaso
Bojani, Miomir G. Pavlovi
775 SURFACE MODIFICATION OF WTI/SI THIN FILM AND STAINLESS
STEEL BY PICOSECOND LASER IRRADIATION, Dubravka Milovanovi,
Suzana Petrovi , Milorad Anelkovi, Milo Todorovi, Stepan Stani, Milica
Veselinovi, Marija Bjelan
779 FAILURE ANALYSIS OF DISEL ENGINE PISTON, Ljubica Radovi, Duan
Vraari
784 ACCURACY OF EDS/SEM MICROANALYSIS OF ALUMINIUM AND
COPPER ALLOYS, Ljubica Totovski
790 INJECTION MOULDING: ESSENTIAL STEP OF POWDER INJECTION
MOULDING (PIM) TECHNOLOGY, Jovan Radulovi
796 INVESTIGATION OF SEALING OF PLASTICS PARTS ASSEMBLY
EXPOSED TO HIGHER WATER PRESSURE, Aleksandra Kosti, Dejan Vasi,
Jovan Radulovi
802 INVESTIGATION OF POSSIBLE SUPERSTRUCTURES FOR
NANOAPERTURE ARRAY-BASED PLASMONIC SENSORS FOR
SIMULTANEOUS DETECTION OF MULTIPLE DANGEROUS
SUBSTANCES, Dragan Tanaskovi, Olga Jaki, Marko Obradov , Zoran Jaki
807 THE INFLUENCE OF CARBAMIDE ADDITIVE ON THE PROPERTIES OF
ELECTRODEPOSITED MANGANESE COATINGS, Mladen Vuruna, Mihael
Buko, Ljubica Radovi, Jelena Bajat
812 THE INFLUENCE OF THE HEAT TREATMENT ON THE PROPERTIES OF
FLOW FORMED ROCKET MOTOR CASES OF 30CRMOV4 AND 41CR4
STEELS, Milutin Nikaevi, Ljubica Radovi, Jelena Marinkovi
8. SECTION : QUALITY, STANDARDIZATION, METROLOGY,
MAINTENANCE AND EXPLOITATION

821 ANALYSIS OF MEASURING UNCERTAINTY OF dc current calibration of

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF THE RESISTORS USING DIG ITAL
MULTIMETER AGILENT 3458A, Milana Nikoli, Zoran Kneevi, Slavko
Vukani

XIV

824 MILITARY AIRWORTHINESS, Milutin Jankovi, Zoran Ili, Milan Dronjak,

Vladan Parezanovi, Stevan Jovii
829 IMPLEMENTATION OF ANALYTIC HIERARCHY PROCESS METHOD IN
THE SELECTION OF THE OPTIMAL MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION
FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSE DEVICES, Vojkan Radonji, Milenko iri, Marko
Andreji, Saa Petrovi
835 PROBLEMS OF RELIABILITY PREDICTION OF ELECTRONIC
EQUIPMENT, Slavko Pokorni
839 SIMULATION APPROACH TO COMMUNICATION NETWORKS TWOTERMINAL RELIABILITY AND AVAILABILITY ESTIMATION, Radomir
Jankovi, Slavko Pokorni, Neboja Nikoli
845 INTELLIGENT SHIP MAINTENANCE, Veselin Mrdak
852 SPATIAL DATA QUALITY PRINCIPLES AND EVALUATION
PROCEDURES BASED ON ISO 19113 AND 19114 STANDARDS, Stevan
Radoji, Saa Bakra, Slavia Tatomirovi
856 THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN APPROPRIATE FRAMEWORK OF IP
MANAGEMENT, Milana Vitas, Dragan Kukolj, Miroslava Drai, Zeljko Teki,
Sandra Kukolj
861 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSYS OF ANGLE OF ATACK MEASUREMENT,
Dejan Pavlovic, Slaan Pekmezovic
867 PARTS MARKING SYSTEMS IN MAINTENANCE, Saa Petrovi, Jasmina
Lozanovi aji

XV

PLENARY LECTURES

AERODYNAMICS OF SEPARATED FLOW

Prof LEONID GRECHIKHIN, PhD
Minsk State Higher Aviation College, Republic of Belarus, gretchihin@yandex

Abstract: Molecular kinetic theory used for considering the aerodynamics of aircrafts flights made it possible to combine
d'Alembert-Eulers continual theory and Newton's corpuscular theory into united theory of aerodynamics of aircrafts flights
in the Earth's atmosphere. The conditions of separated flow formation as a result of filling vacuum zone with air flows from
different directions at the velocity of sound have been considered. It has been found that the aerodynamics of small and
large aircrafts are essentially different.
Keywords: molecular kinetic theory, flight aerodynamics, separated flow, flow around a plate, flow around a sphere.

1. INTRODUCTION
Separated flow plays an important part in every flight mode of various aircrafts. Separated flow results in formation of
vortices. Detailed investigations of the formation of vortices within a separated flow were performed by Theodore von
Krmn [1]. Analyzing experimental data Theodore von Krmn found out the conditions under which the vortexes are
formed. For this reason, the train of vortices following a moving body was named Krmnvortex street. Detailed
description of experimental facts which result in separated flow formation is presented in [2]. Complete hydrodynamic
analysis of the gas flow around a sphere in continual mode is performed in [3]. General mathematical substantiation of
separated flow however lacking specific application is described in [4]. [5] considers the conditions of formation of
separated flow behind a moving plate while [6] considers the ones behind a moving sphere. As a result, only some reasons of
separated flow formation have been clarified so far. Yet the problem of separated flow formation has not been clarified in
aerodynamics in full. Therefore, the following purpose shall be achieved: to develop physical model of separated flow
through the usage of molecular kinetic theory and to find out which part separated flow plays in aerodynamics of aircrafts in
stationary air medium.
Let us consider, step by step, the problem formulated.

2. FORMATION OF SEPARATED FLOW

Separated flow is formed within the space where gas flows flowing around a body in opposite directions appear. Such flows
are realized behind moving bodies when vacuum space is filled from all sides. For instance, when a flat plane moves through air,
the vacuum space behind the plate is filled from opposite directions. Picture 1 shows the general picture of flows around a
flat plane at its rear side.

Picture 1. Exemplary diagram of the formation of separated flow behind a moving plate (a) at negative angle of attack,
and (b) at positive angle of attack

Vacuum space behind the plate is filled with the air which flows from all four sides forming a tetrahedral cone of a separated
flow. As the velocity of the plate motion increases the cones vertex moves farther from the plate. If the plate travels at the
velocity of sound the cones vertex presents the angle of / 4 . The air mass in the vacuum space is concentrated within the
tetrahedral cone and is motionless relative to the plate. Therefore it creates a gas dynamic force caused by the difference of
pressures between front and rear walls of moving plate.
Based on the law of conservation of mass it follows that: the quantity of air which is disturbed by the moving plate is equal
to the mass of the air filling the vacuum space at all four sides. In accordance with the law of conservation of mass the
distance at which the flow gets separated is determined by the following equation:

Picture 2. Dependences of Specific Force Constants on Angle of Attack at Various Velocities of Plate Motion: velocity
is 5 m/s 1 lift at positive angle of attack; 2 drag and 3 lift at negative angle of attack; 1, 2, 3 accordingly for the
velocity of 50 m/s, and 1, 2 , 3 for the velocity of 180 m/s
xcp. = 0,5

hv sin
v.

(1)

At this distance the difference between the pressure in the vacuum space behind the plate situated away from the plates edge xcp
and the ambient pressure level off and so incoming flow of ambient air ceases. Because of this, a tetrahedral cone with reduced
pressure is formed behind the plate.
The calculation of force constants for drag and lift for the plate with dimensions 1 x 1.5 m are presented in Picture 2.
1. At the velocities of up to 300 400 km/h and angles of attack of up to 350 the aerodynamics of the flight of a flat plate is
determined, for the major part, by the interaction processes which occur in the rear region while at the velocities close to
sound velocity the aerodynamics is determined by the processes which occur in the front region. What this means is that
small aircrafts (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, mini and micro aircrafts) possess their own aerodynamics while large
aircrafts flying at speeds close to the speed of sound possess their own aerodynamics. The first aerodynamics and the
second one differ radically.
2. Starting from the speed of 200 m/s and up, at small angles of attack, the drag reverses its sign, i.e. the plate experiences
acceleration but not drag. So, at the speed of 220 m/s and angles for up to 440 the drag is negative featuring maximum of
1770 kgF at the angle of attack of 330. Accordingly, at the speed of 260 m/s the drag is negative for up to 510 featuring
maximum of 6540 kgF at the angle of 360. Reversion of drag sign means also reversion of lift sign. Therefore, under
these conditions the plate plummets down and is not able to flight. Arising moments of force constrain the plate to be
positioned at zero angle of attack.

Picture 3. Pattern of separated flow behind a moving sphere

Similar situation occurs in case of a moving sphere. Picture 3 shows basic the aerodynamics of flying sphere.
The angle from which the vacuum space begins is determined by the law of conservation of the mass which is pushed aside
by moving sphere. The angle is determined by the following distance
h Rv
v.

(2)

where R is sphere diameter, v is sphere motion velocity, and v. is sound velocity.

Burble angle is determined by the conditions when the air flow from side wall is compensated by the air flow from rear side
as follows
(v v) 2 / v1 sin
(3)
. = arc tg .

v1 cos

where v1 = v2 + v2 . , the angle = arc tg (v / v. ) , and 2 is air density in stalling space.

The calculations of the drag against the motion velocity for 1 m diameter sphere is presented in the table below.
Table 1. Dependence of drag on velocity for 1 m diameter sphere (N)
Velocity of Sphere Motion (m/s)
Parameters
0.5
1
5
10
50
100
F.
0.20
0.79
19.8
79.2
1980
7920
F.
-0.69
-2.76
-68.8
-274
-610
-17000
F.
0.96
3.84
95.0
374
7670
20300
F.
0.47
1.88
46.0
179
3550
11200

200
31700
-17100
25400
40000

250
49500
-11000
21100
59600

The table shows resulting forces occurring in three spaces with different patterns of interaction between moving sphere and
the molecules of ambient atmosphere. At comparatively low velocities of sphere motion the impact action of the front
hemisphere does not compensate the reverse action of the air flow in the rear hemisphere until separated flow is formed.
This role is performed by the area of separated flow, that is to say, the paradox of Newton's corpuscular theory actually takes
place yet only partially.
As the sphere velocity approaches the velocity of sound, vice versa, the impact action of the front hemisphere primarily
determines drag of the sphere. Flights of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles feature speeds not exceeding 100 m/s. Therefore, gas
dynamics of these aircrafts is determined principally by the separated flow, i.e. by rear hemisphere. Whereas large piloted
aircrafts fly close to the velocity of sound with gas dynamics determined primarily by the mechanism of interaction between
the front hemisphere and ambient air. That is why aerodynamics developed for piloted aircrafts cannot be applied to
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles.
Molecular kinetic analysis of gas dynamic flow around sphere indicates the following points. When a sphere moves through
stationary atmosphere, three areas featuring different patterns of the interaction with the molecules of ambient atmosphere
occur:
1. impact action the sphere exerts with its front hemisphere on the molecules of ambient atmosphere at the velocity of its
motion while tangential velocities of air motion around the sphere form centrifugal forces and gas dynamic forces caused
by Bernoullis principle.
5

2. filling of vacuum space until separated flow is formed is occurred with the velocity of sound; at that impact forces of air
molecules flow of normal component occur while tangential component of the flow creates centrifugal force as well as
gas dynamic force due to Bernoullis principle.
3. formed separated cone of stationary air creates an impact force of chaotic temperature component at the length of free
path and gas dynamic force caused by the difference of the pressure of ambient atmosphere and the pressure within the
separated cone.

3. CONCLUSIONS
Thus, the use of molecular kinetic theory for considering the aerodynamics of aircrafts flights in the Earth's atmosphere
made it possible:
1. To combine d'Alembert-Eulers continual theory and Newton's corpuscular theory into united theory of aerodynamics of
aircrafts flights in the Earth's atmosphere.
2. To determine the conditions of separated flow formation as a result of filling vacuum zone with air flows from different
directions at the velocity of sound.
3. To prove that: At the velocities of aircrafts close to the velocity of sound the aerodynamics of individual components of
the aircrafts change essentially; even to the point of changes in drag and lift directions.
4. To prove that: Aerodynamics of air flows around small Unmanned Aerial Vehicles travelling at subsonic velocities differ
fundamentally from aerodynamics of large aircrafts travelling at velocities close to the velocity of sound and at
supersonic velocities.

REFERENCES
[1] Theodore von Krmn. Aerodynamics: Selected Topics in Light of Their Historical Development. New York: McGrawHill, 1963.
[2] Ye. N. Belayev, V.V.Chervakov. Separated Flowsof Liquid and Gas Phase. //Dvigatel (Engine) Journal. Moscow, Russia.
2010. No. 3 (69).p. 38 (inRussian).
[3] N.N. Simakov. Calculation of the flow about a sphere and the drag of the sphere under laminar and strongly turbulent
conditions. Technical Physics, Springer, April 2013, Volume 58, Issue 4, pp. 481-485.
[4] L.Grechikhin, A.Laptsevich, N.Kutz. Aerodynamics of Aircrafts. Minsk, Belarus. PravoiEkonomika Ltd. 2012, 285 p.
(in Russian)
[5] L.Grechikhin. Air Pressure Force Acting on Moving Plate.Abstractsof the 4th InternationalScientific and Practical
ConferenceAviation: History, Future Prospects Minsk, Belarus. 2014. (inRussian)
[6] L.Grechikhin. Gas Dynamics During the Sphere Moving in the Stationary Gaseous Environment. Military Technical
Courier.Scientific Periodical of the Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Serbia. 2014. Vol. LXII, 3. P 26-36 (in
Russian)

MODELLING OF LASER ATTACK ON AIRPLANE DURING LANDING

MANOEUVRE
TEODOR BALAZ
University of Defence, Brno, teodor.balaz@unob.cz
FRANTISEK RACEK
University of Defence, Brno, frantisek.racek@unob.cz
PAVEL MELSA
University of Defence, Brno, pavel.melsa@unob.cz
MARTIN MACKO
University of Defence, Brno, martin.macko@unob.cz

Abstract: Laser attacks against airplanes seem to be significant threat for air traffic today. Irradiation of the windshield of
airplane cockpit can cause serious effects that can decrease pilot ability to control the airplane. Therefore the paper deals
with the necessary steps for threat classification, namely evaluation of superposition of laser beam spot and airplane
windshield during the laser attack and eye reaction.
Keywords: airplane, safety, laser, attack.

1. INTRODUCTION
The number of laser attacks against airplane is rapidly increasing nowadays. Mentioned laser devices (lasers) radiate on both
red light ( = 630 nm) and green light ( = 532 nm). The radiant flux of the lasers varies from ones to hundreds of mW. The
green laser is using by laser attackers more because the luminous spot of the laser is visible on longer distance.
The airplanes are mainly threatened during the airplane manoeuvre of landing or start. Exposition of the eye by the laser
radiation of sufficient radiant flux density causes significant effects. Two effects can occur. Either more relevant, when
permanent changes in quality of vision occurs or less relevant when the vision got worse or is temporarily disabled. The
possible eye-vision damages are blindness, flashblindness, afterimage, irradiation, and dazzlement.

2. PROBLEM FORMULATION
To be able to expertly qualify effect and injuriousness of said laser attack, the final eye retina exposition has to be
determined. Modelling of eye retina exposition is a complex problem consisting of many factors. The processes affecting the
eye retina exposition are introduced in the pict. 1.
The said processes can be divided into three groups. Besides the atmosphere attenuation the laser power is affecting by the
airplane and pilot qualities. Thus the retina exposition [1-3] is a result of combination of all the factors contained in airplane
qualities (superposition of laser spot and airplane screen, scattering of laser beam on the screen) and in pilot qualities
(direction of head turning, direction of eye vision, moment and length of eyewink, eye pupil, attenuation in the eye).
All the mentioned processes affecting the laser beam causes the decreasing of laser power. Thus the final power exposing
the eye retina is significantly lower than power radiated by the laser as it is illustrated in the pict. 2.

LASERRADIATION
EFFECTSINTHEATMOSPHERE
AIRPLAIN
SUPERPOSITIONOFLASERSPOTAND
WINDSHIELD
SCATTERINGONWINDSHIELD

PILOT
HEADTURNING
EYEMOVEMENT
EYEWINK
EYEPUPIL
ATTENUATIONINEYE

RETINAEXPOSITION
Picture 1. The processes affecting the eye retina
expostition

Picture 2. Illustration of power proportions during the process

of eye retina exposition

3. LASER POWER
The power of a laser is measured in Watts (and often reported in terms of nW, mW, W, etc.). This is referring to the optical
power output of the laser beam, which is the continuous power output of continuous wave (CW) lasers, or the average power
of a pulsed or modulated laser. The energy of a laser typically refers to the output of a pulsed laser and is related to the
power output, where the energy E is the lasers peak power (PPEAK) multiplied by the laser pulse duration (t):
P = PPEAK t

(1)

The average power of a pulsed laser (PAVG) is the pulse energy E multiplied by the laser repetition rate (Hz):
P = E Hz

(2)

For example, an excimer laser might have a 10 ns pulse width, energy of 10 mJ per pulse, and operates at a repetition rate of
10 pulses per second. This laser has a peak power of:
PPEAK = 10mJ / 10ns = 1MW

(3)

PAVG = 10 ( mJ ) 10 (1/s ) = 100mW .

(4)

and average power of:

The pulse length can be very short (i.e. picoseconds or femtoseconds) resulting in very high peak powers with relatively low
pulse energy, or can be very long (i.e. milliseconds) resulting in low peak power and high pulse energy, while each of these
conditions might have similar average power levels.

4. ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION OF LASER POWER

The attenuation of laser power through the atmosphere is described by the exponential Beers-Lambert Law:
( R) =

P( R) e R
=
P(0)
1
8

(5)

where (R) is a transmittance at range R, P(R) is a laser power at R, P(0) is laser power at the source, and is an attenuation
or total extinction coefficient (per unit length). Typical attenuation coefficients are: clear air = 0.1 (0.43 dB/km); haze = 1
(4.3 dB/km), and fog = 10 (43 dB/km).

5. SUPERPOSITION OF LASER SPOT AND WINDSHIELD

Generally the attacker is not able to keep the laser spot on moving airplane windshield during the laser attack. Thus the laser
spot swings over the windshield in fact. Exposition He pertains to area of windshield during the time interval (0, t) is
computed:
He =

E dt
0

(6)

Following equation describes the irradiation of airplane windshield:

Ee = k

G ( P (t )) S ( M (t )) dxdy

(7)

where k is a scalar describing of the laser power, G(P(t)) is a function describing the size, position and energy distribution
over the Gaussian spot of laser beam and S(M(t)) is function describing the shape and position of airplane windshield. It is
valid for the function describing the size and position of Gaussian spot of laser beam:
G ( P ( t ) ) = ( G D P )( t )

(8)

where function G is a part of composite function describing the distribution of energy over the laser spot and function P is
part of composite function describing the trajectory of laser spot beam over the windshield.
The size of laser spot is depended by width of laser spot in specific distance of airplane. The distribution of the energy of
Gaussian laser spot is introduced in the pict. 3. Presented there example is valid for the laser of 50mW of power and laser
beam divergence 2mrad. The plane of laser spot analysis is in the distance 1500m. The maximum value of irradiation is in
the center of the spot and reaches 3.2Wcm-2.

Picture 3. Distribution of energy over the Gaussian laser spot

The function S(M(t)) is also composite function:

S ( M ( t ) ) = ( S D M )( t ) .

(9)

Function S is a part of composite function describing the size and shape of airplane windshield and function M is part of
composite function describing the movement of the airplane. The complex equation (7) can be simplified under the
assumption. Let assume the windshield, representing by trapezoid ABCD in the pict. 4, as a steady in coordinate system and
function P(t) describing the laser spot propagation as a relative movement between the laser spot and windshield. Than the
equation (7) can be redefined as:
Ee = k

G ( P (t )) S ( x, y ) dxdy

(10)

Let consider generalization to the case of a discrete function P ( t ) P ( ti ) by letting Pi P ( ti ) , where ti = k t , with
k = 1, 2,..., N . Writing this out gives (10) the discrete function which is more suitable for numerical modelling of airplane
shield irradiation or while processing the experimental data.

Ee = k

G ( P (t )) S ( x, y ) xy
i

Let assume the theoretical case of uniformly rectilinear

motion P(t) of laser spot over the windshield, the trajectory
of which is line p as illustrated in the pict. 4. The
superposition of both windshield and laser spot is indicated
in the pict. 5 in two different time steps ti and ti+1.
Windshield irradiation computed according (10), in onedimensional approximation along x-axis is proportional to
red area bounded by windshield border S from left and
right and by spot energy distribution G from above. The
example was computed for laser spot width = 0.5m and
length of windshield along the line p was also 0.5m.
Resulting windshield irradiation is presented in the pict. 6.
Presented there curve represents the normalized level of
irradiation. It is obvious from the pict.6 that the maximal
irradiation matches with the position of the spot in the
center of the windshield and the curve form is close to
Gaussian.

y
p

(11)

Picture 4. Superposition of laser spot and windshield

P(ti)

0i
P(ti+1)

0i+1
Picture 5. Irradiation of windshield as superposition of spot energy distribution G and windshield S in one-dimensional
simplification

10

Eo [-]

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0
[m]

0.5

1.5

Picture 6. Normalized irradiation of the windshield as a function of the laser spot position

6. EXPOSITION OF EYE RETINA

It is presumed that the eye prevention is ensured by physiological reaction of the organism (valid for the 2nd class lasers).
The physiological reaction of the organism are turn round the head or quicker reaction like eye closing or eyewink. The eye
prevention reaction is not instantaneous, but it is delayed. Time delay between laser radiation attack and eye closing is 0.25s
[6]. However the run of eye closing is specific. During the eyelid closing, the energy impacting on the eye retina is
simultaneously decreasing. Knowledge of the running of the eye closing would allow determination of eye retina exposition
exactly.

a)

b)

c)

d)

Picture 7. The possible eye shapes. 7a) photo of the eye, 7b)
complex eye shape, 7c) elliptic eye shape, 7d) simplified eye
model when the upper eyelid is closing down

The shape of the eye is illustrated in the pict. 7a. The

contour of the eye or upper eyelid respectively is presented
in the pict. 7b. The rugged upper eyelid contour could be
reduced using elliptic model of eye shape as it is presented
in the pict. 7c. The upper eyelid contour is than simpler and
can be mathematically expressed. However, the other
problem, the variation of upper eyelid during eye closing, is
still attendant. To model the movement of upper eyelid, we
should respect the variation of the upper eyelid curvature
from maximum on the beginning, through the linear shape
in the approximately center of eye, up to reverse curvature
on the end of its movement. The said mathematical model
should be highly complex without effect of enhanced
accuracy. The eye shape is still approximated and the upper
eyelid contour variation is inaccurate, too. Therefore, we
use a simplified model presented in the pict. 7d. The upper
eyelid is replaced by rectangle shutter in that model. Thus,
the eye closing can be figured as an overlaying of eye pupil
by sunblind. The area of the eye pupil, overlapped by
rectangular upper eyelid, has the shape of circular segment,
during the eye closing.

Eye reaction time TR is the time between moment of activation event ta and moment when eye is closed tc. Time of eye
reaction can be divided into two phases:
eye response time and
time of eyelid movement.
Eye response time Tre is a time between moment of activation event ta and moment when eyelid begins the movement tb.
Time of eyelid movement Tem is the time between moment when eyelid begins movement tb and moment when the eye is
closed tc. Simply it is a time necessary for eyelid closing.

tb

ta

t c t v to

tf

time

timeline
HSCrecord

TR

Ter

Tem

Tce

Teo

TW
Picture 8. Timeline with important moments and intervals during eye reflex
11

Model of tracked point movement. Following model of tracked point movement was used
ym ( t ) =

ln ( t ) b

c
ae

(12)

where a is a parameter characterizing value of the vertex of tracked point trajectory, b is a parameter characterizing moment
when the trajectory reaches the vertex and c is a parameter characterizing width of the trajectory model.
The radiant flux pi passes through the eye pupil [7] can be expressed:
pi =

A, De2 I
4s 2

(13)

where A, is atmosphere spectral transmittance, De is eye pupil diameter, I is a laser luminance intensity and s is a laser - eye
distance. The visible part of radiant flux (light) is detected by the eye and converted into the visual perception. The infrared
part of radiant flux is invisible for the eye, but it is absorbed and can cause damages of eye retina. The value of radiant flux
ri incident on eye retina is defined by
ri = pi e, ,

(14)

ra = ri r , ,

(15)

and radiant flux absorbed by eye retina is:

where A, is eyes spectral transmittance and r is retina spectral absorption factor. Maximal exposition during time interval
(t1, t2) of the eye is computed under the circumstance that the whole radiant flux is absorbed by one photoreceptor:
He =

t2

t1

Ee dt =

t2

t1

ra
dt
Apr

(16)

Where Ee is irradiance and Apr is area of one photoreceptor. Let assume the photoreceptor as a circular area with diameter
Dpr = 5.10-6m, than the equation (16) can be written:

He

4 ra
dt
2
D pr

t2

t1

(17)

7. CONCLUSION
The mathematical model for estimation of airplane windshield irradiation during the laser attack was developed and
introduced in this paper. The mathematical model includes previously unpublished approaches to solving the aircraft hit
probability and laser eye movements in response to laser irradiation.

REFERENCES
Levi, L., Applied optics, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1980, ISBN 0-471- 05054-7
Kopeika,N.,S.,A system engineering approach to imaging, SPIE, 1998, ISBN 0-8194-2377-7
Handbook of optics, New York: McGraw-Hill book company, 1978, ISBN 0-07-047710-8
Balaz, T., Racek, F., Talhofer, V., Hofmann, A., Hoskova-Mayerova, S.. Simulation of laser attacks against transport
planes in the landscape. In: Proceedings of ICMT11, The International Conference on Military Technologies 2011.
Brno: University of Defence, Brno, 2011, p. 1259-1266. ISBN 978-80-7231-787-5.
[5] Racek, F., Balaz, T., Komenda, J. , Estimation of eye retina exposition during the laser attack, International Journal
of Mathematical Models and Methods in Applied Science , 2011, vol. 5, no. 1, p. 404-411. ISSN 1998-0140

[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

[6] American National Standard for Safe Use of Lasers, ANSI Z136.1, American National Standard Institute,
Vol. 38, #23, 2007.
[7] Wissensspeicher Lasertechnik, Leipzig: VEB Fachbuchverlag.

12

SECTION I

AERODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT DYNAMICS

CHAIRMAN
Jovan Isakovi, PhD

DEVICE FOR MEASUREMENT MODEL ANGLE OF ATTACK IN THE T32 WIND TUNNEL
VLADIMIR LAPEVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, vladimirlapcevic@open.telekom.rs
ALEKSANDAR VITI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, sasavitic@gmail.com

Abstract: In this paper, the device for measurement model angle of attack in wind tunnel T-32 is presented. It is
consisted of sensor and indicator. Sensor gives voltage on its output dependence of angle. Indicator is a device which is
developed in the Military Technical Institute. It is connected to the sensor and measures sensors output voltage.
Firstly, the indicator does the analog processing sensors output voltage. After that, indicator does A/D conversion and
digital processing measured voltage. At the end, indicator shows measured voltage and angle on its LCD display.
Information of the precise model angle of attack is very important in wind tunnel testing because it makes influence on
all the other measurements in wind tunnel.
Keywords: Sensor, indicator, measurements, subsonic wind tunnel.
Indicator is realized by analog and digital electronics.
Indicator has analog electronic circuit on its input which
presents analog adapter of the input voltage. Since
sensors output voltage can be positive and negative, this
analog adapter converts sensors output voltage in range
[0 V, 5 V] which is acceptable voltage for A/D converter.
Digital electronics in indicator does A/D conversion,
computes angle by measured voltage and puts values of
the voltage and angle on LCD display. By using sensor
and indicator it is possible to measure model angle of
attack in the wide range in the wind tunnel T-32.

1. INTRODUCTION
Measurement angle of attack in wind tunnel T-32 [1] is
realized by sensor (Figure 1) and indicator (Figure 2).
Indicator is developed in the Military Technical Institute.
It measures sensors output voltage.

Wind tunnel T-32 was built in 1952 and from that time it is
in operational usage. It is small subsonic wind tunnel. It is
continual wind tunnel with half open elliptic work space.
Dimension of the wind tunnel surface is 1.8m x 1.2m and
length is 2m. Maximum speed of air which can be achieved
in the work space is 72m/s. Maximum Reynoldss number is
up to 5 million/m. Wind tunnels time work is unlimited. Air
stream is run by propeller with DC motor whose power is
91kW. In the time period of 62 years domestic aircrafts like
Galeb, Jastreb, J-22 and many others have been tested
in this wind tunnel. This wind tunnel is recently used for
testing aircrafts in the start up phase of projecting. During the
last 62 years wind tunnel T-32 worked for about 10.000
hours.

Figure 1. Sensor of angle

2. CALIBRATION OF SENSOR
Before every measurement with the model, sensor of the
angle of attack must be calibrated. Different values of the
angle are asserted in an interval [4, 16] in step of
2 degrees. The angle meter is used for precisely

Figure 2. Indicator of model angle of attack

15

measurement angle of model position during process of

calibration. When angle is asserted on some value,
sensors output voltage is being measured. The achieved
results are shown in the Table 1.

voltage can be added with negative input voltage. The

result of this adding is positive voltage which is further
processed. Electronics which make positive referent
voltage source of 5 V is shown in Figure 4. All the used
amplifiers in the electronic adapter for voltage
accommodation are amplifiers LM258 [2]. Amplifier
LM258 is the amplifier which can work with the single
supply. It has small offset of 2 mV and very low current
supply which is 0.5mA. There are two amplifiers in chip
and it has a very low cost. It can work in wide
temperature range from -40C to 85C. All these
characteristics make LM258 very popular in projecting
analog circuits. The only disadvantage of this amplifier is
that it is not rail to rail amplifier. It means that its
maximum output voltage is less than supply voltage for
1.5 V. During the projecting of the analog circuits the care
must be taken that maximum output voltage of amplifier
does not exceed the defined limit.

U[V]
-8.1046
-7.0587
-6.0909
-5.0537
-4.0595
-3.0703
-2.12185
-1.14858
-0.196776
0.74975
1.65353

Figure 3 shows model angle of attack dependence of

voltage. Y-axis presents angle and x-axis presents
voltage. This chart is based on the Table 1, created in
Microsoft Excel program. Characteristic of sensor is
presented by interpolation polynomial of the second
order. It was necessary to take polynomial of the second
order because sensor of angle has small nonlinearity.
Because of that small nonlinearity, coefficient of square
part is quite small. Blue line shows characteristic which
passes through all points of measurement and red line
shows interpolation curve.

12V

14.5V

C17

VIN

VOUT

V4

470K
GND
U5

10k

LM258

Vref=5V

ADJ

V5

2 -

R19
5

100nF
U3A

3 +

R17

GND

[]
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16

GND

Table 1. Calibration of sensor

GND

REF02

R21
1K
C18
100nF
GND
GND

Figure 4. Referent voltage source of 5 V

Integrated circuit REF02 [3] together with the resistors
R17, R19 and R21, presents source of referent voltage of 5V.
Amplifier U3A has the role of separated unit amplifier.
The output of the amplifier U3A presents ideal voltage
source whose output voltage is:
V5 = VX = 5V

(2)

Sensors output voltage VS comes on the input of unit

amplifier. Influence of sensors output resistance on
process of measurement of sensors output voltage is
eliminated in that way.

Figure 3. Dependence model angle of attack from sensor

output voltage
Interpolation polynomial of the second order which
presents dependence angle of model from sensor output
voltage is given by equation (1):

+12.5V

C14

GND

+12.5V

Vs

U1A
1

V1
+12.5V

LM258
R9
10K

= 0.011965 U 2 + 2.123436 U + 12.428261

+12.5V

where:

-12.5V
V2

-12.5V
R13
10K

U sensor output voltage

GND

model angle of attack

U1B
7

V3

LM258
4

100nF

-12.5V
-12.5V

3. INDICATOR FOR MEASUREMENT

MODEL POSITION ANGLE

Figure 5. Input electronic circuit

The voltage from the output unit amplifier U1A comes on
splitter of voltage which consists of resistors R9 and R13.
This splitter of voltage divides voltage 2 times. Divided
voltage comes on unit amplifier U1B. The voltage from
the output amplifier U1B equals:

The input of the indicator is connected to the output of the

sensor. As sensors output voltage can be negative it is
necessary that analog electronic circuit on the input of
indicator has positive referent voltage source whose
16

V3 =

R13
V
R13 + R9 S

+12.5V

(3)
GND

where:
R9=10 k

+12.5V

R10
V6

R13=10 k

U2B

5 +

VS - sensors output voltage

LM258
4

10K

V7

6 -

-12.5V

As R9=R13 then:

-12.5V

V3 = 1 VS
2

(4)
R16

Referent voltage VX=5 V and voltage from the output

amplifier U1B come to the voltage adder which is shown
in Figure 6.

10K

Figure 7. Unit inverter

+12.5V
+12.5V

As R16=R10 and using equation (6) the last equation can be

written:

C15

GND
8
R11
V3

2 -

The inverters output voltage comes on unit amplifier.

The output of that unit amplifier comes on splitter of
voltage. Splitter of voltage consists of resistors R12 and
R14 (Figure 8).

-12.5V
-12.5V
R20

R15

10K

10K

(8)

V6

LM258
4

10K

V7 = 1 VS + VX
2

100nF
U2A

3 +

V5

12V

Figure 6. Adder of voltage

V7

Voltage from the output of the adder equals:

6 -

(5)

V8

LM258
4

R
R
V6 = 15 V3 + 15 V5
R
R
11

20

U3B

5 +

R12
15K

GND

where:
R11=10 k

V_ADC0

R15=10 k

R14
10K

R20=10 k
As R11=R15 and R20=R15 and applying equations (2) and
(4) , last equation can be written:

V6 = 1 VS + VX
2

GND

(6)

Figure 8. Unit amplifier and splitter of voltage

As amplifier U3B is a unit amplifier then it can be written
that:

The adder of voltage inverts sum of voltages, so it is

necessary to connect unit inverter to the output of the
adder. In that way the negative sign existed because the
adders influence is abolished (Figure 7).

VADC 0 =

The inverters output voltage equals:

V7 =

R16
V
R10 6

R14
V
R12 + R14 7

(9)

where:

(7)

R12=15 k,
R14=10 k

where:
R10=10 k

Taking in consideration values of the resistor R12 and

resistor R14, the last equation can be written:

R16=10 k
17

VADC 0 = 2 V7
5

(10)

Next equation is got by the replacement expression of the

voltage V7 from equation (8) to equation (10).
VADC 0 = 1 VS + 2 VX
5
5

d V
R
2n 1

(21)

FS =20 - measurement range of angle

(11)

VS,FS = 9.75815 V - measurement range of voltage

Measurement range of the angle is got as a difference of
the maximum and minimum value of the angle measured:

(12)

FS = 16D (4D )

Equation of A/D converter with resolution of n bits is:

VADC 0 =

VS

where:

By last equation sensors output voltage can be computed:

VS = 5 VADC 0 2 VX

FS
VS , FS

(22)

Measurement range of the voltage is got as a difference of

the maximum and minimum value of the voltage
measured:

(13)

VS , FS = 1.65353V (8.1046V )

where:
d digital result of A/D conversion

The error of the measured voltage VS=6.1mV causes the

error of the measurement of angle =1.33 minutes
which is acceptable for this measurement.

n number of bits of A/D converter

VR referent voltage of A/D converter

The range of sensors output voltage which comes to

input of indicator is in interval from -10V to 10V. For that
input voltage range all amplifiers work in normal mode,
out of area of saturation. Replacement of VX=5V in
equation (11) gives next equation:

Equation of A/D converter with resolution of 12 bits is:

VADC 0 = d VR
4095

(14)

Sensors output voltage resolution can be calculated by

equations (12) and (14):
VS = 5 VADC 0 2 VX

VADC 0 = 1 VS + 2V
5

(15)

(16)

Taking the last equation in consideration, equation (15)

can be written:
VS = 5 VADC 0

In Figure 9 A/D converter MCP3201 [4] is shown, used

for measurement voltage.

(17)

VCC

Because of the equation (14) the last equation can be

written:
VS = 5 d VR
4095

U8

(18)

VREF

V_ADC0

GND

3
4

As minimum resolution of A/D converter is 1 bit, than it is:

d = 1

VR
= 6.1mV
819

VREF

VCC

IN+

CLK

-IN
GND

DOUT
CS/SHDN

8
7

VCC
SCK

MISO

/CS

C11
1uF
GND

MCP3201

(19)
Figure 9. Unit amplifier and splitter of voltage

Minimum resolution of sensors output voltage can be

calculated as:
VS =

(24)

For sensors output voltage range VS= [-10V, 10V],

voltage VADC0 which comes on the input of A/D converter
is in range VADC0= [0V, 4V]. As allowable input voltage to
A/D converter is in interval from 0V to 5V, it means that
analog electronics, applied in this indicator, satisfies all
conditions for proper work.

As referent voltage VX = 5 V is constant than it is:

VX = 0

(23)

A/D converter MCP3201 gets clock for its work from

microcontroller by its pin CLK. A/D converter sends
digital value which presents the result of measurement to
microcontroller ATMEGA 8 [5]. Microcontroller
ATMEGA 8 with the connection lines with the rest of
electronics is shown in Figure 10. It is programmed in C
program language. Microcontroller activates A/D
converter setting pin CS of A/D converter on logical 0.
After that, microcontroller sends 15 clocks to A/D
converter by pin CLK. First two clocks are necessary
for work synchronization of A/D converter with

(20)

The error of measurement of model angle of attack can be

calculated by minimum resolution of the sensors output
voltage. Negligibling small nonlinearity of sensors
transfer characteristic and assuming that transfer
characteristic is linear in full range, the error of
measurement of model angle of attack can be calculated
as:
18

This voltage of 12V comes to the input of DC/DC

converter TMH1212D [6] which produces on its output
voltages of +12.5V and -12.5V (Figure 13). These output
voltages of DC/DC converter are a little higher than 12V
by absolute value, but they are fully symmetric and they
are used for dual power supplies of amplifiers in
indicator.

microcontroller. Because of the synchronization, A/D

converter sets its output pin DOUT on logical 0. During
the following 12 clocks, A/D converter sends the result of
A/D conversion to microcontroller by pin DOUT. When
microcontroller reads all 12 bits, microcontroller
deactivates A/D converter by setting pin CS on logical
1. Microcontroller gets clock for its work from crystal
quartz of 16 MHz. When green LED diodes light is on, it
means that microcontroller has needed 5 V for its work.

J4
DC/DC

12V

12V

VCC
VCC

GND

D1
SB160

C1
100nF

GND

GND

R1
47k

C21
470uF

C2
10uF

C22
100nF

-12.5V

R24
4.7K

-12.5V

+12.5V

GND
IC1
/RESET

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

RS
RD/WR
EN
D4

VCC
GND
XT1
XT2
D5
D6
D7

Y1

GND
2

RUN

16MHz

/CS

C7
22pF

C5
100uF
C8

R2
1K

GND

For proper work of A/D convertor quality referent voltage

source of 5V is necessary. For that purpose another
integrated circuit REF 02 is used which with accompanied
resistors gives a stable source of voltage of 5V (Figure 14).

D2

GREEN LED
LED
GND

Figure 10. Microcontroller ATMEGA 8 with the

connection lines

14.5V

In Figure 11 a scheme of LCD display and connection

lines with the rest of electronics are shown.
LED+

D7

D6

D5

D4

LED-

R27
C10
1uF

VCC

D4

C9
1uF

ADJ
GND

GND

MPREF02

RS
D5
RD/WR

GND

D6

GND

EN

10k

VIN

470K
GND 4

R28
1K

R6
0.01k

VO

VCC

VCC

GND

VCC

VOUT

U7

R26

VCC
GND

10k

16

15

14

13

12

D2

D3

11

10

D0

EN

R/W

RS

VO

VCC

D1

C13
1uF

C12
100uF

Vref=5V
VREF

LCD

GND

U6

VCC

GREEN LED

100nF
GND

GND

D3
LED

Figure 13. DC/DC converter for generating positive and

negative power supply of 12.5V

VCC

ATmega8-DIL28

C6
22pF
GND

GND
AREF
VCC
SCK
MISO
MOSI

GND

YELLOW LED

C4
1uF

D4
LED

28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15

PC6 (RESET) (SCL/ADC5) PC5

PD0 (RxD)
(SDA/ADC4) PC4
PD1 (TxD)
(ADC3) PC3
PD2 (INT0)
(ADC2) PC2
PD3 (INT1)
(ADC1) PC1
PD4 (XCK/T0)
(ADC0) PC0
VCC
AGND
GND
AREF
PB6 (XT1/TOSC1)
AVCC
PB7 (XT2/TOSC2)
(SCK) PB5
PD5 (T1)
(MISO) PB4
PD6 (AIN0)
(OC2/MOSI) PB3
PD7 (AIN1)
(SS/OC1B) PB2
PB0 (ICP)
(OC1A) PB1

GND

GND

R23
4.7K

C20
100nF

C19
470uF

+12.5V

D7
1

R7
GND

Figure 14. Referent voltage of A/D converter

Figure 11. Scheme of LCD display

4. CONCLUSION

Used LCD display consists of 2 rows and 16 characters in

each row. In the upper row measured sensors output
voltage is shown and in lower row model angle of attack
which is calculated by measured voltage is shown.

Indicator for measurement of model angle of attack in the

wind tunnel T-32 is successfully realized. It is consisted
of all the needed electronics for signal processing from
sensor and showing measurement value on display. In that
way it is achieved that model can be precisely positioned.
The error of positioning is 2 minutes which is acceptable
for researching and measurement in the wind tunnel T-32.
The contribution of this paper is a method in which
analog signal processing is done, which makes precise
measurement of sensors output voltage possible in wide
range of positive and negative voltages.

Extern power supply for indicator is 15 V. In indicator

power supplies of 5V, 12V and -12V are realized by
external power supply of 15V. Power supply of 5V is
realized by linear regulator LM7805 and power supply of
12V is realized by linear regulator LM7812 (Figure 12).
14.5V

VCC
LM7805

D5

VCC

L1
1
1mH

VIN

GND

15V

15V

VOUT

SB160
U9
C23
470uF

C24
100nF

C25
470uF

C26
100nF

R25
1K

C28
100nF

C27
470uF

D6
LED

YELLOW LED
GND

GND

GND

GND

GND

GND

GND

REFERENCES
12V

[1] Jandri,M.: Seventh decade of the Military Technical

Institute, Scientific Technical Review ISSN 18200206, 2013, Vol. 63, No. 2, pp. 5-25.
[2] ST Microelectronics: LM258 Low power dual
operational amplifiers, datasheet, January 2002.

VIN

GND

LM7812
1

VOUT

U10

C30
100nF

C29
470uF
GND

GND

12V

C32
100nF

C31
470uF
GND

GND

GND

Figure 12. Power supply of 5V and 12V

19

[3] Analog devices, REF02 5V precision voltage,

datasheet, 2005.
[4] Microchip, MCP3201 12-bit A/D converter with SPI
serial interface, datasheet, 2007.

[5] Atmel, ATMEGA 8 Microcontroller, datasheet,

October 2004.
[6] Traco Power, TMH1212D, datasheet, October 2004.

20

COMPARASION OF THE T-38 WIND TUNNEL DATA OBTANED

BY STATIC AND DYNAMIC TESTS
MARIJA SAMARDI,
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, majasam@ptt.rs
ZORAN ANASTASIJEVI,
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, anastaz@eunet.rs
DRAGAN MARINKOVSKI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, marinkovskid@ikomline.net

Abstract: Comparison of aerodynamic data obtained in measurements with an internal strain gauge balance in static and
dynamic wind tunnel tests are presented. Normal force coefficients, pitching moment coefficients and static stability
derivatives are compared for the missile calibration model. The tests were performed in the T-38 wind tunnel of the Military
Technical Institute (VTI) in Belgrade. Forced oscillation technique was used in the dynamic measurements. Static stability
derivatives in the dynamic tests were determined from the model moment of inertia, model angular velocity, amplitude of
model angular oscillatory motion, amplitude of the excitation moment and phase shift between model oscillatory motion and
excitation moment. Static stability derivatives in the static wind tunnel tests were obtained from the slopes of a curve drawn
through the moment coefficients vs model angle of attack data. The same semiconductor five-component strain gauge
balance was used in the static and dynamic tests. This balance is primarily intended for dynamic tests.
Keywords: wind tunnel, dynamic measurement, stability derivatives, strain gauge balance.
reactions produced by such motion in the primary degree of
freedom and other (secondary) degrees of freedom. Those
reactions in turn yield relevant static stability derivatives,
dynamic direct stability derivatives, cross and crosscoupling stability derivatives [5].

1. INTRODUCTION
The main function of wind tunnel balances is to resolve the
total resultant aerodynamic load on a wind tunnel model
into a number of components (generally between three and
six). Many forms of wind tunnel balances are possible and
each of them is appropriate to a particular set of
circumstances. Strain gauge balances are used in a wide
variety of applications.

Measurement of stability derivatives using the forced

oscillation technique cannot be performed directly. A
typical dynamic wind tunnel run includes the two stages: the
tare run and wind-on run. In the tare run a model is
oscillated but the wind tunnel is not running. Mechanical
damping is obtained in the tare run. The total damping is
obtained in wind-on run in which a model is oscillated with
the same frequency and amplitude as during the tare run.
The aerodynamic damping is obtained as a difference
between the total damping and mechanical damping.

This paper makes a comparison of static aerodynamic data

obtained with one internal strain gauge balance in dynamic
and static wind tunnel testing. Normal force coefficients,
pitching moment coefficients, static derivative of the
pitching moment due to angle of attack are compared for
standard model: Modified Basic Finner Model (MBFM).

According to the T-38 wind tunnel dynamic test procedure,

one control run, for each Mach number and a model angle
of attack, should de done before the dynamic wind tunnel
run. In this run a model is installed on the forced oscillation
apparatus, but apparatus is not forced to oscillate. During
this run only static aerodynamic data is obtained. The
control run is a static wind tunnel test.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
The test of the MBFM standard model was conducted in the
T-38 wind tunnel of the Military Technical Institute (VTI)
in Belgrade [1,2]. The forced oscillation technique was used
for dynamic wind tunnel testing [3,4]. According to this
technique a model is forced to oscillate with constant
frequency and small amplitude within a single degree of
freedom. This oscillatory motion is called primary motion.
The dynamic testing in the T-38 wind tunnel are based on
giving small amplitude oscillatory motion to a model in the
primary degree of freedom and measuring aerodynamic

The pitch/yaw apparatus for dynamic tests in the T-38 wind

tunnel is a full-model forced oscillation apparatus with the
primary angular oscillation around a transversal axis (pitch
or yaw) of the model and with capability of measuring the
21

where: I y is a model pitch moment of inertia, is a model

aerodynamic reaction in the primary degree of freedom as

well as in secondary degrees of freedom [6]. The sensor to
detect a model primary oscillatory motion is located on the
elastic suspension system of the apparatus, Figure 1.

angular velocity, M T is amplitude of the excitation moment

in pitch, is amplitude of a model angular oscillatory motion
in pitch, is phase shift between model primary oscillatory
motion end excitation moment. All values with index (o) are
measured in the tare run.
The excitation moment in the primary degree of freedom is
measured by appropriate measuring bridge on the internal
five-component strain gauge balance. The internal fivecomponent strain gauge balance used in the presented tests
is mainly designed for dynamic wind tunnel tests. All the
balance measuring bridges are formed from the
semiconductor strain gauges [7-10]. The amplitudes and
phase shifts of the excitation moment are calculated in the
frequency domain by applying the cross-power spectral
density. The signals from balance bridges are crosscorrelated with the primary signal generated by the primary
oscillatory motion sensor.

Figure 1. Pitch/yaw apparatus

The static and dynamic stability derivatives in the dynamic
wind tunnel tests are obtained from:
- amplitude of a model primary oscillatory motion,
- amplitude of the excitation moment,
- frequency of a model primary oscillatory motion,
- phase shift between the excitation moment and model
primary oscillatory motion.

3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The MBFM model is well-known standard (calibration)
model for wind tunnels testing [7]. The T-38 wind tunnel
measurements on the MBFM model were done for Mach
numbers 0.6, 1.5 and 1.74.

2.1. Procedure for determining static

aerodynamic data in static wind tunnel test
In the static wind tunnel test, aerodynamic coefficients in
the body axis system [7] are calculated from aerodynamic
forces and moments measured by internal wind tunnel
balance as:
C z = FRZ
q S

(1)

Cm = FRM
q Sd

(2)

The model angles of attack were in the interval from -2 to

5 and roll angle was 0. In the dynamic wind tunnel tests
the model was forced to oscillate in pitch mode at amplitude
1o and frequency 10 Hz.
The signal of the pitching moment from the balance
measuring bridge in static wind tunnel test for Mach number
M=1.74 and angle of attack =0o is shown in Figure 2.
The signal of the pitching moment from the balance
measuring bridge (FRM) as well as the signal from the
model primary oscillatory motion sensor (ODF) in the
dynamic wind tunnel test for Mach number M=1.74 and
angle of attack =0o is shown in Figure 3.

where: Cz is normal force non-dimensional coefficient,

FRZ is aerodynamic normal force, q is dynamic pressure,
Cm is pitching moment non-dimensional coefficient, S is a
model reference area, FRM is aerodynamic pitching
moment and d is a model reference length.
Static derivative of the pitching moment due to angle of
attack, Cm , is calculated for each model position by fitting
a second order parabolic curve through three subsequent
data points and calculating the slope of the tangent at the
middle data point.

2.2. Procedure for determining static aerodynamic

data in dynamic wind tunnel test
In the dynamic wind tunnel test aerodynamic normal force
and aerodynamic pitching moment are obtained from the
mean values of the signals from the appropriate balance
measuring bridge.
The equation for determination non-dimensional coefficient
of the static derivative of the pitching moment due to angle
of attack may be written as:

Cm =

1
q S

Figure 2. Signal of the pitching moment in the static

wind tunnel test

I y ( 2 o2 ) T cos To coso (3)

d
o

22

Figure 7. Pitching moment coefficient,

Mach number M=0.6

Figure 3. Signals of the pitching moment and model

primary oscillatory motion in the dynamic
wind tunnel test

Figures 4-9 compare the normal force coefficients and

pitching moment coefficients obtained by the static and
dynamic wind tunnel tests.

Figure 8. Pitching moment coefficient,

Mach number M=1.15

Figure 4: Normal force coefficient, Mach number M=0.6

Figure 9. Pitching moment coefficient,

Mach number M=1.74

Figures 10-12 compare the static stability derivative Cm

obtained by the static and dynamic wind tunnel tests.
Figure 5. Normal force coefficient,
Mach number M=1.15

Figure 10. Static stability derivative of the pitching

moment due to angle of attack, Mach number M=0.6
Figure 6. Normal force coefficient,
Mach number M=1.74
23

In deciding which experimental technique to use to obtain

static aerodynamic data, the primary consideration must be
the purpose of the test. Generally, balance for static wind
tunnel tests is relatively simple to use, allows rapid data
reduction, and yields data of low uncertainty for moderate to
large angles of attack. The dynamic testing is more
complicated and data reduction is more involved and time
consuming, however this technique provides a method of
obtained static data with low uncertainty at small, moderate
and large angles of attack.
Figure 11. Static stability derivative of the pitching
moment due to angle of attack, Mach number M=1.15

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study was supported by the Military Technical Institute
(VTI) and Ministry of Education, Science and
Technological Development of Serbia (project number TR
36050).

REFERENCES
[1] Medved, B. Elfstrom, G. M. The Yugoslav 1.5 m
trisonic wind tunnel . AIAA paper no. 86-0746-CP.
AmericanInstitute of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Reston, Virginia, 1986.
[2] Isakovi, J., Zrni N., Janjikopanji, G. Testing of the
AGARD B/C, ONERA and SDM calibration models in
the T-38 1.5x1.5m trisonic wind tunnel, In
Proceedings of the 19th International Congress of the
Aeronautical Sciences, Anheim, California, 18-23
Septembar 1994, pp.1-9.
[3] Orlik-Rckeman, K. J. Review of tecniques for the
determination of dynamic stability parameters in wind
tunnels, AGARD-LS-114. The Advisory group for
Aerospace Research and Development, NATO
Research and Technology Organisation, Brussels,
Belgium, 1981.
[4] Hanff, E. S. Direct forced-oscillation techniques for
the determination of stability derivatives in wind
tunnels, AGARD-LS-114. The Advisory group for
Aerospace Research and Development, NATO
Research and Technology Organisation, Brussels,
Belgium, 1981.
[5] Samardzic, M., Anastasijevic, Z., Marinkovski, D.
Some experimental results of subsonic derivative
obtained in the T-38 wind tunnel by forced oscillatin,
Scientific technical Review, 60 (2), (2010), 22-26.
[6] Samardzic, M., Isakovic, J., Anastasijevic, Z.,
Marinkovski, D. Apparatus for measuring of pitch and
yaw damping derivatives in high Reynolds number
blowdwn wind tunnel, Measurement, 46 (3), (2013),
2457-2466.
[7] Samardzic, M., Anastasijevic, Z., Marinkovski, D.,
Isakovic, J., Tancic, Lj. Measurement of pitch- and
roll-damping derivatives using the semiconductor fivecomponent strain gauge balance, Proc. IMechE Part
G: J.Aerospace Eng., 226 (11), (2012), 1401-1411.
[8] Anastasijevic, Z., Samardzic, M., Marinkovski D.
Application of semiconductor strain gauges in
measurements of dynamic stability derivatives in the T38 wind tunnel, In Proceedings of the 26th
International Congress of the Aeronautical Sciences,
Anchorage, Alaska, 14-19 Septembar 2008, 1-7.

Figure 12. Static stability derivative of the pitching

moment due to angle of attack, Mach number M=1.74

In the dynamic wind tunnel tests one test run was done for
each model angle of attack. The duration of each dynamic
test run was 12 s, of which 8 s was the sampling data time.
The amplitudes and phase shifts of the excitation moment
are calculated from cross-correlation functions which were
determined from 82 periods of the model oscillations.
Number of sampled data used for data reduction was 8192.
In the wind tunnel static test, aerodynamics coefficients for
each angle of attack were determined from 300 sampled
data.
When comparing normal force coefficients and pitching
moment coefficients, Figures 4-9, close agreement was
found between the static and dynamic data for each Mach
number in tests.
Figures 10-12 show that dynamic data for static stability
derivative Cm are slightly higher than the static data. Also,
for Mach number 0.6 and 1.15, Cm vs angle of attack is
nonlinear, even at small angle of attack.

4. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Normal force coefficients, pitching moment coefficients and
coefficient of static stability derivative of the pitching
moment due to angle of attack are obtained using balance
for the dynamic stability measurement in the T-38 wind
tunnel test. According requirements for dynamic balance on
the forced-oscillation apparatus and the fact that the T-38
wind tunnel is blow-down wind tunnel, one of the most
important requirements in the balance design was to reach
maximum balance stiffness. Optimal signal-to-noise ratios
from the balances measuring bridges are reached using the
semiconductor strain gauges. This semiconductor fivecomponent balance enables accurate measurements of the
dynamic data in dynamic wind tunnel tests, as well as static
aerodynamic data in static and dynamic wind tunnel tests.
24

[9] Vukovic, Dj., Samardzic, M., Vitic, A. Prototype of

stiff wind tunnel balance with semiconductor strain
gauges and thermo compensation done by software, In
Proceedings of the 26th International Congress of the
Aeronautical Sciences, Anchorage, Alaska, 14-19
Septembar 2008, 1-8.

[10] Samardzic, M., Vukovic, Dj., Marinkovski, D.

Experiments in VTI with semiconductor strain gauges
on monoblock wind tunnel balances, In Proceedings of
8th International Symposium on Strain-Gauge Balances,
Ruag, Lucerne, Switzerland, 7-10 May 2010,1-8.

25

EVALUATION OF STING DESIGN WITH INCREASED STIFFNESS FOR

THE T-38 WIND TUNNEL
DUAN URI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, dusan.curcic@vti.vs.rs
MARIJA SAMARDI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, majasam@ptt.rs
ZORAN ANASTASIJEVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, anastaz@eunet.rs
ZORAN RAJI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, vti@vti.vs.rs
HABIB BELAIDOUNI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, vti@vti.vs.rs

Abstract: The T-38 test facility is a blowdown-type pressurized wind tunnel. Large transient loads during starting and stoping
wind tunnel running on high Mach numbers is common characteristic of blowdown wind tunnels. Stings and all experimental
equipments for the measurements in such wind tunnels have to be designed for large transient loads. During the supersonic
tests a sting is exposed to large aerodynamic loads and levels of sting stresses and deflections are high. Sting deflection
during the T-38 wind tunnel experiments has big influence on the quality of measurements. High stiffness of sting is necessary
for model testing. It is necessary to reduce magnitude of sting deflections to achieve higher accuracy. In this paper is
considered proper material for combination with maraging stainless steel for sting manufacturing. Carbide metal was
selected as material for increasing sting stiffness. Stainless steel sting with carbide metal core was designed and
manufactured. Finite element simulation of load was performed using software package NASTRAN NX. Experimental
verification was performed by laboratory measurements of the sting deflections and slopes. Final verification was performed
by the wind tunnel measurements with selected model and stainless steel sting with carbide metal tube.
Keywords: deflection, stress, sting, wind tunnel.

1. INTRODUCTION
High stiffness of sting is necessary for model testing at high
Mach numbers and high angles of attack in the T-38 wind
tunnel [1]. Required value of the Mach number is 4.
Transient load during starting and stopping is characteristic
of wind tunnels with over pressure on high Mach numbers
[2,3,4]. Sting deflection is caused by bending moments due
to aerodynamic force and moments Fig.
Sting size is required by the size and geometry rear part of
aircraft model and aerodynamic requirements for
minimizing sting interference on aircraft model. Sting
dimensions are limited by different conditions. Possibility
for reducing sting deflection and slope during wind tunnel
experiment is to increase stiffness by selection proper
material with high module of elasticity [5].
Figure 1 Sting deflections

26

Material for sting manufacture is high quality stainless

steel Armc13-8Mo with module of elasticity around 200
GPa. It is necessary to find combination of stainless steel
Armco13-8Mo [6] with some other materials with high
module of elasticity to increase sting stiffness. Some
materials which can be used for sting reinforcing are
given in Tab. 1.

chemical analysis are given in Tab. 2 and mechanical

characteristics are given in Tab. 3
Table 2. The chemical composition of cold isostatic
pressing tube 90WC-10Co
Co
10.2

Table 1. Characteristic of different material which can be

used for sting manufacture
Material
Titanium alloy
Nickel super
alloy
Armco13-8Mo
Tungsten

Module
of elasticity
E/GPa
110

Tensile
Strength
/MPa
1200

200

1230

8200

195
410

1482
1550

7760
19400

Fe
0.2

mas. %
Cr
0.1

Nb
0.01

T
0.5

Table 3: Mechanical characteristic of alloy 90WC-10Co

Density
/kg/m3

Hardness
HRC

4700

76

Density
kg/m3
14500

Compressive
Strength
MPa
2080

Module
elasticity
GPa
5.52

3. STING WITH INCREASED STIFFNESS

ANALYSIS

Material selection which will be used for sting

manufacture depend on several factors: sting geometry;
maximum values of aerodynamic forces and moments
which is transferred from aircraft model to sting and sting
allowable deflection and slope [7].

Comparison of expected elastic characteristics of sting

with increased stiffness with existing stainless steel sting
was made for determination contribution to increasing
sting mechanical characteristics.
Load simulation with finite elements method [9] was
performed using software package NASTRAN NX.
Deflection and slope were calculated for maximum
stationary load F = 2206 N at the point of connection
sting with strain gage balance. Results of the analysis are
shown at the Fig. 4 and Tab. 4.

2. STING WITH INCREASED STIFFNESS

Solution was found by using carbide metal core as
material for reinforced sting. Sting cylindrical part was
manufactured as separate part of the whole sting so it is
suitable for introducing carbide metal core with high
module elasticity inside the stainless steel sting Fig.2.

Figure 2. Sting with increased stiffness

Alloy 90WC-10Co [8] wide wall tube, Fig.3, was
obtained by the method of powder metallurgy, cold
isostatic pressing of elemental powders of tungsten
carbide and cobalt.

Figure 4. Sting with increased stiffness deflection and

slope determination
Table 4: Stings deflection and slope determination
Maximum load
F = 2206 N
Sting deflection / mm
Sting slope /

Sting with
increased
1.65
0.29

Stainless
steel sting
2.258
0.41

Analysis of data from Tab. 4 shows that carbide metal

core sting has the smallest deflection and slope in
comparison to stainless steel sting.

4. STING WITH INCREASED STIFFNESS

LABORATORY MEASUREREMENTS
Figure 3: Sting cylindrical part nd 90WC-10Co
wide wall tube

Experimental verification was performed in the

calibration room T-38 wind tunnel by measurement
deflections and slopes for two stings. Stings were
mounted on calibration rig, loads were applied by dead
weights and deflections and slopes were measured in

The chemical composition of cold isostatic pressing tube

was examined by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry
method and Vickers hardness method. Results of
27

referent point. Set up for sting with increased stiffness

deflection and slope measurement is shown in the Fig.5.
Deflection was measured with precise optical level and
slope was measured with comparator. Load was applied
by dead weights on pan which was connected to
calibration body. Deflection was measured at the point of
connection adapter and sting and slope were measured at
strain gage balance body.

and 2.5. Aerodynamic force and moments was measured

during transient and stationary phase of wind tunnel tests.
Model B1 was tested in supersonic speed regime on Mach
numbers 2.0; 2.25 and 2.5 and angles of attack from -6o to
+6o. Model B1 in the T-38 wind tunnel test section is
shown on Fig.6.
During wind tunnel tests Schileren system for air flow
visualization was used.

Figure 5. Sting deflection and slope measurement

For selected loads measured results are shown: in Tab. 5
for stainless steel sting, in Tab. 6 for carbide metal core
sting.

Figure 6. Model B1 in the T-38 wind tunnel test section

Flow visualization around model B1 at Mach numbers 2.0
and 2.5 was shown at Fig. 7.

Table 5. Measured deflection and slope

Dead
weight
kg

Force
daN

0
45
90
135
180
225

0
44.127
88.254
132.381
176.508
220.635

Stainless steel sting

Sting deflection /mm
Load
Unload
0.00
0.00
0.57
0.60
1.15
1.20
1.74
1.78
2.33
2.36
2.91
2.91

Sting slope /
Load
Unload
0.00
0.01
0.108
0.116
0.225
0.225
0.30
0.31
0.40
0.40
0.50
0.50

Table 6. Measured deflection and slope

Sting with increased stiffness

Dead
weight/
kg

Force /
daN

0
45
90
135
180
225

0
44.127
88.254
132.381
176.508
220.635

Sting deflection
/mm
Load
Unload
0.00
0.00
0.52
0.56
0.98
1.02
1.38
1.43
1.78
1.80
2.18
2.18

Sting slope /
Load
0.00
0.08
0.158
0.225
0.28
0.35

Unload
0.01
0.09
0.158
0.225
0.28
0.35

Measuring results shows that carbide metal core sting has

the smallest deflection and slope.

5. WIND TUNNEL TESTS WITH STING WITH

INCREASED STIFFNESS
Verification of investigation was performed by wind
tunnel testing of model B1, Fig 6. Wind tunnel test results
of model B1 with internal six components strain gage
VTI40B [10] was compared with results of wind tunnel
tests of model B1 with sting with increased stiffness and
internal six components strain gage BV40 [11]. Wind
tunnel tests were performed for Mach numbers 2.0; 2.25

b)
Figure 7. Model B1 during stationary wind tunnel test
phase, a) M=2.0, b) M=2.5
System of oblique shock waves at Mach number 2.0,
angle of attack 4 and stagnation pressure of 2.5 bars was
28

shown on Fig.7 ). System of oblique shock waves at

Mach number 2.5, angle of attack 0 and stagnation
pressure of 3.5 bars was shown on Fig.7 b).

Figure 10. Aerodynamic coefficients of Model B1 at

M=2.5
Wind tunnel test results are shown on Figures 8-10.
Aerodynamics coefficients are given in body axes
coordinate system.

Figure 8. Aerodynamic coefficients of Model B1 at

M=2.0

6. WIND TUNNEL TESTS RESULT ANALYSIS

Comparison of normal force and pitching moment
coeficient at Mach number 2.0 and stagnation pressure 2.5
bars for model B1 with strain gage balance BV40 and
sting with increased stiffnes and model B1 with strain
gage balance VTI40B and stainless steel sting 40/38 mm
lenght 775 mm are given in Fig. 11. and 12. Good
agreement of normal force CN and pitching moment Cm
coeficients are shown in Fig. 11. and 12.

Figure 11. Normal force coefficient CN comparison at

M=2.0

Figure 9. Aerodynamic coefficients of Model B1 at

M=2.25
29

Following results
investigation:

were

achived

during

perfomed

Sting with increased stiffness There is tehnology for

production of material with high value of modulus of
elasticity in the Republic of Serbia. Sting with increased
stiffness has modulus of elasticity =5.52 105 [N/mm2].
High value of modulus of elasticity and selected technical
solution for sting provide posibility for quality
measurement at Mach numbers 2.0;
Achived required accuraccy of wind tunnel
measurement using sting with increased stiffness During performed investigation was achived very good
copromise between two oposite requirements. First
requirement is for high stiffness to widthstanding very
high aerodynamic loads during transient phase wind
tunnel test. Second requirement is for neccessary
elasticity which provide required accuracy of measuring
devices.

Figure 12. Pitching moment coefficient Cm comparison at

M=2.0
Comparison of normal force and pitching moment
coeficient at Mach number 2.50 and stagnation pressure
3.5 bars for model B1 with strain gage balance BV40 and
sting with increased stiffnes and model B1 with strain
gage balance VTI40B and stainless steel sting 50 mm are
given in Fig. 13. and 14. Good agreement of normal force
CN and pitching moment Cm coeficients are shown in Fig.
13. and 14.

8. CONCLUSION
Based on the achieved testing results for stings with
increased stiffness, following conclusion can be defined:
Basis material for sting has to be high quality
maraging steel Armco Ph 13.8.
For sting with increased stiffness most convenient is
the combination of maraging steel Armco Ph 13.8
and inserted wide wall carbide metal tube alloy
90WC-10Co.
Combination of maraging steel Armco Ph 13.8 and
carbide metal alloy 90WC-10Co has good
characteristics and smallest deflection and slope for
given external load.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is part of the research which is included in the
project TP 36050, which is supported by the Ministry of
Education, Science and Technological Development of
the Republic of Serbia. Authors are grateful to the
Ministry of Finances for financing this project.

Figure 13. Normal force coefficient CN comparison at

M=2.4

REFERENCES
[1] G.M.Elfstrom, B.Medved: The Yugoslav 1.5m
Trisonic Blowdown Wind Tunnel, AIAA Paper 860746-CP
[2] ., .: O
j T-38, 31.
2008., . 1-3, 2008.
[3] K.G. Winter, C.S.Brown: Loads on a Model During
Starting and Stopping of an Intermittent Supersonic
Wind Tunnel, RAE Technical Note No.Aero.2453,
1956.
[4] R.C.Dixon: Estimates of Starting and Stopping Loads
in the N.A.E. 5 foot Trisonic Wind Tunnel, National
Aerounautic Establishment, Memorandum HSA-23,
Ottawa, 1966
[5] M. Samardi, Z. Anastasijevi, D. Marinkovski, J.
Isakovi: Effects of the Sting Oscillation on the

Figure 14. Pitching moment coefficient Cm comparison at

M=2.5
30

Measurements of Dynamic Stability Derivatives,

Scientific Technical Review, Vol. 60, No. 2, 2010,
pp.22-26
[6] Product
data,
ARMCO
PH
13-8
MO,
PRECIPITATION-HARDENING STAINLESS STEEL
BAR, WIRE, PLATE AND FORGING BILLETS,
Bulletin No S-33e, Armco Steel Corporation,
Advanced Materials Division, Baltimore, Maryland
21203, USA
[7] D.uri: Contribution to analysus of design models
for testing in the blowdown wind tunnels (Serbian),
Master degree thesis, Mechanical engeneering
faculty, Belgrade 1986

[8] Metals Handbook Ninth Edition, Volume 3 Properties

and Selection: Stainless Steels, Tool Materijals and
Special-Purpose Metals, American Societu for
Metals Metals Park, Ohio 44073
[9] Bathe,J.B.: Finite Element procedures in engineering
analysis, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1982.
[10] .,.: Wind tunnel tests of model
M6B-M1 at Mach numbers from 0.2-4.0, V3-2768-I,
, , 2001.
[11] ., ., .:
BV 40,
, V3-3043-P-06, , , 2009.

31

MEASUREMENT ACCURACY OF FLOW-FIELD PARAMETERS IN A

SUPERSONIC WIND-TUNNEL ENVIRONMENT
DIJANA DAMLJANOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, didamlj@gmail.com
ORE VUKOVI
Military Technical Institute , Belgrade, Serbia, vdjole@sbb.rs
BOKO RAUO
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia, brasuo@mas.bg.ac.rs
JOVAN ISAKOVI
Tehnikum Taurunum, College of Applied Engineering Studies, Belgrade, Serbia, jisakovic@tehnikum.edu.rs
GORAN OCOKOLJI
Military Technical Institute , Belgrade, Serbia, ocokoljic.goran@gmail.com

Abstract: Complexity and interaction of different phenomena, which exist in the supersonic wind-tunnel testing,
required defining an improved methodology for measurement of the relevant flow-field parameters of the increased
accuracy level in the T-38 blowdown wind-tunnel of the Military Technical Institute (VTI) in Belgrade. Existing
methodologies and all the factors which facilitate or make difficult the use of some methods had been studied and,
based on these, the optimal methodology of measurement was defined and the primary measuring system was improved
in accordance with specifications of the T-38 wind-tunnel in supersonic flow conditions. The research was based on 1)
theoretical analisys of possibility to improve accuracy of measurement of supersonic flow-field parameters and 2)
analysis of experimental results of a certain number of measurements in a framework of new-implemented primary
measuring system. Verification of the research of the theoretical-methodical improvements of the measurement
accuracy of supersonic flow-field parameters in wind-tunnels of the T-38 type was done in testing of a supersonichypersonic model of the standard geometry and obtained results were compared with those from initial testing before
fine-tuning of the supersonic test section. As the VTIs standard testing procedure insist on inter-facility comparisons,
the test-data were also correlated with those from the worlds relevant supersonic wind-tunnels.
Keywords: wind-tunnel, supersonic flow-field, primary measuring system, Mach number, standard model, inter-facility
correlations.
should be made to approximately 1/10 percent accuracy,
and errors of this magnitude cannot be disregarded, [2]. It
is clear that pressures in a wind-tunnel circuit must be
measured with high accuracy.

1. INTRODUCTION
Since the Mach number is the main similarity parameter
in high speed flows, its measurement is of fundamental
importance in wind-tunnel testing. Many types of tests
results in high-speed wind-tunnels are sensitive to various
extents to errors in Mach number determination. For
example, at Mach 3, an one percent error in the Mach
number will result in an approx. 3.5 percent error in the
computation of the force coefficient, Pic.1, [1-5].

% error in force coeff.

for 1% error in M

-6

Wind-tunnel model production and force measuring

standards are sufficiently precise to permit measurements
of coefficients to within 1 percent or better; therefore, the
Mach number must be known to better than, approximately, 1/3 percent to maintain such accuracy. It will be
assumed that, in order to know the Mach number to
within 1/3 percent, pressure calibration measurements

-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0

Mach Number
1

Picture 1: Percent error in the force coefficient for the

1% error in the Mach number, [2]
32

In a recent effort to improve the quality of measurements in

the supersonic speed range in the T-38 wind-tunnel, [6] of
the Military Technical Institute (VTI) in Belgrade, an
analysis has been made of the methods of measurements of
flow field parameters in the wind-tunnel test section, [7].
Based on that analysis, an upgrade of the system of
transducers and probes (the so-called primary measuring
system) used to measure these parameters has been made,
accompanied by an upgrade in the pressure-transducercalibration system. The extensive test section calibration
was done to determine all measured and derived flow
field parameters. The verification of the all modifications
was done in a standard model wind-tunnel testing.
Picture 3: Measuring points of two stagnation pressures
for the Mach number calculation used relations of the
normal shock-wave

2. MACH NUMBER DETERMINING

The Mach number in the lower-supersonic speed range of
the T-38 wind-tunnel is being calculated [7] from the
values of two measured pressures: the stagnation pressure
po in the wind-tunnel settling chamber and the static
pressure pst in the wind-tunnel test section. The
measurement points for these pressures are shown in
Pic.2. The settling chamber pressure is measured by a
transducer connected to a Pitot probe while the test
section static pressure is measured by a transducer
connected to a wall orifice. The Mach number M and the
dynamic pressure q are then calculated from isentropic
relations (1) and (2), being the ratio of specific heats for
the air.

+ 1 2 1
1
po ' 2 M
=
1
=
po 1 + 1 M 2 2 M 2 1

+1
2
+1
(3)
2.5

2 1.4

(1.2M )
=

2
(1 + 0.2 M 2 )1.4 7 M 1
6

2
p 3.5 1.2 M

1
M = 5 o
1
po '

7 M 2 1 1.4

(4)

It has been shown in ref. [8] that the sensitivity of the

Mach number calculation (1) to the errors in the measured
pressures increases with the Mach number, and that the
sensitivity of the Mach number calculation from relation
(3) to the errors in the measured pressures decreases with
the Mach number.
Approximately at Mach 1.6, the sensitivities to errors of
both methods are similar, and therefore, ref. [8] states
that, above Mach 1.6, it is better (i.e. more accurate) to
calculate the Mach number from two measured stagnation
pressures (Pic.3) than from one stagnation pressure and
one static pressure (Pic.2). The uncertainty of pitot-tostatic pressure as a function of Mach number (5) is
illustrated in graph in Pic.4.

Picture 2: Measurement points of relevant pressures for

the Mach number calculation used isentropic relations
M=

1
1

2 pst 1 = 5 pst 3.5 1

p
1 po

q = pst M 2 = 0.7 pst M 2

2

(1)

po ' 6M 2
=
pst 5

(2)

3.5

7M 2 1

2.5

5 ( M 2 1)2

M 2 ( 7 M 2 1)

(5)

On the other hand, a recent internal analysis [7,9] performed

in the VTI for the T-38 wind-tunnel showed that, taking into
account the envelope of the operating pressures of the windtunnel (Pic.5) and the necessary ranges of the pressure
transducers to be used, the boundary for switching between
the two methods of measurements for the calculation of the
Mach number is not at Mach 1.6 but between Mach 2.25 and
2.5 (Pics. 6 and 7).

The supersonic Mach number can also be calculated,

using the Rayleighs relation (3), from the measured
settling chamber stagnation pressure po and the stagnation
pressure po measured behind a normal shock wave in the
supersonic flow in the test section; the equation (3),
rearranged as (4), is iteratively solved for the Mach
number. Both pressures are to be measured using the
transducers connected to the Pitot probes, Pic.3.
33

static pressure (configuration shown in Pic.2) was used at

all supersonic Mach numbers, although it was known that
the configuration was not an optimum one.

Mach number standard deviation

Uncertainty of pitot-to-static pressure

pst > po ' za M < 1.6

5
4
3

pst < po ' za M > 1.6

po '
= 1 za M = 1.6
pst

Mach number

0
1

M (p

0.0012

M (p

, pst)
, po')

0.0010
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
0.0000
1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

Picture 6: Expected accuracy (based on one standard

deviation) for two methods of measuring the Mach
number in the T-38 wind-tunnel, [7,9]

Dyn. press. stand. deviation [bar]

Supersonic operating envelope

Practical use of supersonic operating envelope
Recommended operating point
Operating point, q=1 bar
p = 19.8

bar

tmax

15

6s
10 s

14

Stagnation pressure, po [bar]

0.0014

Mach number

Picture 4: The uncertainty of pitot-to-static pressure as a

function of Mach number, [8]

16

0.0016

13

14 s

12

22 s

11

30 s

10

40 s

0.0016
0.0014

q (p

0.0012

q (p

, pst)

, po')

0.0010
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
0.0000
1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

Mach number

50 s

Picture 7: Expected accuracy (based on one standard

deviation) for two methods of measuring the dynamic
pressure in the T-38 wind-tunnel, [7,9]

7
6
5

However, a convenient location for a Pitot probe, where

there is no interaction with the model, has recently been
determined (see Pic.8), and the probe will henceforward
be used in the upper-supersonic configuration of the
wind-tunnel test section, from Mach 2.5 upwards (see
Pic.9).

4
3

postart

postop
postart,2.grlo

postop,2.grlo

0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

Mach number

Picture 5: The T-38 wind-tunnel supersonic operating

envelope, [7]
Therefore, it has been decided that, in the future, the
method of the calculation of the Mach number from two
measured stagnation pressures is to be used in the T-38
wind-tunnel at Mach 2.5 and above.
Provisions for the measurement of the test section
stagnation pressure in the upper-supersonic speed range
have already existed in the T-38 wind-tunnel but were
practically never used because the initial-design location
of the Pitot probe in the test section interfered with the
flow around the model; furthermore, the said measurement set-up complicated accurate measurements of the
model base pressure, making the described measurement
concept unusable. Instead, the measurement of the wall

Picture 8: Check-out of the interaction of the Mach 2

shock waves formed around model and Pitot probe, [7]
34

being switched as suited to particular test conditions.

The Mensor CPT6180 high-precision pressure transducers
[7,9] are self-contained pressure sensing devices similar
to the CPT6100, but with better accuracy (0.01% IS-50
(0.01% of reading down to 50% full scale) instead of
0.01% FS) and better long-term stability (calibration
interval is 1 year). Communication with the data
acquisition system is via a RS-485 serial bus only. The
procured transducer is to be used as a reference,
measuring the atmospheric pressure, for the purpose of
monitoring the operation of other transducers.
The main characteristics of the CPT6100 and CPT6180
pressure transducers are shown in Table 1.
Picture 9: Pitot probe in the T-38 test section, [7]

3. T-38 PRIMARY MEASURING SYSTEM

The initial configuration of the primary measuring system
in the T-38 wind-tunnel comprised several Mensor 11603
pressure transducers of various ranges with quartz
Bourdon-tube sensing elements, [9]. Transducer ranges
were switched for tests at Mach 3 and above. The nominal
accuracy of the transducers was 0.04% FS (Full Scale) but
they were routinely calibrated to about 0.02% FS using
three Mensor QM/C pressure controllers / secondary
standards available in the pressure calibration laboratory
at the site.
The operation of the 11603-type transducers was not
completely satisfactory. The accuracy of the transducers
was acceptable but, as they were actually electromechanical devices, each comprising an electronic
module but also a miniature servo motor, their response
was slow and the transducers sometimes exhibited
unexpected shifts in the output, so that an additional
reference transducer, measuring the atmospheric pressure,
became necessary to monitor and correct the behaviour of
other transducers. In addition, over time (more than 27
years since the installation) a number of transducers failed
and a necessity developed to replace the complete system.

Picture 10: CPT 6100 and CPT 6180 digital pressure

transducers, [7,9]
Table 1: Characteristics of the CPT6100 and CPT6180
pressure transducers, [7,9]
Characteristic of the
pressure transducers

CPT6100

CPT6180

Accuracy

0.01% FS

0.01% IS-50

Operating temperature range

Warm up

0 to 50C
10 minutes

Several digital pressure transducers of the latest

technology generation were, therefore, procured in order
to replace the transducers in the transonic and supersonic
configuration of the primary measuring system in the
T-38 wind-tunnel: Mensor CPT6100 transducers with the
ranges of 17 bar, 7 bar and 3.5 bar, and a Mensor
CPT6180 with the range of 1.4 bar.

Calibration interval

180 days

1 year

The Mensor CPT6100 digital pressure transducers [7,9]

are self-contained pressure-sensing devices that provide
high-accuracy pressure measurements, Pic. 10. The
accuracy of the transducers is 0.01% FS. This type of
transducers incorporates a low-hysteresis micro-machined
silicon strain gauge sensor with electronically
compensated pressure linearity over a specified
temperature range. Communication with the data
acquisition system is via an analogue 0-10V output or a
RS-485 serial bus. The procured transducers are to be
used for the measurement of the settling chamber
stagnation pressure, the test section stagnation pressure
and the test section static pressure, transducer ranges

As a particular flexible nozzle contour has to be settled

for the desired Mach number and there are not rules how
nozzle contour deviate from ideal, interpolation of the
calibration data by Mach number cannot be done.
Supersonic wind-tunnel test section calibration has to be
performed for all existed nozzle geometries, [2,8].

Mechanical shock

3 g maximum

Analogue to digital conversion

50 samples/s

Overpressure limit

150% full scale 120% full scale

4. T-38 TEST SECTION CALIBRATION

T-38 test section calibration was performed in the

complete supersonic Mach number range after all windtunnel modifications.
Measurement of the static pressure and the stagnation
pressure behind normal shock wave in the test section was
performed on the lower and higher stagnation pressures in
35

order to cover the practical use of the T-38 supersonic

envelope, see Pic.5. Two sets of calibration data,
designated as M pst and M po ' , are now available.

some other supersonic test facilities, AEDC [13,14],

ONERA [15] and NASA Ames Center [16].
The significant contribution of the improvements of the
T-38 primary measuring system on the standard test data
can be observed and the final standard test data are in a
much better correlation, [17]. Zero-lift total axial-force
coefficient at Mach 2 obtained during initial HB-2 model
testing differed from the NASA Ames free-flight data by
about 0.0507, which is 4.1% of the reference NASA
Ames free-flight datum. After final HB-2 model testing
the difference is about 0.011 (0.9% of the reference
datum).

These corrections are ilustrated in a form of graphs in

Pics. 11 and 12 and aproximated by polynoms to monitor
their character with Mach number increasing. It could be
noticed that, for both testing at lower and higher
stagnation pressures up to Mach 2.5, the Mach number
corrections M pst (determined from measurement of the
static pressure) are mostly lower than Mach number
corrections M po ' (determined from measurement of the
stagnation pressure behind normal shock wave). On the
contrary the M pst > M po ' is observed in the Mach
number range from 2.5 to 4, which contributes to the
performed numerical analysis.
Mach number correction for testing
at lower stagnation pressures

0.04

M pst > M po '

0.03
0.02
0.01
1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

Mach number

-0.02

Mp

M pst < M po '

-0.03

Picture 13: The HB-2 model in the T-38 test section

st

Mp '

-0.04

Zero-lift total axial-force coefficient, CA0

0.00
-0.01

Picture 11: Mach number corrections for testing at lower

stagnation pressures

1.6
1.5

Mach number correction for testing

at higher stagnation pressures

M pst > M po '

1.2
1.1

0.02

-0.01
-0.02
-0.03

VTI, T-38, final testing

AEDC, VKF
ONERA, S5 Ch
ONERA, C4 Vernon
NASA Ames, free-flight data

1.0

0.01
0.00

CA0=0.011

1.3

0.04
0.03

HB-2 model

1.4

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

M pst < M po '

-0.04

3.5

0.9

4.0

0.8

Mach number
Mp

0.7

st

Mp '

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

Mach number

Picture 12: Mach number corrections for testing at higher

stagnation pressures

Picture 14: Zero-lift total axial-force coefficient vs. Mach

number for the HB-2 model

The T-38 wind-tunnel data base was updated based on the

performed test section calibrations.

The reason of discrepancy between the T-38 results and

AEDC reference results, seen during initial testing [17],
was not found in the final testing. It should be noticed that
the other authors had similar observations regarding the
AEDC data, [18].

5. STANDARD MODEL TESTING

Verification of the performed activities concerning
improvements in the supersonic part of the T-38 operating
envelope was done in the HB-2 standard model windtunnel testing, Pic.13, [10-12].

6. CONCLUSION
The accuracy of the primary measuring system of the
T-38 wind-tunnel has been significantly improved by
installing digital pressure transducers of the latest
technology generation. The increased accuracy of the new
transducers has also simplified the measurement set-up,
eliminating the need for exchanging transducers of

Some of results are presented in the graph in Pic.14 where

blue full-circled symbols present final results of the T-38
HB-2 model testing, after all modifications were done.
Also, the T-38 test data are correlated with those from
36

different operating ranges, depending on test conditions.

The capabilities of the new transducers were fully utilized
by dispensing with the analogue processing of signals and
turning to a completely digital interface. According to the
performed numerical analysis, results of the test section
calibration and the first experiences in actual wind-tunnel
tests, the reliability of calculation of the Mach number
and dynamic pressure have significantly been improved.
The upgrade of the pressure measuring and calibration
system improve the productivity and quality of
measurements in the T-38 wind-tunnel, which was
confirmed in the standard HB-2 model testing.

[8] Reed, T.D., Pope, T.C., Cooksey, J.M., Calibration

of Transonic and Supersonic Wind Tunnels, NASA
Contractor Report 2920, Vought Corporation, 1977.
[9] Viti, A., Vukovi, ., Milosavljevi, M.,
Damljanovi, D., "Improvements of the Primary
Measuring System in the T-38 Wind Tunnel",
Scientific Technical Review, Vol.63, No.2, pp.75-81,
2013.
[10] Steinle, F, Stanewsky, E., Wind Tunnel Flow Quality
and Data Accuracy Requirements, AGARD
Advisory Report No.184, 1982.
[11] Damljanovi, D., Rauo, B., Isakovi, J., "T-38 Wind
Tunnel Data Quality Assurance Based on Testing of
a Standard Model", Journal of Aircraft, Vol.50,
No.4, pp. 1141-1149, 2013.
[12] Damljanovi, D., Isakovi J., Rauo B., An
Evaluation of the Overall T-38 Wind Tunnel Data
Quality in Testing of a Calibration Model, in:
Proceedings of the 30th AIAA Applied Aerodynamics
Conference, 25-28 June 2012, New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA, AIAA Paper 2012-3231
[13] Gray, J.D., Summary Report on Aerodynamic
characteristics of standard models HB-1 and HB-2,
AEDC-TDR-64-137, Arnold Engineering Development Center, 1964.
[14] Gray, J.D., Lindsay, E.E., Force Tests of Standard
Hypervelocity Ballistic Models HB-1 and HB-2 at
Mach 1.5 to 10, AEDC-TDR-63-137, Arnold
Engine-ering Development Center, 1963.
[15] Ceresuela, R., Mesurs d Efforts et de Pressions sur
la Maquette Balistique Etalon HB-2 de Mach 2 a
Mach 16,5, Note Technique 13/1879 A, O.N.E.R.A.,
1964.
[16] Malcolm, G.N., Chapman, G.T., A Computer
Program for Systematically Analyzing Free-Flight
Data to Determine the Aerodynamics of Axisymmetric Bodies, NASA TN D-4766, NASA Ames Research Center, 1968.
[17] Damljanovi, D., Vukovi, ., Viti, A., Isakovi, J.,
uri, D., Preliminary Measurements f
Aerodynamic Characteristics of the HB Standard
Model in the Trisonic Wind Tunnel of VTI,
Proceedings of the 5th International Scientific
Conference on Defensive Technologies, OTEH 2012,
18-19 September 2012, Belgrade, pp. 49-54.
[18] eliker, H.E., Akman, O., Akar, G., Akgl, A.,
Aerodynamic Prediction for HB-1 and HB-2
Supersonic and Hypersonic Test Cases and
Comparison with Experiment, Proceedings of the 5th
International Scientific Conference on Defensive
Technologies, OTEH 2012, 18-19 September 2012,
Belgrade, pp. 31-36.

Results of the final tests of the 75 mm dia. HB-2 model in

the T-38 wind-tunnel of VTI correspond much better to
those from NASA-Ames and ONERA in comparison of
the zero-angle-of-attack axial-force coefficient data.
Initial tests were performed in the T-38 wind-tunnel test
section that was practically uncalibrated above Mach 2,
and with an imperfectly tuned wind-tunnel control
system, but the initial test results were promising, and as
it was expected, the final results achieved in the more
comprehensive wind-tunnel tests are in better correlation
with results from other facilities.

REFERENCES
[1] Pope, A., Goin, K.L., High Speed Wind Tunnel
Testing, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.
[2] Hill, J.A.F., Baron, J.R., Schindel, L.H., Markham,
R., Mach Number Measurements in High-Speed
Wind Tunnels, AGARDograph 22, October 1956.
[3] Riethmuller, M.L., Scarano, F., Advanced Measuring
Techniques for Supersonic Flows: in Collaboration
with the European Wind tunnel Association, Von
Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics, VKI Lecture
Series, Brussels, 2005.
[4] Schimanski, D., Germain, E., Strudthoff, W.,
Advanced Measurement Techniques at High
Reynolds Number Testing in the European Transonic
Wind-Tunnel, Aerospace Testing Expo, Hamburg,
pp. 130, 2005.
[5] Owen, F.K., Owen, A.K., "Measurement and
Assessment of Wind Tunnel Flow Quality",
Progress in Aerospace Sciences, Vol. 44, Iss. 5, pp.
315-348, 2008.
[6] Elfstrom, G.M., Medved, B., The Yugoslav 1.5m
Trisonic Blowdown Wind Tunnel, Paper 86-0746-CP,
AIAA, 1986.
[7] Damljanovi, D., Measurement Accuracy of Flow
Field Parameters in Supersonic Wind Tunnels (in
Serbian), PhD thesis, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Belgrade, 2013.

37

TESTING OF STANDARD MODELS IN THE LARGE-SUBSONIC WINDTUNNEL FACILITY OF VTI

GORAN OCOKOLJI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, ocokoljic.goran@gmail.com
DIJANA DAMLJANOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, didamlj@gmail.com
BOKO RAUO
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, brasuo@mas.bg.ac.rs
JOVAN ISAKOVI
Tehnikum Taurunum College of Applied Engineering Studies, Belgrade, Serbia, jisakovic@tehnikum.edu.rs
ORE VUKOVI
Military Technical Institute , Belgrade, Serbia, vdjole@sbb.rs

Abstract: Tests of standard models serve to confirm the overall accuracy and repeatability of measurements in a windtunnel facility, and to confirm confidence in test results, by comparing obtained data with those from other well-known
wind-tunnel facilities. They are convenient for checking the effects of modifications to wind-tunnel structure and for
testing new instrumentation. To these ends, the Military Technical Institute (VTI) in Belgrade has adopted the policy of
periodically testing a number of standard models in its wind-tunnels. In this paper the configurations and sample test
results of two standard models, ONERA M model (hypothetical transport aircraft configuration) and AGARD-B model
(a generic delta-wing airplane configuration) used in the large-subsonic test facility of VTI are presented. Inter-facility
correlations of the test results were done to certify the reliability of the most-used VTIs subsonic test facility. Standard
test-data are also recognized as essential in providing potential customers with a documented assessment of the windtunnel calibration.
Keywords: wind-tunnel, subsonic flow, standard models, aerodynamic characteristics, inter-facility correlations,
performed if there is a need to test a new instrumentation
item or wind-tunnel component.

1. INTRODUCTION
VTI recognizes that the testing of standard models is an
important item in monitoring the health of a wind-tunnel
facility and complete wind-tunnel testing process. Tests
with standard models ensure that the wind-tunnel is
operating as expected and are useful in identifying
problems in the wind-tunnel circuit. They provide
potential customers with a documented assessment of the
tunnel calibration and are essential in determining overall
data quality, [1-3].
Therefore, VTI has adopted the policy of periodically
testing a selection of standard configurations of windtunnel models. Some of them, used in static measurements of forces and moments are shown, with usable
Mach number range, in Pic. 1. Selected standard models
for static tests are AGARD-B and AGARD-C, ONERA
M, hypersonic-ballistic models HB-1 and HB-2.
Periodical short tests of at least one of these models are
performed, as wind-tunnel occupancy permits, approximately every 2-3 years, but additional tests can be

Picture 1: Mach number ranges of standard models used

in VTI for static tests
38

Results are compared with results obtained during the

earlier tests and with available results from other test
facilities, [2,3].

tunnels with different test sections sizes (Pic.3). The

ONERA M model in M4 size was adopted as
representative, both in scale and expected loads, for both
the T-38 and the T-35 wind-tunnels, [1].

2. LARGE-SUBSONIC WIND-TUNNEL OF VTI

The most used subsonic aerodynamic test facility of VTI
is the T-35 large subsonic wind-tunnel. It is a continuous
wind-tunnel (Pic.2) with two interchangeable, 3.2 m x 4.4
m, octagonal test sections. The wind-tunnel was designed
by VTI and built by Metalna, Maribor. It has been
operating since 1964 and has been modernized two times.

Picture 3: ONERA M standard model geometric

definitions relative to the model diameter D

AGARD-B model
AGARD-B model is an ogive-cylinder with a delta wing,
originally designed by the AGARD committee for the
calibration of supersonic wind-tunnels, but it is also often
used in transonic and even in subsonic wind-tunnels, [4].
This model is a configuration consisting of a wing and
body combination. The wing is a delta in the form of an
equilateral triangle with a span four times body diameter.
The wing has a 4% thickness/chord ratio bi-convex
section. The body is a cylindrical body of revolution with
an ogive nose. Radii of nose and wing leading edges
should be D/500. Geometric definitions of the AGARD-B
model are given in Pic. 4.

Picture 2: The T-35 large-subsonic wind-tunnel (lowerleft: fan, lower-right: interchangeable test section)
Mach number range is up to 0.52. Mach number
regulation is achieved by changing fan rotation rate and
pitch angle of fan blades. Reynolds number is up to 12
millions/m. The value of the total pressure in the test
section is up to 1.2 bar (static pressure is atmospheric)
and, theoretically, the duration of a test is unlimited.
Two test sections are available, one with an underfloor
external balance and another with a tail sting support on a
vertical quadrant. The six-component underfloor balance
permits movements in yaw and pitch. The tail sting
support enables step-by-step and continuous (sweep)
movement of the model in all three axes, i.e. change of
angle of attack, sideslip angle and rolling angle.

3. STANDARD T-35 WIND-TUNNEL MODELS

ONERA M MODEL
A family of hypothetical transport aircraft configuration
was designed and constructed by ONERA for the
aerodynamic phenomenon investigation in the transonic
speed range. Nowadays, these models are used as
standard for testing and verifying the new wind-tunnel
installations and new measurement techniques.

Picture 4: AGARD-B standard model geometric

definitions relative to the model diameter D
The AGARD-B models, representing a generic delta-wing
airplane configuration, are available in VTI in four sizes
(20.3 mm, 35 mm, 115.8 mm and 178 mm diameters).

ONERA M model is accessible in several scales to enable

comparison of test data acquired in a number of wind39

The 115.8 mm dia. model, which can also be used in

AGARD-C configuration, is periodically tested in the
T-38 1.5 m 1.5 m trisonic wind-tunnel. Model size was
chosen with respect to the T-38 tunnels test section size.
Initial calibration and verification of the T-38 wind-tunnel
was done using AGARD-B/C tests. The model, produced
by BOEING, is physically the same model that had earlier
been tested in the NAE 5ft wind-tunnel, and some other
wind-tunnel facilities.

A distinct difference in the drag-force coefficient data was

found in the angle of attack range from +2.5 to +6. T-35
ONERA M4 test data compared well with the NAE 5ft
ONERA M1 test data, and the T-35 results actually
seeming more logical and in better agreement with other
sources, e.g. [8].
Drag-force coefficient

0.10

In VTI, the 115.8 mm dia. model was tested at Mach

numbers ranging from subsonic, through transonic and
supersonic up to up to Mach 2, on both an ABLE 2in.
balance and a VTI monoblock six-component balance.
The model was used to provide force and moment data
and also pressure sensor was used for measuring the
pressure in the cavity surrounding the sting at the model
base (i.e. the base pressure).

0.08
0.06

Mach 0.25, model upright

ONERA M1, NAE
ONERA M4, T-35

0.04
0.02
0.00

-0.02

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

Angle of attack

-0.04

Picture 6: Interfacility comparisons in the ONERA M

drag-force coefficient data

The larger, 178 mm dia. model was intended to be tested

in the T-35 wind-tunnel after its upgrade for higher Mach
number capability. It is expected to perform this tests in a
very near future.

Lift-force coefficient

0.8

4. STANDARD T-35 TEST DATA

ONERA M4 wind-tunnel test data

0.6
0.4

Mach 0.25, model upright

ONERA M1, NAE
ONERA M4, T-35

0.2
0.0
-0.2

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

Angle of attack

-0.4

ONERA M4 model has been used to test the functionality

and reliability of a new model support system in the T-35
wind-tunnel, and a preliminary estimation of flow quality
(Pic. 5).

Pitching-moment coefficient

Picture 7: Interfacility comparisons in the ONERA M

lift-force coefficient data
0.20

Mach 0.25, model upright

ONERA M1, NAE
ONERA M4, T-35

0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

Angle of attack

Picture 8: Interfacility comparisons in the ONERA M

pitching-moment coefficient data

AGARD-B wind-tunnel test data

Picture 5: ONERA M4 standard model in the T-35 test
section
Testing of the ONERA M4 calibration model in the T-35
wind-tunnel was performed at Mach 0.25. Experimental
results of the M4 model were compared with available
results of the M1 model acquired in the NAE (National
Aeronautical Establishment, today operates as IAR
Institute for Aerospace Research) 5ft wind-tunnel which
were the only available results from tests at similar
conditions, [5-7].
Comparisons of the drag-force, lift-force and pitchingmoment coefficients at Mach 0.25 in the T-35 and the
NAE test series are given in Pics. 6, 7 and 8.

Picture 9: 115.8 mm dia. AGARD-B standard model in

the T-35 test section
40

 Other pressure transducers e.g. for base pressure: 0.05%

F.S.,

Tunnel-to-tunnel data comparisons were done based on

standard test data of physically the same AGARD-B
model (see Pic. 9) obtained in the T-38 and the NAE 5ft
wind-tunnels. T-35 test data are correlated with them and
presented in the next graphs, [9,10]. Comparisons of the
drag-force, lift-force and pitching-moment coefficients at
Mach 0.4 in the T-35, the T-38 and the NAE test series
are given in Pics. 10, 11 and 12. There is a very good
agreement of results from the these wind-tunnels.

Force balances: 0.1% F.S. for monoblock VTIproduced balances and 0.2% F.S. for multipiece ABLE
balances,
Transducers for control of various
components: generally 0.1% F.S.

The accuracy requirements, concerning short-term repeatability in force and moment measurements, within the
same test series, are 0.01 for lift-force coeffcient, 0.0001
for drag-force coeffcient, and 0.001 for pitching-moment
coefficient, [11,12].

Forebody drag-force coefficient

0.12

AGARD-B model, Mach 0.4

NAE facility
T-38 facility
T-35 facility

0.10
0.08

Within-test data repeatability levels of app. 0.0005 in

drag-force measurement, better than 0.01 in lift-force
measurement, and 0.001 in pitching-moment measurement were achieved. Very good within-test data
repeatability was established in testing of the ONERA M4
(Pic.13) and the AGARD-B models (Pic.14).

0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

8
10 12
Angle of attack

Drag-force coefficient

0.10

Picture 10: Interfacility comparisons in the forebody

drag-force coefficient AGARD-B data

Lift-force coefficient

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

AGARD-B model, Mach 0.4

NAE facility
T-38 facility
T-35 facility

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

10

Drag-force coefficient

-0.6

Pitching-moment coefficient

Picture 11: Interfacility comparisons in the lift-force

coefficient AGARD-B data

0.10
0.05
0.00

-0.05

AGARD-B model, Mach 0.4

NAE facility
T-38 facility
T-35 facility

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
-0.02

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

10

Angle of attack

Picture 13: Repeatability of measurement of the dragforce coefficient in the ONERA M4 tests at Mach 0.25

12

Angle of attack

-0.4

0.15

ONERA M4, Mach 0.25

test #1
test #2

0.08

-0.04

-0.2

wind-tunnel

0.14
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00

AGARD-B model, Mach 0.4

Forebody drag-force coefficient
test #1
test #2
Total drag-force coefficient
test #1
test #2

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

10

Angle of attack

12

Angle of attack

Picture 14: Repeatability of measurement of the dragforce coefficient in the AGARD-B tests at Mach 0.4

-0.10
-0.15

5. T-35 WIND-TUNNEL REFERENCES

Picture 12: Interfacility comparisons in the pitchingmoment coefficient AGARD-B data

Based on these periodically performed standard tests, the

T-35 wind-tunnel has successfully been verified. During
the whole exploitation period the facility was the
significant experimental support to all research and
development programs in VTI and wider. All realized
programs in this facility are strong facilitys references.

Accuracy and repeatability of measurement

Calibrations of pressure and model position transducers,
wind-tunnel balance and the data acquisition system itself
are routinely executed before each wind-tunnel test. These
calibrations are performed using primary and secondary
standards of the relevant physical quantities.

The T-35 wind tunnel was used for testing models of

domestic aircrafts and projectiles such as G-2 (GALEB),
J-21 (JASTREB), J-22 (ORAO), G-4 (SUPER GALEB),
UTVA 75, LASTA (Pic.15, [13]), Bumble Bee
(BUMBAR) (Pic.16, [14,15]). Also several models were
tested in the T-35 facility for foreign customers; powered
model of a turboprop transport aircraft CN235-330 was
one of them (see Pic.17).

Expected and generally achieved accuracies of some of

the measuring devices used in VTI wind-tunnels are:
Pressure transducers of the primary measurement
system of flow parameters in the test section: 0.01%
F.S. to 0.02% F.S.,
41

6. CONCLUSION
VTIs adopted policy of periodically testing a selected
standard models has increased confidence in test results
obtained in the wind-tunnels on the site. It is intended to
continue to use the standards models in the future, to
verify the operation of new measuring devices and model
supports, or to obtain better results for some of the
models.
Comparisons of results obtained in the T-35 tests of
standard models with data from tests in other facilities
confirmed the high level of the flow quality in the T-35
test section, good condition of the wind-tunnel instrumentation and other components, and the correctness of the
data reduction algorithms.
A properly calibrated and verified aerodynamic ground
facility is required for timely, effective product development. This leads to the more operational future flight
object with desired performances. Today the T-35 windtunnels references can put this facility among worlds.

Picture 15: LASTA training aircraft (inset: Preparation

for the T-35 wind-tunnel testing of the LASTA model)

Standard test data provide potential customers with a

documented assessment of the tunnel calibration and are
essential in determining overall data quality, [16].

REFERENCES
[1] Damljanovic, D., Vukovic, Dj., Isakovic, J., Standard
Wind Tunnel Models and their use in the Wind
Tunnels of the Military Technical Institute (in
Serbian), Cumulative Technical Information, edited
by VTIMilitary Technical Inst., Belgrade, Serbia,
Vol.XLVII, No.2 (2012), pp. 2390.
[2] Damljanovi, D., Rauo, B., Isakovi, J., "T-38 Wind
Tunnel Data Quality Assurance Based on Testing of
a Standard Model", Journal of Aircraft, Vol.50, No.4
(2013), pp. 1141-1149.
[3] Damljanovi, D., Isakovi J., Rauo B., An
Evaluation of the Overall T-38 Wind Tunnel Data
Quality in Testing of a Calibration Model, in:
Proceedings of the 30th AIAA Applied Aerodynamics
Conference, 25-28 June 2012, New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA, AIAA Paper 2012-3231
[4] Hills, R, A Review of Measurements on AGARD
Calibration Models, AGARDograph 64, 1961.
[5] Ocokoljic, G., "Testing of the Calibration Model
ONERA M4 in the Subsonic Wind Tunnel T-35",
Scientific Technical Review, Vol.LIV, No.3-4 (2004)
pp. 45-51.
[6] Galway, R.D., Mokry, M., Wind Tunnel Tests of
ONERA Aircraft Models, Test period: Nov.1974Feb.1975, National Aeronautical Establishment
Laboratory, Technical Report LTR-HA-5x5/0115,
Ottawa, Canada, 1977.
[7] Damljanovic, D., Vukovic, Dj., Ocokoljic, G.,
Standard Models in the Experimental Aerodynamics
Laboratory of VTI, in: Proceedings of the 47th
International Symposium of Applied Aerodynamics,
March 26-28, 2012, Paris, FP48-2012-damljanovic
[8] Binion, T.W., Tests of the ONERA Calibration
Models in Three Transonic Wind Tunnels, AEDC-

Picture 16: BUMBAR Short range anti tank missile

with thrust vector control (inset: BUMBAR in the T-35
wind-tunnel test section)

Picture 17: CN235-330 model in the test section of the

ILST wind-tunnel of LAGG in Serpong, Indonesia (inset:
Powered model of CN235-330 on the external balance in
the T-35 wind-tunnel)
42

TR-78-133, Arnold Engineering Development

Center, 1976.
[9] Damljanovic, D., Vitic, A. Vukovic, D., "Testing of
AGARD-B Calibration Model in the T-38 Trisonic
Wind Tunnel", Scientific Technical Review, Vol.
LVI, No. 2 (2006), pp. 52-62.
[10] Damljanovic, D., Rasuo, B., "Testing of Calibration
Models in Order to Certify the Overall Reliability of
the Trisonic Blowdown Wind Tunnel of VTI", FME
Transactions, Vol. 38, No. 4 (2010), pp. 167-172.
[11] Steinle F., Stanewsky E., Wind Tunnel Flow Quality
and Data Accuracy Requirements, AGARD Advisory
Rept. No. 184, 1982.
[12] AIAA Recommended Practice: Calibration of
Subsonic and Transonic Wind Tunnels, R-093-2003.
[13] Ocokoljic, G., Anastasijevic, Z., "Determination of
aerodynamic coefficients and visualization of the
flow around the LASTA-95 aircraft model, Part I:

Experimental method", Scientific Technical Review,

Vol.LVIII, No.1 (2008), pp. 55-60.
[14] Ocokolji, G., Samardi, M., Viti A., Testing of the
Anti Tank Missile with laterl jets, in: Proceedings of
the 47th International Symposium of Applied
Aerodynamics, March 26-28, 2012, Paris, FP492012-ocokoljic
[15] Ocokolji, G., ivkovi, S., Suboti, S., Aerodynamic coefficients determination for anti tank
missile with lateral jets, in: Proceedings of 4th
International Scientific Conference of Defensive
Technologies, 5-7 October 2011, Belgrade, pp. 17-22.
[16] Ocokolji, G., Damljanovic, D., Rauo, B., Isakovi,
J., "Testing of a standard model in the VTIs largesubsonic wind-tunnel facility to establish users
confidence", FME Transactions, Vol.42, No.3
(2014), pp. 212-218, doi:10.5937/fmet1403212O

43

COMPARISON OF NUMERICALLY OBTAINED 2D FLOW FIELDS FOR

THE BIONIC HIGH SPEED TRAIN CONCEPT DESIGNS INSPIRED WITH
AQUATIC AND FLYING ANIMALS
SUZANA LINI
Institute Gosa, University of Belgrade, Serbia, sumonja@yahoo.com
BOKO RAUO
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, brasuo@mas.bg.ac.rs
MIRKO KOZI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, mkozic@open.telekom.rs
VOJKAN LUANIN
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, vlucanin@mas.bg.ac.rs
MIRJANA PUHARI
Innovation Centre of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Serbia, miramo@neobee.net

Abstract: Comparison of numerically obtained flow fields, pressure distributions and streamline allocations, around
five 2D bionic high speed train (BHST) models are present in this work. Interest was in examination the possibilities
that bio-inspired design gives as a basis for low-drag, energy efficient and aerodynamically silent BHST concept.
Japans Shinkansen 500 Series was the first brought biomimetic in heavy vehicle applications and approved abilities
for environmental protection and drag reduction by design adjustment. Selection of the aquatic and flying animals was
under criteria of assumed maximal speeds achieved while catching prey and catching technique, in the natural
environment, according to available data. Animals in consideration were kingfisher, dolphin, sailfish, shark and
barracuda. Tested BHST configuration consisted of two idealized driving cars connected smoothly on aft-ends, placed
in the open railroad surrounding. BHST biomimetic nose smoothly connected with the after-body of the same design
represented the train in real scale. Equal and aligned cross sections formed 2D numerical model between domains
sidewall. Test velocities were 100 km/h, 200 km/h, 300 and 400 km/h. Computational Fluid Dynamic tool in use was the
ANSYS Fluent 12. Tritetrahedral mesh, excluding boundary layer, counted up to 10e+06 elements. Introduced inner
adapting surfaces covered the BHST and ground with the purpose to control the mesh, from inflation layer to outer
space on distance about one third of the BHST length. Boundary condition set for ground was moving wall. Assuming
compressible flow that might appear under the BHST bottom, applied turbulent model was two-transport equation
model, Standard k-, with non-equilibrium wall treatment. Flow field behavior, in result, showed good potentials of
explored BHST designs for adoption and further research, as a bio-inspired design basis, over train speeds of 200km/h.
Emphasized bio-inspired design was kingfisher-like.
Keywords: aerodynamics, bionic, biomimetic, numerical simulation, high speed train.
designing to heavy vehicles is concern of energy
assumption and environmental protection, in first place
aerodynamic noise. One of the approved solutions for
decreasing of energy assumption is aerodynamic
optimization of the trains nose shape meeting shape and
friction drag reduction [2]. Aerodynamic noise, occurring
over 340km/h, when the train is passing tunnel,
compressing air inside and creating micro-pressure wave
on tunnels exit, also may be partially lowered by proper
nose shape design, [2,3]. It may be noted that nose shape
design needs special care for preventing both drag levels

1. INTRODUCTION
By this paper were compared three numerically obtained
aerodynamics characteristics for five 2D bionic high
speed train (BHST) designs in order: kingfisher,
barracuda, dolphin, sailfish and shark. Interest was in
examination the possibilities that bio-inspired design
gives as a basis for low-drag, energy efficient and
aerodynamically silent BHST concept [1] - intended to be
green in a future 3D bionic form.
The main reason for implementing green thinking and
44

Picture 1. Common Kingfisher in plunge-diving

and aerodynamic noise.

During last decades, simultaneously with other innovative
optimization measures, design process was refined by
adopting the new philosophy based on Natures solutions
for similar problems (Strategy for Sustainable Design
[4]). Bionics presents visual inspiration from uncountable designs and body movements, found in nature.
Biomimicry presents inspiration for conceptual designing,
based on bionics. For successful biomimicry design
understanding of processes is of major importance.
Highlighted example is the Japans Shinkansen 500
Series, the bullet train, which was the first brought
biomimetic in heavy vehicle applications and was
approved abilities for environmental protection and drag
reduction by design adjustment.

Gannet fishes on the open sea is much larger and stronger

bird, and after plunge diving act performs wing clapping
for maneuver. Kingfishers transition (with about 40km/h
of maximal velocity) from the ambience with lower
density, air, to higher one, water, without the water
disturbance is conditioned only by the unique kingfishers
beak shape. In consequences, the phenomenon is giving to
kingfisher the advantage to be uncovered for enough time
as well as to have good stability and hurting prevention
[6, Wikipedia].

Adoption of 2D BHST configuration was done with the

purpose of first stage numerical research due to lack of
published either biological or bio-inspired designs data in
this field. Selections of the basic nature bodies of concern
were made under the criterion of the animals mobility
and hunting behavior, in living environment, air or water.

Atlantic White-Sided Dolphin Very fast (max. 60km/h

[5]) and tripping mammal, taking a breath or speeds on
the surface or by skipping. Low drag level is managed
mainly with streamlined body and partially by flexible
skin friction control. It has almost unnoticeable nose that
would not blemish streamline contour.

Aerodynamics characteristics of importance were flow

field, pressure distribution and streamline allocations over
the BHST. It was shown that the most acceptable
aerodynamic characteristics were for the kingfisher-like
BHST design, over 300km/h, with smooth and continual
changing of the pressure distribution and streamlines
following the BHST contour.

Sand Tiger Shark Among fastest fishes (max. 50km/h

[5]) with less maneuverability than dolphin. The body is
streamline with noticeably spiky nose tip. Cross section
contour in a plane of symmetry is somewhere between the
dolphins and the sailfishs. It has very efficient skin
friction control.

Barracuda It has streamlined spindle elongated body,

much smaller than described species, moving about
44 km/h [5]. It has no special skin friction control.

Sailfish - The fastest predator (max. 110km/h [5]) among

fishes caring distinctive extremely long and sharp nose.
Elongated body has no skin friction control.

2. SPECIES SELECTION
Criterion for selection. Kingfisher was selected under
the criterion of specific hunting habits. Selected aquatic
animals were hunters, in a class of fast in the category [5],
which bodies were adapted, through evolution process, to
natural environment and to behavior of their preys.

2. DESCRIPTION OF BHST DESIGNS

BHST CAD model was constructed by the software
Pro/Engineer WF4. Vehicle frame box, imaginary
parallelepiped, dimensions of Lref H d =
50 m 3 m 1 m, was made as symmetrical with
respect to perpendicular plane that bisects the length of
the train, BL. BHST box was raised above the ground for
h = 0.4 m.

Common Kingfisher - By custom, when fishing in

shallow fresh waters is acting plunge-diving maneuver
(Picture 1.). The act of plunge-diving would not be so
special to thereby it barely causes a ripple, compared to
other plunge-diving birds, gannet for instance.

Major adopted design parameters, sketched in Picture 2.,

of the 2D BSHT, are given in the Table 1.
BHST box
l

BHST central body

BHST nose

BL

VBHST

R
T

Gap
Ground
NTL

g
c
h

b
Lref

Picture 2. General BHST design parameters and

placement
Bionic designs for different species were made in the
same manner, as two connected locomotives. Fore-/afterbody nose contours were constructed over the embedded
45

scaled image of the species. Scaling of the beak/head

image detail was done up to the BHST box height.
Splines that overlapped the beak/head contours were
tangentially blended with BHST center body outline and
symmetrically for both fore- and after- bodies. Splining
appears the most convenient for the first stage research,
compared to other prepared models with imported
polynomial approximations. On Pictures from 3. to 7. are
shown the CAD constructions of different BHST.

3. NUMERICAL METHOD
Geometries. Preparations of geometries for numerical
simulations were made by ANSYS Geometry Modeler
Application of the package FLUENT. 2D numerical
domain is flat, dimensioned relatively to the local
Cartesian coordinate system of preserved BHST body.
Upstream domain edge is placed at 150 m and
downstream edge at 300 m from the BHST fore-body
nose tip, with thickness of 0.1 m. Overall domain height
is 75 m from the ground. Preserved BHST body is, raised
from the bottom edge-ground of the numerical domain,
according to Table 1.

Table 1. Measures adopted for different BHST designs

l
b
c
R
BIONIC DESIGN
[m]
[m]
[m]
[m]
Common Kingfisher 13.413 12.494 1.143
0.03
Barracuda
9.452 16.393 0.787 0.238
Atlantic Whitesided
5.196 24.913 0.043 0.086
Dolphin
Sand Tiger Shark
8.446 24.021 0.345
0.08
Sailfish
11.390 24.900
0.05
0.1

Inside the domain, all over the BHST body and along the
bottom domain edge, the inner body of influence is
placed, applied as a strategic step for mesh quality
control. Inner body covers ground up to height of 8 m
over the nose tip line, NTL (Picture 2.). Close to BHST,
inner body was deformed by ellipse, dimensions of length
91.5 m and height 21.1 m.
Mesh. The mesh was made by the ANSYS Meshing
Application. Final dimensions of the numerical domain
and parameters of the unstructured prismatic mesh, for
CONFIG 15, are in accordance with custom CFD
practice, set after independency calculations (Picture 8.).
Final number of cells was 400000, for kingfisher up to
1300000 for barracuda. Special care was taken for
meshing of inner body, on both BHST ends (fore and
after-body): gap space and surrounding of the BHST nose
tip (Picture 8.). Previous experiences [7,8] were shown
that this treatment gives reliable CFD results. Maximal
mesh skewness was in range of 0.5 - 0.7, aspect ratios of
18-100 and the wall-adjacent cell's centroid (acceptable
for significantly extended bodies as heavy vehicles are).
BHST body is covered with inflation layer. The first layer
thickness, of 5, was fixed to 1 mm, for all flow
conditions, growing by 1.2 with distance from the BHST.
Lengths of the cells in the first layer as well as the lengths
of cells touching the ground were set by ordering the
number of elements for each segment of inner body (300500). Ground did not need inflating because it became
moving wall boundary.

Picture 3. BHST inspired by Common Kingfisher,

CONFIG 1

Picture 4. BHST inspired by Barracuda, CONFIG 2

Picture 5. BHST inspired by Atlantic Whitesided

Dolphin, CONFIG 3

Picture 6. BHST inspired by Sand Tiger Shark,

CONFIG 4

Picture 8. Preview of the mesh and details of nose, nose

tip and gap
CFD Modeling. Numerical simulations of 2D steady and
fully turbulent flow were performed applying the ANSYS
Fluent software [9,10]. All BHST configurations were
treated in the same manner for comparison, with
appropriate number of iterations for convergence, and
independently for each velocity. Free stream velocity is

Picture 7. BHST inspired by Sailfish, CONFIG 5

46

equivalent to the velocity of the BHST on open rail.

Velocities (Mach numbers) of interest were: 100 km/h
(M=0.0817),
200km/h
(M=0.1637),
300
km/h
(M=0.2464) and 400 km/h (M= 0.3301). All flows were
treated in first as incompressible. For 300 and 400km/h
flow were treated afterwards, as compressible, due to
Mach number levels.

definitions of the air were in use: constant values for

incompressible flows and for compressible flows ideal
gas density values as well default three-coefficient
Sutherland viscosity.
Boundary conditions, BC, were defined for walls, inlet
and outlet. BC of BHSTs surface was treated as standard
walls. Bottom domain wall was treated as moving wallground of equal velocity as BHST and top wall as
symmetry BC. Inlet BC, for incompressible flows was
defined as velocity-inlet while for compressible flow it
was defined as a pressure-far-field. Pressure-outlet BC
was adopted at the domains exit.

In general, pressure based solver was in use in 2D planar

space. Viscous, Realizable k- model was applied with
non-equilibrium wall function treatment. For cases when
Mach number was over 0.2, the energy model was
enforced as well as viscous heating to k- model. Two
Table 3. BHST with the Common Kingfisher -like design
100 km/h
0.5421

CONFIG 1 (l/H=4.46)
200 km/h
300 km/h
0.5614
0.5015

400 km/h
0.3654

SF

PS

VD

V
CD

Enforced pressure-velocity coupling scheme was

SIMPLE. Spatial discretization of gradient was made by
least squares cell based method. For first 50 iterations, of
every cycle of simulations, first order upwind method was
set, and after, second order upwind method was applied
for higher accuracy, meeting convergence criterion for
residuals of 1e-05.

and placement of the nose tip.

From Tab. 3.-7., VD, is obvious that gradual curvature leads
the flow over crossing points, fore-/after-body and centralbody, smoothly, with no sudden velocity and pressure
changes (kingfisher, in very first and barracuda). For other
geometries the abrupt change of curvature was presented and
consequently slightly interdiction in velocity and pressure
fields occurred. As well, the fore-/after-body elongation is of
significant influence on the flow field. Kingfisher-like design
is the most elongated, l/H=4.46 and b/H=4.16, near desirable
value of 5 as for bullets. First following is the barracuda-like
design. Elongation down the smooth curvature leads fluid to
flows more naturally and with less drag to motion at
velocities of 400km/h.

4. RESULTS
Tables from 3. to 7. present results for BHST of:
Common Kingfisher, Barracuda Atlantic Whitesided
Dolphin, Sand Tiger Shark and Sailfish for velocities in
order: 100, 200, 300 and 400km/h. Drag coefficients are
noted for each test point. Following signs are
representing: VD- velocity distribution, PS static
pressure distribution and SF stream function.
Overview of the results lead to consideration of 2D BHST
as a sort of airfoil placed near ground that splits the flow
to outher and the flow in the gap, along the BHST length.
Also, BHST might be consider as a BHST cross section
placed in longitudinal plane of symmetry, simplifying the
geometry of the BHST bottom, while kept in mind that
aerodynamic parameters differ from 2D to realistic 3D
case in value and character in the surrounding.

Continual contraction of the cross section in the gap, for

kingfisher- and barracuda-like designs, was preventing
blockage the flow over the gap, leading to expansion under
BHST body. Presence of undesirably high static pressures
under the fore-body might be prevented in future designs by
laying down the nose tip, and by that means make the
balance over the flows over BHST and the gap. Flat gaps, in
other configurations showed a presence of complicated
expansion/compression flows with intention to black the
flow in the gap, so they should be excluded for high
velocities.

Relevant flow field and pressure distribution changes

were brought by the: (a) curvature and length of the upper
and lower fore-/after-body surface and (b) the diameter

The phenomenon of differences in drag coefficients, at

400km/h, for kingfisher and barracuda-like designs, are
the consequence of the nose tip diameter.

5. DISCUSSION

47

Table 4. BHST with the Barracuda - like design

100 km/h
0.3817

CONFIG 2 (l/H=3.14)
200 km/h
300 km/h
0.2855
0.2825

400 km/h
0.5633

SF

PS

VD

V
CD

Table 5. BHST with the Atlantic Whitesided Dolphin - like design

100 km/h
0.4808

CONFIG 3 (l/H=1.73)
200 km/h
300 km/h
0.5077
0.4096

400 km/h
1.3253

SF

PS

VD

V
CD

Table 6. BHST with the Sand Tiger Shark - like design

100 km/h
0.5596

CONFIG 4 (l/H=2.81)
200 km/h
300 km/h
0.51068
0.3176

SF

PS

VD

V
CD

48

400 km/h
0.4875

Rising the operational velocity it is preferably to apply smaller diameters, sharper nose, for decreasing drag.
Table 7. BHST with the Sailfish - like design
CONFIG 5 (l/H=3.79)
100 km/h
0.4339

200 km/h
0.3891

300 km/h
0.3510

400 km/h
0.3817

PS

VD

V
CD

It was shown that the best results, of observed aerodynamic

characteristics, were for the kingfisher-like BHST design,
with smooth and continual changing of the pressure
distribution and streamlines following the BHST contour for
400km/h. Results obtained for other BHST designs were
showed significant pressure and velocity changes, in
accordance to the train velocity, starting from the zone of
nose-body crossing line and further downstream.

safety of special road and rail vehicles, 2011.-2014.

Authors are grateful to Mr. Paul Sawer, wildlife
photographer, on kindness to approve the use of his
artworks in this research.

REFERENCES
[1] Rauo,B.: Bionics in Design, University of Belgrade,
Belgrade, eBook on CD., (in Serbian), 2014.
[2] Raghu,S. Raghunathana,H.-D. Kimb,T., Setoguchi:
Aerodynamics of high-speed railway train, Progress
in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469514
[3] Puhari,M.: Aerodinamiki fenomeni koji se javljaju
pri kretanju vozova kroz tunel, Nauno tehniki
pregled, 49, br. 4, (1999) 33-38
[4] Design for Sustainability through Bio-Mimicry,
Compiled by Suparna Vashisht for Sustainable
Silicon Valley, September 8, 2011.
[5] http://www.speedofanimals.com/water
[6] Paul
Sawer,
http://goo.gl/Mo4XxT
and
http://goo.gl/B14OKP, with a written approval
[7] Puhari,M., Lini,S., Mati, D., Luanin,V.:
Determination of Braking Force of Aerodynamic
Brakes for High Speed Trains, Transactions of
Famena XXXV-3 (2011), ISSN 1333-1124, UDC
629.4.56, UDC 629.4.077, 57-66, October 2011.
[8] Puhari,M., Luanin,V., Lini,S., Mati,D.: Research
Some Aerodynamic Phenomenon of High Speed
Trains in Low Speed Wind Tunnels, The 3rd
International Scientific and Professional Conference
CORRIDOR 10 - a sustainable way of integrations,
Belgrade, Serbia, October 25th, 2012.
[9] Veersteg,H.K., Malalasekera,W.: An Introduction to
Computational Fluid Dynamics The Finite Volume
Method, Longman, 1995.
[10] ANSYS FLUENT 12 Userguide
[11] Internet-Google Open Source image library

The flow behaviour is also shown by the stream functions,

where the designs with steeply changes section showed
strong vorticity in the trailing wake, behind the BHST.
Oppositely, kingfishers design showed the compilation
of flows from other domain and from the gap, behind the
after-body nose tip, in a form of lined trace of BHST, for
all case studies. Following previous is the barracuda-like
design which trace wider trace but still acceptable,
expected for mounted after-body nose tip diameter and
after-body shape.

6. CONCLUSION
Discussion described that, with awareness of all
assumptions and simplifications, the best potentials for
BHST designs, for high velocities, showed kingfisher and
barracuda bio-inspired designs. Those designs possess
acceptable shapes, elongation, nose tip and gap expansion
in comparison to dolphin-, shark- and sailfish-like
designs. Also we get the key points of geometry - flow
influence, about which further research is recommended,
to be observed for realistic 3D and tunnel test cases.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This article resulted from the research financed by the
project of the Ministry of Education, Science and
Technological Development, Republic of Serbia, TR35045 - Scientific-technological support to enhancing the

49

FLUTTER ANALYSIS OF MISSILE COMPOSITE FOLDING FINS

MIRKO DINULOVI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, mdinulovic@mas.bg.ac.rs
BOKO RAUO
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, brasuo@mas.bg.ac.rs
BRANIMIR KRSTI
Military Academy, University of Defense in Belgrade, Serbia, branimir.krstic@va.mod.gov.rs
PREDRAG ANDRI
Military Academy, University of Defense in Belgrade, Serbia, andricp@gmail.com

Abstract: The flutter of missile stabilizers (fins) is a serious cause of stability loss and flight vehicle failure. It
involves the unfavorable interaction of aerodynamic, elastic and inertia forces on structures to produce an unstable
oscillation that often results in structural failure. High-speed aircraft are most susceptible to flutter. In the present
paper the flutter phenomenon on composite folding missile fins is investigated. Two degrees of freedom (plunge and
twist) analytical model of representative fin airfoil section is presented. Based on this model the critical flutter speed for
the composite folding missile fin is calculated for subsonic flight conditions. Determination of natural fin frequencies
(in bending and twisting) is calculated using finite element approach by Lanczos method of frequencies extraction.
Several modal frequency models are investigated and results are discussed, since the accurate prediction of natural
frequencies plays significant role in overall flutter speed (VF) determination. Complete numerical fin flutter model
consisted of structural fin model and aerodynamic model interconnected with surface splines. Several aerodynamic
theories (doublet-lattice, strip theory and piston theory) are discussed and their application to flutter speed calculation
is analyzed.
Keywords: flutter, composites, missile stabilizer, folding fin.
Flutter in missiles is affected mainly by the structural and
aerodynamic properties of the fins and the mechanical
properties of the actuators, whereas the missile body
usually has a minor role. It is of paramount importance to
design the fins and their actuators such that the flutter will
not occur in the flight envelope.
High-speed aircrafts are most susceptible to flutter. In the
present paper the flutter phenomenon on thin missile
composite folding fins is investigated in quasi steady flow
is investigated, with the objective to define the relation for
flutter speed as a function of flight conditions, stabilizer
geometry and material characteristics [2].

1. INTRODUCTION
Aeroelastic phenomenon known as bending-torsion flutter
is the coupled motion of lifting surface bending and
twisting and rigid or flexible motion of the flight vehicle
body. The flutter of missile stabilizers (fins) is a serious
cause of stability loss and flight vehicle failure. It
involves the unfavorable interaction of aerodynamic,
elastic and inertia forces. The flexible missile structure,
when subjected to high velocity flow, may experience
flutter (picture 1), in which the structural vibrations
become unstable at a certain velocity [1].

2. COMPOSITE FOLDING FIN 2D FLUTTER

MODEL
A typical missile folding fin is presented in Picture 1
(Picture. 1). Consider a system consisting of a spring
supported rigid fin airfoil shown in Picture 1., where
airfoil is folding fin section lactated at approx. 70% of fin
span (curvelinear). The system analyzed is presented in
Picture 2.
If the airfoil is permitted to execute small vertical and
angular displacements, it is convenient to describe the

Picture 1: Missile fin flutter

50

airfoil motion in generalized coordinates h and .

Expressed in generalized coordinates chosen, the fin
displacement w, for any point along the fin chord (x) is:
w = h x

Flow around folding fin is very complex [6]. To

accurately predict pressures and speeds on the folding fin
flight tests, wind tunnel tests or CFD analysis has to be
preformed (Picture 3.)

(1)

Picture 2: Missile folding fin analyzed airfoil location

Picture 4:Air flow around folding missile fin

Writing the kinetic and strain energy equations for the fin
spring system shown, and assuming that the airfoil center
of gravity and shear center reside on the line located at the
midchord (Picture 2.), the equations of motion associated
are given as follows:
mh + K h h = L
(2)
I  + K = M y

The choice of particular aerodynamic theory depends on

the Mach - number range in which flutter is expected to
occur. Assuming that the phase angle between the normal
force and angle-of attack, normal force due to the
plunging motion, the unsteady pitching moment about the
aerodynamic centre are negligible, and that the fin aspect
ratio and the amplitude of fin vibration are small the
relations for quasi-steady aerodynamics relations can be
used for the aerodynamic lift force and aerodynamic
moment to calculate the fin flutter speed (VF). Based on
these approximations the equations of motion (eq.2)
become:
mh + K h h = CLU 2b
I  + K = CLU 2 xa b 2

(3)

The harmonic motion is assumed:

h = h sin(t ),
= sin(t )

(4)

Where h , denote eigenvectors in fin plunging and

twisting respectively, and is the frequency of coupled
motion. Further, before obtaining the characteristic
equation in, it is convenient to introduce the following
substitutions:

Picture 3: 2D fin flutter model

where, m is spanwise fin mass, Kh spanwise bending
stiffness, I is mass moment of inertia about fin mid chord
line and K is spanwise torsional stiffness, bxa is the
distance between center of gravity and shear center and
ba the distance from z axis to shear center (Picture 3.)
Analyzing the system of differential equations (eq. 2), it is
obvious that the flutter solution will depend on fin inertia
properties and aerodynamic expressions for the lift and
aerodynamic moment [3-5]. Applicable aerodynamic
theories for fin flutter analysis are summarized in Table 1.

h2 =

Kh
K
, 2 = ,
m
I

mb 2 r2
4m
I =
,=
4
b 2

(5)

In relations (5) h and are fins natural frequencies in

bending and twisting, r is the radius of gyration about the
mid-chord and is dimensionless fin airfoil to airstreams
mass ratio. After substituting relations given in (5) and
second derivatives of assumed harmonic motions (4) into
equations of motion (2) the 4th order characteristic
equation is obtained:

Table 1: Applicable aerodynamic theories in fin flutter

analysis
Aerodynamic theory
Dublet lattice Lifting
Strip theory Piston theory
Panel
Body
Subsonic,
Mach
High
Subsonic
Subsonic Transonic,
number
Supersonic
Supersonic
51

+ h2 2

h2 2 +

r b

2
2

8C U xa
h L
=0
r2 b 2

In present analysis two groups of methods for eigenvalue

extraction are investigated in order to determine the most
efficient method that can be used when composite
structures with solid or honeycomb cores are analyzed.
Methods analyzed are Transformation methods and
Tracking methods. In the transformation method, the
eigenvalue equation is transformed into a special form
from which eigenvalues may easily be extracted. In the
tracking method, the eigenvalues are extracted one at a
time using an iterative procedure. In the present work four
transformation methods are analyzed: Givens method,
Householder method, modified Givens method and
modified Householder method. Two tracking methods
analyzed are inverse power method and Sturm modified
inverse power method. The Givens and Householder
modal extraction methods require a positive definite mass
matrix (all degrees-of-freedom must have mass). There is
no restriction on the stiffness matrix except that it must be
symmetric. These matrices always result in real (positive)
eigenvalues. The Givens and Householder methods are
the most efficient methods for small problems and
problems with dense matrices when large portions of the
eigenvectors are needed. These methods find all of the
eigenvalues and as many eigenvectors as requested. While
these methods do not take advantage of sparse matrices,
they are efficient with the dense matrices sometimes
created using dynamic reduction. The Givens and
Householder methods fail if the mass matrix is not
positive definite. To minimize this problem, degrees-offreedom with null columns are removed by the
application of static condensation. The modified Givens
and modified Householder methods are similar to their
standard methods with the exception that the mass matrix
can be singular. Although the mass matrix is not required
to be nonsingular in the modified methods, a singular
mass matrix can produce one or more infinite
eigenvalues. Due to round off error, these infinite
eigenvalues appear in the output as very large positive or
negative eigenvalues. To reduce the incidence of such
meaningless results, degrees-of-freedom with null masses
are eliminated by static condensation as in the case of the
unmodified methods. The modified methods require more
computer time than the standard methods. The inverse
power method is a tracking method since the lowest
eigenvalue and eigenvector in the desired range are found
first. Then their effects are swept out of the dynamic
matrix, the next higher mode is found, and its effects are
swept out, and so on. In addition, each root is found via
an iterative procedure. However, the inverse power
method can miss modes, making it unreliable. Sturm
sequence logic ensures that all modes are found. The
Sturm sequence check determines the number of
eigenvalues below a trial eigenvalue, and then finds all of
the eigenvalues below this trial eigenvalue until all modes
in the designed range are computed. This process helps to
ensure that modes are not missed. The Sturm modified
inverse power method is useful for models in which only
the lowest few modes are needed. This method is also
useful as a backup method to verify the accuracy of other
methods. The Lanczos method overcomes the limitations
and combines the best features of the other methods. It
requires that the mass matrix is positive semidefinite and
the stiffness is symmetric. Like the transformation

8CLU 2 xa

4 + 2

(6)

There are four solutions to the above 4th order

characteristic equation, however only two unique positive
solutions of . One solution to the vibration frequency
equation specific to this problem is the natural bending
frequency. The configuration is absent of a mass
imbalance and the shear centre lies on the mid-chord
coincident with the spanwise gravity distribution. Also
damping has been excluded from the analysis. The
solutions of equation 6 are:

1 = h ,
2 =

2 r 2 b 2 8C U 2 x

L
a

br

(7)

By definition the flutter velocity is associated with the

coalescence of the two frequencies into a single
frequency. That is when 1=2. The coalescence of the
two frequencies marks the boundary between damped and
undamped vibration characterized by a neutrally stable
oscillation. The flutter velocity is obtained as follows:
VF = U (1 = 2 ) =

b 2 r2 2 h2

(8)

8CL xa

3. ESTIMATION OF THE COMPOSITE FIN

NATURAL FREQUENCIES IN BENDING
AND TORSION
Based on the equation (8), required input for the flutter
speed calculation include fins natural frequencies of
vibration in bending and torsion. These frequencies can
be determined experimentally or, as presented in the
following text using numerical approach, as in this case
finite element method.
The solution of the equation of motion for natural
frequencies and normal modes requires a special reduced
form of the equations of motion. If there is no damping
and no applied loading, the equation of motion in matrix
form reduces to:
[ M ]{u} + [ K ][u ] = 0

(9)

where [M] is the mass matrix and [K] is the stiffness

matrix. This is the equation of motion for undamped free
vibration. To solve previous equation, harmonic solution
is assumed in the following form:

{u} = {} sin t

(10)

Where {} are the mode shapes and is the circular

natural frequency.

52

methods, it does not miss roots, but has the efficiency of

the tracking methods, because it only makes the
calculations necessary to find the roots requested by the
user. This method computes accurate eigenvalues and
eigenvectors. Unlike the other methods, its performance
has been continually enhanced since its introduction
giving it an advantage. The Lanczos method is the
preferred method for most medium to large-sized
problems, since it has a performance advantage over other
methods.
Plate elements, based on Kirchoff thin plate theory are
used for modeling rocket body and the fin. The Finite
element mesh is presented in the following picture
(Picture 2). The fin material used in this study was AS/4
3501-6 thin lamina (1.25 mm) with fiber volume fraction
of 0.62 [-]. Material data relevant for modal analysis is
given in Table2. Mode shapes (bending and torsion) for
the composite folding fin are presented in the following
pictures (Picture 6)

Picture 6. Composite fin mode shapes in bending and

torsion
Once natural frequencies are found, and based on the fins
geometry and material characteristic the c speed at which
flutter should occur (quasi-steady flow) the equation (8) is
used to determine the critical flutter speed (VF).
Table 2: composite fin material properties
AS4 / 3501-6
density

E1

E2

G12

12

[g/cm3]

[GPa]

[GPa]

[GPa]

[-]

1.580

142

10.3

7.2

0.26

In the present analysis the composite fin construction was

considered as described before. The fin was constructed
from two layers of AS4 carbon fibers embedded in the
3501-6 matrix. It was found that fiber orientation, of each
lamina highly influences the values of bending and
torsion natural frequencies and therefore has a high
impact on the flutter speed (VF) itself (see eq 8.).[7-8]

Picture 5. FEA model for modal analysis

Determining natural frequencies (torsion and bending) for

different stack-up sequences (where each fiber angle, for
each ply was in the range from 00 to 900 varied
independently with the step of 150). By defining the
squared difference of natural frequencies in torsion and
bending (twist and plunge) as ,
= 2 h2

(11)

the variation of as a function of 1 and 2 (where 1 is

fiber orientation angle in respect to flight direction of the
fin outer ply and 2 is fiber orientation angle in respect to
flight direction of the fin inner ply) is presented in the
following picture. Since in the fin design and in respect to
flutter requirements it is always required to have flutter
speed above the missile flight envelope the maximum of
function (eq. 11) is sought. For the present fin design,
materials used and most importantly the fiber orientation,
the value of =2190 [-] peaks for 1=150 and 1=300
which represents the optimal stack-up sequence, since for
this fiber orientation the flutter speed is maximal.

53

REFERENCES
[1] NASA Aeroelasticity Handbook, Volume 2: Design
Guides, NASA/TP2006-212490/VOL2/PART2
[2] John A.C. Kentfield.: Aircraft with outboard
horizontal stabilizers, history, current status,
development potential, Progress in Aerospace
Sciences, Progress in Aerospace Sciences,45,2009.
[3] M. Petrolo, Flutter analysis of composite lifting
surfaces by the 1D Carrera Unified Formulation and
the doublet lattice method, Composite Structures,
Volume 95, January 2013, Pages 539-546
[4] Jong-Won Lee, Jun-Seong Lee, Jae-Hung Han,
Hyung-Ki Shin, Aeroelastic analysis of wind turbine
blades based on modified strip theory, Journal of
Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics,
Volume 110, November 2012, Pages 62-69
[5] Zhichun Yang, Jian Zhou, Yingsong Gu, Integrated
analysis on static/dynamic aeroelasticity of curved
panels based on a modified local piston theory,
Journal of Sound and Vibration, In Press, Corrected
Proof, Available online 17 July 2014
[6] A. Attorni, L. Cavagna, G. Quaranta, Aircraft T-tail
flutter predictions using computational fluid
dynamics, Journal of Fluids and Structures, Volume
27, Issue 2, February 2011, Pages 161-174
[7] Guo, S.J; Bannerjee, J.R.; Cheung, C.W.: The effect
of laminate lay-up on the flutter speed of composite
wings, Journal of Aerospace Engineering, Vol. 217,
No 3, 2003, pp. 115-122
[8] Jinqiang Li, Yoshihiro Narita, Multi-objective design
for aeroelastic flutter of laminated shallow shells
under variable flow angles, Composite Structures,
Volume 111, May 2014, Pages 530-539

Picture 7. Natural frequencies (squared difference) as a

function of fiber orientation for two layer composite fin.

5. CONCLUSION
In the present work the flutter analysis of missile folding
fins is analyzed. For the subsonic flight conditions and
based on 2D flutter model the relation for flutter speed
(VF) is derived and presented. Using numerical approach,
modal analysis on folding composite fin was performed.
Several extraction algorithms were analyzed and it was
found that the Lanczos method renders best results in
respect to solution accuracy and computational cost. Fiber
orientation of the composite fin has very high influence
on the fin natural frequencies and therefore the flutter
speed itself. Therefore, the special attention has to be
given to composite design when composite fins are
considered as a missile stabilizers.

54

NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF SUPERSONIC

TURBULENT FLOW AROUND A FINNED OGIVE CYLINDER
DRAGAN KOMAROV
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia,
dkomarov@mas.bg.ac.rs
JELENA SVORCAN
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia,
jsvorcan@mas.bg.ac.rs
JOVAN ISAKOVI
Tehnikum Taurunum College of Applied Engineering Studies, Belgrade, jisakovic@tehnikum.edu.rs
ALEKSANDAR BENGIN
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia,
abengin@mas.bg.ac.rs
TONI IVANOV
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia,
tivanov@mas.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: Experimental investigation of supersonic flow at Mach number of 2 around a finned ogive cylinder at anglesof-attack ranging from 0 to 16 has been conducted in T-38 trisonic blow-down wind tunnel of the Serbian Military
Technical Institute. A short description of testing process and measuring equipment is given. Results of a comparison of
experimental and numerical results, that primarily include aerodynamic coefficients and pressure distribution, are
presented and discussed. Numerical simulations were performed in ANSYS FLUENT with three Reynolds Averaged
Navier-Stokes turbulence models of different complexity. Both structured and unstructured grids were generated, tested
and compared and the influence of their nature and size has been considered. Base flow at zero angle-of-attack has
been investigated in more detail and the accuracy and applicability of the used models is discussed. Computed fluid
flow is presented in the form of pressure coefficient and Mach number contours and velocity vectors.
Keywords: supersonic flow, experiment, CFD, turbulent models, pressure coefficient
valuable, efficient tool for fluid flow investigation.

1. INTRODUCTION

Fluid flow problems that involve supersonic regimes,

shock wave/boundary layer interaction or base flow
separation are still quite formidable to simulate, even
though they are quite important in the design of
projectiles, missiles and launchers [4-6]. Since the
performance of the numerical model greatly depends on
the availability of appropriate experimental data, accurate
predictions of pressure and velocity fields of such flows
have been attempted with more or less success [7-9].

In present day, both experimental and numerical fluid

flow investigations are widespread and most commonly
performed together in order to obtain more complete sets
of data. Once in a while, as a part of the wind tunnel
maintenance program, measurements on standard
geometries are carried out. If quality and accuracy of
performed measurements are confirmed, this type of
gathered data can also be used for the validation of
unsteady flow simulations [1-3].

This paper presents a joint experimental and numerical

investigation of a supersonic flow (M = 2.0) around a
finned ogive cylinder at two different angles-of-attack.
Main objective of the presented study was to define a
suitable numerical setting that can predict the investigated
flow-field with sufficient accuracy.

Data used in this research was obtained by conventional

measuring techniques that have proven to be reliable and
accurate [3]. However, since they only provided
information at discrete points, in this investigation, they
have been complemented by numerical data. These two
different sets of data, when combined, can form a
55

2. EXPERIMENT

1.75bar. The nonlinearity and hysteresis

transducers used were typically 0.02% F.S.

Pressure measurements were performed in the T-38 wind

tunnel at the Serbian Military Technical Institute. The facility
is a blow-down-type pressurized wind tunnel with a 1.5m x
1.5m square test section. When supersonic tests are carried
out, the walls of the test section are solid. Mach number in
the range 0.2 to 4 can be achieved in the test section, with
Reynolds numbers up to 110 million per meter.

The stagnation temperature was measured by a RTD

probe in the settling chamber. The accuracy of this
transducer was approximately 0.5K.

Pressure distribution was measured using an

electromechanical scanning device with a solenoid-driven
valve. A piezoresistive differential pressure transducer
was used to measure local pressures.

Table 1: Supersonic wind tunnel flow conditions,

M = 1.978
[]
0
16.68

p [bar]
0.331
0.331

p0 [bar]
2.502
2.506

T0 [K]
294.0
290.1

the

The pitching and rolling angles of the model support were

measured by resolvers that comprise a part of the
mechanism. The resolution of the pitching angle resolver
was 0.05, and of the rolling angle resolver 0.25.

The flow conditions from the wind tunnel tests that were
used in CFD simulations are given in Table 1.

Case
I
II

of

pdyn [bar]
0.9061
0.9067

The data acquisition system consisted of a Teledyne 64

channel front end controlled by a computer. The frontend channels for flow parameters transducers were set
with 10Hz, fourth-order low pass Butterworth filters and
appropriate amplification. The front-end channel for
pressure transducer was set with 100Hz low-pass filter of
the same type.

Stagnation pressure in the test section can be maintained

between 1.1bar and 15bar, depending on Mach number
value, and regulated to 0.3% of nominal value. Run times
are in the range of 6s to 60s, depending on both Mach
number and stagnation pressure.

The scanning device operates by rotating a valve that

connects mode-pressure measuring ports sequentially to a
single differential pressure transducer. The main benefit
of this concept is that many local pressures could be
measured with a single transducer, which greatly
simplified the test installation, put less load on the data
acquisition system, etc. Main drawbacks lie in the fact
that the pressures were not measured simultaneously and
in the fact that after each port-switching of the rotating
valve, certain time was required for the pressure to settle
in the tubing. The pressure-settling time effectively
limited the scanning speed to about 10ports/second,
although there was mechanically capability of scanning at
about 40ports/second.

Model is supported in the test section by a tail sting

mounted on a pitch-and-roll mechanism by which desired
aerodynamic angles can be achieved. The facility supports
both step-by-step model movement and continuous
movement of model (sweep) during measurements.
The tested model is shaped like a cylinder with
spherically blunted tangent ogive nose and an increase in
diameter in the last section of the model where four fins
in cruciform configuration are placed, figure 1.

In the T-38 wind tunnel test program a single scan was

performed at each model position (angle-of-attack) in
each run. Data reduction was identical for each step.
For each model section an array of locally measured
(differential) pressures was obtained. Once the local
differential pressure for each model-section port p had
been calculated, absolute local pressure was obtained by
adding the reference pressure (test section static pressure).
Local pressure coefficient for each port was then
calculated by normalizing the difference relative to test
section static pressure with dynamic pressure.

Figure 1: Model geometry

Pressure-measurement installation was built into the
model. It consisted of 40 ports for measuring modelsurface pressures and steel tubing distributed as follows:
25 ports on 9 sections of model fuselage, 1 port on model
base, 8 ports on a left-fin section and 6 ports on a right-fin
section. An electromechanical scanning device was
installed in the model support, behind the tail sting, and
connected to the steel tubes coming from the model.

Aerodynamic coefficients were determined in the wind

tunnel tests on a force model of identical geometry. Test
conditions were the same as used for pressure-distribution
determination. A VTI-produced internal six-component
strain gauge balance was used for forces/moments
measurements.

The stagnation pressure in the test section was measured

by a Mensor quartz bourdon tube absolute pressure
transducer pneumatically connected to a pitot probe in the
settling chamber of the wind tunnel. The range of this
transducer used was 7bar. The static pressure in the test
section was measured by a Mensor quartz bourdon tube
differential pressure transducer pneumatically connected
to the stagnation pressure pitot probe and to an orifice on
the test section sidewall. The range of this transducer was

Base pressure on the model was measured by a Druck

PDCR42 piezoresistive differential pressure transducer.
The active side of this transducer was connected to an
orifice on the sting inside the rear part of the model. The
reference side of the transducer was connected to the
tubing leading from the static pressure port on the wall of
the test section.
56

After collecting, the data was reduced to the axis system

attached to the body body coordinate system. The origin
of this axes system is the foremost point of the model
(ogive nose). The X-axis was parallel to the longitudinal
axis, and positive towards the end of the model, Z axis lay
in models plane of symmetry, and the Y axis was
directed towards the left side of the model and completed
a left-handed axes system.

second-order upwind scheme, and gradients by the least

squares cell based method. Temporal discretization
scheme was first order implicit. At the beginning of each
simulation, Courant-Friedrichs-Levy number was set to 1.
In this investigation three different turbulence models that
have produced good results for a wide range of flows
have been used: two-equation realizable k- [10] and k-
SST model [11] and four-equation transition SST model
[12]. Enhanced wall treatment was used with the
realizable k- model in order to accurately solve the flow
throughout the boundary layer.

3. NUMERICAL MODEL
Two types of computational grids were investigated:
hybrid unstructured and structured. Considering they are
generated in a different manner, the shapes of the
surrounding domains are also different, figures 2 and 3.
Since shock wave forms in front of the model, both
meshes stretch 0.05 and not less than 25 model lengths
before and behind the model, respectively. Both meshes
consist of approximately 4 million elements.

The flows were solved as transient. Time step size was

determined from grid size and the chosen CFL number, its
order of magnitude being 10-5s. Number of iterations per
time step was 20. During each simulation, the data on
axial and normal force and moment coefficients were
gathered. Simulations were stopped when the values of
recorded aerodynamic coefficient converged. Each
computation required a large number of calculations to be
performed, usually around 300 time steps which mostly
depended on the used grid, defined flow case and
incorporated turbulence model.
At the outer boundaries, free-stream conditions were
assumed and Mach number of M = 1.978 was used in
every simulation (for every angle-of-attack and every
used turbulence model). Angle-of-attack ranged between
0 and 16. The values of static pressure and temperature
corresponded to the experimental values. Depending on
the model, turbulent variables that needed to be defined
included: turbulence intensity set to 1.5%, turbulent
viscosity ratio to 10 and intermittency to 1. No-slip
boundary conditions were defined at model walls.

Figure 2: Unstructured hybrid mesh

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Numerical models were validated through comparison
with the corresponding experimental aerodynamic
coefficients. Computed and measured values of axial and
normal force coefficients are presented in table 2
(computed values are obtained on the structured mesh).
Table 2: Aerodynamic coefficients
[]
Ca
Cn
Ca
Cn

Figure 3: Structured mesh

The governing Navier-Stokes equations combined with
different RANS turbulence models were solved in the
commercial three-dimensional, parallel, finite-volume
solver ANSYS FLUENT v14.0. The fluid, air, was
considered as ideal-gas and the change of its viscosity
was defined by the Sutherland law. The solver was
density-based. The implicit method for linearization of
governing equations was used. The Roe flux splitting
difference scheme was used for the treatment of inviscid
fluxes. When spatial discretization schemes were
concerned, flow quantities were discretized by the

0
16.68

exp
0.4218
0.006
0.4721
2.026

rke
0.4790
-0.007
0.4975
2.010

kwSST
0.4573
-0.007
0.4812
2.074

transSST
0.4745
-0.006
0.4867
2.054

Pressure coefficient was calculated according to the

expression:
Cp =

2 p 1

M 2 p

(1)

where index denotes free-stream conditions, and p local

static pressure along the model surface. Pressure
coefficient distributions along three lines belonging to the
model surface are shown in figures 4 and 5.

57

In general, all numerical models provide results that coincide

well with the measured values. Differences in results
obtained with the three turbulence models become more
apparent with the increase in the angle-of-attack. The
realizable k- model differs from the other two, particularly
in the medium region of the body along the mid-line and in
the final region near the base. The discrepancies in results
can be seen more clearly if the whole upper part of the model
surface is analyzed, figures 6-8.

Figure 4: Pressure coefficient distribution in flow case I

Figure 8: Pressure coefficient distribution in flow case II

by transition SST turbulence model

Figure 5: Pressure coefficient distribution in flow case II

Figure 6: Pressure coefficient distribution in flow case II

by realizable k- turbulence model

Figure 9: Pressure coefficient distributions on two types

of grid in 6th transverse plane in flow case II
The data obtained on the hybrid unstructured mesh was
also compared to the experimental results. While
calculated results are quite similar to the ones obtained on
the structured mesh at lower angles-of-attack, they
become more and more different with its increase, figures
9 and 10. This was to be expected, since unstructured,
tetrahedral grid should have been composed of a greater
number of elements to be comparable to a structured,
hexahedral one. However, since this would have resulted
in enormous computational time, the generated structured
grid was adopted as a more convenient solution for the
most part of considered cases.

Figure 7: Pressure coefficient distribution in flow case II

by k- SST turbulence model

58

Figure 12: Pressure coefficient field and velocity vectors

behind the model base, flow case II, realizable k-
turbulence model

Figure 10: Pressure coefficient distributions on two types

of grid in 8th transverse plane in flow case II
With the used RANS turbulence models it was not
possible to obtain a near constant base pressure profile at
the zero angle-of-attack. Furthermore, there are noticeable
differences between the results obtained by the three used
models, figure 11. Unlike aerodynamic coefficients and
pressure distributions along the body, this zone is
particularly difficult for modeling, and is very sensitive to
many factors, such as grid density, inlet conditions,
turbulence model used etc.

Figure 13: Pressure coefficient field and velocity vectors

behind the model base, flow case II, k- SST turbulence
model

Figure 14: Pressure coefficient field and velocity vectors

behind the model base, flow case II, transition SST
turbulence model
Finally, figures 15-17 represent flow development and
vortex formation and separation at higher angles-of-attack
in the form of Mach number contours. Again, differences
in results obtained by the three turbulence models can be
clearly seen.
Figure 11: Pressure coefficient and Mach number
contours in the wake: realizable k- vs. k- SST
turbulence model
Velocity vectors and pressure coefficient fields are shown
for the symmetry cross-section of the base region in
figures 12-14 for flow case II. Pressure coefficient color
map is the same as in figures 6-8. Shock and expansion
waves and recirculation regions with lower pressure can
be clearly identified, as well as the stagnation points and
the regions of the higher pressure further downstream. As
expected, flow field is highly asymmetrical because of the
high value of angle-of-attack.

Figure 15: Mach number contours around the model,

flow case II, realizable k- turbulence model

59

insight into the "problematic" zones of this complex fluid

flow.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is a contribution to the research TR 35035
funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and
Technological Development of Serbia.

REFERENCES
[1] Damljanovi, D., Rauo, B., "Testing of Calibration
Models in Order to Certify the Overall Reliability of
the Trisonic Blowdown Wind Tunnel of VTI", FME
Transactions, 38 (2010) 167-72.
[2] Bitter, M., Scharnowski, S., Hain, R., Kahler, C.J.,
"High-repetition-rate PIV investigations on a generic
rocket model in sub- and supersonic flows", Exp
Fluids, 50 (2011) 1019-30.
[3] Damljanovi, D., Viti, A., Vukovi, ., "Testing of
AGARD-B calibration model in the T-38 trisonic
wind tunnel", Scientific-Technical Review, 56(2)
(2006) 52-62.
[4] Ayyalasomayajula, H., Kenzakowski, D.C., Papp,
J.L., Dash, S.M., "Assessment of k- / EASM
Turbulence Model Upgrades for Analyzing High
Speed Aeropropulsive Flows", 43rd Aerospace
Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, Nevada, 2005.
[5] Benay, R., Servel, P., "Two-Equation k- Turbulence
Model: Application to a Supersonic Base Flow",
AIAA Journal, 39(3) (2001) 407-16.
[6] Kawai, S., Fujii, K., "Computational Study of
Supersonic Base Flow Using Hybrid Turbulence
Methodology", AIAA Journal, 43(6) (2005) 1265-75.
[7] Sooy, T.J., Schmidt, R.Z., "Aerodynamic Predictions,
Comparisons and Validations Using Missile
DATCOM (97) and Aeroprediction 98 (AP98)",
Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, 42(2) (2005) 25765.
[8] You, Y., Buanga, B., Hannemann, V., Ludeke, H.,
"Evaluation of Turbulence Models in Predicting
Hypersonic and Subsonic Base Flows Using Grid
Adaptation Techniques", Chinese Journal of
Aeronautics, 25 (2012) 325-34.
[9] Simon, F., Deck, S., Guillen, P., "Reynolds-Averaged
Navier-Stokes/Large-Eddy Simulations of Supersonic
Base Flow", AIAA Journal, 44(11) (2006) 2578-90.
[10] Shih, T.H., Liou, W.W., Shabbir, A., Yang, Z., Zhu,
J., "A new k- viscosity model for high Reynolds
number turbulent flows", Computers Fluids, 24(3)
(1995) 227-38.
[11] Menter, F.R., "Two-Equation Eddy-Viscosity
Turbulence Models for Engineering Applications",
AIAA Journal, 32(8) (1994) 1598-1605.
[12] Menter, F.R., Langtry, R.B., Likki, S.R., Suzen, Y.B.,
Huang, P.G., Volker, S., "A Correlation-Based
Transition Model Using Local Variables-Part I:
Model Formulation", Journal of Turbomachinery,
128 (2006) 413-22.

Figure 16: Mach number contours around the model,

flow case II, k- SST turbulence model

Figure 17: Mach number contours around the model,

flow case II, transition SST turbulence model

5. CONCLUSION
A comparative investigation of experimental and
numerical supersonic flow around a finned ogive cylinder
has been conducted. Axial and normal force coefficients
and pressure coefficients measured at discrete points at
several different angles-of-attack in the T-38 trisonic
blow-down wind tunnel of the Serbian Military Technical
Institute were compared to numerically obtained values.
Three different RANS turbulence models were used and
calculations were performed on both hybrid unstructured
and structured grids. From the abundant numerical data
several conclusions can be drawn.
Realizable k- model produces results that mostly differ
from experimental. On the other hand, structured and
unstructured grids provide the least different results when
used with this model. The other two tested models, k-
SST and transition SST, seem to perform better on the
structured grid. Also, the most complex investigated
turbulent model, transition SST, generally requires finer
grids than the previous two models.
Pressure coefficient distribution along the body and axial
and normal force coefficients can be reliably predicted
through numerical simulations. Their dependency on
angle-of-attack can also be satisfactorily modeled.
However, with the increase of angle-of-attack, differences
between results obtained with different models also grow
which is probably connected to the inability of the used
RANS turbulence models to adequately capture base
pressure coefficient.
The presented computational results can be useful for
preliminary engineering calculations, as well as further
planning of the experiments since they provide additional
60

COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS OF UNSTEADY AERODYNAMIC LOADS

ACTING ON AN OSCILLATING WING IN TRANSONIC FLOW
JELENA SVORCAN
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, University of Belgrade,
jsvorcan@mas.bg.ac.rs
DRAGAN KOMAROV
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, University of Belgrade,
dkomarov@mas.bg.ac.rs
SLOBODAN STUPAR
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, University of Belgrade,
sstupar@mas.bg.ac.rs
ZORANA POSTELJNIK
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, University of Belgrade,
zposteljnik@mas.bg.ac.rs
MARIJA STANOJEVI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, University of Belgrade,
mzstanojevic@mas.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: Transonic flow includes a number of unsteady fluid flow phenomena such as local separation regions, shock
boundary layer interaction, boundary layer transition and turbulence. In general, it is difficult to accurately simulate
these phenomena since they require small length and time scales i.e. substantial computational resources. The principal
goal of this study is to evaluate the capability and applicability of numerical simulations to predict the aerodynamic
loads acting on a harmonically oscillating wing in transonic flow. Unsteady flow-fields around a three-dimensional
oscillating half-wing model were computed using a finite-volume Navier-Stokes numerical scheme with several widely
used turbulence models. The base geometry corresponds to ONERA M6 wing. The effects of grid-density were examined
and presented. Numerical results from the stationary model were compared to available experimental data (AGARDAR-138). The computations were performed at free stream Mach number of 0.84 at variable angle-of-attack. The effects
of pitching angle amplitude and oscillation frequency were also investigated. Presented results include fluid flow
visualizations in the form of Mach number and pressure contours and the values of aerodynamic coefficients.
Keywords: oscillating wing, URANS, turbulence, aerodynamic coefficients, transonic flow.
practical to analyze a compound domain in which only a
smaller part around the wing was oscillating. In this way,
it is possible to generate a fine, detailed, structured mesh
around the wing - rotor and a less detailed stator, while
keeping the simulations reasonably simple. Therefore, the
main goal of this study is to evaluate the capability and
applicability of the used numerical approach to predict the
aerodynamic loads acting on a harmonically oscillating
wing in transonic flow.

1. INTRODUCTION
Time-variable aerodynamic force and moment
measurements are quite scarce in literature since this kind
of experiments is quite complex and expensive to perform
[1,2]. However, these analyses are necessary for the
design of modern fighter/maneuvering aircrafts that
operate in unsteady conditions or at higher angles-ofattack [3]. Also, they present a good basis for fluidstructure interaction studies [4]. For these reasons, it is
useful to develop a reliable computational model of a
pitching transonic airfoil [5-7] or wing.

Base geometry undergoing a number of different oscillating

motions corresponds to the ONERA M6 half-wing that was
thoroughly tested in 1972 [9,10]. Available, experimental,
steady state data are used for the validation and calibration of
the numerical setting and as a starting point for the
interpretation of the unsteady, computed results.

In general, these analyses are computationally demanding

since they include various flow phenomena [8] and they
require moving boundaries. For that reason, it was more
61

2. NUMERICAL MODELS
Model walls were defined according to ONERA M6
geometry presented in picture 1. The surrounding
computational domain was shaped as a quarter-sphere of
radius equaling 10 half-wing spans in front of the model
and a half-cylinder stretching 15 half-wing spans behind
the model.

Picture 2. Rotating part of the mesh

Picture 1. Wing geometry (taken from [9])

In this investigation three commonly used turbulence

models that have produced good results for a wide range
of flows have been used: one-equation Spalart-Allmaras,
two-equation k- SST model and four-equation transition
SST model.

Several hybrid meshes were generated and tested in order

to perform a grid convergence study. Stator is
unstructured and consists of approximately 240 000
tetrahedrons. The characteristics of three considered
inner, structured, rotating parts of the mesh are listed in
table 1 (n1 denotes the number of elements stretching
away from the wing, n2 number of elements along the
wing and q the cell expansion ratio). Picture 2 presents
the plane-of-symmetry of the rotating part of the mesh
and the mesh along the upper surface of the wing. Nondimensional wall distance y+ was below 5 for all
considered meshes.

The flows were solved as transient. Time step size was

determined from grid size and the chosen CFL number, its
order of magnitude being 10-4s. Number of iterations per
time step was 10. During each simulation, the data on
normal and tangential force coefficients were gathered.
Simulations were stopped after aerodynamic coefficients
convergence (or quasi-convergence) was achieved.
At the far-field boundary Mach number of 0.84 was
defined. Angle-of-attack was set to 0 = 3.06 in the static
case. Defined turbulent quantities included: turbulence
intensity of 1%, turbulent viscosity ratio of 10 and
intermittency of 1. No-slip boundary conditions were
defined at the walls. Rotation of the part of the mesh
around the wing was controlled by a user-defined
function.

Table 1. Characteristics of the rotating part of the mesh

Mesh n1
n2
q
Nrotor
Ntotal
M1
30
60
1.2
175 000
415 000
M2
40
80
1.1
416 000
656 000
M3
46
92
1.07
630 000
870 000
The governing Navier-Stokes equations combined with
different RANS turbulence models were solved in the
commercial three-dimensional, parallel, finite-volume
solver ANSYS FLUENT v14.0. The fluid, air, was
considered as ideal-gas and the change of its viscosity
was defined by the Sutherland law. The solver was
density-based. The implicit method for linearization of
governing equations was used. The Roe flux splitting
difference scheme was used for the treatment of inviscid
fluxes. Spatial discretizations were performed by the
second-order upwind scheme, and gradients by the least
squares cell based method. Temporal discretization
scheme was first order implicit. At the beginning of each
simulation, Courant-Friedrichs-Levy number was set to 5.

3. STEADY MODEL VALIDATION

The adopted mesh and numerical setting were validated
through comparison of the available experimental data to
the computed values of the static case. Pictures 3 and 4
refer to different meshes, while picture 5 shows the
difference between the used turbulence models.

62

4. UNSTEADY MODEL VALIDATION

Before further analysis, several variables used in this
study should be defined. Analyzed pitching motion of the
inner part of the mesh was described by the following
expression:

( t ) = 0 sin ( t t0 )

(1)

where 0 is the pitch amplitude and denotes angular

frequency. Resulting angle-of-attack can then be
calculated as:

(t ) = 0 + (t )

(2)

Another variable usually used in dynamic analyses is the

reduced frequency k defined as:

Picture 3. Pressure coefficient distribution in section 2 on

different meshes with k- SST model

k = l = l
2V TV

(3)

where l stands for the mean half-wing chord, and V for

the speed set at the far-field boundaries.

Picture 4. Pressure coefficient distribution in section 5 on

different meshes with k- SST model

Picture 6. Unsteady lift and drag coefficients for different

values of timestep on coarse mesh M1

Picture 5. Pressure coefficient distribution in section 6 on

coarse mesh M1with different turbulence models

Picture 7. Unsteady lift and drag coefficients on different

meshes for timestep dt = T/500

It appears that all meshes and turbulence models provide

quite similar results in static case analyses. However,
since it is also necessary to determine the effects of mesh
density in unsteady flow conditions, the unsteady model
was validated in the similar manner, by comparing results
obtained on different temporal and spatial grids.

Pictures 6 and 7 show the computed relations between lift

and drag coefficients for 0 = 0 = 3.06 and k = 0.147.
From the presented results, URANS predictions seem
reasonably accurate. Therefore, the coarsest mesh M1 and
the smallest timestep dt = T/500 were used in the
following simulations.
63

Different turbulence models seem to produce similar

values of aerodynamic coefficients, Picture 11. However,
their influence on results appears to be greater for smaller
oscillation amplitudes, Picture 12.

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Pitching motions with several different amplitudes,
frequencies and turbulence models were explored.
According to the simulation results, both lift and drag
coefficient vary in nonlinear hysteresis loops, Pictures 810, where the shape of the computed loops depends
primarily on the pitching amplitude and frequency.

Picture 11. Unsteady lift and drag coefficient computed

with different turbulence models for 0 = 3.06
Picture 8. Unsteady lift and drag coefficients for various
oscillation reduced frequencies and amplitudes

Picture 12. Unsteady lift and drag coefficient computed

with different turbulence models for 0 = 1.06
It is also interesting to compare the flow-fields at a particular
moment for different values of reduced frequencies. Pictures
13-15 represent Mach contours at referent sections for =
3.06 (point 2 according to the previously shown graphs).
While slow pitching motion mostly resembles static case,
fast pitching motion induces additional sonic bubbles along
the upper surface of the wing.

Picture 9. Unsteady lift coefficient at different oscillation

frequencies for 0 = 3.06

Picture 10. Unsteady drag coefficient at different

oscillation frequencies for 0 = 3.06

Picture 13. Mach contours and sonic bubble around the

wing for = 3.06, 0 = 3.06, k = 0.073
64

Picture 14. Mach contours and sonic bubble around the

wing for = 3.06, 0 = 3.06, k = 0.146
These effects are not so apparent at lower oscillation
amplitudes, as can be seen from pictures 16 and 17
(differences in pressure coefficient distributions at
different reduced frequencies at a particular moment are
minor). However, dynamic pressure coefficient
distributions differ significantly from the corresponding
static values.

Picture 17. Pressure coefficient distribution in section 4

with k- SST model for = 3.06, 0 = 1.06
Finally, the unsteady flow-field visualizations during one
oscillation are given in pictures 18 and 19 by numerical
sonic bubbles formed around the wing at different
reduced frequencies. Presented pictures were taken at the
same relative moments of the oscillation cycle, presented
by dots in picture 20. The effect of frequency is obvious,
particularly at lower angles-of-attack.

Picture 15. Mach contours and sonic bubble around the

wing for = 3.06, 0 = 3.06, k = 0.292

Picture 18. Sonic bubble around the wing for = 3.06,

0 = 3.06, k = 0.146 during one oscillation

Picture 16. Pressure coefficient distribution in section 1

with k- SST model for = 3.06, 0 = 1.06

65

some insight into the effects of oscillation frequency,

amplitude and turbulence models when performing this
kind of study. However, further work should be done in
this area, in particular, the effects of pitching amplitudes
and frequencies should be investigated in more detail.
Reference to unsteady experimental data would also help
to understand better the physics of the investigated flows,
and could be used to correct the numerical models. From
the used static-case data, it can be seen that pressure
coefficients alone may not be enough to draw the right
conclusions, and that actually, the combination of
experiment and CFD presents a superior tool when
analyzing this kind of complex, unsteady flows.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is a contribution to the research TR 35035
funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and
Technological Development of Serbia.

REFERENCES
[1] Greenwell,D.I.: Frequency effects on dynamic
stability derivatives obtained from small-amplitude
oscillatory testing, Journal of Aircraft, 35(5) (1998)
776-83.
[2] Hillenherms,C.,
Schrder,W.,
Limberg,W.:
Experimental investigation of a pitching airfoil in
transonic flow, Aerospace Science and Technology,
8 (2004) 583-90.
[3] Ghoreyshi,M., Cummings,R.M.: Challenges in the
aerodynamics modeling of an oscillating and
translating airfoil at large incidence angles,
Aerospace Science and Technology, 28 (2013) 17690.
[4] Liu,Z., Hyun,B., Kim,M., Jin,J.: Experimental and
numerical study for hydrodynamic characteristics of
an oscillating hydrofoil, Journal of Hydrodynamics,
20(3) (2008) 280-87.
[5] Toufique Hasan, A.B.M., Mahbub Alam, Md.: RANS
computation of transonic buffet over a supercritical
airfoil, Procedia Engineering, 56 (2013) 303-9.
[6] Martinat,G., Braza,M., Hoarau,Y. Harran,G.:
Turbulence modelling of the flow past a pitching
NACA0012 airfoil at 105 and 106 Reynolds
numbers, Journal of Fluids and Structures, 24 (2008)
1294-303.
[7] Campobasso,S.M.,
Piskopakis,A.,
Drofelnik,J.,
Jackson,A.: Turbulent Navier-Stokes analysis of an
oscillating wing in a power-extraction regime using
the shear stress transport turbulence model,
Computers & Fluids, 88 (2013) 136-55.
[8] Hermes,V., Klioutchnikov,I., Olivier,H.: Numerical
investigation of unsteady wave phenomena for
transonic airfoil flow, Aerospace Science and
Technology, 25 (2013) 224-33.
[9] Schmitt,V., Charpin,F.: Pressure Distributions on the
ONERA-M6-Wing at Transonic Mach Numbers,
AGARD AR 138, Chatillon, 1979.
[10] Slater,J.W., Dudek,J.C., Tatum,K.E.: The NPARC
Alliance Verification and Validation Archive,
NASA/TM-2000-209946, Hanover, 2000.

Picture 19. Sonic bubble around the wing for = 3.06,

0 = 3.06, k = 0.292 during one oscillation

Picture 20. Variation of angle-of-attack during one

period; circle denotes the moment data were collected

5. CONCLUSION
The CFD modeling of unsteady aerodynamic coefficients
of a 3D half-wing was investigated. The preliminary
results confirm that URANS equations present a
reasonably accurate and usable tool for this kind of
analyses.
Presented numerical investigation illustrates the
significance of unsteady flow effects. It also provides
66

A NEW CONTROL SYSTEM FOR THE FLEXIBLE NOZZLE IN

THE T-38 TRISONIC WIND TUNNEL
BILJANA ILI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, biljana.ilich@gmail.com
MIRKO MILOSAVLJEVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, mirko.milosavljevic.bgd@gmail.com

Abstract: Within the extensive project at the T-38 trisonic 1.5 m 1.5 m wind tunnel of the Military Technical Institute,
Belgrade, started with the objective to design and implement a new wind tunnel control system replacing the existing
system dating from 1980s, the flexible nozzle position control was implemented. It was based on completely changed
hardware and software platform, with more efficient position control algorithm, but using the same actuators and
sensors as in the previous system. The improvement was achieved and confirmed by the wind tunnel tests, but previous
problems with unreliable position sensors still remained. After these activities, the flexible nozzle control system was
further improved introducing new position sensors, which brought major software changes and even more efficient
position control algorithm. In this paper, design considerations for achieving the optimum position control and its
implementation on a programmable automatic controller are outlined. A brief description of the system safety and
diagnostic features is given. The flexible nozzle control system robustness was verified for complete Mach number
envelope of the wind tunnel and results showed significant improvements in speed, accuracy, stability and reliability
comparing to the previous one, enhancing the wind tunnel overall performance.
Keywords: Flexible nozzle, wind tunnel, programmable automation controller, position control.
variation is achieved. However, aerodynamic contour
geometry must be compatible with the physical shape of a
spline simply constrained at a number of points.

1. INTRODUCTION
In a wind tunnel, among the main requirements are the
attainment of a desired Mach number in the test section
and the establishment of flow which is uniform, parallel
to the wind tunnel axis and with constant Mach number
distribution across the test section. The achievement of
these conditions at supersonic Mach numbers primarily
depends of the nozzle contour.

There are various methods for establishing a wind tunnel

flexible nozzle contour [2], but its mechanical, structural
and aerodynamic design has been essentially unchanged
for decades. Fast computers enabled complex numerical
simulations, but they have application mainly in fine
tuning of a contour obtained by the fundamental
aerodynamic calculation. However, this trend led to
stricter requirements for a wind tunnel nozzle control
system regarding accuracy, speed and reliability.

The nozzles for supersonic wind tunnels are normally

made two-dimensional, and this necessitates achieving
carefully controlled shapes on two walls, with remaining
two walls being flat. Through the wind tunnels history
there were several nozzle designs applied, but the most
versatile method of obtaining the variable geometry is the
flexible nozzle [1]. The flexible plates are contained
between two parallel walls and they are bent to the
required shape for the desired Mach number.

In this paper, design and implementation of a new control

system for the nozzle with two symmetrical, 1.5 m 11 m,
flexible plates, supported by 19 jack stations, in the T-38
trisonic wind tunnel of the Military Technical Institute,
Belgrade, are described. The nozzle control system is
based on 38 electric motors driving 76 screw jack stops,
four per jack station, using 19 position sensors as
feedback, and 38 hydraulic cylinders driving nozzle
flexible plates and forming a contour which corresponds
to a desired Mach number in the wind tunnel envelope,
ranging from 0.2 to 4.0. The required flexible nozzle
position accuracy is 0.01 mm, while Mach number
regulation accuracy is 0.5% of the nominal value.

The most direct method of supporting plates is by the use

of a series of jacks. These jacks have their inner ends
attached to the plate and their outer ends attached to the
structure surrounding the nozzle. The flexible plate acts as
a spline which is constrained at a number of closely
spaced points. A family of nozzle shapes is established
such that the Mach number interval from one shape to the
next is small, and therefore continuous Mach number

67

810 mm. The position of screw jack stops was measured

by a two-speed, mechanically geared resolver, mounted
directly to the shaft of one of four screw jack stops for
each jack station.

2. THE T-38 WIND TUNNEL FLEXIBLE

NOZZLE CONTROL REQUIREMENTS
2.1. General characteristics
The T-38 wind tunnel nozzle consists of a pair of 1.5 m
11 m flexible steel plates and two flat rigid side plates
(Figure 1). The flexible plates have 19 jack stations and
each of them has its own sensors and actuators.

Figure 2: An individual flexible nozzle jack station with

sensors and actuators
Each jack station also has two hydraulic cylinders,
connected to flexible plates. All cylinders are driven by
the common hydraulic system, which can operate at low
or high system pressure. The hydraulic system has
pressure and temperature sensors.
Over-curvature sensors are distributed along the length of
the flexible nozzle plates, eight between each consecutive
pair of jack stations. In the gear box, mechanical end
limits are situated. Since screw jack stops have different
strokes, they are adjusted for each jack station separately.

Figure 1: The T-38 wind tunnel flexible nozzle

The flexible nozzle contour is set prior to a wind tunnel
run to give the required Mach number. The Mach number
range of the T-38 wind tunnel is from 0.2 to 4.0. The
same nozzle contour is used for all subsonic Mach
numbers. In the supersonic test regime, for Mach numbers
between 1.4 and 4.0, nozzle contours are different and
each contour uniquely determines the Mach number. In
the transonic test regime, for Mach numbers from 0.8 to
1.4, the nozzle is preset to the desired Mach number
setting and fine Mach number tuning is performed by the
additional blow off control system [3].

Therefore, actuators and sensors of the flexible nozzle

control system include 19 fast electric motors, 19 slow
electric motors, 38 hydraulic cylinders driving flexible
nozzle in both directions, 19 resolvers as feedback for
screw stop positions, pressure and temperature sensors as
feedback for hydraulic system, and 144 over-curvature
sensors as interlocks with the nozzle setting procedure.

2.3. The required positioning sequence

The positioning sequence of the flexible nozzle is dictated
by its mechanical design and also by available sensors
and actuators.

The task of the nozzle control system is to set the contour

shape of the flexible nozzle plates. The shape of the
contour is decided based on the type of wind tunnel tests
and the aerodynamic requirements. In the T-38 wind
tunnel, there is a database of flexible nozzle contours for
different Mach numbers. The desired nozzle contour is an
input to the flexible nozzle control system.

First, the hydraulic system has to be set to low pressure

and hydraulic cylinders have to move flexible plates to
their innermost profile, to enable unobstructed movement
of screw stops.
Then desired positions of jack stations are compared with
current positions obtained from resolvers and appropriate
command outputs are sent to screw stops motors.
Difference between desired and current positions
determines speed and direction of screw stops movement.
In the most frequent scenario, after releasing the brake,
the fast motor is initially driven to move the screw stop
toward the new position. When the screw stop reaches a
pre-set distance from its desired position, the movement is
switched to the slow motor with appropriate clutching
action. The slow motor is stopped by applying the brake

2.2. Sensors and actuators

The T-38 wind tunnel has been in operation since 1980s
and, until recently, the flexible nozzle was used without
any changes. The sketch of an individual jack station is
shown in Figure 2.
Each jack station has four screw jack stops. Screw jack
actuators consist of a fast electric motor, a slow electric
motor, an appropriate clutch and a holding brake. Screw
jack stops have different strokes, ranging from 5 mm to
68

when the desired position is reached. To eliminate

backlash effects, it is desirable that the screw stops
approach their desired positions from the same direction.
This is why it is required that slow motors have just one
direction of movement enabled here, this direction will
be called forward movement, while fast motors can be
moved forward and reverse. To avoid backlash effect,
when approaching the new position in the reverse
direction, the screw stops should go past their desired
positions, then reverse their direction of travel and
approach the final position from the forward direction.

possible commands move a fast motor forward, move a

fast motor reverse and move a slow motor forward in
total 57 digital outputs for 19 jack stations. Fast motors
(750 W, 1450 rpm) and slow motors (30 W, 1450 rpm)
moved screw stops 3.5 mm/s and 0.04 mm/s, respectively.

After setting all screw stops to their desired positions, the

hydraulic system is set to high pressure to allow hydraulic
cylinders to pull the flexible plates back against the newly
set screw jack stops.

3. THE CONTROL SYSTEM OF THE T-38

WIND TUNNEL FLEXIBLE NOZZLE
The complexity of the flexible nozzle control system is
dictated mainly by the number of jack stations and the
choice of actuators and sensors [4]. In the T-38 wind
tunnel, with 19 jack stations, the flexible nozzle control
system is the complex one, with mechanical, hydraulic
and electric components.

3.1. The original control system of the T-38 wind

tunnel flexible nozzle
Figure 3: Architecture of the original flexible nozzle
control system

The original T-38 wind tunnel control system was

completed in 1980s. It consisted of a central computer and
four remote computers connected using DECnet protocol
in a star network topology. All computers were PDP11/23s, 16-bit minicomputers manufactured by Digital
Equipment Corporation [5]. The central computer with
the custom developed wind tunnel control software and
user interface was at the top level, while four remote
computers were responsible for control of different wind
tunnel components. The remote computers were
connected to sensors and actuators using ANDS 5400 data
acquisition units manufactured by Analogic Corporation,
one unit per computer. One of four remote computers was
dedicated to the flexible nozzle control (Figure 3).

Based on the given data, a simple calculation shows the

best possible control algorithm in these circumstances. To
read positions of all jack stations and decide about the
appropriate commands, it was needed 19 60 ms = 1140
ms. In that time, a jack station considered in the first loop
cycle would move 4 mm or 0.05 mm, actuated by a fast
motor or a slow motor, respectively.
Poor computer performance had two consequences. First,
since the desired position accuracy of 0.01 mm was not
possible to achieve at all with fast motors only, the idea
was to move jack stations close to desired positions using
fast motors, and then fine-tune positions using slow
motors. By moving all jack stations simultaneously using
fast motors, the expected difference between desired and
current positions after stopping jack stations would have
been up to 4 mm, and fine tuning with slow motors
moving 0.04 mm/s would have lasted up to 100 s. Second,
considering the speed of slow motors, it was obvious that
the desired accuracy was not possible to achieve moving
all jack stations simultaneously. It was needed maximum
250 ms to stop slow motors in time to achieve the desired
position accuracy, which was possible by moving
maximum four jack stations simultaneously.

As position feedback, flexible nozzle control computer

used multispeed resolvers. Resolver inputs and their
reference were fed to the multichannel resolver-to-digital
conversion unit, which sequentially converted resolver
signals to 19-bit binary data, with position resolution of
0.002 mm. Each conversion gave a feedback position
from one of 19 resolvers. The minimum time between
consecutive conversions was 6 ms.
In the custom control software, classic programming
approach was applied. Position from a single resolver is
read, desired and current positions are compared and
appropriate command is issued in each loop of the
program. The time period of a loop was 60 ms, severely
limited by the capabilities of the nozzle control computer.

The optimum control algorithm adopted in these

conditions included first fast moving jack stations, usually
not all at once, but in series of several stations, and then
position fine tuning by slow moving series of four jack
stations simultaneously.

Commands issued by the nozzle control computer were

fed to fast and slow moving electric motors through
power switches. For each jack station there were three
69

single control loop cycle. It was expected more efficient

control algorithm than before to be achieved, due to the
fast control loop capability of the PAC.

3.2. The new control system of the T-38 wind

tunnel flexible nozzle
Within the project at the T-38 wind tunnel, started with
the objective to design and implement a new wind tunnel
control system replacing the original one, briefly
described in the previous section, the flexible nozzle
position control was implemented.
The central computer and four remote computers all
PDP-11/23s and ANDS5400 data acquisition units in
the original wind tunnel control system are being replaced
with the central PC computer with user interface and two
programmable automation controllers (PACs), compact
controllers that combine the features and capabilities of a
computer-based control system with that of a typical
programmable logical controller [6]. The chosen
programmable automation controller platform consists of
the NI CompactRIO embedded real-time controller and
the reconfigurable embedded chassis, manufactured by
National Instruments Corporation. The NI cRIO-9024
controller features an industrial 800 MHz real-time
processor for deterministic real-time applications and
contains 4 GB of non-volatile storage. The NI cRIO-9118
eight-slot chassis features a user-programmable FPGA,
which enables low-level hardware access to any cRIO
input/output module, while communication with the realtime processor is realised using a high-speed PCI bus. The
real-time processor is optimized for control loops running
at less than 1 kHz, while the FPGA should be used for
faster loops, up to 40 MHz. Both PACs communicate
with the central computer via Ethernet ports.
Programming of the PACs is performed on the central
computer, using LabVIEW development environment.

Figure 4: Architecture of the new flexible nozzle control

system
Tests of the new nozzle control system demonstrated it
was possible to achieve much shorter control loop time.
Minimum achievable loop time was 6 ms, ten times
shorter than in the original control system, and it was
limited by the resolver-to-digital unit time between
subsequent conversions. It was the fastest control loop
speed that could have been achieved using the existing
combination of resolvers and their conversion unit.
The calculation similar to the one in the previous section
shows improvement achieved by introducing the PAC
platform instead of the computer/data acquisition unit
combination used before. Since the time between
conversions and control loop time are now equal (6 ms), it
is needed 19 6 ms = 114 ms to read positions from all
resolvers, compare them with their desired positions and
issue commands to the motors. In that time, a jack station
considered in the first loop cycle would move 0.4 mm or
0.005 mm, actuated by a fast motor or a slow motor,
respectively. Knowing that desired positioning accuracy
is 0.01 mm, it is clear that it can be achieved by moving
all jack stations simultaneously, using slow speed motors
near desired positions.
Although positions reading and commands issuing had to
remain sequential - a single jack station per a single cycle
of the control loop, the more optimized control algorithm
was developed due to the PAC high speed capability [7].
In parallel with positioning, position data are logged on
the PAC, and sent to the central computer for real time
simulation of nozzle positioning at the user interface.
The improvements brought by the new flexible nozzle
control system can be summarized as follows. First,
changed control algorithm with ten times faster execution
rate enabled simultaneous movement of all screw stops
and about twice faster positioning of the nozzle than
before, with immediate achievement of position accuracy
of 0.01 mm. In the past, it was not possible to move all
screw stops at once and desired accuracy was rarely
achieved in the first positioning sequence, but after two or
three consecutive attempts.

The new flexible nozzle control system is implemented on

the one of two PACs in the T-38 wind tunnel. On the
same PAC, control of several wind tunnel subsystems is
implemented, including the flexible nozzle control. Highchannel counts needed for these systems dictated
expanding the PAC platform with the NI 9144, 8-slot
EtherCAT slave chassis. The master controller
communicates deterministically with the slave chassis via
the second Ethernet port.
The flexible nozzle control system was implemented on
the PACs slave chassis (Figure 4). The same actuators
and sensors as in the original nozzle control system were
used, with unchanged channel count 26 digital inputs
and 67 digital outputs. Inputs were fed to the NI 9425, 32channel, 7 s sinking digital input module, while outputs
were connected to three NI 9477, 32-channel, 8 s
sinking digital output modules.
The same position sensors were used, and their signals
were fed to the same resolver-to-digital unit as before.
Since resolver conversion unit sequentially converted
resolver signals, one at a time, with the minimum time
between conversion of 6 ms, the real-time mode of the
PAC, optimized for the loops slower than 1 kHz, was
used. Also, sequential conversion of resolver signals did
not allow using parallel execution capabilities of the
FPGA. The classic programming approach had to be
applied again, based on reading positions and issuing
commands sequentially, for a single jack station within a

Second, in the previous control system, the operator in the

70

control room did not have a graphical interface, nor any

real time information about flexible nozzle movement. In
the new system, real-time simulation of the flexible
nozzle positioning was provided, which augmented
control software verification and operator training.
Besides commanding particular nozzle contour setting,
the operator could separately control each component of
the nozzle control system, which was proved useful in
rectification of fault conditions.

fast enough to read data from encoders and generate the

clock pulse brush. Instead, NI 9401, 8-channel, highspeed, bidirectional digital input/output modules are
introduced, with maximum input/output switching
frequency per channel of 9 MHz / 5MHz, respectively.
The direction of the digital lines on the NI 9401 can be
configured for input or output by nibble (4 bits). In the
flexible nozzle control system, the first NI 9401 module is
configured for four digital inputs and four digital outputs,
while the remaining two NI 9401 modules are configured
for inputs only eight inputs per module. One digital
output is used for the clock pulse brush applied
simultaneously to the clock inputs of all nineteen
encoders. Nineteen inputs are used for reading data from
encoders. Commands for actuators are sent as previously,
using three NI 9477 digital output modules (Figure 5).

3.3. Further improvement of the new control

system for the T-38 wind tunnel flexible
nozzle
Introducing the new flexible nozzle control system
brought significant improvements, but overall system
performance was severely limited by using resolvers and
the resolver-to-digital conversion unit. Besides their
unreliable work after decades of exploitation, the
sequential position conversion mode prevented use of
parallel execution capability offered by the FPGA on the
chosen PAC platform.

Schematics of a single encoder connection to the PAC is

shown in Figure 6. The identical principle is used to
connect all nineteen encoders to the NI 9401 modules, but
only one is shown for clarity.

The next and final improvement included replacement of

resolvers and the resolver conversion unit. Resolvers were
replaced by Acuro AC 58 absolute shaft multiturn
encoders with SSI interface, manufactured by Hengstler.
The encoders have 26 bit resolution, 14 bits per revolution
and 12 bits for a number of revolutions. Resolution with
regard to the flexible nozzle jack station positions is
0.0001 mm, which is 20 times better than the one that
could have been obtained using resolvers.

Figure 6: A single encoder connection to the PAC

For correct transfer of data, 30 impulses (clock pulse

brush) must be applied to the clock input of the absolute
shaft encoder. As soon as a clock pulse brush is applied to
the clock pulse input, the actual angle information is
latched for a limited time period. The required clock
frequency for this type of encoder and necessary cable
length is 100-400 kHz, and time period available to read
position data is 20 s.

Because of the high-speed digital communication protocol

with encoders, FPGA mode of the PAC operation is used.
FPGA is programmed in the LabVIEW development
environment, which provides software tools enabling
FPGA to be directly integrated into higherlevel
software applications. Migrating to the FPGA mode
brought major software changes.
Clock pulse with frequency of 267 kHz is applied to all
nineteen encoders simultaneously. With each clock rising
edge, the next bit is shifted to the serial data output of
each encoder, from the most significant to the least
significant. After a full clock pulse brush consisting of 30
impulses, 30 bits of data are read for each encoder 26
bits for position and four other special bits. Positions of
all encoders, 14 bits per revolution and 12 bits for a
number of revolutions, are then interpreted and become
available within one loop cycle. In the next loop cycle, the
clock pulse brush is applied again and the same procedure
is repeated. Loop rate of 5 kHz is used, which means that
current positions of all nineteen encoders are available
every 0.0002 s (Figure 7).
The command loop, within which commands are issued to
the actuators, runs in parallel with the loop for reading
positions of encoders, with the same rate of 5 kHz.
Position changes of all encoders are detected in each
reading loop cycle, while in the command loop current
positions are compared to desired ones, and appropriate
commands are issued simultaneously to all actuators.

Figure 5: Architecture of the improved new flexible

nozzle control system
Update rates of the previously used digital input and
output modules (NI 9425 and NI 9477, Figure 4) were not
71

original system. The significant improvement was

achieved, but capabilities of the PAC were mainly left
unused. In the second step, resolvers used as position
sensors were replaced with encoders, thus eliminating the
need for the resolver-to-digital conversion unit. This
change enabled using full capabilities of the PAC,
including parallel execution at the FPGA level. The
traditional sequential programming approach was
replaced with the modern one, where truly parallel nature
of the FPGA enabled simultaneous execution of many
operations. Besides much higher speed of operation,
implementation of application logic in hardware circuits
is considered a more reliable alternative for the complex
flexible nozzle control system, with mechanical, hydraulic
and electric components and a high number of sensors
and actuators, than executing on top of an operating
system, drivers and application software, like in
processor-based systems. The flexible nozzle control
system speed, accuracy, stability and robustness were
verified for complete Mach number envelope.

Figure 7: A cycle of the position reading loop

Replacing resolvers and the their conversion unit with
encoders enabled parallel reading of all jack stations
positions and parallel command issuing to all jack station
actuators, instead of sequential reading and commanding
approach in the past. Using the FPGA capability and new
programming approach, a control cycle comprising
reading positions of all jack stations, comparing them
with desired positions and issuing appropriate commands
to all actuators is almost 6000 times faster in comparison
with the original control system.

The T-38 wind tunnel control system consists of several

complex subsystems, that are expected to work both
independently and in tight synchronization with each
other. The flexible nozzle control subsystem is the first
one that is implemented in the extensive project started
with objective to design and implement a new wind
tunnel control system, replacing the existing system
dating from 1980s. Improvements achieved in the first
phase of the project are encouraging, and based on them
significant improvements are expected also in design of
remaining control subsystems, and the T-38 wind tunnel
control system as a whole.

While the main control tasks are implemented on the

FPGA level, the real-time level of the PAC is used for
position data logging. Each flexible nozzle contour setting
procedure is logged to a file, which is automatically
transferred to the central control computer and stored to
the wind tunnel database. By analysing logged data it is
possible to notice any irregularities in the nozzle
behaviour that could be a sign of mechanical problems,
and solve them proactively.

REFERENCES
[1] Kenney, J.T., Webb, L.M., A Summary of the
Techniques of Variable Mach Number Supersonic
Wind Tunnel Nozzle Design, AGARDograph 3,
1954.
[2] Anderson, J.D., Modern Compressible Flow with
Historical Perspective, McGraw-Hill, 2003.
[3] Blizanac, B., The Mach Number Control Analysis
of the Blowdown Wind Tunnel, Scientific
Technical Review, 2002.
[4] Belew, P.W., Crosier, R.T., Morris, B., Wind
Tunnel Nozzle Position Control, 40th International
Instrumentation Symposium, 1994.
[5] Singer, M., PDP-11. Assembler Language
Programming and Machine Organization. John
Wiley & Sons, 1980.
[6] Bell, I., The future of control [programmable
automation controllers], Manufacturing Engineer,
2005.
[7] Ili, B., Milosavljevi, M., Isakovi, J., Wind tunnel
flexible nozzle position control. Paper presented at
the HEMUS 2012, Sixth International Conference on
Smart Defence Solutions and Technologies, Plovdiv,
Bulgaria.

User interface with real-time simulation of the flexible

nozzle state is provided on the central control computer in
the wind tunnel room. In regular circumstances, the
nozzle contour for the desired Mach number is chosen
from the wind tunnel database and it is set automatically.
Besides particular nozzle contour setting, the operator can
separately control each jack station, which is proved
useful in rectification of fault conditions. Much better and
faster handling of error conditions is achieved by
automatic diagnostics and localization of known faults,
based on the database of wind tunnel error conditions and
possible solutions. This way, the operator can solve most
usual problems in independent and fast manner.

4. CONCLUSION
In this paper, design and implementation of the new
flexible nozzle control system in the T-38 wind tunnel of
the Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, are described.
In the first step, the nozzle control system was
implemented on a programmable automation controller
(PAC), without replacing sensors and actuators from the
72

SECTION II

AIRCRAFT

CHAIRMAN
Professor Stevan Maksimovi, PhD
Professor Dragoljub Vuji, PhD
Mirko Kozic, PhD

TECHNICAL PROCEDURES FOR REPAIRS OF CORROSIVE DAMAGES

ON G4-B AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE
SONJA URKOVI
Aviation Parts Service d.o.o, Beograd, sonja.djurkovic@yahoo.com
VLADIMIR GOBELJI
Utva Avio Industrija u restrukturiranju, Beograd, gobelja@gmail.com
MIRJANA GRBI
Utva Avio Industrija u restrukturiranju, Beograd, mirjanamgrbic@gmail.com

Abstract: During the life time extention overhaul, on detailed overview of G4-B aircraft structure, certain damages of
structure are noticed. Most of this damages are caused by corrosion, which was expected, becouse of tropical weather
with long monsun periods in corelation with salt athmosphere in coastal area where aircrafts were during its life time.
This paper describes different solutions for repair of structural damages depended on location of damage, level of
damage and size of damaged structure. In accordance with this parameters we have different repairs, such as:
replacement of damaged element, reconstruction of damaged assembly, repair and reinforcement of integral structure.
Some damages of structure are identical on all G4-B aircrafts, which make them subject of this paper covering in the
same time application of all three previously mentioned solutions for repair.
Key words: life span, overhaul, corrosion, technical procedure, aircraft structure, damage, repair.
and check that the tool pins easily pass through the ear
fittings. Remove this tool and place it in a safe place, it
is important not to disturb the length of tool for
installing new shackles, it is shown in Figure 1.

1. INTRODUCTION
This paper presents three basic approaches to repair the
structure of the turbojet aircraft Galeb G4-B, for final
user, country of Myanmar, which are applied for a life
time extension for an overhaul, and there are:

It is necessary unpin covers from spar in the zone

around the axis of the rib No.17.(blind rivets), be
careful not to expand opening in the spar (both covers
and above and below the axis of the rib No.17), it is
shown on Figure 2.

1. Valid technological processes of repair one integrated

structure,
2. Second reconstruction of the entire assembly due to the
effect of corrosion,
3. Third replacement of damaged parts (hinges), and also
accompanying auxiliary tool in the overhaul of the
mentioned parts.

2. REPLACEMENT OF DEFECTIVE
ELEMENT, EXCHANGE OF SHACKLES
G4-311-043
To carry out the replacement of damaged elements
shackles G4-311-043, we first perform disassembly
rudder, it is shown in Figure 3.
Set up a tool A31-G4 311-043 and locked him for
shackles upper the above link rudder G4-311-043 and
shackles intermediate links rudder G4-311-038, hand
tools with equal lengths of beaks on both ends facing
toward shackle. Tighten compound hemisphere tools

Figure 1. Auxiliary tool A31-G4-311-043 for checking

length of the holes and for replacement shackles
Unpin rivets from shackle G4-311-043 which is related
to the structure, be careful not to expand opening in the
spar.
75

 Dismantling access cover.

Figure 2. According drawing G4-311-011 unpin covers

from spar in zone around asix rib No.17.
Figure 4. Pins of tools entering in opening of shackles on
the spar, when is set the tool A31-G4-311-043.
Through the toolbar pilot insert, drill holes 3,2 in
shackles and remove the pilot insert and expand
openings on 6.
Dismantle the tools A31 and A4 and remove shackle,
clean all from shavings (debris) and handle sharp edges.
Set a shackle G4-311-043, set a tool A31-G4-311-043,
beaks of the same length need to be on the shackle, lock
tool, and with clamp tighten the shackle for a spar,
check asixs of openings and drill holes on 6H7.
Remove the tool A31 and remove shackle, cleaned
shackle of shavings (debris), grease the fitting surfaces
by coating and set up shackle.

Figure 3. Tool in dismantled ruder.

With a special key A39-G4-311-043-01 through the

opening in the spar insert screws, where they belong to
shackle M6x7 SNO 1080 (lower connection of
shackle), previously there is neccesary to coat the lying
surface head of a screws. Screws (for upper connection
of shackle) is neccesary to insert through the access
cover, previously there is neccesary to coat the lying
surface head with coat PS892 C12. Set washers and
nuts screwed, also with using of coatings. Before
tightening the nut s there is neccesery to set tool A31G4-311-043, and they beaks which are the same length
to the shackles and locked it. Dismantle tools A9-G4311-011 for opening of belts which belong to a spar.
Torque for nuts M6 is 1 daNm. There is neccesery to
keep contra on a head of the screws with special key
A39-G4-311-043-02. Dismantle the tool A31.

There is necessary to loosen the screw on connection of

shackles G4-311-043. There is necessary to verification
tools, only the first board: under the shackles put
separator 2mm and tighten the shackles. Set a tool,
but now the beaks with different lengths turn to
shackles and lock them. If it is possible, lock tool, and
we have successfully carried out verification of tool.
Remove the tool and restore him to a safe place. Loosen
the screws of the connection and dismantle them, down
screws through the hole in the spar and the upper
screws through access cover. Wash and clean the
connecting elements and preserve them.
Set the tool A9-G4-311-011 for opening belts of a spar
above and below the shackle, slowly open the belts
until it becomes possible to remove the shackle.
Remove the shackle and discard it.

Nail all rivets on schackle on place where is the

connection with the structure 4 SNO 0212 C, transfer
openings from the structure on the schackle and nail it.
Nail all rivets on connection skin with the spar in places
which are previously unpined rivets 3,2 SNO 0212 C.
When the process of riveting is finished, fitting
surfaces is needed to coated with a coating.

Clean the surface of fitting shackle, repair of the surface

protection if the structure in places where is damaged.
On the new shackle G4-311-043 set a tools for
transferring holes A4-G4 311-043 and put it with all the
tools in place, like that the pins of tools enter in opening
on the schackle and on the spar. Then after that set the
tool A31-G4-311-043 like that the beaks, with different
lengths unto schacle and lock tool. With a clamp fix
schackle G4-311-043 to a spar, it is shown in Figure 4.

Nail covers for spar with blind rivets AGS 2065-0407,

fitting surfaces previously must be coated with a
coating.Reparation and protection with C5 + M2.

76

3. REPAIRING OF INTEGRATED
STRUCTURE - REINFORCEMENT ON THE
LOWER PANEL OF FUSELAGE

Screws on connections from introductions and

surrounding structures in the area of the second integral
reservoir. In addition, it is necessary to dismantle the
cloak (mantle);

Note: To carry out reinforcement on the lower panel of

the fuselage, it is necessary to first dismantle the front,
middle, and last introduction, it is shown on Figure 5.

Screws on connections from the introduction and

surrounding structures in the area of the first integral
reservoir;

For an aircraft N-62 it is necessary to dismantle front

introduction on aircraft. To be introduction on aircraft
dismantled it is necessary to unscrew all the screws on
connection front introduction L/R (left and right) with
middle introduction. After that, then unscrew the screws
of the front connection of introduction L/R (left and
right) and fuselage, for unscrewing screws we are using
tool A39-G4-200-104.

Screws on connection with the frame No.18, with

belonging connecting elements;
Screws on connection with the frame No.21, with
belonging connecting elements;
Carefully pull back introduction on aircraft, adhered
him from the front opening in slant frame No.15, help
from the area of integral reservoir, adhered with hands
through access openings (holes) on the down side of the
fuselage, carefully hauled back from the engine
compartment. Dispose introduction at the perfect place
to reinstallation.
We must delineate on the lower plate positions of
reinforcement. In the lower plate we must set pattern
who is corresponding to the reinforcement and pre-drill
on the bottom plate 2,5. We begin drilling from a
templet who has four holes in the corners of the cell,
where with using these openings we can check the
accuracy of the position of a templet (pattern), if
necessary,we can correct the position, and after that we
drill all the other holes, it is shown on Figure 6.
Set the appropriate pattern on reinforcement, transmit
all holes from the pattern and drill them. Set
reinforcement on the bottom plate, provide it buckles
and in assembly we must to expand the openings on
measure 3,2 and 4. Desmantle all elements, clear all
from the debris, and handle sharp edges from drilled
holes.
Apply protection D3 (allodynia) in the drilled holes on
the panel and reinforcement. Degrease connecting
surface on the lower plate and reinforcement, apply a
coat PS 892 C12 on connecting surfaces on panel and
reinforcements, set up a reinforcement and secure with
buckles. Nail reinforcement with the using coating PS
892 C12.

Figure 5. Dismantled middle, last and front introduction

on the aircraft G4.
Then unscrew all the screws from the front introduction
on aircraft with connection by side of the fuselage.
After that carefully removed the front introduction
pulling (hauled) it forward, how we will free guiding
pins on connection with middle introduction on aircraft.
Dispose introduction at the perfect place to
reinstallation. All dismantled interface elements pack in
PVC bags and mark them, also, keep them to the
procces of reinstalling.
Indentical procedure is for dismantling last introduction
on aircraft. If the introduction will be dismantled it is
necessary to unscrew all the screws from last
introduction who is with connection with middle
introduction. Carefully separate the last introduction on
aircraft, remove it and place in a suitable place to
reinstallation.
Also to dismantle middle introduction on aircraft L/R
(left and right, it is necessary first remove the protective
tapes from the area of the first and second integral
reservoir. Then unscrew the following screws:

Figure 6. Reinforcement of lower plate positions

77

Processing corroded surfaces usually consists of few

phases:

4. RECONSTRUCTION OF THE WHOLE

ASSEMBLY, REMOVAL OF CORROSION

1. cleaning (removal foreign matter)- before we go to any

work it is necessary to all surfaces should be thoroughly
cleaned of grease and dust with chloric solvents.

Corrosion on parts of aluminum alloys occurs in the form of

white or gray spots, separate or black spots. When significant
corrosion occurs depressions that are filled with fine grained
powder white or gray colour. Products of corrosion of
aluminum and its alloys are the gray-white matter and very
brittle structures. Corrosion of the steel parts have a look
scattered and separated points or surfaces whose color ranges
from orange to dark brown or black. The most characteristic
forms of corrosion occurring on the plane elements: on focal,
on contact, like uniform corrosion and corrosive splash. On
parts that are protected by a layer of varnish, corrosion
occurs in the form of bulges or flaking layers with the
occurrence of corrosion products on these sites, it is shown
on Figure 7 and 8.

2. stripping sprayed coating- consists of removing all

protective coatings such as paint, varnish, coatings and
after that it is necessary to apply protection abraded
surface.
3. removal of corrosion- mechanical or chemical. We
used mechanical removal of corrosion, and it is procedure
to integral structures we worked wirth brushes, knives or
sandpaper.
4. treatment of surface- protective treatment and finishing.
Of the tools we used scraper, pounding to increase to 7x,
spectacles, plastic knife. From consumables matherial we
used: trichlorethylene, alcohol, sandpaper, wire brushes,
brush with stiff hair, cloth, pure solvent, adhesive tape,
thermosetting canvas.
Use of funds for removal of corrosion requires certain
precautions such as:
protection of adjacent surfaces,
immediately clean the sprayed area,
protection of workers with suitable equipment.

5. CONCLUSION
This paper describes different solutions for repair of
structural damages depended on location of damage, level
of damage and size of damaged structure. In accordance
with this parameters we have different repairs, such as:
replacement of damaged element, reconstruction of
damaged assembly, repair and reinforcement of integral
structure. Some damages of structure are identical on all
G4-B aircrafts, which make them subject of this paper
covering in the same time application of all three
previously mentioned solutions for repair.

Figure 7. View of corrosion on rudder of an aircraft G4.

LITERATURE
[1] 01.VTUP.014-0.1 "Promene na avionu N-62 I N62T",
[2] 01.VTUP.014-0.5.1 "Liste povremenih pregleda
aviona N-62 I N-62T",
[3] 01.VTUP.014-0.6.1 "Opti podaci aviona N-62",
[4] 01.VTUP.014-0.7.1 "Opis I odravanje zmaja aviona
N-62".
[5] "Korozija zavarenih spojeva: Metode ispitivanja i
postupci spreavanja korozije. " Biljana Bobi, dipl.
Ing., Bore Jegdi dipl.ing., Vojnotehniki Institut
VSCG, april 2005.

Figure 8. Repair of integral structure, removing corrosion

from a place where is gonna be lower panel of the
fuselage.

78

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY LED BACKLIGHTS: SEMIEMPIRIC LIGHT

MANAGEMENT MODELING
BRANKO LIVADA
Luxell Technologies Ltd., Toronto, Canada, blivada@luxell.com

Abstract: Backlight is neccessary for the operation of the LCD displays. Light sources are core backlight components.
There are many types of light sources applicable for backlighting. Advances in the LED light efficacy, life time and
production yield, resulted in their increased application in the backlights. A short overview of the LED backlight
design consideration is provided. LED backlight design process is described. The simplified semiempiric calculation
model is established. The model use a flexible arhitecture building blocks approach that allows a simplified
calculation of some design parameters and application of empirically known data. The model provides integral
display light management, in design phase. Also,the model allows integration of some comertial software simulation
results and experimattally collected design relevatnt daat, as well. The model is applied for well known 3ATI display
backlight design and results are compared with commercial software TracePro application. An excelent compliance of
the calculation results is found, and confirmed through measurements.
Keywords: Liquid Crystal Displays, Display backlight, AMLCD technology, LED backlight, light management.
[4]-[6]. Backlight energy consumption (efficacy) is
important in all applications because it contributes to
battery life (mobile applications), energy savings (TV and
computer applications), improved thermal management
and backlight lifetime (military and industrial
applications).

1. INTRODUCTION
Since the first successful demonstration of the liquid
crystal display applied in a watch in 1968 , liquid crystal
science and technology had rapid development path to
dominant display technology today[1], with several tens
of billions units delivered to the market. There are,
however, few more challenges for the further
development. These include response time lower than
1ms, lower power consumption, sun readability, slim
design, lower cost. Some of them will be easier achieved
by the LED backlights application.
The application of the AMLCD (Active Matrix Liquid
Crystal Display) is spread in all market segments (TV,
computer monitors, laptop computers, mobile devices,
industrial displays, digital information displays). There
are several competing technologies that challenge
AMLCD such as OLED, MEMS and Electro wetting, but
their application is still emerging or limited to a specific
market segment, mainly mobile or TV display market.
Only OLED provides self emitting pixel, but others needs
a backlight, too.

Picture 1. LED development progress in efficiency

Active matrix display liquid crystal cell act as a voltage

controlled light switch [2], so they need a separate light
source (backlight) to deliver light at the display surface.
Backlight is a key light source that shares 15% to 35% of
the display cost pending on its size. At the same time the
backlight uses the most of the energy consumed [3].

CCFL (Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamps) have been the

most commonly used backlight light source from the
beginning. However, the backlight importance generated
a lot of new developments [7], [8]. The progress in LED
luminous efficacy forced by LED illumination
requirements (as illustrated in Picture 1) together with
LED price drop led to more wide LED application.

Backlight properties have a huge influence to the sun

readability, viewing envelope and color gamut which are
important properties in the handheld and military displays

The highest reported value for LED efficacy for the

79

laboratory environment is 237lm/W, and for common

mass production is more than 100lm/W [8], [9]. At the
same time LED price drop several times due to high mass
production. This caused that more than 75% backlight in
AMLCD production use LEDs nowadays.

consuming to set the backlight 3D model, and calculation

take a long time due to high number of rays and
interacting surfaces. Also, they are not fully suitable for
spectral modeling and white LED application.
The most often used software packages are: ASAP
Breault Research Organization, Inc., LightTools Optical
Research Associates (Code V), TracePro Lambda
Research Corporation (OSLO), ZEMAX Photoresearch, FRED Photon Engineering, SPEOS Optis.
None of them provide full display optical simulation but
could be very useful for component analysis. Because of
that, additional simplified simulation tools should be
developed for particular design accompanied with light
management model capable to integrate and handle light
energy balance in accordance with the displays optical
and power consumption requirements.

LEDs are point light sources [9] and AMLCD display is a

wide area uniform light sources. The backlight design
should provide good transformation of the light emitting
group of the point sources to the uniform wide area source
with required emitting properties such as luminance,
viewing envelope, color gamut, taking in the account
transmittance properties of the AMLCD cells.
In this paper we will describe the LED backlight light flux
management model based on the application of the known
and experimentally established data and/or integration
with simulation software results. This model provides a
fast iterative process of the backlight optimization in
display design phase.

2. BACKLIGHT DESIGN PROCESS

Display optical design process is iterative because one
needs to make design compromises during design phase,
and adjust backlight design parameters with the LCD
display requirements. Design process (illustrated on
Picture 2) starts with requirements analysis, and finalize
with defining the parameters for AMLCD panel and
backlight design.

Picture 3. AMLCD Display Optical Structure

LCD displays are low efficacy energy conversion systems
where only 5% to 8% of used electrical energy is
transformed to useable light energy (as illustrated in
Picture 3). Backlight is a basic system component that
provides energy transformation and light beam shaping,
so it is very important to be designed as best as possible.
In the last decade LEDs are used as light source in
majority of display designs. Their application started with
mobile devices first, but spread fast in other applications,
including large TV display market.
There are two basic backlight designs [3], [10], [11]: (1)
side illuminated waveguide light plate and (2) Direct
(bottom) illuminated.
Side illuminated backlights are used mostly in displays
that require slim design, but they could not provide very
high display brightness. They are usually used in devices
which energy consumption is critical, so backlight
efficacy optimization is very important. There are lot
efforts [12]-[15] done in novel backlight structure
analysis and optimization introducing new approaches
and optical components. Also, commercial optical design
software introduce new tools for improved analysis of this
type of backlight.

Pi
cture 2. LED backlight design process flow chart
In majority cases the LCD panel is already selected and
involved in the design process through own properties.
Backlight design should be adjusted to LCD panel and
display requirements. It is of the key importance to
understand and prioritize display requirements and
transfer them to proper backlight design requirements.

3. LIGHT MANAGEMENT MODEL

Commercial software mainly provides simulation that
applies ray tracing technique using a large number of rays
and Monte Carlo ray generation approach. It is time
80

Bottom, or direct illuminated backlight are used mainly in

display requiring high brightness as avionic displays [4],
[16] TV display, or displays using backlight localized
brightness control to achieve higher dynamical contrast
[3], [17].

developed). The model is applied to LED backlight

design optimization and structure efficacy analysis. The
input parameters are extracted from display requirements.
The output of the model are backlight design key
parameters (selected LED type, number and proposed
distribution of LEDs, estimated power consumption, key
dimensions, and recommended LED PCB distribution and
wiring. The model is interactive but parameters change is
simple and calculation response is fast.

In our designs of high brightness avionic display we

mainly use direct illuminated backlights [5], [6]. In order
to optimize design we developed light flux management
model as illustrated in Picture 4.

In addition we developed separate simulation tools for

color gamut calculation and uniformity simulation.
Color gamut calculations are based on our own Color
filter spectral transmittance measurements and LED light
(either white or RGB) spectral measurements. In the case
of RGB LED backlight it provides driving current
balancing to provide proper White point chromaticity
coordinates or gamut shape. Optimizations are performed
by the use of selected LED measured spectral emittance,
and the proper LED selection. To be an efficient
simulation model includes data base for all LEDs
considered for use. Also we used separate module to
generate approximate relative spectral emittance to be
used for analysis until real candidate is purchased and
spectral emittance is measured. This feature provides an
easier LED selection.
The simulation model provides easy setting of the
individual LED (i,j) position coordinates. LEDs are
considered as lambertian sources (equitation 1) [18]. Back
side of diffuser direct illumination is calculated taking in
account all LED contribution over area (x,y) as presented
in equation 2 .
I ij ( x, y ) = cos ij ( x, y )

E ( x, y) =

r1 I
i, j

2
ij

i , j ( x,

y) cos ij ( x, y)

(1)
(2)

Where:

rrij2 ( x, y ) = ( x XDij )2 + ( y YDij )2 + H 2

(3)

i , j ( x, y ) = arctg (

(4)

H
)
(( x XDij ) 2 + ( y YDij )2

And XDij , YDij LED position coordinates,

In addition, model calculates integration chamber
contribution taking in account diffuser properties. The
input parameters are backlight active area size and LED
PCB to diffuser distance (H). The model returns diffuser
2D illumination distribution, backlight mean luminance
value and uniformity value according to VESA [19, 20]
nine points measurements scheme.

Picture 4. Backlight Light Management model structure

The model provides integral light efficacy and display
optical properties analysis taking care of all optical
components in simplified way, connecting input display
requirements and output backlight parameters. Optical
properties of all components and backlight structure are
included using suitable parameters that could be
determined experimentally (measurements), extracted
from manufacturers data sheets, or imported from
separate simulation software (commercial or custom

The model provides fast change of the LED position

initially defined from backlight light management tool
application.
This feature is used for LED position optimization to
provide required uniformity.
81

Picture 7 shows results obtained for distance of 10mm.

This case shows that individual positions of LED are
viable which is not acceptable for good backlight design.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Light management tool, uniformity model and color
gamut model are successfully used in all our design with
very good compliance with measured results of the
completed display units.
In this paper we present more detail results obtained
during 3ATI display design and compare simulation
results to the results obtained using commercial TracePro
software package [21] and measurement results of
manufactured unit.
3ATI display LED distribution on the PCB used in
simulation and final design is presented in Picture 5. The
simulation is performed to determine the optimal distance
between LED PCB and diffuser.

The TracePro simulation model has different resolution

and color scheme than our, but one can detect very similar
shapes in the both cases.

Picture 5. 3ATI display backlight LED distribution on the

PCB

Simulation results show that the required uniformity

could be achieved with proposed LED distribution on the
PCB board if distance between LED PCB board and back
diffuser is in the range 14mm to 24mm. The best
uniformity value is achieved for distance of 16mm. This
case is presented in Picture 6.

Picture 7. Illumination distribution on diffuser at 10 mm

LED PCB to diffuser distance
(top proposed model, bottom- TracePro model

Picture 8. 3D representation of the illumination

distribution at diffuser at 14 mm distance
(top proposed model, bottom- TracePro model

Picture 6. Illumination distribution on diffuser at 16 mm

LED PCB to diffuser distance
(top proposed model, bottom- TracePro model)
82

Picture 8 shows 3D representation of the diffuser back

surface illumination for the distance of 14mm. This
distance was selected for our design due to space
limitation although it was not optimal but only acceptable.

5. CONCLUSION
There are a lot of possibilities to improve backlight design
and lighting performances. In the same time there is a
need to improve backlight design increasing the light
efficacy and lowering production cost leading to overall
AMLCD cost reduction and quality improvements.

The Tracepro simulation model generates results for

monochromatic rays and is not capable to express results
in photometric quantities. If we consider input and
calculated irradiation values as relative and apply real
LED flux values used in our model, then we got mean
illumination value complying better than 5%, in both
simulations.

The key step in the backlight design process is to

carefully define the problem which should be solved. The
application of the commercial simulation software should
be closely connected with experiments and known
measurement data.

Picture 9 shows display uniformity measurement results

as per VESA nine point uniformity measurement scheme.

Novel backlight designs can be accessed on the most

economical way by modeling of its components and
analysis using the light management model that should to
include all relevant optical elements and phenomena .

Table 1 summarized selected measurements results at

room temperature and compares them with required and
designed values.

Light management model should to include all relevant

optical elements (light source, reflective and refractive
elements, LCD panel, etc.) and easily interactive to
provide fast backlight optimization.

Measured uniformity value is better than calculated due to

back diffuser contribution through scattering, which was
not considered in the model.

Avoid trying to simulate backlight structure which is too

complicate, or having components not supported fully
with simulation tools available. Simulation software is
useful for some components influence simulation. During
simulation make sure that selected exit parameters are
suitable for easy integration in the whole backlight light
management model. It is even better if you selected
parameter which could be easily measured.
Simulation tools should be used carefully, it is always
better to have good understanding of the optical reasons
that support your design.
The light flux management model accompanied with own
backlight simulation model presented in this paper
provides easy and fast calculation necessary for direct
illumination backlight optimization in design phase. It
includes all backlight design parameters and allows
integration of experimentally known data or simulation
results from other design tools.

Picture 9: Uniformity measurement results

Table 1. 3 ATI Brightness and uniformity measurement
results summary
Characteristics
Required Designed Measured
Max. Brightness [fL]
150
200
210
Min. Brightness [fL]
5
2
1.88
Uniformity
70
75
83.3
Lmin/Lmax [%]
White point - x
0.350.02 To comply 0.343
White point - y
0.380.02 To comply 0.389
Color uniformity
< 0.01
0.003
Error
Backlight Power
<1
0.485
0.477
[W/sqi/100fL]

The measurement results presented show good

compliance between designed and measured backlight
related parameters.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Some results presented in this paper were possible due to
generosity of Lambda Research Corporation providing
TracePro software package for one month free evaluation.

REFERENCES
[1] Joseph A. Castellano: Liquid Gold: The Story About
Liquid Crystal Displays and the Creation of an
Industry, World Scientific Publishing Company,
Singapore, 2005

Designed initial brightness measured value is much higher

than required. Required value is defined for lifetime and
overall temperature range. Light management model
includes lifetime and Hot/Cold Deration factors, same as
LED light flux binning. Measured brightness value is slightly
higher than calculated because backlight LED light flux was
very well centered inside selected intensity bin.

[2] Willem den Boer: Liquid Crystal Displays:

Fundamentals and Applications, Elsevier Inc.,
Burlington, USA, 2005

83

[13] John F. Van Derlofske: Computer modeling of LED

light pipe systems for uniform LCD Illumination,
Proc. SPIE 4445, Solid State Lighting and Displays,
p. 119 ,2001
[14] Young Chul Kim, Tae-Sik Oh, Yong Min Lee:
Optimized pattern design of light-guide plate (LGP),
Optica Applicata, Vol. XLI, No. 4, 2011
[15] Gerard Harbers and Christoph Hoelen: High
Performance LCD Backlighting using High Intensity
Red, Green and Blue Light Emitting Diodes, SID
Symposium Digest of Technical Papers, Volume 32,
Issue 1, pp. 702705, 2001
[16] Mauro Nodari, Federico Zaraga, Riccardo Grassetti:
Implementation of an LED backlight for avionic
Displays, Journal of the SID 16/2, 2008, pp 343-349
[17] Robert Smith Gillespie: Design Consideration for
LED Backlights in Large Format Color LCDs, LEDs
in DISPL:AYS SID Technical Symposium. Jan
2006
[18] Ivan Moreno and Ching-Cherng Sun: Modeling the
radiation pattern of LEDs, OPTICS EXPRESS 1809,
Vol.16, No.3 , February 2008
[19] ___ VESA FPDM 2: Flat Panel Display
Measurement Standard, June 1, 2001
[20] ___ The ICDM International Display Measurement
Standard, Society for Information Display (SID).
SID, 2012 (Available on line)
[21] ____: TracePro User Manual, Release 6.0, Lambda
Research Corporation,, 2009

[3] Shunsuke Kobayashi, Shigeo Mikoshiba and

Sungkyoo Lim (Editors): LCD Backlights, John
Wiley & Sons, 2009
[4] Daniel D. Desjardins: Military Displays: Technology
and Applications, (Tutorial texts in optical
engineering: vol TT95), SPIE Press, Bellingham,
Washington, USA, 2013
[5] Branko Livada, Radomir Jankovi, Neboja Nikoli:
AFV Vetronics: Displays Design Criteria, Strojniki
vestnik - Journal of Mechanical Engineering vol. 58,
No6, pp.376-385, 2012
[6] Branko Livada: Avionic Displays, Scientific
Technical Review, Vol.62, No.3-4, pp.70-79, 2012
[7] J.L. Park: LCD backlights, light sources, and flat
fluorescent lamps, Journal of the SID 15/12, 2007,
pp 1109-1114.
[8] Munisamy Anandan : Progress of LED backlights for
LCDs, Journal of the SID 16/2, 2008, pp 287-310
[9] Schubert, E. Fred: Light-Emitting Diodes, Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[10] S.K. Lim: LCD Backlights and Light Sources, Proc.
of ASID06, 8-12 Oct, New Delhi, 2006
[11] Dewight Warren: Design Challenges in Backlighting
LCD TVs, pp 40-44, Power Electronics Technology
May 2005
[12] Chi Feng Lin, Chih-Cheng Wu, Po-Hua Yang and
Tsung-Yuan Kuo: Application of Taguchi Method in
Light-Emitting Diode Backlight Design for Wide
Color Gamut Displays, Journal of Display
Technology, vol.5 No.8, pp. 323 -330, August 2009,

84

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE ANALOG AND THE DIGITAL

COCKPIT OF LASTA TRAINING AIRCRAFT
SLAVIA VLAI
Military Academy, Belgrade, slavisavlacic@yahoo.com
ALEKSANDAR KNEEVI,
Military Academy, Belgrade, aleksandarknezevic75@gmail.com
NIKOLA PEKI,
Department for Strategic Planning, MoD, nikola.pekic@mod.gov.rs

Abstract: Lasta training aircraft, as a new type in Serbian Air Force service, brings a lot of technical improvements
comparing to older training aircrafts. One of the biggest improvements is implementation of digital glass cockpit. This
paperwork explains the most important advantages of digital glass cockpit versus analog cockpit which is applied on
the prototype P1 and the first production lot of Lasta training aircraft. The emphasis of the paperwork is on the first
exploitation experiences and future expectations.
Keywords: Lasta, training aircraft, digital glass cockpit, analog cockpit, PFD, MFD
inherent for the earlier generation of basic trainers. The
Serbian Air Forces' Lasta aircraft are fitted with Garmin
G500 avionics suites, which include primary flight
display (PFD) and a multi-function display (MFD). These
different cockpit layouts means a lot of unique
characteristics, especially in terms of exploatation and
training capabilities which has great impact on flight
safety. There is also significant difference between
maintenance system of two different cockpits.

1. INTRODUCTION
Lasta training aircraft is a domestic produced aircraft
intended for primary and basic flight training. It is a
tandem two-seat low-wing trainer with a metal airframe.
Its development started in the beginning of 80s and it has
undergone many changes since its initial requirements.
The last derivative is known as Lasta or V-54 and posses
a lot of differences compared to the first variant which
flew for the first time during 1985th.

Because Lasta aircraft is not in full operational use in the

Serbian AF&AD yet, and the experience from Iraqi Air
Force is not available, this paperwork is mainly based on
pressumptions and results of theoretical analysys. The
comparation is done between the main characteristics of
analog and digital glass cockpit applied in different Lasta
variants.

Lasta seems as an ideal trainer platform for flight training

including basic flying, aerobatic flying, navigation flying,
instrument flying, formation flying and night flying. It can
also be deployed in homeland security, light close air
support, patrol and light attack missions. The Lasta
accommodates two crew members in tandem cockpits.
The ergonomic seating arrangement was designed in
accordance with military aircraft standards. It provides
comfortable accommodation for 99% of pilots. The front
seat is well placed to provide direct visibility of
approaching runways. The height-adjustable pilot seat
accepts a back-carried pilot parachute. The rear seat is
provided with a minimum headroom of 100 mm [1].

2. THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF

ANALOG AND DIGITAL COCKPIT
There are two basic types of cockpits, traditional or
analog cockpits and digital glass cockpits. Traditional
cockpits used since the birth of aviation rely on analog
instruments, and are usually found on small recreational
aircraft, as well as older planes of all types.

The aircraft is being produced in two main variants. The

first one includes traditional analog cockpit layout and the
second one is equipped with a modern avionics suite.
Iraqi Air Force was the first customer of the model. 20
aircraft were equipped with classic analog instruments

A glass cockpit is an aircraft cockpit that features

electronic (digital) instrument displays, typically large
LCD screens, rather than the traditional style of analog

85

dials and gauges. While a traditional cockpit is based on

numerous mechanical gauges to display information, a
glass cockpit uses several displays driven by flight
management systems, that can be adjusted to display
flight information as needed. This simplifies aircraft
operation and navigation and allows pilots to focus only
on the most pertinent information. In recent years the
technology has become widely available in small aircraft.
During the last eight years, the majority of general
aviation aircraft, including Cessna, Cirrus, Diamond,
Mooney and Piper, have switched from traditional analog
cockpit instrumentation to digital glass cockpits. Many
older aircraft are being retrofit with modern avionics that
include IFR-approved GPS units, autopilots, primary
flight displays (PFDs) and multifunction displays
(MFDs), which give many of the same safety advantages
that glass cockpits offer. One principal advantage of glass
cockpits is the elimination of these delicate mechanical
components. Instead, solid-state electronics found in glass
cockpits are more reliable and less prone to wear and
degradation because of normal aircraft operations [2].

3. ANALOG COCKPIT OF LASTA AIRCRAFT

The contract for delivery of 20 Lasta aircraft signed with
Iraq during the July of 2008th. This contract has been
signed before the maiden flight of first Lasta prototype,
which is also known as P1. Because of technological risk,
and the pressure of delivery timeline, Military Technical
Institute (MTI) designers have decided to apply
conventional cockpit design with analog instruments.
Analog cockpit i.e. instruments are also called steam
gauges or round dials type of instruments. The front
cockpit panel was equipped with traditional instruments
in basic six configuration with six primary flight
instruments. They have become standard in any
instrument panel and, since the early 1950's, these have
been arranged in a certain, standard layout commonly
referred to as the 'six pack'. They are laid out in two rows
of three instruments each. The top row, left to right,
contains the Airspeed Indicator (ASI), the Attitude
Indicator (AI) and the Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI). The
bottom row contains the Turn Coordinator (TC) the
Directional Gyro (DG) and the Altimeter (Alt). This
layout has been applied on virtually all domestic jets
which are in service: Galeb G-2, Supergaleb G-4 and
Orao. It was reasonable to use the same layout on Lasta
aircraft, too.

Changing from conventional instruments to glass cockpit

displays has created new challenges for interface and
display design with implications for the way pilots
monitor information in the cockpit. However, the
differences between conventional and glass cockpit
displays extend beyond appearance.

The most important part of equipment profile in Iraqi Lasta

planes is multifunctional GNS 430W unit. This unit
significantly improves situation awareness. The GNS 430W
unit unifies in one box the GPS receiver, VOR/ILS receiver
and VHF radio unit, meeting the instrumental flight rules
(IFR). Moving map and other data are displayed on 4 inches
high-contrast color LCD. The GNS 430W is an all-in-one
GPS/Nav/Comm solution. It features a WAAS-certified
GPS, 2280-channel capacity comm and 200-channel
ILS/VOR with localizer and glide slope. Traditionally it
would take a host of components to provide the capabilities
of this one smart box. High-speed 5 Hz processing makes
navigation calculations and map redraw rates five times
faster than earlier GNS series navigators.

Each of the conventional round-dial instruments depends

on electromechanical, pneumatic, or pressure - sensitive
components to generate and display specific aircraft
performance and control parameters, such as airspeed,
altitude, heading, pitch and bank attitude, rate of climb,
and rate of turn. In contrast, glass cockpit displays rely on
computerized systems that integrate multiple data inputs
and controls. Glass cockpit displays can present more
information in the space required for conventional
instrument panels, but the increase in information places
greater demands on pilot attention and creates a risk of
overloading pilots with more information than they can
effectively monitor and process. The complexity of the
integrated computerized systems that drive glass cockpit
displays may also limit pilots understanding of the
functionality of the underlying systems [3].

GNS 430w's high-contrast display is easy to read and

interpret pilot-critical information. Effective use of color
makes it easy to see your position relative to ground
features, chart data, navigation aids, flight plan routings,
approach procedures and more. GNS 430W seamlessly
integrates built-in terrain and navigation databases,
providing a clear, concise picture of where you are and
where you are heading. The 430W's Jeppesen database,
updated with front-loading data cards, contains location
reference for all airports, VORs, NDBs, Intersections,
Flight Service Stations, published approaches,
SIDs/STARs, Special Use Airspace and geopolitical
boundaries. A detailed base map shows airports, cities,
highways, railroads, rivers, lakes, coastlines and more.
Using information from the built-in terrain and obstacles
databases, the 430W displays color coding to graphically
alert you when proximity conflicts loom ahead [5].

The biggest advantage to a glass cockpit over traditional

cockpits is that the automation systems are more accurate,
the information is more precise, and the data is displayed
more ergonomically. Glass cockpits also include
feedback loops and the capability for self-checking to
alert the pilot to problems before they become
emergencies. The system also provides a checklist for
some issues that the pilot can use to attempt to
troubleshoot the problem and correct it immediately.
As electronic and digital instruments become more
sophisticated, glass cockpits will become standard for
aircraft in the future. Although there is additional training
necessary for pilots who switch from traditional analog
instrumentation to glass cockpits, the accuracy and
dependability of the newer systems offer reduced pilot
fatigue, resulting in safer flying for crew [4].

GNS 430 W is only device in Iraqi airplanes which can be

characterized as an part of the modern digital or glass
cockpits, and it is important to stress that engine
instruments on Iraqi airplanes are conventional, or so
called steam gauges.
86

Using GNS-430W and MVP-50, engineers have

categorized Lasta P1 cockpit as a semi-glass cockpit. This
was the phase between the analog and digital (glass)
cockpit. The analog cockpit of Iraqi Lasta and Lasta P1 is
shown on Picture 1.

In order to improve situational awareness MTI designers

have decided to make changes on Serbian prototype P1
and they embed digital MVP-50 engine analyzer and
systems monitor. MVP-50 replaces over 15 engine
instruments and 50 functions. The MVP-50 allows pilots
to accurately monitor dozens of engine and system
parameters, program redline limits, setup custom inputs,
create interactive checklists, store general flight
information, build flight plans, record and review
pertinent data from every flight, and so much more.

The picture clearly shows the position of the GNS-430W

in left bottom corner and the front position of the MVP-50
in the Lasta P1 cockpit.

3. DIGITAL COCKPIT OF LASTA AIRCRAFT

Programmable over-temp limits provide pilots with

immediate alerts whenever critical function parameters
are exceeded during flight. Onboard data-recording gives
pilots the capability to review entire flight histories for
any flight. A complete bar graph gives critical engine
information during flight, including leaning assistance,
temperature differentials, audible and visual limit alerts.
The System Screen is dedicated to aircraft systems,
including flaps, trim and rudder, as well as whatever other
functions pilot want to view. Customizable checklists
visually inform you which steps have and have not been
completed in each checklist. General Information Screens
and Flight Plan Screens can be customized to store critical
flight information, allowing you to create a "virtual
cockpit," free of the pieces of paper pilots regularly have
to juggle to stay on top of in-flight operations. USB Port
is accessible fot uploading and downloading data [6].

The next step in the evolution of Lasta cockpit was made

with the second prototype or P2. The great leap forward
was integration of Garmin G500 Avionics Display
System, which today makes the heart of Lastas avionics.
The G500 system is an avionics suite designed to replace
the traditional flight instrument cluster. It is an integrated
display
system
that
presents
primary
flight
instrumentation, navigation, and a moving map to the
pilot through large format displays. In normal operating
mode, the Primary Flight Display (PFD) presents
graphical flight instrumentation (attitude, heading,
airspeed, altitude, vertical speed), replacing the traditional
flight instrument cluster. The Multi-Function Display
(MFD) normally displays a full-color moving map with
navigation information, as well as supplemental data.
The G500 system is composed of sub-units or Line
Replaceable Units (LRUs). LRUs have a modular design
and can be installed directly behind the instrument panel
or in a separate avionics bay if desired. This design
greatly eases troubleshooting and maintenance of the
G500 system. A failure or problem can be isolated to a
particular LRU, which can be replaced quickly and easily.
Each LRU has a particular function, or set of functions,
that contributes to the systems operation.
The G500 system on Lasta aircraft consists of the
following Line Replaceable Units (LRUs):
GDU 620 Primary Flight Display (PFD) and Multi
Function Display (MFD)
GDC 74A Air Data Computer (ADC)
GRS 77 Attitude and Heading Reference System
(AHRS)
GNS 430W
GTP 59 Temperature Probe
GMU 44 Magnetometer
ADF
Garmin GTX330/330D TIS-B traffic awareness
systems,
Audio Panel
GAD 43 Adapter
The optional Garmin Synthetic Vision Technology
(SVT) is a visual enhancement to the G500 and it is
implemented on Lasta aircrafts. SVT is displayed as a
forward-looking display of the topography immediately in
front of the aircraft. SVT information is shown on the
primary flight display (PFD). The depicted imagery is
derived from the aircraft attitude, heading, GPS threedimensional position, and a database of terrain, obstacles,
and other relevant features [7].

Picture 1. Analog cockpit of Iraqi Lasta and P1 cockpit

87

The following SVT enhancements appear on the PFD:

Flight Path Marker
Horizon Heading Marks
Traffic Display
Airport Signs
Runway Display
Terrain Alerting
Obstacle Alerting
Water
Zero-Pitch Line

test flights of test pilots of the Technical Test Center with

prototype P2 and with the first five serial aircrafts. Those
pilots were interviewed by authors and they helped this
analysis a lot. They have also helped to notice new issues
for the further research. Because of our small experience,
the results and knowledge of other users were also
implemented in this paperwork.
The first impressions of Serbian military pilots are almost
identical and everybody has agreed that Lastas digital
cockpit is great step forward, but there are also some
upcoming issues with collecting of experience.

Standard Terrain - SVT is integrated within SVT to

provide visual and audible alerts to indicate the presence
of terrain threats relative to the projected flight path. In
addition to the Terrain - SVT alerts, SVT offers a threedimensional view of terrain and obstacles. Terrain and/or
obstacles that pose a threat to the aircraft in flight are
shaded yellow or red.

When we are analyzing opportunities and capabilities of

digital glass cockpit it is obviously that the information in
glass cockpit is more precise and due to the computer
screens can be displayed much more ergonomically.
These benefits greatly increase flight safety.
The other benefit to the addition of the computer
processing power is that it can also integrate more feature
into the screens and also allow the display of more
information, For example, the added benefit of clearly
displayed GPS navigation, GPWS, TCAS, and weather
information greatly increases flight safety. These systems
can also be display pictorially so that the pilot can get a
instant mental picture rather than having to process all the
information themselves.
On the other hand, glass panels may have advantages
when it comes to terrain avoidance, and avoiding VFR
flight into IMC.
Glass cockpits have a tremendous amount of information
available to the pilots that is not available to those with
analog gauges. In addition to the extra information, the
current information is presented in a format that is easy to
use and scan. This reduces cockpit workload and makes
flying easier. Because the newer systems are more
automated, they are more accurate and the integration of
controls better than in traditional analog systems. The
biggest advantage to a glass cockpit over traditional
cockpits is that the automation systems are more accurate,
the information is more precise, and the data is displayed
more ergonomically [8].

Picture 2. Digital glass cockpit of Serbian Lasta aircrafts

The G500 System uses Secure Digital (SD) cards to load
and store various types of data. For basic flight
operations, SD cards are required for Terrain, Obstacle,
FliteChart, SafeTaxi, and ChartView database storage as
well as Jeppesen aviation and ChartView database
updates. The Aviation Database update card is generally
inserted in the upper SD card slot for database updates
and then removed. Other database cards are normally
located in the lower SD card slot.
Because the Lasta is military trainer, this plane has
standby instruments as a backup. The standby instruments
(altimeter, airspeed, attitude, and magnetic compass) are
completely independent from the PFD and will continue
to operate in the event the PFD is not usable. These
standby instruments should be included in the pilots
normal instrument scan and may be referenced if the PFD
data is in question. The instructor in the rear seat also has
a G500 system installed and additional standby
instruments. Standby instruments are very important in
complex aerobatic maneuvers because of possibility to
loose picture on PFD during extreme maneuvering. G500
in intended for general aviation since Lasta is military
trainer capable for full aerobatics.

Disadvantages of traditional analog instrumentation are

the multitudes of mechanical components: gyroscopes,
delicate flywheels, gimbals, seals and motors.
Diaphragms, tubes, gears, springs, pins, needles, pointers
and housings make up other mechanical instruments.
Gyroscopes lose accuracy during flight, and mechanical
components wear out. Frequently repairing or replacing
analog instruments is expensive.

4. PROS AND CONS OF ANALOG AND

DIGITAL LASTA COCKPIT

But analog cockpits still have some advantages. One

possibility is that analog gauges can be more easily
interpreted during rapid changes in airspeed and altitude.
Pilots with glass panels may also be spending more time
looking at the displays instead of looking outside. It is

Glass cockpits also provide an element of maintenance

simplicity. If a PFD fails, three or four screws later and
the old display can be replaced with a new one. Standby
instruments (altimeter, airspeed, attitude, and magnetic
compass) are attached outside of the glass units, making
them easier to replace, too.

The existing experience with Lastas digital glass cockpit

is relatively small. The experience is gained through the
88

also fact that according to NTSB reports we consistently

see more accidents during takeoffs, landings, and goarounds in glass panel airplanes.

weather and navigation information may encourage some

pilots to press on into deteriorating weather. In fact, a
five-year NTSB study released in 2010 [3] outlines that
GA aircraft equipped with glass cockpits have twice the
fatal accident rate of aircraft equipped with traditional
cockpits, although their overall accident rate was lower.
However, digital glass cockpit, in the hands of a
competent, well-trained pilot, has the potential to make
flying safer. A moving map with terrain and weather on it
certainly can boost situational awareness.

The glass cockpit also has too few buttons and knobs and
it has too many buttons and knobs. In the case of a few
controls, each knob or button performs multiple functions,
resulting in overloading. In the case of turbulence and
emergencies, the pilot may touch and activate the wrong
buttons because there are so many of them in a small area.
Flying a glass cockpit aircraft requires a different
cognitive style of thinking. As a result, converting from a
traditional aircraft with dozens of indiviudual instruments,
to a glass cockpit with a few displays requires more than
just learning where to look. Older pilots, who have flown
thousands of hours in traditional cockpits, usually
experience some difficulty transferring to glass cockpit
aircraft [9]. Another interesting point is that there is
potential for a pilot to become fatigued more easily when
flying glass cockpit aircraft.

While glass cockpits offer an abundance of useful features

in todays fully integrated cockpit, learning how to use
these new tools effectively, while still maintaining control
of the aircraft, is something that will keep training
squadron busy for years to come.
For pilots who is going to be converted to a glass cockpit and
want to gain the numerous advantages of modern avionics,
there are numerous training options. Many suppliers provide
Internet-downloaded trainers free of charge, and there are
free online interactive courses. Commercial DVDs and
simulator training are extremely useful, too. However,
realistic flight training using the specific system in busy
airspace during less-than-ideal weather with an experienced
flight instructor is a must [10].

These facts imposed specific approach to the conversion

training which is very important. A VFR pilot
transitioning from steam gauges to glass needs to be
comfortable with quickly finding and processing the
traditional six-pack instrument indications, as well as
engine, communication and navigation information on the
PFD and MFD. An IFR pilot requires the same, plus an
excellent understanding of how to use navigation and
autopilot functions. PFD and MFD of Lastas cockpit is
shown on picture 3.

5. CONCLUSION
Lasta training aircraft is a domestic produced aircraft
intended for primary and basic flight training. It is an
trainer platform for flight training including basic flying,
aerobatic flying, navigation flying, instrument flying,
formation flying and night flying. It is produced in two
main variants: the first one has been produced for Iraqi
Air Force and the second one is intended for Serbian
AF&AD. Iraqi Lasta airplanes are equipped with classic
analog instruments while Serbian planes have digital glass
cockpit. These different cockpit layouts mean a lot of
unique characteristics, especially in terms of exploitation
and training capabilities which has great impact on flight
safety.
A digital glass cockpit is an aircraft cockpit that features
electronic (digital) instrument displays, typically large
LCD screens, rather than the traditional style of analog
dials and gauges. While a traditional cockpit relies on
numerous mechanical gauges to display information, a
glass cockpit uses several displays driven by flight
management systems that can be adjusted to display flight
information. The automation systems of digital glass
cockpit are more accurate, the information is more
precise, and the data is displayed more ergonomically.

Picture 3. PFD and MFD of Lastas cockpit

Without familiarization training, a basic change of a radio
or navigation frequency can cause confusion, distract the
pilot and take longer than using a stand-alone radio in a
traditional cockpit. Entering a flight plan in the GPS and
knowing how to quickly add or delete points in-flight
require more training, and is essential for safe flight.

Besides practical benefit of digital cockpits, first

prototype and first production lot were produced with
traditional analog cockpit. The reasons were technological
risk and the pressure of delivery timeline. First Serbian
prototype served as an interim phase demonstrator and it
was equipped with so called semi-glass cockpit. It
means that it has a few digital units in mainly analog
environment. These are GNS 430W and MVP-50.

Having GPS navigation showing track, heading, and time

to destination, range, and endurance, greatly reduces pilot
workload and situational awareness, and increases safety.
However, student pilots must be instructed in such a way
that they do not become dependant on the computerized
systems. It is still important to be able to efficiently
perform manual navigation and fuel-monitoring tasks,
should computerized systems fail. Another possible
danger is pilots becoming emboldened by glass cockpits,
and taking risks they would not usually take. Having

The GNS 430W unit unifies in one box the GPS receiver,
VOR/ILS receiver and VHF radio unit. Moving map and
other data are displayed on 4 inches color LCD. MVP-50
89

is a digital engine analyzer and systems monitor. MVP-50

replaces over 15 engine instruments and 50 functions.

is still important to be able to efficiently perform manual

navigation
and
fuel-monitoring
tasks,
should
computerized systems fail. Another possible danger is
pilots becoming emboldened by glass cockpits, and taking
risks they would not usually take.

Further improvement was made with prototype P2 and

integration of Garmin G500 Avionics Display System.
This system is an avionics suite designed to replace the
traditional flight instrument cluster. It is an integrated
display
system
that
presents
primary
flight
instrumentation, navigation, and a moving map to the
pilot through large format displays, PFD and MFD. In
normal operating mode, the Primary Flight Display (PFD)
presents graphical flight instrumentation (attitude,
heading, airspeed, altitude, vertical speed), replacing the
traditional flight instrument cluster. The Multi-Function
Display (MFD) normally displays a full-color moving
map with navigation information, as well as supplemental
data. Synthetic Vision Technology is also implemented
and it is displayed as a forward-looking display of the
topography immediately in front of the aircraft.

For pilots who are going to be converted to a glass

cockpit and want to gain the numerous advantages of
modern avionics, there are numerous training options and
an experienced flight instructor is a must.
It can be concluded that if we want to attain desired level
for safe flying with glass cockpit, ground training with
use of synthetic device is also necessity. Process of
conversion of experienced pilot on traditional analog
cockpit will not be so easy and fast and it needs enough
time, which has to be determined in the next phase of
acquiring the Lasta fleet.
Because of cockpit complexity and our study program
curriculum timeline it will be impossible to use Lasta in
selection process of future pilots in ab-initio or primary
flight training phase. It is also necessary to make
adaptation of our methodical manuals, study curriculum
and syllabus concerning to Lasta airplane.

Analyzing both of the cockpit layouts and their benefits

and disadvantages a few facts can be extracted:
The information in a digital glass cockpit is more
precise and due to the computer screens can be
displayed much more ergonomically

REFERENCES

Glass cockpits have a tremendous amount of

information available to the pilots that is not available
to those with analog gauges

[1] http://www.airforce-technology.com/projects/lasta95-advanced-training-aircraft/ accessed June 2014.

[2] Decker, T.: Improving Safety In Glass Cockpits,
Plane & Pilot, July 6, 2010.
[3] Introduction of Glass Cockpit Avionics into Light
Aircraft, Safety Study, National Transportation
Safety Board, 2010.
[4] http://blog.covingtonaircraft.com/2012/11/14/theglass-cockpit-advantage/ accessed June 2014.
[5] http://www.aircraftspruce.com/catalog/avpages/garmi
nGNS430.php accessed July 2014.
[6] http://www.lycomingoverhaul.com/Aircraftenginemo
nitoranalyzer.html accessed July 2014.
[7] Garmin G500 Pilots Manual, p.242.
[8] http://freightdawginit.blogspot.com/2007/01/part-3analog-vs-glass.html accessed June 2014.
[9] Roscoe, A.H., Workload in the glass cockpit, Flight
Safety Digest, 1-8. 1992.
[10] http://aviatorcollege.wordpress.com/2013/04/10/glass
-cockpit-flight-training/ accessed July 2014.
[11] The accident record of technologically advanced
aircraft An update from the Air Safety Institute,
AOPA Air Safety Institute, 2012.

Disadvantages of traditional analog instrumentation are

the multitudes of mechanical components so the glass
cockpits also provide an element of maintenance
simplicity
Analog gauges can be more easily interpreted during
rapid changes in airspeed and altitude
Pilots with glass panels may also be spending more
time looking at the displays instead of looking outside.
In the case of turbulence and emergencies, the pilot
may touch and activate the wrong buttons because there
are so many of them in a small area.
Flying a glass cockpit aircraft requires a different
cognitive style of thinking.
These facts imposed specific approach to the conversion
training which is very important. Without familiarization
training, a basic change of a radio or navigation frequency
can cause confusion, distract the pilot and take longer
than using a stand-alone radio in a traditional cockpit.
Entering a flight plan in the GPS and knowing how to
quickly add or delete points in-flight require more
training, and is essential for safe flight.
Student pilots must be instructed in such a way that they
do not become dependent on the computerized systems. It

90

APPLICATIONS OF POWERED PARAGLIDERS IN MILITARY, POLICE

SPECIAL FORCES, SEARCHING AND RESCUE UNITS
STEVAN JOVII
Serbian Armed Forces, Technical Test Center, Belgrade, stevanjovicic@gmail.com
SAA TIRNANI
Serbian Armed Forces, Technical Test Center, Belgrade, tirnanic.sasa@gmail.com
ZORAN ILI
Serbian Armed Forces, Technical Test Center, Belgrade, zoranilic_65@yahoo.com
NENKO BRKLJA
Serbian Armed Forces, Technical Test Center, Belgrade, nenko.brkljac@vs.rs
MILUTIN JANKOVI
Aeronautical plants Moma Stanojlovic, Belgrade, jmilutin@verat.net

Abstract: This paper describes different applications of powered paraglider (paramotor) in military and police service
search and rescue operations Paper elaborates on an appliance of what might be considered the successful, portable
and inexpensive motorized aircraft. Features and flying applications of paramotor including results of experienced law
enforcement and military units worldwide are been presented.
Keywords: paramotor, powered paraglider, military applications.
Powered paragliding is a form of aviation where the pilot
wears a motor on his back (a paramotor) which provides
enough thrust for take off using paraglider wing. Pilot
indenpendetly can take off in a good weather conditions
from smooth area, smoothly enough to run for just ten
meters. Light weight carts or trikes with three or four
wheeels can also be mounted on powered paragliders for
those who prefer to launch on wheel.

1. INTRODUCTION
Pioneers of flight were inspired with idea of being able to
fly like a birds, but as Otto Lilienthal said: To invent an
airplane is nothing. To built one is something. To fly is
everything. The discovery of motorized paraglider made
flying more available to almost everyone.
Powered paragliders (also known as paramotors, depending
on community) are contemporary, safe, portable,
economical, small scale, cheep and maintance low cost
aircrafts, used in almost all developed armed forces.

2. POWERED PARAGLIDER CONCEPTUAL

DESIGN

A self-powered paragliders consist of elliptical flexible

ram-air airfoil, with suspension lines and risers (a
paraglider) and an engine with propeler, gearbox, frame
assembly and harness (a paramotor). Paramotor is
attached by carabiners to risers of paraglider and makes
complete aircraft. Harness provides the comfortable
sedentary position of pilot during the flight. Engine,
settled over gearbox and propeller provides thrust.

Powered paraglider has beeen characteriyed by following

design parameters:
Air autonomy in range of 3 hours to 5 hours in case of
standard appliance, up to 7 hours in case of specialized
appliance,
Flight radius of several tenth of km (standard appliance)
Cruising speed in range of about 30 km/h to 50 km/h
(standard appliance)
Possibility to turn off engine in flight, no-noise flight,
restart engine in flight (turn-on)
Climbing speed in range of about 1,5 m/s to 2 m/s
Maximum flight altitude is around 4.000 m in case of
standard appliance and over 8.000 m in case of special

This kind of aircraft requires no airport or hangar. It can

be packed so small that can fit in standard terrain vehicle.
The major advantage of this aircraft for military and
police appliance is in its bility to fly low and slow with
low level of environmental impact.
91

In contrast with other types of powered aircraft, no special

long paved areas are required for take off and landing.
Area comparable to soccer field can be used as a base for
powered paraglider squadron.

model appliance
Maximum load is up to 200 kg in case of standard
appliance (including: pilot, paramotor, paraglider,
harness, tandem passenger and additional load)
Takeoff and landing in small, inaccessible areas
(necessary start up path is 1-15 m)
Transport possible in almost all standard patrol vehicle
Short response time (time between status ready for
transport and ready for take off is approximately 5 min)
Typically they produce noise level of 55 dB measured
at distance of 100 m)

3. CONFIGURATION CONCEPT OF
PARAMOTOR
There are three types of paramotor:
The backpack paramotor (foot launched)
The trike, paramotor with three or four wheels
The unmanned paramotor

Features and funcionality stated above may vary depends

on pilots capabilities, powered paraglider model (type of
ram-air airfoil and engine), pilots skill, weather
conditions.

Powered paragliders can be powered with two stroke

engine, four stroke engine, jet power or electric power.
Additional configurability has been achieved by solo
flying, tandem property (possibility to transport a
passenger) and cargo flights. Depending on engine power
each of mentioned aircraft types can be weighted with
different load. Typical loading is between 100 kg and
200 kg , but it can be even more than 1.000 kg in case of
specialized appliance, as far as ram air wing performances
are appropriate.

Powered paraglider is also characteriyed by low coast of

purchase, economical maintance and exploatation in
terms of spare replacement and fuel consumption low
costs.
Conventional aircrafts produce several times greater level
of noise than paramotors, so they are not appropriate
choise for flying on low altitudes. On the other hand
flying at higher altitudes significantly comlicates target
spotting and identification on the ground.

Paramotors are characterized by specific flight

performances depending on engine thrust, wing loading,
and aerodynamic characteristics of the canopy air density.

During flying in good visibility conditions large items

such as vehicles and tanks can be spotted easy even from
the greater altitudes, but if visibility is reduced because of
the fog, haze or clouds, or the items being searched for,
are small or camouflaged, searching, spotting and
identification becomes much more dificult task even
impossible one.

In general, foot launched paramators are more

manouverable than trikes. They are lighter, small scale
and compact, more shiffing and can takeoff and land in
small and rugged surfaces. Foot launched aircraft do not
have cockpits, and the pilot is completely out, in the open,
as a parashutist. Upon takeoff pilot uses his legs for speed
increase and in landing pilots legs acting as a landing
gear.

Powered paraglider is very suited and advisable for this

kind of operations, because of its noisless and capability
to fly on altitudes not greater than just a few meters. In
case of flight altitudes over 600 m as far as camouflage
techniques is applied paramotor starts to be sight less and
noisless.
Also paramotor can be treated as a good photography and
shooting platform. Pilot, or even better tandem passenger,
can take seria of photos or record a video. With a cruising
speed of between 30 km/h and 50 km/h none of scenes
underfoot changes too quickly and so detailed and
precisely framed pictures or footage can be taken.

Picture 2: Powered paraglider (PPG)-foot launch

The trike, wheeled paramotor, also has a flexible ram-air
parachute-type airfoil and susppension lines, which can
usually support more weight than a backpack powered
paraglider. The engine which provides thrust is attached
to the trike and the wing attachedcarabiners. The pilots
sits in the trike, so trike takes over complete load of pilot,
engine and additional cargo. Considering that pilot does
not have to support the weight of the cargo, he has better
flight comfort and particulary reduced stress during
takeoff an d landing operations.

Picture 1: Paramotor as a photography, patrol and

shooting platform
92

A powered paraglider flies up to 65 km/h. Speed is

increased with a tail wind and reduced with a headwind.
Fuel capacity is typically 10 litres alowing for maximum
flight time aproximatelly 3 hours. Standard range covered
with this ultraligh aircraft is about 100 km.

Some armed forces which publicly disclosed the

paramotor application are:
USA, German and Indian armed forces
Israeli army uses powered paragliders as an UAV
Russian army uses paramotors with machinegun

Its big brother, UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle), can

stay in the air for amazing 55 hours and log up to 1090 kg
of surveillance equipment, including weigh of fuel.

Police units in USA use paramotors in regular service

operations
In response to a need for economical, easy to use and
efficient aircraft, for military operations, police actions
and field investigations, the usage of powered paragliders
has been started.

The canopy is real paraglider wing design, but it has a

span of over 30 meters.

The military and civil staff dedicated to counterterrorism,

surveillance and reconnaissance, search and rescue,
border control, patrol, operations for locating stolen and
discharged vehicles and other property, identifying of
hazards within the settlement, photographing of crime
scenes, damage assessment after disasters and crime
prevention, using paramotors as an additional appliance,
aiming to perform better operations result.
The powered Para gliders are sometimes equipped with a
special canopy that identifies the aircraft as being with the
army or police department (so called logo). This harness
can be u bullet-proof seat for the officers to sit in. In case
that they attract gun fire from ground troops it is a good
option.
Picture 3: Unmanned paramotor
Unmanned Aerial paramotor configuration concept has
been characterized by:
Varying scale and payload carrying capacity (from very
small to, looking like a toy, to very large),
operational and logistic simplicity,
easy to handle,
cost effective.
Configurability as a main prevalence of paramotors
conceptual design could be described by following
statement: The unit takes only a few meters for taking-off
or landing and is able to be prepared for transport or take
off in a few minutes. It can be converted from one seat or
two seat back-pack to a single-seat three wheel trike unit
also within few minutes. The wing and the engine are two
separate units and they can be combined according to
operational goals in terms of increased carrying capacity,
speed or improved maneuverability.

Picture 4: Armed trike

One of the most important factors in paramotors
application is resource management, to be more precise,
human resource factor. The powered paragliding is as safe
as the person in control. Nowadays it is almost unheard of
for design and structural failures to cause an accident.
Flight safety depends on pilots skills.

4. APPLICATION OF PARAMOTORS IN
ARMED FORCES, SEARCH AND RESCUE
OPERATIONS

If pilot came to an engine failure situation during flight he

would be forced to land. It would not cause any damage if
the ground is suitable for landing. If the ground suitable
for landing cannot be reached, landing will cause small
risk for the pilot and the environment, compared with
other aircraft seamless. This makes paramotor suitable for
use both in non urban and urban area as well. These
features can be commented in the context of risk
minimization, whose management is an important
element of the paramotors application for specialized
purpose modeling.

All warfare is based on deception said by Sun Tzu arch

guru of deception. [1] The weaker the forces that are the
disposal of the supreme commander the more appealing
the use of cunning becomes. [2] Paramotor as a
multipurpose aerial vehicle configurable aircraft
characterized by capability to be quickly transformed
from march position to take-off position and its silence in
air is to be treated as an important deception instrument.
93

As with other categories of aircrafts, powered paraglider

pilot training consist of two parts, theoretical and
practical, which are usually taken simultaneously.

Nearly 1.000 systems are operational today and 262

producers are registered.[3]

The subject comprise: law on air traffic, flying theory

(standard practice and procedures, emergency procedures,
aerodynamics, air navigation), aeronautical meteorology,
aircraft structure, flight instruments, human factors and
limitations.
Given configuration of powered paragliders, which
usually only have one place, the flight time and takeoffs
and landings will be conducted by the student-pilot in
solo flight. Two-place powered paragliders do exist;
however, they are primarily used for familiarization
flights, and they do not have dual controls. Since there is
no space for the instructor on the board of powered
paraglider, a flight simulator may be used for the flight
preparation.

Picture 5. Paramotors pilots from Thai Authority Airport

Conservation and development Foundation

Depending on the pilots age, health condition, skill level,

coordination, psychological abilities and other factors, the
duration of in-flight training may exceed the required 5
hours of flight time and 30 takeoffs and landings. To be
issued a pilot permit candidate must demonstrate the
ability to handle powered paraglider in regular operations
and in case of emergency.

Paramotors application could provide improvement of

following operations and services:
To secure border, specified routes, military bases or
industrial zones
Preparation of parachute airborne on unknown terrain
Observation and reconnaissance of endangered areas
(by natural or other kind of disaster)

Currently there are 7 police agencies in the USA using

powered paragliders as a part of their police team. In New
York, police department is using local volunteer pilots to
get a better view of the surrounding farm land. Corn fields
are often used to hide illegally planted prohibited sorts
(cannabis) Parcel like that can not be seen from the road,
so the best way to discover them is observe them from the
air.

Search and rescue of missing persons, especially on

inaccessible terrain
Infiltration and exfiltration from areas under enemy
control
Setting up of observatory posts, ambushes, blockades in
unexpected points

Demonstration of use was hurricane Rita landed in USA

in Septrmber2005. The powered parachute was used to fly
aerial photography of the damage area and search r
looters. Since then they have been used to search for
illegal drug farms, search and rescue and aerial infrared
photography.

Supply of stuff in inaccessible places

Identification and detection of terrorist groups
To prevail pathless or landmines terrains
Aerial photography and on site map creation
Flight with armed paramotor and equipment and precise
landing

In the past the police department has relied upon

helicopters for described tasks but powered paragliders
with police logo seem to be a very good alternative
regarding to cost efficiency. In state of Idaho (USA)
sheriff service is using the powered parachute in water
and sand dune searches. Because of paramotors special
features and maneuverability the pilot has great visibility
and view of surrounding terrain. The ability to fly less
than 50 km/h makes it an ideal platform for detail and
efficient searching of large areas.

Tandem passenger transport

Communication maintains or enemy communications
interference
Load transport (around 100 kg) in boxes including
accurate landing or load drop.

5. CONCLUSION
By using paramotors we get full blooded armed forces,
configurable units with interoperable capacities, units for
modern age. Usage of paramotors in units for special
purposes is comlied with design of special operations of
developed countries. They started to use paramotors more
than ten years ago.

The motor weights between 20 kg and 30 kg making it

relatively easy to carry around on the pilots back. The
pilots feels load factor in takeoff and landing phase but in
flight wings take complete load on it. When tandem
paramotor is used a passenger will realize all planed
actions-will make a photography or video clip, will drop a
package, will shoot etc. pilot is concentrate only on
accurate flying.

Technical Test Center of Serbian army has necessary

expert staff (engineers, paramotors pilot) and extensive
experience in field of parachute testing and certification.
By adopting worldwide standard and methodology and
with proper equipment usage TTC could quickly adopt

UAV were the fastest growing segment of aerospace

sector in past few years. Around 50 countries have
research and development departments in field UAVs.
94

paramotor testing procedures and become a relevant

certification center for determination and evaluation of
features and quality of powered paragliders.

Other advantages of paramotors application are:

configurability, portability, low cost of purchase and
maintenance, effective exploitation and ability to fly very
slowly, at very low altitudes without relevan impact on
surroundings. All reason stated above make these aircrafts
an ideal candidate for usage by field officers. With
applications in military, search and rescue, police and
other operations, the practical usefulness of a small scale,
portable, safe and easy to use aircraft is now a reality.

Costs benefit ratio lead as to the conclusion that we need

paramotors in Serbian armed forces but not in mass usage.
Limited numbers of paramotors could be an appropriate
solution for special operation needs.
Powered paragliding depends on meteorological
conditions and it is very demanding psycho-physical
discipline. Paramotors are very vulnerable to turbulence,
strong wind and they should be flown in only in a good
weather. The limitations of using the paraglider is low
load lifting surface and its susceptibility to the low level
atmosphere motion (wind bursts and gusts). Thus, they
must be considered as the negative aspect of the
paraglider use.

REFERENCES
[1] Sun,T.: The art of war, translated Lionel Giles,
http://classics.mit.edu/tzu/artwar, 20.12.2004.
[2] Clausewitz,C.: On war.London: Penguin Classics
1982.
[3] www.defence.pk.retrived 2011-05-02
[4] Watcharapong Jingkaujai: Paramotor pilots to patrol
forest
fires,
http://www.chiangmaimail.com/132/news.shtml
[5] Bailey Aviation Powered Paragliders and Paramotors
http://americanparagliding.com/bailey/index.htm
[6] Indian
Army
Paramotor
Expedition,
http://india.gov.in/indian-army-paramotor-expedition
[7] Militarty spec paramotor, The latest concept in
military flight http://www.paramotors-usa.com/
[8] Nimbus
paramotors,
http://www.nimbusparamotors.com/index.html
[9] ParAAvis, http://www.paraavis.com/en/

Despite these limitations, paramotors have many

advantages over other types of aircraft. One of the major
ones is that paramotors are foot launched and foot landed.
That provides them possibility to take-off and landing to
rough surfacesand uneven soil sourfaces. Rough and
uneven soil surfaces are usually necessary obstacle for the
landing of conventional aircraft.
Considering different flight features powered paragliding
clearly have potential role in many military applications
that require a view from air. Complete equipment for
maintains, flight preparations and flying can be backpacked in standard terrain vehicle and quickly transported
from one location to another.

95

SIMULATION AND ANALYSIS OF G/G/4 QUEUEING SYSTEM IN

SATURATION REGIME FOR SWARMING CONCEPT
NEBOJA NIKOLI
Strategic Research Institute, Belgrade, nebojsa.nikolic11@mod.gov.rs
MOMILO MILINOVI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, mmilinovic@mas.bg.ac.rs
RADOMIR JANKOVI
Union University, School of Computing, Belgrade, rjankovic@raf.edu.rs
OLIVERA JEREMI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, ojeremic@mas.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: Developed model is a simplified version of a future combat concept related to the swarming tactics. In
essence, of the model three classes of entities are considered: one main-commanding entity; a number of mobile
entities; and a grouped target. Commanding entity and his mobile fellows are interconnected and exchange various
data. The goal is: to obtain that mobile entities come in time to the specific place where a target is located,
simultaneously and perform their final mission. One mobile entity is, in general, inferior towards the target. However,
a group of mobile entities that appears at the same time at the single target, have a good prospects for success. To
perform this tactics, main and mobile entities communicate extensively among themselves and synchronize movements
towards the target. The Brain, of the team is a main entity, that is, its multi-channel processing unit presented here
as G/G/4 queueing system. Whole process lasts very shortly, say it a few minutes. Also, due to a high dynamic of
communication exchange and challenging environments, it is expected high level of server utilization. In this paper we
considered limiting case when incoming traffic intensity reaches the level of processing capacity, which is known as
saturation regime.
Keywords: Simulation, Combat, Swarming, Queuing, Saturation.
a target are of crucial importance for successful mission.
If mobile entities arrive one by one in a front of a target,
they will be neutralized by target self-defense system. If
they arrive simultaneously, they will overload selfdefense capacity of a target, and at least one of a group of
mobile entities will hit a target successfully. Swarming
concept is subject of other research, mainly in military
branch, like in: [2], [3], [4].

1. INTRODUCTION
This paper presents results of modeling and analysis of
queueing model of type G/G/4 that operates in a finite
time period and under saturated conditions of workload.
We made several model variants, performed simulation
experiments, and gave comparative analysis for a number
of measures of performances. Model variants differ from
each other only by level of variation of selected input
parameters. Additionally, along that comparison, we gave
corresponding results for queueing model of type M/M/4,
which is taken here as a kind of a referential model.

In order to obtain simultaneous arrivals, all mobile

entities and commanding entity have to communicate
intensively among each other. Communication and
calculation capacity of those entities are crucial for
mission success, and, at the essence of those capacity is
our queueing model of G/G/4 type. Main measures of
performances of interest here are: queue length, waiting
time, and probability of waiting for servicing.

Considered base model (G/G/4) is an important part of a

wider context which relates to a swarming concept [1], [3]
and its application on modeling tactical behavior of group
of weapon entities consisting of one commanding entity
and a number of mobile executive entities.

In next section we present all model variants in detail.

Sections after next give methodology notes and overview of
results obtained from simulation experiments. Conclusions
with ideas for future research are given at the end.

In short, the swarming tactical situation is next: a group of

mobile executive entities are trying to approach some
target at the same time. Simultaneously arrivals in front of
96

Service, half-interval of
variation

20

100

200 200

Service, Standard deviation

11.6

57.7

115.5 200

Coefficient of variation
(Kv=/)

0.06

0.29

0.58

Service, Type of distribution

function

Uniform

Uniform

Uniform

Expone
ntial

For the modeling purpose, we chose appropriate time unit

used in a computer program. In the following examples,
average inter-arrival time is 50 time units, with few
different values for variation. Average service time is 200
time units, with few different values of variation. Those
few combinations of input data we called as model
variants and marked them as Model A, Model B and
Model C.

Number of service channels

200,000

200,000

200,000

200,000

Model variant A presents G/G/4 queueing system with

mentioned values for average inter-arrival and service
times, and with values for half-interval of variation
around average values equal to a 10% of a given average
values. Similarly, model variant B and C are related to
other values of variation, that is, 50% variation for model
B, and 100% variation for model C.

Solution method, and

specification

2. QUEUEING MODEL
Queueing model of interest is G/G/4 in Kendals notation,
[5], [6]. This model assumes general distribution function
for inter -arrival time and service time. In the context of
queueing systems, both distributions are defined with two
parameters related to average value and variation. In this
work we have used a uniform distribution function as one
of possible types of general distributions.

Operational time interval

(internal time units)
Initial state

3. METHODOLOGY
In order to gain insight into operational characteristics of
the situation presented by described queueing model, we
used Monte Carlo simulation approach, which is quite
suitable for such types of queueing models that are not
very well supported by explicit theoretical results. G/G/n
queueing model is one of such cases, [5], [6].

For the purpose of clarity, Table 1 gives detailed resume

for all this model variants. Additionally, Table 1 contains
data for model variant marked as D, which is related to
the queueing model of type: M/M/4. This queueig model
is involved here as a kind of referential point. This model
presents situation where input and output clients stream
assumes exponential distribution function.

Additionally, in our task we have two more difficulties.

First, our model operates in a finite time period. This fact
imply possibilities that transient behavior of queueing
system could be influential on overall system
characteristics, or, say it differently, traditional focusing
on steady-state analysis only, could be not enough nor
even appropriate, [7]. This phenomenon (transient
behavior of queueing systems) is of particular importance
in military branch and it is subject of actual research at
prestigious places for military sciences, [8], [9].

There are 4 service channels, identical in any aspects.

Process duration, or period of engagement of this
queueing model, is finite. Expressed in relative time units,
the process lasts for 1000 average service times, that is,
for 200,000 time units. Put it in other words, it is equal to
4000 average inter-arrival times.
Table 1. Model variants resume
G/G/4
(10% var.)

G/G/4
(50% var.)

G/G/4
(100% var.)

M/M/4

Model denotement

Mean time between arrivals

(internal time units)

50

50

50

50

Arrivals, half-interval of
variation

25

50

50

Arrivals, Standard deviation

2.9

14.4

28.9

50

Coefficient of variation
(Kv=/)

0.06

0.29

0.58

Arrivals, Type of distribution

function

Unifor
m

Unifor
m

Unifor
m
Expone
ntial

Model Type
Attribute

Mean time of servicing

(internal time units)

200

200

Idle
Idle
Idle Idle
Monte Carlo simulation,
Number of Independent
Replications of a single
simulation experiment:
10,000

Second, values of input parameters (average values of

inter-arrival and service times in relation with number of
service channels) shows that we have a case of saturation
regime for this queueing model. Those facts determine
our simulation approach and we used that one suggested
in [7] and [8].
When using simulation as research tool, questions about
accuracy of simulations results are actual and important,
[10]. Here, all simulation results came from experiments
based on 10,000 Independent Replications (IR). This
number of IR, relatively high, obtains good insight in
time-dependent behavior of measures of performances,
and high level of believes in results correctness.
We investigated few cases with different variation of
some input parameters while holding other values
unchanged.

4. SIMULATION RESULTS

200 200

Next Figure (Picture 1) presents comparison of time

97

dependent probabilities that all service channels are sized,

for 4 different models:

M/M/4

2200.16

Average queue length (Table 3) is about 26 clients in

waiting line for model G/G/4 with 100% of variation;
near 13 clients for model G/G/4 with 50% of variation,
and less then 3 waiting clients for model G/G/4 with 10%
of variation. It is not surprising that model M/M/4 has the
longest waiting line, reaching 44 on average for whole
period.

(A.) Model type G/G/4 for 10% of variation, commonordinary line, line at the top of the group;
(B.) Model type G/G/4 for 50% of variation, dashed bold
line, third from the bottom;
(C.) Model type G/G/4 for 100% of variation, bold line;
second from the bottom;

Table 3. Average Queue Length

Model
Average Queue Length
(denotement and type)
A
G/G/4 (10% var.)
2.39
B
G/G/4 (50% var.)
12.59
C
G/G/4 (100% var.)
25.71
D
M/M/4
44.10

(D.) Model type M/M/4, dashed line, at the bottom of the

group).

Here described, modeled and simulated queueing system

operates in transient mode. Transient behavior is
dynamic, that is time dependent. So, it could be of interest
to make insight in performance measures at some
particular time point. Certainly, one of those moments is
the very end of the process. Table 4 presents values for
queue length at the last time point (that is at: t = 200,000
time units).
Table 4. Queue Length at the end of the period
Model
Queue Length at the end
(denotement and type)
A
G/G/4 (10% var.)
3.55
B
G/G/4 (50% var.)
19.2
C
G/G/4 (100% var.)
39.6
D
M/M/4
67.9

Picture 1. Comparison of 4 cases for probability of

waiting for service (all channels sized)
Looking at the Picture 1, it is interesting to realize curves
shape and some interrelation among different models. In
all four models we have a case of saturation, which means
that very heavy traffic is at stake. When service system is
exposed to a heavy load, like it is saturation, than it is
logically to expect high values for probability that all
service channels will be sized very soon after the
beginning of operations. This logic thinking is confirmed
at Picture 1: all four graphics are fast growing at the
beginning and very slow latter. That grow is explosive
at the very beginning of the process, but latter is very
slow. That latter moment differs for different models:
changes slow down and graphic goes to near horizontal
line almost asymptotical grow, after the probability
reach level between 0.95 and 0.99.

At the end, it is very interesting to realize that, among

four model variants, the highest value of probability that
all channels will be sized, at any moment, has a model
marked with A, while the lowest value relates to model
D (see Picture 1). Surprisingly! In other words, the best
prospect for servicing without waiting, at any moment of
operational engagement, is in case of model D.
However, if one miss to be served without waiting in case
of model D, than he will to wait in a longest queue
among those four models.

5. CONCLUSION
In the paper we presented results of experimentation with
multi-channel queueing system of general type, under
saturated regime and for limited time interval of
operations. Simulation results confirmed expectation that
queueing system can operate in a relatively short time,
even if it is exposed to a heavy load, as it is saturation.

Average time spent in queue (waiting time) is very

different for all models variants, Table 2. It varies, from
about 120 time units for the model variant A, up to
1284 time units for model variant C, while it reaches
2200 time units for model D. Level of differences is
very big: waiting time for model A (10% variation of
input values) is more than ten times less than in case of
model B (100% variation of input values).

Additionally, we indicate that level of variation of input

parameters has influence on measures of performances:
larger variation, longer waiting time and longer queue. In
the light of achieved results, main recommendation to the
system integrator will be to obtain communication and
calculation dynamics among engaged entities, with
variation at the smallest possible level. Only after that
there is a place for considering additional investments in a
number of servicing channels or in enlargement of
servicing speed.

Table 2. Waiting Time in queue

Model
Average Waiting Time
(denotement and type)
A
G/G/4 (10% var.)
119.80
B
G/G/4 (50% var.)
629.89
C
G/G/4 (100% var.)
1283.72
98

Future research could be oriented in more directions.

First, it could be of interest to investigate influence of
other types of probability distributions. Second, it would
be interesting to obtain insight into queue length behavior
over time. Third, base model could grow in size and
complexity towards covering detailed presentation of the
real system.

in Armoured and Mechanized Units Research.

Balkan Conference on Operational Research
(BALCOR 2011), Thessaloniki, Greece. Vol. 2, 157163.
[5] Vujoevi,M. (1999). Operaciona istraivanja
izabrana poglavlja. FON. Beograd.
[6] Vukadinovi,S. (1988). Masovno opsluivanje. (tree
dopunjeno izdanje). Nauna knjiga. Beograd.
[7] Nikolic,N. (2008). Statistical integration of Erlangs
equations. European Journal of Operational
Research, 187/3, 1487-1493.
[8] Nikolic,N. (2010). Military Queueing systems in
Saturation
Regime
and
Some
Practical
Consequences. Scientific Technical Review, 60/1,
48-53.
[9] Kaczynski,W., Leemis,L., Drew,J. (2012) Transient
Queueing Analysis. INFORMS Journal on
Computing, Vol. 24, No.1, 10-28
[10] Nikolic,N., Jankovi,R., Milinovic,M., Jeremic,O.
(2012). Error reduction in simulation of transient
behavior of queueing systems under critical traffic
conditions. Transport&Logistics 12/22, 1-8.

REFERENCES
[1] Edwards S. (2000). Swarming on the Battlefield:
Past, Present, and Future. Rand Corporation. Santa
Monica, CA, USA
[2] Jezdimirovic,M.,
Milinovic,M.,
Jankovic,R.,
Nikolic,N. (2011): Remote controlled combat vehicle
in the concept of network centric warfare.
Proceedings, 4th International Scientific Conference
on Defensive Technologies (OTEH 2011), Belgrade,
428-433.
[3] Gaertner U. (2013). UAV Swarm Tactics: An AgentBased Simulation an Markov Process Analysis.
Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA, USA
[4] Jankovic,R., Milinovic,M., Nikolic,N., Jeremic,O.
(2011). On Application of Discrete Event Simulation

99

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY AND CHARACTERISTICS

OF THE TRADITIONAL PCM DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM AND THE
NETWORK DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM FOR AIRCRAFT TESTING
SAKHR ABU DARAG
Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum, Khartoum, sakhr.abudarag@sustech.edu
ZORAN FILIPOVI
Institute GOSA, Belgrade,zoran.filipovic@institutgosa.rs
DONIA MOHAMMED
Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum, doniasalih@gmail.com
DRAGOLJUB VUJI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, dragoljub.vujic@vti.vs.rs

Abstract: This paper describes a general overview of the comparative methodology and characteristics of the
traditional PCM Data Acquisition System and Data Acquisition system built upon networking principals. Design and
implementation of the Flight Test Instrumentation Systems (FTI) is very important for successful evaluation the testing
prototype of aircraft. The configuration of FTI System is based on the General Plan of Testing of any new aircraft (or
significant improvement to an existing aircraft) . The system represents a fully integrated approach to flight test systems
which addresses the end-to-end requirements from airborne data acquisition and real time flight monitoring through
aircraft performance and stability/control analysis. The PCM Data Acquisition system is completely based on famous
IRIG 106 PCM of acquisition & recording standard which is used primarily for military application. In recent years
there has been a shift from PCM closed solutions for FTI networks towards more open standards-based systems using
Ethernet technology. The trend towards Ethernet is further driven by the CTEIP (Central Test and Evaluation
Investment Program-US DoD) Integrated Network Enhanced Telemetry (iNET) initiative.
Keywords: Flight Test Instrumentation, Data Acquisition, PCM, Networking, iNET, IEEE-1588.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

1. INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of the Flight Test Instrumentation (FTI)
System is to acquire data about the operation of the test
vehicle and provide the data for processing during post
flight analyses. For development, verification and
certification phase, aircraft must be equipped with a
complete FTI System which is consisting of three
components:
- Airborne Data Acquisition System (DAS)
- Compatible Ground Telemetry Station (GTS)
- Post Test Data Processing System (DPS)

Real time data acquisition,

Real time data validation,
Test point data extraction and storage,
Post-mission data analysis.
Report Generation, and
Data storage.

The FTI System becomes more sophisticated it has

become increasingly desirable to have a high quality, high
speed telemetry link between the aircraft and the ground
monitoring station [1], [2], [3], [4].
There are two main architecture of airborne FTI Systems:
classical deterministic configuration based on the famous
IRIG 106 PCM standard and non-deterministic concept
based on Ethernet technology. The PCM/FM has been the
primary modulation scheme used for such links for over
30 years.

Design and implementation of the FTI System is very

important for successful evaluation of the testing
prototype of aircraft. The configuration of FTI System is
based on the General Plan of Testing of any new aircraft
(or significant improvement to an existing aircraft) and
missile.

The trend towards Ethernet is further driven by the CTEIP

Integrated Network Enhanced Telemetry (iNET) initiative
that is pushing the adoption of Ethernet technology for the
FTI. The iNET is addressing and bringing about a

In particular for this application it is required the

implementation of the following capabilities:
100

standardized approach to meet the needs and requirements

of FTI in terms of systems management, time
synchronization, Data Acquisition Unit (DAU)
configuration, data transmission etc. [7].

unit select a number of data (1024 words) from redundant

busses for insertion in the general PCM (data selector
card which interfaces to the PCM Encoder).
The airborne time code generators provide serial time
code for recording, and parallel time code for input to the
100% 1553B bus unit for data time correlation. The
airborne instrumentation recorders are provided for direct
recording of all data.

2. THE TIPICAL EXAMPLES OF AIRBORNE

FTI SYSTEMS
2.1. The Configuration of classical PCM based
FTI Systems

The transmitter receives PCM data from the PCM system

controller unit for continuous data transmission of safety of
flight data. Frequency and transmission power varies based
on the application. Most transmitters are designed to operate
at the lower L-band, upper L-band, or S-band, and provide
PCM-FM or SOQPSK modulation. The outputs of the
transmitters are mixed in a diplexer and the resulting signal is
split between two transmitting antennas normally located on
the top and bottom of the aircraft [1], [2].

The typical configuration of an airborne FTI System

based on famous IRIG 106 PCM of acquisition &
recording standard to satisfy the wide range of data
acquisition problems in modern military aircraft test
programs is shown in Picture 1. General aircraft
measurement data is acquired using an airborne part of
the FTI. PCM involves sampling a signal, converting it to
digital, encoding the digital data into a structure (called a
Frame) and transmitting a stream of Frames to the
destination of the data.

A wide assortment of Signal Conditioners, Bus Monitors,

and other special function cards can be installed in any
combination. Signal conditioning is completely
programmable from excitation through PCM output for
the acquisition of: High level analog signals , Wideband
analog signals, RS-232 buses including TSPI information,
Bi-level signals (discrete and relay signals, Temperature
data (RTD and Thermo-couple), Strain Gauge,
Synchro/Resolver and L/RVDT sensors , Accelerometers
(including Motion pack), Frequency and period
measurements, GPS and Time, Charge amplifiers.

IRIG 106 is the most widespread aerospace industry and

military PCM standard which is use in those systems.
General requirements included:
- Acquisition and PCM output of normal analog
voltage, frequencies and discrete events,
- Programmable SPD,
- Recording and telemetry transmission of PCM,
- Acquisition of data from two redundant MILSTD-1553B busses,
- Output of selected 1553 bus words in the PCM
stream,
- Recording of 100% 1553 data from both busses,

The Standard housing provides 16 card slots and up to

256 signals conditioned channels. Mini-Housings, ideal
for small enclosures and rotating platforms, provide 3
card slots with up to 32 signal conditioned channels. A
combination of housings can be used in the Master-Slave
configuration [2].

This is a remotely multiplexed system which provides a

PCM bit rate up to 20 Megabits per second with a
maximum total sample rate of 200,000 samples per
second. The generated PCM Sample Plan Data (SPD)
may use variable word lengths. This allows analog
channels to utilize word lengths of 8, 10 or 12 bits and
digital channels to utilize word lengths of up to 16 bits.
The PCM SPD is loaded into the systems EEROM
memory via an RS232 port.

Data Recorders vary in functionality, bandwidth, and

integration with the rest of the PCM system. The simple
small PCM recorders are either integrated with a system
controller or standalone, and record PCM stream at up to
20 Mbps. Newer, more complex recorders (IRIG Chapter
10 recorders) acquire data from multiple PCM streams,
avionic busses, video/audio, Ethernet, Fiber Channel, etc.
These recorders have a recording bandwidth of up to 1
Gbps. Generally, recorders are not fully integrated with
the PCM system. Most complex data recorders effectively
operate as high speed data multiplexers with either builtin media storage or external storage [6].

The airborne part of PCM Telemetry Systems can be

divided into several subsystems: Data Acquisition Unit
(DAU) - 100% 1553B bus unit use for acquisition full
traffic and DAU 1553B bus word selection unit from
redundant busses; a sensor set; an airborne transmission
sub system; and a data recorder. In the real-time
operations, live data received over the Telemetry Link,
that are processed, distributed and displayed at the GTS .
In a traditional network with more than one data DAUs,
typically one DAU was designated the master and the rest
were slaves. The Master-Slave configuration and PCM
data transmission is highly deterministic in that it was
possible to know in advance exactly how long it would
take for a sampled parameter to reach its destination.

All components of the PCM FTI System s are designed to

provide maximum accuracy of test results in the most
severe environments.
However, the traditional PCM FTI systems are inflexible.
It was difficult to make configuration changes to a slave
DAU without resulting ramifications and potential
conflicts with the master DAU. Changing even a single
configuration sometimes required stopping the data
acquisition process and restarting the device with the
configuration change. Furthermore, the technologies and
protocols used in the Master-Slave topology were not
fully standardized creating integration and deployment
challenges for multi-vendor systems.

The airborne 100% 1553B bus data unit use for

acquisition full traffic bus from multiple busses in
accordance with the Inter-Range Instrumentation Group
(IRIG) standard. The Airborne 1553B bus word selection
101

When configuring this system, the primary focus for the

engineer is Sample Plan Data (SPD). By choosing the
frame dimensions, and a particular bit-rate, the behavior
of the system can be defined. In particular, the sample
rates that the various parameters are carried at are defined.
The instant of sampling of a parameter was related to
where it was placed in the PCM frame. This complicates

the ground station and analysis software when it tries to

correlate samples from different channels. More modern
data acquisition systems use synchronous sampling. All
channels are sampled at the same instant in the frame, and
channels that appear more than once in a major frame are
sampled equidistantly throughout the frame [6].

Picture 1. Typical PCM flight test data acquisition system[1]

arrival of data is due to the system architecture and
customized wiring between units in the system. The
2.1.1. The main characteristics of PCM-based FTI
traditional architecture is based upon the execution of
Systems
fixed format instruction commands operating at a highly
The PCM-based FTI systems are commonly used in most precise PCM word rate. Each command instruction within
flight test programs for acquisition & recording nearly 40 the format is transmitted in the system to the appropriate
channel for data sampling. Data is sampled synchronously
years. The main characteristics of that system include:
to the overall PCM word rate and format sequence.
Unidirectional data movement Data moves from the
sensor to the onboard recorder and/or the transmitter; Static quality of service The quality of service for a
these systems have minimal flexibility to redirect data to given system, wiring, and format is static. PCM systems
are constructed to have a static quality of service. The
other destinations, just short of rewiring the system.
PCM system is well understood, and a known quality of
The unidirectional data movement is the result of a PCM service is assumed from the design. The quality of service
controller executing command instructions from a format for a given system, wiring, and format is static due to the
map to acquire data for insertion into the PCM stream. All following known factors:
or a subset of the data is transmitted to the ground, and all
- Format instruction movement is unidirectional
the data is recorded on an onboard recorder. The system
and point-to-point.
and its wiring are rigid, and data cannot be redirected to
- Data sample movement is unidirectional and
other potential destinations within the acquisition system.
point-to-point.
Normally, a PCM data stream is transported within the
- Fixed system wiring with known bandwidth.
aircraft through use of differential or singled-ended
(PCM rate is known)
copper wires, carrying clock and data signals. When
- No retransmission of data.
common data needs to be directed to other specialized
- PCM systems are generally state machine-based
airborne units (such as a cockpit display or processing
with fixed sequencing and fixed pipelining.
element), it is done by way of additional unidirectional
- No data collision.
data wiring carrying the same information thru a
- Fix known delays based on bit rate, word rate,
duplicated clock and data signal.
and frame rate.
Synchronous data movement Data is highly Separation of control and data transfers - Units
deterministic due to the precise state machine execution requiring IRIG time must use additional wiring to provide
of the PCM format. Data is sampled at the PCM word the time base information to local/remote acquisition
rate, and data arrives with a fixed delay due to precise units. When control utilizes data path wiring that data
data pipelining for all data channels. The synchronous must be interrupted to perform the control function.
102

Additional wiring may be required if data cannot be

interrupted. Time distribution is done separately from the
data path in a PCM data acquisition system. In general,
units operating in a distributed data acquisition system
require external time wiring. The time is used to time tag
asynchronous avionic bus data and other acquired
asynchronous events. Time is also used for time tagging
each PCM minor frame. Time distribution units may be
required when a very large data acquisition system is
used. In most cases this may require two wires per
acquisition unit to distribute IRIG-A/B/G modulated or
DC time. IRIG time is further refined by the acquisition
units to provide time tagging with a +/-1 microsecond of
accuracy

tagging, and data packetization for transmission over the

network (PCM/network hybrid FTI System). Users of a
PCM system can immediately experiment with the
gateway for many applications while at the same time, the
PCM system provides its PCM data to onboard recorders
and a TM transmitter. These applications may include:
- Using the gateway to allow the user to program the
PCM system using an Ethernet connection.
- Use of the gateway to acquire the data via Ethernet
for preflight checkout or an airborne computer
without the use of a PCM decomutation card.
The second set of components discussed are components
that are inherently designed as network components or
components that have been converted from PCM by way
of replacing some internal communication circuitry.

Accurate Global Timing Synchronization -PCM data

acquisitions provide a high level of accuracy for global
timing synchronization. This is due to the time division
multiplex nature of the system and the distribution of the
PCM controllers clocks to all units in the system [6],[7].

Network to PCM Gateway connects to the network side

of the acquisition system, performs parameter selection
from incoming data packets, and formats the data for a
continuous PCM and clock output. The unit operates
either as a parameter data selector/formatter or as a
converter from network data packets to PCM mode.
The first mode assumes that the user provides the gateway
only with multicast data packets that include data to be
selected. The unit outputs PCM data at up to 20 Mbps.
The gateway can optionally convert the PCM back to
network packets for transmission over the network for
data recording.

2.2. PCM/Network (Ethernet-based) hybrid FTI

System
The last decade has witnessed the adoption of Ethernet
technology (Integrated Network Enhanced Telemetry iNET) in an increasing number of FTI applications. The
transition from a PCM system to a network system does
not have to be a decision of either PCM or network. The
transition, by its nature, can be an evolutionary one,
where the user can have a combination of the two, if reuse
of existing PCM assets is of importance. The Ethernet
based data acquisition systems offer key advantages in
FTI applications such as: increased bandwidth, flexible
and scalable topologies, standard management and
configuration tools and reduced costs. This is a result of
both the growing evidence from successful programs
which have applied the network technology including
increased parameters/higher data rates that PCM is unable
to accommodate. This technology used on A380 and
A400M and gradually replaced the old PCM installations
for flight test purposes [6],[7],[8].

Time distribution Gateway - When operating in a

network-based system only or a system that includes
PCM and network, one must satisfy the requirement to
achieve time distribution to all subsystem components.
For some systems the time source is IRIG-B time, and for
others the time is provided via an antenna hookup to a
GPS receiver. The Time Distribution Gateway is built
into the network switch and receives time in the form of a
GPS signal, IRIG-B modulated or non-modulated time, or
IEEE-1588 time over the network. The gateway generates
IRIG-B time modulated or non-modulated time, and
distributes time over IEEE-1588 as a master or as a slave
unit.

Picture 2 shows the typical PCM/Network (Ethernetbased) hybrid FTI System configuration [9]. The core
elements are: 2 or more DAUs, a switch, and a time
master (called as Grandmaster in the IEEE-1588 Precision Time Protocol). Extra elements like an IP
recorder and a legacy PCM output will depend on the
application but are usually present. This basic system
can be expanded by adding extra DAUs and switches,
almost without limit, to meet the needs of the
application. Time synchronization is handled by IEEE1588.The various gateways allow the user to transition
from one medium to another medium.

Network switches interconnect and route data, control,

time, and status between all network nodes (any device
connected to the network). Switches are a critical
component in any networked FTI data acquisition system
in order to allow the forwarding of data from the DAU to
the target destination. The nodes may include gateways,
data acquisition units, avionics acquisition units,
recorders, RF transceivers, processors, workstations, etc.
Selecting the right switch is not a simple task. The user
must be aware of the many choices and decisions that
need to be made to select the right switch [6],[7], [8].
Network recorders are vastly different from IRIG-106
Chapter 10 recorders, which are effectively their
counterpart in the PCM world. One should think of a
Chapter 10 recorder as a single integrated multiplexer and
data recorder, whereas, the network system can be seen as
a large distributed multiplexer and data recorder. The
Network recorder acquires data packets over one or more
network ports, and operates as a data destination and data
source for data mining simultaneously. The recorder must

The paper will primarily concentrate on the basic

hardware building blocks of an airborne instrumentation
system and the way in which one may go about using a
hybrid PCM/Network system. The various gateways
allow the user to transition from one medium to another
medium.
PCM to Network Gateway receives data and clock from
the PCM system, performs data decomutation, frame time
103

be IEEE-1588 capable, be configured, controlled, and

allow data to be downloaded over the network [5],[6].

functionality. All network DAUs should be IEEE-1588

time capable. Some DAUs are identical to their PCM
counterpart with the exception of the network interface.
Other DAUs are highly specialized to acquire and filter
vast amounts of data such as ARINC-664 and Ethernet
and other custom buses. High Speed DAU acquires 100%
data or filtered data from one or more asynchronous
sources for packetization and transmission over the
network. These DAUs operate at 50 Mbps [6].

Network Data Acquisition Unit (DAUs) acquire data

from a wide variety of analog signal conditioners, BiLevels, synchro/resolver, temperatures, selected data from
avionic busses (MIL-STD-1553, ARINC-429, SDLC,
Cross channel Data Link, RS-232/422, etc.), Video and
Audio. These DAUs generally operate at rates of up to 20
Mbps. DAUs vary in size, capability, rate, and

Picture 2. The Networked topology (Ethernet-based) of FTI System [9]

Serial Streaming Transmitter This is a standard
PCM-FM or SOQPSK transmitter for transmitting safety
of flight data to the ground. The transmitter requires the
use of a Network to PCM Gateway to generate PCM
from incoming data packets.

points. This has traditionally been accomplished using a

circuit-switched procedure.
Bi-Directional packet movement A network node (any
device connected to the network networked data
recorders, a network management server, etc. has no
inherent directionalism. While at one moment it may
output a data packet, the next moment it may receive a
time packet, node status request packet, etc. A recorder
node may receive real time data packets from acquisition
nodes for storage, and output previously stored data upon
request.

Network Transceiver allows for two way IP-based

communications between the airborne test article and the
ground. The primary goals of the network transceiver are
to allow for data mining of the recorder and to retransmit
data needed to augment lost information from drop-out in
the transmitter. It provides test engineers the capability to
main the flight recorder, reconfigure some airborne
settings, and perform many other functions not 6.

Asynchronous arrival of data While the sampling

frequency of a parameter occurs at a predefined rate, the
resources used to transfer that parameter and its data
packet are shared among other nodes on the network.

2.2.1. The main characteristics of Networked based FTI

Dynamic quality of service Parameters The network

can be setup to prioritize data from particular sensor/node.
This is particularly important when data packets compete
for the same resources as the status packets.

The characteristic elements of a network-based system

include:
Packetization of data Packetization is defined as the
transformation of a continuous stream of data into a
discrete data packet movement. Packets of data by
definition have well-defined starting points and ending

Intermix of Data, Control, and Time The network has

no need for separation between the different type of
104

packets and direction of flow of those packets. The packet

header contains addresses that identify the source and
destination of the packet.

improvement to an existing aircraft) and missile. There

are two concepts of the modern FTI Systems. The first is
completely based on famous IRIG 106 PCM of
acquisition & recording standard which is used primarily
for military application and the second is the Networked
topology of FTI System using both for large civilian and
military plans. The majority of currently operating flight
test programs around the world utilizes PCM-based FTI.
Most instrumentation engineers are very comfortable with
this FTI system, and feel uncomfortable when talking
about network implementations and the adoption of iNET.
This paper shows how the functionality of gateways and
other network components can ease the transition from a
PCM data acquisition system to a fully network-based
solution. We reviewed the basic components of the PCM
and the network systems. We have some basic
understanding of the functionality of each component.
Picture 2 shows a generic system diagram that makes use
of a PCM system, PCM to network gateways, Time
distribution gateways, Network to PCM gateway,
Network switches, Network DAUs, Network Recorder,
Network Transceiver, and High-Speed Multiplexer.

3. THE ADVANTAGES OF USING

NETWORKED BASED FTI
The network - based FTI system provides a different set
of characteristics to the user as compared to the PCM FTI
systems. With the adoption of standardized networking
technologies, there is much greater flexibility afforded to
the FTI engineers, systems integrators and analysis
engineers. A networked approach allows for DAUs to
become independent devices that can be individually
configured. Each networked-DAU is essentially a Master
in its own right, responsible for its own configuration,
data acquisition, synchronization, packetization and data
transmission. The use of open-standard Ethernet provides
a common technology that allows for multi-vendor
systems to be more easily and readily deployed.
- Ethernet has several practical advantages over
traditional
inter-chassis
communication
protocols including:
- Standard open interfaces and protocols
- Significantly less wiring
- Higher data rates and improved time
synchronization
- Reduction of programming and troubleshooting
time during installation and test
- Reduced cost and ease of integration with
Commercial off the shelf (COTS) equipment
- A flexible future-proof architecture

Ethernet technology offers numerous benefits for

networked FTI Systems such as increased data rates,
flexibility,
scalability
and
most
importantly
interoperability owing to the inherent interface, protocol
and technological standardization.

REFERENCES
[1] Z. Filipovic, R. Stoji, T. Stoji, D.Vuji: Design And
Implementation
of
Modern
Flight
Test
Instrumentation System For Civilian And Military
Application, 4th International scientific conference on
defensive technologies, Belgrade, 6 - 7 October 2011.
[2] Z. Filipovic, R. Stoji, D. Vuji, Z. Nikoli: The first
implementation of a total flight test system in former
Yugoslav Flight Test Centre, 4th International
scientific conference on defensive technologies,
Belgrade, 6 - 7 October 2011.
[3] Z. Filipovic, G. Dikic: Design and Implementation of
PCM/FM Telemetry Systems for Aircraft and Missile
Testing During Flight Test Procedure, Fourteenth
International Conference On Aerospace Sciences &
Aviation technology, CD-ROM ASAT 14 , May 24
26, 2011, Cairo, Egypt.
[4] Z. Filipovic.: Contribution of synthesis PCM/FM
Telemetry System for aircraft and missile testing,
Doctors Thesis, Military Academy, Belgrade, 2005.
[5] Nikki Cranley, Diarmuid Corry: Multi-Flight Data
Acquisition and Recording Solutions, 4th International
scientific conference on defensive technologies,
Belgrade, 6 - 7 October 2011.
[6] Berdugo Albert, and Roach John: Migrating from
PCM to Network Data Acquisition System,
Proceedings of the 26th European Telemetry
Conference (ETC 2006)Germany, May 02-05, 2006.
[7] Nikki
Cranley,
Diarmuid
Corry:
Design
Considerations For Networked Data Acquisition
Systems,
Proceedings
of
the
International
Telemetering Conference-ROM/ITC/USA 2009.

A network- based FTI system using in multi-flight data

acquisition, this autonomy allows the instrumentation
system to be flexible and easily adapted to satisfy the
changing logging and recording requirements of each
flight. The IEEE-1588 Precision Time Protocol (PTP) is
one of the more important standard network technologies
that provided the enabling platform for Ethernet
technologies to be adopted. Additionally another key
development is in the area of wireless technologies.
Ethernet IP networks are non-deterministic. In time, PCM
telemetry links may be replaced with such IP-centric
wireless technologies. In the future, a fully end-to-end
networked solution for aircraft testing will open the
gateway to multi-flight recording and analysis systems
where data can be analyzed anytime and from anywhere
[5].

4. CONCLUSION
This paper presents comparative analysis methodology
and characteristics of the traditional PCM FTI system and
the network data acquisition system for aircraft testing
that enable instrumentation engineers to migrate their
existing PCM-based instrumentation system to a networkbased system. Design and implementation of the FTI
Systems is very important for successful evaluation of the
testing prototype of aircraft and missile. The
configuration of the FTI System is based on the General
Plan of Testing of any new aircraft (or significant
105

[8] Diarmuid Corry: Key Components In A Networked

Data Acquisition, Proceedings of the International
Telemetering Conference, CD-ROM/ITC/USA 2008.

[9] Curtiss-Wright Controls Avionics &Electronics,

http://www.cwc-ae.com/brochures,Online: Jul 2014

106

THE SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY RELATED TO

AIRCRAFT FLIGHT TESTING
ZORAN FILIPOVI
Institute GOSA, Belgrade, zoran.filipovic@institutgosa.rs
SAKHR ABU DARAG
Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum, sakhr.abudarag@sustech.edu
DONIA MOHAMMED
Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum, doniasalih@gmail.com
DRAGOLJUB VUJI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, dragoljub.vujic@vti.vs.rs

Abstract: This paper describes the sources of measurement uncertainty related to flight testing, and analysis of some
methods of eliminating or minimizing measurement uncertainty in collected flight data. Measurement uncertainty is an
estimation of the potential error in a measurement result that is caused by variability in the equipment, the processes,
the environment, and other sources. Flight testing is very complex experimental procedure. In fact, many of these error
sources are and require special attention. As a result, it combines most of the types of errors found in experimental
methods. For instance, systematic and random errors are found in the Data acquisition systems from which we collect
our data. Random errors come from the atmosphere, electromagnetic interference and from pilot technique. Bearing in
mind that the testing of the aircraft last stage of creating an aircraft, it is necessary to understand where the sources of
the flight testing uncertainty lie, take steps to avoid or minimize that uncertainty, and then present the data in a manner
that recognizes the remaining uncertainty. Evaluating the measurement uncertainty in any particular situation therefore
comprises the identification, quantification and combination of these components. Therefore the Air Force Flight Test
Centers is continually seeking ways to improve the planning, execution, analysis, and reporting of developmental test
and evaluation programs. The statistical methods use to calculate confidence intervals or uncertainty for the final
results.
Keywords: Flight testing, Measurement uncertainty, Flight Test Instrumentation, EMC.
FTI System is to acquire data about the operation of the
test vehicle and provide the data for processing during
post flight analyses. For development, verification and
certification phase, aircraft must be equipped with a
complete FTI System which is consisting of three
components:

1. INTRODUCTION
Modem aircraft are complex integrated systems with the
propulsion, avionics, and aerodynamics blended together
to achieve optimum performance, stability, and control.
The flight testing of such aircraft is a process that
involves a number of engineering disciplines in addition
to the study of the man-machine interface that we know as
human factors. The measurement of performance during
an airplanes flight testing is one of the more important
tasks to be accomplished during its development [1]. The
flight test comes at the end of the aircraft design process
and is a unique part of it, as one of the purposes of the
flight test is to validate and refine the design. This means
that changes to the design. Will continue to be made to
the aircraft during the flight testing, as a result of the
testing [2], [3], [4].Testing of the aircraft is performed by
measuring a large number of parameters of various types
using airborne and compatible ground Flight Test
Instrumentation (FTI) System. The main purpose of the

Airborne Data Acquisition System (DAS)

Compatible Ground Telemetry Station (GTS)
Post Test Data Processing System (DPS)

Design and implementation of the FTI System is very

important for successful evaluation of the testing
prototype of aircraft. The configuration of FTI System is
based on the General Plan of Testing of any new aircraft
(or significant improvement to an existing aircraft)
and missile. In particular for this application it is
required the implementation of the following
capabilities [2], [3] :
- Real time data acquisition,
- Real time data validation,
107

Test point data extraction and storage,

Post-mission data analysis.
Report Generation, and
Data storage.

process and does not differentiate them as random or

systematic. Measurement process errors can include
repeatability, operator bias, instrument parameter bias,
resolution error, errors arising from environmental
conditions, or other sources. Additionally, each
measurement error, regardless of its origin, is considered
to be a random variable that can be characterized by a
probability distribution. The GUM document is basic
guidelines for estimating the uncertainty for the following
measurement processes:
- Direct Measurements The value of the
quantity or subject parameter is obtained directly
by measurement and is not determined indirectly
by computing its value from the measurement of
other variables or quantities.
- Multivariate Measurements The value of the
quantity or subject parameter is based on
measurements of more than one attribute or
quantity.
- Measurement Systems The value of the
quantity or subject parameter is measured with a
system comprised of component modules
arranged in series.

In most scientific discipline, we must deal with errors or

uncertainty in the data we collect. Flight testing is no
exception. In fact, many of our error sources are unique to
our field and require special attention. Flight testing is a
complicated experimental technique. As a result, it
combines most of the types of errors found in
experimental methods. For instance, fixed, or systematic,
errors are found in the FTI from which we collect our
data. Random errors come from the atmosphere, from
pilot technique, aircraft electromagnetic interference
(EMI) and from errors in taking processing of collecting
data. Measurement uncertainty is a result of all these
reasons, including errors that are the result of poor test
planning. Although most flight tests can be performed as
multisample experiments with considerable improvement
in accuracy, the cost of performing the test normally
limits us to a single sample experiment. This being the
case, we must understand where the sources of our
uncertainty lie, take steps to avoid or minimize that
uncertainty, and then present the data in a manner that
recognizes the remaining uncertainty. Each measurement
parameter must be displayed in the measured value which
is assigned to and the value of the measurement
uncertainty. Each measurement parameter obtained during
the test flight must be shown with the measured value
which is assigned to and the value of the measurement
uncertainty [5], [6].

The structured, step-by-step analysis procedures described

address the important aspects of identifying measurement
process errors and estimating their uncertainty. The
general uncertainty analysis procedure consists of the
following steps [5], [6]:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

2. THE CONCEPT OF MEASUREMENT

UNCERTAINTY

Define the Measurement Process

Identify the Error Sources and Distributions
Estimate Uncertainties
Combine Uncertainties
Report the Analysis Results

3. THE SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT

UNCERTAINTY DURING FLIGHT
TESTING

Measurement uncertainty is an estimation of the potential

error in a measurement result that is caused by variability
in the equipment, the processes, the environment, and
other sources. Every element within a measurement
process contributes errors to the measurement result,
including characteristics of the item being tested.
Evaluation of the measurement uncertainty characterizes
what is reasonable to believe about a measurement result
based on knowledge of the measurement process. It is
through this process that credible data can be provided to
those responsible for making decisions based on the
measurements. An error can be defined as the difference
between the true value and the measured value.
Measurement uncertainty may be defined as the limits to
which a specific error or system error may extend with
some confidence. The most commonly used confidence in
uncertainty analysis is 95%. Although this definition
seems simple enough, determining its magnitude from
flight test data is difficult due to the number of potential
error sources [5], [6].

3.1. Errors Due to Pilot Technique

Since most aircraft are flown by human pilots, we must be
alert for errors caused by pilot technique. Errors due to
pilot technique result from failures on the part of the pilot
to properly trim the aircraft, to allow sufficient
stabilization time on a data point, to properly configure
the aircraft or engine, or to account for friction in a
control system to name a few. The pilot can also be guilty
of gross blunder errors by violating known principles of
testing. A good test pilot can trim and stabilize an aircraft
in a minimum amount of time. However, all test pilots
will not perform these acts in the same amount of time.
Many gross blunder errors made by the pilot and crew can
be avoided if test checklist are prepared and followed for
each test and if the configurations and power settings are
checked and rechecked prior to each test flight [1], [4].

Numerous measurement uncertainty analysis standards

and guides have been published over the past twenty
years or so. Concepts and methods are consistent with
those found in the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) Guide to the Expression of
Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM). The GUM refers
only to errors that can occur in a given measurement

3.2. Airspeed and Altitude Position Error

The error in airspeed and altitude measurement caused by
the location of the static pressure source on fixed-wing
aircraft, and the static and total pressure source on
108

helicopters, is determined by flight test. Since an accurate

determination of airspeed and altitude is basic to all flight
testing, having a high confidence level in the position
correction is essential [4].

At the same time during flight test procedure aircraft is

equipped with multi-channel Flight Test Instrumentation
System (FTI) which is also susceptible to EMI. To
minimize the impact of EMI on the results of
measurements of relevant parameters during flight tests
each electronic device has to meet certain standards of
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Also, after
integration of all functional aircraft systems, aircraft is
subjected of very complex tests to determine the EMC of
aircraft as a system. EMC of aircraft is a process of
proving the capability of aircraft to operate satisfactorily
in EMI environment. EMC engineering was adopted as
part of the overall aircraft design, fabrication and testing.
Electromagnetic compatibility is grouped into two
categories i.e. internal and external (Picture 1). The
External interferences are divided into emissions and
immunity. Emissions are derived from harmonics of
periodic signals such as clock. Remedies to these
interferences concentrate on containing the harmonics to
as small as possible, blocking parasitic coupling paths to
the environment. The internal interference is the result of
signal degradation along a transmission path, including
parasitic coupling between circuits (i.e., cross talk) in
addition to field coupling between internal subassemblies.

3.3. Atmospheric Errors

It is best to avoid high humidity days for flight testing.
However, this is not always possible. In such cases it is
necessary to correct the results of measurement. The
collecting data through a temperature inversion will
introduce uncorrectable errors in the data. Errors caused
by temperature inversions, nonstandard lapse rates, and
wind shear may be avoided or reduced by using special
maneuvers during test flight [4].

3.4. Errors due to inaccurate thrust or power

determination
For performance flight testing, knowing the correct value
of thrust or power is essential. However, most aircraft
engines have tolerances on the thrust or power that they
develop for a given power setting. If it is not possible to
calibrate the engine prior to the test, which is often the
case, these tolerances become data uncertainty. Typical
values for the magnitude of these tolerances are +5 to -2%
of the desired thrust or power value. Minimizing errors
due to inaccurate thrust and power measurement can be
overcame the power plant should be calibrated while
installed in the test aircraft performing calibration of the
power plant should be calibrated while installed in the test
aircraft. Other items for reducing installed thrust or power
errors are accurate measurement of the engine inlet
temperature and other engine parameters [4].

An electromagnetic disturbance is any phenomenon,

which may degrade the performance of a device, or
equipment, or a system. This could be in the form of an
electromagnetic noise, or an unwanted signal, or a change
in the propagation medium itself. EMI can travel from its
source to the receptor, which may be a device or
equipment or a system. On board avionics, comprise both
active and passive elements, which are to be guarded
against both Radiated and Conducted Emissions (RE
&CE) [7], [8], [9].

3.5. Errors due to control system friction or

hysteresis
Both reversible and irreversible control systems suffer
from problems of friction or hysteresis. These problems
can introduce significant data scatter and error to control
force data. In addition to error in flight test data, the
friction and breakout forces associated with it have an
adverse effect on the pilots opinion of the airplane if they
are large. The magnitude of these errors is a function of
control system design and maintenance. In general, the
simpler the control system the smaller the friction or
hysteresis [4].

Picture 1. Electromagnetic threats to aircraft systems [7]

3.6. Errors due to aircraft electromagnetic

interference (EMI)

All components of FTI have to satisfy a number of

EMI/EMC standards. In spite of that after integration of
aircraft systems including FTI before starting of flight test
procedure it is necessary to a comprehensive EM1 control
plan incorporating various EMC guidelines at subsystem
level and system level [9].The EMC activities
performed at the Electromagnetic Test Centre (ETC)
are mainly divided in two kinds of test: Standard Tests and
Radiated Tests. The purpose of Standard Tests is to
analyze the interaction between the emissive on-board
systems and the susceptible equipment installed on the
aircraft. During these tests the aircraft is set in various

Modern aircraft are equipped with a large number of

electronic systems that are susceptible to EMI problems.
The problem is exacerbated by the usage of digital fly by
wire Flight Control System, Electronics Nose Wheel
Steering and Brake Management -Systems and Digital
Engine Control Systems. All these systems are safety
critical and malfunctioning of these systems due to EMI
from onboard electronics systems or due to external
Electromagnetic Environment would lead to loss of
aircraft [7].

109

operating modes, to ensure systems are operating at their

maximum sensitivity and the emissive equipment is
activated according to standard procedures. The Radiated
Tests, both high and low level, consist of the exposure
of the aircraft to an external radiated field in order to
simulate interference sources that could be encountered
during flight near RF transmitters on ground or in flight.
During these tests the aircraft is subjected to RF radiated
fields whose strength is increased step by step until the
specification limit is achieved [7], [8].
The results of the radiated tests are analyzed to
determine if any malfunction occurs.

measurements such as EMC and High Intensity Radiated

Field verification, in a representative environment of freespace, i.e. equivalent to actual flight conditions, and
according to applicable civil and military standards
(Picture 2).
Open Field Site (OFS) testing is used when there are no
screened rooms large enough for the platform size or
when radio transmission is required. The open test site
designed for the a flat area, free from overhead wires and
nearby reflecting structures and sufficiently large to
permit antenna placing at the specified distances and
provide adequate separation between antenna, platform
and reflecting structures (Picture 3).

The Anechoic Shielded Chamber (ASC) is state-of-theart testing facility designed to perform EMC

Picture 2. EMC testing of aircraft weapon systems in ASC

Picture 3. EMC aircraft fighter testing in the OFS

excitation voltage or current. Sensors and transducers
encompass a wide array of operating principles (i.e.,
optical, chemical, electrical) and materials of
construction. Signal conditioning can be categorized as
either analog or digital. Analog signal conditioning can
consist of amplification, attenuation, filtering, zero
shifting, and compensation. Digital signal conditioning
consists of converting a digital signal into another digital
form for data capture, transmission, or recording. Modern
generation of FTI System completely design using digital
technology (provide programmable, accurate filtering,
offset, and scaling of incoming analog signals) [3].

4. THE MEASUREMENT UNCERTAININTY

ESTIMATION OF THE FTI
MEASUREMENT CHANNEL
Flight test process includes measurement a lot of
parameters using different type of sensors by multi
channels FTI System. This system involves sampling a
signal, converting it to digital, encoding the digital data
and transmitting a measurement data to the Compatible
Ground Telemetry Station. The main requirements of the
FTI Systems include good measurement system design
practices such as adequate low- and high-frequency
response and data-sampling rates, appropriate antialiasing filter selection, proper grounding and shielding,
and many more. Every element within a measurement
process contributes errors to the measurement result,
including characteristics of the item being tested. The
measurement source can be in many forms, such as
electrical, mechanical, thermal, and acoustical.
Transducers more generally refer to devices that convert
one form of energy to another. Some sensors and
transducers convert the physical input directly to an
electrical output, while others require an external

The typical practical configuration of 8 channel airborne

signal conditioner of the FTI System is shown in Picture
4. It is the modern digital approach which takes advantage
of the compact, fast 16-bit A/Ds available today, where
the digital filtering and offset adjust is carried out after an
A/D device per channel. The multiplexer(s), and offset
adjust circuitry are removed and the fixed anti-aliasing
filter is much simplified because the A/D samples at
many times the desired sample rate and filters the signal
digitally [11].

110

Picture 4. First of 8 independent full-bridge channels [11]

Manufacturer specifications should provide an objective
assessment of the FTI Systems performance
characteristics. In some instances, specifications can be
complex, including numerous time or range dependent
characteristics.

each module's output carries with it an element of

uncertainty, this means that the same uncertainty may be
present at the input of some other module (Picture. 5).
The multivariate uncertainty analysis procedure consists
of the following steps:

Other characteristics are often included with performance

specifications to indicate input and output ranges,
environmental operating conditions, external power
requirements, weight, dimensions and other physical
aspects of the device. These other characteristics include
rated output, full scale output, range, span, dynamic input
range, threshold, dead band, operating temperature range,
operating pressure range, operating humidity range,
storage temperature range, thermal compensation,
temperature compensation range, vibration sensitivity,
excitation voltage or current, weight, length, height, and
width [11].

1.

2.

3.

Basic guidelines for estimating the uncertainty for

Measurement Systems comprised of component modules
arranged in series is presented. The structured, step-bystep analysis procedures described address the important
aspects of identifying measurement process errors and
estimating their uncertainty. System uncertainty analysis
follows a structured procedure. This is necessary because
the output from any given module of a system may
comprise the input to another module or modules. Since

4.

5.

Develop a Measurement System Model- Determine

the measurement system stages or modules involved
in processing the measurement of interest. Identify
the hardware and software used.
Develop Module Equations- Develop the set of
equations that describe module outputs in terms of
inputs and identify the parameters that characterize
these processes.
Identify Module Error Sources-From the module
output equations, identify and describe functions or
parameters that may contribute to the error in the
module output value.
Estimate Module Uncertainties-Compute output
values, uncertainties and associated degrees of
freedom for each module, accounting for correlations
between error sources.
Estimate Total System Uncertainty-Propagate
module output values and uncertainties to determine
the system output, uncertainty and associated degrees
of freedom [5], [6].

Picture 5. Blok diagram of one channel FTI system uncertainty analysis [6]
Another important aspect of the uncertainty analysis
process is that measurement errors can be characterized
by statistical distributions. In general, there are three error

distributions that have been found to be relevant to most

real world measurement applications: normal, lognormal,
and Students. Measurement errors can also be
111

characterized by other distributions such as the uniform,

triangular, quadratic, cosine, exponential, and U-shaped,
although they are rarely applicable. The normal
distribution should be applied as the default distribution.

be carefully performed in real conditions of exploitation

on the ground and in the calibration flights. Calibration is
process of the determination of the over-all transfer
function of each measurement parameters from the sensor
to the FTI encoder. System calibrations are also called
end-to-end calibrations. Calibration on the ground is
performed after the system is installed in the test vehicle.
Since the system calibration is performed with the same
measurement system (including wiring, connectors,
routing, etc.) as will be used during the test, many
potential problems such as phasing and wiring errors can
be identified corrected early in the process. On-vehicle
calibrations usually do not provide for error determination
of environmental effects. The Anechoic Shielded
Chamber and Open Field Site use to perform necessary
EMC measurements in accordance with certain standards.
Evaluating the measurement uncertainty in any particular
situation therefore comprises the identification,
quantification and combination of these components.
Therefore the Air Force Flight Test Centers is continually
seeking ways to improve the planning, execution,
analysis, and reporting of developmental test and
evaluation programs. The statistical methods used to
calculate confidence intervals or uncertainty for the final
results.

The standard uncertainty of a measurement error is

determined from Type A or Type B estimates.
Type A evaluation of uncertainty is by a statistical
calculation from a series of repeated observations. The
statistically estimated standard deviation of those
observations is called a Type A standard uncertainty.
Type B evaluation of uncertainty is by means other
than that used for Type A. For example, information
about the sources of uncertainty may come from data in
calibration certificates, from previous measurement data,
from experience with the behavior of the instruments,
from manufacturers specifications and from all other
relevant information, become Type B standard
uncertainties.
All identified standard uncertainty components, whether
evaluated by Type A and Type B methods, are combined
to produce an overall value of uncertainty to be associated
with the result of the measurement, known as the
combined standard uncertainty.
To then meet the needs of different applications it is
usually required to convert the combined standard
uncertainty to an expanded uncertainty, obtained by
multiplying the combined standard uncertainty by a
coverage factor, k. The expanded uncertainty provides a
larger interval about the result of a measurement than the
combined standard uncertainty with, consequently, a
higher probability that the value of the measurement value
lies within that greater interval [5], [6], [10].

REFERENCES
[1] Air Force Flight Test Center Handbook: Aircraft
Performance Flight Testing, Edwards Air Force
Base, California, 2002.
[2] Z.Filipovic, R.Stoji, T.Stoji, D.Vuji: Design And
Implementation
of
Modern
Flight
Test
Instrumentation System For Civilian And Military
Application, 4th International scientific conference
on defensive technologies, Belgrade, 6 - 7 October
2011.
[3] Z.Filipovic, R.Stoji, D.Vuji, Z.Nikoli: The first
implementation of a total flight test system in Former
Yugoslav Flight Test Centre, 5th International
scientific conference on defensive technologies,
Belgrade, 6 - 7 October 2012.
[4] Ralph D.Kimberlin: Flight Testing of Fixed Wing
Aircraft, American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Inc, Reston, Virginia, 2003.
[5] Range Commanders Council: Uncertainty Analysis
Principles and Methods, Document 122-07,
September 2007.
[6] NASA Measurement Quality Assurance Handbook
ANNEX3: Measurement Uncertainty Analysis
Principles and Methods,
[7] Jay J. Ely: Electromagnetic Interference to Flight
Navigation and Communication Systems: New
Strategies in the Age of Wireless Proc. NASA
Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia 32781
[8] RTCA/DO-160C: Environmental Conditions and
Test Procedures For Airborne Equipment,Radio
Technical Commission for Aeronautics, Suite 500;
1425 K Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005, 4
December 1989.
[9] MIL-STD-462:
Electromagnetic
Interference

CONCLUSION
A measurement result is only complete when
accompanied by a statement of the uncertainty in that
estimate. Therefore, uncertainty estimates should
realistically reflect the measurement process. Design and
implementation of the FTI System is very important for
successful evaluation of the testing prototype of aircraft.
Measurement uncertainty is an estimation of the potential
error in a measurement result that is caused by variability
in the equipment, the processes, the environment, and
other sources. Every element within a measurement
process contributes errors to the measurement result
including characteristics of the item being tested.
Concepts and method of measurement uncertainty
estimation is based on the ISO Guide to the Expression of
Uncertainty in Measurement (ISO GUM). The practical
problem with this method is that it requires knowledge of
the magnitudes of the uncertainties for the individual parts
that go to makeup the whole. In flight testing, we cannot
define the magnitude of all of these contributing
uncertainties. For instance, how do you define the
magnitude of the uncertainty introduced by the pilot when
it is mixed in with all of the other uncertainties? Although
one may estimate the unknown magnitudes and perform
the uncertainty analysis, the value of results from such
analysis is questionable. Therefore, the calibration must
112

Characteristics, Measurement of, U.S. Department

of Defense.
[10] Castrup,S.: A Comprehensive Comparison of
Uncertainty Analysis Tools, Proc. Measurement

Science Conference, Anaheim, CA, January 2004.

[11] Curtiss-Wright Controls Avionics & Electronics,
http://www.cwc-ae.com/brochures, Online: Jul 2014.

113

COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS OF FLEXIBLE WING AERODYNAMICS

SAMAH KUBBA
Aeronautical Research Center, Khartoum, samahali8888@yahoo.com
MUSAAB OSMAN
Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum, musabaero@hotmail.com
FATAH ALRAHMAN ALBADRI
Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum, fatah-aero@hotmail.com

Abstract:The Flexible Wing is that wing which made by smart materials with actuators can be changed its shape
depending on the situation .We study flexible wing design and its characteristics, advantages and disadvantages,
possibility to apply it in one kind of aircraft and test it by numerical and experimental methods (CFD and wind tunnel)
and comparing those results with the conventional wing results.
Keywords: flexible wing, CFD, wind tunnel , experimental,analysis.

1. INTRODUCTION

2. FLEXIBLE WING MATERIALS

The wing is considering one of the most important parts

from the complete aircraft design, because it is the major
generator surface of lift of the airplane and it also
maintained lateral stability and provides space of fuel
storage in most airplanes the undercarriage and the engine
are fixed in the wing.The conventional wing has a limit of
lift coefficient value which should be under maximum lift
coefficient value ( C LMAX ) at normal conditions. In this

The safety is a very important factor which must be taken

into account at all flight operations, so all aircraft parts
have made of the suitable materials which allow them to
perform their requirements by safety and effectively
manner at all flight conditions.

The required properties of the Flexible surface

materials

project the fluttering surfaces has been implemented to

improve the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing
which leads to increase maximum lift coefficient value
and increase the stall angle of attack value.

The mechanical requirements of the materials that could

be used as a flexible surface are:
1. Elasticity, flexibility and have high recovery.
2. Good resistance to different weather conditions,
abrasions and chemicals.
3. High strength which enough to handle the
aerodynamic loads of the aircraft while in flight.
4. Ability to change its state from dynamic state to static
state and vice versa without changes in the wing area
or span.
5. High degree of reliability, efficiency and
sustainability not only of the structure, but also of the
whole system.
6. Damage detection and self-recovery.
7. Intelligent operation management system.
8. Economic criteria related to raw material and
production cost, supply expenses and availability.
9. The skin should be anisotropic such that it has low
in-plane stiffness and high out of plane stiffness this
to allow the skin to bend but will ensure it is still
capable of transferring aerodynamic loads.

The Flexible Wing is that wing which made by smart

materials with actuators can be changed its shape
depending on the situation in order to optimize
aerodynamic efficiencies and aircraft control.

Project objectives
1. Collect data of the existing wings and choose one of
them to modify it and also to obtain the information
which used to make the Flexible wing.
2. Study of the possibility of Flexible wing production
(material, structure ,control, etc.) to apply in one kind
of the aircraft.
3. Comparison between the Flexible wings and
conventional wings.
4. Define requirements of the Flexible wing design.
5. Establish baseline data for the design.
6. Collect the previous studies to insure to verify its
requirements.

So that the proper materials are that provide the above

requirements by the best possible manner.
114

For this research, we found that the

suitable to make the flexible surface,
configuration that is stiff enough to
divergence but compliant enough to
available motion of the flexible part.

smart materials are

establishing a wing
prevent flutter and
allow the range of

The wood (Moscow wood type) model no (1) is

fabricated by the workshop of the wood and the
dimension which obtained from the hardware print auto of
the AutoCAD drawing.
The mean purpose of the wood Model no (1) it's used as a
cast for casting or fabrication another models which
different in materials (smart materials).

3. THE EXPREMENTAL WORK AND

FABRICATION

The fabrication process is into the Fujairah Factory for

Plastic Products.

First, we chose the wing of (Aero L-39) Aircraft which is

a small training Aircraft has wings with symmetric airfoil
of the wing (NACA 64012).

The glass fiber fabrication

The model which is fabricated by using glass fiber and
carbon fiber is not properly or failed regardless the
process of fabrication is repeated as many times and that
is due to many reasons such as following:
(a) Small and inaccurate dimensions of the model being
fabricated.

The Geometric similarity

Model and prototype must be the same in shape, but can
be different in size. All linear dimensions of the model are
related to corresponding dimensions of the prototype by a
constant length ratio Lr it is usually impossible to
establish 100 % geometric similarity due to very small
details that cannot be put into the model. Modelling
surface roughness exactly is also impossible.

(b) The fabrication techniques.

The length ratio equation is:

Lr =

LP DP
=
Lm Dm

(1)

LP : Constant length ratio. LP : The lengths of the

prototype. Lm : The lengths of the model DP : The

diameters in prototype. Dm : The diameters in model.

Figure 1: Fiber glass model.

Kinematic similarity
Model and prototype flow fields are kinematical similar if
the velocities at corresponding points are the same in
direction and differ only by a constant factor of velocity
ratio Vr . This also means that the streamline patterns of
two flow fields should differ by a constant scale factor,
and flow regimes must be the same...

The piezoelectric material (macro fiber

composite) and the carbon fiber
The piezoelectric is not found into the Sudan country and
it's very expensive and that is why its difficult to be
obtained.
All these problems are sufficient to re-fabricate a new
wood model (2) with a new dimensions and it has two
dimensions (2d) characteristics. The dimensions of the
model depend on the test section of the wind tunnel (the
span must be equal or less than 70% from the chamber
test section of the wind tunnel and that for boundary layer
consideration).

Dynamic similarity
This is basically met if model and prototype forces differ
by a constant scale factor at similar points. In other
meaning, the model and prototype force and pressure
coefficients are identical.

Wood model no.(1)

By applying these three basic laws in this model, and by
using equation (1), when we have a given data of the
prototype, we will use equation (1) to obtain model data,
to find length ratio Lr . We have a given span of a
prototype equal 424 cm, and we assume the model span
equal 70% of wind tunnel width to avoid the effects of
wind tunnel wall boundary layer, as the wind tunnel width
is 30 cm, so that the model span equals (30 x 0.7 = 21
cm), now we can obtain the length ratio by using equation
Lr =

L p 424
=
= 20.1904769
Lm
21

Figure 2: The wood model (2)

(2)

115

Table 1: The dimensions of wood model (2)

Wood model (2) Parameters

Dimensions
(cm)

Wing root chord length

28.000

Wing root leading edge curve

Diameter

0.740

Wing tip chord length

13.306

Wing tip leading edge curve

Diameter

0.352

Individual wing span

46.263

We used two different lengths of flexible surface to detect

the effect of the flexible surface length.

The flexible wing fabrication

The flexible wing model consists of:
(1) Wood model.
(2) Motors.
(3) Shaft and camshaft.
(4) Power supply.
(5) Skin material.

Figure 4: The two different lengths of flexible surface

Grid generation
In the test and at the first time, we generated the grid by
using Gambit software program, the type of this grid is
structured grid as shown in figure 5.

Figure 5: Structured grid.

But we used the unstructured grid instead of the
structured grid due to the negative volumes are detected
when we run the iteration with the dynamic mesh motion.
We face problem in using unstructured grid, it is the
decreasing in the numbers of nodes around the airfoil
surface. This problem is solved by using boundary
adaption around the airfoil by using FLUENT program,
boundary adaption act to split the mesh cells into more
cells which means to increase the number of nodes around
the airfoil give more accurate results.

Figure 3: Flexible wing fabrication.

4. COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS(

CFD )ANALYSIS:
The airfoil that used in the CFD analysis is drawn by
using AutoCAD software program, and it has the below
characteristics:
Table 2: The dimensions of AutoCAD model:
Airfoil type
Chord (m)
Max thickness (m)
Leading edge radius (m)

NACA 64012,
(2d symmetric airfoil)
1m
0.12 m
0.0132 m

a)

b)

Figure 6: The cells distribution around the airfoil surface:

(a) Before the adaption, (b) After the adaption.

116

Rigid wing

5. RESULTS
5.1. Experimental (Wind tunnel test) results:

Figure 9: Rigid wing CL vs curve

Figure 7:Rigid wing and Flexible wing lift coefficient

results

Figure 10:Rigid wing CD vs curve

Figure 8: Rigid wing and Flexible wing drag coefficient
curves.

From the results and curves, the maximum lift coefficient

C LMAX =1.3667 at angle of attack (stall angle of attack)

STALL = 14D .

From the rigid wing results, the stall angle of attack

STALL happened at 14o, while in the flexible wing it
happened at 20o. Furthermore, by comparing in the
maximum lift coefficient ( C LMAX ), C LMAX of rigid wing is

Flexible wing

0.231, while it is 0.372 at flexible wing as shown in the

flexible and rigid plotting.

SFS = smaller flexible surface.

From the drag coefficients results, by chosen specific

angle of attack such as (=10) to the comparison, the rigid
wing CD =0.14, and at the same angle of attack, CD of
the flexible wing is 0.088.

(To make the fluttering motion of the flexible surface, we

used Dynamic mesh).

BFS = bigger flexible surface.

Finally, we figure out that the aerodynamic characteristics

of the flexible wing are better than the rigid wing.

5.2. CFD analysis Results:

FLUENT program was used to obtain these results

Figure 11: Flexible wings CL vs curve.

117

From figures 13 , 14 the lift coefficient of the BFS wing is

higher than it of the rigid wing, and maximum lift
coefficient C LMAX of BFS wing is higher than its
equivalent in the rigid wing, also the stall angle of attack
of the flexible wing is higher than that one in rigid wing
( STALL of BFS wing = 16o, and STALL of rigid wing =
14o) .The increasing of STALL value at the flexible wing
means the flow separation had been delayed, and the
wake region had been damped.
By using FLUENT program, we detected the flow
separation in the rigid wing and the flexible wing ,the
flow separation in rigid wing is at 0.075C (7.5% of wing
chord), while in the BFS wing is at 0.59C (59% of wing
chord), that illustrate clearly the happened delaying of
flow separation when using the flexible wing.

Figure12: Flexible wings CD vs curve.

The lift coefficients results of two types of flexible wing
illustrate that the BFS wing (1.4)has higher lift
coefficients than the SFS wing(1.36). On the other hand,
the drag coefficient results illustrate that the BFS wing
has lower drag coefficients than the SFS wing.

Lift/Drag results

6. CONCLUSION
General comparison between flexible wings and rigid
wing:

Lift coefficient

Figure15:Comparison of L D ratio between the3 wings.

From figure 15, it is clearly that the flexible wing has better
L D ratio than rigid wing at angles of attack between 0o to
about 6o, and at the angles that higher than 14o.
This result means the flexible wing is better at take-off
run, steady flight, climbing and descending by a small
vertical velocity (i.e. smaller angles of attack) and by a
higher angles which near to stall angle of attack, and
another conditions. The increasing of L D ratio leads to
decrease specific fuel consumption, in another words it
allows additional free weight to the aircraft which
enhance the economic.

Figure 13: CL vs curves of BFS wing and rigid wing.

Drag coefficient

REFERENCES
[1] Vinayk,M., Analysis of Morphing aircraft structure
using SMP presentation.
[2] Etches,I. Bond, K.Potter and P.Weaver, Advanced
Composites Centre for Innovation and Science
(ACCIS), Department of Aerospace Engineering,
University of Bristol, UK, Morphing skins.
[3] CneytS., Mechanical Engineering Department,
Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey,
Dimensional Analysis and Similitude presentation.
[4] EricA.G., Design, Simulation, and Wind Tunnel
Verification of a Morphing Airfoil.
[5] Anderson,Jr, Computational fluid Dynamics, The
basics with applications.

Figure 14: CD vs curves of BFS wing and rigid wing

118

AERODYNAMIC AND STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS OF SAFAT01

RANIA M QURASHI
Sudan University of Science And Technology, Khartoum, rania7885@yahoo.com
MOHMMEDALHADI
Karary University, Khartoum, mohadi20@hotmail.com
SAKHERABUDARAG
Sudan University of Science And Technology, Khartoum, sabudarg@hotmail.com

Abstract SAFAT01 is a locally assembled light aircraft; design documents are troublesome as they are usually not sold
to the buyer as part of the contract. If it is required to make any modifications, aerodynamic and else wise analyses
become prerequisites. This work aimed to predict aerodynamic & stability data for SAFAT01. Because of its economic
and time efficiency, DIGITAL DATCOM program has been used to predict the stability and control derivatives for the
subsonic, low angle of attack-less than 15 degree- flight regimes. DATCOM aerodynamic results when compared to
CFD were very close. The effect of nominal center of gravity position was considered. According to computed stability
results, the aircraft has been found statically stable and possessing stable longitudinal dynamics. This agrees with the
flight tests results conducted on the aircraft which showed stable behavior.

Keyword: aerodynamic, stability, DATCOM.

1. INTRODUCTION

Clq

This research targets to perform aerodynamic analysis of

SAFAT01 airplane. This involves determining the
aerodynamic qualities of the airplane. Digital DATCOM
has been chosen to be the design tool of SAFAT01 to
estimate aerodynamic data and estimate stability
derivatives. In addition to money and time saving, results
of DATCOM at low speed are close to wind-tunnel tests
and usually provide acceptable level of accuracy [1].

Cmq

Variation of rolling moment coefficient with

pitch rate
Variation of pitching moment coefficient with
pitch rate

3. AIRCRAFT SAFAT01
SAFAT01 is a light, single-engine, monoplane aircraft
with high - strut -braced wing of USA35B airfoil section.
It is used for primary training, and has the specifications
mentioned in table (1).

2. NOMENCLATURE
L = 0
e

4. AERODYNAMIC AND STATIC STABILITY

RESULTS

Cl0

Zero lift angle of attack

Equilibrium angle of attack
Lift coefficient at zero angle of attack

Clmax

Maximum lift coefficient

The aerodynamic and static stability derivatives results

are displayed in Table (4).

CL

Lift curve slope

Aerodynamic Calculations

CD0

Parasite Drag coefficient

CD

Drag curve slope

Cm

Pitching moment curve slope

Cm0

Zero lift pitching moment coefficient

Variation of yawing moment coefficient with
sideslip angle
Variation of rolling moment coefficient with
sideslip angle

Cn

Cl

Lift:
The lift varies linearly with angle of attack till it equals to
15 deg. where lift coefficient reaches its maximum
value- the stall begins and the non-linearity appears due to
flow separation. The value of lift coefficient at zero angle
of attack is 0.469 and maximum lift coefficient is 1.69,
the two values are same for DATCOM and CFD.
DATCOM result is shown in Fig. (1). The ground effect
119

on lift coefficient is to increase lift when the wing is near

ground and take advantage of the favorable interaction
between wing and ground, when ground factor (wing height
above ground/wing span) is near ram value 0.1 the ground
effect is too high because wing is very close to ground and
the trailing edge creates sealed envelope and modifies
pressure field. The effect is decreased as the aircraft far away
from ground; the lift variation with ground effect is given by
DATCOM and shown in Fig.(2).

The Effect of Center of Gravity Location on Longitudinal

Stability:
Theeffect of movement of center of gravity toward
trailing edge on longitudinal static stability is to increase
zero lift moment coefficient and decrease moment curve
slope due to the reduction in static margin. Trim angle of
attack of the airplane increases with c.g.forward shift. The
moment curve became approximately flat with the
movement of center of gravity toward neutral point. The
rate of change of pitching moment coefficient with
respect to pitch rate decreases withcenter of gravity
forward shift; it is directly affected by static margin
reduction. . the larger the negative value of Cmq , the

Centre of Pressure Movement:

As angle of attack change the pressure at every point on
the airfoil changes, therefore, the location of the center of
pressure changes.It moves forward as the angle of attack
increases.

higher stabilizing impact on longitudinal dynamic

stability. The values of Cmq for all c.g. range are within

Atthe point of stall the center of pressure moves quickly

backwards, causing a nose down pitching moment.
Theresult is obtained by DATCOM and shown in Fig.(3).

the range. For most aircrafts its between (-0.087 to 0.523) per degree [5] .and the rate of change of rolling
moment coefficient with pitch is also reduced as
demonstrated in Fig. (9). All these results are
demonstrated in table (5). All the studied center of gravity
range showed that nominal locations from 23% to 28%
are permissible, because the stability criteria is still
satisfied and Cmq is also within the typical value for most

Drag:
The drag varies with angle of attack linearly till stall angle
of attack because of its dependency on lift. After stall
angle of attack, drag coefficient keeps rising due to flow
separation. The variation of drag coefficients with angle
of attack is same for DATCOM and CFD and equals to
0.28 per deg. The various parts contributions to drag
coefficient are shown in Fig. (4), whereas it is obvious
that wing is the main contributor. The ground effect is to
decrease drag by decreasing induced drag, when the wing
is in the area of ground effect due to part elimination of
wing tip vortices.The variation of drag coefficient with
ground effect is obtained by DATCOM is in Fig.(5).

aircraft.

Longitudinal Dynamics Results

For the specific aircraft parametersthe longitudinal
dynamic roots are
S1,2 = 6.1384 14.3744i
S3,4 = 0.0216 0.2602i

Stability Results

The roots are complex pair; this indicates that the

response is periodic. The real part is negative, which
means that the amplitude of the periodic variation will
decrease with each oscillation (the damped mode). This
type of motion is called subsidence [6].The first couple of
roots indicate short period oscillation (SPO) with heavy
damping. In this period, the angle of attack and pitch rate
change rapidly whereas the velocity remains
approximately constant.

Longitudinal Static Stability:

The results obtained from DATCOM show a positive
longitudinal stability-according to stability criteria. The
value of zero lift moment about the center of gravity
0.0577 is positive quantity and moment's curve slope is
negative and equals to -0.0138, which satisfies the
longitudinal static stability conditions the main
contributor to longitudinal static stability is the horizontal
stabilizer by the largest positive value to balance the pitch
down caused by wing and other aircraft parts. The value
of moment curve slope is within the range for most
aircrafts between (-0.3 to -1.5) per rad [5]. The obtained
results and various aircraft parts contributions are shown
in Fig.(6).

The second couple of roots indicate long period & low

damping (long period oscillation). In The long period
oscillation, the changes in velocity while the angle of
attack remains almost constant.
Table 1: SAFAT01 Specifications [3]
Gross weight(kg)
Length (m)
Height (m)
Stall speed(km/hr)

Directional Static Stability:

The aircraft showed stable behavior in directional
stability. The value of Cn equals to the desirable value
obtained (0.00057) and close to that of CFD.

120

680
6.8
1.9
40

Location of c.g. (m)

1.74 (from aircraft nose)

Ceiling (m)
Aspect ratio

300
7

Table 2: SAFAT01 Geometry [2]

Horizontal
Description
Wing
tail
Area (m2)
16.6
1.477
Root chord (m)
1.6
0.68
Span (m)
10.74
2.88
Incidence (deg.)
2
0.0
Dihedral (deg.)
0.0
0.0

Vertical
tail
0.4329
0.72
1.354
0.0
0.0

Table 3:USA 35B Airfoil Geometry [3]

Thickness(percentage of chord)
Maximum Camber(percentage of chord)

11.6%
3.2%
3.5%

Trailing edge angle(deg)

Lower flatness(percentage of chord)

11.4
94.2%

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
xcp

Leading edge radius (percentage of chord)

Fig.2: Change in lift due to ground effect

Table 4: Aerodynamic and Static Stability Results

Parameter
Cl0

0.1
0

DATCOM result CFD result [4]

-0.1

0.469

0.487

Clmax

1.69

1.67

Cl

0.09

0.09

L = 0

-5.5

-5.45

CD0

0.026

0.035

-0.2
-5

0.25

Cm

-0.0138

-0.0185

Cm0

0.0577

0.042

e
Cn

1.5

1.2

0.0006

0.00072

Cl

-0.00132

-0.005

Clq

0.075

0.0005

Cmq

-0.1062

-0.00129

10

15

0.18
H.T drag
wing drag
body drag
total drag

0.14
0.12
0.1
cd

0.28

5
angle of attack(deg)

Fig.3: Variation of center of pressure location with angle

of attack

0.16

CD

0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
-5

5
10
angle of attack(deg)

15

20

Fig.4: Drag coefficient variation with angle of attack

Table 5: Effect of movement of c.g. on longitudinal

stability
c.g. location
23%
24%
25%
26%
27%
28%

Cm0
0.0577
0.0586
0.0592
0.0599
0.0606
0.0612

e (deg)
1
1.25
2
2.25
3
3.5

Cmq

Clq

-0.1059
-0.1049
-0.1038
-0.1028
-0.1018
-01009

0.0752
0.07382
0.07238
0.07094
0.0694
0.06805

Fig.5: Change in drag due to ground effect

0.1
total aircraft
wing-body
H.T

1.8
0.05

1.6
1.4

0
cmcg

1.2
1
cl

-0.05

0.8
0.6
-0.1

0.4
0.2

-0.15

0
-0.2
-10

-5

0
5
10
angle of attack(deg)

15

20

4
6
8
angle of attack(deg)

10

12

Fig.6: Variation of pitching moment coefficient with

angle of attack and various parts contributions

Fig.1: Variation of lift coefficient with angle of attack

121

5. CONCLUSION

0.08
23%
24%
25%
26%
27%
28%

0.06

0.04

c.g
c.g
c.g
c.g
c.g
c.g

DATCOM program has been used to estimate the stability

and control derivatives for the subsonic, low angle-ofattack-less than 15 degree- flight regimes for the aircraft
SAFAT01. The resulted stability and control derivatives
have been used to estimate the aircraft longitudinal
dynamic stability. According to computed stability
results, the aircraft has been found statically and
dynamically (longitudinally) stable,. This, however,
agrees with the flight tests results conducted on the
aircraft SAFAT01 which showed stable behavior [7].

cm

0.02

-0.02

-0.04

-0.06

-0.08

10

12

angle of attack (deg)

Fig.7: Effect of c.g. location on pitching moment

coefficient

6. RECOMMENDATIONS
-0.099

Although this research has identified data generation

technique, to assure stability and controllability in ranges
of low angles of attack, the following researches are still
needed:

-0.1

-0.101

cmq

-0.102

-0.103

Improving the accuracy resultsby other techniques to

reinforce the obtained results and enhance the accuracy.

-0.104

-0.105

-0.106

-0.107
0.22

Effects of aeroelasticity should be taken into account.

0.23

0.24

0.25
0.26
0.27
c.g. location(%chord)

0.28

0.29

0.3

REFERENCES

Fig.8: Pitch damping variation with c.g. location

[1] Blake,W.B.: Missile DATCOM: Users Manual

1997 FORTRAN 90 Version, Air Force Research
Laboratories, Document AFRL-VA-WP-TR-19983009, Feb. 1998.
[2] Aerodynamics Group, Sudan master technology,
aeronautical research center,Piper Aircraft data .
[3] http://www.worldofkrauss.com/foils/1061,
airfoil
data retrieved May 10, 2011.
[4] Mahadi,M.: computational aerodynamic analysis of
a light aircraft, MSc dissertation, Karary University,
2012.
[5] Roskam. Aircraft Flight Dynamics and Automatic
Control Darcorp1998.
[6] Nelson, Flight stability and automatic control,
McGraw-Hill, 1989.
[7] SAFAT01 flight test report 2012.

0.078
0.077
0.076
0.075

clq

0.074
0.073
0.072
0.071
0.07
0.069
0.068
0.22

0.23

0.24

0.25
0.26
0.27
c.g.location(%chord)

0.28

0.29

0.3

Fig.9: Variation of rolling moment coefficient change

with pitch rate with c.g. location

122

CONTROLLING OF SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR DRIVE

ACTUATION SYSTEM USING MICROCONTROLLER
RAHEEG ALAMIN
Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum, Sudan, raheegwahbi@yahoo.com
EDWARD CHRISTOPHER
University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom, Edward.Christopher@nottingham.ac.uk
OSMAN MUHAMMAD IMAM
Karrary University, Khartoum, Sudan, moudy_fooly@yahoo.com

Abstract: The challenge in controlling the switched reluctance motor (SRM) that proposed to be an alternative
actuation system in the coming all electric aircraft enhancing the longitudinal (vertical) stability when connected to the
elevator is studied and illustrated through this research. This paper is a report of a project on a 2 pole SRM, including
the selection of the motor winding and the reason of choosing them, the control procedure, current limiting circuit
(hardware part), and programming needed to control the micro-processor. Controlling the speed and position done
through controlling the firing angle taking into account that the torque is produced when the motor inductance is
changing as the shaft angle is changing, delivering positive or negative torque depends on if the inductance is rising or
going down. Experimental results support the theory of relation between torque, speed, current and rotor switching
angle (firing angle). During the controlling the current had been limited and the firing angle was the variable to test
with. Problems showed up with the move between the four-quadrant, noise and self-starting for the 2 poles model.
Keywords: Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM), Elevator, Actuation System, Longitudinal Stability, Speed and position control.

1. INTRODUCTION

2. METHOD

Simplicity of SRM makes it inexpensive and reliable, and

together with its high speed capacity and high torque to
inertia ratio, makes it a superior choice in different
applications. However, the control of the SRM is not an
easy task. Optimized performance for simple variablespeed drives requires continuous control of the firing
angles, they require a shaft position sensor to operate,
they tend to be noisy, and they have more torque ripple
than other types of motors.[1, 6] The torque production
in switched reluctance motor comes from the tendency of
the rotor poles to align with the excited stator poles[1].
The geometric structure of the motor and the fact that all
the winding are around the stator poles in addition to the
working mode are the main cause of the ripple in the
torque, but taking into account the magnetic saturation we
can look to the phase current commutation as the main
source of this torque ripple.[1]
In recent years, SRMs have attracted renewed interests for
high speed and high performance motion control. However,
they have never been popular choices in high precision
position actuators. Additionally, the characteristics of an
SRM are highly dependent on its complex magnetic circuit
and therefore it is difficult to model, simulate and control
them. Moreover, the higher torque ripple compared with
conventional machines is a serious drawback that causes
vibrations and acoustic noise [14].

The motor in this research is a switched reluctance motor

(SRM), as it is simple in its construction and attract the
intention for new innovations. The talent is to fire the
stator windings at the best possible position (angle

in order
and for the best possible period (angle
to maximise the delivered torque, taking into account that
the firing angles are depending on the speed of the motor.
There is three possible winding connections (parallel,
series, separated) to allow rapid collapse of winding
current when the transistor is turned off.
The connection with the fewer components is used were
the stored energy can be feeding back to the source, and
working in a circuit with a 5V output this winding will
not need another driver for the power MOSFET.
To spin the motor under a controller, besides the
programming (MPLAB code will be included in the
appendix), a current limiter and a protection circuit should
build before that. This is done by connecting a number of
ICs (comparator, timer, and logic). The hard ware is
comprised from three main parts, Current Limiting
circuit, MOSFET Driver circuit, and PIC18F46K20
Development Board Connections.

123

Picture 1: Current Limiting Circuit Block Diagram

during the on period is around the mean value 0.8V, the
output of the comparator is supposed to trigger the 555
timer when it goes from high to low the delay is needed to
insure that no oscillation more than 100kHz.

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Oscilloscope had been used to track and capture the
signals, for the analysis and comparison purposes some
standard signals for some ICs will be included.
The comparator LM393 were used, it found that the potential
divider reference voltage was significantly below 0.79V, for
better performance the potential divider replaced with linear
trimmer potentiometer adjusted to 0.79V.
Picture 2 shows the two inputs for the comparator and can
be clearly seen that the fluctuation in the voltage output

For ideal 555 timer when the input of the timer is triggerd
the signal will delayed to give the MOSFT the time to
build up the current. As can seen in picture 3 above the
input to the comparator in channel 1 and the timer output
in channel 2, there is no much delay because of the
tunning and the frequency was kept up to the limit.

b
Picture 2: (a) Comparator two inputs, (b) Zoomed in

Picture 3: (a) channel 1 the comparator input from MOSFET, channel 2 the timer output, (b) zoomed in
The gate driver in the circuit playing a main role in channel 2 the XOR gate output which is the rotor
providing the gate signal to drive the switching device, switching angle as it is the difference between the two
and provide isolation between the controlled input signal signals that generated as a result of the software program
circuit and the gate of the power switching device of the by using the compare mode. The output from the NAND
inverter circuit, to invert the output of the timer it had logic should be inverted first by using a signal MOSFET
been connected to logic gate. The other input to the logic as in picture 5. The gate driver output is to trigger the gate
is from the PIC to control the MOSFET.
of the power MOSFET, can be seen from picture 6 is a
15V wave form which to be enough to trigger the gate of
The two signals in picture 4 above are the two inputs for
the power MOSFET.
the NAND gate. The timer delay in channel 1 and in
124

a
b
Picture 4: (a) The two inputs for the logic. Channel 1 timer output, channel 2 XOR gate output, (b) zoomed in

Picture 5: (a) input of the MOSFEF and the inverted output, (b) zoomed in

Picture 6: (a) gate driver input channel 2, output channel 1, (b) zoomed in

Picture 7: Input to motor from power MOSFET drain

125

Picture 8: output of the power MOSFET at different rotor switching angles (a) suggested change (b) ON at 40 OFF at
60 (c) ON at 40 OFF at 80 (d) ON at 30 OFF at 60
The output from the power MOSFET drain is to be
driving the motor and from the source to the comparator
input as a feedback and the entire loop will start again.
The encoder is the input to the PIC expected a 5v square,
in picture 7, can see its around 4V thats mean there is a
losses. For now the interrupt is set to be a part of the
program.

design and performance of a self-starting 2-phase

switched reluctance drive. in Power Electronics and
Variable Speed Drives, 1996. Sixth International
Conference on (Conf. Publ. No. 429). 1996. IET.
[5] Krishnan, R., Switched reluctance motor drives:
modeling, simulation, analysis, design, and
applications. 2010: CRC press.
[6] Yuan, G., Speed control of switched reluctance
motors. 2000, The Hong Kong University of Science
and Technology.
[7] Krishnan, R., A. Staley, and K. Sitapati. A novel singlephase switched reluctance motor drive system. in
Industrial Electronics Society, 2001. IECON'01. The
27th Annual Conference of the IEEE. 2001. IEEE.
[8] Faid, S., P. Debal, and S. Bervoets. Development of a
Switched Reluctance Motor for Automotive Traction
Applications. in 25th World Battery, Hybridand Fuel
Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium, Shenshen, China.
2010.
[9] KOUJILI, M., Design and construction of a new
actuator. 2013, Universite De Technologie BelfortMontbliard.
[10] Elwakil, E., A new converter topology for high-speed
high-starting-torque three-phase switched reluctance
motor drive system. 2009.
[11] Akhter, H.E., et al., Determination of optimum
switching angles for speed control of switched
reluctance motor drive system. Indian Journal of
Engineering and Materials Sciences, 2004. 11: p.
151-168.
[12] Bae, H.-K., et al., A linear switched reluctance
motor: converter and control. Industry Applications,
IEEE Transactions on, 2000. 36(5): p. 1351-1359.
[13] Chan, K., M.S.-W. Tam, and N.C. Cheung. Adaptive
Current Control of Variable Reluctance Finger
Gripper. in The Fifth Int. Power Eng. Conf., P370375. 2001.
[14] Srivastava, K., et al., Simulation and modeling of 8/6
switched reluctance motor using digital controller.
International Journal of Electronics Engineering,
2011. 3(2): p. 241-246.

Some suggestion has been introduced one was about

using the fact that the speed of the motor can be
controlled by the firing angle, different values for the
turning on and turning off angles had been set in the code
of the controlling program in order to change the
switching rotor angle, and as expected when increasing
the period the motor become faster, as can seen in picture
8. The readings were in different time scale because of the
speed of the motor was much faster or much slower.

5. CONCLUSION
Generally, increasing the number of SRM phases reduces
the torque ripple, but at the expense of requiring more
electronics with which to operate the SRM, at least two
phases are required to guarantee starting, and at least three
phases are required to ensure the starting direction. The
number of rotor poles and stator poles must also differ to
ensure starting [2]. As it is a 2 pole motor the self-starting
problem is still exist and it is very resistive. There is a lot
that can be done for the motor itself, controlling circuit
and the software in order to enhance the performance.

REFERENCES
[1] Ahn, J.-W., Switched reluctance motor. Osung
Media, 2004: p. 364.
[2] DiRenzo, M.T., Switched Reluctance Motor ControlBasic Operation and Example Using the
TMS320F240. Texas Instruments Incorporated.
Application Report, SPRA420A.February, 2000.
[3] Husain, I. and S.A. Hossain, Modeling, simulation,
and control of switched reluctance motor drives.
Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions on, 2005.
52(6): p. 1625-1634.
[4] Barnes, M., A. Michaelides, and C. Pollock. The
126

#pragma config FOSC = INTIO67, FCMEN = OFF,

IESO = OFF
// CONFIG1H
#pragma config PWRT = OFF, BOREN = SBORDIS,
BORV = 30
// CONFIG2L
#pragma config WDTEN = OFF, WDTPS = 32768
// CONFIG2H
#pragma config MCLRE = ON, LPT1OSC = OFF,
PBADEN = OFF, CCP2MX = PORTC // CONFIG3H
#pragma config STVREN = ON, LVP = OFF, XINST =
OFF
// CONFIG4L
#pragma config CP0 = OFF, CP1 = OFF, CP2 = OFF,
CP3 = OFF
// CONFIG5L
#pragma config CPB = OFF, CPD = OFF
// CONFIG5H
#pragma config WRT0 = OFF, WRT1 = OFF, WRT2 =
OFF, WRT3 = OFF
// CONFIG6L
#pragma config WRTB = OFF, WRTC = OFF, WRTD =
OFF
// CONFIG6H
#pragma config EBTR0 = OFF, EBTR1 = OFF, EBTR2 =
OFF, EBTR3 = OFF
// CONFIG7L
#pragma
config
EBTRB
=
OFF
// CONFIG7H

APPENEX
The microcontroller code:
//*********************************************
*********************************
//Software License Agreement
//
//The software supplied herewith by Microchip
Technology
//Incorporated (the "Company") is intended and supplied
to you, the
//Company's customer, for use solely and exclusively on
Microchip
//products. The software is owned by the Company and/or
its supplier,
//and is protected under applicable copyright laws. All
rights are
//reserved. Any use in violation of the foregoing
restrictions may
//subject the user to criminal sanctions under applicable
laws, as
//well as to civil liability for the breach of the terms and
//conditions of this license.
//
//THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED IN AN "AS IS"
CONDITION. NO WARRANTIES,
//WHETHER EXPRESS, IMPLIED OR STATUTORY,
INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED
//TO,
IMPLIED
WARRANTIES
OF
MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A
//PARTICULAR PURPOSE APPLY TO THIS
SOFTWARE. THE COMPANY SHALL NOT,
//IN ANY CIRCUMSTANCES, BE LIABLE FOR
SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR
//CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, FOR ANY REASON
WHATSOEVER.
//
**********************************************
*********************
// PIC18F46K20 Starter Kit Demo Board Lesson 12 CCP PWM
//
// This lesson demonstrates using the ECCP1 module to
create a PWM
// output signal tp LED 7. The PWM signal is modulated,
meaning the
// duty cycle is changed, to change the brightness of the
LED.
//
//
**********************************************
*********************
// * See included documentation for Lesson instructions
*
//
**********************************************
*********************
/** C O N F I G U R A T I O N
******************************/

/**
I
N
C
L
U
D
E
S
**********************************************
****/
#include "p18f46k20.h"
#include "delays.h"
//#include "12 CCP PWM.h" // header file
#include "timers.h"
#include "08 Interrupts.h"
/**
V
A
R
I
A
B
L
E
S
**********************************************
***/
#pragma idata // declare statically allocated initialized
variables
#pragma udata
// High priority interrupt vector
#pragma code InterruptVectorHigh = 0x08
void InterruptVectorHigh (void)
{
_asm
goto InterruptServiceHigh //jump to interrupt routine
_endasm
}

/** D E C L A R A T I O N
*******************************************/
#pragma code // declare executable instructions

/*
void main (void)
{
unsigned char brightness = 125; // = 0x7D

B I T S

// Set RD7/P1D pin output so P1D PWM output drives

LED7
127

TRISDbits.TRISD7 = 0;

while (PIR1bits.TMR2IF == 0); // watch for

match, which is end of period.
} while (brightness < 250);

// Set up 8-bit Timer2 to generate the PWM period

(frequency)
T2CON = 0b00000111;// Prescale = 1:16, timer on,
postscale not used with CCP module
PR2 = 249;
// Timer 2 Period Register = 250
counts
// Thus, the PWM frequency is:
// 1MHz clock / 4 = 250kHz instruction rate.
// (250kHz / 16 prescale) / 250) = 62.5Hz, a period of
16ms.

Delay1KTCYx(63);
brightness, just for effect!

// delay about 250ms at peak

// decrease brightness over 2 seconds.

do
{
brightness -= 2;
CCPR1L = brightness;
// - 8 including 2 bits
DC1Bx in CCP1CON
PIR1bits.TMR2IF = 0;
// clear interrupt flag;
set on every TMR2 = PR2 match
while (PIR1bits.TMR2IF == 0); // watch for
match, which is end of period.
} while (brightness > 1);

// The Duty Cycle is controlled by the ten-bit

CCPR1L<7,0>:DC1B1:DC1B0
// 50% Duty Cycle = 0.5 * (250 * 4) = 500
CCPR1L = 0x7D; // The 8 most significant bits of the
value 500 = 0x1F4 are 0x7D
// The 2 least significant bits of the value
(0b00) are written
// to the DC1B1 and DC1B0 bits in
CCP1CON
CCP1CON = 0b01001100;
// P1Mx = 01 Full-Bridge output forward, so
we get the PWM
// signal on P1D to LED7. Only Single
Output (00) is needed,
// but the P1A pin does not connect to a
demo board LED
// CCP1Mx = 1100, PWM mode with P1D
active-high.

Delay1KTCYx(63);
// delay about 250ms at
dimmest, it gives a better effect!
};
}
#include<18F46K20.h>
#USE DELAY(CLOCK=4000000)
and selecting the clock frequency)
*/

// for calling delays

int i=0;
int count = 0;

// The LED brightness is affected by by the Duty Cycle,

which determines how much
// of each 16ms period it is on and how much it is off.
As the duty cycle gets
// less than 50%, it is off more than it is on so the LED
becomes dimmer. As the
//duty cycle increases above 50%, it is on more than
off, so it gets brighter.
//
// This increases the brightness over 2 seconds, then
decreases it over the next 2 seconds
// Updating the CCPR1L value more than once per
16ms period has no benefit, so we'll update
// it a total of 125 times, once per period, which works
out to 2 seconds.
//
// Although we have nearly ten bits of resolution in the
duty cycle (1000 counts)
// we'll increment the duty cycle by 8 each time as we
only have 125 levels over the
// 2 second period
while(1)
{
// increase brightness over 2 seconds.
do
{
brightness += 2;
CCPR1L = brightness;
// + 8 including 2 bits
DC1Bx in CCP1CON
PIR1bits.TMR2IF = 0;
// clear interrupt flag;
set on every TMR2 = PR2 match

void main()
{
ANSEL=0x00;
//Disable analogue channels
TRISC=0x01;
//set portC as o/p
TRISA=0b00010000;
// RA4/TOCKI as input for external clock
TRISB=0x00;
// PORT B AS OUTPUT PORT
LATAbits.LATA4 = 1;
//setting port A pin 4
as input
//LATCbits.LATC2 = 0;
//PORT C PIN 2 IS
OUTPUT
//LATCbits.LATC1 = 0;
T1CON = 0b00000010;
// TIMER 1
ENABLED- EXETERNAL CLOCK ENABLED-no
prescale - increments every instruction clock
T1CONbits.T1CKPS0 = 0;
//PRESCALER 1:1
T1CONbits.T1CKPS1 = 0;
//PRESCALER 1:1
TMR1H = 0xFF;
// clear timer - always
write upper byte first
TMR1L = 0xFF-100;
CCP1CON = 0b00000010;
// compare mode, toggle output on match
CCP2CON = 0b00000010;
// compare mode, toggle output on match

128

CCPR1L =0;
//TURN ON ANGLE = 40 DEG
CCPR2L =0;
//TURN OFF ANGLE= 60 DEG
T1CONbits.TMR1ON = 1;
// start timer
RCONbits.IPEN = 1;
on interrupts
PIR1 = 0;
PIE1bits.TMR1IE = 1;
IPR1 = 0;
IPR2 = 0;
IPR1bits.TMR1IP = 1;

// Enable priority levels

INTCONbits.GIEH = 1;

// Interrupting enabled.

//

i=1;
count = TMR1L;
}
}
#pragma interrupt InterruptServiceHigh
pragma also for high priority
void InterruptServiceHigh(void)
{
PIR1 = 0;
CCPR2H = 0xff;
CCPR2L = (0xff-100)+0x3c;
CCPR1H = 0xff;
CCPR1L = (0xff-100)+0x28;

// "interrupt"

count = TMR1L;
// Check to see what caused the interrupt
// (Necessary when more than 1 interrupt at a priority
level)

while(1)
{
//if(count=0x28)
//
{
//
CCPR1L = count; // CCPR1L on 40 deg
//
LATCbits.LATC2 = ~LATCbits.LATC2;
//
}
//
// if(count=0x3c)
//
{
//
CCPR2L = count2; // CCPR2L
on 60 deg to 330 deg
//
LATBbits.LATB3
=
~LATBbits.LATB3;
//TURN ON CCP2;
RB3 PIN

// Check for INT0 interrupt

TMR1H = 0xFF;
// clear timer - always
write upper byte first
TMR1L = 0xFF-100;
// (Necessary when more than 1 interrupt at a priority
level)
// Check for INT0 interrupt
LATCbits.LATC7 =~ LATCbits.LATC7;
}

129

THE DEVELOPMENT OF MILITARY HEAD-UP DISPLAY

TECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATION TO MODERN
FYING TRAINING
ROBERT WILSEY FRAES
Director Total Reaction Ltd, Representing Esterline CMC Electronics Inc. Langport, UK, treaction@btinternet.com

Abstract: After many years of development Head-Up Displays began to be introduced to military front-line aircraft in
the 1970s. Since then Head-Up Display technology has revolutionized basic and advanced military flight training.
Keywords: Fighter, Trainer, HUD, Avionics.
SE-5A, Sopwith Camel and Spad S.XIII bi-plane fighters.
The French developed a similar Chretian collimated sight.
The Aldis sight consisted of a hermetically sealed tube,
resembling a telescope but with no magnification, projecting
two collimated concentric aiming rings. This allowed the
pilot to move his head in combat and still be able to see
focused aiming rings. With his eye position at 5 inches from
the sight, the Field of View (FOV) was 20 degrees.
Collimation is the projection of parallel light rays so that the
focus is on infinity. This allows the aiming "pipper" or ring
to be focused on infinity, matching the outside world and
thus reducing aiming errors due to parallax between the sight
and the target. Thus the pilot will see a focused aiming
solution when his eyes are focused on a distant aircraft. A
major advance in technology was the adoption by the
Germans of the Oigee reflector gun sight manufactured by
Optical Antal Oigee of Berlin, first used in the last months of
WW1 and fitted to the Fokker Dr.1 tri-plane and Albatros
D.V bi-plane fighters. This allowed the pilot greater freedom
to move his head without the visual obstruction of a tube
whilst the illuminated pipper was projected onto a glass
screen. During the inter-war years the reflector sight was
further refined. After the outbreak of WW2 the gyroscopic or
"gyro gun sight (GGS) " was developed in 1941-43 at
Farnborough which fed information on the rate of turn and
skid into the sight to adjust the position of an illuminated
graticule of six diamonds which could be set to correspond
with the wingspan of the target by rotating a throttle grip,
known as stadiametric ranging. This took much of the
guesswork out of deflection shooting. The Germans in
particular produced some advanced examples of gyro sights.
The RAF experimented with a radar projector system for
their De Havilland Mosquito night fighters fitted with the AI
Mk IX radar in 1944 which projected the radar image of the
target and an artificial horizon together with the gunsight
graticule onto the pilots windshield using a cathode ray tube
and lenses. This was probably one of the first true aircraft
HUDs as it displayed flight attitude information together
with target and aiming solutions but was never adopted. The

1. INTRODUCTION
Over the last 10 years the introduction of 4th and 5th
Generation front-line fighters has resulted in a revolution
in basic and advanced military flying training. The cost of
operating these jets has increased dramatically and has led
to the necessity of downloading flying training to less
expensive platforms such as Lead-In-Fighter Trainers
(LIFT) and Advanced jet Trainers (AJT). In turn this has
led to a knock-on effect of downloading as much as
possible of advanced flying training to less expensive
Basic or Intermediate trainers. A key element in this
process has been the development and use of the allimportant Head-Up Display (HUD).

Picture 1. Example of F/A-18 HUD symbology during a

dogfight.PD.

2. DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUD

Probably the first use of an optical device by pilots was the
collimated gun sights used on WW1 biplanes. The Aldis
sight was adopted by RFC pilots in World War 1 on their
130

Blackburn NA39 strike fighter, later named the Buccaneer,

was the first British military aircraft to enter service in 1958
with a HUD manufactured by Cintel, developed for very
low-level anti-shipping strikes.

"boxed" in the pilots field of view and with steer points

and distance to go displayed.
Flight by reference to Angle of Attack
Velocity Vector (or energy) information displayed.
Target identification improved.
Safer instrument approaches with head out approaching
decision or minimum descent height.
Easier scan whilst formation flying and air-to-air
refueling
Safer low speed and hover VSTOL operations when
outside visual cues are important.
Reduces the need for a Weapon System Officer (WSO
or "back-seater") in ground attack and air defence
aircraft.
Typically, the HUD is controlled by an Up Front Control
Panel (UFCP) attached to the front lower HUD body
which, with a combination of soft buttons and LCD
window displays, allows the moding of the HUD to be
changed together with the insertion of waypoints and
communication frequencies. The UFCP also controls the
brilliance of the HUD and UFCP displays with test
functions and day night lighting switches.

Picture 2. Aldis gunsight on WW1 Royal Aircraft Factory

S.E.5A fighter. The Vintage Aviator Ltd, New Zealand

A quicker and more intuitive means of changing the HUD

display known as Master Moding (first developed on the
F-16) enables the pilot to switch from navigation based
display to air-to-ground to air-to-air modes by a simple
press of a Hands on Throttle and Stick (HOTAS) button
on the throttle grip. The displays in the HUD and on the
Multi-Function Displays (MFDs) can be pre-programmed
by the pilot for each mode as he desires.
The power supply controls and software for the HUD
resides either in a HUD Symbol Generator (HSG) or, as
in the case of Esterline CMC Electronics SparrowHawk
HUD, run from a dedicated card inside an open
architecture Mission Computer.
Picture 3. Late WW2 Ferranti MkIIC Gyro Gunsight in a
Spitfire MkIX. PD

3. THE HUD IN FRONT-LINE AIRCRAFT

The LTV A-7 Corsair was the first operational US aircraft
to be fitted with a HUD, the HUD Weapon Aiming
System (HUDWAS) produced by Marconi-Elliott. The
HUD, which has equipped most front-line aircraft since
the 1970s, allows pilots to tactically fly their aircraft
whether it be conducting air-to-ground close air support
or air-to-air combat mission by reference outside the
aircraft with primary flight information displayed in their
field of view along with computer generated weapon
aiming solutions.

Picture 4. Internal arrangement of a typical Refractive

HUD. Esterline CMC Electronics.
The HUD with associated UFCP and HUD camera are
mounted on the dashboard of the panel on a specially
manufactured tray attached to primary aircraft structure.
This is carefully designed to align with the design eye
position (DEP). It is imperative that the HUD cannot
move (except for adjustment) in its mounting, that the
combiners clear the canopy bow for HUD fitting and
removal, that the combiners are clear of the windshield
and canopy in the event of canopy flexing due to bird

However, there are additional advantages that the HUD

brings to the pilot which include:
Increased tactical awareness with increased lookout.
Improved flight safety, especially at low level and in
poor visibility.
Simplified navigation with waypoints and targets
131

strike, and that the front face of the UFCP is clear of the
ejection seat line. The resultant is a very accurate
placement of symbology, often 5 to 2 milliradians,
depending on position in the FOV.

either one or two flat combiners. The use of a second

combiner increases the vertical dimension of the IFOV.
However, due to space constraints in the cockpit, the size
of the optics is limited and the IFOV from the cockpit
design eye position (DEP) is typically smaller than the
TFOV. The symbology is usually designed so that
primary flight information lies within this IFOV, but other
conformal symbols may move beyond the DEP IFOV.
This necessitates the pilot moving his head to see symbols
that have moved toward the edge of the TFOV. This
behavior is often described as like looking through a
hole in a fence. The hole is not large enough to see the
entire TFOV from the DEP. However, moving closer to
the HUD permits more to be seen, and moving laterally or
vertically permits a shift to see other parts of the display
as needed. The projected imagery is traditionally green
phosphor P53 which has the attributes of lasting longer
than other greens and is also tuned to the peak wavelength
of human vision. The refractive HUD represents a lower
cost and lighter solution compared to a holographic HUD
and is particularly suited to trainers and ground-attack
aircraft and 4th Generation fighters.

4. ADVANTAGES OF THE HUD FOR

MILITARY TRAINING AIRCRAFT
The software that draws the HUD symbology on the HUD
combiner can today be written so that the HUD will
mimic the symbology and functionality of various frontline aircraft. This, for instance will allow BAE Systems
HUD on the RAAF Hawk Mk 127 to display similar
symbology to the RAAF F/A-18 Hornet with the same
button presses. The pilots HUD view is also recorded by
means of a digital mission recorder. A miniature HUD
camera, now usually placed forward of the HUD
combiners, records the pilots view of the outside world
whilst the HUD symbol generator or a mission computer
superimposes the HUD symbology onto the video
recording. Green phosphor symbology is difficult to film
and this computer generated superimposition results in a
clearer, more focused, recording and improved exposure.
This feature allows for timely and accurate post training
sortie debriefs from the instructor.
The flying instructor in the rear seat must also have access
to what the student is seeing through the HUD and this is
achieved in one of three ways:

A second rear seat HUD

Rear seat conformal HUD Repeater
Rear seat HUD repeater MFD menu page

The format of the rear seat HUD display depends on the

design of the rear cockpit and to what degree it is angled
above the front ejection seat box. Both the McDonnell
Douglas TAV-8B Harrier and Eurofighter Typhoon T1
have separate rear seat HUDs with a FOV largely above
the front ejection seat head-box. LIFT and advanced
trainers are more usually equipped with a dedicated HUD
repeater monitor which is mounted conformally above the
rear dash enabling the instructor to land the aircraft using
the repeater and peripheral vision if required. The third
option is to display the HUD view in an MFD menu page.
This is a low cost solution but requires the instructor to be
head-down.

Picture 5. Esterline CMC Electronics SparrowHawk 25

degree Refractive HUD Esterline CMC Electronics

7. REFLECTIVE HUD TECHNOLOGY

The holographic or reflective HUD (also known as a
diffractive HUD or pupil relaying system) has a single
large diameter oblong combiner which gives a larger
TFOV than a refractive HUD. From the Design Eye
Position, the IFOV of the reflective HUD usually covers
the entire TFOV. Head movement is possible whilst
retaining view of all symbology within a defined eye
motion-box or design eye box but when the head is
moved outside this imaginary box during high energy
maneuvering all symbology may disappear. This is not as
disadvantageous as it sounds and a pilot soon learns
where to place his head in order to regain the symbology.
The relay lenses required to adjust the light to be
displayed on the single combiner are complex and heavy.
The combiner itself acts as a collimating lens and an
added advantage is that the combiner can be placed

5. HUD FIELD OF VIEW

For all types of HUD, the term Instantaneous Field of
View (IFOV) describes the overall size and shape of the
symbol space that can be seen from any specific head
position. The IFOV typically changes as the head
position changes. The term Total Field of View
(TFOV) describes the fixed overall limits of where the
HUD can display symbols. The TFOV does not change
with head position.

6. REFRACTIVE HUD TECHNOLOGY

The traditional refractive HUD uses a Cathode Ray Tube
(CRT) and lenses to project collimated symbology onto
132

further away from the pilot than with a refractive HUD.

The large TFOV provided by the single combiner
provides a more practical solution for displaying raster
images such as Forward Looking Infra-Red (FLIR),
Enhanced Vision System (EVS) or Synthetic Vision on
the HUD. The holographic HUD is relatively heavy and
expensive and more suited to 4.5 and 5th Generation frontline fighters where a large FOV is required.

symbology will also burn brighter and not suffer from

fade as did the CRT based symbology. This in turn will
improve the raster display performance of the HUD.
With the introduction of the 5th Generation aircraft frontline jets will prove to be too expensive to train on and to
fly unnecessarily. Neither the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter
(JSF) nor the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor have a twoseater training variant and the current estimate of the cost
per hour for the F-35A ranges between US$ 33,000 and
$35,000 (compared with US$20,000 per hour for the CF18). It is estimated that 210 flying hours per year will be
required to keep an F-35 pilot fully combat ready [10].
There is therefore an urgent requirement for Lead-in
Fighter Trainers (LIFT) to mimic 5th Generation Fast Jets.
Lead-in training and Squadron continuation training
should be downloaded to a suitably equipped LIFT. The
LIFT must be able to mimic the HUD and HMD
symbology and the wide touch-screen display technology
of the 5th generation front-line aircraft with fidelity.

8. THE HUD AS PART OF A DIGITAL

COCKPIT SOLUTION
The HUD and UFCP are closely integrated with the
HOTAS, weapon delivery, MFD selection and displays,
GPS navigation and sensors. The HUD is the key to the
integrated fighter and trainer cockpit which has two
additional phases of redundancy. Primary Flight
information is displayed in the HUD, on the PFD page of
the MFDs and typically on a stand-alone electronics
standby instrument system which runs off its own
independent power supply in the event of a total systems
failure. Fly-by-wire and care-free handling has made the
pure flying skills required to fly 5th Generation aircraft
less critical whilst systems management, information
processing and decision making under high G loads have
become increasingly essential. Most of these skills can be
learned on a less capable and lower cost platform using
training software to mimic the symbology and systems
management of the front-line platform.

Virtual training, mission de-briefing tools and simulations

can accurately replicate expensive advanced sensors and
mission systems. For example the requirement for an
expensive and highly capable radar can be replaced in
training by computer generated virtual radar together with
virtual defensive systems including RWR, chaff and
flares. Related virtual HUD radar symbology items such
as a Target Designator box, locator line and text boxes
can be displayed for training purposes using Virtual
Training System (VTS) software. The 5th Generation
fighter such as the F-22 is designed to engage multiple
adversaries with beyond visual range (BVR) AIM-120
AMRAAM missiles. Thus it is wasteful in terms of both
training time and money to practice 1v2 air-to-air combat.
It is also prohibitively expensive to get 14 highperformance aircraft airborne to act as targets. VTS will
enable the LIFT student to engage, for instance, 12 virtual
adversaries during a training mission at the cost of one
hours flight time in an advanced trainer. The
combination of these features means that valuable flying
training hours can be downloaded from a US$30,000 per
hour front-line fighter to a US$2,000 per hour advanced
jet trainer.
In response to these requirements Esterline CMC
Electronics has recently integrated a Digital HUD with a
20x7 inch large area display touch screen, replicating the
5th Generation cockpit, in its Cockpit-4000 NexGen
demonstrator. The large area display can show multiple
windows and includes synthetic vision. This, and other
future LIFT glass cockpits, will not only help solve the
5th Generation training problem, but will allow front-line
squadron pilots to remain in current operational readiness
without using very expensive front-line aircraft.

Picture 6. BAE Systems 35 x 25 degree holographic

HUD on Eurofighter Typhoon. Eurofighter GmbH

9. THE FUTURE OF THE HUD

The most important recent change to the conventional
HUD has been the replacement of the CRT with a digital
light engine (DLE). CMCs digital SparrowHawk HUD
was unveiled at the Farnborough Airshow 2012 as part of
CMCs next generation Cockpit-4000 (Cockpit-4000
NexGen). It utilizes a Digital HUD, replacing a
conventional CRT with a digital light engine and
eliminating the requirement for a high voltage power
supply to the CRT. The introduction of the DLE will
mean that the life-limited CRT component will no longer
have to be replaced, typically every 2,000 hours, causing
expensive down-time. In addition to improved MTBF the

10. THE HUD IN FLIGHT SIMULATORS

With todays emphasis on realistic simulation, todays full
motion flight simulator can replicate the real aircraft with
fidelity. This, of course, includes the HUD when fitted to
the real aircraft, but there is a technical adjustment that
has to be made to the HUD optics since the outside world
is usually a computer-generated scene projected onto a
133

curved screen around the simulator. For simulator

applications the HUD symbology focus is thus specially
tuned. Such tuning of the focus works well with domes of 10
meters radius or greater. With the increasing importance on
providing compact visual systems in modern simulators, it
becomes difficult to refocus the HUD without introducing
display artificialities that increase as the distance to the dome
decreases. One solution is to project the HUD symbology
with the visual scene and forgo use of real HUD symbol
generation. This works but there are lingering concerns as to
whether or not training on a HUD without the relationship
between IFOV and TFOV being present might introduce
elements of negative training that must be overcome in the
real aircraft

situational awareness and off-axis weapon cueing. The

Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II JSF will be the first
aircraft designed to rely solely on an HMD, the ESA
Visions Systems Helmet Mounted Display System
(HMDS), without a HUD. All other HMD equipped frontline fighters such as the Typhoon, with the BAE Systems
Head Equipment Assembly (HEA) Striker HMD, will
continue to use a HUD. Generally a HUD will produce
more accurate symbology than an HMD which is useful
for the accurate delivery of boresight weapons as well as
for instrument approaches. The HUD/HMD combination
also offers an effective backup in the event of HMD
failure, especially in the case of night or poor weather
recovery to a carrier. The cost and complexity of HMDs
such as the HMDS will be beyond the budget of many
nations. There is thus a continuing requirement for HUD
in the foreseeable future and there is little danger of the
HMD replacing the HUD in training aircraft.

11. IMPACT OF HELMET MOUNTED

DISPLAYS
The introduction of Helmet Mounted Displays (HMD)
was first used operationally by the South African Air
Force on the Mirage F1-AZ and later the Atlas Cheetah.
Russia and Israel were quick to further develop the
concept and Elbits DASH was the first HMD to see
service in the West. Development of HMDs for 4th and 5th
Generation fighters is progressing although there have
been considerable technical challenges with issues
including:
Weight and ejection safety
Lag in displaying information
Jitter
Alignment of the pilots eye and HMD
Incorporating night vision into the HMD

Picture 8. Example of a modern LIFT Trainer Cockpit.

CMC Electronics new Cockpit-4000 NexGen, showing
28 degree digital HUD (top) and 20 x 7inch large area
display touchscreen. Esterline CMC Electronics.

Picture 7. Elbit Systems of America/VSI International

HMDS for F-35 JSF. PD

12. CONCLUSION

Advanced fighters such as the F/A-18E Super Hornet,

Eurofighter Typhoon, Dassault Rafale and the Lockheed
Martin F-22 Raptor rely on the HUD as primary flight
information whilst the HMD gives additional tactical

In summary Head-Up Displays are now a core part of

military training aircraft avionics. Training the 5th
Generation fighter pilot on the front-line platforms will be
134

unaffordable and thus a new generation of Lead-in Fighter

Trainers will be required. They must be able to mimic the
handling, feel and mission systems of the front-line.
Despite the development of the HMD the HUD is likely
to continue to play a vital part in training for many years
and as much of the advanced training syllabus as possible
should flow down to basic training in order to make the
best economic use of valuable and dwindling assets.
Integrated glass cockpit technology, together with the use
of flight simulators, replaces expensive flying hours and
increases the effectiveness of training the modern combat
pilot.

Technology, Front Line Defence Vol.10, No.1.

[4] Penney,S.: Honing the Hawk, Flight International
Magazine 25 Feb 2003.
[5] Wood,RB & Howells,PJ: Head-Up Displays, The
Avionics Handbook CRC Press 2001.
[6] Croft John: Helmet Mounted Displays: Adding Night
Vision, Aviation Today 1 Sep 2006.
[7] Clarke R. Wallace: British Aircraft Armament:
Volume 2 RAF Guns and Gunsights from 1914 to the
present day, Patrick Stephens 1994.
[8] Butler Amy: Another Installment of F-35 Cost Per
Flying Hour, Aviation Week 27 Apr 2013.
[9] Gunner Jerry: Netherlands & the F-35, Air Forces
Monthly July 2014.
[10] HUDWAC Flight International 14 November 1974.
[11] Newman Richard L.: Head-Up Displays Avebury
Aviation 1995.

REFERENCES
[1] http://simhq.com/forum/ubbthreads.php/topics/32726
19/Re:_Aldis_gunsight.
[2] Kopp,C.: The Modern Fighter Cockpit, Australian
Aviation & Defence Review March 1981.
[3] Wilsey,R.: Developments in Glass Cockpit

135

OPTIMAL DESIGN OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS

NENAD BERI
Special Brigade, Panevo, nenadberic@yahoo.com
STEVAN MAKSIMOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, s.maksimovic@open.telekom.rs

Abstract: Subject of this investigation is focused on developing computation procedure for optimal design of aircraft
structural components with respects to stress, displacement and technology constraints. Attention is focused on
minimum weight design of plates with reinforced hole. Optimal design procedure is based on combining finite element
method (FEM) for the structural analysis with using optimality criteria (OC) method in optimization process. Special
attention is focused on optimal design of structural components with reinforced holes. The effect of shape of
reinforcements around hole to optimal design is analyzed. Some practical design examples are used to illustrate the
capability of this procedure.
Keywords: aircraft constructions, optimal design, minimum weight design, stress constraints, finite element method

subject to behavior and side constraints

1. INTRODUCTION

Gj =Cj Cj 0

One of the major tasks in the design of aircraft structural

components is the sizing of the structural members to
obtain the desired strength, weight, and stiffness
characteristics. Optimization algorithms have been
coupled with structural analysis programs for use in this
sizing process. Most of the difficulties associated with
large structural design are solution convergence and
computer resources requirements. Structural optimization
problems traditionally have been solved by using either
the mathematical programming (MP) or the optimality
criteria (OC) approach. More recently, the works in Refs
[1-3] have illustrated the uniformity of the methods.
Nevertheless, each approach offers certain advantages and
disadvantages. This work deals with numerical methods
of optimal design of aircraft structural components.
Several different examples of plate-type structural
components with reinforced holes are presented in this
work.

Find the vector of design variables x such that

i

min

- is the structural weight of structure

- is design variable assigned to element i
- is a geometrical parameter such that the product
- is the volume of the element i

- is the mass density

Gj

- is constraint j

Cj

- is limiting value of the constraint j

n
m

- is total number of elements

-is total number of constraints

In addition to system constraints there are local

constraints. These include various buckling loads, various
failure types in composite structures, etc.

i i

W
xi
li
lixi

The constraints imposed on the structural components,

defined by equation (2.2), may have the global and local
character. The global constraints will be defined as
system constraints. The system constraints imposed on
the structure may include the maximum allowable stress
in each element, the displacement limits at one or more
locations, system stability, reactive forces, dynamic
stiffness, divergence, flutter etc. In addition to these there
would be limitations on the minimum and maximum sizes
of the elements.

The general structural optimization problem of aircraft

structural components modeled by finite elements can be
stated as follows:

lx

(2.2)

where:

2. FORMULATION OF OPTIMIZATION
PROBLEM

W=

j = 1,..., m

(2.1)

i =1

136

Inclusion all these constraints in optimization process to

large-scale structures are inefficient with computational
aspect. However, to develop an efficient algorithm that
effectively handles all types of constraints would be
impractical and generally unnecessary. In the case of most
structures it is likely that one can predict the type of
constraint that will be the most active at the optimum and
use the algorithm based on that constraint. The multilevel
optimization approach may be very efficient for
optimization large-scale structural systems because it
breaks the primary problem statement into a system level
design problem and a set of uncoupled component level
problems. Results are obtained by iterating between the
system and local level problems. The decomposition of a
complex optimization problem into a multilevel hierarchy
of simpler problems often has computational advantages.
It makes the whole problem more tractable, especially for
the large aircraft structures. The nature of an aircraft
structure makes multilevel optimization highly practical,
not only in terms of reducing the computing cost but also
because the individual tasks in the traditional design
process are then preserved. Subject of this investigation is
focused on developing computation procedure for optimal
design of aircraft structural components with respects to
stress, displacement and technology constraints. Using
FEMAP and NASTRAN software, and Finite Element
Method (FEM) these models have been created, analyzed
and optimized in order to define the best design on the
criterion of minimum weight. Optimality criterion
algorithm is incorporated in many commercial software
including Msc/NASTRAN software.

Figure 1. Basic model

Design constraint includes maximum Von Mises Stress
=400 N/mm2, design objective was to minimize weight,
and design variable is the model thickness. Optimization
process was done in 5 cycles and minimum weight of the
model, in given conditions, is obtained and presented in
Table 2.
Table 2. Basic model optimization results
Plate thickness (mm)
0.977
Weight (kg)
0.053

3. DEFINITION OF THE MODEL

Results obtained for basic model, without reinforcements,

will be used for comparisons with the optimization results
for other models.

All models examined in this work have similar geometry.

Only difference between them is in size and shape of
reinforcement around the hole. Basic model is 200 mm
long, 100 mm width, 1 mm thick and with the hole
diameter D1=30 mm in the center of the model, Figure 1.
Model is made of aluminum alloy. Mechanical properties
of used material are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Properties of the material
Isotropic Aluminum Alloy - Dural
Youngs Modulus [E]

E = 74000 N/mm2

Poissons Ratio []

= 0.3

Mass Density []
Limit Stress (Tensile)

= 2.8 10-6 kg/mm3

= 400 N/mm2

4. NUMERICAL OPTIMIZATION
4.1. Basic model optimization
Basic model, Figure 1, was analyzed first. Plate was
clamped on one side and continuous tension load was
applied on the other side. Load intensity was F = 12.000
N. Basic finite element model with stress distribution of
the plate with hole is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Stress distribution on optimized model

137

Table 3. Characteristic measures of Case 1 model

Hole diameter
D1=30mm
Reinforcement diameter
D2=35mm
Plate thickness
t1=1mm
Reinforcement thickness
t2=2mm

4.2. Model with reinforced hole, Case 1

After obtaining results of optimal design for basic model,
several different models with hole reinforcement are
examined. Goal is to, using benefits of finite element
modeling [4,5] and design optimization, find minimum
weight design that will meet the terms. Characteristic
measures of Case 1 model are given in Table 3.

Table 4. Case 1 model optimization results

Plate thickness t1 (mm)
Reinforcement thickness t2 (mm)
Weight (kg)

0.55
2.42
0.031

4.3. Model with reinforced hole, Case 2

In Case 2 model same measures of the model are used,
but reinforcement is defined in a way that it has been
divided in two properties, inner and outer reinforcement.
It has been done in order to get more accurate design and
lighter model. Reinforcement thicknesses and diameters
are given in Table 5.
Table 5. Characteristic measures of Case 2 model
Hole diameter
D1=30mm
Inner reinforcement diameter
D2=32mm
Outher reinforcement diameter
D3=35mm
Plate thickness
t1=1mm
Inner reinforcement thickness
t2=1.5mm
Outher reinforcement thickness
t3=2mm
Results of the optimization in Nastran are given in Table 6.
Table 6. Case 2 model optimization results
Plate thickness t1 (mm)
Inner reinforcement thickness t2 (mm)
Outher reinforcement thickness t3 (mm)
Weight (kg)

Figure 3. Model with reinforces hole

When the model was defined, optimization process in
Nastran was performed. Design objective and design
constrains for all cases and for basic model are the same.
Optimization results are obtained after 5 design cycles,
and best design is accomplished in cycle 4. Results are
presented in Table 4 and Figure 4.

0.57
1.43
2.99
0.029

Graphical weight history during optimization process for

model Case 2 is given in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Weight history during optimization, Case 2

Table 5. Characteristic measures of Case 2 model
Hole diameter
D1=30mm
Inner reinforcement diameter
D2=32mm
Outher reinforcement diameter
D3=35mm
Plate thickness
t1=1mm
Inner reinforcement thickness
t2=1.5mm
Outher reinforcement thickness
t3=2mm
Results of the optimization in Nastran are given in Table 6.
Table 6. Case 2 model optimization results
Plate thickness t1 (mm)
Inner reinforcement thickness t2 (mm)
Outher reinforcement thickness t3 (mm)
Weight (kg)

Figure 4. Stress distribution on Case 1 optimized model

138

0.57
1.43
2.99
0.029

Table 10. Case 4 model optimization results

Plate thickness t1 (mm)
Inner reinforcement thickness t2 (mm)
Outher reinforcement thickness t3 (mm)
Weight (kg)

4.4. Model with reinforced hole, Case 3

The difference between this model and case 1 model is
that in case 3 model hole reinforcement is bigger. The
goal is to compare optimization results in order to
accumulate more data. Case 3 model characteristic
measures are given in Table 7.
Table 7. Case 3 model characteristics
Hole diameter
Reinforcement diameter
Plate thickness
Reinforcement thickness

5. RESULTS ANALYSIS
After five previous models are examined, it is possible to
compare obtained results and provide some answers.
Objective defined at the beginning of the research was to
minimize weight. Figure 5 illustrates calculated weights
for all five models. Models from Basic model to Case 4
model are presented on x-axes of the chart with numbers
from 1 to 5 respectively. On y-axes weight in 10-3
kilograms is presented. Benefits of using hole
reinforcement are obvious and savings in material are
more than 50 %.

D1=30mm
D2=40mm
t1=1mm
t2=2mm

Optimization results are presented in Table 8.

Table 8. Case 3 model optimization results
Plate thickness t1 (mm)
Reinforcement thickness t2 (mm)
Weight (kg)

0.52
0.56
2.53
0.03

0.57
1.75
0.032

Figure 7. Comparisons of weights after optimization of

plate with different shape of reinforcement around hole

6. CONCLUSION
This paper considers optimal design of representative
aircraft structural component. Here plate with circular
hole as representative structural component is considered.
Plate with circular hole under stress and technology
constraints is analyzed. Special attention is focused to
optimal design of reinforcement around hole of plate. The
four shape type of reinforcement is considered. The effect
of shape of reinforcement around hole to minimum
weight is evident (Figure 7). These analysis and
optimization procedures can be used in practical optimal
design of aircraft structural components.

REFERENCES
Figure 6. Stress distribution on Case 3 optimized model

[1] Canfield,R.A,
Grandhi,R.V.,
Venkayya,V.B.:
Optimum Design of Large Structures With Multiple
Constraints, 27th Structures, Structural Dynamics
and Materials Conference, May 19-21, San Antonio,
Texas, 1986.
[2] Maksimovic,S.:
Some
computational
and
experimental aspects of optimal design process of
composite structures, J. Composite Structures, Vol.
17, 1990, 237-258.
[3] Maksimovic,S.: On Multilevel Optimization Method
with Applications on Aircraft Landing Gears,
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on APPLIED and
THEORETICAL MECHANICS, Issue 2, Volume1,
2006, pp 231-238

4.5. Model with reinforced hole, Case 4

In the same way that reinforcement of the Case 1 model
was splited in two properties for Case 2 model, in Case 4
model hole reinforcement is defined as follows (Table 9).
Table 9. Characteristic measures of Case 4 model
Hole diameter
D1=30mm
Inner reinforcement diameter
D2=35mm
Outher reinforcement diameter
D3=40mm
Plate thickness
t1=1mm
Inner reinforcement thickness
t2=1.5mm
Outher reinforcement thickness
t3=2mm
139

[4] Danh Tran, Vu Nguyen: Optimal hole profile in a

[5] Maksimovi,S., Ruzi,D., Maksimovi,K.: An

improved 4-node shell finite element used in the
postbuekling and failure analysis of composite
structures. u: Luxfem - 1st International Conference
on Finite Element for Process, Luxembourg, 13-14
November, str. 13-14, 2003.

finite plate under uniaxial stress by finite element

simulation of Durelli`s photoelastic stress
minimization, Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 32,
1999, 1-20.

140

DESIGN OF UAV ELASTIC CORD CATAPULT

ZORAN NOVAKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, novakoviczoca@gmail.com
NIKOLA MEDAR
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, nmedar9@gmail.com

Abstract: The first chapter of this paper represents method of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Launching Device (LD)
conceptual design adoption with stress on Elastic (Bungee) Cord LD as representative of widely spread launching
devices of a simpler structure. Elastic Cord LD design calculation approach is given in the second chapter, including
analyzing the motion on the launch rail of the catapult, analyzing the elastic cords selection and energetic capability of
the cords according to the design requirements. The paper recommends this type of Elastic Cord LD analyses
procedure in the early phase of design.
Keywords: UAV, launching ,launching device, catapult, design, mathematical model.

Nomenclature
x
x , v
vF

distance, absolute cord elongation

UAV-Cradle velocity
final velocity of UAV -Cradle at the end of the

tF

x, a

Rz,Rx
q
b
x
L
mUAV
mCRD

N
T
Fe
qr
F

t0 , x0 , x0

Ek
Ag

A
Ac
ACR
AT
Fer
S
n

UAV LD CONCEPTUAL DESIGN ADOPTION

CERTAIN number of systems of launching devices (LDs)
for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) have been
developed so far, [1]. During their use, the advantages
and disadvantages of each type of individual LDs were
perceived. This led to the conclusion that an LD must be
lightweight, must be able to be operated with minimal
personnel, and must have a small storage volume. These
factors need to be considered and incorporated into the
conceptual design of LDs. Also, the UAV launching
device must have the possibility to be set up and to launch
a UAV within fifteen minutes. The important factor is the
purchase price and the cost of LD maintenance, which
perhaps is crucial to the military budget.

rail
final time-duration of launching
acceleration
launching rail elevation angle
force of lift, force of drag
stiffness of the fictive elastic cord
cord length (non-elongated)
cord elongation
effective rail-launching length
mass of Unmanned Aircraft Vehicle
mass of the cradle
static friction coefficient
inclined plane perpendicular reaction
UAV propulsive force
force of the fictive elastic cord
real elastic cord stiffness
frictional sliding force
initial values of differential equation
UAV-Cradle kinetic energy
-gravitational force work
frictional sliding force work
fictive elastic cord force work
real elastic cord force work
propulsive force work
force of the real elastic cord
aerodynamic surface of the wing
number of cords

Existing LDs could be grouped into five categories:

Pneumatic, Hydraulic, Bungee cord, Kinetic Energy and
Rocket Assisted Take-off (RATO), [1].

PNEUMATIC LAUNCHERS
Pneumatic launchers typically operate on high pressure
compressed air. Their characteristics are high launching
speeds with uniform and predictable acceleration.
Compressed air is used to pressurize accumulator tanks
which, in turn, propel a launch cradle to take-off velocity,
[1]. Pneumatic launchers typically adjust pressure to
accommodate differing types of UAV. The launcher is a
closed system where the cradle can be retracted back after
each launch and use for subsequent launchers. Another
advantage of these systems is they require no pyrotechnic
supplies. Disadvantages of pneumatic launchers stem
from the inherent method of power delivered to the
system. The launchers usually need a large power system,
and in some cases need approximately 15 minutes to
power for launch, [1].
141

Hydraulic motors provide the power for the strap winder,

and are positioned beneath the point of maximum take-off
velocity of the UAV. As the carriage reaches this point,
this causes the winch to reverse direction releasing the
aircraft. The launch energy is supplied by a piston
accumulator pressurized by nitrogen gas, [1]. Other
hydraulic systems operate in a similar manner to RUAG
Aerospace's method. The systems need a power source to
operate the launchers, however have the advantage of
producing comparatively high launching velocities.
Hydraulic and pneumatic launchers are somewhat similar
in design, with the working fluid creating the key
difference in design.
Figure 1. Insitus SuperWedge pneumatic catapult
launcher

BUNGEE CORD LAUNCHERS

Bungee catapult systems employ the characteristics of
stored energy within high powered, highly elastic bungees
to launch UAV. A typical representative of the end of last
century is German's LUNA system lightweight catapult
which can launch 2540 kg UAV weight.

HYDRAULIC LAUNCHERS
Similar to pneumatic launchers, hydraulic launchers are
usually coupled to a type of catapult design. RUAG
Aerospace operates hydraulic launchers from Switzerland
[1]. The UAV is launched by means of a low-inertia,
roller-mounted carriage which is accelerated by a
synthetic strap.

LUNA catapult rail is divided into three segments, joined

with a slotted mechanism. The other components of the
launching rail were also made of the aluminum material,
joined using similar quick locking methods. Onto rail
upper side the launching cradle is rolled from the back
locking start position to the end position where it stops by
dampening device. Inside the rail body there is a set of 12
bungee elastic cords, with one of its ends connected to the
cradle, and then enwrapped over a system of rollers. The
other end is firmly attached to rail body. One of the rollers
which enwrap elastic cords is located on the wheelchair to
move longitudinally within rail body.
By moving the wheelchair back and forth, varying
previous tension cords to accommodate the range of UAV
take-off mass is achieved. Bungee system has multiple
safety pins which are fixing preliminary tension, and they
are released via a lanyard. These bungees are tensioned by
a steel rope via a winch to the back side of LD.

Figure 2. RUAG Aerospace's hydraulic catapult launcher

Figure 4. German's LUNA system bungee cord catapult

launcher

Figure 3. Evolution the velocity and acceleration on the

launch rail
142

Bungee cord LDs have a significant advantage in the

simplicity of its construction, in the fact that almost there
is nothing to fail concerning functions of LD. However,
bungee systems are limited by the properties of the
bungee cords being used. The systems usually require a
significant rail length in comparison to other methods of
LD in order to accelerate the UAV to its launch speed.
Bungee cord launchers also cannot be used when
particularly sensitive payloads are present, as the initial
release typically results in a jerkaction.

ROCKET ASSISTED TAKE-OFF (RATO)

LAUNCHERS
Kalkara system employs a RATO bottle system and is
capable of towing targets and carrying a variety of
payloads. The rocket is fired for three seconds and then
dropped, allowing the target drone engine to take over and
power the aircraft. As the rocket is ejected after burnout,
particular interest is put into the environmental aspects of
RATO launch.
RATO systems have the advantage of being a small, rail
length take off system, capable of being transportable on
either a ship or vehicle because of its small storage
volume. A pyrotechnic rocket and stand are the basic
components that are needed to give flight.

KINETIC ENERGY LAUNCHERS

Unlike launchers previously discussed
launchers give a smooth acceleration
whole launch phase, and limit the jerk
enables kinetic energy launchers to be
UAVs which have sensitive payloads,
comparatively quieter release.

kinetic energy
throughout the
at release. This
employed with
and enables a

Frazer-Nash operates a kinetic energy launcher for UAV

launch in the UK, [1]. The launcher comprises a twin-rail
telescopic launch track with a fixed and sliding rail. A
launch trolley is attached to the sliding rail, and is cable
driven from a winch drum, which in turn is driven by a
flywheel via an electromagnetic slipping clutch. Once the
trolley reaches take-off speed, it is de-energized and
retarded by a friction brake or damper. The forward
momentum of the trolley causes the UAV to continue
forward and take flight. Frazer-Nash safeguards its LD by
integrating a remote launching facility, using a restraining
pin prior to launch, and a control system to perform prelaunch electrical function safety checks [1].

Figure 6. Kalkara RATO launching method

Disadvantages of RATO systems generally revolve

around the environmental implications of where the
discarded rocket lands. This problem could potentially be
overcome by collecting discarded rockets after take-off;
however this would limit the freedom of action when
launching a UAV. Storage of the pyrotechnics also
creates more problems, as they would have to be housed
in contained storage areas which are usually separate from
the ammunition standards.

LD SYSTEMS ANALYSES AGAINST

CRITICAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS AND
THE CUSTOMER REQUIREMENTS
(BENCHMARKING)

Figure 5. The Frazer Nash LD, (Jane's UAV, 2007)

Type of launcher:

Pneumatic

Length deployed (m):

4.83

Max UAV mass (kg):

91

Max UAV launch velocity (m/s):

>30

Set-up time (min):

Recharge time (min):

Pack-up time (min):

Benchmarking is a process where existing systems are

analyzed against critical design requirements and
measures. It allows the design method to define the level
of real performance required to produce the required level
of perceived performance, assisting in crucial design
analysis, (Heslehurst, 2010). For this thesis, the
benchmark process is compared to a ranked list of
customer requirements.
The Robonic MC01515L LD (Fig. 7) has the following
characteristics:

Kinetic energy launchers have the advantage of having

comparatively shorter launch rails, aiding in storage.
These launchers are simple to operate, have low life cycle
costs and are able to be operated by personnel with a
minimal amount of training.
143

Figure 9. Continental CGSL 5000-2 LD,

(Jane's UAV, 2007)

Figure 7. Robonic MC01515L LD, (Jane's UAV, 2007)

Pneumatic

Type of launcher:

Pneumatic

Type of launcher:

Length deployed (m):

3.5

Length deployed (m):

4.83

Max UAV mass (kg):

20

Max UAV mass (kg):

91

Max UAV launch velocity (m/s):

15

Max UAV launch velocity (m/s):

Set-up time (min):

15

Set-up time (min):

Recharge time (min):

Recharge time (min):

Pack-up time (min):

Pack-up time (min):

Each LD implied with benchmarking is shown in Fig. 59

respectively. It was important to benchmark across the
spectrum of LD available, as this identifies which level(s)
of performance are perceived to be inadequate, acceptable
or what is currently state of the art. These LD have been
analyzed through the QFD process with the Insitus
SuperWedge LD, Robonic MC01515L, Aries RO-1 LD,
The Frazer Nash LD, Continental CGSL 5000-2 and
also RATO, bungee cord LD and pneumatic actuator LD
concept, scoring high in the total suitability against the
customer requirements phase of the QFD. All of the LD
benchmarked are commercially available and show a
varied comparison of type, length, weight and
performance characteristics.

Quality Function Deployment (QFD): This process

steps through the design process to fully understand the
design requirements, without trying to solve the design
initially. It is an eight step process which generates
measurable engineering specifications and relates these to
customer requirements and engineering specifications,
(Heslehurst. 2010). This will enhance a good design
solution, simplify the problem and will provide
documentation of the whole process.

The Aries RO-1 LD (Fig. 8) has the following

characteristics:

The major types of customer requirements which are

performance, time, manufacture/assembly and safety. A
total of 12 essential and 24 desirable requirements were
established. The benchmark process used a pair wise
comparison procedure, and compared each of the
desirable requirements to each other. Once this was
completed, and a table of ranked customer requirements
was produced. From the table of ranked customer
requirements can be easily seen which desirable
requirements ranked with greater importance. The need
for the UAV to be safe, reliable and easy to operate,
together with the capability of disassembly design ranked
highest in this procedure. A final list of essential
requirements is shown below in the table T.1.

Figure 8. Aries RO-1 LD, (Jane's UAV, 2007)

Type of launcher:

Pneumatic

Length deployed (m):

4.83

Max UAV mass (kg):

91

Max UAV launch velocity (m/s):

>30

Set-up time (min):

Recharge time (min):

Pack-up time (min):

>30

Table 1.
Final Launch Velocity
Maximum Take-off Mass
Operational Temperature
Range
LD Mass
Maximum Length of the
Launch Envelope

The Continental CGSL 5000-2 (Fig.7) has the following

characteristics:

Acceleration at Launch 10G

144

Launching Angle Range

Launching Remote Control
Set Up Time < 15 minutes
LD Disassembling for storage
Number of the Set Up Personnel
LD Safety, Reliability and
easiness to operate

A representative LD Benchmark analysis was presented

by J. Francis, at his Final Thesis Report, 2010. Selection
of the LD involved an investigation and evaluation into
each design, which confirmed the suitability to the
governing customer requirements and engineering targets
for the LD. This used the QFD process and ranked each
design against the essential and desirable customer
requirements. An example of the weighted scoring system
is shown below (Fig. 10) with the comparison of LD
against the customer requirements.

of a cradle (2), an elastic cord set (3), a rear roller (6), a

front roller (5) and a UAV (1). The catapult body design
enables an adjustable setup launching rail elevation angle
(=515) in order to compensate for the local ground
declination.

DYNAMIC SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

The cradle has the possibility of moving along the
inclined plane (launching rail) from its start to the end
position. The elastic cord set is connected to the cradle by
one of its ends and then enwrapped over a system of
rollers and by the other end it is firmly attached to the rail
body, (point A). The elastic cords are tensioned by the
cradle moving to the start position where it is locked.
After releasing, the force of the elastic cords accelerates
the cradle with a jerk along the launching rail to the end
position. From its rest, the start position, the cradle
reaches a maximum speed at the end position where the
damper stops it. After the cradle stops, the forward
momentum causes the UAV to continue forward and
takes over the flight with its propulsion assistance.

Figure 10. Comparing benchmark and conceptual design

LDs to customer requirements, [3]

The front roller is allowed its own rotation, but it has

fixed position on the launching rail. Except of its own
rotation, the rear roller is given adjustable displacement
by means of the wheelchair to move longitudinally within
the rail body. Moving the wheelchair back and forth to
vary previous tension cords gives a possibility to
accommodate a wider range of UAV take-off mass.

The histogram represents the leading Bungee Cord LD

(326.8 points of total 394) in front of the Pneumatic Actuator
LD (320 points) and RATO (279) as third. Through this
numerical analysis, and the comparison with the customer
requirements and engineering targets, the bungee cord
system was selected as the conceptual design for the LD.
The results showed the potential of a pneumatic actuator
conceptual design, as it scored similar results to the bungee
cord design when compared to the customer requirements.
Pneumatic designs have a large number of sub-components,
usually employed to magnify the speed of the actuator. As a
result, this design takes longer to set up and was chosen as
unsuitable in the thesis scope.

Producers of bungee cords in accordance with

aeronautical standards recommend operation from 20% to
80% of the elongation range where they can guarantee
approximately linear bungee cords characteristic as this
delivers improved predictable results. Also, they do not
allow the elongation over 100% of the un-stretched
bungee cord length.

Today, the Bungee cord technology was improved

significantly as for its power and elasticity in comparison
with the 90's. The result of take-off mass and launching
speed is increasing. Universal Target Systems Ltd.
developed the Aerial Target System MSAT-500 NG
whose bungee catapult can launch 105 kg UAV with a
launching speed of 24m/s.

The return of the cradle or the movement of the lower

wheelchair with the rear roller is performed by means of a
steel rope wounded by an electric winch on the back side
of the catapult. This system operates using a pull or a
remote lanyard which releases the UAV cradle along the
launch rail.

DESIGN TASK SETUP OF THE BUNGEE

CATAPULT

BUNGEE CORD LD DESIGN APPROACH

The bungee catapult main task is to hand over to UAV

previously accumulated energy in elastic cords so that the
UAV at the time of leaving the catapult has a speed of at
least 15% greater than the stall speed for a given
configuration of the UAV. To have a successful takeoff,
the UAV should have sufficient lift force after the instant
of leaving the catapult when its own driving propeller
achieves stable flight take over.
According to the selected functional schema (Fig.11, for
an effective launching rail length, it is required to define
necessary elastic cord stiffness, so that required takeoff
speed of the UAV is feasible and that the acceleration is
less than 10g. The additional requirement has to be
fulfilled with the functioning of elastic cords within the

Figure 11. Bungee Catapult Functional Schema

The bungee cord catapult (Fig.11) is considered as a

material system made of a stationary catapult bodylaunching rail (4), and a dynamic system which consists
145

range of 20% to 80% of its elongation. This includes the

un-stretched cord length pairing to the launching rail
total length and the rollers axle distance (design
characteristics) to make a minimal number of rollers in the
catapult (two), and to achieve the pre-tensioning of cords
for the 20% elongation.

Hypothesis 5.

The friction force of the elastic cords over the rollers is

neglected.
Since the rollers are given its own rotation, this
significantly decreases the friction force of the elastic
cords over the rollers.

With bungee catapult dynamic system design, aspiration

is expressed for the minimal number of moving parts, i. e.
the mass of the selected elements ought to be as little as
possible. Also, the launch ramp and the moving parts
(cradle, rollers) must have sufficient rigidity so that the
energy of elastic cords would not be wasted needlessly on
the deformation work.

Hypothesis 6.
Stiffness of the elastic cords is constant.
Hypothesis 7.
The work of the friction force when the UAV slips off the
cradle at the end position is neglected.
The work of the friction force when the UAV slips off
the cradle is comparatively small due to short run
distance.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL
The result of the consideration of the following
Hypothesis is Fig.12. which represents a simplification of
the working forces in a bungee catapult dynamic system.

All neglected forces of friction have to be compensated

by the energy reserve in the elastic cords.
Hypothesis 8.

Summable elastic cords force Fe is linear to elongation.

The Hypothesis is valid if the elongation is in the range
of 20% to 80%.
Hypothesis 9.
It is considered that the forces T and Rx are coplanar to
the inclined plane. Also, the force Rz is collinear to N, i.
e. they act perpendicularly to the inclined plane.
In order to achieve sufficient lift force, the UAV is set
up onto the cradle at the angle 1 to the inclined plane.
Since the angle b is relatively small (cosb~1) this
Hypothesis can be adopted as correct.

Figure 12. Free body diagram for the launch of a mass

along a projected angle

The differential equation of motion of free particles in a

vector form is:

Hypothesis 1.
The catapult is a dynamic system considered as the
kinetics of a particle.

G
ma =

G
Fi a +

i =1

Since the UAV and the cradle travel linearly on the

inclined plane, this Assumption can be adopted in
addition to the adoption of the next two Assumptions.

Gr

(1)

i =1

Applying (1) on the catapult mathematical model, one can

obtain:

G
G
G G
G G
G G
ma = Fe + mg + F + Rx + Rz + T + N

Hypothesis 2.
The mass of the elastic cords is neglected.

(2)

The force of the fictive elastic cords is:

Hypothesis 3.
The mass of the rollers is neglected.

Fe = q ( x b )

These neglected masses actually exist in the catapult

dynamic system (elastic cord mass is more influential),
but their influences have to be compensated by the
energy reserve in the elastic cords.

The UAV and cradle mass is:

Hypothesis 4.
Direction of the force of the elastic cords that tows the
cradle with the UAV is coplanar to the inclined plane.

The UAV drag force is:

m = mUAV + mCRD

Rx = Cx

The cradle towing force always acts at an angle to the

inclined plane due to structural constraints. This angle
is smallest when the cradle is at the start position and
growing when the cradle moves to its end position. For
this reason, the front roller should be set up as close as
possible to the inclined plane on which the cradle
moves.

v2
2

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

The UAV lift force is:

Rz = Cz

146

v2
2

The UAV propeller pulling force, [7] is:

T = To 1 x T ( x )
vs

Equation (14) represents the motion law on the catapult.

By finding the first derivate of (14), the speed expression
on the catapult is:

(7)

mg
q
q
x ( t ) = x0 + T
( cos + sin ) b m sin mt (15)
q q

The frictional sliding force is:

F = N

(8)

Applying the final values t=tF, x(tF)=x0-L in equation

(14), the expression of the final moment tF when the
cradle reaches the end position is obtained:

Hypothesis 10.
The UAV drag force Rx is neglected.

tF =

Hypothesis 11.
The UAV lift force Rz is neglected.

These two Hypotheses are taken into consideration in

order to simplify equation (2). The UAV lift force Rz
decreases the frictional sliding force F indirectly for
the approximate Rx amount.

mg
( cos + sin ) b + Tq
q
m arccos
(16)
q
mg
cos + sin ) b
x0 + T
(
q q
x ( tF )

By finding the derivative of (15), the acceleration

expression on the catapult is:
mg
q
q

x ( t ) = x0 + T
( cos + sin ) b m cos mt (17)
q q

Hypothesis 12.

It is considered that the UAV propeller pulling force T is

constant.

NUMERICAL EXAMPLE

This Hypothesis is taken into consideration in order to

simplify equation (2). The value of T decreases with
speed increase. It is assumed that the average constant
value T performs the same work as the real T.

According to the selected Functional schema (Fig.11) and

Mathematical model (Fig.12), the Design Characteristics
(q, L, b,) are varied into (15), (16) and (17) in order to
fulfill all the requirements of the Design Task Setup of
Bungee Catapult.

Applying Hypotheses 10 and 11, equation (2) assumes

the form:
G G
G G
G G
ma = Fe + mg + F + T + N
(9)

For the varied values (q, L, b,) and adopted Design

Characteristics:

Since the particle motion is planar and linear by the

projection (9) on the x-axis and on the y-axis, is obtained:

m = mUAV + mCRD = 65 + 5 = 70 kg

mx = F + mg sin Fe T

(10)

L=5.7m,

N = mg cos

(11)

b=9.5m,

(b must be chosen to satisfy the pre-tensioning of cord

and the operational range of the cord),

then:

x+

q
q
x = g ( cos + sin ) + b T
m
m
m

= 0.1 ,

(12)

=15 (0.2186rad),

The solution [8], of non-homogeneous equation (12) is:

q
q
t + C2 sin
t+
m
m
mg
+
( cos + sin ) + b Tq
q
x ( t ) = C1 cos

T=125N,

(13)

and initial (Fig.12) values:

t=tF, x=x0-L=11.4 m, x = vF,

For the initial values: t=0, x=x0, x0 =0, equation (13)
assumes the form:
mg
q
x ( t ) = x0 + T
( cos + sin ) b cos mt +
q
q

(14)
mg
T
+
( cos + sin ) + b q
q

147

the cradle speed is obtained at the instant of UAV leaving

the catapult: tF=0.49 s, vF=19.65 m/s, for the aggregate
stiffness of fictive elastic cords: q=525 N/m.
The graph (Fig.13), derived from equations (15) and (17)
represents the change in speed and acceleration on the
bungee catapult.

REAL ELASTIC CORDS

The real elastic cord is chosen according to the previously
calculated effective work AC=14214J. The real elastic
cord is adopted from the Force/Elongation Diagram
(Fig.14), [14] in order to satisfy the following condition:

ACR 14214 J.

(25)

Hypothesis 13.
The hysteresis of the bungee cords with diameters
18mm is neglected.

The bungee cord producers represent hysteresis on the

Force/Elongation diagram of bungees with diameters
20mm, where it must be taken into consideration.

Figure 13. Fictive Bungee Cords Speed-Acceleration

Diagram

VERIFICATION OF THE RESULTS

The verification of the results (vF=19.65m/s, q=525N/m)
can be done by means of the work kinetic energy
theorem.

EK F EK 0 =

(18)

Figure 14. Force/Elongation diagram of real

bungee cords, [14]

The elastic cords and the UAV propulsion enter effective

work into the bungee catapult. The elastic cords effective
work AC is:
x 0 x
AC = q

=14214 J
2
2
2

Using representative points along curve (Fig.14) of

adopted cord 15, real data values input vector is formed.
In the same time the transformation of relative elongation
to absolute elongation (into the range from 0 to 80%
elongation of un-stretchedcord length, b=9.5m) is
performed. First column represents absolute cord
elongation x, in (m), and second column represents one

(19)

The UAV propulsion effective work AT is:

AT = T L =712.5 J

(20)

cord force F , in (N).

The elastic cords and the UAV propulsion effective work

is converted to the UAV and the cradle kinetic energy EK,
and wasted to the gravitational force work of the UAV
and the cradle Ag, and to the frictional sliding force work
A.
EK = m

vF2
=13514 J
2

(21)

Ag = mg ( y y0 ) = mgL sin =1013 J

(22)

A = F L = mgL cos =378 J

(23)

The result is:

AC+ AT~EK+ Ag+ A

(14926.5 J 14905 J),

For the model function

y ( x ) = a 3 x 3 + a 2 x 2 + a1 x ,

(24)

with the error less than 0.2% so the calculation could be

accepted as correct.

fitting function is obtained in form:

148

Fer1 = 6.519 x 3 81.24 x 2 + 362.923x .

x1 = x
.
x2 = x

(26)

Plotting of data points and the fitting function gives the

graph:

(31)

If first derivative is applied on (31) following is obtained:

x1 = x
.
x 2 = x

(32)

After replacement (30) in (32) it gives two new first order

ODE's which are:
x1 = x 2
x 2 = ( cos + sin ) g

Figure 15. Fitting curve of adopted bungee cord 15

n
T
3
2
( a 3 x1 + a 2 x1 + a1 x1 )
m
m

(33)

Numerical integration of (33) gives the solution in form

of next graph:

The linear combination of functions is a good fit to the

data. This is confirmed by the value of the correlation
coefficient which is very close to 1.
corr ( F 1 er ( X ), F 1 ) = 0.999 (27)
The use of four of adopted real bungee cords 15 is
enough to meet demands of the catapult as the condition
(25) was satisfied. The summable four real bungee cords
force is:

Fer = n Fer1 = 4 Fer1

(28)

One real bungee cord effective work is:

Figure 16. Real Bungee Cords Speed-Acceleration
Diagram

7.6
1
CR

1
Fer dx = 3540.25 J

1.9

FINAL VERIFICATION OF THE RESULTS

The summable four cords effective work is:

In order to confirm the obtained results from the aspect of

aerodynamics, in this chapter Hypotheses 10 and 11, that
are excluding force of lift and drag from the calculations,
are ignored. Thus equations (1) and (2) are now changed:
G G G
G
G G
G G
ma = Fer + mg + F + T + N + Rx + Rz
(34)

1
ACR = 4 ACR
=14161 J

Applying real bungee cords force Fer, (28), instead of

fictive bungee cords force Fe , (3), equation (10) assumes
the form:

mx = F + mg sin n (a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1x) T (29)

After transformation (29) is obtained:
n
T
x = ( cos + sin ) g (a3 x 3 + a2 x 2 + a1 x) (30)
m
m

Equation (30) is non-linear and non-homogeneous second

order ODE that can be solved by numerical method of
integration. The applicable method is based on an explicit
Runge-Kutta (4, 5) formula and the Dormand-Prince
method, [10], [12] . Since this method can only solve a
first order ODE, the above is converted to two first order
ODEs as follows. Two new state variables x1, x2 are
introduce with following derivation:

mx = Fer mg sin F + T Rx

(35)

my = N mg cos + Rz = 0

(36)

Equations (35) and (36) represent a system of nonlinear

ODE that describes a motion in the x-direction (along the
rail,
in direction of motion) and the y-direction
(perpendicular to the rail, opposite to g).
Differential equations are solved numerically by method
Runge-Kutta (4, 5).
The results of the calculations are represented on the
graph, (Fig. 16) where it can be noticed that for the time
tF=0.523s, the launching velocity is v=19.03m/s.

149

should remain in the range of 20% to 80%. This is

especially useful if the UAV mass varies due to
changeable payloads. The calculation of the real bungee
cords enables proper selection and the number of real
bungee cords, while the positioning of the rear roller
makes additional adjustments of the tensile force in
experimental trials.

From the results of the calculations, one can see that it is

justified to introduce Hypothesis 10 and Hypothesis 11,
because the differences in the results between the model
with aerodynamic forces and the one without
aerodynamic forces are minimal and can be neglected.
Also, it must be said that neglecting aerodynamics forces
is justified, if launching velocities are not approaching 30
m/s.

The electric winch and the dumper are the accessories to

be fitted to the catapult. It is also useful to install a
clinometer and a speedometer into the catapult.
The calculation using a real bungee cord could be
accepted as relevant for UAV bungee LD design.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank to our colleague Miss Lidija Mitrovi
whose knowledge and assistence throghout the thesis in
regard to numerical analyses source code definition was
most helpful.

REFERENCES
Figure 17. Final Velocity and acceleration results

[1]

Jane's.: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and Targets, Issue 29, 2007,

Launch and Recovery Chapter.

CONCLUSION

[2]

RAYMER,D.P.: Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, 4th

ed., AIAA Education Series, AIAA Virginia, 2006.

The UAV launch speed and the UAV-cradle cumulative

mass define the concept of catapult choice. The bungee
cord technology is considerably improved so that today
catapults are able to launch weight of more than 100kg.
The result of benchmark analyses shows that bungee
catapults have an advantage over pneumatic catapults.

[3]

FRANCIS,J.: Launch System for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles for

use on RAN Patrol Boats, Final Thesis Report 2010, SEIT,
UNSW@ADFA

[4]

HESLEHURST,R.: Development and Evaluation of Conceptual

Design, 2010, School
of Engineering and Information
Technology, University College, UNSW@ADFA

[5]

MCDONNELL,W,R.: United States patent application

publication, Launch and recovery system for unmanned aerial
vehicles, 2006, URL:
http://www.freepatentsonline.com/7097137.html [accessed on 5
September 2010]

[6]

HIBBELER,R.C.: Engineering Mechanics Dynamics, 2nd ed.,

Prentice Hall, Singapore, 2004, Chaps. 12, 14.

[7]

,..:
, 1986, 36-

[8]

BATJ,M.I., DZENALIDZE,G.J., KELZON,A.S.: Reeni zadaci iz

teorijske mehanike sa izvodima iz teorije, Dinamika II, Prevod sa
ruskog, Graeivinska knjiga, Beograd, 1972

[9]

FEHLBERG E.: Low-order Classical Runge-Kutta Formulas with

Stepsize Control, NASA Technical Report R-315, 1969.

The calculation of the fictive elastic cord (which is most

commonly encountered in the literature) cannot be
accepted as credible, because its acceleration graph is
significantly different from the acceleration achieved by
the real elastic cord (to compare Fig.13 and Fig.16).
The initial jerk of the fictive cord is 5.6g after the cradle
hitting the dumper with the acceleration of 1.25g. In the
case of the real bungee cord, these values are 5.2g and
2.35g, respectively. Effective work achieved by the fictive
cord can still be accepted as realistic as it reaches a final
speed of 19.65 m/s. According to this work, the real
bungee cord is selected - the condition (25). The defined
mathematical model is valid for the hypotheses adopted.
For all hypotheses that directly or indirectly diminish the
stiffness of the cord (cord pulling force), compensation
will be made through a power reserve - additional
stiffness. The results of these adjustments are reflected in
the final velocity, vF = 19.03 m/s, which is still higher
than the required margin of safety of 15%. In addition, the
cord tension can be corrected by moving the rear roller
within the catapult, by which the maximum tensile force
can be varied for 15%. At the same elongation, the cord

[10] LAMBERT, J.D.: Computational methods on Orinary ODEs,

John Wiley and Sons, New York, p278,1973
[11] ERWIN k.O.: Runge Kutta Runge Kutta Nyastrom Method for
direct solution of second order ODEs. Advanced Engineering
Maths, 8th Edition, John Wiley and sons Inc. p958-961, New
Delhi, 1999.
[12] KIMURA T.: On Dormand-Prince Method, September 24,2009
[13] http://reference.wolfram.com/mathematica/tutorial/NDSolveExpli
citRungeKutta.html
[14] "Sandow Technic" catalogue of bungee cords,
www.sandowtechnic.com

150

INVESTIGATION OF CIVIL AVIATION ACCIDENTS AND SERIOUS

INCIDENTS IN THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA
VLADAN VELIKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, velickovic56@gmail.com

Abstract: The author of the paper has participated in the civil aviation accidents and serious incidents investigation
since 2006.
Some basic facts of the process and results of investigation of the accidents and serious incidents in civil aviation of the
Republic of Serbia are presented in this paper.
The paper deals with the period 2006 to first half 2013 and, besides some basic principles of the accidents and serious
incidents investigation, it gives some statistical data as well as the analysis of the causes of some characteristic
occurrences.
Also some problems that have exited in the investigation of the accidents and serious incidents in civil aviation on the
Republic of Serbia territory are emphasized.
Keywords: civil aviation, accident, incident, investigation.

1. INTRODUCTION

2. ABBREVIATIONS
The following abbreviations are used in the paper:

The practical facts about civil aviation accident and

serious incident investigation (hereinafter referred to as
the investigation), especially on the territory of the
Republic of Serbia (hereinafter referred to as Serbia), are
quite unknown for the public.

CAD - Civil Aviation Directorate of the Republic of

Serbia
ICAO - International Civil Aviation Organization
EASA - European Aviation Safety Agency

The purpose of the paper is to clear up, to a certain

degree, how the investigation has been carried out when
some bad event takes place on our territory.

AAI Air Acident Investigation

ATC Air Traffic Control
ACC Area Control (Centre)

There are lots of definitions of investigation. One of them

is [1]: Investigation is a systematic process whereby all
of the possible causes of an adverse event are evaluated
and eliminated until the remaining causes are identified as
applicable to that investigation.

AVM Airborne Vibration Monitoring

CAA Civil Aviation Authorities

3. DEFINITIONS

The most important fact that an investigator has to

understand is that [2] the sole objective of the
investigation shall be the prevention of accidents and
incidents. It is not the purpose of this activity to apportion
blame or liability.

There are some terms which are used in the investigation.

The most important of them are given with their
meanings.
Briefly, an aircraft accident is an occurrence, during the
period of operation of an aircraft, where the aircraft incurs
damage (with certain exceptions) or in which any person
suffers death or serious injury.

According the international laws and regulations Serbia

has been obliged to institute an investigation into the
circumstances and it is responsible for the conduct of the
investigation when Serbia is the State of Occurrence, i.e.
when some adverse event occurs on its teritory.

A serious incident is defined as an incident involving

circumstances indicating that an accident nearly
occurred; it is unlikely to involve the police or the
emergency services, other than those based at airports.

The author of the paper has relatively rich experience in

this field because he has participated in 18 investigations
since 2006.

The difference between an accident and a serious incident

lies only in the result.

151

occurrences, and writing of the final report on accident or

serious incident investigation.

State(s) of Design, Manufacture, Operator and Registry

is the State(s): responsible for the aircraft type design;
responsible for the final assembly of the aircraft; in which
the operators principal place of business is located and
on whose register the aircraft is entered, respectively.

While conducting the investigation, the Commission

members should be entitled to:
have free access to the site of the accident or serious
incident and to the aircraft, its content or its wreckage;

Accredited representative is a person designated by a

State, on the basis of his or her qualifications, for the
purpose of participating in an investigation conducted by
another State.

provide, without delay, relevant material and remove

components or parts of the aircraft in controlled manner
to the objective of required tests and analysis;

Safety recommendation is a proposal of the investigation

authority, based on information derived from the
investigation, made with the intention of preventing
accidents or incidents.

have direct access to flight recorders and utilize their

contents as well as the contents of other recordings;
have first-hand view into medical, namely pathological
examination results of victim bodies and victim body
samples, respectively;

4. INVESTIGATION PROCESS IN SERBIA

have first-hand view into medical results of the persons

participating in aircraft operations or pathological
results of their body samples;

By the middle of June 2013 the AAI Department in CAD

was responsible for investigations in civil aviation on the
territory of Serbia.

take statements of the witnesses to the accident or

serious incident;

The investigations have been performed in accordance of

ICAO documents ([1] [7], among others), domestic law
[8] and regulation [9] as well as various corresponding
manuals and other documents.

have free access to relevant documents and information

available with the aircraft owner, aircraft operator,
aircraft
manufacturer,
aircraft
maintenance
organizations, organizations having any bearing on the
aircraft operations, and the CAD.

For each occurrence the Accidents and Serious Incidents

Investigation Commission (hereinafter referred to as the
Commission) was formed. The Director of CAD
appointed the Chairman and members of the Commission.
The number and composition of its members depended
upon complexity, type, and scope of the accident or
serious incident.

In the event of an accident or serious incident of a foreign

aircraft in the territory of Serbia, the AAI Department
should notify the States of Registry, Design, Manufacture
and Operator as well as the foreign state having suffered
fatalities or injuries to its citizens to designate their
accredited representatives to participate in the
investigation conducted by the Commission.

The AAI Department had only one full-time investigator

who was the Chief of the Department at the same time.
Because of that, the other members of the Commission for
each investigation had been seconded from corresponding
institutions. They were recruited from the List of experts
(hereinafter referred to as the List).

At the end of the investigation, the Commission has

written and released the Final Report on aircraft accident
or serious incident (hereinafter referred to as the Final
Report).

The List, on the proposal from the Chief of the AAI

Department, was set up by the Director of the CAD for
each calendar year from among pilots, aeronautical
engineers, metallurgists, meteorologists, medical doctors,
lawyers and other persons from aeronautical-related
occupations, bearing in mind their professional, moral and
emotional capabilities for conducting accident and serious
incident investigations and taking into account their
expertise for performing accident and serious incident
investigations.

The Final Report has a standardized form. However, the

most important part of each Final Report is the
conclusions (list of findings and causes established in the
investigation) and Safety recommendations, as necessary.
If the representatives of the foreign state(s) had
participated in the work of the Commission, the AAI
Department was responsible to forward the copy of the
Final Report Draft to the appropriate authorities of these
states.

The List must contain those persons who upon acquiring

the membership of the Commission may establish
integrity in the conduct of their work and operational
independence from any person whose interests might be
in contradiction with the duties and responsibilities of the
Commission.

The comments to be forwarded to the Commission after

the closing date of sixty (60) days from the date of receipt
of the Final Report Draft shall not be taken into
consideration and Commission members shall sign and
publish the Final Report.
The Commission had been duty bound to consider the
timely comments, and such comments not agreed upon by
the Commission, would be published in the Appendix to
the Final Report.

The investigation has included the gathering, recordings

and analysis of all available information; the
determination of the facts and circumstances leading to an
accident or serious incident occurrence; drawing of
conclusions; the determination of probable accident or
serious incident causes; if required, the issuance of safety
recommendations for prevention of new similar or same

After the whole procedure completed, the AAI

Department published the Final Report on the CAD web
site [10].
152

5. INVESTIGATIONS IN NUMBERS

in the bad meteorological conditions, hit the mountain

terrain near Krivi Vir in the east part of Serbia.

During the period 2006 to middle of June 2013 the various

Commissions investigated 63 accidents and serious incidents
that took place on the territory of Serbia. Besides that,
accredited representatives of Serbia participated in 3
investigations of the accidents of the aircrafts for which
Serbia was the State of Registry, but the accidents took place
in the territory of foreign states [10].

The accident of aircraft ZLIN 526F, registered YU-CDL,

happened on 04 September 2010. Two persons (pilot and
a passenger) were fatally injured when the aircraft hit the
land on Lisiji Jarak airport near Belgrade.
The accident of aircraft CESSNA F172 N, registered YUDNK, happened on 10 April 2011. Four persons (pilot
and 3 passengers) were fatally injured when the aircraft
hit the land in Serbian village Mrajevci.

Among the investigated occurrences 43 were

characterized as accidents and 20 as (serious) incidents.
There were 26 fatally injured and 25 injured persons in all
these occurrences.

The
accident
of
aircraft
PIPER
PA-38-112
TOMAHAWK, registered YU-DOV, happened on 9
November 2011. Two persons (pilot and a passenger)
were fatally injured when the aircraft, because of the
pilots mistake, felt in the Zapadna Morava river in the
region of village Medvedja near Trstenik.

The data for all mentioned years are as follows:

2006: 15 occurrences (10 accidents and 5 incidents)
with 7 fatally injured and 5 injured,
2007: 7 occurrences (5 accidents and 2 incidents) with 1
fatally injured and 1 injured,

The accident of unregistered ultralight aircraft TUCANO

happened on 5 August 2012. Two persons (pilot and a
passenger) were fatally injured when the aircraft felt in
the forest terrain in village Ratari near Obrenovac.

2008: 11 occurrences (6 accidents and 5 incidents) with

2 fatally injured and 8 injured,
2009: 8 occurrences (3 accidents and 5 incidents) with 1
fatally injured,

6. MAIN CAUSES OF INVESTIGATED

OCCURRENCES

2010: 8 accidents with 2 fatally injured and 7 injured,

2011: 9 occurrences (6 accidents and 3 incidents) with 8
fatally injured and 3 injured and
first five months of 2013: 1 accident with 1 fatally
injured

The author of the paper participated in 16 of 63

investigations during the aforementioned period. But, he
also analyzed the other Final Reports and tried to
summarize the main causes of all accidents and serious
incidents.

Concerning the categories of aircraft or other flying

vehicle the situation is as follows:

On the basis of these analyses it has been concluded that

the main causes can be divided in four groups:

2012: 4 accidents with 4 fatally injured and 1 injured

commercial: 2 incidents without injured,

general aviation: 22 occurrences (13 accidents and 9
incidents) with 12 fatally injured and 10 injured,
ultralight aircraft: 11 occurrences (7 accidents and 4
incidents) with 3 fatally injured and 2 injured,

1.

human factor which basically includes the pilot

mistakes, but it is, in different extents, connected also
with all other groups,

2.

technical factor which includes the failures of the

structure elements, engine failure or inflight
shutdown and/or aircraft system failure(s),

3.

organization factor which includes the mistakes and

omissions in flying organization, airport and flying
field services as well as in the training process of the
pilots and

4.

meteorological factor which includes the influence

of weather situation on the occurrences.

powered microlight: 4 occurrences (3 accidents and 1

incident) with 4 injured,
glider: 8 occurrences (4 accidents and 4 incidents) with
1 fatally injured and 1 injured,
helicopter: 3 accidents with 4 injured,
balloon: 1 accident with 1 fatally injured and 2 injured
paraglide: 7 accidents with 7 fatally injured,
gyrocopter: 1 accident without injured and
parachute: 4 accidents with 2
injured.

The human factor is extremely dominant as cause in all

investigated accidents and serious incidents. As one of the
causes it exists, alone or in combination with other
factors, in 57 of 63 investigations!

fatally injured and 2

The aircrafts registered in foreign states (France, Italy,

Hungary, Slovenia, Australia) participated in 10 of 63
occurrences.

Concerning the pilotage the following specific factors are

the most significant:

Some of the accidents had extremely severe

consequences. In the following only five accidents there
were 14 fatally injured!

mistakes during the pilotage,

lack of flying discipline (violation of flying rules),
lack of flying experience,

The accident of aircraft ROBIN DR 400-180, registered

F-GTPB, happened on 15 July 2006. Four persons (pilot
and 3 passengers) were fatally injured when the aircraft,

inadequate training and

inadequate preparation for flight.
153

As one of the causes, technical factor exists, alone or in

combination with other factors, in 26 of 63 investigations.

emergency landing. They extinguished a fire for some 30

seconds from the moment of stopping of the aircraft, and
passenger evacuation was completed by about 40 seconds
of its beginning. There were not injured persons in the
incident.

A part of the failures which are included in technical

factor is completely technical problem (overloaded
structure, inadequate dimensions, etc). But, as it was
already mentioned, the technical factor is, to a certain
degree, connected with human factor through mistakes
and omission in maintenance and/or through inadequate
operation of aircraft.

It can be said that this investigation was the most complex

of all 63 investigations. The Commission consisted of 8
members who worked with accredited representatives
from Germany, USA and France.

As one of the causes, organizational factor exists, alone or

in combination with other factors, in 22 of 63
investigations.

During the investigation numerous testing and analyses

were made in institutions in Serbia, Germany,
Switzerland, France, Belgium, USA, ...

The following mistakes and omissions regarding the

organization of flying field (airport) and work on it are the
most significant:

absence of organization of flying field (airport),

no cooperation between pilot and dispatcher,
dispatchers mistakes and/or omissions,
Operational Manual lacks,
ATC mistakes,
various violations of rules and regulations

It is quite clear that almost all these facts are firmly

connected with the human factor.
The meteorological factor mostly has had indirect
influence on some accident or serious incident. As one of
the causes, meteorological factor exists, in combination
with other factors, in 13 of 63 investigations. This factor
includes the weather conditions worsening and/or action
of the strong wind during the flight.

Picture 1: Main assemblies of the engine CFM56

On the basis of all research, testing and analyses the
Commission concluded that the main cause of the
incident, i.e. in flight shut down of the left engine CFM56
(Picture 1) was complete failure of engine bearing No.4
(Picture 2) due to material fatigue.

However, the meteorological factor can be, to a certain

degree, connected with human factor, for example,
through the pilot's ignoring of meteorological data.

It is very interesting that the failure of this bearing has

happened relatively often! This bearing exists on all
models of the CFM56 engine and it has been, over time,
the least reliable of engines five principal shaft bearings.

7. EXAMPLES OF INVESTIGATIONS
In this section of the paper, the author gives three
examples of the investigation in which he took part to
show some connection between technical and human
factor as a cause of the accident (or serious incident).

Lot of measures has been undertaken in attempts to reduce

the number of failures. The measures include: changes to
Maintenance Manual procedures and working practices,
evolving of the bearing design (change of material) and
manufacturing process (surface treatment), development of a
portable vibration monitoring tool to detect incipient failures
of No 4 bearing and the development of the system which
specifically monitors the health of the No. 4 bearing to give
maintenance engineers information that a degraded bearing
state may exist.

Example 1. The serious incident of Boeing 737/800,

registered D- AXLF, took place on 18 October 2008 in
airspace under the jurisdiction of Belgrade.
The aircraft belonged German charter company XL
Airways Germany and it flew on GXL614 flight from
Frankfurt in Germany to Antalya in Turkey.
Few seconds after the aircraft entered the airspace under
the jurisdiction of the ACC Belgrade the pilot expressed
concern regarding a possible left engine failure and
requested a landing at the nearest airport. ATC proposed
landing at Belgrade airport and the pilot agreed. Also, the
pilot confirmed that there were 189 persons onboard (182
adult passengers, 1 child and 6 crew members) as well as
7 tons of fuel in reservoirs and that no hazardous
materials in the cabin.
According standard procedure, but also because ATC
noticed that the left engine of the aircraft was in flames,
three fire vehicles were distributed in the area of planned

Picture 2: Heavily damaged bearing No.4: inner race

with rolers and cage (left) and outer race (right)
154

But it is quite clear that every of these measures increase

the costs of aircraft utilization and maintenance. The
authors free (unofficial) opinion is that Operator
estimated that taking some of these measures was too
expensive and decided to trust in the luck!
It is obvious that the true catastrophe was avoided by a
mere chance as well as timely reaction of all Belgrades
airport services.

Picture 4: Extremely deformed connecting rod big end

cap (left) and cracked piston (right) of cylinder No. 4

Example 2. On 19 May 2011 the crew of the Cessna

U206G aircraft, registered YU-DNZ, carried out the task
to eject of vaccines against animal rabies in Serbian
region from Valjevo to Ivanjica. The aircraft had taken off
from the sport airport situated in Smederevska Palanka.

On the basis of all research, testing and analyses the

Commission concluded that the main cause of the inflight engine failure was major damage to cylinder No. 4,
which was initiated by releasing or loosening the lower
bolt/nut joint on the connecting rod big end that is most
likely caused by its insufficient tightening during engine
overhaul which was carried out just 186 flight hours
before the accident.

After about 50 minutes of flight, suddenly a partial engine

failure occurred with almost immediate engine-oil
spillage onto the windscreen. A partial engine failure is
reflected in an abrupt change in sound, a significant loss
of the power, continuing to work with high vibrations and
expulsion of oil on the windshield.

Tightening torques of bolt connections in big end of all

connecting rods were much lower (for 30%) than in
corresponding service bulletin prescribed tightening
torque for the appropriate models of connecting rod and
used bolts and nuts.

The motor oil gradually covered almost the entire

windshield, so that the visual monitoring and terrain
evaluation could only be performed through the side
windows.

Also, according to the available data, during the overhaul

not all parts were replaced as laid down by the applicable
service bulletin.

The pilot selected terrain that was a farmland. The

landing, with completely lost engine power, was carried
out smoothly onto the main landing gear. After about 70
meters of landing roll, the nose wheel stroke the slope of
an elevated farmland of about 20 centimeters high
resulting in the fracture of the nose wheel fork assembly.
The aircraft proceeded the movement on the main landing
gear wheels. At the same time the aircraft was rapidly
losing speed and at the same time lowered its nose. After
about 25 meters from the place where the failure of the
nose wheel occurred, the spinner went into the ground and
aircraft turned over on its back. The crew members (pilot
and the operator on the machine for the ejecting of the
vaccines) suffered minor injuries.

This example shows how the firm is connection between

previously defined human and technical factors!
Example 3: The accident of unregistered ultra light
aircraft TUCANO happened on 5 August 2012. Two
persons (pilot and a passenger) were fatally injured when
the aircraft felt in the forest terrain in village Ratari near
Obrenovac.
The investigation showed that aircraft was amateur home
built without any drawings, technical and maintenace
documentation. Besides that, pilot, who was aircraft's
owner and builder, didn't posses any pilot license.

Few days after the accident the engine was removed from
aircraft and engine was dismantled and defected in the
presence of Commission members.

The Commission established that the accident was caused

by the breaking of the right attachment point of the wing
strut to the central tube during the dive recovery
maneuver.

Picture 3: Damage to the left and right engine crankcase

Apart from the outside visible substantial damage to the
left and right engine crankcase (Picture 3) in the area in
front of engine fuel distribution and the surrounding
elements of the fuel system, the engine dismantling
revealed the following substantial damage: detachment of
the big end of the connecting rod in cylinder No. 4,
cracking of the piston in cylinder No. 4 in the place of the
oil ring and falling out of crankshaft counterweight pin in
place between the third and fourth cylinders.

Picture 5: Broken attachment point (left) and both fittings

with screws (right)
The calculations (Picture 6) showed that, for this load
condition, fitting on the joint didn'd satisfy the strength
requirements defined in the MANUALE DEL PILOTA,
i.e. Pilot's Handbook! The fitting reaches its carrying
capacity for the loading that is far below design limit
load. The effective fitting failure was the result of the
initial crack propagation under the alternating load.
155

However, this act has not been followed with the

corresponding activities: making a new Regulation
instead of old one [9], completing the Center permanent
staff, assigning of the financial resources for the
investigations, regulating of the relations between the
Center and seconded experts as well as institutions where
they are employed, regulating of the relations between the
CI and investigators, regulating of the relations between
the Center and Serbian CAA and other related
organizations, creating of the own web site, etc.

4
e

CL

YA

FU

Fkr

FV
A

ZA

~ 20

FS

FU

1
L

Picture 6: Calculation model of the wing with strut (left)

and joint schematically depicted (right)

Since the appointment of the CI to the end of the August

this year 12 events (10 accidents and 2 incidents)
happened, but only 2 investigations have been finished. A
Final Report for one of them can be found on [10] while
the second has not been published yet because of
aforementioned unsolved problems. There is no evidence
that the investigation has been launched for any other
event!

It is not lonely case that untrained person flys not obeying

rules and without knowledge about technical possibilities
of the flying vehicle! Very often it is paid with life!

8. CURRENT SITUATION
During past few years the main remarks of ICAO and
EASA concerning investigation process in Serbia have
referred to its independence.

It can be said that the investigation process in Serbia is

currently in some kind of legal, institutional and
functional vacuum! It is not clear how the process will be
carried out under new circumstances.

The statement as well as requirement of these

organizations has been that investigation has to be
functionally independent in particular of the CAA and, in
general, of any other party or entity the interests or
missions of which could conflict with the task entrusted to
the investigation authority or influence its objectivity.

REFERENCES
[1] ICAO Doc. 9756-AN/965 Manual of Aircraft
Accident and Incident Investigation, Part III
Investigation
[2] Annex 13 to the Convention on International Civil
Aviation:
Aircraft
Accident
and
Incident
Investigation
[3] ICAO Circular 285-AN/166 Guidance on Assistance
to Aircraft Accident Victims and Their Families
[4] ICAO Circular 298-AN/172 Training Guidelines for
Aircraft Accident Investigators
[5] ICAO Circular 315-AN/179 Hazards at Aircraft
Accident Sites
[6] ICAO Doc 9756-AN/965 Manual of Aircraft
Accident and Incident Investigation
[7] ICAO Doc 9760 Airworthiness Manual
[8] Air Traffic Law (in Serbian), 2010
[9] Regulation on Accident and Incident Investigation
with Amendments (in Serbian), 2009/2010
[10] www.cad.gov.rs

Many states have achieved this objective by setting up

their investigation authority as an independent statutory
body or by establishing an investigation organization that
is separate from CAA. It is therefore essential that these
investigation authorities possess the financial as well as
human resources required to conduct effective and
efficient investigations.
In order to harmonize the legislation and regulations in
this field with European and world requirements, Serbia
had to make in 2011 some changes in [8]. These changes
predicted existence of the independent The Republic of
Serbia accidents and serious incidents investigation
center (hereinafter referred to as the Center) as well as
introducing the function of the Chief Inspector of Air
Accidents (hereinafter referred to as the CI) who is
appointed by Government. For his work and the work of
the Center, the CI is responsible to Prime Minister.
The Center and the CI left a dead letter by June 2013
when the CI was appointed. From this moment the Center
formally began to work.

156

TAILPLANE MODIFICATION OF THE TRAINING AIRCRAFT

VANJA STEFANOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vti@vti.vs.rs
BOKO RAUO
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, brasuo@mas.bg.ac.rs
IVANA ILI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vti@vti.vs.rs
VUK ANTONI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vti@vti.vs.rs
ZORAN VASI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vti@vti.vs.rs

Abstract: In the first phase of pilots training, stability and manoeuvrability of the airplane play a crucial role for
successful and safe education of the pilots. With the aim of researching in the field of longitudinal static stability, the
tailplane of the training aircraft Lasta is modified. With the increase of the tailplane span additional loads are
generated. All-composite parts of the modified tailplane tip, designed in the CATIA software, and the strength
calculation of the new assembly joints, with additional loads have been presented in this paper.
Keywords: training airplane, tailplane modification, composite materials, strength calculation
rough airstrips[1]. Researches in these fields have brought
that they are accomplishing tasks very successfully.
Processes of aircraft improvement are being conducted
through the decades, and always keeping a balance
between performance and costs. Trainer aircraft are a
special type of aircraft for in-flight training of pilots and
they are designed with additional safety features (e.g.
tandem flight controls) and some of them with a
possibility to be used as a combat aircraft.

1. INTRODUCTION
The most of well-designed solutions and achievements in
aerospace industry, passed their ways of modifications
with the aim of improvement, safety and strength
increase, weight loss, etc.Although the major focus of
structural design in the early development of an aircraft
was on structure strength, for many years, fail-safe design
has been the mainstay of civil aircraft design. In a view of
the low rate of aircraft loss due to structural failure, this
approach has been largely successful. In contrast, military
aircraft rely for their performance on minimal weight
design in which redundancy is more limited.They are
aimed to operate under conditions which are more severe
than their civil counterparts,e.g. dust-laden environments,
heavy and repeated exposure to salt water, operation from

Lasta is tandem two-seat trainer aircraft(figure 1),designed

for a primary and a first phase of basic pilot training.It
represents a continuation of program Lasta, with increased
safety, comfort, increased aircraft stall tolerance, lower
landing speed, which are all crucial for training
inexperienced pilots at the begining of their piloting.

Figure 1: Aircraft Lasta

157

Requirements for stability and maneuverability differ

considerably depending on an aircraft purpose. Training
aircrafts are being considered as a one with the most
rigorous requirements for stability. With the aim of
researching in a field of longitudinal static stability,
tailplane area increase over span extension for 0.32 m, is
presented in this paper. The old tailplanetip (TPT)has
been replaced with a new assembly to achieve a goal of
the static center of gravity margin increase.

Due to modern ways of designing, using software for 3D

modelling and structural analysis, e.g. CATIA V5, weight
as a one of major parameter in a process of designing
aircraft structure and also modification, can be calculated
anytime. Along with weight, stress analysis and
deformation of the designed part can be presented, and if
results are not satisfied, with iterative procedure
optimized solution can be reached[5]. Additionally, costs
are considerable factor in a modification feasibility study,
and with advanced software it is possible to evaluate used
material costs in every phase of design and modification.

2. MODIFICATION PROCESS

Modelling and design of structure parts and assemblies of

Lastaaircraft were done using modern CAD software,
such as CATIAV5 and Siemens NX [6].In a figure 2, the
CAD model of Lastatailplane, before reconstruction, is
presented.

All the requirements, which are basis for designing

processand defining the purpose of an aircraft,should
remain a guide in every further phase, redesigning,
modification,
etc.
Exact
modification
method
impliesaccomplishing sufficient strength and resistance to
actual loads of modified part and the whole construction,
with the relatively small amount of mass increase, which
does not influence negatively on stability and
manoeuvrability of the aircraft. From a designers
perspective, it is necessary to ensure structure simplicity
of modified parts and its fabrication as well, also to make
accessible some of the main components and to ease
assembling and parts replacing[2]. Material selection
plays a crucial role in a designing of modified elementsas
well. During the processes of modification, designer
should tackle many different problems. If the additional
loads have been generated, the strength requirements must
be fulfilled.Solution for fastening should be devised with
adaptation to existing attachment points, with minimal
changing of the rest of the structure.

Figure 2: Lasta tailplane 3D model, before modification

Besides aerodynamic and static requirements, in a first

phase of modification, it is necessary to take into accounta
basic rules for aesthetic, shape harmony and style. The
tailplane shape layoutshould be consistent with the wing
shape layout, within the realms of possibility [2].

2.2. Material selection - composites

Considering modification reasons and meeting the
requirements for modification, a designer has to bear in
mind that all the new parts with existing structure must
withstand hail and lightning strikes, and must operate in,
and be protected against, corrosive environments
indigenous to all climates. The modified structure must be
serviceable from 15-20 years with minimum maintenance
and still be light enough that the aircraft can be
economically competitive[3]. Used structure material
affects all of the above-mentioned. Due to this, material
selection is crucial step in a process of reaching an
optimized solution which will satisfy all the participants
in a project.

In a modification process, one of the first and also major

decisionsare to determine designing methods of a new
assembly and to define materials with the way of
production of the new parts.

2.1. Designing methods

The use of interactive computer graphics for data
management during design, manufacturing and product
support programs quickly spread from aerospace to
automotive industry and further. Nowadays CAD/CAM
technology is implemented in almost all phases of aircraft
design, from preliminary design studies, to tool design,
analysis, quality control, product support, manufacturing,
etc. Data management has to be arranged in a way to be
easily accessed by other departments responsible for
airplane payloads, controls, hydraulics, power plant,
avionics, maintenance, to narrow the gap between design
and manufacturing [3].

From the pioneering days of flight, aircraft structures

were fabricated largely of natural composite -wood and
also wire and fabric. Until World War II, probably the
high point of engineering design with wood was de
Havilland mosquito aircraft (DH98), constructed of a
plywoodbalsaplywood sandwich laminate. Wooden
structures did however persist and the DH91 Albatross
airliner in 1937 was moulded as a plybalsaply sandwich
construction and the Spitfire fuselage in 1940 was
designed and built of Gordon Aerolite material that was a
phenolic resin incorporating untwisted flax fibres that
could be regarded as the precursor of modern fibre
reinforced plastics[7].

The modern designing approach of whole aircraft

structure or just modification ofthe actual structure,
demands structure optimization and a great number of
iteration [4]before obtaining a solution that fulfils all the
requirements, previously defined.
158

New composite componentsstarted to be appliedto military

aircraft in the 1960s,on demonstration basis, such as trim
tabs, spoilers, rudders and doors. Also civil aircraft
applications concentrated on replacing the secondary
structure with fibrous composites where the reinforcement
media have either been carbon, glass, Kevlar or hybrids of
these. The A310 carries a vertical stabiliser (8.3m high by
7.8m wide at the base) a primary aerodynamic and structural
member fabricated in its entirety from carbon composite
with a total weight saving of almost 400 kg when compared
with the Al alloy unit previously used. In addition, the fin
box of carbon reinforcement comprises only 95 parts
excluding fasteners, compared with 2076 parts in the metal
unit, thus making it easier to produce. As an indication of the
benefit of such weight saving it has been estimated that 1 kg
weight reduction saves over 2900 litre of fuel per year [7].

long flights [3]. Horizontal and vertical tail sizing is

determined on the basis of aerodynamic calculation for
necessary stability-dynamic and static.

The essential compound curvature of the airframe with a

constant change of radius is much easier to form in
composites than in metal while radar absorbent material
can be effectively produced in composites[7]. This is very
important for development in the relatively new field of
military aircraft sphere. That is stealth concept that
requires the designer to achieve the smallest possible
radar cross-section, to reduce the chances of early
detection by defending radar sets.

A relative position of the neutral point is very important

especially for inexperienced pilots in the beginning of
their process of education, without having previous flying
experience. The greater distance between neutral point
and centre of the gravity, the better pilot feels the force on
a control stick and feels commanded answer of the
airplane. The centre of the gravity is established by design
of aircraft structure with the influence of its loading,
payloads, passengers, etc. The aim of redesigning the TPT
was to accomplish c.g. margin increase by moving the
neutral point backward.

With increasing application and experience of their use

came improved fibres and matrix materials (thermosets
and thermoplastics) resulting in fibre reinforced plastics
composites with improved mechanical properties,
allowing them to displace the more conventional
materials, aluminium and titanium alloys, for primary
structures[7]. During the last three decades, the use of
advanced composites has rapidly increased and with it the
number of hybrid, compositealuminium interfaces. A
hybrid aluminium/glass reinforced plastic system
(GLARE)[8]is used for the A380 fuselage crown that
results in reduced weight, increased damage tolerance and
improved fatigue life.

The static centre of gravity margin (c.g.margin) is the

distance between the centre of the gravity and neutral
point, described as a percentage of the Mean
Aerodynamic Chord, which represent a non-dimensional
measure of the aircraft's stability [2]. The centre of the
gravity must lie ahead the neutral point for positive
stability, and the c.g.margin determines besides stability,
control forces and controllability of the aircraft.
Depending on aircraft type and demanded stability level,
practical range of c.g.marginis:
.

(1)

Detailed analysis of the Department of aerodynamics was

establishedand reported that increase of the tailplane area
for 9% will cause the c.g. margin increase with no other
negative influence on stability or manoeuvrability. The
Department for structure designing had a next task, on the
basis of delivered defined shape of new TPT, to consider
all previously mentioned phases of modification process
and to select a material with a process of fabricating, then
to determine a size and number of additional parts and to
keep the existing attachment points for fastening new
assembly, if it is possible.

In a phase of material selection, manufacturing process

must be considered with no less importance. Fibre
composites are usually manufactured in laminate or
sandwich forms for aerospace structural applications [9].
The conventional manufacturing processes are based on
the pre-preg approach (i.e. uni-directional fibres with preimpregnated resin). However, composite manufacturing
using pre-preg materials is often expensive, so designers
rather choose alternative forms of materials
manufacturing methods, which will reduce costs. While
the two matrix-material typesthermosetting (e.g. epoxies)
and thermoplastic (e.g. poly-ether-ether-ketone) have
their pros and cons, thermosetting resins are currently
extensively used in aircraft manufacturing [10] because of
relatively low material and processing costs involved.

Lastaaircraft has mainly metal based structure,metal wing

with two spars (except composite wingtip),and whole
metal fuselage with integrated metal vertical stabilizer.
Aircraft parts which demanded a complicated shape are
made of composites. All the elements of horizontal
stabilizerare metal, two spars, five ribs, etc. (figure 3).

Rib no.5

Metal rib

3. TAILPLANE RECONSTRUCTION
The main function of a tailplane is to provide longitudinal
static and dynamic stability about Y axis, for all flight
regimes, and to ensure secure aircraft control. Also the
tails are significant for providing optimal forces on
commandswhich are not going to exhaust pilots during

Figure 3: Horizontal stabilizer structure

159

TPTMetal rib is retained for a second connection of a new

TPT assembly with a structure (figure 3). The TPT Metal
rib is riveted with Rib no.5.
The new TPT assembly is made of composites,
considering complex shape, more parts of the assembly
due to span expansion and consequently weight increase,
with additional loads to carry out but without joint
elements between parts in the new TPT, the choice was
simple. The old TPT attachmentpoints are kept, used for a
connection of a Rib no.5 and the old TPT. The fabrication
was conducted in the Utva Aviation Industry.
The main assembly is consisting of four parts. The TPT,
composite Nose rib, composite Rib and the composite
Transverse rib. Main parts are made of fibrous composites
where the reinforcement media is glass, with different
core bonded with thermosetting resins (figure 4).

Figure 6: Connections of the new TPT

Nose rib

After defining a type of connections and all the elements

for joint, the assembly is ready for verification with
structural analysis. In a figure 7 the final assembly of TPT
with the rest of the structure in program CATIA V5 is
shown.

Tip

Rib
Transverse rib

Figure 4: Main parts of TPT assembly

The laminate stacking sequence can significantly
influence the magnitude of the interlaminar normal and
shear stresses, and thus the stacking sequence of plies was
important part of designing (e.g. it has been reported that
the fatigue strength of a (15/45) boron fibre/ epoxy
laminate is about 175MPa lower than a (45/15)
laminate of the same system [11] ).

Figure 7: Modified Lasta tailplane

4. STRENGTH CALCULATION
Additional loads, as a consequence of TPT modification
have been generated as a form of transverseforce.
Tailplane span has been increased for 0.32 m. Maximal
force on one segment, with the coordinates x=7.3 mand
, is:
y=1.49 m in aircraft axis system, for

Assembly (figure 5) is simplified, not demanding

additional elements for connection, which reduce weight,
time for assembling and fabrication costs.

(2)

Metal rib

Rib

Figure 5: TPT assembly

As mentioned earlier, fastening ofTPT assembly with
horizontal stabilizer structure are achieved by existing
points on a Rib no.5 and in a 5 new joints on a TPT Metal
rib (figure 6).

Rib no.5
Transverse rib
Nose rib

Figure 8:Main horizontal stabilizer elements included in

stress calculation
160

Bearing stress of Transverse rib is:

For generated loads, all joints of new TPT with the

horizontal stabilizer have been analysed. Confirmation
that connections between TPT over Transverse rib with
Metal rib, thenTPT with Rib no.5 and Rib no.5 with
Metal rib (figure 8) can withstand additional loadswith
required reserve, are necessary.

(12)
Wall of the Transversehas allowed surface pressure
.
Reserve factor of Transverse rib bearingfor

4.1. Metal rib and Transverse rib joints

calculation

(13)

A connection between Transverse rib and Metal rib is

accomplish with five screws M4. Loads, which are
effecting the shear centre, are presented in a figure 9.

4.2. Tailplane tip and Rib no.5 joints calculation

Rib no.5 is connected with skin of a TPT with 12 screws
M4 (6 on upper skin and 6 on a lower skin), and with the
Metal rib with 4 rivets 2,4 SNO 0212B (figure 10).

3
ycv

, is:

22

16

24

M cv

22

22.4

x cv

M4
5

F5M cv

.4
25

11

40

Rivet 2,4

Figure 9:Presented loads

Intensity of affecting loads, for

Figure 10:TPT and Rib no.5 joints

,are:
(3)

Loads in a plane of a Rib no.5 are:

(14)

(4)

(15)

Screws are accepting shearing force where every screw is

loaded with force:

(16)

(5)
Shearing force of a screw from moment
shear centre, is given with formula:

Rivets are accepting force and screws bending moment

.

, acting in the
(6)

4.2.1. Rivets analysis of Rib no. 5 and Metal rib

connection

Shear force of the most loaded screw is:

Force

is accepted by 4 rivets,by shearing:

(7)

(17)

(8)

Reserve factor, consideringforce

(9)

for

, is:
(18)

In addition,shear force of the most loaded screw is:

It is necessery to calculate reserve factor of bearing for

Metal rib. Bearing stress of Metal rib is:

(10)

(19)
Considering allowed shear force of M4 screw, reserve
factor of the most loaded screw can be calculated, for
:

Metal rib is produced of material with allowed surface

.From ratio of allowed surface
pressure
reserve
pressure to Metal rib bearing stress for
factor is given:

(11)

161

(20)
4.2.2. Screws analysis of Rib no.5 and Tailplane tip
connection
Bending moment
intensity:

can be defined as a couple with

(21)

Which is accepted by 6 screws M4 on upper skin and 6

screws M4 on lower skin of TPT, through shearing:
(22)
Allowed shear force of M4 screw is a great deal higher
than loads that are present, so the reserve factor will not
be examined.
Bearing stress of a skin TPT is given as:
(23)
Knowing that TPT skin is produced of composites,
allowed surface pressure of a composite is accepted as
, reserve factor of TPT skin bearing is:
(24)

Table 1:TPT reserve factors

LOADS

RESERVE
FACTOR

(connection of Metal rib and

Transverse rib)

shear

>6

Metal rib
Rivets2.4

bearing

1.97

(connection of rib no. 5 and

Metal rib)

shear

>6

Metal rib
Screws M4

bearing

>6

(connection of rib no. 5 and

TPT skin)

shear

>6

TPT skin

bearing

1.1

Screws M4

All above-mentioned requirements for successful

modification have been satisfied. The TPT assembly is
manufactured in laminate forms with thermosetting
resins. The main advantages provided by composite usage
include mass and part reduction, complex shape
manufacture, easier than it would be with metal parts,
improved fatigue life, design optimisation and generally
improved corrosion resistance. The same joint points are
kept, with a minimal additional changes on existing
structure. With the strength calculation it is proven that
new TPT can withstand generated loads, with a sufficient
reserve. Whole project was conducting using 3D
modelling program CATIA V5, with all its
advantages.The time and the costs are decreased, using
CATIA V5, in comparison with the old method of
designing.
With a new TPT,tailplane area is increased for 9%, and it
is confirmed in a flight verification that the static centre of
gravity margin was increased, which was the aim of this
research. This is a confirmation that researches and
innovations are the right and one of the possible ways for
improvement of usage, with safety, stability and
manoeuvrability,
furthermore
maintenance,
and
affordability of aircrafts.

REFERENCES
[1] G.Clark, Failures in military aircraft, Engineering
Failure Analysis 12 (2005) 755771.
[2] S.Milutinovic, Konstrukcija aviona, Beograd, 1970.
[3] Airframe structural design Practical design
information and Data on Aircraft Structures,
Michael Chun-Young Niu.
[4] V.Stefanovi, M.Marjanivi, M.Bajovi, Conceptual
system designs civil UAV for typical aerial work
applications, OTEH 2012, Beograd 2012., ISBN
978-86-81123-58-4
[5] Z.Vasi, V.Stefanovi, P.Dragievi, Practical
approach to integrated design of aeronautical
composite constructions using CATIA software,
Fourth Serbian (29th Yu) Congress on Theoretical
and Applied Mechanics Vrnjaka Banja, Serbia, 4-7
June 2013
[6] Z.Vasic, M.Martinovic, Z.Kusurovic, Some aspects
of CAD technology implementation during design
and production of Lasta airplane, ScientificTechnical Review,Vol.LV,No.3-4,2005.
[7] C.Soutis, Fibre reinforced composites in aircraft
construction, Progress in Aerospace Sciences 41
(2005) 143151.
[8] Aerospace composite structures in the USA, Report
for the international technology service (Overseas
Missions Unit) of the DTI, UK, 1999.
[9] A.Baker, S.Dutton, D.Kelly, Composite materials for
aircraft
structures,
Reston:AIAAEducationSeries;2004.
[10] C. Soutis,Fibre reinforced composites in aircraft
construction, Progressin Aerospace Sciences 2005;

In a table 1, reserve factors of TPT with structure joints

for considered load cases are given.

PART

5. CONCLUSION

After verification with strength calculation, and

documentation production (also using CATIA V5), the
modified TPT assembly was ready for manufacturing. In
a figure 11, produced and assembled modified TPT on the
horizontal stabilizer of Lastaaircraft,is shown.

Figure 11: Produced TPT

162

41(2): 143151.
[11] Jones,RM. Mechanics of composite materials,
London: Taylor & Francis; 1975
[12] C.Soutis, Carbon fiber reinforced plastics in aircraft
construction, Materials Science and Engineering

A2005; 412: 171176.

[13] LJ.Hart-Smith, On the adverse consequences of cost
performance metrics usurping the role of goals they
were supposed to suppor,. 21st ICAS congress,
Melbourne, Australia, September 1998.

163

UAV GROUND CONTROL STATION

STEVANOVI DRAGAN
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, stevanovic.dragan.daca@gmail.com

Abstract: Nowadays, Unmanned Airborne Vehicles UAVs as the part of the aerospace industry, have a great
importance in a many areas of the human life. An important part of these systems is the Ground Control Station GCS,
suitable for real time control and display of flight data. All UAVs must have a ground control station of some type. The
station is a system on the ground that sends and receives signals to/from one or several unmanned airborne vehicles.
These systems are very complex with a lot of subsystems. This paper presents and describes one approach concept of
UAV Ground control station.
Keywords: Ground control station, UAV, command, control
a suitable position where it will have complete control of
the UAV system.

1. INTRODUCTION
Ground control station - GCS is a central part of the each
UAV system. GCS is a very important part of the UAV
system, from the point of successful mission execution.
GCS is a highly mobile system. GCS has task to
command the entire UAV system and perform all
necessary operations for mission planning, takeoff, flight
and landing UAV, and the post-flight analysis. UAV
system via GCS performs reconnaissance and surveillance
of the terrain (the battlefield - military applications) in
accordance with the planned mission.

2. TACTICAL UAV SYSTEM

UAV system consists of following functional units:
1. Ground control station
- Cabin ground control station - Station for command
and control of the UAV is located in the cabin and
mounted on a motor vehicle;
- Set of equipment for automatic landing of aircraft;
- Aggregate for independent power supply, which is
located on the trailer;
1. Communication system with transmission station
with transceivers and tracking antenna systems;
2. Mobile video terminal MVT (mounted on a motor
vehicle) and portable video terminals;
3. Set UAVs;
4. Motor vehicles with trailers to transport unmanned
aircraft;

Picture 1. Concept UAV system

Transmission station is set in the position of the radio
visibility between the station and UAV. The first aircraft
from a kit is set at the beginning of the runway (runway
place). UAV is put in a state of operational use and also
prepared for taking off for the start of the mission. Mobile
and portable video terminals are installed in specially
selected locations in the units at the front end of the
combat operations, depending on the tactical point of
view. For more information, see reference [2].
Ground control station performs the entire mission,
beginning with the preparation of the mission, take-off,
flight and landing UAV, and the post-flight analysis.

For more information, see reference [1].

3. UAV SYSTEM CONCEPT

Link system within the GCS with transmission station

provides stable communication during the execution of
the mission.

UAV system is placed and installed in a space where it

will perform the mission (see Picture 1.). GCS is placed in
164

Mobile video terminal (mounted on the motor vehicle)

and portable video terminals perform monitoring and
control of the mission near the battlefield.

The system is easy to maintain and has possibility of

checking.

For more information, see reference [3].

4. UAV GROUND CONTROL STATION

5. UAV GCS SYSTEMS

The main GCS features:

- UAV GCS - Station for controlling the operation and
monitoring of the UAV is mounted on a motor
vehicle due to the higher mobility, as it shown in
Picture 2,

UAV GCS contains the following systems:

1. Command information system and communication
system
2. Command and control System of Unmanned aerial
vehicles
3. Optoelectronic reconnaissance system (payload)
4. Link system (Communication system)
5. Power supply system
6. Operator(s) environment control system
Command information system and communication system
is integrated into the general command information
system. The system allows communication between
members of crew through local connections.
Communication between the commander and the higher
command is realized via radio relay link.

Command and control System commands and guides

UAV in autonomous mode (programmed flight by
waypoints), manual mode (directly or through commands
via autopilot) or azimuth camera mode. Besides that this
system has the ability to send the single commands.

Picture 2. Mobile cab of UAV GCS

System can be easily deployed and brought quickly
into operational use,
The system is designed as open hardware and
software architecture. The system is adaptable to the
demands of possible extensions or modifications to
the system,
The system is modular. Replacement of modules and
subsystems can be done according to the
requirements, if necessary,
The system is flexible so that the user requirements or
changes in mission parameters can be easily done,
Cabin GCS with workplaces and control console is
ergonomically designed and suitable for pleasant and
longer staying in the cabin,
Cabin GCS is equipped with computer equipment of
the latest generation with high-resolution monitors for
real-time applications,
GCS has ability to select and display different screen
masks on every monitor,
GCS has ability of flight mission planning,
GCS has ability to check the planned flight mission in
terms of feasibility, communication and security,
GCS has ability to perform a complete simulation of
the entire mission,
GCS has ability to execute, control and monitoring
the execution of the entire flight mission,
GCS has ability to detect and respond promptly to the
cancellation of a system,
GCS has possibility to modify the planned mission
during all phases of its realization,
GCS has ability of monitoring payload and telemetry
data in real time. In addition GCS has ability to
record all the data for future review and processing,
GCS ability to reproduce the entire mission,

System for optoelectronic reconnaissance is used to

command to UAV equipment during the reconnaissance
mission. On the other side, this system allows reception of
video signal during the surveillance.
Link subsystem with mid-range UAV enables
communication between the aircraft and the GCS and the
link between UAVs and video terminals. Communication
GCS and UAV is bidirectional.
Transmission in particular directions is isolated separate
links (from GCS to UAV - uplink and the UAV to GCS
and remote video terminal - downlink). Command signals
are forwarded to the UAV, and telemetry data and video
signals are forwarded from the UAV to the GCS.
System power supply provides power to the GCS using
generators and electrical main supply. For continuous
electrical power GCS power system is supplied with
rechargeable battery.
Operator(s) environment control system provides the
prescribed conditions of temperature and humidity in the
cabin GCS necessary for the crew.

6. CONCEPT GCS UAV

Station command and guidance UAV consists of several
components and subsystems (see Picture 3.). From the
aspect of functionalities within the GCS, the subsystems
are:
- The computer ground control station
- Console block for command aircraft and mission
control
- Computer unit with monitors for the control and
visualization of the flight
- Transceivers with amplifier (Up and Down link)
165

Antenna block mounted on the steerable antenna

pedestal
GPS receiver
Memory card for data acquisition,
Weather Station

Reconnaissance data obtained can be used for later

processing and analysis.

7. UAV GCS EQUIPMENT

Equipment in the Ground control station is installed in
appropriate rack with shock absorbers. Racks are placed
in an environment controlled GCS cabin. Racks are
equipped with appropriate computer equipment and the
required number of monitors. Additionally, racks are
equipped with command control panel (console), in
accordance with its purpose.
In Pictures 4 and 5 are given deployment of equipment in
the GCS. Respectively is given orthogonal and
perspective view in accordance with the tactical UAV.

Picture 3. Functional scheme of UAV GCS

The main part of the UAV ground control station
definitely is GCS computer. Computer GCS, directly or
indirectly, command and control the work of GCS.
Console block is used for command and guidance to the
UAV. GCS Computer, via serial line RS232 forwards
commands to the transmitter (uplink). The transmitter on
the ground, via the antenna block, sets commands by
radio signal to the UAV.

Picture 4. Schematic representation of GCS interior

equipment
In the cabin of GCS there are three workplaces, including
one for commander and two for operators. First operator
commands UAV a second operator performs the
command payload. Commander manages the mission,
controls and overalls mission monitoring in 'real time'.

UAV via radio link sends flight data to the ground

antenna. Antenna block on the ground forwards flight
data to the transmitter (Down Link).

GCS collects video and telemetry data received in real

time. Ground control station has the ability of application
software upgrading.

The receiver on the ground via serial line RS232 sends

telemetry data forwards to main computer. Main
computer sends telemetry data to the computer block with
monitors for the visualization of the flight.

GCS has communication with remote video terminals and

command operation center (Command Information
System - CIS).

The receiver on the ground via Ethernet switch sends

video data to the computer unit with monitors for
visualization of the flight.
Computer unit with monitors for the control and
visualization of the flight has its own computer system
with several of monitors interconnected with Ethernet.
Computer unit with monitors for the control and
visualization of the flight via TCP/IP protocol
communicate with the GCS computer. Computer unit
with monitors for the control and visualization of the
flight communicates with antenna system via video link.
GCS computer receives data from GPS sensors and
meteorological stations.
On the memory card is performed recording and storing
data obtained by optoelectronic reconnaissance.

Picture 5. Schematic spatial representation equipment

in GCS
166

Picture 6 shows the GCS for medium-range tactical UAV.

9. PHASES OF FLIGHT MISSION

Ground control station enables the execution of all phases
of flight missions:
- Preparation of the mission
- Performing of the mission
- The mission debriefing

Preparation mission
The preparation of the mission means a mission planning
and simulation for mission crew practicing.
Ground Station provides mission planning and planned
mission testing.
The planning mission, testing and checking is performed
in order to verify:
- Whether at a given path has barriers
- Whether it is secured communication radius
- Check the procedure and the time required to
accomplish the mission.

Picture 6. UAV GCS

8. GCS FUNCTIONS
GCS perform several functions such as:
- basic,
- control,
- communication,
- command.

Command and control of UAV

Flight control modes:
1. autonomous - programmed mode (main mode). Flight
performed by waypoints where there is a possibility
of the addition, the abolition and modification of
waypoints.

Basic GCS functions are performed through the UAV

flight operator console and Payload operator console (see
Picture 7).

2. manual mode (additional). Manual command is

performed directly on the control stick x-y, pedals,
flaps, throttle or indirectly by setting the autopilot
commands: speed, altitude and heading.

Basic GCS functions

1. Command and control UAV from a kit, but only one
UAV at a given point of time.

3. azimuth camera (special). In this mode, the direction

of flight is defined by the azimuth angle of the
camera.

GCS electrical power supply

Electrical power system provides uninterrupted power
supply for GCS cabin. The power supply system consists
of the following subsystems:
- Control panel
- Electrical installations with isolation transformer
and with protection blocks
- Subsystem for distribution and continuous power
supply
Subsystem for distribution and uninterrupted power
supply provides main electrical power supply, supply
from generators and battery power. For continuous power
supply of the system an additional (optional) power
supply is used, via batteries.

Picture 7. UAV Flight operator console and Payload

operator console GCS
This includes command and control of:
- flight
- payload
- subsystems
2. Receiving control and display data from the flight and
payload which they were collected during the survey
in real time.

GCS is powered by electricity from:

- AC power source (220-230)V at 50Hz,
- Electric generator
- Battery power with sufficient capacity

10. GCS PERSONELL FUNCTIONS

This includes receiving, control and data:

- telemetry data
- video data
- subsystems parameters
- status of system failure

GCS Cabin tactical UAV has 3 workplaces:

1. Station Commander
2. UAV flight operator
3. Payload operator
167

1. Station commander GCS performs:

- Getting the task by the superior command - CIS
and sending reports;
- Planning and giving task (mission) with the
surrounded survey;
- Monitoring and control of the mission;
- Depending on the tactical and technical
requirements, the GCS commander gives
permission to control the OE sensor, only one
MVT;

reconnaissance. GCS collects and displays data from the

flight in real time during the reconnaissance.

REFERENCES
[1] Paul G. Fahlstrom, Thomas J. Gleason: Introduction
to UAV Systems, 1998.
[2] Austin, R.: Control Stations, in Unmanned Aircraft
Systems: UAVS Design, Development and
Deployment, (Chapter 13) John Wiley & Sons, Ltd,
Chichester, UK. (2010)
[3] Torun,E.: UAV Requirements and Design
Consideration, Turkish Land Forces Command,
Ankara, TURKEY, April 1999.
[4] Unmanned Vehicles. handbook 2008, Publisher
Sandy Doyle sd@shephard.co.uk, The Shephard
Press Ltd, Berkshire, UK, 2008
[5] Department of the US Army, ARMY UNMANNED
AIRCRAFT SYSTEM OPERATIONS, Washington,
DC, 4 April 2006, Expires 4 April 2008
[6] The UAS P.O. Magazine, Eyes Beyond the Horizon,
January 2010.
[7] http://www.militaryaerospace.com/unmannedvehicles.html
[8] www.defense-update.com
[9] NATO, Staff Requirement for a NATO Maritime
UAV System, 1996.
[10] Jovanovic,M., Starcevic,D.: Software architecture for
ground control station for unmanned aerial vehicle,
in Computer Modeling and Simulation, UKSIM
2008. Tenth International Conference on, april 2008,
pp. 284 288.

2. UAV flight operator performs command and control

of UAV:
- Modes of flight control
- Phases of flight
- Single command with options on or off
- Extra command and control
3. Payload operator performs reconnaissance through
the OE platform - control of the payload:
- Command EO platform
- One-time commands to control OE sensors

11. CONCLUSION
Each UAV System is composed of several functional
units. The central part of each UAV system is the ground
control station. Concept GCS was developed as part of the
medium-range UAV. The GCS cabin is designed,
according to the purpose. Besides, in the GCS cabin was
placed basic equipment and computer equipment. This
equipment is necessary to carry out the basic functions of
UAV. Basic functions should be performed by the GCS
command and control of unmanned aircraft and mission
equipment (payload). On the other hand, Ground control
station performs the function of surveillance and

168

MODEL OF EQUIPPING GAZELLE HELICOPTER FOR THE SEARCH

AND RESCUE TASKS
GORAN PEJKI
Military Academy, Belgrade, pejkicgoran@gmail.com
SLAVIA VLAI
Military Academy, Belgrade, slavisavlacic@yahoo.com
ROBERT VULI
Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Banja Luka, gitano@blic.net

Abstract: Gazelle SA-341/342 is a utility helicopter commonly used for light transport, scouting and light attack duties.
It is a part of many air force inventories, including the Serbian, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina air force.
Contemporary service conditions for these helicopters impose the stress on the search and rescue role. Existing
helicopters, especially in the Serbian Armed Forces are not equipped appropriately for this task and they are limited for
daylight use and good meteorological conditions. This paperwork describes the possible model of equipping the fleet of
the Gazelle helicopter for providing the Search and Rescue support in the case of natural disasters and catastrophes of
a larger proportion where lives are at stake.
Keywords: Gazela, search and rescue, search patterns, NVG, GNS, FLIR .
surveillance and reconnaissance. It is also used for
military applications such as attack, anti-tank, antihelicopter, transport and training. It can accommodate one
pilot and four passengers [1].

1. INTRODUCTION
Gazelle SA-341/342 is a utility helicopter commonly used
for light transport, scouting and light attack duties. It is a
part of many air force inventories, including the Serbian,
Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina air force.
Contemporary service conditions for these helicopters
impose the search and rescue role. Existing helicopters,
especially in the Serbian Armed Forces are not equipped
appropriately for this task and they are limited for
daylight use and good meteorological conditions. This
paperwork is considering the equipment which can be
integrated on the Gazelle helicopter, its characteristics,
prices and describes its potential in the search and rescue
tasks. The point of interest is equipment which is already
in service of the Serbian AF&AD as well as equipment
which can be commercialy bought on the market without
long lasting tenders. The model of equipping the fleet of
the Gazela helicopters is also shown as one of the
possibilities which can be reviewed in the near future.

During the 1973 in France, Yugoslavia acquired the first

batch of 21 helicopters Aerospatial SA.341N "Gazelle".
Soon after, the license production has started under the
local designation SA.341H Partizan, but the name Gazela
become more common (it is also used in this paperwork).
94 helicopters were built in SOKO factory in Mostar until
the mid 80s under the local designation H-42. Since 1982,
this factory started with building of SA.342L improved
version and SOKO produced another 63 helicopters (H-45)
until the 1991 [2]. SA.342L helicopter has much powerful
engine Turbomeca Astazou XIV M (631 kW vs 440 kW of
SA-341) and it is much better tailored to the light-attack
roles and even for the search and rescue tasks. Some of the
helicopter specifications are shown in Table 1.
In the first phase of the operational use in former
Yugoslavia, SA-341 helicopters were adaptated to carry
up to four Maljutkas (AT-3 Sagger) and two 9K32M
Strelas (SA-7 Grail) for the air defence. The reasons for
the integration of the eastern made weapons on the
western platform was the fact that the JNA (Yugoslav
People's Army) in its units had the same weapons and it
was planned to use Gazelas as the Army support
helicopters. From the logistical compatibility standpoint it
was reasonable. These helicopters were called GAMA
(GAzela + MAljutka) or HN-42M (Helikopter Naoruzani

2. GAZELLE HELICOPTER
The Gazelle helicopter (SA-341/SA-342) is a multipurpose,
lightweight
utility/attack
helicopter
manufactured by the Aerospatiale Helicopter Corporation,
France. The first prototype has flown in April, 1967. It
was one of the fastest helicopters and still serves in
various applications. The helicopter is used in
approximately 23 countries, primarily for scouting,
169

Modifikovan/Modified Armed Helicopter).

version of SA 342L was designated as HN-45M.

Armed

the Gazela resource usage were modest radio-navigational

and other electronic equipment. Utility Gazelas were
equipped only with Gyro Compass, VHF communication
and ADF System. With the emerging of GPS technology
small portable GPS devices, such Garmin 95 and Garmin
295 were used occasionally. This very basic equipment
allows performing search and rescue only in VFR
daylight and in limited night conditions. By the beginning
of the civil war in former Yugoslavia other shortcomings
of the Gazela use in search and rescue have been seen.
The main shortcoming was lack of armour protection and
several Gazela helicopters were shot down by the enemy
forces even with small caliber rifles.

The unique version of Gazelas in Yugoslavian use was

the SA.341L HERA Gazela-HERA (Helicopter-Radio),
which was intended for the artillery observation and
correction of artillery fire. The specific purpose
equipment consisted of gyro-stabylised sight APX-334-25
with laser rangefinder, radio altimeter and navigation
system Doppler 80/RNS 252.
Table 1: Characteristics of helicopter SA-342 Gazela
Tactical and technical characteristics of helicopter
SA-342 Gazela
Turbomeca Astazou XIV M (631
Engine
kw)
Main rotor
10,50m
diameter
Overall length
11,97m
Height
3,18m
Take-off weight
2000 kg
Empty weight
975 kg
Max speed
310 km/h
Cruise speed
238 km/h,
Range
755 km
Endurance
3 h 17 min
Two pilots and three passengers, or
Capacity
(external slung)
pilot and stretcher (700 kg)

3. SEARCH AND RESCUE WITH

HELICOPTER GAZELLA
Search and rescue tasks demand special trained crew.
Because of that, the search and rescue courses are
organized according to the user needs. The emphasis of
the course is the search of methods and training in search
patterns as well as extraction of persons in distress.
In the search tasks several patterns are common all over the
world and the same are also used by the helicopter Gazela
crew. The basic search patterns are trackline, expanding
square, parallel, creep and sector pattern but according to the
existing equipment of the Gazela helicopter and operational
experience expanding square and parallel search patterns are
described as the most used [3].

But the main role of Gazelas in Yugoslavian and later in

Serbian operational use was pilot training and light
transport of personnel and small loads. The limited use
was on the peacetime search and rescue tasks.

Parallel search pattern should be used when the search

area is large, there is equal probability of the target being
anywhere in the search area, datum information is fair,
and uniform coverage is desired throughout the area. The
pattern may be used when the degree of detection may
have an equal probability of being anywhere in the search
area. The search legs are parallel to the search area's
major axis (longest side oriented down the drift line).
Commence Search Point (CSP) is located one-half track
space inside the search area in the specified corner.
Parallel search pattern is shown in Picture 1 [4].

2. HELICOPTER GAZELLA EQUIPMENT

FOR THE SAR TASKS
From the very beginning the Gazela helicopter was
designed
for
surveillance
and
reconnaissance,
communications embodiment, the evacuation of the
wounded, the transportation of personnel and small loads
and finally to provide fire support to the ground troops.
Although the search and rescue tasks were beside the
point, the helicopter was also used in that role in JNA.
During the 80s many military air bases had one Gazela
helicopter in readiness as a SAR support for the air force
flying activities. Those helicopters were particularly
equipped with Breeze hoist with rated load from 136 kg
and with a belly hook. The hook had slingload cargo
capacity of 700 kg. Some of the helicopters were
equipped with emergency floats but this equipment has
never been used again after the disarrangement of the
former Yugoslavia. Because of the good maneuverability
and small dimensions of the helicopter, Gazela was
appreciated by the aircrews.
This equipment was appropriate only in the case where
the persons in distress or patients are conscious and able
to take a winch from the hoist, but the winch was without
cinch collar ring. Small cabine capacity allows rescue of
only two persons. Because of mentioned, military Gazelas
were used for the search and rescue of military pilots who
were ejected for some reasons. Additional restrictions of

Picture 1: Parallel search pattern

The Expanding Square Search Pattern consists of a
square-shaped route that begins at a designated waypoint
and continually expands away from the center. The
170

waypoints are numbered to indicate the sequence to be

flown. An Expanding Square search pattern is used when
datum is established within the close limits and uniform
coverage is desired.

communications, the transportation of VIP personnel and

small loads such was food and drinking water. It was
mainly in daytime conditions and sometimes in IFR
conditions. Because Gazela is not certified for IFR
conditions, this had the big implications on the flight
safety and made flying more hazardous than it was
necessary. The crew were flying even without the life
preservers such as LPU-10 previosly used in JNA.

The expanding square search pattern can be employed by

either surface vessels or aircraft search units. The first leg
is usually oriented downdrift (if it is not practical to
search the first leg downdrift, then another first leg
direction may be used). All turns are 90 to the right and a
second search is performed by shifting the pattern 45 to
the right. Where more than one aircraft is involved, they
would fly at different heights and on headings 45 off the
original. The CSP begins at the probable location of the
target and expands outward in the concentric squares.
Accurate navigation is required to monitor the
helicopters position towards course alteration points. The
track spacing will vary depending on visibility and water
(sea) conditions relative to the type of target. Expanding
square search pattern is shown in Picture 2.

4. MODEL OF EQUIPPING GAZELLE

HELICOPTER FOR THE SEARCH AND
RESCUE TASKS
Despite the good flying characteristics and associated
tasks, Gazela helicopters in the Yugoslav and later in the
Serbian use did not experience any kind of modernization
or modification for 40 years of service. After the
disarrangement of SFRJ, some successors such as the
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro,
enhanced communication and navigation equipment of
inherited helicopters. On that way the Montenegrian
helicopters were equipped with Garmin GNS 530, audio
panel GMA 340H, DME-40, transponder GTX 330 and
emergency locator transmitter ARTEX ME 406HM ELT.
The main part of modernization was GNS 530 unit. This
unit unifies in one box the GPS receiver, VOR/ILS
receiver and VHF radio unit. This investment was minor
and the capacity was brought to a much higher level. But,
this level of equipment still does not fulfill the
requirements of the modern search and rescue helicopter.
Although it is unreal to make comparation of the Serbian
Gazelas with the equipment level of the British or French
Gazelas, there are still some equipment pieces that can be
worth of mention and affordable in Serbian budget
constraints. Beside the afore mentioned GNS device,
transponder and emergency locator transmitter, this
paperwork also consideres night vision goggles (NVG) and
FLIR or EO/IR device.
NVG are light image intensification devices that amplify
the night-ambient-illuminated scenes by a factor of 104.
For this application light includes visual light and near
infrared. The development of the microchannel plate
(MCP) allows miniature packaging of the image
intensifiers into a small, lightweight, helmet-mounted pair
of goggles. With the NVG, the pilot views the outside
scene as a green phosphor image displayed in the
eyepieces [5].

Picture 2: Expanding square search pattern

Some of the well known avionics producers enable by
software to quickly and easily incorporate search patterns
into a flight plan. The search and rescue feature is enabled
with a dedicated Secure Digital unlock card that is
inserted into the top SD card slot on the MFD. If SAR
configuration is enabled, the SAR flight patterns are
available as part of an active flight plan.

Today, the Serbian AF&AD is in the process of acquiring

NVG devices DIANA A for the Mi-8/17 family. The
aviators night vision goggles DIANA A are specially
designed for helicopter pilots. They allow the pilots to
navigate at nap of the earth, flying off, landing and other
operations that are practically impossible or extremely
dangerous at night conditions without the use of
illuminating resources.

However, these typical search patterns were not used in

recent natural disasters in the Republic of Serbia where
Gazela helicopters were heavily used in utility role. These
emerged circumstances imposed rethinking of Gazela
modernization and models of equipping.
It is important to stress that because of the small total area
and nature of disasters (blizzards in February 2014 and
floods in the April 2014 were in close vicinity of the main
airbase) time was not so wasted on typical search. The
main tasks were to mark people in distress in well known
semi-urban area and mark land points for the citizen
evacuation with the bigger transport helicopters. Gazela
wass also used in surveillance and reconnaissance tasks,

DIANA A extended the operational mission capability of the

helicopter crew: allow non-stop surveillance of the earth
surface at heights not more than 60 m and velocity not more
than 270 km/h with wide field of view 40, that
considerably expands the opportunities of the air-patrolling,
flight over bad or entirely not illuminated fields, performing
171

night scouting, night time investigation and search and

rescue. DIANA A (Picture 3) is mounted to a single point on
the pilots helmet visor guard. No facemask requirement
allows nearly full peripheral vision [6].

image to produce better results than a single-spectrum

image alone. One of the examples which are in use in the
British Gazela helicopters with great success is MX-15
device installed in starboard turret mounted on a rack.
The MX-15 imaging turret features nighttime
identification, multi-spectral imaging, GEO-Location, and
allows for the use of up to six sensors including: IR with
high magnification four-step zoom; day and night camera
with spotter; color daylight camera with zoom lens; laser
illuminator; color or monochrome daylight camera with
spotter lens and a laser rangefinder. The MX-15 turret can
weight up to 45 kg with a diameter of 40 cm and a height
of 48 cm. A sample of a MX-15 device image is shown in
Picture 4.

Picture 3: DIANA A night vision goggles

Forward looking infrared (FLIR) cameras, typically
used on the military and civilian aircraft, use an imaging
technology that senses infrared radiation. The sensors
installed in forward-looking infrared cameras - as well as
those of other thermal imaging cameras - use detection of
infrared radiation, typically emitted from a heat source
(thermal radiation), to create a "picture" assembled for the
video output. They can be used to help pilots to fly their
aircrafts at night and in fog, or to detect warm objects
against a cooler background. The wavelength of infrared
that thermal imaging cameras detect differs significantly
from that of night vision, which operates in the visible
light and near-infrared ranges (0.4 to 1.0 m).

Picture 4. A sample of a MX-15 device image

The cheapest and maybe the most important part of the
equipment profile in modernized Gazela will be the
multifunctional GNS 430 or GNS 530 unit (the main
difference is in LCD dimensions). This unit significantly
improves the situation awareness. The GNS 430/530 unit
unifies in one box the GPS receiver, VOR/ILS receiver
and VHF radio unit, meeting the instrumental flight rules
(IFR). Moving map and other data are displayed highcontrast color LCD. The GNS 430/530 series is an all-inone GPS/Nav/Comm solution. It features a WAAScertified GPS, 2280-channel capacity comm and 200channel ILS/VOR with localizer and glide slope.
Traditionally, it would take a host of components to
provide the capabilities of this one smart box. High-speed
5 Hz processing makes navigation calculations and map
redraw rates five times faster than earlier GNS series
navigators.

Infrared light falls into two basic ranges: long-wave and

medium-wave. Long-wave infrared (LWIR) cameras,
sometimes called "far infrared", operate at 8 to 12 m,
and can see heat sources, such as hot engine parts or
human body heat, a few miles away. Longer-distance
viewing is made more difficult with LWIR because the
infrared light is absorbed, scattered and refracted by air
and by water vapor. Some long-wave cameras require
their detector to be cryogenically cooled, typically for
several minutes before use, although some moderately
sensitive infrared cameras do not require this. Many
thermal imagers, including some forward-looking infrared
cameras (such as some LWIR Enhanced Vision Systems
(EVS)) are also uncooled.
Medium-wave (MWIR) cameras operate in the 3-to-5 m
range. These can be seen almost as well, since those
frequencies are less affected by the water-vapor
absorption, but generally require a more expensive sensor
array, along with the cryogenic cooling. Many camera
systems use digital image processing to improve the
image quality. Infrared imaging sensor arrays often have
wildly inconsistent sensitivities from pixel to pixel, due to
the limitations in the manufacturing process. To remedy
this, the response of each pixel is measured at the factory,
and a transform, most often linear, maps the measured
input signal to an output level.

GNS 430/530's high-contrast display is easy to read and

interpret pilot-critical information. Effective use of color
makes it easy to see your position relative to ground
features, chart data, navigation aids, flight plan routings,
approach procedures and more. GNS 430/530 seamlessly
integrates built-in terrain and navigation databases,
providing a clear, concise picture of where you are and
where you are heading. The unit's Jeppesen database,
updated with the front-loading data cards, contains
location reference for all airports, VORs, NDBs,
Intersections, Flight Service Stations, published
approaches, SIDs/STARs, Special Use Airspace and
geopolitical boundaries. A detailed base map shows

Some companies offer advanced fusion technologies that

blend a visible-spectrum image with an infrared-spectrum
172

airports, cities, highways, railroads, rivers, lakes,

coastlines and more. Using information from the built-in
terrain and obstacles databases, the 430/530 displays color
coding to graphically alert you when proximity conflicts
loom ahead [5]. Garmin GNS 430/530 is proved in the
Serbian AF&AD service because it is installed in Mi-8,
Lasta, Seneca V and An-26. The compatible successors
will be Garmin 650 and Garmin 750 devices.

The main tasks were to mark people in distress in well

known semi-urban area and mark land points for the
citizen evacuation with the bigger transport helicopters.
Gazela is also used in surveillance and reconnaissance
tasks, communications, the transportation of VIP
personnel and small loads such was food and drinking
water. It was mainly in daytime conditions and sometimes
in IFR conditions. Because Gazela is not certified for IFR
conditions, this had the big implications on the flight
safety and made flying more hazardous than it was
necessary. This had big implications on the flight safety
and made flying more hazardous than it was necessary.
The crew were flying even without the life preservers
such as LPU-10 previosly used in JNA.

Considering the price of those units it is possible to notice

that their market prices are variable, according to the
capabilities of device. In that way we can estimate that the
price of GNS 430/530 series (or compatible) is 10.000 to
15.000 USD, and the price of pairs of DIANA A googles
with cockpit adaptation is about 40.000 USD per
helicopter. Expected price of MX-15 is much higher and
it depends on the turret layout.

These emerged circumstances imposed rethinking of the

Gazela modernization and models of equipping. There are
several possible models of equipping, but the emphasis
was on introducing equipment with minor investments.
Considering prices and availability it can be concluded
that most of the equipment which can be used in model of
equipping Gazela helicopter for the search and rescue role
is already in service of Serbian AF&AD. These are NVG,
GNS 430/530, audio-panel and transponder. The only
piece of the equipment which needs significant funds is
FLIR i.e.EO/IR device such is MX-15 which costs several
hundreds of thousands of USD.

There are also a series of other equipment and search and

rescue stuffs which are inevitable in efficient search and
rescue taks. The most important are hoist, emergency
floats, searchlights, sling quick strope, belly hook, cinch
collar ring, lightsticks, cargo nets, litters and stretchers,
air drop rafts, dyemarkers etc. The price of those items is
mostly up to several hundred or thousands USD. This
equipment can be commercialy bought on the market
without long lasting tenders. It was intolerable that none
of those items were available to the Serbian search and
rescue crews during the natural disasters in 2014. Because
of that, the search and rescue efficiency was well below
the desired.

5. CONCLUSION
The Gazela helicopter (SA-341/SA-342) is a multipurpose, lightweight utility/attack helicopter designed at
the end of 60s by the Aerospatiale, France. The helicopter
is used in approximately 23 countries, primarily for
scouting, surveillance and reconnaissance. It is also used
for military applications such as attack, anti-tank, antihelicopter, transport and training. Former Yugoslavia
produced by license 157 helicopters under the main local
designation Gazela H-42/45 or HN-42/45M (armed version).
The use was limited to the peacetime search and rescue
tasks. Those helicopters were particularly equipped with the
Breeze hoist with rated load from 136 kg and with belly
hook. Small cabine capacity allows rescue of only two,
strictly conscious persons. Very modest equipment allows
performing search and rescue tasks only in VFR daylight and
in limited night conditions. Because of the lack of armour the
helicopter was not appropriate for combat search and rescue.
For the SAR tasks crew were specially trained in specifically
tailored courses which exist even today. The emphasis is on
the search pattern methods and extraction of persons in
distress.
In the recent natural disasters these typical search patterns
were not performed. Because of the small total area and
nature of disasters (blizzards in February 2014 and floods
in the April 2014 were in close vicinity of the main
airbase) time was not wasted on typical search and Gazela
helicopters were heavily used in utility role.

173

It is also incomprehensible that crew performs SAR tasks

without cheap life preservers and that the helicopters do
not have hoist, emergency floats, belly hook, searchlights,
sling quick strope, cinch collar ring, lightsticks, cargo
nets, litters and stretchers, air drop rafts or dyemarkers.
The price of those items is mostly up to several hundred
or thousands USD. This equipment can be commercially
bought on the market without long lasting tenders. It does
not stand to reason that these stuffs cannot be funded and
procured especially in the situation where we can
statistically expect another natural disaster.
It is intolerable to wait next contingency with existing
equipment profile on the Gazela helicopters because it
will threaten the safety of the crew and people in distress.

REFERENCES
[1] Jackson,R.: Helicopters. Military, Civilian and
Rescue Rotorcraft, Amber Books LTD, London
2005.
[2] http://tangosix.rs/2013/08/10/40-godina-sluzbehelikoptera-gazela-u-jugoslovenskimvazduhoplovstvima/ accessed July 2014.
[3] http://www.boatswainsmate.net/BM/SARfund.pdf
accessed July 2014.
[4] Uputstvo za traganje i spasavanje u Ratnom
vazduhoplovstvu
i
protivvazdunoj
odbrani,
Komanda RV i PVO, Zemun, 1969.
[5] Schmickley L.D., The Avionics Handbook, Chapter
7.1. Night Vision Goggles AvioniCon, Inc.
Williamsburg, Virginia, 2001.
[6] http://www.optixco.com/en/w/products/36/54
accessed July 2014.

IMPACT OF PILOT SEAT POSITION ON THE SEATS VIBRATION

SPECTRUM ON PISTON PROPELLER AIRCRAFT
ZORAN ILI
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, zoranilic_65@yahoo.com
MIROSLAV JOVANOVI
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, mjovano@sbb.rs
RAUO BOKO
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, brasuo@mas.bg.ac.rs
STEVAN JOVII
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, stevanjovicic@gmail.com
MILUTIN JANKOVI
Aeronautical Plant Moma Stanojlovic, Batajnica, jmilutin@verat.net
NENKO BRKLJA
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, nenko.brkljac@vs.rs
MIROSLAV BLAANOVI
Directorate of Standardization, Codification and Metrology, Belgrade, blazmir@gmail.com

Abstract: Vibrations that exist on a pilot seat of the aircraft adversely affect the mental and physical condition of the
pilot and increase fatigue of human body. Therefore, it is necessary to continually work to increase the comfort of pilots
and reduce vibration that affect on the pilot seat. The position of the body in a cabin of piston propeller aircraft "Lasta"
can be set by lifting or lowering the seat. No matter of physical constitution of the pilot, the most convenient position of
the seat during the flight can be set. This paper presents the results of an experiment in which the vibrations were
measured on the seat that mounted in different positions. The spectrums of vibrations that exist on the pilot seat were
analyzed in the operating frequency of rotation of the propeller from 0 Hz to 200 Hz. The research was related to the
vibrations that occur at maximum revs the engine and propeller of 2700 RPM. Vibrations with the largest amplitudes
are generated on the fundamental propeller rotation frequency and harmonic multiples of the propeller rotation
frequency, which is characteristic of the piston propeller engine work. The research is based on the vibration amplitude
analysis at oscillation frequencies of 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th harmonic multiples. Fundamental propeller rotation frequency
for the engine speed value of 2700 RPM is 45 Hz. The impact of change in the position of the pilot's seat on the seats
vibration spectrums in direction of axises X, Y, and Z in each analyzed harmonic of oscillation was defined.
Keywords: Lasta aircraft, piston engine, pilot seat, vibration spectrum, propeller rotation frequency .
Prior to analysis, it is necessary to confirm that the
monitored vibration signal is a good indicator of some
phenomena in the engines operations.

1. INTRODUCTION
During an aircraft's flight the cockpit is exposed to both
vibrations and noise. Long-term exposure to elevated
horizontals of vibration adversely affects the physical
condition of the pilot and increases body fatigue, reducing
the ability to make correct judgment and take appropriate
actions while in charge of the flight [1].

Research on the C-130J Hercules aircraft was based on

determining the vibration that is transferred to the crew of
the aircraft [2]. Based on research data it has been proven
that vibrations in the cargo sections of the aircraft exceed
previously established horizontals, they can cause
discomfort and tiredness.

Vibration that exists on the pilots seat represents a seat

construction response to an excitation of the existing
sources of vibration on the plane. The planes equipped
with the piston propelled group have a number of
different vibration generating sources.

Experiment [3] shows research of vibration characteristics

carried out on military aircrafts, propeller type, WC/C130J, C-130H3 and the E-2C Hawkeye. This paper
174

proved that WC/C-130J aircraft's crew felt vibration

which appears on Blade Pass Frequency (BPF) of 102 Hz.
Passive vibration reducing techniques currently used in
aviation provide moderate vibration reduction in a narrow
range of vibration, for example absorber, seat cushions,
stiffening elements and buffers [4]. Therefore, in paper
[5] it is recommended to use a seat suspension system and
active vibration reducing control on a helicopter seat, with
the purpose to decrease vibration transfer from floor to
the seat.
Figure 1 shows the resonant oscillation frequencies for
individual parts of the human body [6].
Figure 2: Lasta aircraft in three projections
The results of the vibration measurement should match
the real vibration condition on the construction part where
it was measured. This is achieved by organizing vibration
measurement process through several interrelated steps.
Data were captured in the frequency range 0-200 Hz,
using 801 point Fourier transforms with a Hanning
window and a 50% overlap and frequency resolution of
0.25 Hz.
During the length of the experiment engine and aircraft
parameters were continually measured by Electronics
International MVP-50P device that is utilized for
monitoring and analysis on-line.

Figure 1: Mechanical models of the human body [6]

An effective method for reduction and improvement
requires detailed dynamic vibration characteristics like
frequencies, amplitude, direction and location of influence
[1].

Figure 3 shows a seat frame model that is embedded in

the Lasta aircraft.

An experiment was performed during several actual

flights in order to determine the vibration characteristics
that affected the first Lasta prototype aircraft pilot seat
[7]. The experiment was carried out with the seat set up in
two different positions on a supporting beam.
The main aim was to determine vibration spectrum on the
pilot seat that is situated at the lower end and the upper
end position on the supporting beam.
The experiment was performed on the first Lasta aircraft
prototype, in the flight instructor's cockpit, at the
Technical Test Centre Belgrade, on the Batajnica airport
[8]. Special attention was given to the airplane flight
modes with a maximum engine and propeller speed.

2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Lasta is a low-wing, metal construction, tandem two-seat
trainer aircraft, powered by a single piston engine
propeller group (Figure 2).
The power train consists of a six-cylinder piston engine
''AVCO-LYCOMINGAEIO-540-L1.B5D and two-blade
propeller "HARTZELL" HCC2YR-4CF/FC 84756.
Vibration measuring is carried out with multi-channel
digital acquisition systems NetdB12 - 01 Metravib which
has an internal rechargeable battery and recorder. For
vibration measurements a uniaxial piezo accelerometer
B&K 4383P was used.

Figure 3: Seat frame model that was installed in the Lasta

aircraft
Figure 4 shows the fitting that is on the floor of the
cockpit which binds the supporting beam of a seat. The
back of the seat mounts on two such supports.

175

position, it is also were made several flights of aircraft

with a maximum engine speed.
The research was related to the vibrations that occur at
maximum revs the engine and propeller of 2700 RPM.
Vibrations with the largest amplitudes are generated on the
fundamental propeller rotation frequency and harmonic
multiples of the propeller rotation frequency, which is
characteristic of the piston propeller engine work. The
research is based on the vibration amplitude analysis at
oscillation frequencies of 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th harmonic
multiples. Fundamental propeller rotation frequency for the
engine speed value of 2700 RPM is 45 Hz.
Figure: 4. Binding seat fitting on the floor

Vibrations measured on the pilot seat that was set-up in its

lower end position in the directions of axises X, Y and Z
are shown in Figure 6.

There were three sets of accelerometers at the seat base for

vibration measuring in X, Y and Z directions (Figure 5).

Figure 6. Measured vibration on the seat mounted in the

lower end position
Table 1 shows the values of vibration accelerations that
were measured on the seat in the directions of axises X, Y
and Z.
Figure 5. Accelerometer's position on the seat base

Table 1: Vibration accelerations at the seat mounted in

the lower end position
Vibration
X
Y
Z
Direction
Frekvency
Acceleration ms-2 RMS
45 Hz
0.1036
0.0209
0.0698
90 Hz
0.1473
0.2867
0.1177
135 Hz
0.0684
0.1320
0.0593
180 Hz
0.1053
0.1279
0.1138

The designation used for the coordinate system with X as

longitudinal, Y as lateral and Z as vertical axis. The
vibration spectrum is measured in the frequency range
from 1 Hz to 200 Hz.
The experiment was carried out with the seat in the
second cockpit (teachers cockpit) that was placed in the
lower end and the upper end position on the supporting
beam. Construction of the seat suspension provides
comfortable flying for the pilots of different heights. This
is accomplished by lifting or lowering the seat. The total
setup for seat height is 120 mm in 8 possible positions.
This will produce distances between the seat positions of
15 mm. The primary objective of this research was to
determine difference between vibration spectrums on pilot
seat on its two positions during flight.

3. RESULTS
The experiment was carried out during horizontal aircraft
flight. The aircraft cruising flight was carried out at an
altitude of 1500 meters [9].
During the experiment, the measurement of vibration on
the seat, were made for two configurations of aircraft in
horizontal flight: seat mounted in the lower end position
and with the seat in its upper most end position. For the
seat placed in the lower end position, in horizontal flight,
the aircraft was made several flights with a maximum
engine speed. For the seat set-up in the extreme upper end

Figure 7. Parameters of the engine and the flight of

aircraft during horizontal flight (the seat is placed in the
lower end position)
Figure 7 shows observed parameters for the engine and
the aircraft in horizontal flight. It is obvious that all
parameters obtained during the flight were stable. The
176

area marked by vertical dashed lines represents a period

of the vibration spectrums shown in Figure 6.

The Figure 10 shows the values of vibration acceleration

during horizontal aircraft flight, on the seat set up in the
lower end and the upper end positions in the directions of
axises X, Y and Z. The lines drawn to connect the values
of vibration acceleration at selected harmonics and half
harmonics, are there to help identifying trends in their
changes and in facilitating the implementation of the
analysis.

The vibrations spectrum impacting the pilot seat, that was

set-up in its upper end position, for axises X, Y and Z are
shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Seat vibration mounted in the upper end

position
The values of vibration accelerations that are measured on
the seat for axises X, Y and Z, where the seat was set up
in the upper end position are shown in Table 2.
Figure 10. Vibration acceleration on the seat in a
horizontal aircraft flight, set up in the lower end and the
upper end position seat

Table 2: Vibration accelerations measured on the seat set

up to its extreme upper end position
Vibration
X
Y
Z
Direction
-2
Frekvency
Acceleration ms RMS
45 Hz
0.1280
0.0437
0.0402
90 Hz
0.2582
0.2990
0.0682
135 Hz
0.1000
0.1309
0.0404
180 Hz
0.1568
0.2996
0.1617

The values of vibration acceleration on the seat during

horizontal aircraft flight, depends on the seat position, the
vibration direction and frequency of vibration.
In analyzed vibration spectrum were visible Propeller
Rotation Frequency - PRF and its harmonic multiplies.
There was clearly recognized the existence of the 1st, 2nd,
3rd and 4th harmonics in all flights.

During the flight, similarly to the above presentation, all

the parameters of the engine and its operation were stable,
as can be seen in Figure 9. Marked area with the vertical
dashed lines represents the period for the vibration
spectrums shown in Figure 8.

On the "Lasta" aircraft was installed propeller with two

blades, and Blade Pass Frequency - BPF coincides with
the second harmonic multiply of the Engine Crankshaft
Rotation Frequency. Overlaping of 2nd mechanical
harmonic multiply of vibration from the engine with
aerodynamic vibrations from the propeller, will result by
significant increase in the value of vibration acceleration
at this frequency.
The maximum amplitude of vibration at the operating
frequency clearly shows that each propeller blade during
one revolution has two maximum amplitudes. This was a
result of the generated air stream fields during propeller
rotation, which stimulate the propeller blades changing
their local displacing angle and geometry, and
furthermore, the amplitude.
Frequency of mechanical engine vibrations and
aerodynamic propeller vibrations are overlaping at all odd
harmonics.
For the both seat positions vibration accelerations in the X
and Y axises, have the highest values on the 2nd and 4th
harmonic multiplies. At the same time, the vibration
acceleration in the direction of Z axis has approximately
the same values at all harmonics.
Based on changes in vibration acceleration, caused by
changing the position of the seat, clearly shows the
influence of this change on a range of seat vibration at
each harmonic multiplies in all three directions of
vibration effects.

Figure 9. Parameters of the engine and the flight of

aircraft during horizontal flight (the seat is placed in the
upper end position)

4. DISCUSSION
In order to evaluate the importance of seat position by the
size of the vibrations acting on it, there has been made a
comparison of the vibration acceleration values in the X,
Y and Z axises, at the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th harmonic
multiples, for the two propossed seat positions.

177

On the seat mounted in the upper end position in the Xaxis and Y-axis vibration acceleration are greater in all
four harmonic multiplies compared to the vibration
accelerations on the seat in the down end position.

6. REFERENCES
[1] Smith, S. D. Dynamic characteristics and human
perception of vibration aboard a military propeller
aircraft. // International Journal of Industrial
Ergonomics. 38, 9-10 (2008), pp. 868-879.
[2] Hopcroft, R.; Skinner, M. C-130J Human Vibration.
// Air Operations Division, Defence Science and
Technology Organisation, Australia, DSTO-TR1756, (2005).
[3] Smith, S. D. Seat Vibration in Military Propeller
Aircraft: Characterization, Exposure Assessment and
Mitigation. // Aviation, Space, and Environmental
Medicine. 77, 1 (2006), pp. 32-40.
[4] Wickramasinghe, V.; Zimcik, D.; Chen, Y. A Novel
Adaptive Structural Impedance Control Approach to
Suppress Aircraft Vibration and Noise, // RTO AVT
Symposium on "Habitability of Combat and
Transport Vehicles: Noise, Vibration and Motion",
held in Prague, Czech Republic, October 2004, and
published in RTO-MP AVT-110, (2004), pp. 16.116.14.
[5] Chen Y.; Wickramasinghe, V.; Zimcik, D.
Development of Adaptive Helicopter Seat for
Aircrew Vibration Reduction. // Journal of
Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 22, 5
(2011), pp. 489-502.
[6] Bruel & Kjaer; Sound and Vibration Measurement
A/S, Human Vibration, BA 7054-14, (2002).
[7] Ili, Z.; Rauo, B.; Jovanovi, M.; Pekmezovi S.;
Bengin A.; Dinulovi M. Potential connections of
cockpit floor - seat on passive vibration reduction at
a piston propelled airplane, Technical Gazette, 213,
(2014), pp. 471-478.
[8] Ili, Z.; Rauo, B.; Jovanovi, M.; Jankovi, D.
Impact of changing quality of air/fuel mixture during
flight of a piston engine aircraft with respect to
vibration low frequency spectrum. // FME
Transactions, Belgrade. 1, (2013), pp. 25-32.
[9] Z. Ili; The Impact of Irregularities in The Piston
Engine Operation on The Inflight Vibration
Horizontal oo The Pilot Seat, Doctoral Thesis,
Faculty for Mechanical Engineering The University
of Belgradede, 2013.

The seat mounted in the upper end position, in the

direction of Z-axis, vibration acceleration is higher in the
4th harmonic multiply compared to the vibration
acceleration on the seat in the down end position. On the
1st, 2nd and 3rd harmonics in the direction of Z-axis
vibration acceleration on the seat in the upper end
position are smaller.

5. CONCLUSION
In the experiment, were measured vibration accelerations
impacting on the pilot seat of "Lasta" aircraft during
horizontal flight. The vibrations were measured for the
seat maximum upper end and minimum down end
positions. Vibration analysis of the pilot seat was made
for the engine during maximum rotation speed in the
frequency range from 0 Hz to 200 Hz.
The analysis of vibration impacts towards axises X, Y and
Z in the basic Engine Crankshaft Rotation Frequency and
its harmonic multiplies.
Amplitude for both seating positions is dominant at Blade
Pass Frequency - BPF, which coincides with the 2nd
harmonic multiply of the basic Engine Crankshaft
Rotation Frequency.
Visually acceptable influence of the pilot seat position, is
shown in Figure 10. In the directions of X and the Y
axises, the vibration accelerations are larger on all four
harmonics of the seat in the maximum upper end position,
in relation to the seat in the down end position.
In direction of the Z axis, at the maximum upper end
position, vibration acceleration is higher in the 4th
harmonic multiply compared to the vibration acceleration
at the seat in the down end position. On the 1st, 2nd and 3rd
harmonics in the direction of Z-axis, vibration
acceleration on the seat in the upper end position are
smaller.

178

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS OF THE TURBULENT AIR FLOW

THROUGH A VANED DIFFUSER TURBOCHARGER
ABDELMADJID CHEHHAT
Mechanical engineering department, Faculty of technology, Abbes Laghrour University, Khenchela(40000), Algeria,
achehhat@gmail.com
MOHAMED SI-AMEUR
Laboratory of Energetic and Industrial Systems, University of Batna(05000), Algeria, msiameur@yahoo.fr

Abstract: In this work a numerical study with moving reference frame (MRF) technique is made. Many research works
both experimental and numerical on the impeller-diffuser interactive phenomenon have been undertaken so far. But it is
found from the literature that the study on the impeller-diffuser-volute interaction as well on the performance of the
turbocharger centrifugal compressor by varying the number of diffuser vanes has not been the focus of attention in
these works. Hence a numerical analysis was accomplished in order to extensively explore impeller-diffuser fluid
interaction in a real turbocharger used in military engines applications, when the number of diffuser vanes was
changed at unaltered number of the impeller blades. It was concluded that the number of diffuser vanes gives a
considerable effect on the pressure and temperature at the compressor outlet.
Keywords: centrifugal compressor, turbocharger, diffuser vanes, CFD analysis.
impeller. A good agreement has been obtained between
the numerical computation and the experimental
measurements in volutes, at least at moderate mass flow
rate. It is well known that the turbulence and flow field
studies, may also give a good idea on the pressure
variation in the compressor, in this subject, Ali Penarbasi
(2009) presented a detailed flow measurements at inlet
plane of a centrifugal compressor vaneless diffuser and
concluded that four regions of high shear are identified
within the flow: within the blade wake, between the
passage wake and jet, within the thickened hub boundary
layer and between the blade wake secondary flow passage
vortex. This study confirmed that each of these regions is
associated with high turbulent kinetic energy. R Aghaaei
(2008) et al proposed a comparison of turbulent methods
in CFD analysis of radial turbo machines and introduces
the best way to choose turbulence parameters when using
FLUENT software, and confirmed that the standard k-
and RNG k- models are superior turbulence methods in
CFD analysis of radial turbo machines. It can be observed
from most of these numerical studies that the effect of
number of diffuser vanes on system performance as well
as on the flow field and turbulence in the turbocharger
centrifugal compressor. Therefore, in order to analyse the
effect of diffuser vanes number on the compressor
performance, in this study four types of diffuser are
investigated with the same impeller and volute, they only
differ in their vanes number (5, 7, 9 and 11 vanes). For
this purpose, a commercial CFD software FLUENT 6.3 is
employed considering a steady state method, for
simulating the three-dimensional turbulent air flow

1. INTRODUCTION
The turbocharger has accompanied the development of
automobile diesel engines, and will be more and more
imposed on the S.I engines to improve the performance
and reduce the pollutant emission, for this reason, the
centrifugal compressor has been widely used with an
exhaust recirculation technique (EGR). Actually this
technique can lead to the production of more than 50% of
the engine total intake charge. However, the turbocharger
compressor performance is limited by the engine
operating conditions. In this context and in the last years,
several investigations have been analyzed the centrifugal
compressor performance alteration with its elements
design. Two numerical studies of K Jio et al (2009) have
shown that: - the vaneless diffuser and the open angle
diffuser give the stable operating range and high
efficiency. the study of the air flow through the
turbocharger compressor with dual volute design,
revealed that the dual volute design could separate the
compressor into two regions treated separately with dual
diffuser design, this investigation confirmed that the dual
volute design improve a stable operating range comparing
with single volute design. The impeller-diffuser interaction in a centrifugal compressor have been studied
by Anish et al (2007), four different types of diffuser
configurations were generated, by varying the radial gap
between the impeller and diffuser. It is shown that the
dependence of the compressor stage efficiency is well
correlated to such interaction. Y Dai et al (2008) studied
the performance of two different volutes with the same
179

through the full stage of a centrifugal compressor, used in

turbocharger of automobile diesel engine, It is found from
the analysis that the number of diffuser vanes presents a
considerable effect on the pressure and temperature at the
compressor outlet.

diffuser is modeled as a hollow disc, its vanes are

modeled as an airfoil located in base angle position. The
dimensions of the impeller and the diffuser are shown in
the (table 1). The volute is modeled by assembling a
casing of non-symmetrical cross section beginning from
0 ending at 360 (when a tongue is located) and a conic
pipe discharging in engine admission manifold.

2. COMPRESSOR GEOMETRY

Table 1: Geometrical data for the designed compressor,

see fig. 1 for the nomenclature
Description
Symbol Dimension
Number of full blades
z
7
Number of splitter blades
zs
7
Impeller outlet diameter
D1
0.08 m
Diffuser outlet diameter
D2
0.126 m
Impeller outlet vane height
b
0.0045 m
Inlet shroud diameter
Ds1 0.068 m
Inlet hub diameter
Dh1 0.018 m
Impeller axial length
L
0.026 m
Inlet mean line blade angle
1
50
Outlet blade angle (back sweep)
2
30

3. NUMERICAL PROCESS
The high complexity of the flow in the rotating impeller
makes the CFD modelling very difficult, only steady state
flow is investigated, the governing equations
implemented in a commercial CFD code Fluent 6.3.26 are
solved using the finite volume method, with the most
appropriate discretization scheme (pressure based implicit
solver), the fluid (air) is treated as an ideal gas, the
momentum and energy equations are solved using first
order scheme, the turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation
rate equations are solved using the power low
differencing scheme (PLDS) the coupling velocitypressure correction is treated with SIMPLE (SemiImplicit Pressure Linked Equation) algorithm.

Figure 1. Schematic of the centrifugal compressor stage

Figure 2. Centrifugal compressor stage designed using

GAMBIT with different diffuser vanes number
The compressor geometry development is carried out on
GAMBIT software the various components of the
compressor are designed individually and all are
assembled. The blade profiles are generated with help of
coordinates that have been introduced, a single blade
profile is made and then the blades are arranged by further
rotating over an angle 360/z , z is number of blades. For
generating the volume of impeller inside the shroud
volume, the blade volume must be subtracted from the
shroud volume, a single rotational volume is obtained, it
is limited by the impeller inlet surface, outlet surface, and
hub and shroud surfaces, including the blade passage. The

Figure 3. Monitoring of the mass flow rate computed

over the compressor outlet during the iteration process
The under relaxation factor for the pressure is taken 0.2 it
seems very conservative, a common value of 0.5 is taken
for the momentum, energy, and turbulence k- model
equations. The convergence criteria of 10-4 are used for
all the governing equations. The maximum number of
180

iterations is estimated so that the mass flow rate computed

for the outlet cross section become unchanged, at about
2000 iterations the convergence can be observed, but the
mass flow rate become unchanged since about 400
iterations for each case of simulation (fig.3).

reference frame moving walls are part of the rotating

reference frame, These walls are treated as moving walls
with rotational speed of zero relative to the adjacent cell
zone, which rotating. No rotating walls in the inertia
frame of reference, that are part of the rotating reference
frame, are treated as moving walls with a rotational speed
of absolute zero.

Boundary conditions
The meshed fluid volume has only one flow inlet (the
compressor inlet) and one flow outlet (the volute exit).
For the flow inlet, the pressure inlet boundary condition
with atmospheric pressure (101325 pa) is taken as total
pressure for the compressor entry, the total temperature is
taken as the ambient (288.15K), the default values of inlet
turbulent kinetic energy and its dissipation rate are taken
respectively 1.21 m2/s2 and 1.82 m2/s3.

Grid specifications
The entire computational domain is meshed with
tetrahedral grids due to the complexity of the compressor
geometry, the clearance gap between the blades and the
shroud is included, and the total number of grid is about
1067378 tetrahedral cells, the detail for each element of
the compressor is shown in fig.4; it contains a number of
cells as shown in Table 2.

At the volute exit, the pressure outlet boundary condition

is used with a prescribed static pressure (this value is
required by the engine operating conditions, it must be
upper than the atmospheric pressure), the actual total
temperature at the outlet is calculated or prescribed by the
numerical simulation. At both the inlet and outlet, the
default values of turbulent intensity and viscosity ratio
(10 precent) are taken for the back-flow condition, which
corresponds to the occurrence of reversed flow at same
grid cell faces of the outlet cross-section. Since all the
operating range no apparent reversed flow is observed
when the simulation is converged. For the rotor, all

Table 2: Number of mesh cells for each compressor

element, with different diffusers
Compressor elements
5 vanes
Number of 7 vanes
mesh cells 9 vanes
11 vanes

Impeller Diffuser Volute

272360
53559 741459
272360
53526 741954
272360 189360 741459
272360 185161 741459

Figure 4. Computational mesh with different diffuser vanse

range is chosen for representing the results at flow rate of
0.47 kg/s. Analysing the obtained results, it is shown that
the flow leaving the impeller has jets and wakes. When
such a flow enters a large number of diffuser passages,
the quality of flow entering the diffuser vanes differs
widely and some of the vanes may experience flow
separation leading to rotating stall and poor performance.
To avoid such a possibility, it is safer to provide a smaller
number of diffuser vanes than that on the impeller [1].
When the number of vanes is reduced, the angle of
diffusion for each vane passage becomes larger. Now, at
larger diffusing angle of the passage the static pressure
conversion is more but attended by fluid flow losses due
to poorer flow guidance. When the number of vanes is

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The turbulent flow of air through the turbocharger is
studied, considering the full stage of the centrifugal
compressor, consisting of an air inlet, leading to an
impeller that discharges the air radial through a vaned
diffuser in the volute. The objective of this study is the
prediction of the influence of varying diffuser vanes
number on the flow local characteristics velocity, pressure
and temperature, for this, we consider four types of
diffuser (5, 7, 9 and 11 vanes) that have the same size,
they differ only in their vanes number.
All the simulations are carried out for the same rotational
speed of 100000 rpm, and one point of the operating
181

increased the angle of diffusion decreases and hence the

static pressure conversion reduces but the flow losses tend
to decrease due to better guidance but is offset partially by
skin friction losses due to the larger contact surfaces of

increased number of diffuser vanes. Hence there is a need

to arrive at a trade off with respect to the number of
diffuser vanes but diffusion process will be affected due
to lower flow guidance within passage [6].

Figure 5. Velocity vectors and magnitude at different diffuser vanes

3.20E+5

355

5 vanes

5 Vanes

352.50

7 vanes
3.10E+5

9 Vanes
347.50

11 vanes

11 Vanes

3.00E+5

345

Temperature (K)

Pressure coefficient

7 Vanes

350

9 vanes

2.90E+5

2.80E+5

342.50

340
337.50

335
332.50

2.70E+5

330
327.50

2.60E+5
4.00E-2

4.50E-2

5.00E-2

5.50E-2

6.00E-2

6.50E-2

Radial distance (m)

325
4.00E-2

0.04

4.50E-2

0.05

5.00E-2

0.05

5.50E-2

0.06

6.00E-2

0.06

6.50E-2

Radial distance (m)

Figure. 6. Circumferential average radial of pressure

coefficient

Figure 7. Circumferential average radial of temperature

182

Figure 8. Static pressure contour plots at different diffuser vanes number

Fig.5 present the velocity magnitude contours and velocity sides are clearly visible for all the configurations. The
vectors fields in the middle plane. Because all the influence of rotating stall comes into force for diffuser vanes
simulations presented in this paper are at the design speed of with larger number of vanes. The reasons for this are two
100 000 rpm, the tangential velocities at the impeller exit are folds: Firstly the stalling phenomenon is associated with the
similar for all the simulations, and the radial velocity at the blade passing frequency. With larger number of vanes on the
impeller exit is mainly dictated by the air flowrate. Showing diffuser, the blade passing frequency increases leading to
vector plots of velocity, colored according to its magnitude. rotating stall.
The recirculation zones on the impeller and diffuser suction

Figure 9. Static temperature contour plots at different diffuser vanes number

183

Secondly this occurrence is due to narrower vane

passages of the diffuser in which recirculation on the
suction side of the diffuser vanes gets converted into a
rotating stall [1].Similarly Figs. 6 and 7 show pressure
coefficient and temperature evolution as circumferential
average values along radial distance, it is clearly shown
that the large pressure ratio and lower temperature are
obtained for the less diffuser vanes number.

Procedia 36, 746-755

[3] H. Mohtar, P. Chesse, D. Chalet, J.-F. Hetet and
A.Yammine, (2011) Effect of Diffuser and Volute on
Turbocharger Centrifugal Compressor Stability and
Performance:Experimental Study, Oil & Gas Science
and Technology Rev. IFP Energies nouvelles, Vol.
66, No. 5, pp. 779-790
[4] Kui Jiao, Harold Sun, Xianguo Li, Hao Wu, Eric
Krivitzky, Tim Schram, Louis M. Larosiliere,
Numerical Simulation of air flow through
turbocharger compressors with dual volute design,
Applied Energy, vol. 86, pp. 2494-2506, 2009
[5] K. Jiao, H Sun, X Li, H Wu, E Krivitzky, T Schram,
and L M Larosiliere, Numerical investigation of the
influence of variable diffuser angle on the
performance of a centrifugal compressor, Proc
IMechE Part D: J. Automobile Engineering V.223
p.1061-1070, 2009
[6] K. Vasudeva Karanth , N. Yagnesh Sharma,
Numerical analysis on the effect of varying number
of diffuser vanes on impeller - diffuser flow
interaction in a centrifugal fan, World Journal of
Modelling and Simulation ,Vol. 5, pp. 63-71, 2009
[7] N Bulot, J Trbinjac, X Ottavy, P Kulisa, G Halter, B
Paolitti, and P Krikorian, Experimental and
numerical investigation of flow field in a highpressure centrifugal compressor impeller near surge,
Proc IMechE V.223 Part A: J. Automobile
Engineering p. 657- 666, 2009
[8] Ali Pinarbasi, Turbulence measurement in the inlet
plane of a centrifugal compressor vaneless diffuser,
Ijhff, 30, 266-275, 2009
[9] R. Aghaei tog, A. M. Toussi, A. Tourani,
Comparison of turbulence methods in CFD analysis
of compressible flows in radial turbo machines, An
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: an
International journal 80/06, 657-665, 2008
[10] S Anish and N Sitaram, Computational investigation
pf impeller-diffuser interaction in a centrifugal
compressor with different types of diffusers, Proc
IMechE Vol.223 Part A: J. Automobile Engineering
167- 178, 2008
[11] Reza Aghaei tog, A. Mesgharpoor Toussi, M.
Soltani, Design and CFD analysis of centrifugal
compressor for a microgasturbine, An Aircraft
Engineering and Aerospace Technology: an
International journal 80/06, 137-143, 2008.

Fig .8 shows the static pressure contour plots. It is clearly

seen that for diffuser with lower number of vanes (5
vanes), static pressure at the diffuser exit is large
compared to diffuser with larger number of vanes (11
vanes).The reason for this could be attributed to fairly
large angle of diffusion provided for diffuser with lower
number of vanes. Since the number of diffuser vanes are
less, the flow passage is wider and hence, the presence of
recirculation flow disturbances do not affect the through
flow in the diffuser vane passage, but diffusion process
will be affected due to lower flow guidance within
passage. Fig. 9 shows the static temperature contour plots.
It is seen that for diffuser with lower number of vanes (5
vanes), static temperature at the diffuser exit is small
compared to diffuser with larger number of vanes (11
vanes).This can gives a good chance for no using an
intercooler at the turbocharger exit.

5. CONCLUSIONS
From the analysis carried out in this paper, the following
conclusions are derived:
1- The static pressure coefficient, which also takes into
account the volute region of the compressor, decreases
with increase in number of diffuser vanes. 2- The rotating
stall occurs in some of the alternate flow passages of the
diffuser and this problem exists only when the number of
diffuser vanes increase beyond a certain number. 3- It is
also contra indicating that static pressure reduction occurs
in the volute casing when number of diffuser vanes is
increased. 4- There exist an optimum number of diffuser
vanes which would develop maximum static pressure
recovery.

REFERENCES
[1] S.Yahia, Turbines Compressors and Fan, 2nd edn.
Tata Mc Graw Hill,2005
[2] Chehhat Abdelmadjid, Si-Ameur Mohamed and
Boumeddane Boussad, (2013), CFD Analysis of the
Volute Geometry Effect on the Turbulent Air Flow
through the Turbocharger Compressor, Energy

184

SOME ASPECTS OF OPERATION LIFE EXTENSION OF AIRCRAFT

STRUCTURES
STEVAN MAKSIMOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, s.maksimovic@open.telekom.rs
RODOLJUB DOI
Tehnika Dijagnostika, Belgrade, rddijagnostika@gmail.com
ZORAN VASI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vti@vti.vs.rs

Abstract: Fatigue performance of materials can be significantly reduced by corrosive environments. The effect of the
corrosion environments on the structural integrity is a critical issue for damage tolerance design and analysis and need
to be carefully investigated. Attention in this paper is focused on application of Nondestructive Inspection (NDI)
methods in process of extension of operation life of aircraft structures. NDI is used as part of program for extension of
operation life of G-4 Super Galeb aircraft structures that have been in service in Myanmar Air Force for many years.
Material performance of aluminum alloy can be greatly degraded because of corrosion and corrosion fatigue, which
severely affect the integrity and safety of aircraft structure. The corrosion and corrosion fatigue failure process of
aircraft structure are directly concerned with many factors, such as load, material characteristics, and corrosive
environment and so on. The methods and practice steps that diminish the negative effects of corrosion process were
shown in this paper. These steps enable to extend service life of aircraft structures beyond its designed service life with
accurate prediction of further service reliability.
Keywords: aircraft structure, nondestructive inspection, corrosion, residual life prediction.
and limits for further aircraft service during the period of
extended life, with issuing of appropriate certificate for
airworthiness.
During the service of an aircraft during the designed
service life and approaching to the time when the
designed service life is running out it could be diminished
the reliability or be increased the number of equipment or
avionic failures or even the failure of airframe parts and
assemblies could be happen. Equally, whilst the
operational life is increasing, various aging effects take
place and impair the structural and functional integrity of
high aged aircraft structure and subsystems even before
their design life are reached.
The process of aircraft aging and aging of aircraft
equipment is the process when the integrity of structure or
the integrity of equipment functionality is continually
degraded due to exposure to environment in which the
aircraft is in use.
There are different mechanisms that independently or in
combination influence to aging of aircraft or aging of its
equipment, such as:
Exposure to normal atmosphere conditions or to
atmosphere with higher degree of salinity,
temperature,
different
chemical
compounds,
water/vapors, oils, fuel vapors or solutions, grease,

1. INTRODUCTION
Today many aging aircraft in air forces of many world
countries have been in service beyond their airframe
nominal designed service life. Budget restrictions for
renewal of military technical arsenal caused such
situation. Nominally, designed service life of typical
military jet airframe structure is defined for duration from
20 up to 25(30) years. The service life extension programs
today is usually undertaken for modern military aircraft
due to high cost of airframe structure and limits of
military budget. These programs enable certainly
prediction of remaining service life beyond originally
designed service life. The programs for extending of
service life propose different methods for analyzing of all
occurrences that can be found at aircraft structures and for
synthesis of evaluated results.
The designed service life is the period of time (e.g. flight
cycles, years, flight hours, landings, etc.) established at
design, during which the structure is expected to maintain
its structural integrity when flown to the design
loads/environment spectrum. Programs for extending of
service life means defining and executing recommended
additional procedures as aircraft monitoring and
maintenance with required possible additional constraints
185

and/or UV radiations that can lead to aging, corrosion,

increasing brittleness, swelling, overheating, melting
or any other degradation of material characteristics.
Exposure to vibrations and environment with negative
acoustic characteristics may cause damage due to
fatigue, wear, fracture, etc.
Maintenance of aircraft, storing or conserving of
aircraft with influence of store conditions according to
proposed manufacture procedure or proposed work
practice,
Activities provided for aircraft maintenance and
equipment maintenance can cause incidental and
unwanted damage of airframe and other equipment
components.

the airframe and airplane completely using exact technical

methods.
According to this research, the operation life extension
program for G-4 Super Galeb aircraft structure has been
developed in VTI. The program defines NDI methods,
modern numerical structure analysis, and simulation
analysis as a basis for determination of service life
extension. The program precisely defines and quotes all
elements and methods that have to be performed as well
as. NDI methods, modern numerical structure analysis,
and simulation analysis are used for prediction of
remaining service life in service life extension program
for aircraft beyond its designed service life.
In the scope of the G-4 aircraft structure operation life
extension program the conditions of the storage of the
aircraft were also taken in consideration. As the aircraft of
this type spend less than 1% of their total life flying, the
conditions of the hangars are important regarding
deterioration effects: warm and dry hangar conditions
have positive effects compared to the aircraft standing
outside. Otherwise, wet and cold hangar conditions have
negative effects compared to the aircraft standing outside
or standing in warm and dry hangars. Aircraft standing
outside hangars during their no-flight hours are exposed
to dry or wet conditions, salty or acid rains, UV radiation,
windstorm, etc. All this conditions have to be taken into
consideration during implementation of aircraft structure
operation life extension program.

2. SUPER GALEB G-4 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE

OPERATION LIFE EXTENSION PROGRAM
G-4 Super Galeb aircraft is a product of former
Yugoslavia (SFRJ). Prototype of this aircraft has its
maiden flight in 1978. Serial aircraft were produced since
1984 until 1992. Aircraft of this type have been in use in
air forces of several countries, such as SFRJ, Burma
(today Myanmar), Montenegro, Republic of Srpska (since
1992 until 1995). This type of aircraft was produced in
more than 90 planes, which could be differentiated as
prototypes, preserial producing planes (six planes) or as
serial producing planes. Today these types of aircraft have
been in use in two air forces, in Serbian Air Force and in
Myanmar Air Force (six serial planes), (Figure 1).
Designed service life for Myanmar Air Force aircraft is
up to 20 years or 5000 flight hours.

VTI has defined aircraft structure operation life extension

program as a basis for extending aircraft structure service
life. The program involves the use of following methods:
Nondestructive Inspection (NDI),
Stress analysis with the aspect of fatigue and fracture
mechanics
Flight loads and load cycles analysis
Experimental testing of aging G-4 structure
specimens
Software development for prediction of remained
service life beyond designed service life.
The main role in this operation life extension program
belongs
to
Nondestructive
Inspection
(NDI).
Nondestructive inspection, according to [1-3], is an
inspection process or technique that reveals conditions at
or beneath the external surface of a part or material
without adversely affecting the material or part being
inspected. The overview of some NDI methods was
shown in this paper and their advantages and drawbacks.
The part of operation life extension program for G-4
Super Galeb aircraft was shown in the second part of the
paper, especially airframe inspection made by
Nondestructive Inspection methods.

Figure 1. Myanmar Air Force G-4 Super Galeb aircraft

ready to be inspected
During the designed service life of G-4 Super Galeb
aircraft the conditions of Time Between General Overhaul
(TBGO) and overall service life, and allowed total flight
hours between two consecutive general overhauls have
been slightly changed. However, due to different reasons,
this type of aircraft has not reached maximum allowed
flight hours during its designed service life. The reasons
for that are varied, but at least related to the technique.
The condition of the aircraft of this type in Serbian Air
Force was that the major numbers of aircraft have barely
30-50% flight hours of total designed service life.
Therefore, the research leaded by Military Technical
Institute (VTI) started in 2009 with the aim to evaluate if
it is possible and how long, to extend the service life of

3. CONSIDERATION OF CORROSION AS THE

MAIN INFLUENCE FACTOR IN AGED
AIRCRAFT
Corrosion is the deterioration of a material or its
properties due to the reaction of that material with its
chemical environment. Corrosion has always been
recognized as a major factor in aging aircraft
186

maintenance. Each air force has addressed it differently,

according to its operating environment and perceived
needs. With extension of operation life, the problem is
becoming increasingly important and has received more
and more attention of the researchers.
Corrosion and corrosion fatigue are recognized as
significant damage mechanisms to the aircraft structures.
Corrosion and corrosion fatigue failure process of aircraft
structure are directly concerned with many combined
factors, such as load, material characteristics, corrosive
environment, and so on. The damage mechanism is very
complicated, and there are both randomness and fuzziness
in the failure process. Corrosion and fatigue, separately
or in combination, are serious threats to the continued safe
operation of aircraft. Although corrosion (Figure 2) has a
severe impact on structural integrity, the airworthiness
regulations and requirements have limited instructions
regarding corrosion, noting that each part of the aircraft
has to be suitably protected against deterioration or loss
of strength in service due to any cause, including
weathering, corrosion and abrasion [4].

names of the parts to be inspected, the appropriate NDI

methods were defined for particular structural parts and
for inaccessible areas of aircraft assemblies as well. All
airframe parts essential for aircraft strength and
functionality was included in the list.
NDI inspection procedure for G-4 Super Galeb airplanes
provided for inspection of main structural parts and
assemblies, such as wing and fuselage attachments, nose
landing gear attachments and strut, engine-to-fuselage
attachments, cannon pod attachments, attachments for
joining central to rear part of fuselage, attachments for
joining rear part of fuselage assembly to vertical tail, air
brake attachments, horizontal tail shaft, horizontal tail
shaft, main landing gear attachments and struts, main
wing spars, rear wing spars, all wing control attachments
and brackets, flaps brackets, flaps brackets for attachment
of hydraulic cylinder, aileron brackets, vertical tail
attachments joining tail to fuselage, vertical tail
attachments joining stabilizer and rudder, rudder
attachments, rudder torsion shafts, all bolts and screws,
conical bearings, nuts, special bolts for joining main
structural parts and attachments, and others.
Only the results of inspection as a basis for aircraft
service life extension were discussed in this paper. As far
as the detection of possible mechanical damages of
structural parts which make reduction of strength of
particular structural parts the appropriate strength is
evaluated using appropriate dimensioning with the aspect
of the parts strength and the prediction of remained
service life.

5. NDI TECHNIQUES, METHODS AND

EQUIPMENT
NDI techniques, methods and equipment used during
inspection of Myanmar Air Force G-4 Super Galeb
aircraft structure were shortly described in this chapter.
The diagnostic of main airframe parts status in order to
get a basis for extended service life prediction was
accomplished by NDI methods, such as:

Figure 2. Main rudder attachment point damaged by

severe corrosion
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and the
European Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) have had
guidelines on how aircraft should be designed and
maintained to minimize the risk of failure from fatigue
damage [1]. The ability to assess the impact of future
corrosion on structural integrity, alone or acting in concert
with fatigue, is difficult. A framework to assess the
effects of corrosion in combination with fatigue on
structural integrity has been under development.

Visual control -VT, Endoscope visual inspection - EDT,

Dye penetrant inspection - PT, Eddy current inspection ECT, and Ultrasonic inspection - UT.

4. G-4 SUPER GALEB AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE

NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION
PROCEDURE
At first an overall system inspection procedure was
established to assure adequate nondestructive inspection
of structural components for which it is determined that it
is necessary to have NDI acceptance. This system
inspection procedure included inspections throughout all
phases of the procedure. In the scope of this procedure,
the all structure parts that have to be inspected by NDI
methods were defined in order to detect the real structure
situation. For that purpose, the procedure along with the

Figure 3. Optical microscope -100x and Glass

magnifier 5x
187

Visual control -VT was conducted of all airframe parts by

devices such as 5x Glass magnifier, Endoscope and 100x
Optical microscope (Figure 3). Glass magnifier and
Optical microscope were used for assessment of corrosion
depth at the places where the corrosion was detected.
These devices were used to make good prediction of
corrosion depth at places where the corrosion was
detected or could be detected [5].

VE 500 (Figure 4) endoscope enable detailed overview

and analysis using display or computer of all inaccessible
voids to staff of other NDI equipment. With a connection
cable, included video endoscope can be connected to a
display to see the image in a larger display. Images or
videos can be registered in the SD card for further
analysis on computer. Both the endoscope and the display
are powered by an accumulator. Wireless video
endoscope was especially used for control and inspection
of all possible defects placed in G-4 Super Galeb aircraft
inner areas of wing integral fuel tanks and in void spaces
behind rear wing spar.

Endoscope visual inspection - EDT was accomplished at

all inaccessible places such as inner wing areas (integral
fuel tanks, void spaces behind rear spar), and at
counterparts of fittings attached to main spar, integral fuel
tanks, ailerons, flaps and rudder, and in internal part of
fuselage assembly among lower milled plate, fuselage
skin, air intake, and upper milled plate. The primary goal
of these inspections is to detect all possible hidden defects
and corrosion lying at inaccessible voids where one could
reach only through small revision and technological
openings.

Dye penetrant inspection - PT was carried out on all of

aircraft fittings, attachments, and brackets of fuselage,
wings, ailerons, flaps, horizontal and vertical tail
assemblies, nose and main landing gears and connection
parts of central fuselage and aft fuselage assemblies, air
brakes and rudder in order to find any possible surface
defects or cracks.
The basic purpose of penetrant inspection is to increase
the visible contrast between a discontinuity and its
background. This is accomplished by applying a liquid of
high penetrating power that enters the surface opening of
a discontinuity. Excess penetrant is removed and a
developer material is then applied that draws the liquid
from the suspected defect to reveal the discontinuity. The
visual evidence of the suspected defect can then be seen
either by a color contrast in normal visible white light or
by fluorescence under black ultraviolet light.

Optical devices are of great importance for complete

detection of surface defects and for definition of location
and size of defects. By this device, one could easily find
cracks and location of corrosion.
Endoscope was used to perform inspection of all
inaccessible places, inner wing areas, attachments situated
in narrow areas where one could reach, inner areas of all
control surfaces (ailerons, flaps, rudder, etc.), lower
fuselage milled plate in order to find hidden defects,
cracks or corrosion.

Set of penetrant fluids is used for revealing of surface

defects in metal materials made from ferrous or
nonferrous alloys. Inspected surface has to be well
cleaned from anti-corrosion protection layers and any
other compounds or sealants. Set of penetrant fluids is
composed of Penetrant, Solvent, Cleaner, and Developer.
After application of penetrant to inspected surface, it
easily penetrates into surface opening of a discontinuity
and remains in cracks. Excess of penetrants is removed
after treatment and the developer then has to be applied.
The developer has such properties to extract penetrant
from material cracks, which causes the penetrant, can be
seen as a red colored contrast to white colored surface.

Figure 4. PCE-VE 500 Wireless video endoscope

Wireless video endoscope (PCE-VE 500) is intended for
inspection of assemblies in automotive and aeronautical
industry, for control of systems, installations, and
equipment in inaccessible spaces where the precise
visualization is needed. Device requires orifice 5,5 mm in
diameter for probe entrance and with wireless
transmission it enables real time visualization on 3,5
inches TFT display. Video and images recorded by PCE-

Figure 5. G-4 aileron attachment points treated by

penetrants
188

Dye penetrant inspection PT was performed with

penetrant FLUXO P125, solvent cleaner FLUXO S190,
developer FLUXO R175 with artificially generated lights
up to 500 lux during control. Penetrant time was 15
minutes (Figure 5).

there was a necessity to establish the depth of corrosion.

For this purpose, the Defectoscope UCD-50 was used.
Using this device, it was an efficient way to define
remained depth of impacted lower fuselage milled plate.

Eddy current inspection ECT inspection was done to all

main attachment points such as wing to fuselage, wing
skin rivets, main fuselage frames and bulkheads, engine
mountings, connection bolts, vertical and horizontal tail
units attachment points, and all magnetic ferrous alloys
in order to find any possible cracks and surface defects.
Eddy current is used to detect surface cracks, pits,
subsurface cracks, and corrosion on inner surfaces.

6. EXPERIMENTAL AND COMPUTATION

TESTING OF AGING G-4 STRUCTURE
SPECIMENS
In the scope of research for extension of operation life of
G-4 Super Galeb aircraft structures a number of
experimental testing were conducted. Experimental tests
were done using original airframe parts from the planes
that were produced 25 and more years before the
experiments, precisely in the beginning of the serial
production of this type of aircraft. Experimental tests
were conducted with main fuselage bulkheads
(attachments of wings to fuselage). Test loads used for
this type of experiment were static loads with cyclic loads
simulating several thousand hours of flights. These types
of tests were executed on servo hydraulic MTS system .
Figure 6 shows a part of fuselage bulkhead during tests.

Eddy current Defectoscope VD-10 A and probe P15, used

during inspection, is intended to precise control and
inspection of metal products made from ferromagnetic
and no ferromagnetic alloys (aircraft structural parts and
assemblies during service and general overhaul). Eddy
current defectoscope with appropriate probes can detect
surface cracks and defects. Inspection with eddy current
defectoscope can be used for surfaces covered with
electrically nonconductor materials. Defectoscope uses
parametric probes working at 0,8 do 2 MHz. Sensitivity
of the defectoscope depends on the type of probe, defect
depth, defect volume, direction of propagation of defect,
defect type, conductivity, and other physical or
mechanical characteristics of inspected material.
Ultrasonic inspection UT Ultrasonic inspection is an
NDI technique that uses sound energy moving through the
test specimen to detect flaws. The sound energy passing
through the specimen will be displayed on a Cathode Ray
Tube (CRT), a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) computer
data program, or video/camera medium. Indications of the
front and back surface and internal/external conditions
will appear as vertical signals on the screen or nodes of
data in the computer test program. Ultrasonic inspection
can easily detect flaws that produce reflective interfaces.
Ultrasonic inspection is used to detect surface and
subsurface discontinuities, such as cracks, shrinkage
cavities, bursts, flakes, pores, delamination, and porosity.
It is also used to measure material thickness and to inspect
bonded structure for bonding voids.
Ultrasonic inspection was performed for lower milled
fuselage plate in order to detect remaining material
thickness under corrosion layer and for corrosion
thickness.

Figure 6. G-4 Fuselage bulkhead during experimental

testing using MTS [6]

Defectoscope UCD-50 is intended to ultrasonic

defectoscopy and for ultrasonic thickness dimensioning.
Internal memory enables archiving of data for two types
of display patterns A scan and B scan, for parameter
settings, and inspection results. Functionality of ultrasonic
defectoscope is based on different propagation of
ultrasonic waves through the inspected material where the
defectoscope can detect voluminous and other material
defects. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for materials
with anti corrosion nonconductor protection films.
Defectoscope can use a range of different probes working
at 0,8 do 15 MHz, which depends on object of
inspections.The places where the corrosion was detected
by visual control, such as lower fuselage milled plate,

Fatigue test of aircraft bulkhead no.18 (main wingfuselage joint of G-4 Super Galeb aircraft) carried out
under loading spectra that is experimentally determined
during flight of N-60 aircraft.
Fatigue test is realized using servo hydraulic MTS system
as shown in Figure 6. Realized fatigue test of this frame
corresponds to 2000 hours of flight. After realized fatigue
test of this bulkhead the complete structure were with no
initial cracks recorded. In this manner, it is confirmated
residual life for addition 2000 hours of the flight.

189

The tests accomplished showed that main structural parts

did not change its mechanical properties after more than
25 years of service. The structural elements subjected to
load cycles simulating load during real aircraft service
also did not undergo any damage. To determine residual
life of critical aircraft structural components, computation
methods are used. These methods are based on combining
Finite Element Methods (FEM) for stress analyses
(Figure 7) with in-house software for initial fatigue life
estimations, See Table 1.
Figure 7. Stress Analysis of the bulkhead no. 18 of G-4
Super Galeb aircraft
Table 1. Representative results of fatigue life estimation for structural component using in-house software

visual control and analysis of aging process at the

oldest airplanes in service or equipment components,
analysis of official maintenance procedures addressed
to aging problem,
improving of protective maintenance methods in
order to focus on aging in the early phase of its
appearance.

7. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS ATTAINED BY

NDI INSPECTION OF AIRCRAFT
STRUCTURE
Detailed control and inspection of all main airframe parts
and assemblies showed that were not detected any
damages, which could have been caused because of
fatigue or excess of limits of flight loads. Visual control
using NDI showed that there were only several local
surface corrosion areas located at main structural
elements.

Understanding of influence of different factors on

degradation of structure integrity is very important in
order to manage corrosion occurrences on aging aircraft.
Programs for extension of operation life of aircraft have
to address to procedures and practice which improve
surface protection, controlling, inspection, and
maintenance of aircraft during service. The main role in
procedures of controlling and inspection of airframes
belongs to the NDI methods that have to be used regularly
and timely on the appropriate way.

Based on NDI tests conducted on airplanes structures that

have been in service for more than 25 years it is evaluated
that there were not any damages of vital aircraft structural
elements as an influence of service loads or corrosion
process or any other cause. This represents basis for
extending of time period for further service of the aircraft
structures.

Based on the NDI results evaluated after inspection of all

provided airplanes the conclusion can be drawn that the
unacceptable defects were not detected on all vital
airplane structural elements. The inspection results
showed good conformation to appropriate requirements
and results meet the requirements for further safe aircraft
service [5].

8. CONCLUSIONS
The process of aircraft aging, aging of its structure and
equipment cannot be stopped but it could be rather
diminished using several practical approaches, such as:
identification of critical points, components, and
areas where the consequence of aging can has to
cause serious outcome,

Beside NDI testing that has been shortly presented in this

paper, and other fatigue testing accomplished on G-4
190

Super Galeb vital airframe parts [6,7], can lead to

conclusion that to inspected Myanmar aircraft structures
can be extended service life.

[3] IK 494-13-Reports IK (In Serbian), RD Dijagnostika

d.o.o. 2014., Beograd.
[4] Sankaran Mahadevan and Pan Shi: Corrosion fatigue
reliability of aging aircraft structures, Prog. Struct.
Engng Mater. 2001; 3: 188-197.
[5] Protection of Structure, Federal Aviation Regulation,
Part 25, Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category
Airplanes, Sec. 25.609.
[6] Maksimovi,S., Burzi,Z., Georgijevi,D.: Strength
analysis of aircraft structures with respects to fatigue
(in Serbian), Monography of military Technical
Institute, 2011 (In Serbian).
[7] Boljanovi,S. and Maksimovi,S.: Fatigue crack
growth modeling of attachment lugs, International
Journal of Fatigue, vol. 58, pp. 6674, 2013.

The importance of the process of research tasks about the

possibility of extension of operation life of aircraft is that
it enables further use of the plane and opens the
possibility of modernization of this type of aircraft.

REFERENCES
[1] MIL-HDBK-6870B,
Nondestructive
inspection
program requirements for aircraft and missile
materials and parts, 2012.
[2] MIL-HDBK-1823A,
Nondestructive
evaluation
system reliability assessment, 2009,

191

LASTA AIRCRAFT WITH TURBOPROP ENGINE - DETERMINATON

FLIGHT PERFORMANCES, PROGRAM "TURBOLASTAPERF"
KOSTA VELIMIROVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, kolevelimirovic@yahoo.com
NEMANJA VELIMIROVI
YUGOIMPORT-SDPR, Belgrade, Serbia, velimirovicnemanja@yahoo.com

Abstract: The method for the estimation and results of the turboprop, armed, COIN (Counter Insurgency) LASTA aircraft
performances is presented in this paper. Turboprop LASTA is optimal constructive solution for modernizing and improving
LASTA aircraft with piston-engine. Its primary role would be counter insurgency, intelligence, surveillance and
reconnaissance. Turboprop (COIN) LASTA aircraft can be equipped with cameras and sensors. For combat turboprop
LASTA can be equipped with: machine guns, rockets, bombs and other "useful cargo". "TURBOLASTAPERF" computer
program is used for the calculation of basic and special performances. Program "TURBOLASTAPERF" calculates takeoff,
minimum speed, climb, cruise, endurance, maximum speed, turn, landing and flight profiles. Method and its results are
illustrated by numerical example. Computer program "TURBOLASTAPERF" is programmed in MATHCAD 14.
Keywords: turboprop aircraft, turboprop-engine, performances, take-off, landing, computer program.
airplane is not intended for heavy combat. Its primary role
would be counter insurgency, intelligence, surveillance and
reconnaissance. Aircraft belonging to the group "COIN" is
armed aircraft designed for reconnaissance and air escort of
ground forces. Because of the current fight against global
terrorism, need for the "COIN" fleets now is greater then
ever. "COIN" aircraft is usually used for strike as a patrol
(observe), air attack and transport.

1. INTRODUCTION
The project LASTA with piston-engine (Picture 1) is
successfully completed. There is a need for further
modernization. During the process of aircraft design great
attention is focused on the performance. For aircraft
performance calculations it is necessary to have a "tool".
"TURBOLASTAPERF" is the "tool"-computer program for
the calculation of turboprop aircraft flight characteristics.

There are three categories of air support:

1. Patrol/Observe. In this part, preference is that if the
aircraft can operate from forward landing strips and
doing in nearly co-ordination with the ground units
which they are imitating. There should be admirable
visibility with seat for a human outlook.
2. Air-raid. Airborne attacks need to be made with high
punctuality to reduce collateral injury because rebels
often operate near civilian populations or in zones where
considerable precision is needed.
3. Transport. Demand for smaller aircraft is also
represented, which is necessary for connection and
transport. COIN aircraft also needs possibility to land in
zone where is poorly prepared runway.
For these categories above of air support, "COIN" airplane
needs to have these properties:
1. Survival. Strength endurance from ground attack fire as
combination of shell is required. Injured airplane should
have capability for fast and easy reparation in war
conditions.
2. Ballast capacity. Serviceable cargo of weapons and
equipage reserve should be solvency bearing by aircraft.
3. Armament. Rebels guerrilla targets are speedy and then
"COIN" airplane needs to be precise to propose resolved

Picture 1: LASTA with piston-engine (Military

Technical Institute, Yugoimport SDPR, UTVA)
This paper presents turbo-prop LASTA "COIN" aircraft
performance calculation. A "COIN" aircraft will be a lightly
armored, two-seat, turbo-prop aircraft capable of locating,
tracking, identifying and engaging a variety of targets with
suite of electro-optical/infrared sensors and laserguided/unguided air-to-ground weapons/missiles. Aircraft is
armed with gun, bombs and small gauge rockets. This
192

stroke with minimum human innocent victims and

damage.
4. Velocity - high speed, COIN aircraft has possibility to
be mobile and to involve more area, need less time to
traverse some destination and also it is more difficult to
shoot down faster aircraft.
5. In war conditions, many airfields are usually tough and
damaged, so there is also requirement for potency to
take off and land on that kind of airfield.

2. PROGRAM "TURBOLASTAPERF"
"TURBOLASTAPERF" computer program is used for the
calculation of basic and special performances LASTA
aircraft equipped with turboprop power plant. Plane is
considered as a material point. [1][2] Used programming
language is MATHCAD 14.

Picture 2: Engine ALLISON ROLLE-ROYCE MODEL

250-B17F

The program consists of several modules: odule for

determining the mass aircraft, Airport Module (based on
current meteorological conditions determines the data of the
airport, this module requests data: frontal wind speed, slop
and quality of the runway), Atmosphere Module (data
calculations are made for the altitude, it works for all
conditions from polar to tropical), Aerodynamics Module
(loaded aerodynamic characteristics of clean, takeoff and
landing configurations, this module also presents data on the
aerodynamic characteristics of the launcher, missiles, bombs
and gun under the wing), Engine Module (provides
information on the performance and fuel consumption in
function of the regime, velocity and the height of flight),
Propeller Module (aerodynamic data of composite, five
blade, propeller - data from this module are used for the
calculation of propeller thrust forces installed), Performance
Module (compute the minimum and maximum speed, climb
and ceiling), Turn Module (turnaround data calculation),
Takeoff and Landing Modules (presents all data related to
the take-off or landing, the data refers to the characteristic
length, velocity, time and fuel consumption), Cruise Module
(optimal parameters of cruising), Start, Taxi and Combat
Modules (compute fuel consumption and other data),
Planning module, Range Module (the most complex module
of the computer program "TURBOLASTAPERF", this
module calls all the listed modules and determine the length
and time of the flight profile).

3. ENGINE ALLISON ROLLE-ROYCE

MODEL 250-B17F
Engine Model 250-B17F Rolls-Royce - power for the
turboprop LASTA (Table 1) represents the latest refinement
of a rugged and highly reliable small turboprop engine.
[3][4] Engine Model 250-B17F (Picture 2, Picture 3) has
these characteristics: extremely quite and smooth, multi-fuel
capable, excellent power-to-weight ratio, aerobatic version
available and low direct operating cost. Sea level static
rating - minimum shaft power is 450 hp (335.6 kW) and
specific fuel consumption ranges from 0.613 lb/hp-hr (0.373
kg/kW*hr) @ takeoff to 0.673 lb/hp-hr (0.409 kg/kW*hr)
@ 75% cruise. (Fig.4) (Fig.5)

Picture 3: Engine Model 250-B17F installation design

Table 1: Engine Model 250-B17F basic engine
specifications
Weight
205 lb (92.98 kg)
Power/weight ratio
2.2:1 hp/lb (3.61 kW/kg)
Airflow
3.82 lb/s (1.734 kg/s)
Pressure ratio
7.9:1
Output shaft
2013 rpm
Fuels
JP-4, JP-5, JP-8, ASTM-1655

193

Some aerodynamic characteristics, flight capability and other

performances of turboprop LASTA are presented in numerical
example. Diagrams, (Picture 7), showing the coeficients
resistance and aerodynamic lift of clean, takeoff and landing
configurations. [7] Engine maximum shaft power
(approximation) for different heights (0.,3048.,6096.,9144.m)
is presented in Picture 8. Picture 10 presents speed altitude
envelope (maximum speed (kph), minimum speed (kph) and
minimum speed with flaps (kph). Rates of climb w(m/s) for
different heights are presented in Picture 11. [8] Absolute
ceiling and service ceiling are 10040.m and 8461.m
respectively (Picture 12). Distances of take-off and landing are
presented in Picture 13 and Picture 14 respectively.

400
shaftpower ( 350 kph , hletaz , 25)
1000
shaftpower ( 350 kph , hletaz , 50)
1000

300

shaftpower ( 350 kph , hletaz , 75)

1000
shaftpower ( 350 kph , hletaz , 90)
1000

200

shaftpower ( 350 kph , hletaz , 100)

1000
shaftpower ( 350 kph , hletaz , 110) 100
1000

210

410

610

810

Flight profile (range) is shown in Picture 17. Geometric

characteristics of the flight profile are shown in the Table 3.
Some calculated data of flight profile are presented in Table
4 [10], [11].

110

hletaz , hletaz , hletaz , hletaz , hletaz , hletaz

Picture 4: Engine ALLISON ROLLE-ROYCE MODEL

250-B17F shaft power (kW) for different heights (hletaz)
(m) and regime (25,50,75,90,100,110) (%) speed 350 kph,
approximation

1.5
Cz
Cz

3600 Fuelflow( 350 kph , hletaz , 25)

3600 Fuelflow( 350 kph , hletaz , 50) 100

Cz

3600 Fuelflow( 350 kph , hletaz , 75)

3600 Fuelflow( 350 kph , hletaz , 90)

0.5

3600 Fuelflow( 350 knot , hletaz , 100)

3600 Fuelflow( 350 kph , hletaz , 110)
50

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

Cxc( Cz) , Cxp( Cz) , Cxs( Cz)

0

210

410

610

810

110

Picture 7: Coeficients resistance and coeficients

aerodynamic lift Cz of clean (Cxc), takeoff (Cxp) and
landing (Cxs) configurations

hletaz , hletaz , hletaz , hletaz , hletaz , hletaz

Picture 5: Engine ALLISON ROLLE-ROYCE MODEL

250-B17F Fuel flow (kg/hr) for different heights (hletaz)
(m) and regime (25,50,75,90,100,110) (%), speed 350 kph
approximation

shaftpower ( Vl , 0 m , 110 )
1000

4. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE - FLIGHT

PERFORMANCES AND RANGE

shaftpower ( Vl , 3096 m , 110 ) 300

1000
shaftpower ( Vl , 6096 m , 110 )
1000
shaftpower ( Vl , 9144 m , 110 )

200

1000

100

50 100 150
Vl , Vl , Vl , Vl

Picture 6: Modification of aircraft LASTA (pistonengine) to turboprop LASTA - moving forward of the cab
Installation of the turboprop engine Model 250-B17F require
modification of LASTA aircraft with piston engine (Picture 6).
The propeller is a constant speed, width variable pitch type
(Picture 9). The mass of the turboprop LASTA with 2 pilots
and 250 kg fuel is 1300 kg (configurations clean).

194

Picture 8: Engine ALLISON ROLLE-ROYCE MODEL

250-B17F Maximum take-off (110%) shaft power (kW)
for different heights (m) and velocity Vl (m/s),
approximation

0.9

0.8

110

810

610

410

210

hwmaxsta ih

c ( Vleta)0.7

0.6

0
0.5

50

100

150

10

15

20

wmaxstaih

200

Vleta

Picture 12: Maximum rate of climb wmax (m/s) for

different heights hwmax (m), maximum take-off (110%)
shaft power

Picture 9: Propeller efficiency c (-) for different

velocity Vleta (m/s), propeller - five blade, diameter
2.1m, non installed, composite, approximation

hwmaxbih 110
hwmaxbih
hwmaxbih

510

hwmaxbih

SZ=174.092m Spl=290.072m
0

100

200

300

Picture 13: Take-off

400

Vmih , Vnih , Vpih , Vsih

Picture 10: Speed altitude (m) envelope, (maximum

speed (kph), minimum speed (kph) and minimum speed
with flaps (kph)
20
w1( Vleta)
w2( Vleta)
15
w3( Vleta)

SV=278.1m Ssl=522.795m
Picture 14: Landing

w4( Vleta)

Turboprop LASTA aircraft is armed with four bombs FAB100 M80 (Picture 15 and Picture 16).

w5( Vleta)
10
w6( Vleta)
w7( Vleta)
w8( Vleta) 5

50

100

150

Vleta, Vleta, Vleta, Vleta, Vleta, Vleta, Vleta, Vleta

Picture 15: New front view Turboprop LASTA,

configurations: bombs 4x FAB-100 M80, propeller - five
blade, winglets

Picture 11: . Rate of climb w (m/s) for different heights

(0.,1500.,3000.,4500.,6000.,7500.,9000.,9500. (m)) and
velocity Va (m/s), maximum take-off (110%) shaft power
195

The mass of the turboprop LASTA with 1 pilot, 250 kg fuel

and 4x FAB-100 M80 is 1730 kg (configurations 4x FAB100), (Picture 15).

Picture 16: Bomb FAB-100 M80

Table 2: Bomb FAB-100 M80 specifications
Bomb FAB-100 M80
Diameter
230 mm
Length
1490 mm
Mass bomb
117 kg
Mass warhead
39 kg (TNT)

6
7

Holding

8
9
10
11

Penetrat. 1
Combat
Penetrat. 2

12
13
14

Cruising 2
Planning 2
Landing

Planning 1

Climb 2

3000.
3000.300.
300.
300.
300.
300.2970.
2970.
2970.-5.
5.
Speed
(km/h)

Flight profile is shown in Picture 9[13]. Geometric

characteristics of the flight profile are shown in the Table 3
[5][6][14][15].

1
2
3

Start
Taxi
Takeoff

Climb 1

5
6

Cruising 1
Holding

Planning 1

8
9
10

Penetrat. 1
Combat
Penetrat. 2

11

Climb 2

12

Cruising 2

13

Planning 2

14

Landing

157.265
214.828
201.448
299.799
298.372
206.293
219.304
350.0
281.757
350.0
199.923
183.981
315.663
166.231
176.481
121.163

Reserve fuel (10%)= 25 kg,

Picture 17: Range, length of the flight profile
Table 3: Data flight profile
Height cruising 1 (5)
Height holding (6)
Height penetration 1 (8)
Length=100 km
Combat (9)
Height penetration 2 (10)
Length=80 km
Height cruising 2 (12)

28.012

17.912
5.0
13.511
3.512

100.0
80.0
11.916

36.818
10.042
0.379

224.576
31.321
-

Aircraft
mass
(kg)
1738
1730
1722
1721

Power
rating
(%)
85.0
80.0
110.0
100.0

1708
1657
1643

93.0
91.0
25.0

1639
1609
1132
1109

83.276
100.0
87.739
100.0

1103

91.0

1052

25.0

1046

21.0

Range = 356.41 km
Time=158.332 min

4. CONCLUSION
3000 m
3000 m

Program "TURBOLASTAPERF" is used for turboprop

power plant LASTA aircraft flight characteristics
calculation. Program is very useful for: aircraft design,
writing pilot instructions and planning combat missions.
Program is enough fast and reliable. Accuracy of results
depends on the loaded aerodynamic characteristics of the
aircraft, launcher, missiles, bombs and gun under the wing.
Method and its results are illustrated by numerical example
for turboprop LASTA aircraft in software MATHCAD 14.

300 m
300 m
300 m
2970 m

Table 4: Meteo data airport

Temperature, airport (C)
Air pressure, airport (Pa)
Wind head, airport (m/s)
"Altitude" airport STA (m)

10.0
7.158

15.0
1.013*105
0.0
5.096

Results of calculation performances turbo-prop LASTA

aircraft are presented in the paper. Calculated flight
performances and capabilities shows a very good quality of
turboprop LASTA aircraft.

Table 5: Calculated characteristics of the flight profile

Height
Time
Distanc
(m)
(min)
e (km)
1 Start
5.
5.
2 Taxi
5.
5.
3 Takeoff
5.
0.284
0.462
4 Climb 1
5.-3000.
7.995
29.738
5 Cruising 1
3000.
35.721
207.252

REFERENCES
[1] Renduli Z. Mehanika leta, Vojnoizdavaki i Novinski
Centar, Belgrade , Serbia. 1987.
[2] Smetana F. Flight vehicle performance and
aerodynamic, AIAA Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio. 2003.
[3] 331 Turboprop engine - installation manual IM-5117196

W, Garrett Turbine Engine Company, Phoenix,

Arizona, 1987.
[4] 250-B17D Instalation Design Manual, Allison Gas
Turbine, 1985.
[5] Velimirovi K., Velimirovi N.,"Odreivanje
maksimalnog taktikog radijusa naoruanog klipnoelisnog aviona", SYM-OP-IS-2010, Tara, Serbia 2010.
[6] Velimirovi K., Velimirovi N., "Odreivanje
maksimalnog taktikog radijusa klipno-elisne
bespilotne letelice, program BELI ORAO", SYM-OPIS-2011, Tara, Serbia 2011.
[7] Bajovi, M., Velimirovi K., Molovi V., Velimirovi,
N., "Analiza aerodinamkih koeficijenata na osnovu
aerotunelskih i letnih ispitivanja", OTEH 2009,
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade , Serbia, 2009.
[8] Bajovi, M., Velimirovi, K., Molovi V., "Estimacija
performansi klipno-elisnog aviona", OTEH 2007
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, 2007.
[9] Velimirovi K., Velimirovi N.,"Tactical UAV
PEGASUS with in flight adjustable propeller,
COMPUTER PROGRAM WHITE EAGLE 2" OTEH
2010 Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia, 2010.
[10] Velimirovi K., Velimirovi N., "Flight performance
determination of the turboprop aircraft" Fourth Serbian

197

Congress on Theoretical and Applied Mechanics,

Vrnjaka Banja, 2013.
[11] Velimirovi K., Velimirovi N., "Odreivanje
maksimalnog taktikog radijusa naoruanog turboelisnog aviona, program KOBACPERF" SYM-OP-IS2014, Divibare, Serbia 2014.
[12] Ili D., Devi V., Velimirovi K., Antoni V.,
Milenkovi-Babi M., Sari Z. " Analysis of Lasta
aircraft improvement by integration of a turboprop
power plant", OTEH 2014 Military Technical Institute,
Belgrade, Serbia, 2014.
[13] Velimirovi K.,"Taktika bespilotna letelica sa klipnoelisnom pogonskom grupom: proraun performansi
leta", monografija, Military Technical Institute,
Belgrade, Serbia, 2013.
[14] Velimirovi K., Gaji-Krstaji Lj, Velimirovi
N.,"Propulzija elektrine bespilotne letelice - poreenje
Li - jon kobalt i Li - jon elik fosfat akomulatora",
asopis Materijal protections, Beograd, Serbia, 1913.
[15] Velimirovi K., Gaji-Krstaji Lj, Velimirovi N.,"Some
advantages of the hydrogen fuel cells in compared to
lithium-polimer batteries for propulsion mini unmanned
aerial", YUCORR 2011, Tara, Serbia, 2011.

THE ANALYSIS OF THE AIRPLANE TRANSIENTS AFTER PILOT

BAIL-OUT
PREDRAG STOJAKOVI
Military Technical institute Belgrade, predrag.stojakovic@vti.vs.rs
BOKO RAUO
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, brasuo@mas.bg.ac.rs
MARKO PUIJAEVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade
MIODRAG MILENKOVI-BABI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, miodragmbm@yahoo.co.uk

Abstract: The analysis of the linear model longitudinal motion airplane transients generated after the pilot bail-out is
presented in this paper. The analysis object is the piston engine primary trainer airplane Lasta. The analyzes
objective is the verification of the critical flight parameters in the preparation of the bail-out in-flight testing. The tools
applied in the analysis are the combination of the in-house developed software for the airplane dynamic and control
system design, used for the flight path and linear model parameters determination as well as the packadge used for
linear system simulation. The analysis procedure applied throughout extensive range of flight data of interest is
presented by the representative example.
Keywords: Airplane dynamic, Linear system, Motion transients, Pilot bail-out.

NOMENCLATURE

- pitch angle deviation,

0
rxp

- pitch angular velocity,

- stationary flight pitch angle,
- dynamic pressure,
- X axis C.G. to pilot distance,

S
V
up

- wing area,
- stationary flight speed,
- control variable of pilot bailing-out,

ca
Cm
Cm
Cmq

- angle of attack
- angle of attack deviation,
- wing mean aerodynamic chord,
- pitch moment per derivative,
- pitch moment per rate derivative,
- pitch damping derivative,

Cm m
Cz
C z
Czq

- pitch moment per pitch control derivative,

- lift per derivative,
- lift per rate derivative,
- lift per pitch rate derivative,

C z m

- lift per pitch control derivative,

- pitch command control deflection,
- Earth gravity acceleration,
- flight path angle

Iy

- airplane moment of inertia about Y axis,

Lrm
Lp

- Propeller reactive torque,

- roll moment at pilot bail-out,

ma
mp

- airplane mass,
- mass of pilot bailing-out,

- pitch angle

m
g

Qd

1. INTRODUCTION
The designer of the airplane dynamic encounters various
problems in the final phases of airplane acceptance
testing. In the preparation and planning of the airplane
flight testing, the main objective of airplane dynamic
designer is the provision of safe guidelines for flight test
execution. For Lasta primary trainer one of the items to
be tested has been the pilot bail-out from the airplane.
That required preliminary analysis of airplane transient
motion after pilot bail-out from the airplane. The goal of
the analysis is to provide data that will confirm that the
bail-out sequence is safe.
The Lasta primary trainer is two non-ejection tandem
seats airplane. As per regulations, the first to leave the
198

airplane is the student at the front seat, the instructor at

the back seat bailing-out the second. The airplane canopy
is with built-in explosive cord.
The analysis performed in the preparation for the flight
testing of the pilot bail-out has been the extensive one,
covering several points in the low speed, low height
corner of the flight envelope. Only the key points of the
used procedure and characteristic examples are presented
herein.

2. PROBLEM DEFINITION

Figure 1. Pilot bail-out quantitative analysis.

In the most cases of dynamic analysis, the airplane is treated to be with invariant inertial properties. The basic
equations of motion used in the analysis of the airplane
dynamic, stability and control are defined for the case of
invariant inertial properties of the airplane. However, the
variations of the inertial properties of the airplane can be
included into the basic equations of airplane motion under the condition that characteristic time of variation of
inertial properties is outside of the range of the characteristic time of the airplane dynamic, i.e. if the variation
of the inertial properties is either instantaneous or very
slow [1]. Airplane fuel consumption is the example of
very slow variation of airplane inertial properties, while
the armament, bomb and rocket release can be considered
as the instantaneous variation of airplane inertial
properties.

Quantitative analysis of the airplane transients is based

upon the defined assumption of the airplane being in the
balanced flight at the initial conditions. Within the
airplane, the weigh of the pilot with mass m p being at
distance rxp from center of gravity C.G. is balanced with
reactive force of opposite direction. The transient motion
of the airplane after pilot bail-out can be treated as to be
generated by the upward force equal to the pilot weight.
The pilot absence from the airplane can be treated as
linear system control input having only two values,
u p = 0 pilot is present and u p = 1 pilot is absent.

Airplane transients in the longitudinal motion after pilot

bail out present deviation from equilibrium conditions of
the steady balanced flight and are defined by the short
period mode equations [2] in the form

The pilot bail-out from the airplane can be treated as the

instantaneous variation of the airplane inertial properties.
It is assumed airplane to be, in the moment prior to the
pilot bail-out, balanced wing level in the very shallow
steady straight dive holding constant flight path angle ,
with corresponding stationary pitch angle. For the preliminary type of the analysis and described case of initial
conditions, the airplane motion can be separated into the
linear longitudinal and lateral-directional modes. However, only the longitudinal mode of motion transients are
presented herein.

maV =
c
c
Qd S Cz + a C i + a Czq +
2
2
V
V

+Qd SCz m m + ma g ( sin 0 )

m p g cos 0 u p

(1)

I y =
l
c
Qd Sca Cm + a C i + a Cmq +
2
2
V
V

+Qd Sca Cm m m + rxp m p g cos 0 u p

The primary objective of the analysis has been the observation of the variations the pitch angle and the angle
of attack as the parameters dominating the airplane
safety. The secondary objective of the analysis has been if
there is the sufficient authority of the pitch control m to
compensate the variations of the angle of attack after
pilot bail-out.

Equations (1) are with two control inputs; pitch control

deviation from equilibrium value m and pilot presence
on board of the airplane u p . In analysis of the normal
flight pilot is present, u p = 0 , and airplane is controlled
by pitch control m 0 , therefore

Qualitative analysis of the airplane longintudinal motion

is presented for the case of pilot bailing-out from front
seat. Let Gapl , G fp and Grp p be, respectively, the weights

maV ca C maV + ca C
S Q 2V z
S Q 2V zq

d
d
ma g
Cz
( sin 0 ) = C z m m
S Qd
c
a Cm Cm +
2V
Iy
c
+
a Cmq = Cm m m
2V
S Qd ca

of airplane, front and rear seat pilot, while Fa and Fg are

resulting aerodynamic and gravity forces. Balance of forces of the airplane in the steady flight are presented on
Fig. 1.a. If the flight controls are unchanged, when pilot
bails-out from the front seat, resulting aerodynamic force
Fa remains at the same position, while resulting gravity
force shifts forward, causing the airplane to pitch nose
down, as presented on the Fig.1.b. When the pilot bails
out from the rear seat, airplane also pitches nose down.

(2)

In the pilot bail-out, the pitch control is held fixed,

m = 0 , and the airplane transients are controlled by pilot
absence u p = 1 , the equations (1) being of the form
199

 maV ca C maV + ca C
S Q 2V z
S Q 2V zq

d
d
ma g
Cz
( sin 0 ) =
S Qd
mp g
=
cos 0 u p
S Qd
Iy
c
a Cm Cm +

2V
S Qd ca
rxp m p g
c
a Cmq =

cos 0 u p
2V
ca S Qd

( s)
u p (s)

(3)

u 0

A3 s 3 + A2 s 2 + A1s + A0

Iy
S Qd ca
c
c
1 = Cm m mV + a Czq Cz m a Cmq
2V
S Qd 2V

mg
0 = Cm m
( sin 0 )
S Qd

( s ) 0
=
k s = lim
s 0 ( s)
m A0

(5)

u0

(12)

After pilot bail-out, the transient of the short period

transfer function ( s ) u p ( s ) is stabilized after approximately 5 seconds, yielding the value 7 s . The testing of
the pitch control authority has been done with the step
input m having the value

m (T ) =
(6)

7s
k s

= 7s

A0

(13)

3. ANALYSIS TOOLS
Data preparation in the analysis of the pilot bail-out from
Lasta airplane has been done by the integrated software
package applied in the design of the airplane dynamics
and airplane control system design. Aerodynamic data
base is obtained by the modified AFQ software. Flight
path nominal parameters have been calculated by the program NOM_LET for finding the inverse solution of the
airplane dynamic problem. For the given flight path parameters aerodynamic coefficients and derivatives have
been extracted by TS_AUGADI program. Transfer
function coefficients calculation and drawing of the transients have been done by EXCEL. The simulation for
the analysis purpose has been done by home made linear
system simulation package.

u 2 =
u1

(11)

The secondary analysis has been done on the basis of the

stationary amplification of transfer function ( s ) m ( s )

the coefficients in the numerator being

mp g
Iy
cos 0
S Qd
S Qd ca
mp g
c
=
cos 0 a Cmq +
2V
S Qd
.
mp g
rxp mV
c
+
cos 0

+ a Czq
S Qd
ca S Qd 2V

rxp m p g
mg
=
cos 0
( sin 0 )
ca S Qd
S Qd

(10)

2 = Cz m

(4)

The angle of attack transfer function ( s) u p ( s ) is

u p (s)

(9)

the coefficients in the numerator being

A3 =

u 2 s 2 + u1s1 + u 0

rp m p g
mV
c

cos 0 a a C z

2
ca S Qd
S
Q
V

d
rp m p g
ca

cos 0
C
2V m
ca S Qd
mp g
rp

=
cos 0 C z + Cm
S Qd
c
a

(s)
s 2 + 1s1 + 0
= 32
m ( s) A3 s + A2 s 2 + A1s + A0

the coefficients being

(8)

The angle of attack transfer function ( s) m ( s) is

simulation of the transfer function ( s) ( s ) . To obtain

the transfer functions, Laplace transform of (2) and (3)
has been done. Determinant of the systems (2) and (3) is
the same, of the form

(s)

A3 s + A2 s 2 + A1s + A0

u1 =

( s ) u p ( s ) , the secondary analysis has been done by the

Iy
mV
c
a a C
S Qd ca S Qd 2V z
Iy
C
A2 =
S Qd ca z
c
mV
c
a Cmq a a C z
2V
S Qd 2V

ca
maV
ca

+
C
C
2V m S Qd 2V zq
c
mV
c
A1 = Cz a Cmq Cm a + a Czq +
2V
2

S
Q
V

d
ma g
ca
+
( sin 0 )
C
2V m S Qd
m g
A0 = Cm a ( sin 0 )
S Qd

u1s + u 0
3

the coefficients in the numerator being

The primary analysis of the transients has been done by

the simulation of the transfer functions ( s) u p ( s ) and

D = A3 s 3 + A2 s 2 + A1s1 + A0 ,

(7)

Likewise, the pitch angle transfer function ( s) u p ( s ) is

200

(8) and (10). The coefficients served as the input for the
simulation. In all simulation cases, transfer function input
has been held at the zero value up to the time t= 2.0 [s]
when the step input to the transfer function has been done.
Because the transients are observed in the short period
mode of the airplane longitudinal motion, the simulation
duration of t=10.0 [s] has been selected. Thus, the
values of the transients at the end of the simu-lation
duration are practically the same as the stationary values
of the transfer functions. The simulation output results
have been entered into EXCEL files for to serve as the
input for data drawing.

4. INPUT DATA CONSOLIDATION

On the Lasta airplane the lever for landing gear up
and down position is placed at the front seat cockpit
pa-nel. Therefore, bail-out flight testing from the front
seat has been done with landing gear in the down
position. Bail-out flight testing from the rear set has been
done with the landing gear in the up position. In the
flight testing, the bail-out has been performed by the
professi-onal parachutist. Prior the flight, bail-out
sequence has been tested from the cockpit mock-up and
from the air-plane on the ground, the parachutist jumping
into the air bags.

5. SIMULATION RESULTS PRESENTATION

Several bail-out combinations has been analyzed for the

three points within the flight envelope. The results presented here are these two bail-out cases from the airplane
flying at the height H=500.0 [m] and speed V=50.0 [m/s],
being in the steady straight shallow dive at the flight path
angle =5.00. The inertial data are obtained by the ground
measurement of the airplane prototype during the preparation for flight testing [3]. The airplane mass is
ma=1202.75 [kg] and mass of parachutist bailing-out is
mp=85.0 [kg]. Airplane wing surface [4] is Sw=12.9[m2]
and mean aerodynamic chord is ca=1.4603 [m]. For these
two cases of bail-out relative position of airplane center of
gravity (xCG/ca), moment of inertia about Y-axis Iyy and
pilot position rxp relative to airplane CG are given in
Table 1.

Only the most characteristic results of the simulation are

presented. Figure 2 presents the results for the pitch angle
simulation of the parachutist bailing-out from the rear
seat. Figure 3 contains the comparison of the pitch angle
transients for the cases of parachutist bailing-out from
the front and rear seat. Likewise, figure 4 contains the
10
0
-10

[d e g ]

-20

Table 1.

xCG/ca
Iyy [kgm2]
rxp [m]

-30
-40
-50

Front seat, gear

down
0.3361
2400.00
0.00821

Rear seat, gear

up
0.3285
2380.00
-1.37158

-60
-70
-80
0

10

12

Figure 2. Pitch angle transients after parachutist bailsout from front seat, height H=500.0 [m], speed
V=50.0 [m/s].
10

BAIL-OUT
AT FRONT

0
-10

Table 2.

Cm
Cm
Cmq

Time t [s]

For these two CG position cases aerodynamic data bases

has been made by AFQ program. For given flight path
parameters airplane nominal state and inputs have been
calculated by NOM_LET program and aerodynamic
derivatives extracted by TS_AUGADI program. Stationary flight path pitch angle 0 and angle of attack , as
well as the aerodynamic derivatives are, for both cases,
given in Table 2.

-20

Front seat, gear

down
0,06697
0,15420
-0,3684
-0,7155

Rear seat, gear

up
-0,01479
0,1021
-0,3258
-0,6986

-4,941

-4,821

Cm m
Cz
Cz
Czq

-1,096
-5,535
0,1937

-1,093
-5,535
0,1976

-6,272

-6,183

C z m

-0,3797

-0,3797

[deg]

0 [rad]
[rad]

-30
-40
-50
-60

BAIL-OUT
AT REAR

-70
-80
0

10

12

Time t [s]

Figure 3. Comparison of the pitch angle transients

after parachutist bails-out from front and rear seat, height
H=500.0 [m], speed V=50.0 [m/s].

comparison of the angle of attack transients for the

cases of parachutist bailing-out from the front and rear
seat. From the figure 4 is evident that larger angle of

The flight data and parameters from tables 1 and 2 served

to calculate the coefficients in the transfer functions (6),
201

attack transient is for the case of parachutist bailingout from the rear seat. On the basis of the equation and
the value of angle of attack transient at the time t=

The value of the parachutist position in the rear seat

relative to the airplane CG is rxp = -1.372 [m], the
consequence being the different properties of the airplane
transients. The stationary value of the angle of attack
deviation is 5.37o. From the pilot point of view, the

10.0 [s], the pitch control step input value m = 4.530 has
been calculated. Finally, figure 5 contains the comparison of the angle of attack transients for the cases of
parachutist bailing-out from the rear seat and pitch control
step input value m = 4.53 .
0

10

significant variable is the pitch angle deviation rate ,

the value within the first second being 10.0 [o/s],
which is within pilot compensation capabilities. In the
transient the horizontal tail to wing relative vertical
position shifts upward which is positive property when
bailing-out from the rear seat.

12

BAIL-OUT
AT FRONT

Figures 3 and 4 with the comparison of the transients

when bailing-out from front and rear seat are clearly
demonstrating the influence of the parachutist position in
the front seat relative to the airplane CG.

[d e g ]

-1
-2
-3

Different direction of the pitch angle variation when

parachutist bails-out from the front seat results from the
form of constant 0 in the numerator of the pitch angle
transfer function ( s ) u p ( s ) . This constant is of the form

-4

BAIL-OUT
AT REAR

-5
-6
-7

Time t [s]

u 0 =

Figure 4. Comparison of the angle of attack transients

after parachutist bails-out from front and rear seat, height
H=500.0 [m], speed V=50.0 [m/s]
0

10

The multiplier ahead of the brackets is negative because,

regardless of the sign, for the small values of 0 the value
of cos01>0. Derivatives Cz and Cm are always
negative, therefore positive rxp produces positive value of
u0. For the small negative values of rxp (bail-out from the
front seat) is Cm > C z ( rp ca ) producing the positive

12

1
0

[deg]

-1

pitch angle variation . For the large negative values of

rxp is C z ( rp ca ) > Cm producing the positive pitch

-2
-3

STEP INPUT
0
m=4,53

angle variation . Therefore, the bail-out from the front

seat is with opposite sign of the pitch angle variation
relative to the bail-out from the rear seat.

-4
-5

BAIL-OUT
AT REAR

-6

mp g
rxp

cos 0 Cz + Cm .
S Qd
c
a

Finally, Figure 5 shows that there is the sufficient authority of the pitch control m to compensate the angle of
attack variations when the parachutist bails-out from
the rear seat.

-7

Time t [s]

Figure 5. Comparison of the angle of attack transients

after parachutist bails-out from rear seat and pitch control
step input m = 4.530 , height H=500.0 [m], speed
V=50.0 [m/s].

7. EXPECTED AIRPLANE BEHAVIOUR

There are several factors, considered as the limitations
that are contributing to the airplane behavior during
parachutist bail-out. These factors are:

6. SIMULATION RESULTS ANALYSIS

There is no method to take into the account

aerodynamic interference between the airplane and
parachutist when parachutist is outboard or in close
vicinity to the airplane,

The results of the simulation emphasize the influence of

the parachutist position upon the transients in bailing-out.
The value of the parachutist position in the front seat
relative to the airplane CG is rxp = 0.00821 [m] = 8.21
[mm] or 0.56% of mean aerodynamic chord, the value
being within the tolerated measurement error range. The
stationary value of the angle of attack deviation is 0.092o. After 1.5 [s] of transient the value of the pitch
angle deviation is 0.69o, the value being close to the
pilot observation error boundary. In the transient there is
practically no change of the horizontal tail to wing
relative vertical position.

Presented analysis is valid within the scope of

assumptions and limitations of the short period mode of
the airplane longitudinal motion.
With the available simulation tools and aerodynamic
input data it is not possible to define during the bail-out
the trajectory of the parachutist relative to the airplane
and the elements of the airplane structure such as the
horizontal tail
202

has been no space to install data acquisition equipment on

board of the airplane. However, parachutist bailing-out
has been filmed, the observation of film confirming the
conclusions about the airplane behavior.

Taking into the account the cited limitations, the nonnegative conclusion about the behavior of the Lasta
airplane during pilot/parachutist bail-out can be made.
There are no indications that there are problems in the
behavior of the Lasta airplane during transients after
pilot/parachutist bails-out.

With the proper presentation of inertial data, it shall be

possible to analyze airplane behavior in the pilot bail-out
by the full, nonlinear model simulation, the simulation
program being in the final phases of testing. For this case
of the simulation, the flight control inputs to the airplane
dynamic are obtained by the program NOM_LET that
provides the inverse solution of the airplane dynamic
problem.

8. CONCLUSION
The method for the analysis of the airplane transients after
pilot bail-out is presented in this paper. This is simple and
fast method based on the short period mode of airplane
longitudinal motion. Basic variables subjected to the
analysis are the variations of angle of attack deviation
and pitch angle deviation . The objective of the
analysis is to detect weather there are any critical values
of the angle of attack deviation or excessive amount of
pitch angle deviation . Mandatory requisite for the
method application is the proper quality of input data.

REFERENCES
[1] Stojakovi,P.: The analysis of the external stores and
assymetric loads influence upon the airplane
dynamics, PhD Thesis, University of Belgrade,
Belgrade, 2012.
[2] Blackelock,J.H.: Automatic Control of Aircraft and
Missiles, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, 1965.
[3] -11-5003: AIRPLANE LASTA elaborate about
first prototype final testing (in Serbian), Technical
Testing Center, Belgrade Batajnica, 2011.,
[4] Lasta 95, the referent base of geometry, inertial and
engine data as the input of the software airplane
analysis (in Serbian), V3-0543-P-023, Military
Technical institute Belgrade, Zarkovo, 2007.,

The method has been applied to several sequences of

front rear seat bailing-out, although only two of them
are presented herein. Some sequences that are not presented are related to the emergency final bailing-out from
the airplane resulting in airplane crash.
Performed flight testing of the parachutist bailing-out
from the Lasta airplane confirmed the qualitative conclusions of the airplane behavior. Unfortunately, because
Lasta is small airplane, during this flight testing there

203

DETERMINATION OF THE STARTING POINT OF AIRCRAFT ATTACK

TERMINATION OVER THE GROUND TARGET IN AIRCRAFT
AUTOMATIC GUIDING MODE
NIKOLA PEKI
Strategic Planning Department of Defence Policy Sector of Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Serbia, Belgrade,
nikola.pekic@mod.gov.rs
SLAVIA VLAI
Department of Military Aviation of Military Academy of Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Serbia, Belgrade,
slavisavlacic@yahoo.com
ALEKSANDAR KNEEVI
Department of Military Aviation of Military Academy of Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Serbia, Belgrade,
aleksandarkneyevic75@gmail.com

Abstract: The attack on the target is most responsible faze of combat flight and makes its basic content. The result of
each attack of crew determines the success of attack, and eventually success of combat flight of units. Also, the
variation of aircraft velocity changes its position (angle of attack). The size of the change is known factor, and the
corresponding position of the aircraft when firing or realising the bomb is fixed in advance. If the aircraft is started the
diving with a certain airspeed, and if it descends it is desirable that the plane reaches the desired angle at the same time
when it comes to the desired distance of firing (or bombs realise) as soon as possible. For all three types of attacks on
ground targets (attack by bombs, rockets and cannon fire) are common following important factors: the angle of diving,
firing distance (bombing), airspeed during the firing (realise), the height of the starting point of attack, safe flying
altitude above the ground, acceleration of aircraft during the termination of manoeuvre, the attitude of aircraft during
the firing (bombs realise) and aiming corrections. Taking into account the given scope of these issues, this paper
presents a methodology for determination of the starting point of aircraft attack termination over the ground target in
aircraft automatic guiding mode.
Keywords: manoeuvre of attack over ground target, the minimum safe distance of firing, the minimum distance for the
beginning of manoeuvre termination of the aircraft attack over ground target.

D
Df
min Df
Du

min Du

h
nz
nza

max n z

dp

- coefficient of permissible load-bearing

properties of the airframe;
- coefficient of maximum load by exploiting
the strength of airframe;
- coefficient of limit load due to the
physiological capabilities of pilot;
- thrust;
- angle of bent;
- radius of scattering of grenades;
- minimum safe altitude of flight;
- distance of the aircraft from the ground
target;
- pilot delay time;

- time of opening fire;

- time delay of changes in the normal load up

to the maximum available;
- vertical speed of descent of the aircraft in the
inertial coordinate system;
- maximum angle of deflection of weapon;

nzl

NOMENCLATURE
distance from ground target;
range firing;
minimum safe distance for firing;
distance of the aircraft from the beginning of
the pulling out from the manoeuvre of attack
over ground target;
minimum distance of the aircraft from the
beginning of the pulling out from the
manoeuvre of attack over ground target;
zone where the flight altitude is dangerous
for the aircraft;
airspeed;
diving angle of aircraft;
flight altitude;
coefficient of the normal load;
maximum available value of coefficient of
the normal load;
maximum rate of increase of coefficient of
the normal load;

nze max
nzf

Rf
hs
L

h
max d

204

max  d

rz

- maximum angular speed of rotation of

weapon;
- radius of curvature of the trajectory;

Zone where the altitude of the aircraft is dangerous for

flying is limited (Figure 1) by radius of scattering of
grenades (Rf) and the minimum safe altitude of flight hs.
Dangerous altitude of flight h is determined based on the
distance of the aircraft (L) from the ground target:

1. INTRODUCTION

h = max hs ; R 2f L2 , if

2
2
L = R f + h 2 < R 2f hs2

In the process of manoeuvre of attack on small ground

target by aircraft i.e. dotted ground target using the
unguided aviation ordnance, range firing (Df) determines
the accuracy of the destruction of a given ground target
and affects the safety of pulling out the aircraft from
attack manoeuvre. One way or method to increase flight
safety and effectiveness of attacks on the ground target is
the automatic determination of the moment, that is, the
point of beginning of the safe pulling out of the aircraft
from attack on the ground target, as well as the
application of automatic control of the aircraft during the
pulling out of the aircraft from diving. Automate control
of the aircraft in such a manner determined by the
characteristics of the aircraft computer, and precision of
aircrafts sight unit or receiving accurate coordinate of
movement of the aircraft relative to the ground target.

(1)

Aircraft flight parameters at phase of attack over the

ground target are using at any time as the initial
conditions for the calculation, by board computer, of the
predicted pulling out trajectory of the aircraft from attack
and minimum distance to fire. The value of the aircrafts
airspeed V, diving angle of the aircraft, the angle of bent
and acceleration of the aircraft accurately is determined
based on the measurement results of inertial navigation
system.

Input values for the resolution of the given problem of

automation execution of the manoeuvre are compliant
with the given conditions of flight of the aircraft during
the pulling out from the attack over the ground target in
the moment of firing or dismissal of bombs at a minimum
distance from the target.
In this paper, we propose a method for determining the
minimum allowable distance of application of aircraft
weaponry, and point (moment) of safe start of pulling out
of the aircraft from attack over the ground target, which
is based on data obtained by different sensory systems of
the aircraft and the capabilities/performances of board
computer.

Figure 1: Attack over the ground target from diving

Control mode of the aircraft during the manoeuvre of
pulling out from the attack is carried out
programmatically based on the minimum possible
distance of the aircraft from the ground target at the start
of the manoeuvre of pulling out from the attack. This is
achieved at zero bent of an aircraft, the maximum engine
thrust and the maximum rate of increase in the normal
load max n z to the maximum available value
max n za = min {n zl , n ze max , n zf }, where nzl permissible

2. CONDITIONS AND RESTRICTIONS FOR

CARING OUT OF TASK
The minimum safe distance for firing (min Df) and the
minimum distance of the aircraft from the beginning of
the pulling out from the manoeuvre of attack over ground
target (min Du) generally depends on:

load-bearing properties of the airframe, which is

determined by the loss of the aircraft speed, stability and
effectiveness of the stabilizer of the aircraft, nze max
maximum load by exploiting the strength of airframe, nzf

Dimensions of zone where the flight altitude is

dangerous for the aircraft;
Motion parameters of the aircraft on the stage of the
attack over the ground target (aircrafts airspeed V,
diving angle of aircraft, altitude h, the coefficient of
the normal load nz, ...);
Control mode of the aircraft in the phase of pulling out
from the attack over the ground target (the coefficient
of the normal load nz, thrust T, the angle of bent etc.);
Automation control of the aircraft on the pulling out
phase of attack over the ground target;
Types of instruments (aircraft equipment) and the
accuracy of determining the coordinates of the
movement of the aircraft relative to the ground target,
as well as the accuracy of the calculation of the moment
of pulling out from the attack;
Characteristics of the weaponry and limitations in its
application.

limit load due to the physiological capabilities of pilot.

The accuracy of maintaining the adopted program control
of aircraft during the pulling out from attack depends on
the level of its automation. When performing a manual
control of the aircraft by the pilot, it is necessary to
consider, in the accepted algorithm of calculation: min Df,
greater rapid limitations of normal load nzf on the working
ability of the pilot. In the case of a fully automated control
of the aircraft the nzf value may be taken to be close to the
available load for strength and load-bearing properties of
the airframe. Value max nz also depends on the level of
automation control of the aircraft. For manual control of
the aircraft the pilot delay time dp is introduced and
embedded into the given solution of beginning of pulling
205

out of the aircraft from the attack. In general case, the

program of control of the aircraft in the algorithm of
calculations min Df need to be based on statistical
correlations of control functions, which are realized in a
specific aircraft by different pilots. Automated control of
aircraft during the pulling out from the attack over the
ground target allows more precise implementation of the
programmed control, which causes the use of the last
moment, in the algorithm of calculation, of starting of
pulling out of the aircraft from attack.
Flying away of the aircraft from the ground target and
altitude are measuring by various sensors that are
connected to board computer. Sighting system of the
aircraft is equipped with a laser rangefinder and a laser
beam stabilization system, providing high measurement
accuracy of current distance from ground targets D, angle
and azimuth A and L of place. The accuracy of the
measurement of distance to ground target using aircraft
radar is less accurate than a laser rangefinder.
Laser altimeters provide greater measurement accuracy as
compared to the radio altimeter, as well as others whose
work is based on the measurement of the signals reflected
from the surface of the ground below the aircraft. Therefore
altimeters do not provide a reliable measurement of the
altitude of the flight, which refers to ground target onto
which attack is caring out, h (Figure 1). Therefore, the
altimeter loses the ability to work at high values of the angle
of pitch and bent, which excludes the possibility of its
application for measuring altitude in sharp, close to 90o,
diving of the aircraft. Taking into consideration the given
algorithm for determining the moment of beginning of the
safe pulling out of the aircraft from attack over the ground
target is expedient to determine, using higher precision and
reliability of the measured current coordinates of movement
of the aircraft relative to the ground target using the sighting
system of an aircraft with a laser rangefinder and inertial
navigation system, for example, the distance D, the angle of
inclination of the trajectory relative to the ground
= arcsin h V , the altitude of flight h = D sin = Dh V ,
where h vertical speed of descent of the aircraft in the
inertial (Earths) coordinate system (based on measurements
of the inertial navigation system).
Suspension of attack over ground target and giving the
signal to start the pulling out from attack is determined by
the number of cases of limitations of the applications of
the weapons (even within free conditions for safe over
flight of zone ). An example of such limitations arises,
for example, during: maximum angle of deflection of
weapon max d , the maximum angular velocity of the
line of sight of ground target during aiming, the maximum
angular speed of rotation of weapon maxd , etc.

assumes, with a specific purpose of determining of the

point B of the beginning of pulling out from attack in the
following consistency (correlations) (in the process of
caring out of the attack over ground target by aircraft):
Input of current parameters of movement of aircraft in
the board computer based on the given measurement
results of sensor systems of the aircraft;
The default coordinate of starting point B of pulling out
of aircraft from the attack over the target;
Integration of equations of motion of the aircraft in the
adopted program of control at the phase of pulling out;
Review of conditions of the safety of trajectory during
the pulling out from the attack
h h

(2)

where E small value, which is characteristic for the

accuracy of the solution;
In the case of non-fulfilments of condition (2) shall be
changing the position of the point B and repetition of
the integration of equations of motion of the aircraft is
going.
Number of iterations of the algorithm depends on the
required accuracy of solution E to determine min Du.
The algorithm of calculating the (estimated/predicted)
trajectory of pulling out of the aircraft from attack is carried
out in board computer during the phase of attack over ground
target with discreet t p , and includes the following:
Into the phase of attack over ground target for each
lapse of time t p in the board computer introduce the
motion parameters of the aircraft, which are taken as
initial parameters for the integration of the equations of
motion of the aircraft during the pulling out from the
attack;
Through the integration of the equations of motion of
the aircraft in the board computer, by accepted/adopted
program of control, forms the calculated trajectory of
pulling out from attack over the ground target;
Check the safety conditions of pulling out based on
calculated trajectory
h h > 0

(3)

In the case of any breach of conditions (3) the signal for

pulling out of the aircraft from attack over the ground
target is going and determines the min Df and min Du.
The accuracy of calculating of min Df and min Du determines
by discreet obtained calculated trajectories, i.e. t p time.
For example, a miscalculation min Du suits to
D f = V t p

3. ALGORITHM FOR DETERMINING

MINIMUM SAFE DISTANCE OF OPENING
FIRE AND MINIMUM DISTANCE FOR THE
BEGINNING OF THE PULLING OUT OF
AIRCRAFT FROM ATTACK OVER THE
GROUND TARGET

(4)

The shape of the final formulae based on permissible

permanency (constancy) of speed and normal load during
the phase of pulling out of the aircraft from attack, i.e.
constant radius of curvature of the trajectory is:
rz =

Iterative algorithm for determining min Df and min Du

using differential equations of motion of the aircraft
206

V f2

g nzr cos
2

= const.

(5)

Given algorithm does not require integration of the equations

of motion in the board computer and even simpler to
calculate than the algorithm of calculating the calculated
trajectories. By diving angle increase till 80-90 increases
the error of determining the value of the min Df and min Du
in accordance with the final formulae (59) in the direction
of their increase up to 2050 meters, i.e. towards improving
the safety of the pulling out from diving, and at the expense
of reducing the effectiveness of the destruction of ground
target.

For different ways of attack over ground target the final

formulae of calculating min Df and min Du are different.
During the attack over the ground target from diving
(Figure 1):

rz
R f 1 + 2 R
f

min Du = max
f
1 cos

2
hs + rz
sin

(6)

min D f = min Du + V f ( f + d )

(7)

4. CONCLUSION
The manoeuvre of a ground target attacking by modern
aircraft using the gun and non-guided rocket missiles,
includes diving phase in which bringing the weapon (the
gun) into the aiming point and opening fire is
accomplished (the rocket launching). In the diving
process, the gravity force (mg) projection in the given
trajectory brings about acceleration of the aircraft. In the
process of introducing the aircraft into diving and long
time aiming and opening fire (which sometimes
approaches 10s), the aircraft velocity increases to the
level where exceeding the maximum allowed velocity are
possible, or exceeding the critical Mach number and the
subsequent abrupt change of the aircraft static stability
reserve, as well as the longitudinal controllability
characteristic.
In addition, velocity increase in diving results in the
increase of the aircraft trajectory curve radius during
pulling out of the diving, as well as in the height increase
of the point where pulling out of the diving commences,
and, as the consequence, in the increase of the firing
distance, reducing the probability of the target
destruction. The continuous increase of the flight velocity
in diving (the non-stationary nature of moving) causes
also increased scattering of grenades during firing
(rockets fusillade) if the opening fire calculation is done
according to the medium velocity value (for fire opening),
diving angles and attack angles. Velocity increase entails
the necessity for the continual attack angle decrease for
the purpose of maintaining the straight line diving
trajectory (of the normal load nz const. ) during
launching rockets, or the necessity for continual
maintaining the equilibrium of the moment of the
longitudinal position change for maintaining the aiming
angle during opening gun fire.
To conclude, the character of control functions change
(attack angle, bent, thrust, engine thrust vector deflection
angle) in the course of executing the ground target attack
manoeuvre out of acute diving, represents a sufficiently
complex task for the manual control to be carried out by
the pilot and points to the necessity for the automation of
the manoeuvre execution.

where in:

time of opening fire

d
time delay of changes in the normal load up to
the maximum available.

During the attack over the ground target from condition of

horizontal flight the minimum distance of firing is
determined by taking into account the constraints on the
angle of sight the target max d and the angular velocity
of the line of sight ( max d at the maximum angle and
rate of turning the moveable aircrafts cannon barrel)
(Figure 2):
min Du =

( rz + R f )2 ( rz + h )2 + h2 ,

(8)

if h < R f
min D f =

h
sin max
d
hfl

Vf
1 1 + V 2 4h 2 max 2
=max
f
d
d 2

max

2

2
2
2

( rz + R f ) ( rz + h ) + V f ( f + d ) + h ,

if

h < Rf

(9)

LITERATURE
[1] Gal-Or,B.: Vectored Propulsion, Supermaneuverability
and Robot Aircraft, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1990.
[2] Ikaza,D., Rausch,C.: Thrust vectoring
for
Eurofighter - the first steps, Air & Space Europe, 1
(2000) 9295.

Figure 2: Attack over the ground target from

horizontal flight
207

with classical power group and aircraft with thrust

vectoring, XXXV Symposium on Operational
Research SYM-OP-IS 2008 (in Serbian), Faculty of
Transport and Traffic Engineering, Belgrade, 2008.
[6] Peki,N.: Actual methods of application the new
generation aircraft in the course of attacking moving
targets in the air and on the ground, Doctoral
Dissertation (in Serbian) University of Belgrade
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UDK number:
623.746.3:533.6.013(043.3), Belgrade, 2013.

[3] Nelubov,.I.: Flight performance and combat

aircraft maneuvering (in Russian), Air Force
Engineering Orders of Lenin and the October
Revolution, Red Banner Academy named after
Professor N.E. Zhukovsky, Moscow, 1986.
[4] Peki,N.: The results of combat attack manoeuvre
modelling on ground target using aircraft steep
diving, Military Technical Courier (in Serbian), 6
(2005) 534-541.
[5] Peki,N.: Comparison flight parameters of aircraft

208

ANALYSIS OF LASTA AIRCRAFT IMPROVEMENT BY INTEGRATION

OF A TURBOPROP POWERPLANT
DRAGAN ILI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, dragan_ilic01@yahoo.com
VOJISLAV DEVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vojislav.devic@vti.vs.rs
KOSTA VELIMIROVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, kolevelimirovic@yahoo.com
VUK ANTONI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vukantonic@gmail.com
MIODRAG MILENKOVI-BABI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, miodragmbm@yahoo.co.uk

Abstract: Feasibility study of converting existing training aircraft into the turboprop airplane is presented in this paper.
The main improvements that justify integration of a turboprop powerplant onto existing training aircraft are the
increased performance and maneuverability resulting in the higher training qualities and easier conversion to combat
jet aircraft.
Different characteristics of foreign turboprop-engined aircraft and turboprop powerplants are analyzed to demonstrate
possible increases in Lasta training aircraft performance and capabilities. Two levels of modifications have been
analyzed. The medium one incorporates two additional wing weapon hardpoints, larger integral fuel-tanks and other
airframe modifications of a new aircraft variant, as well as air-conditioning and oxygen systems, resulting in increased
performance and flight ceiling. The minimal one considers integration of a turboprop engine onto existing airframe,
outlining performance and usage limitations of modified aircraft. Comparison of training capabilities and pilot training
process based on the initial and modified versions of the airplane has been done. Further on, the impact of the
modification on the manufacturing process and retooling amount has been analyzed.
Keywords: turboprop, training, aircraft, upgrade, study
logistics and improving the aircrafts characteristics in hot
and humid climates. Such use is further improved by the
integration of an oxygen supply and climate control
systems. Flight safety is improved by use of ejection seats
or a whole aircraft parachute.

1. INTRODUCTION
Light piston-engined training aircraft, comparable to
Lasta[1-2], are often, after the introduction into service and
verification of flight and maintenance characteristics,
upgraded by integration of a turboprop powerplant. A
turboprop engine, usually with 50% greater power,
improves the aircrafts maneuverability and expands its
flight envelope both in terms of speed (usually an increase
of 100 km/h in cruise speed), climb speed (around 50%)
and flight ceiling. By integrating a turboprop engine onto
Lasta, the aircraft would not only support selection and
basic training, but also a larger part of primary and
weapon training usually performed on jet aircraft.

2. WORLD PRACTICE EXAMPLES

Almost every company that produces light piston engined
military training aircraft later on produced a turboproppowered variant. Characteristics of Italian SIAIMARCHETI SF 260 TP, French SOCATA TB 31
Omega, Finnish-Italian Valmet L-90TP Redigo, Japanese
FUJI KM-2 Kai/T7, German GROB 120TP and Chilean
ENAER T-35DT Pillan (Picture 1) were analyzed and are
presented in Table 1 [3]. All of these aircraft have used a
Rolls-Royce Model 250-B17 (Picture 3) engine or its older
variant (Allison 250-B17), with the exception of
Turbomeca TP 319-1A2 engine integrated onto SOCATA
TB.31 Omega aircraft.

Additionally, pilots adaptation to jet aircraft would be

eased because of the similarity in the use of a turboprop
engine and a jet engine. Another advantage is the use of
the cheaper, more commonly available, safer for storage
and more ecological jet fuel, further simplifying airport
209

Also, SOCATA TB 31 Omega and GROB 120TP possess

ejection seats, in likeness to larger turboprop-powered
aircraft such as Pilatus PC-7 MkII, PC-9, PC-21,
EMBRAER Tucano and Super Tucano, KAI KT-1 and
TAI Hurkus. Omega, being also weapon-capable,
posesses a Martin Baker Mk15 ejection seat and Grob

120TP uses a newer Martin Baker Mk17. None of the

aircraft in this category possesses a whole-aircraft saving
parachute, but it is an option successfully implemented on
some general aviation aircraft of comparable weight, size
and speed envelope and it will be considered for
integration onto a Lasta turboprop variant.

Picture 1: Competitors: SF 260TP, TB 31 Omega, Valmet L-90TP Redigo, Fuji T-7, Grob 120TP, T-35DT Pilan
Table 1: Foreign light turboprop trainer aircraft comparison
SIAIVALMET
SOCATA
MARCHETTI
L-90TP
TB.31 Omega
SF.260TP
Redigo
Layout
side-by-side
tandem
side-by-side
Length (m)
7.4
7.8
7.9
Wingspan (m)
8.35
7.9
10.3
Wing area (m2)
10.1
9.0
14.8
Mass, empty (kg)
750
860
890
A1,475
A 1,350
Mass, takeoff (kg)
1,300
U1650
U 1470
A 91.5
Max specific wing load
129
161
U 99.7
(kg/m2)
A 0.199
Specific power (kW/kg)
0.20
0.184
U 0.182
Max level speed (km/h)
422
434
352
Vne speed (km/h)
437
518
465
Stall speed (km/h)
126
118
93
Max climb rate (m/s)
11
11.2
9.8
Usable flight ceiling (m)
7500
9100
7620
Ferry distance (km)
950
1400
1500
Flight duration (h)
4+
4
Load factor (g)
+6/-3
+7/-3.5
+7/-3.5
Allison
Turbomeca
Allison
Powerplant
U250-B17D TP 319-1A2
250-B17F
350 SHP
360 SHP
420 SHP
Power
261 kW
269 kW
313 kW

210

FUJI KM-2
ENAER TGROB 120TP
Kai/T-7
35DT Pillan
tandem
8.59
10.04
16.5
1080
A 1.585
U 1.805
A 96.06
U 109.39
A 0.165
U 0.145
376
413
104
8.6
7625
945

Allison
250-B17D
450 SHP
336 kW

side-by-side
8,11
10,18
13,3
1095
A1440
U1515

tandem
7.97
8.81
13.64
833

119.54

A 96.4

0.178

A 0.238

441
max 453
105.4
14.5
7620
1074
5.4
+6/-4
Rolls-Royce
M250-17BF
450 SHP
336 kW

382
411
115

1315

+6/-3
Allison
250-B17F
420 SHP
313 kW

Taking into account all engine specifications [5], as well

as its certification and use on other aircraft (Table 1) a
concept with a Rolls-Royce 250-B17F type engine has
been further analyzed.

3. ENGINE SELECTION AND ITS IMPACT

ON WEIGHT AND BALANCE
Several possible engines have been analyzed:

Rolls-Royce 250-B17F together with a selected propeller

weighs 154 kg (103+51) and is significantly lighter than
the current Lycoming AEIO580 engine and propeller
combination 257.5 kg (230,5+27). Integration of such a
light powerplant in place of the existing engine, without
further airframe modification, would result in large shift
in the aircraft center of gravity (furthest rear CG would
move to a 40% MAC position). Considering Lasta
aircraft flight test data and stability and controllability
requirements, with the influence of a turboprop engine a
range of 21-28% MAC is required. Moving the center of
gravity into the required range is possible in two ways:

Honeywell engine Garrett TPE 311, Pratt & Whitney

PT6A-25A are too large, heavy and powerful for use on a
light aircraft such a Lasta and are used exclusively on
heavier aircraft (PC-9, T-6 Texan II, Tucano...)
Ivchenko-Progress AI 450S engine with a mass of 115kg
and power of 400 SHP was considered as a promising
candidate, but its volume and shape proved impractical
for integration onto Lasta, especially due to its length and
a bulge on the top of the engine, which significantly
reduces front visibility (to around 6 over the aircraft
nose). The engine has been used for conversion of
existing radial piston engines on Russian-built aircraft.
Having in mind the current situation in Ukraine, as well
as the uncompleted engine certification process, no
further detailed analysis of this engine integration upon
the airplane performance has been conducted.

Moving the wing backwards by ~200 mm, requiring a

complete redesign of the center fuselage section, with
new frame arrangement, new static structural tests, new
fuselage tooling. Also the distance between the wing
and the tail surfaces is reduced, which is unfavorable. In
total, this solution requires a thorough redesign of the
airplane;
Lengthening the fuselage forward by 300 mm.
This solution has much smaller impact in terms of
required retooling, amount of aerodynamic and
structural modification.
The second solution is the one that has been considered
further. It requires adding one more fuselage frame in
front of the existing one, moving the front landing gear
forwards and moving all heavy components (battery,
hydraulics components, electrical components)
forward, into the engine compartment and placing the air
conditioning equipment or oxygen equipment into the
newly created fuselage volume. The resulting mass and
CG data is:

Picture 2 Ivchenko-Progress AI450S

Empty aircraft mass

850 kg

Rolls-Royce Model 250-B17F engine (Picture 3) [4] is

widely used for general aviation aircraft: Group BN-2T,
Extra EA-500, Grob G 140TP, Cessna P-210, Bonanza
and Vulcanair A-Viator as well as trainers Grob 120 TP.

Fuel mass

260 kg

Older variants of the same engine (Allison 250-B17) were

used on SIAI-MARCHETI SF-260-TP, FUJI KM-2
Kai/T7, VALMET L-90 TP Redigo and ENAER T-35DT
Pillan.

Front CG position (1 pilot, max fuel)

> 21%

Back CG position (2 pilots, reserve fuel)

< 28%

Max takeoff mass (Aerobatic)

1300 kg

Max takeoff mass (Utility)

1650 kg

Spec. wing load (A/U)

Spec. power (A/U)

100.7/127.9 kg/m2
0.255/0.2 kW/kg

Fuel mass of 260 kg is sized for the requirement of

maximum flight duration of more than 4 hours and is to
be held in enlarged integral fuel tanks in front of the main
wing spars.

4. POSSIBLE MODIFICATIONS ANALYSIS

Three global fuselage lengthening configurations have
been considered:
Lengthening the fuselage by addition of one more
fuselage frame and moving the whole cabin area
forwards by 300 mm
Lengthening the fuselage without moving the cabin

Picture 3: Rolls-Royce Model 250-B17F

211

(necessary CG position would be obtained by

placement of all heavy components into the lengthened
fuselage section). This solution has two variants, the
first is integration of a whole-aircraft parachute and the
second one is intended for modification of existing,
already produced, aircraft

Takeff and landing mass of this variant would be

increased by around 50kg compared to the other two.

Variant 2: production of new aircraft with an

increased safety level
Second solution includes lengthening the fuselage,
moving the nose landing gear forward by 300 mm and
integrating the aircraft-saving parachute into the
lengthened fuselage space (Picture 5), with a mass of
around 40kg [7], while the engine compartment would be
used to house other heavy components (battery,
hydraulics pack, electrical components) and the airconditioning unit. Integration of a whole-aircraft
parachute would increase the safety level while the seats
would be of a standard design, with removal of the pilot
backpack parachutes, thus minimizing the added weight.
However, integrating the oxygen supply unit together
with the aircraft parachute is not possible, prevented by
the balance limitations, as well as the available space in
the lengthened fuselage section.

Variant 1: production of new aircraft with a high

level of pilot safety
First solution (Picture 4) includes lengthening the
fuselage, moving the nose landing gear forward, moving
the whole cabin space (instrument panels, pilots, seats,
controls etc.) forwards by 300 mm, redesign of the
canopy and surrounding fuselage area and integration of
ejection seats (Martin Baker Mk17 [6] ), air-conditioning
and oxygen supply systems. This variant provides the
best solution to the center of gravity problem (CG range is
the smallest), as well as being the safest solution, since it
includes ejection seat integration. The resulting aircraft
has the highest safety level, best forward visibility (over
the aircrafts nose) and the best range of possible missions.

Picture 2: Lasta Turboprop variant 1, ejection seat integration

Picture 3: Lasta Turboprop variant 2, parachute integration in front of the cockpit

212

engine characteristics, takeoff mass of 1300 kg and fuel

mass of 260 kg have been calculated :

Variant 2b: production of new or modification of

existing aircraft with keeping the current pilot
safety level
Current cabin area, with all equipment and structures
would be kept (similar to Picture 5). The fuselage would
be lengthened and the nose landing gear moved forward
by 300 mm, with the lengthened section containing all
heavy components (battery, hydraulics unit, electrical
components) air-conditioning unit, oxygen supply. The
impact on manufacturing is minimal and thus this variant
would be an option for an upgrade of already produced
aircraft. Such an upgraded aircraft would keep its current
weapon-carrying capabilities (without addition of another
weapon hardpoint on the wing) and would be limited in
terms of its flight-envelope (lower speeds and load factors
at the levels of existing aircraft).

Maximum level speed

400+ km/h

Stall speed

115- km/h

Cruise speed

380 km/h

Maximum climb speed

13,5+ m/

Steady turn load factor

3,4 g

Flight ceiling

7500+ m

Flight duration

4+ hours

Ferry range

1100+ km

Takeoff distance

265 m

Landing distance

575 m

Utility, armed, variant would weigh up to 1650 kg,

providing a single-pilot capacity of 450 kg of weapons on
four hardpoints.

For all three variants fuel tank modifications are required.

Current Lasta aircraft fuel tank can hold up to 170 kg of
fuel, supporting two training classes. For longer flights (4
hours maximum duration) additional 80 kg of fuel is
required. There are three solutions for increasing the fuel
capacity:

Performance and weights calculations (especially

maximum level speed of 400+ km/h, and increase of dive
speed VD from 430 to 500+ km/h) would require some
local strengthening of rear fuselage structure, control
surfaces connections and tail surfaces, as well as possible
local reinforcement of other parts of the fuselage
structure. Also, local reinforcement of the landing gear
and increase in the shock absorber capacity is required
because of the increased landing weight and a need for
increased weapon stores clearance from the runway.

Increasing the wing leading-edge integral fuel tanks up

to the 260 kg capacity,
Adding an additional fuel tank in the second pilot
compartment for single-pilot missions (more than 80
kg)
Integration of drop tanks on wing weapon hardpoints
(more than 80 kg).

Besides its main purpose, basic part training, a turboprop

Lasta could be used for elements of weapons training and
a whole range of missions. Weapon capacity of 450 kg
and maximal flight duration of 4+ hours would enable
the use in light counter-insurgency (COIN) missions,
patrol, search and reconnaissance missions...

Tip tank integration, a common solution on other aircraft

(for example SF260TP) would require considerable wing
modifications and has not been considered further.
Depending on the mission, different solutions are optimal.
For attack missions the best solution is installment of a
fuel tank in the second cockpit, while for reconnaissance,
search and patrol missions, underwing fuel tanks with
cameras integrated into the front part of the tank would be
optimal.

Modern glass-cockpit equipment, already present on the

Lasta aircraft, would be improved by addition of a new
engine, possessing FADEC (Full Authority Digital
Engine Control) functions and single-lever controls. This
arrangement would not only improve training qualities
providing greater likeness to the jet engine aircraft, but
also allow the use of the HOTAS (Hands On Throttle And
Stick) concept, leading to pilot workload reductions,
freeing his attention to focus on the surroundings and
mission fulfillment.
Oxygen supply and air-conditioning systems allow for
missions and flights on higher altitudes, lead to significant
improvements in pilot comfort, especially in hot and
humid climates. Exploitation characteristics in hot and
humid climates are also improved by the use of a
stronger, jet-fueled, engine. A turboprop powerplant also
leads to abandonment of the dangerous, easily
combustible, hard to store and ecologically problematic
AVGAS 100LL leaded fuel.

Picture 6: Example patrol mission profile

6. MANUFACTURING AND ECONOMIC

CONSIDERATIONS

5. PERFORMANCE AND CAPABILITIES

Lengthening of the fuselage and a completely new engine

compartment (engine mount, engine cowling, front
landing gear integration etc.) lead to manufacturing,

Performance for an aerobatic category variant (+6/-3g

loads), engine power of 450 HP and other available
213

retooling and testing requirements, different for all the

variants considered in Section 4.

All the mentioned costs add to market price increase of

the new aircraft. Existing aircraft mentioned in Section 2
reflect this with the minimum aircraft market price
increase of close to 80% (SF 260TP) for regular equipped
aircraft. In the case of GROB 120A to GROB 120TP
conversion, because of the numerous modifications and
massive retooling for new composite structure production,
as well as integration of ejection seats and most modern
virtual training systems, aircraft market price tripled
(from 0,9 to 2,7 million $), while still remaining a
competitive and popular solution.

Variant 1: production of new aircraft with a high

level of pilot safety
For this variant local structure modifications require
testing. Wing tooling modification would be minimal,
while fuselage tooling would need to be modified in a
greater extent. New engine compartment tools are
required, as well as new tool for cabin interior structures
(instrument panels). Main assembly jigs can be
modified from the existing ones. Fuselage modifications
would require some structural testing and ejection seat
integration would require at least one ejection test per seat
to be completed (a mockup of cabin section fuselage and
a complete canopy would have to be provided).

7. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF PISTON

AND TURBOPROP AIRPLANE VARIANTS
Taking into account that high performance, combat
aircraft-like cockpit, modern avionics and a range of
weapon configurations will increase the training
envelope, provide a significant weapon training
capability, as well as a larger range of basic training
missions than the piston-powered variant, leading to easy
pilot transition to any advanced (jet) training aircraft, the
total price of pilot training can be reduced up to 50% by
reducing the number of flight hours a student flies on a
very expensive to operate jet trainer or a powerful and
expensive (1000+ HP) heavy turboprop trainer.

Variant 2: production of new aircraft with an

increased safety level
This variant keeps the old cabin and canopy layout, thus
there is no need for changing the tools required for the
previous variant. As with variant 1, wing tools would stay
the same, while fuselage tools could be modified from
existing ones. New engine compartment tools are
required. Some modifications to the front central console
are mandatory in order to allow for integration of the
parachute. The extent of retooling and modifications is
smaller than for variant 1, leading to the decrease in the
price of the aircraft. Use of a parachute is a significantly
cheaper solution than ejection seats, but would require a
drop test of a larger structural segment than the one
needed for ejection tests.

The aircrafts low price and low fuel consumption present

a large economic benefit compared to jet trainers, as well
as larger turboprop training aircraft (PC-7MkII, PC-9,
Tucano). Simple and cheap maintenance, ease of field
repair (due to full aluminum structure of modern design),
low logistics requirements (including dirt and grass
airfield capability) lead to further savings.

Variant 2b: production of new or modification of

existing aircraft with keeping the current pilot
safety level
The complete cabin area, canopy and cabin equipment are
kept the same. The need for modifications and retooling is
small and would allow for upgrading already produced
aircraft. As in variants 1 and 2a, new engine compartment
tools are needed.

Cost Analysis
Considering the required retooling and additional testing
for each variant, as well as newly integrated engine and
systems, the aircraft price would significantly increase
compared to the existing aircraft. The biggest increase
would come from the powerplant itself (200.000$
compared to 70.000$ for the current engine), new
propeller (evaluated at 15.000 $ compared to 7.000 $),
ejection seats for the variant 1 (150.000$ for two seats) or
parachute for variant 2 (25.000$). Modification of
existing and manufacturing of new tooling, as well as
production of new structural elements vary greatly
between variants, but would be the greatest for variant 1,
and smallest for variant 2b. Design work and testing
needed for new structures and equipment (ejection or
parachute test in particular) further add to the project cost.

Picture 7: Example ground attack mission profile

Reducing the number of different aircraft used in the
training process leads to savings in the number of hours
spent for familiarizing the student with each new airplane.
Being much cheaper (to own and operate) and lighter than
larger turboprop competitors and possessing a
significantly wider range of weapons and missions than
similar-class competitors give the turboprop-powered
Lasta the edge in the training and light COIN role.
The 10000 hours or 30 years life cycle with low Life
Cycle Costs (LCC), as well as low Direct Operating Costs
(DOC) and highest safety level of all weapon-capable
214

light training aircraft (due to the installed ejection seats)

make the turboprop-powered Lasta an exceptional choice
for basic and primary training and COIN missions.

and capabilities, would be a promising upgrade

opportunity for current users of the Lasta aircraft and
would be the cheapest to develop, test and manufacture.

8. CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

This paper considered three variants of Lasta aircraft

upgrade by integration of a turboprop engine. Very
significant increases in performance, training and combat
capabilities completely justify such a modification. The
most promising and capable variant would be Variant 1,
offering the best performance and capabilities compared
to competing aircraft, while maintaining very competitive
cost and exploitation qualities. Such an upgrade of the
Lasta aircraft would become the only tandem-seated
modern light turboprop equipped with ejection seats and
weapon capabilities, thus having a very good market
potential. The second variant (Variant 2a) would be
significantly cheaper while still possessing competitive
capabilities, being the only aircraft in this class with a
parachute aircraft-saving system. The third variant
(Variant 2b), while possessing less advanced performance

[1] Molovic,V.,
Marjanovi,A.,
Zdravkovi,M.,
Velimirovi,K.: Calculation of aerodynamic
characteristics and flight performance of the
airplane LASTA-95, V3-0464-P-023, MTI, 2002.
[2] Ocokolji,G., Ili,B.: Airplane LASTA-95 model 1:5
testing, in windtunnel T-35, VTI VSCG, 2005.
[3] Jane's all the world's aircraft, ISSN 0075-3017
[4] http://www.rolls-royce.com
[5] 250-B17D Installation Design manual, Allison Gas
Turbine, 1985.
[6] http://www.martin-baker.com
[7] http://www.brsparachutes.com

215

PLM INTRODUCING PROGRAM USING LASTA TRAINING AIRCRAFT

DESIGN DATA AS BENCHMARKING OBJECTS
ZORAN VASI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vti@vti.vs.rs
MIODRAG IVANIEVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vti@vti.vs.rs
SRAN IVKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vti@vti.vs.rs

Abstract: PLM (Product Lifecycle Management) is business approach of product managing during creation and control
of engineering and other product data during complete product lifecycle. PLM as a business concept was developed to
manage a product, including not only items, document and BOMs, but also analysis results, test specifications, quality
standards, engineering requirements, change orders, manufacturing procedures, performance information, component
suppliers, etc. Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Serbia perceived the importance and benefits which could be
gained by introducing and use of PLM. Military Technical Institute (VTI) got the task to make detail analysis of PLM
introducing into VTI work practice, at first, and then into Serbian Defense industry. This paper is proceeding of
practice research activities in order to accomplish established objectives. Wing assembly of Lasta training aircraft and
related documents were chosen as product data for benchmarking two proposed PLM systems. The procedure of
defining the work processes used in VTI and in aircraft factory was shown. The procedure of establishing criteria for
choosing the optimal selection was shown. One of the feasible PLM solution systems was in trial in VTI using Lasta
aircraft product data. This paper represents several steps accomplished during piloting PLM system
Keywords: Aircraft, design, Product Lifecycle Management, PLM solution introduction, PLM introducing program.
product/aircraft. That difference and volume of data and
documents, due to the great number of different products
that have to be monitored and processed could make
confusion, errors and could compromise safety or loss of
material stuff and personnel. Our experience has shown
that manual processing of product data and legacy
documents have been prone to errors, slow and untimely
passed right decisions, or even could make incorrect
decisions.

1. INTRODUCTION
Support and management of all product data, processes
and activities during its lifecycle are defined as product
lifecycle management (PLM) [1]. PLM is an approach to
the management of the creation and propagation of
engineering data throughout the extended enterprise. The
emphasis within PLM is on processes that make and use
product data.
VTI (Aeronautical department) has current projects
which, looking any period of time, are in different phases
of their lifecycle. Current projects and products in this
moment are Turbo Prop Lasta, Kobac, Pegaz, Vrabac,
Lasta, Orao, and Super Galeb G-4. Figure 1 represents
present time and it could be seen that all current projects
are in different lifecycle phases. Some of them are in
Conceptual phase, some are in Requirement Management
phase, some are in Research & Development phase,
Prototype Production phase or Series Production phase,
and some are in Service & Maintenance phase or Upgrade
& Modernization phase. Several products have finished
their lifecycle so those projects are in Disposal & Out of
use phase. Each of these product phases (no matter what
kind of product is) requires creation and use of the
specific type of documents, as long as the processing of
data that are specific only for this phase in lifecycle of

Figure 1: VTI (Aeronautical department) products in

different lifecycle phases (an excerpt of current VTI
products portfolio)
216

Analysis of world experiences shows that many world

companies have been confronted with the similar
problems. Modern approach to project management
shows that there is a solution for product management
during complete product lifecycle known as Product
Lifecycle Management (PLM). The basic idea of the PLM
is to control the process of relevant product information
generation, utilization, distribution and maintenance
throughout a product lifecycle. The modern approach to
product information management, however, involves not
only recording information at different phases of product
lifecycle but also collecting relevant information and its
utilization as a resource for product management
throughout the life span of a product.

Today, many software enterprises offer so called PLM

solutions software packages, or with other similar
commercial names. These are software which are PDM
applications in its basis, but they are rather much more
than that. Such software enable much more capabilities
than standard PDM applications but those applications
cannot cover all under the name of PLM. Modern PLM
solution system capabilities include [1] workflow,
program management, and project control features that
standardize, automate, and speed up product management
operations.
Although a few so-called PDM solutions software remain
little more than CAD file managers, most PDM systems
include these essential product data management
functions: design documentation identification and
revision control, electronic data library for CAD files,
physical part attribute records, supplier source records,
bill of materials management, engineering change control
with workflow. PDM, as well as PLM, coordinates design
intent and provides an orderly flow of approved data [9].

2. DEFINITION OF PRODUCT LIFECYCLE

MANAGEMENT AND ITS COMPONENTS
PLM is a practical approach that uses a wide range of
different concepts, technologies, applications, and tools,
which extend to groups beyond the functions of a
company or even a supply network in order to manage
and control the lifecycle of a product [1]. The significance
of PLM today is increasing, especially for companies in
the manufacturing, high technology, and service
industries.

PDM is the central repository of the product definition:

requirements; drawings; supplier datasheets; test results;
assembly, test and inspection procedures; user
documentation; and technical field support materials.
PDM and PLM systems prevent costly errors related to
unapproved part substitutions, out-of-date documentation,
incorrect part numbers, and even many clerical errors in
transferring final designs into production. They can also
answer questions about what had previously been used,
who made changes and why, and what alternatives were
considered and rejected.

he basic components of PLM re the product, product

data, processes, applications, people, techniques and
equipment [2]. Each of these needs to be understood and
addressed correctly for PLM to be successful. Each of
these components has its own role. However, if one of the
components does not even exist, it could not be formed
PLM environment, or if the PLM environment is
established it could not be the effective environment.

PDM software focuses primarily on engineering tasks,

specifically the design release and change cycle, and
doesn't offer a complete data view over the entire product
life cycle. PDM software is often acquired to manage
purely technical design data. So, PDM software may be
weak in accommodating non-technical documents (such
as marketing requirements) and physical item records
(such as sales brochures) or post-sales documentation and
spares inventory affecting product support, service, and
disposal. PDMs do not include peripheral capabilities like
materials identification for regulatory compliance or cost
roll-ups for bill of materials analysis [10].

The main focus in this paper will be on PLM component

called application. There are many names for the same
thing. Beside the name application there are the notions,
such as Computer programs, Information Technology (IT)
systems, Software packages, Application programs, IT
tools, Information Systems (IS), IS applications,
Application software, Systems, Programmes, Tools,
Computer system and many others.
Product Data Management (PDM) applications are similar
to Technical Document Management applications and
Engineering Data Management applications. They
provide an electronic vault for product data, as well as
mechanisms to protect, index and access it [2]. PDM
applications can manage product data across the lifecycle.
However, in the early twenty-first century, they only
manage a part of a companys product data. Usually this
is product data created in product development
applications. Other product data is managed by other
applications. PDM application is a very specific type of
PLM application. It has the primary purpose of managing
product data. Apart from PDM applications, there are, of
course, many other applications that manage product data.
For example, ERP applications, product testing
applications and technical publishing systems all work
with, and manage, some product data. However, the
primary purpose of these other applications is not to
manage product data [2].

PDM software does not provide PLM's comprehensive

view of the information that should be managed as part of
your product's life cycle. PDM data is typically locked in
a user interface that non-technical users may find too
complex for their own product data management needs.

3. OVERVIEW OF ADOPTION OF PLM

PRINCIPLES INTO VTI WORK PRACTICE
Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Serbia realized the
importance and benefits which could be gained by
introducing and use of PLM. VTI got the task to make
detail analysis of PLM introducing into VTI work
practice, at first, and then into Serbian defense industry.
The beginning of our work with assigned task it was clear
that we would be faced with a period in which it must
attempt to discover which implementation model and
217

system suits it best. We knew that objective information is

more difficult to find. Commercial negotiations with the
PLM system supplier usually last for months. But the
work of preparing the foundation for a choice would not
be wasted for us. Rather, we know that it would increase
the companys maturity and level of knowledge in
relation to PLM.

management due to different creation source, Versioning

and variants of solutions, Request for change or analysis,
Data administration, Production, Service and quality
management, and Visualization. The group of economical
criteria is set of criteria that have financial aspect and it is
addressed to benefits that would be gained if the PLM
system was adopted. The group of organizational criteria
is set of criteria related to organizational aspect of
processes and activities management, to data security
manipulation, and to management of complete project
resources. The group of social criteria is set of criteria
related to conformance to current world standards and
possibilities for implementation and adoption of PLM
system as working ambient.

In order to finish assigned tasks a set of necessary

activities was accomplished [3], [4], [8], such as:
The Integral Work Project Team (IWPT) was
established,
IWPT acquainted with PLM principles,
IWPT became familiar with available applications on
the market in this domain, and domestic companies that
are representatives of the needed applications,

All mentioned crtiteria were the elements under which the

continual work monitoring was done, and the
performance evaluation of the pilot project realization
was performed.

The negotiations with representative companies were

accomplished and the visits to its facilities were done in
order to make assessment of its capabilities for latter
comprehensive
technical
support
during
implementation of the PLM application itself,

In technical terms, the evaluation of performing of the

pilot project in accordance to stated criteria were marked:
completely satisfied, satisfied, partially satisfied, and does
not satisfied. Evaluation was in the form of survey
questionnaire list with closed answers offered to all
participants of the pilot program.

The potential business partners for introduction and

implementation of PLM into VTI were chosen,
After the two potential business partners had been
chosen the two Critical Design Review Documents
were made with detail plan and program of all proposed
activities. The plan and program of activities defined
the pilot project to be conducted with both potential
partners when the short course and education of
participants should be performed for PLM solution
system usage, and input at all necessary project data
and data manipulation in order to make a good
simulation of product management,

The complete evaluation of pilot project is to be made

after the execution of all project phases based on stated
criteria and general impression of pilot project execution.
There is a possibility that during the pilot project
execution the expansion of criteria can be done.

5. DEFINITION OF REPRESENTATIVE
WORK PROCESS FOR PILOT PROJECT
According to stated tasks, the pilot project defines the
following activities:

Domestic Lasta trainer airplane was chosen for

benchmarking object.

Pilot project planning (Master plan creation)

After conducting the pilot project with both potential

partners the intension is to perform evaluation of the work
done during pilot projects according to timely predefined
criteria. Results of performed criteria evaluation would be
used as one of the main for choosing the optimum
solution for introduction and implementation of PLM into
VTI. The other criteria will be addressed to potential
company capabilities for long lasting technical support for
chosen PLM system, and the offered financial conditions
as well. Then the negotiations of the commercial terms,
project content and timetables will be discussed with both
companies, and the final choice of the company and
offered PLM system will be done [3], [4].

Establishing of working team

Goal definition and evaluation procedure
Installation of data basis
PLM solution installation and server clients
Multi CAD installation in PLM environment
Integration of
environment

MS Office

application

in

PLM

Basic course of current PLM solution system

application for users (team members)
Choosing and importing of provided documents and
data into PLM solution system application

4. CRITERIA FOR PERFORMANCE

EVALUATION OF THE PILOT PROJECT

Project work groups and roles creation

The integral work project team (IWPT) formed a group of

criteria on which the performance evaluation of pilot
project execution has to be done using analysis of
objectives (made by work processes) posed for task
realization, and analysis of similar activities that were
found in existing literature as well. The criteria were
divided to several groups, such as technical, economical,
organizational, and social. The group of technical criteria
is divided to several subgroups, such as Document

Work in multi-CAD application in PLM environment

Authorization and authentification

Management of pilot project realization
Generation and usage of typical VTI work processes
related to R&D and production
Change Management, work and practice
Creation of new parts and assemblies for current
aircraft product, work and practice
218

 Request for additional analysis

Reporting to project managers
Simulation and practice for VPN connection between
R&D enterprise and Production facilities
Process for work order for prototype part production
Production facilities and resources management
Work order for machining and quality control
Simulation of BOM exporting to ERP.
Figure 3: Predefined VTI research & development work
processes embedded into PLM solution application

6. PILOT PROJECT PARTICIPANTS

Critical Design Review document as a master document
in this phase of PLM introduction defines forming of the
Pilot Project Work Group (PPWG) that has to be involved
and responsible for proper performing of pilot project.
PPWG is consisted of representatives of stakeholders,
VTI representatives and potential partner representatives.
VTI representatives during pilot project in PPWG were
from VTI top management, IT department managers,
Airframe
design
department
managers,
LAN
administrators and system managers, R&D engineers,
production engineers, CAE engineers, project plan
assistants, project analysis assistants and accountants.
According to master pilot project plan, the first task that
had to be done was the basic PLM training for the pilot
project work group. Training had an objective for
introduction to some task common in PLM solution
system. The basic idea was that necessary knowledge
about PLM solution system capabilities should be
adopted through a short training where the new skills
would be gained by each and all participants after which
such knowledge and skills would be normally used in
everyday practice during execution of pilot project.

7. AIRCRAFT WING DATA AND

DOCUMENTS AS BENCHMARKING
OBJECTS
Figure 2: Simplified VTI engineering work processes in
Aeronautics Department during research & development

The overview of simplified work processes that are

common in our development and production companies
was presented in chapter No.6. These processes were used
as a basis for generation of all work processes that were
used in PLM solution systems during pilot project
realization.

The set of representative work processes that are common

to VTI and UTVA aircraft factory was defined in order to
make effective performing for the pilot project. Figure 2
shows the common engineering processes in VTI during
development and design of any airplane. These and other
work processes were used for generation of typical flow
of information, documents and approvals that were
embedded into PLM solution system. Figure 3 represents
predefined VTI engineering research & development
work processes embedded into PLM solution application.

Data used during pilot project realization are the same

data used during R&D and aircraft prototype production
phases. Lasta aircraft wing design data were chosen to be
representative for benchmarking.
During work on the pilot project, the following object
(data, documents) types were specified:
3D/2D CAD model, assembly, subassembly, part,
drawing made in different CAD software with all
attributes,
Document (such as letters, fax messages, e-mails,
scanned drawings, specifications, calculations, reports
etc.),

Figure 4 represents the simplified work processes in

aircraft factory related to prototype production. These and
other work processes typical for aircraft production were
used for generation of information flow, documentation
management and approvals in PLM solution system.

219

 Standard parts (procured or created at the VTI),

Alternative solutions 1 and 2 represent realized pilot

project with two different companies and two different
PLM solutions (software applications).

Tactical, technical and other requirements.

Figure 5: Product structure overview and its attributes,

PLM environments
AHP method in this case study will have the choice of
better piloting as the goal. After finishing the pilot project
the AHP method will be used as method for choosing the
optimal solution of two offered option for introduction
and implementation of PLM into VTI and whole Serbian
defense industry. Criteria and subcriteria will be more
complex and comprehensive and they will include the
following areas: softwares functional and technical
features; total price (work, licenses, maintenance, new
third-party software, acquisition of expertise, hardware,
internal company costs); softwares limitations,
architecture and scalability; softwares level of
integration; softwares capabilities for use of standard
technologies; amount of softwares implementation work
and the required time; ease of software maintenance; ease
and comfort of use of software; fulfillment of
requirements during pilot project;

Figure 4: Simplified work processes in aircraft factory

related to prototype production

available software support and other supplier services;

references of software producer; worldwide principal
market of the PLM software in question; the software
products roadmap or development plan; the software
companys vision for the future; softwares support for
multilingual
item;
softwares
documentation
management, and interface language versions, etc.

According to plan the import of stated objects with

appropriate attributes into PLM solution system was done
(Figure 5, Figure 7).

8. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF PILOT

PROJECT
Performance evaluation of the pilot project will be done
using one of the methods of Decision Support System
(DSS), Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP).
AHP method of evaluation was chosen because its
flexibility and possibilities to manage complex problems
with many criteria and alternatives when it can easily find
relations among influencing factors, identify their explicit
and relative impact and importance in real environmental
conditions, and to define dominance of one factor relative
to another.
Figure 6 shows hierarchy overview, which would be used
during selection of more effective execution of pilot
project (choice of better piloting). Criteria (C) and
Subcriteria (SC) were presented in chapter 4 of this paper.

Figure 6: Levels of criteria (C), subcriteria (SC) and

alternative solutions, (for other SCs see Chapter 4)

220

Figure 7: Product 3D CAD model with its attributes, CAD environment

reuse of existing information; reducing the resources
used in retrieving, maintaining, and transferring product
related information; fast efficient change management;
traceability of change management and design history).

9. EXPECTED BENEFITS FROM PLM

INTRODUCING PROGRAM
The expected benefits should be [8]:
improvement in communication among VTI
departments and between VTI and producers; provision
of conditions for a standardized and normatively
defined exchange of data with the environment,

Big possibilities for incorporating data into different

reports, so that updated and accurate data on the
execution of tasks are available at all times in order to
make timely and optimal decisions, in compliance with
the relevant regulations and legal acts.

improvements in quality, effectiveness and speed of

operational processes in VTI and out the company (the
definition of the product structure will take less time
because it is easy to utilize already existing
information; the amount of overlapping work will
decrease; the part lists will be available to everybody
involved and will be in accordance with all the latest
changes; fewer corrections to information will be
needed); better planning and utilization of human and
material resources of the VTI.

Meeting the terms for adequate planning of capacities

and assignments on projects.

9. CONCLUSION
Pilot project using Lasta trainer aircraft design and
development data and documentation was successfully
finished. Used data and documentation were successfully
implemented into PLM environment and the pilot project
participants effectively finished short training and starting
adoption PDM application. Pilot project did not include
other areas, such as planning, reporting, material and
financial accounting, etc.

reduction in many kinds of unnecessary information

processing and transfer work.
more rational and faultless changes during design work
(changes in documents will be electronically accepted
and released; the distribution of change information will
be faster and less faulty; certificates, records and test
results will be connected to a product; standards will be
within reach of everybody; it will be easy to update and
distribute them; information security will be improved
and it will be easy to create and maintain different
levels of user privileges; the flexibility of operation will
be increased).

Current VTI activities are related to preparation for

performing the same pilot project, under the same
circumstances, with another company and its PLM
solution system. After realization of that pilot project the
relevant conditions will be made to carry out a detailed
analysis and evaluation of more effective pilot project.
Our experience during this case study has shown that it
would be wrong conclusion if anyone realizes that
acquisition of PLM solution (PDM applications, PDM
software packages, PDM Application programs, or others)
will resolve the problem of introduction of PLM into
work environment in a company. Success in
implementation of PLM, on the contrary, requires a
comprehensive change in the organization of a company,

Development advantages (individual knowledge will be

converted into intellectual capital available to the whole
organization, in other words, individual knowledge will
be converted into electronic form, in order to control it.
Controlling, retrieving, maintaining, and distributing
product data and product knowledge in electronic form;
221

and new ways of thinking, working and sharing

information and expertise. PLM solution is only an
application meant to facilitate the real work. Ultimately,
a PLM project aims at better organization of work, in
other words making possible new business processes and
greater efficiency [1].
Product lifecycle management system alone will not
automatically improve the operational effectiveness in
company. There is an appropriate consciousness adopted
with VTI top management that the PLM system is only a
tool, used to remove physical distances, to overcome the
difficulties that appear in daily work and to break through
separate organizational interfaces.

REFERENCES
[1] Saaksvuori,A., Immonen,A., Product Lifecycle
Management, Springer-Verlag, ISBN: 978-3-54078173-8, Berlin, 2008.
[2] J.Stark, Product Lifecycle Management, Decision
Engineering, Springer-Verlag London Limited, 2011,
[3] VTI-Siemens IS&S, Program realizacije uvodjenja
Upravljanja ivotnim ciklusom proizvoda, VTI

222

report, Beograd, 2011.

[4] VTI-PCS, Program realizacije uvodjenja Upravljanja
ivotnim ciklusom proizvoda, VTI report, Beograd,
2011.
[5] CIMdata Ten Questions to Ask PLM Solution
Suppliers,
Ann
Arbor,
Michigan,
http://www.CIMdata.com, 2010.
[6] Crnkovic,I.,
Asklund,U.,
Dahlqvist,A.P.,
Implementing and Integrating Product Data
Management
and
Software
Configuratin
Management, Artech House, Inc., Norwood, 2003.
[7] Ulrich,K.T., and Eppinger,S.D., Product Design and
Development, New York; McGraw-Hill Education
(ISE Editions), 1999.
[8] Vasi,Z, Ivanisevi,M, Mudeka,S, The need,
importance and way of product lifecycle
management introduction, OTEH 2011, Belgrade,
2011.
[9] http://www.epigrid.com/what-is-pdm
[10] http://www.buyplm.com/plm-software/product-datamanagement-pdm-software.aspx

APPLICATION OF INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM BY ICAO

STANDARD AND FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT
APPLIED TO ONE MULTI-PURPOSE COMBAT AIRCRAFT
MILAN PETROVI
204th Air Brigade, 24th Air Technical Battalion, Belgrade, Serbia, milan.petrovic87@gmail.com
IVAN DUNJI
204th Air Brigade, 24th Air Technical Battalion, Belgrade, Serbia, ddunjac@gmail.com
JOVAN JOVANOVI
Telecom Serbia, Department for development of IT services, Serbia, jovanj@telekom.rs
NEBOJA NERANDI
Serbia and Montenegro air traffic services SMATSA, Belgrade, nbjsnerandzic@yahoo.com

Abstract: In this paper will be presented instrument landing system(ILS) used at one airport through the application
elements of terrestrial radio equipment as well as the principle of operation and signal processing of the signals
received from the ground within a multi-purpose combat aircraft. ILS system existed since the beginning of the 70s of
the 20th century, and now is a system that is commonly used at airports around the world for aircraft instrument
approach.
Key words: ILS, DDM, ICAO Anex 10, Localizer, Glide path, Marker, Approach indicator.
the runway of not less than 350m. Category 3 instrument
approach and landing where the decision height is lower
than 30 and the runway visibility is less than 30m. Since
the system comprises of a ground equipment and
equipment on the aircraft, it is necessary for boot parts to
fulfill the requirements specified of specified category. [2]
The inner monitoring system provides stability of the
device system, and if exact standards of specified
category system are not meet, system descends to a lower
category on or shuts down.

1. INTRODUCTION
From the navigational point of view a flight is over only
when crews of an aircraft position its aircraft at beginning
of runaway. In a bad weather conditions that cloud
present a problem and make landing very difficult or even
impossible. In order to address that kind of problems
different systems has been developed and the most precise
and the widest usage has Instrumental Landing System or
ILS. ILS system comprises of ground equipment and
elements installed on aircraft. Ground equipment
comprises of antenna system of localizer, antenna system
of glide path and generally three markers. Aircraft
equipment generally comprises of localizer signal
receiver, glide path signal receiver and marker signal
receiver. Along with this system, the system for
providing visual information through light signals can be
integrated and used. In any case, the ILS system for
precise guidance with sophisticated equipment that can
provide a very accurate aircraft. Not all ILS systems are
equally precise and not all intended for the same
conditions. There are three categories of ILS systems.
Category 1 instrument approach and landing where the
decision height is not lower than 60 m, and at which the
runway visibility is not less than 550m. Category 2,
instrument approach and landing where the decision
height is between 30 and 60 m and at which visibility on

2. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Operation principle is based on tracking of two radio
signals: signal of localizer for horizontal aircraft guidance
on course of an axis of a runaway, and radio signal of
vertical diving angle for vertical guidance. In addition to
the guidance system there is a positioning system
implemented over a number of markers, outer, middle and
optionally inner.
ILS system uses the difference in index modulation
(modulation depth) in order to define the position of the
aircraft relative to the correct landing trajectory. Ground
equipment of the system provides a radio signal whose
modulation depth varies linearly with respect to straight
course zone of the runway direction and angle of descent.
The detected signal in the receiver after demodulation of
223

the aircraft is shown in the form of mathematical

equations (1) [1] .
f ( x ) = kEc (1 + ( ml cos l t + mr cos r t ) )

(1)

DDM = B ( ml mr )

(2)

ICAO Annex 10. Clearance transmitter covers a broader

sector in which it is expected to obtain navigation
information from localizer, and it is shown in Picture 2. The
two transmitters operate at different carrier frequencies,
which are shifted symmetrically in relation to the frequency
of the channel that is assigned to localizer. Directive signal
of the antenna system is much stronger than the signal of
clearance transmitter. The section covered by directive
transmitter, receiver of aircraft receives signals from both
clearance and directive transmitters. Given the difference in
intensity of these two signals occurs suppression effect.

Signal in equation one is consist of carrier signal

frequency (Ec), two indices of modulation (ml, mr),
constant (k) and angular frequency for both signals
(l,r). Generally equation one represents a conventional
amplitude modulated signal which is essential for ILS
system.
The degree of deviation of the aircraft from the desired
direction is directly proportional to the difference of
signal amplitude (DDM) in equation (2). The aircraft is
located on the longitudinal axis if the DDM = 0.

Picture 2. ICAO Annex 10, ILS localizer coverage

In the narrowest sector covered by directive transmitter
influence of clearance transmitter is small. The accuracy of
the signal is large because the sector is narrow and there are
few obstacles. In the wider sector, covered by clearance
transmitter, there is navigation information which makes it
possible to bring the aircraft to the coverage of directive
transmitter. Besides navigation, clearance in its coverage
prevents the effects of side lobes of directive transmitter and
the occurrence of false-axis. Glide path system consists of
two antennas that are located on the same antenna pole,
which is located close to the threshold of runway 2 at a
distance of 50m from the side edge of the second runway,
the frequency of glide path occupying UHF frequency area
and is paired with localizer frequency, in a way frequency of
glide path is three times higher than the frequency of
localizer, and the specific case of airport is 329.3 MHz2.
Antenna A reflects a signal from the reflector which is
placed frontally of the antenna system at a distance of 100m.
Antenna B is placed directly above the antenna A, and its
radiation is reflected from the ground in several layers.
Diagram of the modulated signal from antenna A (90 Hz)
intersects signal from B antenna which is modulated with
150 Hz. Forming a focused beam lines where the difference
is the modulation index is equal to zero, and the line
represents the axis of descent. In cross-section diagram of the
antenna A and antenna B obtained three equations of which
only one has a real solution to the equation of a correct
approach and to the case airport has a slope of 2.5.

Picture 1. Operation of ILS system

2.1. Description of ground equipment

ILS ground equipment consists of:
Localizer
Glide path
Radio marker
Localizer system provides axis of runway in a way that
the antenna system emits two signals of 90 Hz and 150Hz
the carrier frequency. The antenna system provides
modulated signal of 150Hz at the carrier frequency 180.9
MHz of the signal extends to the right side of the runaway
axis, and the left side of the modulating 90 Hz frequency
signal is also on the carrier of frequency of 108,9 MHz1.
In addition to these signals, a signal of identification of
1020 Hz is carried on the carrier frequency is transmitted.
These two signals have different depth of modulation that
depends on how signal is positioned with respect to the
centerline of the runway. In the case of this airport,
localizer system consists of two-frequency antenna
system installed at the end of the runway number 2.
Antenna system consists of:
Directive transmitter
Clearance transmitter
Standard transmitter covers the narrowest sector in the space
of 10 left and right with respect to the axis of the runway,
and has a range of 25 Nm, which is defined by the standard
1

Picture 3. Principle of operation glide path system at

Batajnica airport
2

the frequency as an example of the operation between 108111,975MHz

224

the frequency as an example of the operation between 329,15335MHz

Localizer beam and glide path are pooled and the mutual
intersection form an elongated pyramid whose peak is at
the point of contact with runway 2, and ground plane is
perpendicular to the runway threshold, which is shown on
Picture 3.

Table. 1. Technical characteristics of the ILS receivers

Receiver

Frequency
range

108,10111,95 MHz
329,15 Glide slope
335,00 MHz
Marker
75 MHz
Localizer

Number
of
VSWR Polarization
channels
40

Horizontal

40

Horizontal

Vertical

Information from the VOR/ILS and marker receiver is

further transmitted through data link to approach indicator,
which is installed in the cabin. There are several types of
indicators, but all show the value of the angular deviation of
the aircraft from the line direction and glide slope.
On the multi-purpose combat aircraft approach indicator
and direction indicator are combined in one instrument
[4]. The instrument displays the data receives from the
automatic radio compass, information on a given trip
angle, distance from a given radio lamp, the current value
of the travel angle, and when the aircraft enters the
coverage of ILS system assumes the role of approach
indicator. Pilot receives audible and visual information
when the aircraft enters ILS signal coverage, and its main
task is to deflection needle pointing the direction and
angle of glide path leads to the intersection of the central
section of the instrument. Value of the deviation from the
direction axis is shown by vertical needle that moves left
and right, and the value of the deviation of the aircraft
from the line of glide slope is shown by horizontal needle
that moves up and down. Both show a moving pointer to
its side which is towards the flat-zone signal. Center of
the instrument represents the aircraft. Below needles there
are 2 points horizontally and vertically. Pointer of
direction approaching has maximum deviation of 2.5 in
both sides. Maximum deflection of glide slope needle is
0.5 up and down, as shown in Picture 5.

Picture 4. Intersection of localizer and glide path beam

Radio markers are intended to signal his crew provide
information on where the distance from the runway
threshold. Antenna radio beacons are placed horizontally
and emit vertically. Basically the system consists of three
markers: outer, middle and inner. At this airport is applied
only two markers (which is the most common version of
the system). The outer marker modulates carrier
frequency of 75 MHz with a signal of 400 Hz, while the
middle marker modulates the carrier frequency of 75MHz
with a signal of 1300 Hz. Both signals are used to identify
the flight of aircraft over the marker, so that the pilot in
the cockpit gets a sound and light signal when is made a
fly over certain markers.

2.1. Aircraft equipment

For providing runway approach by ILS system on the
aircraft is installed: receiver with an antenna system,
marker receiver and indicator of approach.
In the particular case of a multi-purpose combat aircraft,
the same receiver is used to receive VOR and ILS signal,
so that indicator of VOR paths in this case is used as an
indicator of approaching [3]. The unit is designed so that
it can provide navigational information from a specific
VOR, during the specific flight routes, and can provide
information about the radio signals emitted by the ILS
system. It provides information about: VOR azimuth, the
deviation from the set course of aircraft, aircraft deviation
from the line of glide path. Management and control of
the unit is controlled via the multifunctional indicator
installed in the aircraft cabin. Signals are received from
the country in two frequency bands, depending on
whether the receiver is operating in conjunction with the
ILS system or with the VOR. Technical characteristics of
the ILS receivers are given in table 1.

Picture 5: The approach indicator at multi-purpose

combat aircraft

Dipole antenna of marker receiver has performed in front

of the plane (cone), with a sensitivity that can be adjusted
in the range of 0,4-5V and applied to the vertical
polarization.

In modern aircraft in addition to the approaching indicator

the same data is displayed on a digital multifunction
225

display. Approaching indicators in the more modern

aircraft are digital, with various graphical representations
that have the same function as the analog display.

for use with new generation aircraft, so that the ILS

instrument approach system provides instrument landing
for more aircrafts.

3. CONCLUSION

4. REFERENCES

ILS system is being developed for 70 years and the

advancement of technology has enabled remarkable
precision in aircraft guidance, so that the category 3 of
ILS system provide a completely automatic landing of
aircraft. Further development of the ILS system is closely
connected with the development of MLS systems with the
integration of a differential GPS system and such a
system will provide even greater precision in certain
weather conditions. Previous landing system was quite
complex in terms of maintenance and was not compatible

[1] ILS medjunarodni standardi i preporuke iz ICAO

standarda Anex 10, Savezna uprava za kontrolu
letenja, 1981.
[2] Horonjeff,R., McKelvey,F., Sproule,W., Joung,S.:
Planning and design of airports, McGraw Hill
Professional, 2010.
[3] Vlacic,S.: Visenamenski borbeni avioni, Medija
Centar "Odbrana", 2012.
[4] ,A., ,S.: -29
: Izdelie 9-12, Rusija, 2009.

226

SECTION III

WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMBAT VEHICLES

CHAIRMAN
Professor Momilo Milinovi, PhD
Professor Slobodan Jaramaz, PhD

NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF FRAGMENTATION WARHEAD

MECHANISMS
PREDRAG ELEK
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Weapon Systems Department, University of Belgrade, Serbia,
pelek@mas.bg.ac.rs
SLOBODAN JARAMAZ
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Weapon Systems Department, University of Belgrade, Serbia,
sjaramaz@mas.bg.ac.rs
DEJAN MICKOVI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Weapon Systems Department, University of Belgrade, Serbia,
dmickovic@mas.bg.ac.rs
NENAD MILORADOVI
Yugoimport FDSP, Belgrade, 964nmb@gmail.com

Abstract: Determination of velocity of fragments and their rejection angles is of the critical importance in the
fragmentation warheads design and evaluation of warhead efficiency. It is well known that simplified analytical
approaches, like Gurney equations and Taylor formula, provide only a rough estimate of velocity vector of fragments.
Therefore, numerical approach is logical and inevitable choice when the more accurate calculations are needed. In the
present paper, the commercial multi-purpose program Abaqus, based on the finite element method, is used for
simulation of the mechanism of explosive propulsion. Applied modeling techniques as well as the procedure of the
model creation through the modules of Abaqus have been presented. Experimental results of a well documented test of
the fragmentation warhead with premade fragments are compared with the simulation results of the corresponding
numerical model. Very good agreement between experimental data and the numerical results suggests that Abaqus can
be successfully used for simulation of warhead mechanisms.
Keywords: fragmentation warhead, explosive propulsion, numerical simulation, Abaqus.
where vG is the Gurney velocity energetic property of an
explosive, M mass of metal case (fragments) and C
mass of explosive charge.

1. INTRODUCTION
Fragmentation effect of a high explosive warhead is the
result of action of fragments with high kinetic energy to a
target. Therefore, the process of explosive propulsion,
which enables the acceleration of fragments, is the main
mechanism of this type of warheads.

Taylor formula [2] provides the ejection angle of the fragment

in the case of side-on initiation of the cylindrical charge:
sin = v sin
2 2D

The first task in fragmentation effect modeling is to

determine the initial fragment velocities, i.e. the final
velocities imparted to fragments by detonation products.
There are two approaches to the modeling of explosive
propulsion: (i) analytical models, and (ii) numerical
calculations.

where D is detonation velocity of explosive used and

the angle between the detonation wave and the metal case.
It is, however, well known that analytical models, which
are easy to use, provide only a rough approximation of the
fragment velocity vector. On the other hand, the
numerical models are more complex, but enable a deeper
insight into the physics of the explosive propulsion and
provide more accurate results. Considering these
properties of the numerical approach, it is clear that its
application may contribute to a significant reduction of
experimental costs, as well as to the optimization of the
warhead design.

Analytical approach usually implies application of two

well-known models. Gurney equation [1] for fragment
velocity of a long cylindrical warhead reads:
v=

vG
M
C

+ 12

(2)

(1)

229

2. NUMERICAL MODEL
Numerical analysis of mechanism of fragmentation
warhead was performed using finite element method
(FEM) based software Abaqus [3]. The solver
Abaqus/Explicit, suited for highly nonlinear transient
events such as impacts, shocks and explosions, was used
for numerical simulation of explosive propulsion. The
Coupled Eulerian Lagrangian (CEL) capability of Abaqus
was employed enabling treatment of fluid-structure
interaction. The previous application of Abaqus/Explicit
in the field of explosive propulsion has given very good
results, e.g. [4-6].
In order to compare numerical analysis with experimental
data, the model is created to correspond to a welldocumented small-scale warhead tests, described in detail
by Waggener [7]. We focused on the tests of a cylindrical
warhead with preformed fragments shown in Fig.1. Steel
cubes with edge length 2.5 mm were placed over the
explosive charge of Composition B (diameter 71 mm and
length 90 mm). The longitudinal central void with
diameter 13 mm presents cavity found in most missile
warheads providing space for explosive boosters placed
along the central axis. Booster charge consists of 13 mm
diameter and 13 mm long cylindrical sections of C-4
explosive. Mild steel end-plates with thickness 1.6 mm
were attached to both ends of the warhead. Four different
initiation schemes are investigated: single end, central,
dual end and dual end initiation with boosters shifted
inwards (Fig.2). Where two boosters are used, they were
initiated simultaneously.

Figure 3. Definition of the initial position of fragments

and their polar ejection angle
After a convergence study (optimization of element size),
an optimal quasi-two-dimensional model of the warhead
was adopted as shown in Fig.4. It consists of
approximately 100.000 Eulerian EC3D8R hexahedral
elements and 20.000 Lagrangian C3D8R brick elements.
Similar model is used for all cases of initiation schemes.
The type of initiation, i.e. boosters position, was
prescribed by appropriate definition of initiating points.
It is well known that material properties are of the critical
importance for accuracy of numerical simulations. For the
parts made of mild steel (fragments and end plates) the
Johnson-Cook plasticity model [8], the Johnson-Cook
damage model [9], and linear Us-Up equation of state have
been employed. The material properties of steel used in
the Abaqus model are listed in Table 1.

The fragment speed and direction (i.e. polar ejection

angle) were determined with respect to their original
position on the warhead (Fig.3), using time sequential
flash radiography of the fragment spray in flight.

The explosive material is modeled by a Jones-WilkinsLee (JWL) equation of state [10]. Explosive is detonated
in stable regime, and pressure and energy are calculated
from the equation of state. Detonation wave propagation
is modeled by simple programmed burn model. The
properties of high explosive Composition B are listed in
Table 2.

Axial symmetry of the warhead is exploited in the

numerical model and only one row of fragments is
modeled. In other words, applying the appropriate
boundary conditions, a sector of the warhead with central
angle 4.09 can be considered. This highly reduces the
computer analysis run time and memory required.

Table 1. Material properties of metal parts (fragments and

end plates) made from mild steel [11]
Material property
Steel
density (g/cm3)
7.85
spec. heat (J/kgK)
477
yield stress (MPa)
792
hardening coeff. (MPa)
510
parameters of
hardening exponent
0.26
Johnson-Cook
strain-rate coefficient
0.014
plasticity model
thermal softening coeff.
1.03
melting temperature (K)
1793
sound speed (km/s)
3.57
linear equation-ofstate parameters
slope
1.92
d1
0.402
d2
1.107
parameters of
Johnson-Cook
d3
-1.899
damage model
d4
0.00961
0.30
d5

Figure 1. Configuration of cylindrical warhead with

premade cubic fragments and single end initiation

Figure 2. Four types of warhead initiation

230

Figure 4. Axisymmetric quasi-2D model of the warhead

t=2 s

Table 2. Characteristics of Composition B explosive

charge used in the Abaqus model [12]
Property
density (g/cm3)
detonation speed (km/s)
detonation heat (GPa)

parameters of JWL
equation of state

R1
R2

A (GPa)
B (GPa)
C (GPa)

Composition B
1.717
7.980
9.6
4.2
1.1
0.34
524.23
7.6783
1.0082

t=8 s

The treatment of the contact between different surfaces

and self-contact is one of the biggest issues in numerical
simulation. Abaqus/Explicit has a powerful tool (general
contact) which enables simple definition of contact at the
global level.
The simulation time, in all four variants of warhead
initiation, is set to 20 s, which proved to be sufficient for
fragments to reach its maximum velocity.

t=14 s

3. RESULTS AND COMPARISON WITH

EXPERIMENTAL DATA
After the pre-processing stage described in the previous
section, the numerical simulation in Abaqus/Explicit was
performed. Abaqus post-processing and visualization tool
enables extraction from output database and presentation
of all relevant variables of the simulated phenomenon
kinematic (displacements, velocities, accelerations),
energetic, stresses and strains, pressures, material
positions, etc.

t=20 s
Figure 5. Evolution of explosive propulsion of the single
end initiated warhead. Detonation products pressure field
is presented

Figure 5 shows the evolution of explosive propulsion

process of the considered warhead for the case of single
end initiation. The simultaneous processes of propagation
of the detonation wave, expansion of the detonation
products, as well as motion of the driven fragments and
end plates are clearly visible. The pressure field in the
detonation products is also indicated.

Numerically determined fragment velocity is obviously

very close to the experimental data along the entire
warhead length. The polar ejection angles of fragments
obtained in simulation follows the experimental values,
but the difference is not negligible, especially for
fragments that are located at the ends of the warhead. It
should be noted that results of Abaqus model are far
better than that based on analytical approach. The Gurney
equation significantly overestimates the velocity of
fragments and cannot predict velocity variation along the
warhead length. Fragment ejection angles evaluated by
Taylor formula also clearly disagrees with experiments.

In order to validate the proposed numerical model, it is

necessary to compare obtained simulation results with
available experimental data. For the single end initiation
variant of the warhead, comparison of numerical and
experimental results is presented in Fig. 6. Additionally,
analytical results based on Gurney equation (1) and
Taylor formula, eq. (2), are also given.

231

Figure 7 shows comparison of fragment velocity vector

calculated by different methods for the case of central
initiation of the warhead. As expected, fragment
velocities and ejection angles are distributed
symmetrically. Again, numerically obtained fragment
velocities agree very well with experimental data, with
slight over prediction (around 2%) in the central part of
the warhead. The calculated ejection angles are closer to
the experimental values than in the previous case. We
note that the Taylor formula in its original form makes
sense only for side-on (single end) initiation, and
therefore it is not considered for other initiation
arrangements.
Comparison of numerical, analytical and experimental
results for the case of warhead initiated with the dual end
technique is shown in Fig. 8. In this case we have the
largest discrepancies between fragment velocities
calculated by Abaqus model and measured data. Results
agree well at the ends and in the very center of the
warhead. However, in the central part (from -25% to
25%) of the warhead length, numerical results does not
exhibit the characteristic velocity peak present in
experimental results, producing the relative error up to
10%. Possible reasons for this disagreement are the
numerical treatments of interaction of detonation waves
and reflection of detonation wave from fragments and end
plates. These phenomena are highly dependent on the
properties of materials. The source paper [7] does not
provide characteristic of explosive and metal parts;
therefore, in our numerical model the data available from
literature are used. In contrast to fragment velocity,
calculated ejection angles are consistent with measured
values in the central zone of the warhead, while there are
the deviations at the warhead ends. It is interesting that
Gurney velocity coincides with maximum fragment
velocity at the center of the warhead.

Figure 6. Fragment velocity and ejection angle

comparison of Abaqus numerical simulation results,
analytical results based on Gurney and Taylor formula,
and Waggener experimental data [7] for the case of single
end initiation

Finally, Figure 9 shows the comparison of calculated and

measured velocity vectors for the case of warhead that is
initiated using dual end technique with boosters shifted
inwards 20 mm (see Fig.2). In this case, a very good
compatibility between numerical and experimental results
can be noted. The characteristic central velocity peak is
less pronounced that in the previous case. Numerically
determined fragment ejection angles agree very well to
the experimental data, except at the ends of the warhead.
Generally, it can be concluded that considered numerical
approach, based on application of Abaqus, provides
results that agree reasonably well with experiments. The
results obtained by numerical model are significantly
more accurate than those calculated by simple analytical
models.
Possible reasons for certain disagreements between
numerical model results and experimental data may be
related to the following facts: (i) the properties of
materials used in the experiment are not specified, (ii) the
accuracy of measured values is not declared, and (iii)
presented experimental results are fitted curves, rather
than measured points.

Figure 7. Fragment velocity vector for centrally initiated

warhead comparison of numerical, analytical and
experimental results
232

5. CONCLUSION
Numerical approach to the modeling of the mechanism of
fragmentation warhead has been considered. The
following conclusions can be drawn from the presented
study:
determination of fragments velocity vector as the
result of explosive propulsion process is the most
important task in order to assess the warhead
efficiency,
simple analytical models (Gurney and Taylor)
provide only a rough assessment of the fragment
velocity magnitude and direction,
development of the numerical model of
fragmentation warhead mechanism in FEM-based
software Abaqus/Explicit has been described,
the numerical model results are compared with
experimental data for the small-scale model of
fragmentation warhead with premade fragments,
four types of warhead initiation were analyzed,
providing significant changes in polar distribution of
fragment mass and velocity; the comparison of
numerical and experimental results has been
conducted,
generally, very good agreement has been observed
between numerical model results and experimental
data in terms of fragments velocity and their polar
ejection angle,
possible sources of discrepancy between model and
experimental results were identified,
though still imperfect, the presented numerical
methodology based on Abaqus can be very useful
engineering tool for warhead design and analysis.

Figure 8. Fragment velocity and ejection angle for dual

end warhead initiation comparison of numerical,
analytical and experimental results

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research has been supported by the Ministry of
Education, Science and Technological Development of
the Republic of Serbia, through the project III-47029,
which is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES
[1] Gurney,R.W.: The Initial Velocities of Fragments
from Bombs, Shells, and Grenades, Army Ballistic
Research Laboratory, Report BRL 405, Aberdeen
Proving Ground, Maryland, USA, 1943.
[2] Taylor,G.I.: Analysis of the explosion of a long
cylindrical bomb detonated at one end, in: Scientific
papers of Sir Geoffrey Ingram Taylor: Vol. 3.
Aerodynamics and the Mechanics of Projectiles and
Explosions (Ed. G.K. Batchelor), Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1963, pp. 277-286.
[3] ***, Abaqus Theory Manual, Dassault Systemes,
Simulia Corp, Providence, RI, USA, 2011.
[4] Carlucci,P., Mougeotte,C., Huidi,J.: Validation of
Abaqus Explicit CEL for classes of problems of
interest to the U.S. Army, SIMULIA Customer
Conference, Providence, RI, 2010.

Figure 9. Fragment velocity and ejection angle for dual

end warhead initiation with boosters shifted inward 20
mm comparison of numerical, analytical and
experimental results

233

[5] Akbari Mousavi, S.A.A., Al-Hassani, S.T.S: Finite

element simulation of explosively-driven plate impact
with application to explosive welding, Materials &
Design, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2008, pp. 1-19.
[6] Elek, P., Dingalaevi, V., Jaramaz, S., Mickovi,
D.: Determination of detonation products equation of
state from cylinder test: Analytical model and
numerical analysis, Thermal Science, accepted for
publication, 2013, doi: 10.2298/TSCI121029138E.
[7] Waggener,S.: The performance of axially initiated
cylindrical warheads, 4th International Symposium
on Ballistics, Monterey, CA, 1978.
[8] Johnson,G.R., Cook,W.H.: A constitutive model and
data for metals subjected to large strains, high strain
rates and high temperatures, 7th International
Symposium on Ballistics, The Hague, 1983.

[9] Johnson,G.R., Cook,W.H.: Fracture characteristics

of three metals subjected to various strains, strain
rates, temperatures and pressures, Engineering
Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 21, No. 1, 1985, pp. 31-48.
[10] Davis,W.C.: Shock waves; rarefaction waves;
equations of state, in: Explosive Effects and
Applications (Eds. J.A. Zukas and W.P. Walters),
Springer, New York, USA, 2003, pp. 47-114.
[11] Meyers,M.A.: Dynamic Behavior of Materials,
Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1994.
[12] B.M.Dobratz, P.C.Crawford: LLNL Explosives
handbook: Properties of chemical explosives and
explosive simulants, UCRL-52997 Change 2, LLNL,
1985.

234

NUMERICAL AND ANALYTICAL APPROACH TO THE MODELING OF

EXPLOSIVELY FORMED PROJECTILES
MILO MARKOVI
University of Belgrade Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Weapon Systems Department, mdmarkovic@mas.bg.ac.rs
PREDRAG ELEK
University of Belgrade Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Weapon Systems Department, pelek@mas.bg.ac.rs
SLOBODAN JARAMAZ
University of Belgrade Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Weapon Systems Department, sjaramaz@mas.bg.ac.rs
MOMILO MILINOVI
University of Belgrade Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Weapon Systems Department, mmilinovic@mas.bg.ac.rs
DEJAN MICKOVI
University of Belgrade Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Weapon Systems Department, dmickovic@mas.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: This paper presents numerical and analytical approach calculations of EFP (Explosively Formed
Projectiles) performances. The aim is to show the formation of EFP on the warheads with and without covers in order
to represent cover influences on EFP initial velocities. Based on the numerical and analytical results, the discussion
regarding forming dynamics, energies, projectile shapes and initial velocities has been provided. The results obtained
by the experimental method are compared with numerical and analytical data.
Keywords: explosively formed projectiles, numerical simulation, analytical method, explosive propulsion.

1. INTRODUCTION

of detonation energy [9,10] and transforms it into the

kinetic energy capable to realize distance penetration.

The using of EFP projectiles is one of advance concepts

for penetrating of armored targets in motion and in the
rest from appropriate distances [1,2].

Regarding that initial velocity is a function of several

elements integrating into warhead subassemblies, the
analytical [2] and numerical [11-13] approach in this
paper is setup in aim to test the influencing parameters on
the initial velocity values. These data are compared with
the results of experimental research [14].

In the last twenty years, EFP projectiles represent a

significant concept in designing missile penetration
warheads, aimed for the armored land targets as well as
ship targets, air targets etc. The main feature of these
types of warheads is possibility to shoot targets in motion
from above at the appropriate distances, which relieves
missile of requirements to achieve direct hit. This is
especially important in attacks on fast cruising armored
land targets. Penetrability of these projectiles [1-3] is less
than traditional shaped charge warheads [4] used in direct
shooting missions.

2. EXPERIMENTAL AND SIMULATION

SAMPLE
The comparison of these methods is performed on the
sample design with accepted, fixed EFP liner form and
explosive charge, with and without metal cover. The
model does not include the fuze and wave shaper.

Usual shooting distance is about 50 to 150 m [5] and

projectiles have used either cluster sub-munitions with
appropriate searching sensors for the group shootings or
integral designed missile warheads for individual shoots.
The functionality of projectile is based on MisznaySchardin phenomena [1,2], which creates explosive
formed projectile by directed explosive discharging. By
explosion effect [6,7], reshaped metal disc [8] takes part

Adopted model geometry [2] and design characteristics of

testing sample [14] are shown in Fig. 1. The properties of
explosive and other materials used in simulations are
given in Table 1. In all considered simulations and
experiment, the initiation point is located on the warhead
bottom and lies on axis of symmetry [14] (Fig. 1).

235

projectile.
For further analysis the following assumptions were
accepted:
Detonation products attack metal liner immediately.
Motions of discrete elements of metal liner are along
the inner radii of liner sphere and there is not colliding
effect between elements.
The referent velocity is the velocity of the central
element, accepted as front velocity of projectile.
Using previous assumptions and energy balance equation
in detonation process, the velocity of particular ejected
elements of liner, V0i [2] is:

Figure 1: Types of testing sample and their basic

dimensions: 1 -back plate, 2 -explosive charge, 3 - liner, 4
-initiation point, 5 cover
Table 1: Geometrical parameters for EFP assembly
Type 1 Type 2*
Design parameter
Length of charge
L [mm]
85
85
Caliber
D [mm]
57.2
57.2
Thickness of back plate
t1 [mm]
5
3
Cover thickness
t2 [mm]
5
Inner radius
R1 [mm]
60.4
71.3
Outer radius
R2 [mm]
60.4
71.3
Thickness of liner edge 1 [mm]
1.5
1.5
Thickness of liner center 2 [mm]
2.7
2.7
Type initiation
p.
p.
* -experiment; p. point initiation
Iron
Octol
Steel
Material properties
Density [g/cm3]
7.86
1.82
7.89
Detonation velocity [m/s]
8480
Comp. position (Fig. 1)
No 3
No 2 No 5,1

V0i = D

1 3i ; i = 1, 2,..., n
k 2 1 3 + i

(1)

where i = mai / M i , loading factor of i-th liner element,

mai -active mass of explosive segment, M i - mass of liner

segment, D - detonation velocity and k - polytropic
coefficient of detonation products, usually k=3.
Active mass of explosive mai (fictive), represented in
equation (1), is not a real explosive mass, but the mass
that reproduces all energy employed on liner including
energy directing effects of warhead covers.
Corresponding expression for this mass is [1,2],
mai =

The experimental sample was tested on the proving

ground as a type 2 [14] in Table 1.

mi
M Ki M i
(1 +
) ; i = 1, 2,..., n ,
2
M i + M Ki + mi

(2)

where mi -masses of explosive segments and M Ki - masses

of metal cover segments. The essence of idea in this paper is
testing the numerical and analytical methods from the aspect
of active (fictive) mass influences regarding covered and
uncovered warhead with the same explosive charges and
EFP liner. The linearization of the entire model is due to the
assumption that the final initial velocity can be obtained by
integrating all components along the axial direction for each
ring element formed of liner. Therefore, the valid hypothesis
is that the model considers only the axial velocity
components along the lines parallel to warhead axis.
Components of the absolute initial velocities of each EFP
element will be V0 zi = V0i cos i , where i represent angle
between axis of symmetry and velocity of particular ejected
elements V0i .

3. ANALYTICAL AND NUMERICAL

METHODS
The aim of this section is to present analytical and
numerical approach and to verify their results through
comparison with experimental data.

Analytical method
The analytical model is based on the method of
approximate calculations of the most important features
of EFP projectiles: its initial velocity and initial kinetic
energy [1,2,9,10]. These two parameters are enough to
estimate distance effect on penetrability [1,2]. The
method is based on energy and momentum balance
equations. By the liner partition in the elementary rings
and accepting that pressure of detonation products act on
each element by the impulse and momentum exchanging,
the particular and total kinetic energy of liner can be
summarized. Initial partition of observed elements starts
from the central line around semi-spherical liner. Also,
full cylindrical explosive charge volume is engaged in the
finite-discrete elements partition of the explosive
segments. Each element of liner corresponds to the
amount of explosive segment located above the element
and orientated normal to the surface of the liner. The
initial velocity of these elements depend on their position
on the liner. Velocity values obtained after explosion
make profile around liner axis of the new formed

The central line is the reference line regarding maximal

value of velocity and reference for the linearization of
profile distribution along radius. The velocity in the
central line element is VJi = V0i with constant tensile
strain rate along axis [1,2,10] 0zi = const , where VJi
represent linearized velocity of moving elements. The
values of elements volume are in accordance with
Guldinus theorem regarding their ring form distribution
along caliber. Using this condition for each element along
radius, their particular velocities will correspond to the
next expression [2]:

VJi = VJ 1 VJ (i 1) ; i = 1, 2,..., n .
236

(3)

where all elements together form distribution of linear

velocity profile on the projectile shape.

The quarter of warhead volume in numerical simulation is

observed but on the figures 2, 7 and 8 is presented half
only visually (mirror function), for better understanding.
The appropriate number of finite elements is essential
regarding simulation blockage effect.

The value V j represents a linear reduction of the

neighbor velocity of each element along the r-axis in the
distribution directed toward z axis, so that the total
kinetic energy of all elements along the z-axis, are
approximately same for both linear and non-linear
estimations. The total part of kinetic energy of all
observed elements directed to z-axes and integrated along
radii in the ring form around caliber, is used for plastic
deformation of the liner and its motion in the z direction.
Final solution for V j , with adopted hypothesis can be

Present analysis uses fully Lagrangian solver, where after

35 s, detonation products are not included into
calculation during simulation, because of collateral fault
influences on the simulation time.
Table 2: Properties of the mesh in the numerical model
Type 1
Type 2*
Conditions
1
2
1
2
3
liner
7776
6125
7776 6125 Typ.2
Explosive
10496 9000 10496 9000 Typ.2
Cover
15006 12000
Typ.2
Back plate
768
450
768
450 Typ.2
1 nodes; 2 elements; 3 mesh (brick elements);
* - compare with experiment

determined from the kinetic energy balance law along zaxis. This model is not used in the estimation of final
projectile velocity, but it helps more accurate calculation
of penetrability using of analytical model.
Final velocity of EFP center of mass is performed by
integrating all absolute velocities of liner elements eq. (1),
by momentum conservation law and is given by the
expression [2,10]
n

V M
0i

V0 E =

i =1
n

(4)

i =1

The total kinetic energy is now represented by the mass

center velocity of EFP. Regarding penetrability [1-3] and
distance shooting effects [5], useful kinetic energy is
directed along central line. The model assumes that the
difference between these energies is kinetic energy of
elements relative motion toward mass center, caused by
plastic deformation along z-axis [1,10]

ADE = 1
2

M i (V0i cos ) 2

i =1

M V

i 0E

i =1

Figure 2: Geometrical configuration of EFP warhead

type1 and finite elements mesh: 1 - liner, 2 explosive
charge, 3 -cover, 4 - back plate, 5 - initiation point

(5)

This is justified after mentioned time interval, regarding

obvious diminishing influences of detonation products on
the velocity profiles.

Energy of radial deformation corresponds to the part of

kinetic energy created by the radial component of the
absolute velocity of each element as follows [1,10]

RDE = 1
2

Pressure of detonation products is determined according

to Jones-Wilkins-Lee [1] equation of state:

M (V
i

0i

sin )2 .

p = K (1 ) e( R1V ) + K1 (1 ) e( R2V ) + E (7)

R1V
R2V
V

(6)

i =1

where V and E are represented as V = 0 / , E = 0 e ,

0 is the current density, is the reference density, e is
the specific internal energy and K, K1, R1, R2 and are
constants for the given explosive material [1,2].

Numerical method
Numerical approach based on the finite element method is
also used in this investigation in order to be compared
with experimental data.

4. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

The properties of the adopted simulation model mesh

[12,15-19] are given in Table 2. The mesh density is
determined taking into account accuracy as well as
reasonable simulation run time within available computer
facilities.

Two types of warhead samples have been considered

through represented models in analytical and numerical
approaches.
Figures 3 and 4 show velocity distribution of observed
elements along the liner for warhead type 1 with metal
cover and back plate and type 2 without cover element.

Figure 2 shows configuration of EFP warhead as well as

appearance of created mesh for each component
separately.
237

m/s and comparing with experimental value of 2474 m/s

shows error of 1.5%. This confirms the numerical method
as much more reliable.

EFP- Type 1
5000
29 observed elements

4500

Nonlinear decrease of velocities between the edge 14

elements (Figs. 3 and 4) in the analytical approach is
influenced by the decrease of active mass, regarding
smaller mass of explosive in the appropriate segments,
corresponding to defined analytical segments of the
cylindrical explosive
charge. The axial velocity
distribution is responsible for the appropriate shaping of
projectile after explosion. This approves analytical model
as the tool for design and analysis of projectile shape and
dynamics in the initial phase of design.

4000
analytical method
3342.4434

3500

m/s

3000
numerical method
2860

2500
2000

V0, initial velocity

1500

V0z, component V0 in to the 0-z direction

1000

Vj, linear velocity of moving elements

V0E, abs velocity

500
0

V0, abs numerical velocity

0

10

15
i-th element

20

25

(Figs 5 and 6) show energy distribution vs. time during

projectile forming. Kinetic energy, as it is well known
from terminal ballistics, shows penetration capability of
formed projectiles.

30

Figure 3: Velocity distribution along the liner obtained

with analytical method presented with square, circle and
triangle. Straight lines show absolute values of velocity
(type1)

x 10

1500

EFP- Taype 2
Kinetic energy [J]

29 observed elements

4500
4000
3500
analytical method
2813.1997

500

2474 experimental method

2500
2435
numerical method

2000

0
0

V0, initial velocity

V0z, component V0 in to the 0-z direction
Vj, linear velocity of moving elements
V0E, abs velocity
V0, abs numerical velocity
V0exp, experimental velocity

1500
1000
500
0

Kinetic energy
Plastic work

10

15
i-th element

20

25

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04
Time [ms]

0.05

0.06

0.07

0
0.08

Figure 5: Energy distribution during time of the forming

of explosively formed projectile, warhead-type 1,
obtained by numerical method

30

Figure 4: Velocity distribution along the liner obtained

with analytical method presented with square, circle and
triangle. Straight lines show absolute values of velocity
(type2)

Kinetic energy [J]

Line marked with squares represents absolute velocities

of rejected liner segments at initial time and line marked
with circles represents component of absolute velocity
along the direction of motion (z-axis). 14 elements
observed from the central line have approximately linear
both absolute and component velocities profiles. Further
15 elements have nonlinear velocity distribution.
According to analytical expression (4), as can be seen on
Figs. 3 and 4, the final mass center velocity is 3342.44
m/s for the type 1 and 2813.12 m/s for the type 2.
Comparing analytical velocity of type 1 with numerical
value of 2860 m/s, the relative error is ~15%, which could
be considered as acceptable. For warhead type 2, for
which experimental data are available, velocity calculated
by the analytical method is 2813.12 m/s; comparing with
experimental of about 2474 m/s [14], yields error of 13%.
Final velocity obtained by numerical calculations is 2435

Numerical method

x 10

1000

500
Kinetic energy
Plastic work

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08
Time [ms]

0.1

0.12

0.14

Plastic work [J]

m/s

3000

1000
Plastic work [J]

5000

0
0.16

Figure 6: Energy distribution during time of the forming

of explosively formed projectile, warhead-type 2,
obtained by numerical method
As regards of plastic works, it is important for liner
design and for selection of appropriate material. Figure 5
238

and 6 represents nonlinear and uniform distribution of

plastic energy. It means that liner during formation had
proper deformation. If that curve in initial phase of
formation have no permanent increase, this indicates the
liner fracture.

For the type 1 (Fig. 7) projectile is formed with its final

shape after t=70.5 s at the distance 265.31mm, realizing
final velocity of about 2860 m/s. For the type 2 (Fig. 8)
these values are t=150 s, the distance 418.2 mm and
velocity 2435 m/s. That means that type 2 has much less
coefficient of energy efficiency than covered warhead
charges [10]. The final projectile shape influences two
basic performances penetrability and precision. From
the penetrability aspect type 1 is more desirable, because
of more compact frame by mass which provides better
penetration. From the precision point of view,
aerodynamic form of type 2 is better, but in trade-off to
penetration effects.

Table 3 shows differences in the energy distribution

obtained by the numerical and analytical approach. In
table 3 are presented next values: absolute initial velocity
V0 [m/s], kinetic energy Ek [J], axial deformation energy
ADE [J], radial deformation energy RDE [J] and plastic
deformation energy/plastic work PW [J].
This is consequence of taking into account of deformation
energy in the numerical model, which precisely calculates
strains and stresses of projectile during the forming time.
Differences between two types of warheads show that
cover of the warhead influences the increase of kinetic
energy of projectile as well as the increase of total plastic
deformation work [1,2,10,13,20].

Table 3: Experimental, numerical and analytical results

Exper. Numeric. Analytical
Results
V0 [m/s]
2860
3342.44
Ek [J]
43035
305286.63
Type1
ADE [J]
35225.6
RDE [J]
27957.5
PW [J]
1382
V0 [m/s]
2474
2435
2813.12
Ek [J]
137720
27625
242245.3
Type2
ADE [J]
50936.5
RDE [J]
18124.6
PW [J]
877.39
-

5. CONCLUSION
The following conclusions are based on the presented
study and obtained results:
The analytical and numerical approach to the EFP
modeling are presented and compared with available
experimental data.
Figure 7: Shape of projectile after t=70.5 s that
corresponds to the configuration of warhead-type 1;
Dimensions: initial D=57.2mm, final projectile d=38.56
mm, l=29.32 mm;

Analytical model gave an approximate picture of the

process of forming of the EFP. However, final shape of
the liner cannot be obtained, but determination of EFP
velocity gives acceptable results.
Numerical method gives more accurate results
regarding velocity in comparison with analytical
method and these results are very close to experimental
data, with error of 1.5%. It should be noted that
numerical method reduces the time of EFP development
process and the cost of experimental testing.
Error of analytical method comparing to experimental
data can be considered as acceptable. However, the
number of experimental data is too small to get reliable
final conclusion, but only in the case of many
experiments performed.
Obviously, the same configuration of liners and
explosive charges with and without metal covers
produced different shapes of explosive formed
projectiles. Warhead type 1 produced EFP as the plastic
solid shape with forward folded fins form, and type 2
produced EFP in the shape of hollow cylinder with back
folded fins form.

Figure 8: Shape of projectile after t=150 s that

corresponds to the configuration of warhead-type 2;
Dimensions: initial D=57.2mm, final projectile d=49 mm;
l=59.2 mm;

Various types of EFP warhead give different times of

forming processes and the different distributions of
energy. This could be important if system shoots targets
from the various distances.

Numerical simulation also reproduces realistic shapes of

projectiles at the end of forming shown in (Figs. 7 and 8).
239

Ballistics Society, pp.565-574.

[11] Jianfeng, L., Tao, H., Longhe, L., Bing, H.:
Numerical Simulation of Formation of EFP With
Charge of Aluminized High Explosive, International
Symposium on Ballistics, Tarragona, Spain 16-20
April, 2007.
[12] Johnson, G.R., Stryk, R.A.: Some Considerations for
3D EFP Computations, International Journal of
Impact Engineering 32, pp. 1621-1634, 2006.
[13] Hussain, G., Malik, A.Q., Hameed, A.: Gradient
Valued Profiles and L/D Ratio of Al EFP With
Modified Johnson Cook Model, Journal of Materials
Science and Engineering 5, pp. 599-604, 2011.
[14] Teng, T.L., Chu, Y.A., Chang, f.a., Shen, B.C.:
Design and Implementation of a High Velocity
Projectile Generator, Fizika Goreniya I Vzryva, Vol.
43, No. 2, pp. 233-240, 2007.
[15] Jones, D.A., Kemister, G., Borg, R.A.J.: Numerical
Simulation of Detonation in Condensed Phase
Explosives, Weapons Systems Division Aeronautical
and Maritime Research Laboratory, August 1998.
[16] Lam, C., McQueen, D.: Study of the Penetration of
Water by an Explosively Formed Projectile,
Weapons Systems Division Aeronautical and
Maritime Research Laboratory, June 1998.
[17] Fong, R., Kraft, J., Thompson, L.M., Ng, W.: 3D
Hydrocode Analysis of Novel Asymmetrical Warhead
Designs, Proceedings for the Army Science
Conference (24th), 29 November - 2 December,
Florida, pp.1-3, 2005.
S.,
Murr,
L.E.:
Hydrocode and
[18] Pappu,
microstructural analysis of explosively formed
penetrators, Journal of Materials Science, pp. 233248, 2002.
[19] Weibing, L., Xiaoming, W., Wenbin, L.: The Effect
of Annular multi-point Initiation on the Formation
and Penetration of an Explosively Formed
Penetrator, International Journal of Impact
Engineering 37, pp. 414-424, 2010.
[20] Church, P.D., Cullis, I.: Development and
Application of High Strain Rate Constitutive Models
in Hydrocodes, Journal de Physique IV, Vol. 1, pp.
917-922, October 1991.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research has been supported by the Ministry of
Education, Science and Technological Development of
the Republic of Serbia, through the project III-47029, in
the 2014 year, which is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES
[1] Bender, D., Corleone, J.: Tactical Missile Warheads Explosively Formed Projectile, American Institute of
Aeronautic and Astronautic, Washington, 1993.
[2] , .. : ,
- , ,
2004.
[3] Luttwak, G., Cowler, M.S.: Advanced Eulerian
Techniques for the Numerical Simulation of Impact
and Penetration using AUTODYN-3D, International
Symposium of Interaction of the Effects of
Munitions with structures, Berlin, 3-7 May, 1999.
[4] Jaramaz, S.: Warhead design and terminal ballistics,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, 2000.
[5] Bender, D., Chhouk, B., Fong, R., William N., Rice,
B., Volkmann, E.: Explosively Formed Penetrators
(EFP) With Canted Fins, 19th International
Symposium of Ballistics, Interlaken, Switzerland,
pp. 755-762, 2001.
[6] Jaramaz, S., Mickovi, D.: Military Applications of
Explosive Propulsion, FME Transaction, Vol. 30,
No. 1, pp. 15-22, 2002.
[7] Jaramaz, S.: Physics of Explosion, Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, 1997.
[8] Regueiro, R.A., Horstemeyer, M.F.: CTH Analysis of
Tantalum EFP Formation Using the BCJ Model,
Center for Materials and Engineering Sciences
Sandia National Laboratories Livermore, CA 945510969, USA.
[9] Markovi, M.: Explosively Formed Projectiles, MSc
Thesis, University in Belgrade, Mechanical
Engineering, Weapon Systems Department, 2011.
[10] Sharma, VK, Kishore, P., Bhattacharyya, AR,
Raychaudhuri, TK, Singh S.: An Analytical
Approach for Modeling EFP Formation and
Estimation of Confinement on Velocity, International

240

ATTACHMENT RESEARCH OSCILLATORY CHARACTERISTICS OFF-ROAD

VEHICLES
ZORAN MAJKI
Tehnical test center, Belgrade, majkicczoran@gmail.com
MIROSLAV DEMI
Faculty of Engineering University of Kragujevac, Kragujevac, demic@kg.ac.rs
SNEANA VANOVI
Tehnical test center, Belgrade, sneza.jovanovic.toc@gmail.com

Abstract: The oscillations of the vehicle, essentially caused by the real stochastic road profile. Test conditions of
military vehicles implemented in the so-called type conditions. These conditions represent a statistical interpretation
of factors which affect the workloads and combining them in order to define the representative conditions of use of the
vehicle to itself tests carried out as fast as possible time and with as little cost. Therefore, in this work analyzed the test
conditions and some results of acceleration: front drive bridge and cabins terrain vehicle formula unit 6x6.
Keywords: road, vehicle, conditions, examination, construction.

Table 1. Influentcing parameters, phenomenons and

measuring sizes [1]
Appearance and size of
measurement

Analytical study of the oscillatory model requires the

determination of the transfer function of the oscillatory
system. Figure 1. schematically shows the method for the
study of oscillatory problems.

Tyre
Seat
Suspension power
Wheelbase trail
Road profile
Force and torque
engine
Imbalanse

Figure 1. Schematic representation of observed

oscillatory characteristics

Speed

Table 1. shows the significant parameters which

determine the oscillatory behavior of the vehicle as well
as measurnig the size over which to assess oscillatory
phenomena.

Slow speed

241

Ride comfort
Vehicle oscillations

Axle arrangement

Excitation

Of Laboratory and road tests oscillatory characteristics of

cars come down the track response through displacement,
velocity or acceleration of certain points of the car for a
known excitation or to compare the response in one of the
above forms of a car with the response of the other cars
under the same conditions of exitation.

Speed

Suspender mass,
moment of inertia
Elastic element
Muzzling
Friction
No suspender mass

vehIcle

Significant parameters

Acceleration
Mode of action
Frequency

Driving
stability

The study of oscillatory problems vehicle is directed to

study and optimize: ride comfort, driving stability, and
dynamic load road and dynamic load and strength
structural elements of the vehicle.

Load of elements

1. INTRODUCTION

Relationships,
dynamically
according to static
load
Displacement,
loads

parameters
Statistics and
probables

number of kilometers off-road vehicles.

2. SOURCES EXCITATION OSCILLATIONS

OF MOTOR VEHICLES

The complex of special roads are carried out accelerated

testing of vehicles (dynamometric time, the surface of
stability and maneuverability, a special time for testing the
strength-life time, time with batter waves to examine the
strength-lifetime and parts of the control system, with real
time exposure sinusoidal profile for testing the ride comfort
and explore the effectiveness of the elements of reliance,
check the selection of vibratory parameters, etc.).

As can be seen from table 1. perturbation forces excite

oscillations of motor vehicles have different sources. As
the main cause of the excitation of oscillations can be
considered as the movement of vehicles on rough road.
Unevenness off road usually have a chaotic schedule, and
we say that the random function mikroprofil road
odometer x , ie. its ordinates for an arbitrary value x of
the rand variables.

Bearing in mind that the macro-and micro rlief roadwastelands are of great importance in terms of traffic
safety are essential measurements to determine the
condition of the road network-different natural substrates
and thus the seelction of appropriate parameters.

Furthermore perturbation forces resulting from irregular

tire, wheel and tire eccentricity and unbalance of the
wheel. Uneven road have a random character. To study
the oscillation of motor vehicles it is necessary to know
the characteristics of the uneven road.

It is known for a large number of devices and methods for

measuring parameters microprofile. Thereby, as a rule,
registers the profile of the longitudinal, transverse and
identified from the ensemble of parallel longitudinal
profiles. Longitudilal profile is presented in Figure 2.a,
the simplification of the longitudinal profile in the shape
of the shape of the ensemble of parallel lines is presented
in Figure 2.b.

Based on the large number of tests it can be concluded

that mikroprofil road as a random function can be viewed
as a stationary random function.
Stationarity properties can be expressed as follows:
random function z ( x) is called stationary if all its
statistical properties do not depend on time.
In some cases it may be considered as random function
mikroprofil represents ergodic function, which is one
embodiment provides sufficient information on the
characteristics of the random function.
The specific form of random functions of the
measurement results is called the realization of random
functions.

Figure 2. ) Spatial profile, ) Ansambl of the

longitudinal profiles. [2, 3, 6]

3. TECHNOLOGY ROAD PROFILING

In the design, testing and use of military vehicles are
essential information about the configuration of the
terrain (flat, hilly, mountainous conditions), the elements
of the longitudinal and cross-section views-field capacity
of bridges and other structures, equipment, road
roughness), the intensity of the traffic flow (average
annual, daily, hour flow, uneven traffic flow for hours
during the day, by day of the week and months of the
year, the structure and type of traffic flow).

All devices have been developed so far can be classified

into two categories:

In the final verification and reliability testing of the

prototype structure and the "0" series of new off-road car
road-representation of unreasonable conditions is modern
asphalt-concrete roads 20%; macadam roads or pavement
30%; rural, dirt roads, 30% and 20% turf, the total

Problem registering roughness longer wavelengths is

solved by using a narrow beam and laser. In the real
world, it is performed by registering the identification
microroughness angular deviations (dipstick) by reference
level which is illustrated shown in Figure 3.b.

without oscillatory properties and

oscillatory properties (inertial).
In the first group of devices (Rod and Level), measuring
the amplitude microroughness is made with respect to the
adopted reference line, Figure 3a.

Figure 3. Scheme of devices: a) Rod and Level, b) Dipstic. [2, 6]

242

One of the most advanced procedures for registering

microroughness road, which was developed at General
Motors in, is shown in Figure 4.

There is real value for any index. True value would be

obtained by applying the calculation method of the right
profile. In a short period of time can accumulate millions
numbers.

4.2. The International Roughness Index (IRI)

Since 1990, the FHWA (Federal Highway Administration
SAD) has required the state DOTs (Departments of
Transportation) to report road roughness from their PMS
(Pavement Management System) on the International
Roughness Index (IRI) scale for inclusion in the Highway
Performance Monitoring System. The IRI is a profilebased statistic that was initially established in a study by
the World Bank. It is used worldwide as the index for
comparing pavement smoothness. However, IRI is not
currently in common use for construcion acceptance.

Figure 4. The inertial profiler General Motors

design [2, 6]
The method consists in the fact that the simultaneous use
of non-contact displacement sensor (laser, ultrasonic,
radar) for registering displacements of the characteristic
points of a vehicle to the ground (normally the roll axis),
and the acceleration sensor for the simultaneous recording
of the same point on the vehicle.

The IRI is developed mathematically to represent the

reaction of a single tire on a vehicle suspension (quartercar) to roughness in the pavement surface (Figure 5),
traveling at 80 km/h. The quarter-car model used in the
IRI algorithm is just what its name implies: a model of
one corner (a quarter) of a car. The model is shown
schematically in Figure 5: it incudes one tire, represented
with a vertical spring, the mass of the axle supported by
the tire, a suspension spring and a damper, and the mass
of the body supported by the suspension for that tire. IRI,
like the Profile Index (PI) from California profilographs,
is expressed in mm/km.

When it is registered and the vehicle speed. Amplitude of

microroughness is calculated based on the two measured
values (acceleration and displacement), the use of
computers. This method has its advantages and
disadvantages.
The advantage of this procedure presents: high speed of
measurement, reproducibility of results, the partial
elimination of the influence of vibratory parameters of the
vehicle, and the deficiencies are reflected in the presence
of measurement errors due to changes in the spatial
position of the vehicle during its movement, as well as
changing the position of the axis of rolling with the
change of load measuring vehicle.

4. APPRAISAL INDICATOR QUALITY

SURFACE ROAD
In addition to existing statistical of the profile of road
used other data expressing the quality of the road surface
such as Profile Index (PI), Internationsl Roughness Index
(IRI), Panel Ratings (PR), Ride Number (RN) ond Other
Roughness Indices used.
Figure 5. Quarter-car simulation of road roughness [6]

4.1. Profile Index (PI)

When the measurement profile is obtained by a series of
numbers represetnting the vertical projection in relation to
a reference. There are thousands of numbers per kilometer
of measuring profile. There may be more "slice" of the
road profile in which moving profiler. The short time
interval may accumulate million numbers. Profiles Index,
has been introduced for this reason it is necessary to
provide information that can be used.

The quarter-car simulation is meant to be a theoretical

representation of the response-type systems in use at the
time the IRI was developed. It is tuned to maximize
correlation with response-type road roughness measuring
systems such as the Mays Ride Meter, the PCA meter,
and the Cox meter.
As shown in Figure 6. the IRI scale generally ranges from
zero to 16. For paved roads in a good to moderate
condition, the measured IRI generally ranges from 1,5 to
3,5. For unpaved roads the measured IRI generally ranges
from roughly 4 to 12.

Index profile is a summary number calculated from a lot

of numbers that make up the profile. Details calculation
determines the significance and meaning of the index.
The accuracy of the calculated index is limited by the
error in measuring the profile.
243

passenger cars. There is a subtle difference in the way the

vehicle responds.
Consider a sinusoidal input. If both sides receive the same
sinusoid, in phase, then the whole vehicle bounces in
response. It does not roll at all. However, if they are out
of phase, such that the left side goes up when the right
side goes down, the vehicle rolls but doesnt bounce but
not roll. In real roads, there is a mixture of bounce and
roll. The bounce part gets through, but the roll part does
not. Consequently, the roughness as calculated with an
HRI analysis must be less than or equal to the result
obtained from the IRI analysis. A disadvantage of the
half-car analysis is that in order for it to work, the two
profiles must be perfectly synchronized before they are
averaged. For profilers that measure profiles in two wheel
tracks simultaneously, the two are properly synchronized
and this is not a problem.
Figure 6. The IRI roughness scale [7]

5. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH BEHAVIOR

OF STRUCTURES ROUGH TERRAIN
VEHICLE AXLE CONFIGURATION 6X6
ON DIFFERENT ROAD-PATHLESS
SURFACE

4.3. The Half Car Index (HRI)

The IRI calculation simulates the motion of one quarter of
a normal passenger car, and that the calculation uses the
profile calculated in a single wheelpath. Many modern
profilometers, however, can measure the profile in both
wheelpaths simultaneously.

Unevenness of road are teh main reason of occurrence of

forced oscillations of the vehicle. Other reasons are less
important in term, that the vehicle is properly and to meet
the technical requirements. Due to the limitations of
maximum acceleration, maintaining acceleration in a
wider range of frequency within certain limits depending
on the frequency of oscillation, preventing shock loads,
constraints, limitations walk suspender mass, damping
and small angular displacements suspend mass were
performed experimental tests of field formula drive 6x6
cars on different travel-pathless substrates.

Theoretically, a more accurate assessment of roughness

can be obtained if the roughness index is calculated from
both wheelpaths. This is because the overall vehicle
response is actually determined by the profile input from
both left and right wheelpaths simultaneously. The IRI
calculation, however, uses only a single wheelpath for its
calculation.
The HRI is a parameter that uses the same processing
algorithm as the IRI, but instead of using only the left or
right wheelpath profile, the HRI uses the point-by-point
average of profiles in the two travelled wheelpaths.

Measurements were made at two positions:

1. on the front driving shaft over differential gear
measured are horizontal, lateral and vertical acceleration ;

By using both wheelpaths, the HRI provides a closer

mathc to the way response type devices sense and
measure roughness.

2. underneath the front passenger seat was measured

vertical acceleration.
Measuring chain consisted of instruments: measuring
system for vibration NetdB12 (01) and NF
piezoaccelometar. For the analysis we used software
dBFaSuite, the data is in a format cmg.
In Figures 8-12 are shown signals obtained by the
acceleration [s, m/s2] on different surfaces.
Envelop [ID=8] Ch. 1 - Recording - X osa ledina 2

s;m/s2

10.8672

10.718

217.018

-8.121

20
0
-20
0
20
40
60
80
Envelop [ID=9] Ch. 2 - Recording - Y osa ledina 2

100

120
140
160
180
200
s;m/s2 10.8672
7.313 217.018
-7.174

100

120
140
160
180
200
s;m/s2 10.8672
0.478 217.018
-0.455

100

120
140
160
180
200
s;m/s2 10.8672
5.228 217.018
-5.016

100

120

10
0
-10
0
20
40
60
80
Envelop [ID=10] Ch. 5 - Recording - Z osa ledina 2
1
0
-1
0
20
40
60
80
Envelop [ID=11] Ch. 6 - Recording - kab Z osa ledina 2

Figure 7. Half-car model simulation of road

roughness [6]

20
0
-20

The advantage of the half-car analysis is that it more

closely matches the way road meters are installed in

20

40

60

80

140

160

180

200

Figure 8. Roadless surface waste land

244

Envelop [ID=0] Ch. 1 - Recording - X osa pista 50km

s;m/s2

2.09859

21.363

56.6904

-26.269

35
40
s;m/s2 2.09859

45
16.467

50
56.6904

55
-20.753

45
50
0.749 56.6904

55
-1.084

Table 2. Equivalent acceleration of the measuring points

50
0
-50
0
5
10
15
20
Envelop [ID=1] Ch. 2 - Recording - Y osa pista 50km

25

30

ROAD OFF ROAD

0
-50
0
5
10
15
20
Envelop [ID=2] Ch. 5 - Recording - Z osa pista 50km
2

25

30

35
40
s;m/s2 2.09859

ROADLESS SURFACE
WASTE LAND
ROAD SURFACE RAN
WAY, SPEED 50 km/h
ROAD SURFACE RAN
WAY, SPEED 70 km/h
ROAD SURFACE
ASPHALT ROAD,
SPEED 50 km/h
ROAD SURFACE
ASPHALT ROAD,
SPEED 70 KM/H

0
-2
0
5
10
15
20
Envelop [ID=3] Ch. 6 - Recording - kab Z osa pista 50km

25

30

25

30

35
40
s;m/s2 2.09859

45
50
6.928 56.6904

55
-4.094

10
0
-10
0

10

15

20

35

40

45

50

55

Figure 9. Road surface ran way, speed 50 km/h

Envelop [ID=0] Ch. 1 - Recording - X osa pista 70km

s;m/s2

2.38109

37.514

48.5209

-35.747

50
0
-50
0
5
10
15
Envelop [ID=1] Ch. 2 - Recording - Y osa pista 70km

20

25

30
35
40
45
s;m/s2 2.38109
24.776 48.5209
-32.163

20

25

30
35
s;m/s2 2.38109

0
5
10
15
20
Envelop [ID=3] Ch. 6 - Recording - kab Z osa pista 70km

25

30
35
40
45
s;m/s2 2.38109
15.352 48.5209
-6.677

50

40
45
1.484 48.5209
-2.026

2
0
-2

0
-20
5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Figure 10. Road surface ran way, speed 70 km/h

Envelop [ID=0] Ch. 1 - Recording - X osa 50km asfalt
50

s;m/s2

5.36156

20.213

127.465

-28.376

60

70
80
90
s;m/s2 5.36156

100
15.479

110
127.465

120
-17.800

60

70
80
90
s;m/s2 5.36156

100
110
0.553 127.465

120
-0.796

60

70
80
90
s;m/s2 5.36156

100
110
6.879 127.465

120
-5.970

60

70

100

120

0,2

3,4

8,5

0,3

2,9

12,75

9,9

0,5

6,4

4,7

0,23

2,45

12,64

8,9

0,48

4,5

Conditional vehicle has a short "memory" or the memory

of the suspensions shifts from this study shows that given
the data available.

0
10
20
30
40
50
Envelop [ID=1] Ch. 2 - Recording - Y osa 50kmasfalt

2,4

This example further research could be used to obtain a

response type of system. There are data on the
acceleration of front axle driven which the correlation can
get accumulated displacement axle driven.

20

In Figures 13-17 show the processed acceleration signals

in the root-mean-square (RMS) values as a function of
frequency on different surfaces in moving vehicles with
different speeds.

0
-50
0
5
10
15
Envelop [ID=2] Ch. 5 - Recording - Z osa pista 70km

ACCELERATION [m/s2]
FRONT AXLE
TILT
DRIVEN
KAB
X
Y
Z
Z

20
0
-20
0
10
20
30
40
50
Envelop [ID=2] Ch. 5 - Recording - Z osa 50km asfalt
1
0
-1
0
10
20
30
40
50
Envelop [ID=3] Ch. 6 - Recording - kab Z osa 50kmasfalt
10
0
-10
0

10

20

30

40

50

80

90

110

Figure 11. Road surface asphalt road, speed 50 km/h

Envelop [ID=0] Ch. 1 - Recording - X osa, asfalt 70km

s;m/s2

4.0918

46.944

32.718

20
s;m/s2

4.0918

25
27.693

32.718

20
s;m/s2

4.0918

25
1.557

32.718

20
s;m/s2

4.0918

25
11.080

32.718

-15.663

50

Figure 13. RMS acceleration as a function frequency;

Roadless surface waste land,

0
-50
0
5
10
Envelop [ID=1] Ch. 2 - Recording - Y osa, asfalt 70km
50

15

30
-12.194

0
-50
0
5
10
Envelop [ID=2] Ch. 5 - Recording - Z osa, asfalt 70km

15

30
-0.686

2
0
-2
0
5
10
Envelop [ID=3] Ch. 6 - Recording - kab Z osa, asfalt 70km
20

15

30
-1.824

0
-20
0

10

15

20

25

30

Figure 12. Road surface asphalt road, speed 70 km/h

In table 2. shows the analysis results equivalent to the
triaxial acceleration measuring point front axle driven
and cabin on the Z-axis, depending on the road-off road
surfaces.

Figure 14. RMS acceleration as a function frequency;

Road surface ran way, speed 50 km/h

245

The analysis of the presented data it is the appearance of

the horizontal (lateral ) acceleration caused by vehicle
roll. There is a conclusion that is incorrect suspension for
a minimum of pitching.

6. CONCLUSION
A vehicle as an oscillatory system is located in close
mutual connection with the road-wastelend, which may
have a stacked mikroprofil road-wastelend. On the other
hand, the oscillations of the vehicle affecting of man
(driver, passenger) and maintained cargo transportation.
The road directly affect on vehicle speed, engine load, the
choice of transmission conditions of the braking system.

Figure 15. RMS acceleration as a function frequency;

Road surface ran way, speed 70 km/h

Exploration oscillation vehicles it is necessary to improve

its ride comfort, traction properties, cost, stability,
manageability, strength and reliability, etc.
As a representative of the road surface is viewed his
profile. Usually profile observed along its imaginary,
designed lines. Width imaginary lines prescribed by the
type of instrument used in the measurement. It is very
difficult to repeat the measurement if the observed line
thin.
All instruments for determining of times working on the
principle of combining three parts. hey are: a reference
elevation, a height relative to the reference, and
longitudinal distance.

Figure 16. RMS acceleration as a function frequency;

Road surface asphalt road, speed 50 km/h

Profiler does not measure all of the information needed

for a true profile, they provide measurement information
theat is of interest. Neither instrument is not perfect, and
there are errors. Levels of error are opposite balance the
cost of the instrument and an effort to use them.
Road users can identify the different types of unevenness,
such as various forms of undesirable vibrations vehicle.
Shown Ouarter-car
mathematical model
movement reliance,
motion and dividing
were collected.

Half-car Roughness Index (HRI) is the IRI algorithm

applied to the average of two profiles. The advantage of
the half-car analysis is that it more closely matches the
way road meters are installed in passenger car. A
disadvantage of the half-car analysis is that in order for it
to work, the two profiles must be perfectly synchronized
before they are averaged.

Figure 17. RMS acceleration as a function frequency;

Road surface asphalt road, speed 70 km/h
In table 3. shows the values of the characteristic
frequency depending on the road surface.
Table 3. Characteristic frequency
ROAD OFF ROAD
ROADLESS SURFACE WASTE
LAND
ROAD SURFACE RAN WAY,
SPEED 50 km/h
ROAD SURFACE RAN WAY,
SPEED 70 km/h
ROAD SURFACE ASPHALT
ROAD, SPEED 50 km/h
ROAD SURFACE ASPHALT
ROAD, SPEED 70 KM/H

model is a filter that presents a

and whose main task simulation of
with the aim of accumulation of
them by the distance at which they

CHARACTERISTIC
FREQUENCY [Hz]

Driving is the easiest to describe using the vertical

acceleration, as measured by accelerometers. Models of
IRI and HRI are used for calculations may also provide
simulation vertical acceleration as output.

31,25
43,75

The present data and performed the analysis showed that

the appeared adverse conditions on the actual construction
of a military off-road vehicle drive 6x6 formula in terms
of ride comfort of vehicle, provide information served as
the constructor that based on the same conduct additional
analysis and adjustment of the vehicle structure.

56,25
43,75
62,5

246

[5] Sayers,W.M., Karamihas,M.S.: Interpretation of road

roughness profile data, The University of Michigan
Transportation Research Institute, 1996.
[6] Sayers,W.M., Karamihas M.S.: The Little Book of
Profiling, University of Michigan Transportation
Research Institute, 1998.
[7] Sayers,W.M.,
Gillespie,D.T.:
Paterson,O.D.,
Guidelines for Conducting and Calibrating Road
Roughness Measurements, The World Bank
Washington, D.C., USA, 1986.
[8] Morrow,G.: Comparison of Roughness Measuring
Instruments, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering University of Auckland, New Zealand,
2006.

REFERENCES
[1] Simi,D.: Dinamika motornih vozila, Univerzitet
Svetozar Markovi u Kragujevcu, Nauna Knjiga,
Beograd, 1980.
[2] Demi,M.: Dinamike pobude automobile, Institut za
nuklearne nauke Vina Centar za motore i vozila,
Beograd, 2006.
[3] ,..:

,
, , 1972.
[4] ,..: --, ,
, 1976.

247

INFLUENCE OF ACCURACY OF PREPARATION INDIRECT FIRING

INITIAL ELEMENTS ON PERFORMANCE OF GROUP PLATOON
MISSILE FIRING MORTARS 120 mm
ACA RANELOVI
University of Defence, Millitary Academy, Belgrade, aca.r0860.ar.@gmail.com
VLADO URKOVI
University of Defence, Millitary Academy, Belgrade, vlado.djurkovic@va.mod.gov.rs
TUGOMIR KOKELJ
University of Defence, Millitary Academy, Belgrade, tugomir.kokelj@sbb.rs

Abstract: In this paper we will see a detailed analysis of the impact of accuracy preparation initial elements in indirect
firing on the execution of group platoon firing with mortars of 120-mm. Existing methodology and partial automatical
caculation wich is done by computer and Excel program, determined distribution of hits by the range and direction
after completing a full and abbreviated preparation of initial elements and execution of group platoon firinig an target
where is weapon like that wich is composition of four tools. With critical analysis of the accuracy of the declared size of
centered errors we can give the appropriate conclusions and proposals acording transition preparation of initial
elements to a group platoon missile firing.
Key words: accuracy, preparation of initial elements, indirectly targeting, group firing.
The achievement of the group fire is defined by:

1. INTRODUCTION

as accurate as possible determination of the group fire

elements

Indirect fire represents the type of the fire that is done

using indirect sighting from sheltered fire fields and
firing by above elevation angles (great than 45D ) and
vertical trajectory. It is represented by better human and
technique safety from the enemy fire, better gun shotrange use, better
orbit maneuver, higher missile
spending, longer time realization of the defined fire task
and fire preparation complexity.

using appropriate number of guns and necessary

ammunition dose
correct choosing of the mine and filling type, and the
orbit shape, which is the fire type
uniformly spaced fire on the target
sudden firing and
forehand elements correction during the group fire.

The preparation of the starting elements is part of direct

fire preparation content and represents the starting phase
of the mine thrower indirect fire. Using preparation of the
starting elements one can calculate number values of the
measurements units: angle, distance, devices, and if
necessary timing and time flight of the missile. Number
values of the measurements units are derived in order to
obtain as accurate as possible elements for correction start
or group fire.

The group fire is fulfilled by: elements obtained by target

correction and transferring the fire on the topographic
base using data obtained by target correction [2].
Very important influence has the accuracy of starting
elements preparation, no meter how the discharger has
realized group fire or the discharger efficiency in realizing
the final effects.

Group fire is final fire stage that is able to achieve

material and/or ethic effects on the intent that are
important for combat operations. Ammunition dose and
gear number in the group fire depend on the aiming
effects, actually on the size and aim importance. It can be
done by fire shocks, systematic fire or by their
combination, keeping it in allowed fire regime [1].

The fulfilling of passing the mean path through the target

center is done by direction elements and elevation which
are derived by starting elements preparation. In order to
derive those elements it is necessary to make great
number of measurements and calculations that include
stochastic errors whose number values are given in table 1
[3].
248

abel 1. Sizes of errors in numerous values are given to

show preparation of initial elements according cossing on
GG.
No.

and consists of following:

derivation of staring elements and their transmission to
the main platoon gun;

The way of determination of Medium (midlle)

initial elements acording
error
crossing on GG
x in Vd y in Vp

calculation of the three rest platoon guns with respect to

the main one, calculation also the differences between
topographic and ballistic conditions; and

1.

Complete preparation p/

transmission the group fire.

2.

Shortened preparation p/

16

This type of group fire realization is followed by more

complex errors which can be systemized in three groups
(Fig 2):

3.
4.

With correction directly on

0,5 - 2,2 0,9 - 9,0
the target
Transfer of fire in allowed
bounadaries from landmark 1,3 - 1,5 2,5 - 3,5
(target)

Vd
Ex
Exp

C
......... . ........
.. ... .... .
Eyp

, r
C
p

..C. ...
........... ..........
Y
Eyp Vp Eyn-o
Ey

Exp

,,n-o
C

Ex n-o

Due to those errors the mean path finishes in the point P

JJG
instead of the point C, which cause the vector error p
that is possible to split into two values: mean error
preparation with respect to distance (Exp) and mean error
preparation with respect to direction (Eyp) (Figure 1.).

Figure 2: Errors according group shooting with platoon

where is:

where is:
JJG JJG
v = p , errors units = erorrs of preparations of
elements;
JJG
r , errors of splitting;

C, wanterd spot of droping missile;

JJG
p , mistake of determination of p/ for GG;

o = n o , erorrs of reduction in the basic tools;

JJG
i , summary error od shotting by platoon;

Figure 1: Errors of preparation of initial elements of

group shooting

JJG

JJG
P, spot of droping missile for having an error p ;

JJJJJJG

C, wanted spot of droping of missile;

C , spot of droping of missile because there is
JJG
existance of a mistake p ;

Exp, medium mistake which is characheristic of

accuracy;
Eyp, medium mistake which is characheristic of
accuracy of prepparation p/ according direction.

C , droping spot of missile because there is existance

JJG
of a mistake r ;

Beside the listed errors, the accuracy of the fire, which

means the efficiency of the GG, is dependent on the size
and karakter slike rasturanja, mainly by the existence of
the independent errors that are formed during the firing by
one or more guns formed in mortars.

P, spot (point) of droping of missile because there is

JJG
erorr (mistake) i ;
Exp i Eyp, medium error which is characheristic of
accuracy of preparation p/e through distance and
direction;

2. GROUP PLATTON MISSILE MORTARS 120

MM FIRING ERRORS

Exn-o i Eyn-o, medium (erorr) translation from missile

in primary missile acording distance and direction;
Vd, medium erorr of splitting through distance;

In the accuracy analysis of the preparation of direct fire

starting elements the base is assumption that the group
fire is done by platoon missile of 120 mm, sqoad which
includes four missile, with steady bundle of ray.

Vp, medium erorr of splitting through direction;

Ex i Ey, summary medium mistake according
implementation GG unit with distance and direction
JJG
First group includes so called error of unit Ev = ( v ),

The procedure of group fire by platoon is standardized

249

witch is in basis determined by mistake (error) of

JJG
prepation ( p ) and it is equvivalent for all missiles in
sqoad.

Analizing mentioned form for determination midle errors

according range (Ex) and distance (y) is very possible to
see next group of errors:
1) Group of errors which includes errors in preparations
of elements for group shooting which is for platoon in
general (Exv and Eyv) and for error for every missile
especially (Exo and Eyo). When we summary this
mistakes we can get middle errors of preparations of
elements (Exe and Eye):

Second group of errors includes so called errors of

JJG
splitting ( r ) with they characteristics Vd i Vp.
Third group of errors includes so called errors of
JJG
missiles Eo = ( o ) which are resulting according
mathematical determination missile on primary missile
JJJJJJG
( n o ), but also erross which are created in measuring
time. That are doing people who are serve by missiles to
get values which are necessery for determination this
missile on primary missile. In practise this error is always
JJJJJJG JJG
smaller from error of preparation ( n o < p ), and her
approximate value for sqoad which includes for missile is:

according range:
Exe = Exv 2 + Exo 2 ,

according distance:
Eye = Eyv 2 + Eyo 2 ,

JJJJJJG
Exo= Eyo= n o 1Vd 1Vp ,

Exe, summary middle error of preparation of initial

elements for group shooting by platoon according
range;
Eye, summary middle error of preparation of initial
elements for group shooting;

error according range:

2

Ex = Exv + Exo + Vd ,

Exv = Exp, middle error of preparation of initial

elements for group elements for group shooting platoon
according range;

(1)

error according direction:

Ey = Eyv 2 + Eyo 2 + Vp 2 ,

(4)

where is:

If are this errors are shown on shooting direction and

direction who is 90 degres previous direction, then his
components is possible to summary according the rule of
summary middle errors, where is getting:

(3)

Eyv = Eyp, middle error of preparation of initial

elements for group elements for group shooting platoon
according distance;

(2)

Exo = Exn-o, middle error of translation other missiles

in primary missile according range;

where is:
Ex, summary medium error of group shooting by squad
according range;

Eyo = Eyn-o, middle error of translation other missiles

in primary missile according distance.

Ey, summary medium error of group shooting by squad

according distance;

2) Group of errors wich includes errors of splitting every

missile (Vd and Vp).

Exv = Exp, medium error of preparation of initial

elements for group shooting by platoon according
range;

According this explanation we have final form of midle

error according a group shooting by squad, and he is of
shape:

Eyv = Eyp, medium error of preparation of initial

elements for group shooting by platoon according
distance;

according range:
Ex = Exe2 + Vd 2 ,

Exo = Exn-o, medium error of translation other missiles

in primary missile according range;

(5)

according distance:

Eyo = Eyn-o, medium error of translation other missiles

in primary missile according distance;

Ey = Eye2 + Vp 2 .

Vd, medium error of splitting of missile (longer asixs of

exlipse on simple picture of splitting of hit) according
range;

(6)

3. GROUP FIRE DYNAMICAL MODEL

Vp, medium error of splitting of missile (shorter asixs

of exlipse on simple picture of splitting of hit)
according distance.

Group fire dynamics model for the group fire accuracy

derivation after fire starting elements preparation consists
of:

Obtained midle errors Ex and Ey have characteristics of

splitting targeting spots (points) from one missile from
one squad with elements for shooting a group targeting,
which are determined on one determined way, one of
existing ways of determination elements for a group
shooting.

Shooting is realized by platoon of missile of 120 mm

with composition of four missile and easy TF mine
M62P3;
We are shooting target with dimension 150x100m
(living force and fiery fund in incomplete shelter);
Asimut of shooting of target (AzGC) is 45-00;
250

 Spot of target is determined bz polar way with LMD;

Distance of observation is 3000m;
Parallax of target is small;
Height of fiery position and target determined are by
map 1: 25000;
Slope of the terrain in enviroment of fiery position is 5,
and in enviroment of fiery target 10 degres;
Check oriented missile is executed by artilley using
magnetic needle and working repair;
Deviation initial velocity of projectile is determined by
radar for measuring initial velocity;

Table 4: Results of an influence of an accuracy (according

range) expressed by number of values of the middle error
GG (Ex)

On fiery position commander of platoon is measured

velocity ground lateral wind Wy = 2 m/s;
Comuterised department for dat proccesing is
determined by PUB M56 ( scale 1: 12500), and points
on target are applied by meter for coordinations;

Ex

Initial elemnts are determined by complete method and

method of shortened preparation.

Second
33,68

Third
37,55

Charge
Fourth
41,49

Fifth
49,97

Sixth
62,53

48,61

Values of the mean errors with respect to distance and

direction are derived by given fire condition as well as the
influence of the applied method accuracy on those values.

4. ACCURACY OF THE GROUP FIRE MEAN

ERRORS ANALYSIS
Based on the fire dynamical model it has been derived
mean error values for second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth
charging and for firing distances 2000 m and 6340 m ,
after the shorted preparation procedure (Tables 2 and 3)
and full preparation procedure (Tables 4 and 5).

Table 5: Results of an influence of an accuracy (according

distance) expressed by number of values of the middle error
GG (Ey)

Table 2: Results of impacts of an accuracy (according

range) expressed by number of values of the middle error
GG (Ex)

Ey

Charge
Second
Ex

49,28

Third Fourth Fifth

Sixth

50,74

79,96

54,03

62,08

Second
22,38

Third
26,55

Charge
Fourth
34,72

Fifth
40,09

Sixth
48,11

37,4

61,82

Analysing the obtained results it has been derived

accuracy of the applied model influence for the mentioned
charging and distances with respect to the referent values
and fire dynamical model (Table 6 7).
Table 6: Results of an influence of an accuracy by method of
preparation p/e on G/G (according range) expressed by
number of values of the middle error GG (Ex)

Table 3: Results of an influence of an accuracy

(according distance) expressed by number of values of the
middle error GG (Ey)

Influence of preparation p/e on GG

Charge
Ey

Second

Third

Fourth

Fifth

Sixth

45,14

48,76

54,71

58,50

65,33

xs (m)
57,04

251

complete preparation

shortened preparation

48,61

61,82

Comparing above mentioned values with the declared

accuracy of errors, preparation of initial elements when is
crossing on the GG (Table 1) we can see that the value of
errors of complete preparation of initial elements during
the transition to a group shooting by range is greater by
0.27 Vd and is located between the values of the elements
of full and shortened preparation.
The obtained value per direction is decreased by 3.4 Vp
which points on conclusion that it is the same within
declared accuracy of elements by complete preparation.
Table 7: Results of an influence of accuracy by method of
preparation p/e on G/G (according distance) expressed by
number of values of the middle error GG (Ey)

The value of errors shortened preparation of initial

elements during the transition to a group shooting
according range decreased by 5.08 Vd, and is located
between the values of the elements of full and shortened
preparation. The obtained value according direction is
decreased by 11.8 Vp, which points on conclusion that the
same also lies between the values of the elements of full
and shortened preparation.

Influence of preparation p/e on GG

ys (m)

complete preparation

shortened preparation

37,40

57,04

5. CONCLUSION
In this paper it has been underlined the significance of the
initial elements preparation and their influence on the
platoon group fire by mortars 120mm. Analysis of the
declared full starting elements preparation accuracy and
shorted starting elements preparation accuracy in the
transition to the group fire has been done and one can
conclude that it is not fully correct.
The calculation of the influence of initial elements
preparation accuracy on the fire precision within indirect
fire has been done using the Microsoft Excel package and
it was possible to save all used data, which made all the
procedure much easier.

Analyzing the performed results one can conclude that:

Value of summary midle error by group firing by
platoon misile of 120 mm, rises according the range
(Exs) and according distance (Eys) in proportion to the
increase the number of charges, independently from
that if is the group shooting passed after shortened
shooting or after complete preparation of initial
elements;

The main conclusion is that initial elements preparation

accuracy has a great influence on the precision of platoon
group fire by mortar 120mm. Also, their correlation is
very significant and, together with the goal dimension,
they represent the most important factors which directly
influence fire efficiency.

Complete preparation of initial elements for firing by

missile 120 mm, provides greater accuracy of group
shooting from the shortened preparation;

REFERENCES

The accuracy of the group firing by platoon of missile

of 120 mm, after complete preparation of initial
elements according range amounts 1.4 of shooting by
range, or 2.27 per probable diversion according range
(Vd), according direction 6 thousandth, or 2.6 per
turning by according direction (Vp);

[1] Tablice gaanja za minobaca 120 mm M75,

SSNO /Uprava artiljerije/, Beograd, 1981.,
[2] Kokelj,T.: Zbirka reenih zadataka iz teorije
artiljerijskog gaanja, VIZ, Beograd 1999.,
[3] Kokelj,T., Ranelovi,A.: Zbirka reenih zadataka iz
pravila gaanja naoruanjem peadije,
VIZ,
Beograd 2010.,
[4] ivkovi,.: Teorija gaanja, VIZ Beograd 1979.

The accuracy of the group firing by platoon of misile of

120 mm, after a shortened preparation of initial
elements according range amounts 1.8 of shooting by
range, or 2.92 per probable diversion according distance
(Vd), according direction 9 thousandth, or 4.2 per
turning by according direction (Vp);

252

EFFECT ON PERFORMANCE ACCURACY OF CORRECTIONS

INDIRECT FIRING MORTARS 120 mm
TUGOMIR KOKELJ
University of Defence, Millitary Academy, Belgrade, tugomir.kokelj@sbb.rs
ACA RANELOVI
University of Defence, Millitary Academy, Belgrade, aca.r0860.ar.@gmail.com
OLGICA LAZAREVI
University of Defence, Millitary Academy, Belgrade, olgica.lazarevic@va.mod.gov.rs

Abstract: This paper presents a detailed analysis of the impact of the accuracy of corrections to the execution of the
indirect firing 120-mm mortars. Existing methodologies and partially automating calculations, using computers and
Excel programs, certain errors are completing proof method of assessing meaningful goals and methods of the
measured deviations of hits , and their impact on the distance and direction of fire 120 mm mortar target. Critical
analysis of the accuracy of the declared size of our core end- correction of errors adopted are appropriate conclusions
and recommendations .
Keywords: accuracy, proofreading, indirect fire.

1. INTRODUCTION

What is the middle hit (Sp) is closer to the center of the

target (Cc) to the shooting accurately and vice versa
(Figure 1).

Shooting, which is achieved by indirect targeting with

sheltered firing positions, above elevation angles (great
than 45D ) and vertical trajectory, called indirect fire. It is
the process of organizing, preparing and firing a missile at
the target, with the desire to solve the problem of their
encounters in a given area and for a limited time.

Correction (correction, repair, adjustment) is the initial

(first) phase of firing which eliminates errors preparation
of initial elements and provide an accurate elements for
the group firing. Proofreading the mean score, due
process, leads and maintained at the center of the target
(point to proofread). In the narrower sense is the
correction gradually bringing the mean impact point for
the corrections, and maintain secondary goal of the center
of the target represents corrections during the group
shooting.

Geometrically speaking, the goal of indirect firing is an

effort to image (ellipse) dispersion of a tool coincides
with the image of the area chosen for the target (soldiers,
tanks, combat vehicles, fortified building, etc.). Accuracy
to achieve the above objectives shall be determined on the
basis of deviations middle hit ellipse from the center of
the target to be shot.

Dc=10m
C2=30m
C1=10m

- 5m
Vp=15m

Sp

Vd=20m

X
Cc

X1=5m

MB 120mm M75; TF mina M62P3; Pe-4; Dg=4000m

X2=15m

Figure 1: Deviation of the mean impact dispersion ellipse from the center of the target
253

Editing, as a starting point shooting carried out by a

projectile, fuze, and charge a group of corners that will
run and group shooting, and applies to:

calculation, in order to eliminate their negative impact on

the effectiveness of enforcement firearms task.

when the initial elements of a certain about (short and

simple preparation of the initial elements);

2. ERROR COMPLETION CORRECTIONS

Error correction using a laser rangefinder is calculated
using the following forms:

when secrecy and suddenness are not decisive tactical

importance;

Mean probable error of the determination of the

objective and goal is determined by the formulas:

In the course of firing the group - if applicable; and

to improve the accuracy of elements (p/e complete
preparation if the tactical situation permits).

a) when a measurement is carried out:

According to the method of determining the deviation of

hits, corrections can be: the measured deviations of hits
(IOP) and grade point shot (OSP).
Editing the measured deviations of hits is the main way
in which the corrections perpetrator shooting determines
deviations and repairs on the ground, measured by the
same means, the polar coordinates of the target and hit.

-Epp=EDosC(km)

(1)

-Edc=pcDosC

(2)

-Edp=ppDosp

(3)

b) when it is performed "n" measurements:

Polar coordinates are the elements of the direction, range

and height difference expressed in angles values (azimuth,
protractor, angular deflection), and the distance and
height difference in meters or mils relative to a known
point. Polar coordinates objective measures are: the
determination of the target, before the correction (if the
target position specified otherwise) any time during the
correction when shooting the perpetrator or the target
changes position.

- Epp =

E DosC (km)

- Edc =

- Edp =

In addition to measuring the polar coordinate objectives,

measures and polar coordinates hits, for each hit, and the
firing of projectil for each group or mean hit. In relation
to the means and ways of measuring distance, the
correction for the measured deviations of hits performed
laser rangefinder and / or stopwatch. .

pc DosC
n
pp Dosp
n

(4)

(5)

(6)

The total probable error of the mean deviation for

the distance is determined by the formula:
Epd = E 2 dc + E 2 dp

(7)

Projections Epp and EPD on the direction and

distance are determined by the formulas:

Editing grade point hits the correction method based on

the estimated only make sense or meaning, and the
estimated size of deviations hits. It is used in the shooting
of visible targets when it does not have the means to
measure the distance to the target and hit or dispose of
assets, a measurement is not possible due to low visibility,
meteorological factors, the configuration of the land,
vegetation or other reasons.

by the way:

Ey = E 2 pd sin 2 PC + E 2 pp cos 2 PC

(8)

by distance:

Repairs direction is determined based on: the measured

deviations (as in proofreading the IEP), assessment or
rakljenjem (in proofreading marking the direction of
shooting and using the chart conclusions). Repairs
distance is determined based on: the estimated point
(rakljenjem), estimates or sign relations in mixed groups.
Repairs height is defined as the proofreading for the
measured deviations of hits.

Ex = E 2 pd cos 2 PC + E 2 pp sin 2 PC

(9)

The summary error correction ends when the firing

group of "n" projectile is calculated in the following
way:
a) when the data processing graphics:
by the way:

For the successful implementation of the process /

procedure revisions, in addition to the above, it is
necessary to know the rules and proofs. Proof rules are
prescribed for both methods (IOP, OSP) and according to
whether the correction is implemented on the target or
benchmark, the basic instrument or unit [1].

Ry = E 2 y +

Vp 2
+ E 2 yop
n

(10)

Rx = E 2 x +

Vd 2
+ E 2 xop
n

(11)

by distance:

In addition to knowing the rules of proof, for accurate and

precise shooting is necessary to know and errors that
occur in the proofreading and the manner of their
254

Table 1 shows the comparative data accuracy endproofing grade point hits and the measured deviations of
hits.

b) when the data processing calculation:

by the way:

Table 1: Comparative data accuracy endings corrections

OSP and the IOP.

(14)

= 0,47694, constant;
2 =1,41421, constant;

E2 =

Ry u Vp
2,31
2,26
0,57

0,74

0,64
0,51

0,65

2,33
0,80

0,61

2,31

Rx u Vd

Ry u Vp

Rx u Vd
Ry u Vp
1,99
2,42
0,67
2,42

2,63
2,63

0,82

0,76
1,03

2,47

0,72

1,45

2,58
1,13
1,06

stopwatc
h

1. Editing OSP - the size of the last prong at and

corrections:

where is:

Sredstvo

To understand The table below lists the meanings of

abbreviations:

Successful management koreture grade point goals largely

depends on the focal distance correction error completion.
The central error of the end of the correction distance
(Rx), in assessing the meaning of hits, showing the
accuracy of completion and correction is expressed, in
general, over the mean square error in the likely turn-bydistance [3]. Calculated using the formula:
Rx(Vd ) = 2 E 2

LMD (gr.)
Dos. 10
km
E= 5 m
(r.)

1,13

Centered probable error corrections by means of the

measured deviations of hits and focal error processing are
given in the attached collection of solved problems [2].

LMD (gr.)
Dos. >10
km
E= 10 m
(r.)

1,09

OMG 4
observations

Rx i Ry - Overall error correction at the end of the

distance and direction.

Centered
probable error
correction
completion

1,02

n - number of missiles fired - Hits;

Ry u Vp

Vd i Vp - probably turn path on the distance and

direction;

2,1-2,3

Exop i Eyop - focal error processing the distance and

direction;

1,6-1,8

Ex i Ey - projection Epp and EPD on the direction and

distance;

1,3-1,6

Epp i Epd - total secondary probable error deviations

in direction and distance;

0,9-1,1

Edc i Edp - errors focal distance to the target and goal;

Rx u Vd

E - The central error in direction;

1,8-1,9

pc i pp - repairs to aim and goal;

0,9-1,1

DosC i Dosp - observation distance to the target and

goal;

0,6-0,8

where is:

0,5-0,6

(13)

Last Raklja

Vd 2
n

NR 200 m

Rx = E 2 x +

Rx u Vd

CORRECTIONS
CORRECTIONS the IOP
OSP
Centered
number of hits
1
2
probable error
(gupa of)
correction

by distance:

1,61

(12)

OR 100 m

Vp 2
n

OR 50 m

Ry = E 2 y +

NR 200 m, Editing finished obtaining

uncertified prong of 200 m;
OR 200 m, Editing finished obtaining
uncertified prong of 100 m;
OR 50 m, Editing finished obtaining uncertified
prong of 50 m;
OMG od 4, Editing finished getting certified
mixed groups of four observations.

2. Editing by IOP - certainly observed number of hits (a

group of projectiles):

m(i ) , mean square error.

2

LMD (gr.), Editing laser distance meter, data

processing graphics;

Dos. > 10 km, distance observations to the

target (goal) is greater than 10
km;
E = 10 m (r.) accuracy of instrument readings
distance 10 m, data
processing calculation.

By applying the formula presented results obtained focal

errors completion of the proofs, which are indicators of
the accuracy of the end of the correction, on the basis that
it is possible to compare the accuracy of the completion of
the proof of different ways of keeping proof.

255

3. MODEL OF THE DYNAMICS SHOOTING

Model of the dynamics of fire to determine the accuracy
of corrections to the execution of the indirect (group)
firing based on the following assumptions:
Shooting implemented platoon mortar 120 mm band of
four tools avid TF mine M62P3,
Goes for a target measuring 150 x 100 m (living force
and fire funds incomplete shelter),
Azimut engage targets (AzGC) is 45-00,

Table 3: Results of accuracy (the direction) The

estimated number of values for the summary error
correction at the end of the IOP (Ry)

Place the target is determined by the polar method using

LMD,
Remote monitoring is 3000 m,
Parallax target is small

Size error
correction
completion
(m)

Height firing position and target are determined by the

map 1: 25000,
The slope of the land in the area of the firing position 5
in the target region of 10 degrees,

Ry

Charge
Second Third Fourth Fifth

Sixth

14,36 14,51 14,63

14,83

14,65

Check the orientation of the tools an artillery busolom

using magnetic needle and compass repair work,
Deviation muzzle velocity is determined by the radar to
measure the initial rate,
In the firing position platoon commander measured the
speed of ground crosswind Wy = 2 m / s,
Racunacko department data processing is done
graphically using the PUV M56 (plane-scale 1: 12500)
and points in the plane-are applied koordinatomerom,

Table 4: Results of accuracy (at a distance) The estimated

number of values for the completion of the summary error
correction OSP (Rx)

Correction elements were obtained by correcting it

izmerenimodstupanjima hits (IOP) and grade point shot
(OSP).

Based on the set of shooting conditions are determined by

the size of our core summary error correction for distance
and direction, as well as their impact on the
implementation of indirect firing 120-mm mortars.

econd

Size error
correction
completion
(m)

Rx 39,59

Charge
Third
Fourth

42,22

42,77

Fifth

45,14

4. ANALYSIS OF THE ACCURACY OUR

CORE ERROR COMPLETION OF
CORRECTIONS
Based on the model of fire dynamics are determined by
the size of our core end-correction of errors in the second,
third, fourth, fifth and sixth loading and firing distance of
2000 m to 6340 m after correction for IOP (Table 2 and
3), and for the third, fourth, fifth and sixth charge in
shooting distance of 3500 m after correction OSP (Table
4 and 5) [4].
Table 2: Results of accuracy (at a distance) The estimated
number of values for the summary error correction at the
end of the IOP (Rx)
Second

Size error
correction
Rx
completion
(m)

16,81

Third

17,12

Charge
Fourth

17,90

Fifth

Table 5: Results of accuracy (the direction) The

estimated number of values for the completion of the
summary error correction OSP (Ry)

Sixth

Size error
correction
completion
(m)

18,20 20,20

256

Ry

Second

Charge
Third
Fourth

37,40

27,20

25,50

Fifth

15,30

 Numeric value summary centered error correction in

indirect fire mortar 120 mm increases the distance (Exs)
in proportion to an increase in the number of charge,
regardless of which way corrections were applied;
Numeric value summary centered error correction in
indirect fire mortar 120 mm per direction (Eys), with
corrections by IOP increases proportionally increase the
number of charging, while the corrections OSP said
numeric value decreases with increasing number of
charge;
Correction for the measured deviations of hits provides
greater accuracy of indirect firing mortar 120 mm of
proof grade point hits;

The results obtained and the average value of errors

correction accuracy was found to influence the way
corrections listed above charge and distance shooting
according to the tabular values and the modeled dynamics
range (Table 6 and 7).

The accuracy of the indirect firing mortar 120 mm after

correction for IOP by distance is 18.29 m and 0.89
probable turn on the range (Vd), and the direction of
14,64 m, or 1.12 probable turn in direction (Vp) ;

Table 6: Results of the impact of accuracy modes

corrections to indirect firing MB 120 mm (at a distance)
The estimated number of values for focal error correction
(Rx)

The accuracy of the indirect firing mortar 120 mm after

correction by OSP distance is 42.43 m, and 2.1
probable turn on the distance (Vd), and the direction of
26,35 m and 1.7 probablea turn in direction (Vp);

METHODS OF
CORECTION
IOP
OSP

Size error correction

completion (m)

Rx

18,05

Comparing these values with the declared precision error

correction (Table 1) shows that the value of the errorcorrection by the IOP by a distance in the range
displayed values. The resulting value is less directional
pointing to the conclusion that it has been below the
declared accuracy and provides greater accuracy and
precision of the indirect firing.

42,43

Value error correction OSP by the distance the higher

the points to the conclusion that it has been above the
upper limit of the declared accuracy, decrease the
accuracy and precision of the indirect firing. The resulting
value of each trip is within the limits of the declared value
of the displayed error correction.

5. CONCLUSION

Table 7: Results of the impact of accuracy modes

corrections to indirect firing MB 120 mm (in direction)
The estimated number of values for focal error correction
(Ry)

In this paper, it has been underlined correction accuracy

and its influence on the indirect shooting by mortar 120
mm. Declared errors accuracy has been analyzed
according to marked and measured shooting deviation,
and it has been concluded that they do not fit to the
indirect shooting by mortar 120 mm.

METHODS OF
CORECTION
IOP
OSP

Size error correction

completion (m)

Ry

14,60

On the whole, it was realized a valid budget impact

accuracy modes corrections to precision mortar fire in
indirect fire. The above calculation was carried out using
the Microsoft Excel program which allows recording
entered the baseline data and the calculated size of the
error correction on IOP and the OSP indirect fire mortar
120 mm in the file. This is much easier tabular and
graphical data analysis.

26,35

According to previous, one can conclude that correction

accuracy has significant influence on the indirect shooting
precision by mortar 120 mm. Also, their correlation
together with the target size represent the most important
factors that have great influence on the shooting
efficiency.

The analysis of the presented results it can be concluded

that:

257

[3]

REFERENCES
[1]
[2]

[4]

Kokelj,T.: Zbirka reenih zadataka iz teorije

artiljerijskog gaanja, VIZ, Beograd 1999.,
Kokelj,T., Ranelovi A.: Zbirka reenih zadataka iz
pravila gaanja naoruanjem peadije, VIZ,
Beograd 2010.,

258

ivanov,.: Teorija gaanja, VIZ Beograd 1979.,

"Tablice gaanja za minobaca 120 mm M75"
SSNO /Uprava artiljerije/, Beograd, 1981.

LONGITUDINAL DYNAMIC STABILITY INVESTIGATION FOR A

SUBSONIC CRUISE MISSILE USING A 3 DOF FLIGHT DYNAMICS
MODEL
AHMED OSAMA MAHGOUB
Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum, ah_mm_mad@yahoo.com
KHALID IBRAHIM BASHIR
Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum, khalidholako@gmail.com
EIMAD ELDIN EL HADI MUSA
Karary University, Khartoum, mohandei@yahoo.com

Abstract:This paper studies the dynamic stability characteristics of a subsonic cruise missile configuration by using a 3
Degrees-of-Freedom(3DOF) nonlinear flight dynamics model.The aerodynamic data for the configuration and control
surface effectiveness have been obtained using USAF digital DATCOM, and the missile static stability was checked
using the data from DATCOM. The aerodynamic data and the stability derivatives obtained were used in constructing
nonlinear 3 DOF longitudinal flight dynamics model to check the dynamic stability of the missile. The model was
constructed using Simulink and the Aerospace Blockset included with the package.Two simulations with different
inputs were analyzed. The initial conditions for the first simulation were non-equilibrium initial conditions without
control input; the other simulation was with a double step elevator input with different initial conditions. The run time
for each simulation was 500 seconds and 60 seconds respectively.Both of the longitudinal dynamic modes (Phugoid and
short period) were present in the response obtained from the simulation .From the simulation results and DATCOM
output it was found that the missile is both longitudinally statically and dynamically stable and that the missile response
to the elevator input was proper.
Keywords:3 DOF, DATCOM, Dynamic Stability, Nonlinear Flight Dynamics, Simulink.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) represents one of
the computational methods. It has reduced the dependence
on wind tunnels. CFD solutions are cheaper, take less
time and almost as accurate as wind tunnel results[2].

1. INTRODUCTION
Flight stability is one of the most important aspects in
designing any aerospace vehicle. For example, if a missile
is required to reach its target, it has to take a certain path
precisely. Also, we need to verify that even if the missile
encountered disturbances or noises of any kind that could
affect the flight of the missile, it will continue flying and
correct errors and will return to its equilibrium position.

Another method is by using digital DATCOM. The code

solves the issue of dealing with many configurations and
trying to obtain accurate results for each one of them with
the least simplifications. It uses a semi-empirical method
for calculation depending on data based on wind tunnel
tests for various configurations[3].

Flight stability is a branch of flight dynamics including

both static and dynamic stability. Dynamic stability is
considered with the time response of the aerospace
vehicles motion, and for any flight vehicle to be
dynamically stable it has to be statically stable first [1].

Experimental methods are represented by either using

wind tunnels or flight tests. Wind tunnels with a dynamic
balance can be used to obtain the response of the vehicle
to certain conditions. The best method for flight dynamics
analysis is flight testing for the flight vehicle and
analyzing the data collected by sensors installed in the
flight vehicle (aerodynamic coefficients and time
response). Flight tests have become required for any flight
vehicle, and they are usually done in the final phases of
the design[2].

Etkin mentioned that there are three tools used to solve

flight dynamics problems[2]:
Analytical
Computational
Experimental
Analytical methods use linearization of the equations of
motion and then solve the linearized system either using a
transfer function or a state space representation [2].

Commercialsoftware packages could be used for

simulation of the flight dynamics, and this work is related
259

to the computational methods for flight dynamics

problems solving. Numerical methods are employed and
the software solves the problem and presents the results
according to the selected solver.

to be solved and the simplifications and assumptions

made when deriving them (Section 3).
The mathematical model is implemented into a
Simulinkmodel according to the equations of motion
and the aerodynamic model using data obtained from
DATCOM (Section 4). The simulation set up is defined
by the initial conditions and control inputs for each
simulation, which is presented in (Section 5) and the
simulation results are investigated to check the missile
stability in longitudinal motion.

Flight dynamics simulation

We need a suitable definition for the model and the
simulation process before proceeding in developing one.
Hawley and Blauwkamp in [4] defined the model and
simulation as:
The model: is the mathematical representation of the
missile behavior and the environment.

2. AERODYNAMIC MODEL
Evaluating the stability of a flight vehicle requires the
estimation of its aerodynamic properties and building the
aerodynamic model. Fig. 1 shows the isometric view of
the cruise missile configuration.

The simulation: is a method of implementing the model

over time.
Flight simulation (both linear and nonlinear) is achieved
by employing numerical techniques for solving the
aerospace vehicle equations of motion over a period of
time using specified time steps and obtaining the time
response for the vehicle.
Calhoun [5] modeled an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)
using a 6 Degrees-of-Freedom (DOF) model
and
compared the simulation results with flight test results. He
mentioned in his work that the response of the vehicle is
based on the physical properties (mass, inertiaetc),
initial conditions and control inputs.

Figure 1: Isometric View for the Cruise Missile

In the work of Sobh and Sheirah [6] modeling and

simulation was for guidance applications. Their model
included 6 DOF equations of motion, control actuators,
guidance system, variable mass and atmospheric
disturbances. The purpose was to present a model suitable
for realistic application. They have used CFD for
aerodynamic modeling for their case.

The cruise missile is mainly a UAV, so it would be

suitable to use digital DATCOM for predicting the
aerodynamic data.
Data from digital DATCOM were obtained for sea level
and flight Mach number
=0.6. And that is because
the simulation is done for flight Mach numbers between
0.6-0.7. The missile configuration and reference values
were entered to DATCOM with the appropriate flight
conditions. DATCOM calculated the aerodynamic
coefficients at different angles of attack and side slip
angles.

Simulation of a dynamic system can be achieved by

multiple
software
packages
which
are
availablecommercially. Mathworks Simulinkis one of
the easiest and most used packages. Simulinkmodels,
simulates and analyzes dynamic systems. It enables the
study of the system; observe the results; and make
modifications to the model easily. It also supports linear
and nonlinear models.The Aerospace Blockset included
allows modeling aerospace systems in the Simulink and
MATLAB environments[7].

The reference values which were used in digital

DATCOM are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Reference values
Parameter
Weightm (Kg)

Value
1449.2

Reference AreaS (Wing Planform) (m2)

1.635

Reference Length (MAC) (m)

0.51

The approach for this work

This study is applied on a case study design of a subsonic
cruise missile.It was required to obtain the static and
dynamic stability results to make sure that the
configuration is suitable to continue and design the
guidance system or make any modifications to the design
if required.

Fig. 2 shows the relationship between angle of attack and

aerodynamic coefficients (Lift, drag and pitching
moment) obtained from the results of digital DATCOM.
Only longitudinal aerodynamic coefficients were
considered for our simulation purpose.

The work is carried out as follows:

At first, the aerodynamic properties for the missile are
obtained
using
Digital
DATCOM including
longitudinal aerodynamic coefficients and control
surfaces effectiveness.Then, the aerodynamic model is
introduced, which is represented bythe equations for
aerodynamic forces and moments (Section 2).After that,
the missiles 3 DOF equations of motion are presented

Stability and Control Derivatives Results

Along with the aerodynamic forces and moments
coefficients, DATCOM can predict the values for the
static and dynamic stability derivatives.
To
260

obtain

the

control

surfaces

effectiveness

Table 2:Stability and Control Derivatives (per degree)

0.0945
-0.0727

(
) we had to define the control surfaces
configuration in DATCOM. All movable control fins
were used for this configuration.

-1.1798
0.0258
0.003
-0.1224

DATCOM output file gives results for aerodynamic

forces and moment coefficientsat different angles of
attack and elevator deflection angles. The longitudinal
stability and control derivatives obtained from digital
DATCOM are shown in Table 2 (per degree).

The longitudinal aerodynamicforces and moments

The equations for drag and lift forces [8]:

(1)
Pitching moment equation [8]:
(2)
Where the dynamic pressure

is obtained from
(3)

Where

is the free stream density.

The aerodynamic coefficients are obtained from the

following equations [9] :

(4)

3. MISSILES 3 DOF EQUATIONS OF

MOTION
The missiles equations of motion are not different from
other flight vehicles. The general form is the full 6 DOF
rigid body equations of motion.
When dealing with longitudinal motion we describe a 3
DOF motion in the xz plane of the vehicle.The nonlinear 3
DOF equations of motion were obtained by simplifying
the rigid body 6 DOF equations given by Napolitano [10]
and ignoring lateral motion terms. The equations are thus
are reduced to:

Figure 2: DATCOM results for the Aerodynamic

characteristics

(5)
261

Where

The mass moment of inertial for the missile was

calculated about the y axis only (Iyy (kg.m2)) as it is the
only one needed for the simulation.
The missile was modeled as a MIMO dynamic system

(6)

Where the inputs were:

1. Elevator deflection angle
2. Engine throttle
(deg)

Represent the thrust and aerodynamic body forces in x

direction, and gravity components in x and z directions
respectively.
Thrust forceFthrust is modeled by:

And the outputs were:

1. Velocity component in x direction u(m/sec)
2. Velocity component in z direction w(m/sec)
3. Pitch rate q(rad/sec)

(7)
Where

(deg)

represent the engine throttle.

4.

Pitch attitude

5.

Angle of Attack

(deg)
(deg)

Before constructing the model some assumptions have

been made, and are as follows:
1. The missile is assumed to fly at a very low altitude
(less than 200m) as most cruise missiles do to reach
their target. Therefore, the atmospheric conditions
were taken for sea level.
2. Throughout the whole simulation the flight Mach
number for the missile is between values of 0.6 and
0.7, so compressibility effect is ignored as the flight
Mach number range is small.

The flight velocity Vcan be found from:

(8)
And the angle of attack is found by [8]:
(9)
Aerodynamic model provides us with the forces and
moments which could be used in the 3 DOF equations of
motion model to estimate the longitudinal motion of the
missile. After solving them, the outputs of the equations
of motion are used again to calculate the forces and
moments at the next time step. These steps are repeated
for each time step.

The aerodynamic coefficients data have been entered to

Simulinkand they will be evaluatedby using Look-up
table blocks that interpolate the data obtained from
DATCOM and obtain the aerodynamic coefficient for the
required angle of attack.The lookup table blocks used to
obtain aerodynamic coefficients is shown in Fig. 3.

Axis systems and transformation

The rigid body equations of motion are derived for body
axis system, but the forces coefficients calculated by
DATCOM are for wind axis. Therefore, we need a
transformation matrix to transform the forces from wind
axis system to body axis system. Using the transformation
matrix from [11] we find that:

(10)
To solve the equations of motion, initial conditions must
be defined first and then the forces and moments for wind
axis should be calculated according to the aerodynamic
calculations. After that, using the transformation matrix,
the wind forces and moments are transformed to body
axis. The thrust forces and the gravity effects are then
considered. After obtaining the body forces and moments,
the time response of the missile can be obtained.

Figure 3:Lookup table blocks for aerodynamic

coefficients as a function of
Fig. 4 shows the full 3 DOF Simulink model illustrating
the inputs (elevator and throttle), and the outputs. The
results of the simulation are displayed in the Scope
blocks. From Aerospace Blockset, which is included in
Simulink, the 3 DOF Body axes block was used. The
inputs for the block are the longitudinal body forces

4. SIMULINK MODEL
The mathematical model for the cruise missile was
implemented into a Simulink model to be solved. The
model included:
1. Aerodynamics
2. Weight
3. Inertia
4. Propulsion

and the moment about the y axis

(
the outputs are the longitudinal motion variables.

262

, and

0.25

=0
e

0.2

Angle of Attack

0.15

0.1

0.05

-0.05

-0.1

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

PitchRate

Time

0.01

e=0 deg

0.005

Pitch Rate

Figure 4:Three DOF Simulink Model

-0.005
-0.01
-0.015
-0.02
-0.025

5. SIMULATION RESULTS

-0.03

The simulation results will provide us with the

longitudinal response of the missile which includes the
two main longitudinal motion modes as illustrated in Fig.
5. Two simulations were done each with different initial
conditions and different simulation time.

50

100

150

200

250
Time

300

350

400

450

500

20

e=0 deg

T h e ta

10
0
-10
-20
-30

50

100

150

200

250
Time

300

350

400

450

500

400
350
300

u
w

Speed (m/s)

250
200
150
100

Figure 5:Short Period and Phugiod motions[12]

50

The first simulation was to check the longitudinal

dynamic stability for non equilibrium initial conditions
without applying control input and was with the following
initial conditions:

-50

0
0

50

100

150

200

250
Time

300

350

400

450

500

Figure 6: Response for simulation with non equilibrium

initial conditions (,q,,u,w)
As we can see from the responses of the missile above,
our design is longitudinally dynamically stable, because
any oscillations are damped and a steady value is reached.
At the first 8 seconds a highly damped motion with and
q changing rapidly, and u with small changes (almost
not changing) and a period of about 1 second. That
represented the short period motion.The time response for
the angle of attack and pitch rate for this motion is shown
in Fig.7.
Fig. 6 shows the rest of the motion (500 seconds) and it is
according to the long period mode (also known as
Phugoid mode), the angle of attack remains constant
(almost constant) with a period of over 100 seconds, and
the motion is slow such that the effect of pitch rate may
be ignored. For both pitch rate and angle of attack only
little variation can be seen and that is because there are
some assumptions made when dealing with a linear
model, but in our case we are dealing with a nonlinear
model.

The results are shown in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7.

263

6000
e = 0 deg

0.12

4000

0.1

P i tc h i n g M o m e n t ( N m )

Angle of Attack

0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
-0.02

2000
0

-2000

-0.04
-0.06

-4000

-0.08
0

Time

-6000
0

e = 0 deg

-8000

10

20

Pitch Rate

-0.005

-0.01

30
Time

40

50

60

Figure 9:Pitching Moment variation with time

-0.015

-0.02

-0.025
0

Time

1
0

Alpha

Figure 7: Short period mode response ( and q)

-1

The second simulation included a double step elevator

input as a disturbance to check and evaluate the missile
dynamic stability and to observe the response to the
elevator deflection input.

-2
-3
-4
-5

The initial conditions were:

10

20

30
Time

40

10

20

30
Time

40

50

60

0.3
0.2

P itc h R a te

0.1
0

-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4

50

60

30
20
10

T h e ta

0
-10
-20
-30

The double step elevator input values were (-10at t=1

sec, 10 at t=20 sec and 0at t=40 sec). The input is
shown in Fig. 8 and the time response for the simulation
is shown in Fig. 9 and Fig. 10.

-40
-50

10

20

30
Time

40

50

60

400
350

Fig. 9 shows the aerodynamic pitching moment variation

with time and the values produced due to the elevator
deflection. For each of the elevator deflection angles, the
value of the pitching moment is always damped and reduced
to zero and the missile returns to the equilibrium state.

300

u
w

250

u w

200
150
100
50
0

10

E le v a to r D e flc tio n (d e g )

-50

10

20

30
Time

40

50

60

Figure 10: Response for simulation with elevator input

(,q,,u,w)

-5

From the obtained results shown in Fig 10it was seen that
the missile entered short period mode before reaching
equilibrium. Velocity component in the x direction is
almost unaffected by the change of elevator input.

-10
0

10

20

30
Time

40

50

60

The missiles response to the positive elevator deflection

Figure 8: Double step elevator input

264

angle was faster and that could be due to the behavior of

the Cm-Alpha curve for the missile, and the trimming
angle of attack being a negative value slightly less than
zero.

REFERENCES
[1] J. D. Anderson, Introduction to Flight: McGraw-Hill
Boston, 2005.
[2] B. Etkin and L. D. Reid, Dynamics of Flight:
Stability and Control, Third ed.: Wiley New York,
1996.
[3] S. L. S. Steven R. Vukelich, Keith A. Burns, Joseph
A. Castillo, Marvin E. Moore, "Missile DATCOM
Final Report," Ohio, USA 1988.
[4] P. A. H. a. R. A. Blauwkamp, "Six-Degree-ofFreedom Digital Simulations for Missile Guidance,
Navigation and Control," Johns Hopkins APL
Technical Digest, vol. 29, 2010.
[5] S. M. Calhoun, "Six Degree-Of-Freedom Modeling
of an Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle," Master of
Science, Electrical Engineering, Ohio University,
2006.
[6] M. A. Sobh and M. A. Sheirah, "Realistic missile
modeling for guidance applications," in Computer
Engineering and Systems, The 2006 International
Conference on, 2006, pp. 155-164.
[7] Mathworks, Simulink Help Documentation.
[8] B. Etkin, Dynamics of Atmospheric Flight, Third ed.
USA: Dover Publications Inc., 2005.
[9] B. L. Stevens and F. L. Lewis, Aircraft Control and
Simulation: John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
[10] M. R. Napolitano, Aircraft Dynamics From Modeling
to Simulation. USA John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
[11] M. V. Cook, Flight Dynamics Principles:
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2012.
[12] A. K. Kundu, Aircraft Design: Cambridge University
Press, 2010.

For the same reason the pitch rate magnitude was larger in
the case of positive deflection angle. The missile reached
a positive pitching attitude value of 20 deg in 20 seconds,
while it reached a negative pitching attitude of -40 deg in
the same time period.

6. CONCLUSION
At the end of this work and according to DATCOM and
the simulation results, we could see that the missile is
satisfying longitudinal dynamic stability criteria and that
the disturbances are always damped and the missile
reaches equilibrium. Trim state initial conditions have not
been considered in this simulation because we are dealing
with the stability of motion in general.
In future work the flying qualities of the cruise missile
could be further analyzed according to the obtained
results, and modifications to the design and sizing of the
lifting surfaces could be suggested.
Considering the simulation part more work could be done
on the model. Adding more DOFs to the model and
developing a full 6 DOF model to check both longitudinal
and lateral stability and to observe the coupling between
lateral and longitudinal motions. The effect of the variable
mass and inertia could be also added to the model which
would change the behavior. This work requires obtaining
more detailed aerodynamic data, specially the lateral
aerodynamic derivatives for the configuration.

265

TEST SIMULATOR FOR THE DISCRETE MULTI-PARAMETRIC

DECISION FLIGHT SYSTEM
STOJAN MARKOVI
University of defense, Military academy, Belgrade, Serbia, stomarkovic@yahoo.com
MOMILO MILINOVI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Sertbia, mmilinovic@mas.bg.ac.rs
NENAD SAKAN
Institute of Physics, University of Belgrade, Serbia, nsakan@ipb.ac.rs

Abstract: The system concept, decision making mathematical model and top level algorithm for multi-parametric
singular system for the missile control and guidance is presented. As a part of the research, a software top level
algorithm is yielded and experimentally tested and proven by the means of the hardware test system. The systems runs
multi-parametric criteria decision functionality simultaneously and sequentially, on each of the flight and ground based
objects, coupled by singular decision functions. The studied system present the set of controlled objects interconnected
in the system capable of adopting to the external stimuli as well as internal conditions changes. Such simulation
hardware serves as operational test of concept for the mentioned adoptable system of controlled coupled objects,
interconnected in the decision making process in the simulation of real flight conditions as an add-on hardware to the
real missile. The studied mathematical relations that provided model for the decision making process in the operational
algorithms are visualized in the experiments, and a set of parameters of the well behaved model is presented.
Keywords: missile guidance, control system synthesis, decentralized control, decision making, singular system.

1. INTRODUCTION

M2, shown in picture 1, with

communication channels C12 ad C21.

data

exchange

Behavior of the interconnected groups of missiles and the

analysis of the flight paths of missile group are opened
problem with work in progress, see [1] and [2]. Although
this subject is not published extensively this does not
reflect the work that is actively going on in several
technological advanced countries.

By the usage of data exchange channels the data for the

decision making as well as requests and commands are
transferred between missile group. In such way two
individual flight systems becomes a subsets of the newly
developed system, e.g. they are treated as a subsystems of
such set. Initial and final phase of the group of flight
vehicles under control is behind the scope of this work.
The studied system consists of two subsystems, e.g.
missiles M1 and M2. They react on external stimuli
parameters, as well as commands transferred between M1
and M2. Their reaction is not known in detail, so the test
procedure for the closed system as a black box is needed,
the method for the analysis of such systems is described
in detail in [3]. As a main stimuli parameter of the
subsystem the reflected signals from the target T, R1 and
R2 are simulated, and studied on the real system. Other
parameters are not shown on figure for the simplicity of
discussion. The algorithm of the system behavior is based
onto the role change between subsystems. The two roles
of each missile are leader and leaded one. Only one of the
subsystems could be the leader at a time, and as such
could command to the rest of the group members its role
and request for their data also. During free flight phase
the role exchange between subset members occurs. Action

Picture 1: System concept

The goal of the work presented in this manuscript was to
present the results of hardware co-simulation of the
system of interconnected missiles in the real flight
conditions, and by the means of such simulation to
measure time constrains of missiles, as well as to yield a
group decision making algorithm. Taking this on mind,
the minimum set of two missiles is studied. This decision
does not affect neither the top level algorithm of the
system nor the test procedure. The analyzed
interconnected system consists of two missiles, M1 an
266

taking place of each subsystem could be illumination of

the target, presented in picture 1 as I1 and I2, request for
the change of role to the group leader, as well as data and
request exchange between group members and command
from the leader to the rest of the group. The leader missile
illuminates the target and commands rest of group about
their role change. All the missiles follow the reflected
signal from the target and fly towards the predicted space
point. The follower missile sends regular data packets
with its intristic state to the leader, as well as possible
request to the leader for the role change. The internal time
constrains of each of the group members plays an
important role in algorithm optimization.

members of the group. The intristic parameters are

evaluated and compared to some base values and as a
result a set of singular functions are led to digital logic
that makes decisions based on their values.
The leader on the other hand, besides the intristic decision
process ha s possibility to make a global decision
concerning behavior of the system as a whole.

(2)
Where i is the i-th internal parameter decision function.
Each decision value of the decision process is a
function of all intristic parameters of the entire group, e.g.
for the group members 1 to G. Similarly parameters q are
evaluated and compared to some base values and as a
result a set of singular functions are led to digital logic
that makes decisions based on their values. This decision
has global effect on group as a system.

In order of analyzing of real subsystem reactions on

external stimuli parameters as well as internal time
constraints of the subsystem the hardware co-simulation
was constructed. Based on this the external hardware was
capable of state visualization as well as limited possibility
to change the external stimuli. It was adapted to the
missile to visualize and stimulate the missile pair, and to
test the system level algorithm.

In studied case both decision processes (1) and (2) are

implemented on each group member, and decision on
activity of process (2) is the decision of the group member
role, e.g. a leader or a follower missile.

The natural splitting of the decision process into three

layer scheme is made. The stimulus, as a first, the
decision making and data exchange as a second one and a
reaction layer as a third one. In the order of analysis the
first one is controlled, while the reaction of the subsystem
is measurable from the intristic parameters as well as
third, reaction layer. Some of the reaction layer states also
reflect on the first layer as stimuli. The second, decision
and data exchange, layer is studied in order to determine
the best system algorithm as well as subsystems reaction
and behavior in group conditions.

Leader has decision making role, where it commands the

states of the other members of the group based on its
estimate. On the other hand all other group members have
only possibility to obey commands from leader or to send
a request for state change. Final decision on state change
moment and selection of the next leader from the group
members is based onto the entire parameter set analysis
on the leader missile hardware. So the leader has several
decision making processes, its intristic one and
comparison of results of all group members, including
itself, and adequate decision making on all group member
states.

2. BASICS OF THE MATHEMATICAL

MODEL
In order of explaining of the hardware co-simulation
model only the basics of the used mathematical model is
presented.

The behavior changing then influences only on possibility

to decide on the basis of all group member states.
Follower could request reevaluation of its role based on
estimate of its state. The comparison of the states of
subsystem as well as of entire system as a process of
global decision making is complex problem that goes out
of the scope of this work. The multi criteria decision
algorithms and processes are studied in [5] and [6] for
instance. Their implementation is crucial for the group
flight algorithms, and their behavior is needed to be
studied on wide range of external parameters as well as
large set of scenarios of group flight.

The analyzed system, consist of two missiles M1 and M2,

that could take the role of leader or follower each, and
change their role accordingly. Their reaction on the set of
external stimuli, denoted here as x11, , x1N for M1 and
x21, , x2N for M2, is studied. Based on this the reaction
of the system occurs as a change of the internal system
states i11, , i1M and i21, , i2M , as well as external states
e11, , e1P and e21, , e2P for the M1 and M2
respectively.
Decision making algorithm, in general presents a multi
criteria decision process, see [4]. The intristic parameters
are yielded by the first decision making process,

3. RESULTS
The test results of the real missile system, consists of two
missiles, are presented. The measurements were made
with the help of micro controller unit that has role of
visualization of states of missile as well as control of
some of external parameters. Such measurements enabled
the estimate of the time constrains, that the well behaved
system should respect in order of maintain the control
over each group member. The time diagram of such
system is presented in picture 2.

(1)
Where i is the i-th internal parameter decision function.
The parameters i1 j present the intristic parameters from
the previous decision step, while index j covers all G
267

symbolically presented by the means of the output data

channels O1 and O2. Besides that the need of larger set of
input channels, I1 and I2 is obvious. Also the external
stimuli are commanded thru the S channels. As a start
point for the new system the [7] could be consulted. Such
system is expected to have the ability to make a
automated measurements of the system.

Picture 2: Flight phase timing diagram for several of

visualized signals

4. CONCLUSION

Based on this analysis the proposed system algorithm is

presented in picture 3. This is a subset of entire algorithm,
and as mentioned earlier does not cover the initial and
final phase of missile group flight.

Although the used system for the hardware co-simulation

enabled the acquisition of small set of selected intristic
parameters of subsystems, their main behavior and the
constrains of set of internal parameters are measured. The
implemented algorithm was tested on the real missile
systems and perfected as such. Based on measurement
results the basic state algorithm is yielded. In order of
obtaining a more dense set of data as well as covering of
entire set of group behavioral scenarios a more complex
stimulus and acquisition hardware system is needed.
Although the used hardware co simulation hardware had
limitation it enabled the testing of the basic system
algorithm as well as subsystem time constrains is
conducted successfully. It made possible to yield a global
system algorithm and to make an initial test of the sought
constrain parameters.

REFERENCES
[1] Zhao Shiyu, Zhou Rui, Wei Chen, and Ding
Quanxin, "Design of Time-constrained Guidance
Laws via Virtual Leader Approach", ChJA, 2010,
Vol. 23, No.1, pp. 103-108, doi:10.1016/S10009361(09)60193-X
[2] Lee Jin-Ik, Jeon In-Soo, and Tahk Min-Jea,
"Guidance law to control impact time and angle",
ITAES, 2007, Vol. 43, No. 1, pp. 301-310,
doi:10.1109/TAES.2007.357135
[3] Beizer, Boris, Black-box Testing: Techniques for
Functional Testing of Software and Systems, John
Wiley \& Sons, Inc., New York, 1995. ISBN: 0-47112094-4
[4] Keun Tae Cho, "Multicriteria decision methods: An
attempt to evaluate and unify", MComM, 2003, Vol.
37, No. 9-10, pp. 1099-1119, doi:10.1016/S08957177(03)00122-5
[5] LuShuai, and Pereverzev SergeiV., "Multi-parameter
regularization and its numerical realization", NuMat,
2011, Vol. 118, No. 1, pp. 1-31, doi:10.1007/s00211010-0318-3
[6] Ye Chen, D. Marc Kilgour, and Keith W. Hipel, "An
extreme-distance approach to multiple criteria
ranking", MComM, 2011, Vol. 53, No. 5-6, pp. 646658, doi:10.1016/j.mcm.2010.10.001
[7] Overton Claborne, "A DIY microcontroller-based
functional
tester",EE
Times,
Jan
2012,
http://m.eet.com/media/1121871/25976tmw\_overton\_microprocessor.pdf.

Picture 3: Top level system algorithm, flight phase

The process of simulation and data acquisition was semi
automatic and as such was time and effort consuming, as
well as large team of personnel and additional equipment
was needed.
It was obvious that the need for totally automated,
autonomous system occurred, such that it could simulate
all possible scenarios of external parameters as well as
system intristic states change and that is capable to
arbitrary provoke the ill-behaved system states.

Picture 4: Proposed measurement system concept

Proposed measurement system concept is shown in
picture 4 and besides the visualization ports, V1 and V2
and data acquisition ports I1 and I2 possesses the
additional possibility of influencing internal states of the
subsystems thru output data ports. Those ports are
268

THE METHOD FOR THE AUTOMATIC ELIMINATION OF THE EFFECTS

OF THE TERRAIN SLOPE ON THE MLRS
MILAN B. MILOEVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, marija.m@beotel.net

Abstract: In this paper the firing elements of MLRS (Multiple Launcher Rocket System) with a sloping terrain using
spherical and plane trigonometry are derived. The slope plane is obtained by rotation of the horizontal plane by two
rotations around two perpendicular axes. A coordinate transformation matrix muzzle of the launch tube is given. The
firing elements are presented as a function of terrain inclination and the elements of fire with the horizontal terrain.
The model was built using two inclinometers placed in the direction of the longitudinal and transverse axis of the
vehicle. A three dimensional model in AutoCAD of launching tube and rotate part mechanisms of azimuth is made, that
was given a graphical comparison of the calculated firing elements on sloping terrain and the firing elements on
horizontal plane.
Keywords: rocket launcher, inclinometer, sloping terrain, transformation matrix, spherical trigonometry, the firing
elements, corrected firing elements.

1. INTRODUCTION

2. GEOMETRIC RELATIONS BETWEEN THE

SLOPE PLANE AND ITS PROJECTION IN
THE HORIZONTAL PLANE

It is known that the artillery and rocket launchers basic

elements of fire (azimuth and elevation) are defined by
the horizontal plane. To achieve this in practice, there are
several ways remove effects of slope terrain, which are:
preparing the terrain on the firing position, the mechanism
for leveling, full floating aiming device and automatically
removal of the slope terrain effects[1].

Figure 1. shows the launching tube in a horizontal plane

whose length is from point O to point AH and it
represents the radius of the sphere centered at the point
O . Position of the tube axis in the horizontal plane is
defined by the north azimuth AG . Then launch tube is
shown in a space with angle of elevation H and the
muzzle of tube AE is marked. The horizontal plane is
rotated around radius OP for an angle 0 and the slope
plane is obtained. The projection axis muzzle AE at
slope plane is marked with AK and the elevation angle
of the inclined plane is with K . In the slope plane the
longitudinal axis of the vehicle is marked with OLK and
it is the longitudinal inclinometer LL and transverse
vehicle axis is marked with OTK where the transverse
inclinometer is placed. Shaded triangles (O, TH, TK) and
(O, LH, LK) represent the vertical plane through the axis
of the vehicle, which penetrate through the horizontal
plane and in them, inclination angles of longitudinal and
transverse axis of the vehicle 1 and 2 are measured
defining the absolute angle between the two planes 0 .

Preparing the terrain means that the launcher itself or with

other logistical vehicles makes the leveling firing
position. This requires more time to prepare the mission
and is typical of older systems. The existence of the
mechanism for leveling means that the device is set to
launch two longitudinal and transverse frames, which are
related to the rotation of the longitudinal and transverse
axis of the vehicle. The disadvantages of this solution are
that the system has a greater mass and greater number of
moving parts, thus decreasing reliability. Automatically
elimination of the terrain slope means that the elements of
fire from a horizontal plane are corrected with the
necessary software on the basis of the measured slope,
and would then take it directly from the slope. In order to
have this carried out, two sensors of slope i.e.
inclinometers to measure slope angles in two
perpendicular axes are required. Installations of these
inclinometers have been possible to fixed or movable
part. When installing the fixed part, one inclinometer
would be installed in the direction of the longitudinal axis
of the vehicle and the other in the direction of the
transverse axis of the vehicle.

Theoretically, the slope plane can be reached by rotation

in the horizontal plane for angle 0 around the line OP
and practically by means of two rotations around two
perpendicular axes:

269

1. The first rotation is around the imaginary axis

O TLH , which lies in the horizontal plane and the

From the spherical triangle (P, LH, LK) on the basis of the
sine theorem [2] follows:

angle is shifted for 900 in relation to the axis O LH

that is a projection of the longitudinal axis of the
vehicle in the horizontal plane, the angle 1 that is
equal to the angle of inclination to the longitudinal
axis of the horizon 1 (the angle measured by the
longitudinal inclinometer) and

sin 1 sin KL
sin 1 sin 90D
=
P
=
(1)
,
sin
sin P sin 90D
sin KL

And also from the spherical triangle (P, H, K) follows:

sin 0 sin 90D
=
, sin P = sin 0
sin P sin 90D

2. The second rotation is the rotation the new plane for

angle 2 about an axis O LK that is in the slope
plane. Since inclinometer measures the angle 2 that
represents the slope of the transverse axis, the second
rotation can be viewed as a rotation of the horizontal
plane about imaginary axis O LLH which is located

(2)

By equating the left and right side of relation (1) and (2)
receives a connection

at the 900 in relation to the projection of the

transverse axis in the horizontal plane O TH of the

sin 1 = sin 0 sin KL .

angle 2 (the angle measured by the transversal

inclinometer).

By the same analogy and for spherical triangles (P1, TH,

TK) and (P1, H, K) it can be shown that:

To find these interdependencies between the angles,

spherical trigonometry will be used.

sin 2 = sin 0 sin(90 KL ) = sin 0 cos( KL )

Picture 1: Relative position of two planes in the sphere.

270

(3)

(4)

Squaring equation (3) and (4) and then adding them leads
to dependence on angle of the slope plane to the
horizontal plane in the function showing inclinometers in
two perpendicular axes on the slope plane

longitudinal axis of the vehicle is in the intersection of

horizontal and slope plane.

sin 0 = sin 2 1 + sin 2 2 .

cos 2 = cos 2 cos(TLH _ TH ) +

From the spherical triangle (TLH, TH, TK) and based on

the cosine theorem follows

(5)

+ sin 2 sin(TLH _ TH ) cos 90D

(10)

cos 2 = cos 2 cos(TLH _ TH )

From equations (3) and (4) the following equality

sin KL = sin 1 / sin 0 and cos KL = sin 2 / sin 0 .(6)

cos 2 = cos 2 cos( 0 + 1 ) .

From the spherical triangle (P, LH, LK) and (P1, H, K)

and based on the cosine theorem [2] follows the
relationship between angles KL and its projection on the
horizontal plane HL and the angles KT and its
projection on the horizontal plane HT .

3. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF SLOPE

TERRAINS EFFECTS ELIMINATION
The mathematical model is based on the fact that the
slope plane can get rotation the horizontal plane Ox0 y0
around the line that passes through the origin, which is
located in the rotation axis of a traversing mechanisms of
launching device and assuming that the elevation rotary
axis passing through the same origin. Axis x2 and y2 are
in the slope plane, forming angles 1 and 2 with axes in
the horizontal plane [3].

cos KL = cos HL cos 1 + sin 1 sin HL cos 90D

= cos HL cos 1 cos(180D KT ) =
cos(180D HT ) cos 2 + sin 2 sin(180D HT ) cos 90D

(7)

= cos(180D HT ) cos 2

And from Eq. (7) follows

On Picture 2. it can be seen that the projection of the

vector tube in a horizontal plane data

cos KL
cos KL
cos HL =
, HL = cos 1

cos 1
cos 1
cos(180D KT )
cos(180D HT ) =
=
cos 2

xy = cos .
(8)

cos(90D KL ) sin KL
=
=
cos 2
cos 2
cos HT =

x0 = cos sin( )
y0 = cos cos( ) .

where: - the angle in the vertical plane (height) from

the horizontal plane to the tube axis, and - the angle in
the horizontal plane from longitudinal axis of the vehicle
to the tube axis projection in the horizontal plane.

measured from the intersection of the horizontal plane and

the slope plane to one or the other axis in the slope plane
and its projection in the horizontal plane following
equation

0 = KL HL = KL cos 1

(13)

z0 = sin

The projection of coordinate rectangular systems from the

slope plane ( HT HL ) can be expressed through the
angles, 0 and 1 that represent the difference between
the angles

sin KL
D
= cos
(90 + KL )
cos

D
HT HL = 90 + 0 + 1

(12)

If we observe a unit vector , then the coordinates in the

horizontal plane displayed the expression

sin KL
sin KL
, HT = cos 1

cos 2
cos 2

cos KL

cos 1
1 = (180D KT ) (180D HT ) = HT KT =

(11)

(9)

From Eq. (8) it follows that if the slope of the longitudinal

axis 1 = 0D is then HL = KL , from Eq. (9) 0 = 0D i.e.

Picture 2:Position of vector tubes in space

271

When the vehicle longitudinal axis inclined at an angle 1

to the horizon, then the projection of the longitudinal axis
to the plane of the angle is different 0 , according to Eq.
(9), is not inclined axis of which must be taken into
account (Picture 1.) and the starting coordinates of the
unit vector tubes could be now written by

sin

y0 = cos cos( + 0 ) .

cos

x0 = cos sin( + 0 )

(14)

cos

z0 = sin

Moving coordinate system is obtained by rotating a

stationary coordinate system around line p that is
located in the intersection of horizontal and inclined plane
Picture 3. [3].

Picture 4:The first rotation about the axis x0 for the

angle 1

On Picture 4 expressions given in equation are following

z0

z1

z2

sin

x1 = x0

y1 = y0 cos 1 + z0 sin 1

y1

1'

(15)

z1 = y0 sin 1 + z0 cos 1

y2

y0

0
1

Tx0 (1 ) = 0
cos 1
0 sin 1

2'

or in matrix form equation.

sin 1 .
cos 1
0

(16)

p
h

3
2

x1

2
2

The second rotation is performed around the axis y1 for

angle 2 what is shown in Picture 4.

2''

x0

3'

x2

sin

Picture 3: Relative position of the horizontal and inclined

plane
c os

The problem is greatly simplified if instead of a rotation

about line p two rotations are introduced in the following
manner:

sin

1. rotation of horizontal plane about an axis x0 for angle

1 = 1 and
2. rotation of the new plane, which is defined by the axes
Ox1 y1 about the axis y1 for angle 2 until axis reaches an
angle 2 to the horizontal plane, so you get the slope
plane that is defined axes Ox2 y2 z2 .

cos

Picture 5: The second rotation about the axis y1 for the

angle 2 .

On Picture 5 expressions given in equation are following

In this way, the positions of the axis of rotation defined by

a simple rotation angles 1 and 2 is relatively easy to
determine.

x2 = x1 cos 2 z1 sin 2
y2 = y1

The first rotation about the axis x0 for the angle 1 is

shown in Picture 4.

z2 = x1 sin 2 + z1 cos 2

272

(17)

inclinometer 1 = 1 is introduced, and the angle 2 is

obtained from the condition that the axis x2 takes the
angle 2 towards the horizontal plane. According to
Picture7 the terms will follow:

or in matrix form equation.

cos 2
Ty1 ( 2 ) = 0
sin 2

0 sin 2
1
0 .
0
cos 2

(18)

Given that these two rotations around the axes Ox0 and
Oy1 for the angles 1 and 2 , taking the orientation of
the system axes, the transformation matrix is equal to:
cos 2 0 sin 2
Ty1 x0 = Ty1 ( 2 )Tx0 (1 ) = 0
1
0 .
sin 2 0
cos 2
0
0
1
0 cos 1 sin 1 =
0 sin 1 cos 1
sin 2 sin 1 sin 2 cos 1
cos 2

= 0
cos 1
sin 1 .
sin 2 cos 2 sin 1
cos 2 cos 1

sin 2 sin 1
cos 1
cos 2 sin 1

(23)

h 2 = 03 sin 2

(24)

cos 1 =

(19)

h 2
h2

sin 2
sin 2

(25)

respecting
sin 2 =

sin 2
,
cos 1

(26)

Certainly, the angles value 2 from Eq. (26)

approximates the true value, while the given in the Eq.
(11).

The coordinates of the coordinate system is in the inclined

plane can now be expressed by the matrix as
x2 cos 2
y = 0
2
z2 sin 2

h2 = 03 sin 2

From Eq. (11) i.e. Eq. (26) it follows that the second
rotation angle is expressed as

sin 2 cos 1 x0

sin 1 y0 . (20)
cos 2 cos 1 z0

2 = arccos ( cos 2 cos( 0 + 1 )

sin 2

cos 1

2 = arcsin

From the above expressions following coordinates in the

form

(27)

. (21)

where 2 is the angle of inclinometer showing the

inclination of transverse axis of the vehicle.

If from Eq. (13) starting coordinates of the horizontal

plane substitution in Eq. (21) is definitely coming to the
coordinates of the inclined plane

A comparison of the angle 2 obtained from the spherical

and plane trigonometry [4] and for various inclinations
1 and 2 which are (10D ) that shows that the error
of the calculated angles of elevation and direction of the
slope plane is less than 0.5 mil (1/6400).

x2 = x0 cos 2 + y0 sin 2 sin 1 z0 sin 2 cos 1

y2 = y0 cos 1 + z0 sin 1
z2 = x0 sin 2 y0 cos 2 sin 1 + z0 cos 2 cos 1

Corrected firing elements will eventually be:

x2 = cos sin( + 0 ) cos 2 + cos cos( +

elevation angle on a slope terrain is given in the form

+ 0 ) sin 2 sin 1 sin sin 2 cos 1

y2 = cos cos( + 0 ) cos 1 + sin sin 1

inc = arcsin( z2 ) = arcsin ( cos sin( + 0 ) sin 2

(22)

z2 = cos sin( + 0 ) sin 2

cos cos( + 0 ) cos 2 sin 1 + sin cos 2 c ( os 1 )

cos cos( + 0 ) cos 2 sin 1 + sin cos 2 cos 1 .

(28)

azimuth angle of the slope terrain is given expression

through

4. THE FIRING ELEMENTS FROM THE

SLOPE TERRAIN
While determinating the elements of firing from the slope
plane in the Eq. (22) instead of the angle 1 the
inclination of the longitudinal axis of the vehicle with the

273

 x2 cos sin( + 0 ) cos 2 + cos cos( + 0 ) sin 2 sin 1 sin sin 2 cos 1
.
=
cos cos( + 0 ) cos 1 + sin sin 1
y2

inc = arc tg

Based on this mathematical model, it is possible to make

the software to calculate the firing elements with a
sloping terrain.

(29)

on the horizontal and inclined planes [5] is made.

For the following examples given in the table the firing
elements and sloping terrain were calculated and in 3-D
model the compurgation of tube axis was tested by
positioning from the horizontal and inclined plane on the
basis of the given and calculated angles of elevation and
direction.

5. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES AND

COMPARISON WITH THE 3-D MODEL
For the simulation, the computer drawing package
ACAD-3D was used. A 3-D model of the launching tube

Table 1 - Firing elements from the sloping terrain used for simulation

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

inc

inc

0.00
0.00
0.00
9.85
9.85
9.85
9.85
9.85
9.85
4.98
19.29
19.29

-20.00
-20.00
-20.00
-17.23
-17.23
-17.23
-17.23
-17.23
-17.23
-8.65
-5.08
-5.08

0.00
75.00
45.00
45.00
75.00
135.00
180.00
225.00
330.00
75.00
75.00
30.00

0.00
0.00
0.00
30.00
30.00
30.00
30.00
30.00
30.00
30.00
30.00
75.00

60.00
60.00
60.00
60.00
60.00
60.00
60.00
60.00
60.00
60.00
60.00
60.00

30.64
80.21
60.64
30.64
50.21
89.36
119.35
155.81
338.06
48.32
5.21
-24.19

54.47
40.44
43.86
43.85
40.43
43.86
54.02
68.67
64.06
50.26
40.44
46.74

30.64
5.21
15.64
15.64
5.21
-15.64
-30.65
-39.19
38.06
3.32
5.21
20.81

-5.53
-19.56
-16.14
-16.15
-19.57
-16.14
-5.53
9.19
4.06
-9.74
-19.56
-13.26

In all the examples the absolute slope plane towards the

horizontal plane 0 = 20D is taken except in example no.

6. CHART COMPUTED FIRING ELEMENTS

On the left side of the Picture 6. for example no. 1. taken
from the table T.1. the position of the tube together with
firing elements from a horizontal plane and the position of
the tube with elevation angle of the inclined plane
= 54.47D are presented. The right part of the same
picture shown is the move of a launching tube in azimuth
for a calculated the angle of the inclined plane = 30.64D
comes to the absolute overlap tube axis of slope plane
with tube axis of horizontal plane. It can be concluded
that the tube axis in space is in the same place regardless
of the manner they got their firing elements:
1. the first leveling of the plane and the positioning of
the tabulars firing elements or
2. directly positioning of the adjusted elements from the
firing inclined plane, obtained by calculation.

10. where the absolute slope plane 0 = 10D is taken.

In table T.1 all signs are given in D , the shading data
are the input data and the meaning of the labels in the
table is the following:
1 - measured slope of the longitudinal axis of the
vehicle,
2 - measured slope of the transversal axis of the
vehicle,
F - firing azimuth (azimuths target with corrections
due to meteorology and other derivatives) is defined in
the horizontal plane,
V - azimuth of vehicle (defined in relation to the
longitudinal axis of the vehicle in the horizontal plane),

On Picture 7. from examples no. 4. the angles of

inclination which measures inclinometers, the slope of the
longitudinal axis 1 = 9.8466D and the transverse axis of

- elevation angle (angle of axis tubes to the

horizontal),

the vehicle inclination 2 = 17.2294D are shown.

inc - angle of direction on the slope plane,

inc - angle of elevation on the slope plane,
- angle of direction correction relative to the
azimuth of fire from the horizontal plane and
- angle of elevation correction relative to the
horizontal plane.

274

slope plane is derived from the flat horizontal plane of

rotation Ox0 y0 Picture 3. around the straight line that
passes through the origin, which is located in the direction
of the axis of rotation of a launching device. In order to
derive the mathematically model, the slope plane is
simulated with two consecutive rotations of the horizontal
plane about two perpendicular axes.
The transformation matrix from a fixed to a moving
coordinate system is made, where the first rotation was
done to really show the inclinometer in the longitudinal
axis, i.e. 1 = 1 . The second rotation is performed around
the
transverse
axis
for
the
angle
tan 2
2 = arccos ( cos 2 cos( 0 + 1 ) or 2 = arctan

cos 1
as shown in (27) showing that it corresponds to the
transverse axis of the inclinometer 2 .
On the basis of equations (28) and (29) it is possible to
make the software which enables the calculation of firing
data from the sloping terrain.
In the computer package ACAD-3D, a model of the
launch tube is given where the firing elements (elevation
and direction angles) from the horizontal and inclined
planes are assigned. In numerous examples, in different
quadrants of the launching tubes position, shown
absolutely matching tube axis in the space defined by the
elements of fire and inclined planes tube axis defined
firing data from a horizontal plane.
Picture 6: Graphical display of firing elements from
example no.1.

Automatic elimination of the effects of the slope terrain

implies that the firing elements from a horizontal plane
are being corrected with the help of a computer with the
necessary software on the basis of the measured angles of
slope terrain and firing elements in the horizontal plane.
In order for this to be carried out, the inclinometers i.e.
two inclinometers which are placed so that they can
measure angles of inclination in two perpendicular axes
are requested.
The significance of this method is that it is applicable to
eliminate the effect of slope terrain from the classic and
rocket artillery system. The introduction of this method in
the fire control system reduces the time of taking the
firing elements and the time the combat mission. Also
using this method eliminates the need for special
mechanisms for leveling, improving system reliability.

REFERENCES
[1] Vuurovi, O. Problemi projektovanja lansirnih
ureaja" Mainski fakultet u Beogradu, Belgrade
2006.
[2] ,
..
(1977).

, , .
[3] Miloevi, B.M. (2012) Contribution to the
investigation parameters of interaction between
rocket and launching device to the operation of Fire
Control Systems of Multiple Launcher Rocket
System, PhD Thesis, Military Academy, University
of Defence, Belgrade 2012.
[4] Nikoli, D. Determination of the firing elements

Picture 7: Graphical display of the inclinometers angles

of examples no. 4.

7. CONCLUSION
The mathematical model is based on the fact that the
275

[5] AutoCAD 2005, Software Package, Autodesk 19822004.

rocket launchers from the inclined plane and the

angle of rotation of the cross pendulum sights "
Scientific Technical review vol. LI, Belgrade 2001,
No.2, P.43.

276

SMART TARGETS SYSTEM FOR FIRE SHOOTING

JANE STOIMANOV
Military Academy General MihailoApostolski, Skopje, jane.legija@outlook.com
NENAD JORDANOVSKI
Military Academy General MihailoApostolski, Skopje, jordanovski1993@hotmail.com
JUGOSLAV ACHKOSKI
Military Academy General MihailoApostolski, Skopje, jugoslav.ackoski@ugd.edu.mk

Abstract: The training plans at all military forces include the fire shooting training. Traditional way of checking results
is a process that takes a lot of time, especially during the long range fire shooting [1]. The time, which soldiers spent
for walking to the targets and counting the hits with different instruments from the target can be significantly reduced
with smart targets system for fire shooting (STSFS) and it can be less than one second.The STSFS is based on sound
detection with sound sensors integrated in a steel plate which is used as a target. In this paper are presented the models
of the STSFS and simulations of the systems in MATLAB software package. Also, in the paper will be shown
mathematical models for precisely detection of target bullets position. It calculates hit coordinates on steel plate and
with particular software (information system), the result will be on monitor in less than one second.The STSFS may
have implementation in military environment especially in the process of fire shooting training because it save time,
allows better and faster fire shooting correction and with particular software allows live streaming on results inside
and outside training filed [2].
Key words: smart targets, simulation, sensors, system

1. INTRODUCTION

2. MATHEMATICAL MODELS

Fire shooting is one of the most important training for all

military forces. Traditional way of checking results takes
a lot of time, especially when shooters are setting up
sights for top accuracy and long range shooting. Soldiers
have to walk many times to the target for checking and
collecting results [3].

2.1. Mathematical model (time detection)

The STSFS mathematical model based on time detection
is very simple. The mathematical model is based on one
basic physics equation:
V =S
T

The purpose of this paper is to describe system which will

overcome wasting of time for walking to the targets and
checking results.

(1)

V is velocity, S is distance and T is time [5].

In STSFS as a target is used stainless steel plate, with

three high sensitive sound sensors. First and second
sensor are integrated at the top corners of steel plate, third
is integrated at the left button corner.

In this case V is constant, because is equal for all three

sensors. Because velocity is constant, distance and time
are proportional.
Distance (S) shows how many meters is separated from
one of the x or y axis.

Bullet positions will be displayed on a coordinate system

with x and y coordinates [4].

Tim (T) show delay of signal from first active sensor to

two others sensors. There are three moments t1 (activation
of fist sensor), t2 (activation of second sensor) and t3
(activation of third sensor). From this three moments
deference between activation of sensors can be calculated,

Paper includes two mathematical models(based on time

detection and based on distancedetection) for precisely
detections of bullets position, and simulation of the
systems in MATLAB software package.

277

S y = 5790 Ty [ m]

Tx (time activation deference between first and second

sensors integrated on corners of top of the steel plate) and
Ty (time activation deference between first sensor
integrated on left corner to the top of steel plate)

(6)

2.2. Mathematical model (distance)

Coordinate system containstwo axis x (horizontal) and y

(vertical). X axis is bisectorbetween first and second
sensor integrated on corners of top of the steel plate, y
axis is bisector between first sensor (integrated on left
corner to the top of steel plate) and third sensor
(integrated on left corner to the button of steel plate) as
shown on picture (Steel plate with three sensors (S1, S2
and S3) and coordinate system with x and y axis).

Distance between sensor and hit can be measured with

ultrasonic sensors also known as transducers [7]. Using
Pythagorean Theoremhit coordinatescan be calculated.

Picture 2: Steel plate with three sensors (S1, S2 and S3),

hit position and coordinate system with x and y axis
For simplificationin calculation:

Picture 1: Steel plate with three sensors (S1, S2 and S3)

and coordinate system with x and y axis
Process starts when one of the sensors is activated (one of
the sensors detect sound). First activated sensor has value
0, values on the other two sensors are signal delay from
first activated to other two sensors. After activation of all
three sensors system calculates values of Tx and Ty.
Tx = t2 t1

(2)

Ty = t3 t1

(3)

The target is stainless steel plate, speed of sound in that

kind of material is 5790 m/sec [6].
With transformation on equation (1):

S = V T

(4)

Now, all values of parameters from equation (4) are

known and can calculate x and y coordinates.
Known input values are d1, d2, d3, Lh and Lv.

Sx is distance from bisector line (positive or negative)

between first and second sensor shown as x axis on
picture (Steel plate with three sensors (S1, S2 and S3) and
coordinate system with x and y axis).
Sy is distance from bisector line (positive or negative)
between first and third sensor shown as y axis on picture
(Steel plate with three sensors (S1, S2 and S3) and
coordinate system with x and y axis).

S x = 5790 Tx [ m]

d12 = a 2 + c 2 c 2 = d12 a 2

(7)

d 22 = b 2 + c 2

(8)

Lh = a + b b = Lh a

(9)

With replacement from (7) and (9) to (8):

(5)

d 22 = ( Lh a ) 2 + d12 a 2
278

(10)

d 22 = Lh 2 2 Lh a + a 2 + d12 a 2

a=

d 22 Lh d12
2 Lh

Xp = a

Lh
2

(11)
(12)

(13)

With repetition of the same procedure form (7) to (13)

just replacing S2 with S3 sensor and Lh with Lv can be
concluded that:
Yp = f

Lv
2

(14)

3. SIMULATION OF THE SYSTEMS IN

MATLAB SOFTWARE PACKAGE

Picture 4: Tx and Ty blocks

Further system block diagram includes two block with
constant value of V (velocity). For this operation in
MATLAB software, from Simulink library is used block
Constant shown on picture (Block diagram with added
V constant)

Simulink provides a graphical editor, customizable block

libraries, and solvers for modeling and simulating
dynamic systems. It is integrated with MATLAB,
enabling you to incorporate MATLAB algorithms into
models and export simulation results to MATLAB for
further analysis [8].

3.1. Simulation of the system based on time

detection in matlab software package
Input values are t1, t2 and t3, output values are x and y.
First in simulation window are created block for input
values t1, t2 and t3.

Picture 5: Block diagram with added V constant

After adding the constant, have to add another two blocks
which task is to calculate x and y coordinates, according to
equations (5) and (6). For this operation in MATLAB
software, from Simulink library is used block Product
shown on picture (Block diagram with added x and y block).

Picture 3: Input blocks with input values t1, t2 and t3.

t1, t2 and t3 are input values in system. They give
information about time deference of activation of sensors.
Further in system block diagram includes two blocks for
calculating Tx and Ty. In this blocks are processing
equations (2) and (3). For this operation in MATLAB
software, from Simulink library is used block Subtract
shown on picture (Tx and Ty blocks)

Picture 6: Block diagram with added x and y block

279

Particular with adding the blocks form picture (Block

diagram with added x and y block) the mathematical
processes are done, now only have to add blocks to show
results on display in digital and graphic form. To do this
in MATLAB software, from Simulink library are used
blocks Display and XY Graph

Picture 10:Simulation of the system based on distance

detection
In blocks d1^2, d2^2, d3^2 from picture (Simulation of
the system based on distance detection) is used block
MathFunction from Simulink library and his function is
to calculate square values on d1, d2, d3.

Picture 7: Full block diagram

The final step is starting simulation. Result of simulation
are shown on picture (STSFS simulation result) and
picture (Closer view on simulation result).

In blocks a and f from picture (Simulation of the

system based on distance detection) is implemented
equation (12) and from Simulink library are used sum
for sum, product for multiplication and divide for
division.
In blocks Lh2 and Lv2 from picture (Simulation of the
system based on distance detection), Lhand Lvare divided
with 2.
In blocks Xp and Yp from picture (Simulation of the
system based on distance detection) are implemented
equations (13) and (14), from Simulink library is used
block sum.

Picture 8: STSFS simulation result

In blocks Display Xp and Display Yp and XY Graph

from the picture (Simulation of the system based on
distance detection) are shown results from simulation
using blocks display and XY Graph.

Picture 9: Closer view on simulation result

3.1. Simulation of the system based on distace

detection in matlab software package
Picture 11: STSFS simulation result 1

Input values are d1, d2, d3, Lh and Lv.

280

STSFS is cheap system and every army in the world can

own it.

REFERENCES
[1] Harthcock, Jerry D. "Personal weapon system." U.S.
Patent No. 5,303,495. 19 Apr. 1994.
[2] Levergood, Thomas Mark, et al. "Internet server
access control and monitoring systems." U.S. Patent
No. 5,708,780. 13 Jan. 1998.
[3] Gagne, Robert M. "Military training and principles of
learning." American psychologist 17.2 (1962): 83.
[4] McCarthy, Brian D., and Bernard J. Regan. "Position
measuring apparatus and method." U.S. Patent No.
4,885,725. 5 Dec. 1989.
[5] Algom, Daniel, and Lior Cohen-Raz. "Visual velocity
inputoutput functions: The integration of distance
and duration onto subjective velocity." Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and
Performance 10.4 (1984): 486.
[6] Tekner, Zafer, and SezginYelyurt. "Investigation
of the cutting parameters depending on process
sound during turning of AISI 304 austenitic stainless
steel." Materials & design 25.6 (2004): 507-513.
[7] Beranek, Leo L., and Tim Mellow. Acoustics: sound
fields and transducers. Academic Press, 2012.
[8] Bishop, Robert H. Modern control systems analysis
and design using MATLAB and SIMULINK.
Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc.,
1996
[9] Farrell, Theo, and Terry Terriff, eds. The sources of
military change: Culture, politics, technology. Lynne
Rienner Publishers, 2002.

Picture 12: Closer view on simulation result 1

4. CONCLUSION
Replacing traditional way of collecting results with
system like STSFS will save time especially in long range
shooting, allows better and faster fire shooting correction
especially when shooters are setting up sights for top
accuracy, raising soldier combat and shooting skills
especially for sniper skills and etc.
Mathematical and simulation models shows that STSFS is
very simple system. STSFS accuracy depends of sensor
sensitivity, higher sensitivity gives higher accuracy of the
results.
Military as institution in first row with technology
improvement must find implementation on this kind of
system in future [9].

281

INFRARED CAMOUFLAGE IN NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

IVANA KOSTI
Technical test center, Belgrade, kostic.ici@gmail.com
LJUBIA TOMI
Technical test center, Belgrade, ljubisa.tomic@gmail.com
ALEKSANDAR KOVAEVI
Technical test center, Belgrade, aleksandarkovacevic1962@yahoo.com
MLADEN ANTONI
Military academy, Belgrade, vtalogic@yahoo.com
SAA NIKOLI
Faculty of Electronic Engineering, University of Nis, sasa.nikolic@elfak.ni.ac.rs

Abstract: This work threats basic principles of camouflage in infra-red spectrum as limitation of thermal imagers. The
basic concept of reserch is thermal imaging device weaknesses as a way to protect solder or military vehicle from
surveinces. The units must understand fundamentals of detection and it must be a primary goal. The knowledge about
IR camouflage techniques is highly confidential so everyone need to pick up his own knowledge. It is hard and long
term task. In order to achieve high level of camouflage, must be defined specific procedures for different environment
and weather conditions.
Keywords: camouflage, thermal imaging devices, environment, hiding
easier to track different devices in the sky than on the
ground because it is easier to achieve contrast between
background and monitored devices. On the ground many
factors can be used as limitations and in that way allow
protection of detection by thermal imaging devices. The
training must be considered in two ways:

1. INTRODUCTION
Visual part of spectrum (0.4 m to 0.7 m) is the basic of
camouflage, but development of new technology lead to
camouflage in near infrared spectrum (0.7 m to 3 m),
and then to Medium Wavelength Infrared (3 m to 5 m)
and to Long Wavelength Infrared (8 m to 14 m).

using and
protection of thermal imaging devices.

With improvements in technology, thermal imaging

devices become irreplaceable. Thermal imaging devices
are used to see differences in scene radiance (differences
in temperature and differences in emissivity, and often
differences in reflection). That is the key reason that
camouflage is hard task. Often when you conceal one
source you open new. Also that is the key how
environmental conditions and target background
properties have influence to the target concealment.

Protection is analyzed by creating camouflage models.

This is an area which is developing rapid. Finding targets
in thermal spectrum depends of target size and
temperature contrast between of object of interest and
environment.

2. LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
This chapter explains testing of thermal imaging devices
which gives objective parameters for comparing and
confirming theirs characteristics.

For military purposes, examination of thermal imaging

devices must be considered in a few ways. The first is
how thermal imaging devices act in various weather
conditions and on which distance they can be used. Then,
a solder as a user, beside theoretical knowledge, must be
experienced in using different technologies and with good
practice has to combine them with thermal weapon sights
and imaging devices. Practice showed that in many
situations thermal imaging devices has restrictions and
cant be used as single operating unit. Obviously, it is

Laboratory measurements provide quality assessment

based on several parameters. The most important
parameter is MRTD (Minimal Resolvable Temperature
Difference) which is a function of spatial and temperature
resolution. MRTD establishes the relationship between
the technical features and field performance of thermal
imaging systems.
282

 heat transfer via conduction, convection or radiation to

suit the structure that leads to a network to get a higher
temperature.

Still, this is subjective parameter perceived by humans

who are trained for those measurements. Only objective
parameter is fact that tests are performed in the same
conditions with the tests of the features.

Efficiency of masking is dependent on the type and

features of the applied sensors, as well as the required
level of visual perception of the masked object. In this
case, emission characteristics of camouflage material
have to match to natural environment. In the IR spectrum,
target size and temperature difference between the target
and background which is actually based on emissivity
differences. The primary goal is to avoid detection by the
enemys
surveillance.
Units
must
understand
fundamentals of how thermal imaging devices work or
what they can detect in different environment or weather
conditions. In the far infrared part of the spectrum
uniforms and coatings have a much lower probability of
application due to the very large difference in the
emissivity of the material in the environment and the
large impact of differences in emissivity [4].

The taking results are used to calculate highest ranges of

detection, recognition and identification of targets of
interest by NATO STANAG 4347 standard. This results
are in very good correlation with field performances, and
the next chapters will consider operations to reduce this
potentials [1] and can be used for comparing different
thermal imaging devices.
Solder has to fight with their performances in different
environment, with or without camouflage equipmentcamouflage uniforms or nets for weapon. And they must
have one thing on their mind Figure out how your enemy
sees you, and then mask all of the elements that make you
stand out [2] and how to degrade enemy detection
systems.

3. CAMOUFLAGE UNIFORMS

4. TERRAIN PERFORMANCES

In some situations, solder is a target and he has to

consider his own resources and environment how he
could use them as his advantage. Uniform and basic
equipment can be used as protection of thermal imaging
devices, too. Conventional camouflage uniform has two
concerns: color and pattern. IR camouflage uniform has
other features that help to conceal.

Forests generally provide the best type of natural

camouflage. Forests with undergrowth hinder ground
observation [5]. If the crowns of the trees are wide
enough, they also can prevent aerial observation of the
ground. Deciduous forests are not as effective during the
months when trees are bare. Foliage brackets, spring
clips, living vegetation, dead vegetation as dried grass,
hay straw, branches are camouflage elements not only in
thermal, but and in visual spectrum.

The main task that can be accomplished by using IR

camouflage clothing is reducing solders body radiation
and to protect him of the thermal sensors reducing the
probability of visual perception.
Modern military systems use multiple sensors
(combination of video and thermal sensors).
Characteristics of the camouflage uniforms must be
consider in the same way [3]. Also, affects of the
meteorological state of the atmosphere and the diurnal
variation of weather conditions must be consider.
Camouflage uniforms IC characteristics can be divided
into two main groups:
features that affect the contrast of the environment
(temperature and emissivity of the surface material) or
integration between camouflage clothes with the
environment and thus making it difficult to recognize
the object,

a)

features that affect the transfer of heat radiation.

Impacts of weather conditions and environment on
contrast:
absorption of solar radiation increases the temperature
(exacerbated by the contrast),
rain very quickly leads to equalization and contrast,
existence of strong discontinuity of clothes (uniform)
harmonize with the surroundings that are changing
during the day (eg, heated drum and cool clothes).

b)
Picture 1: Solder ahead and behind bushes

The overall level of attenuation of thermal radiation

affects:
network structure (single, double)
arrangement of openings and the like,

form

Unit movements should be made along roads and gaps

that are covered by tree crowns. The simple example is
presented at Picture 1.

and
283

The worst terrain for camouflage is desert. In this

situation, nature cant do anything to help a solder. There
is no place to hide or to cover. Nature, in this case is a bad
friend. Camouflage nets cant help either, solder will
leave traces (trajectory) into sand. Some producer
suggests anti-thermal coatings and how they really works
we dont know as we didnt had any experiences with
their efficiency [6].

5. IR SIGNATURE OF A TANK
The IR signature of a tank is formed as a combination of
internal heating and radiant energy from by sun during
daytime. This is why a camouflage nets are used [7].

Picture 4. IR frame of a tank with shields

6. CONCLUSION

The same tank can provides one of a way to protect

solders of detection by IR devices. Military tank
dimension (2.3 m x 2.3 m) is larger than solders
dimension so can be easy used to hide of enemies. Any
larger energy source can be used in the same way but only
at larger distances of a few kilometers.

The knowledge of infrared systems and their capabilities

is of a great importance in creating camouflage systems.
Masking uniforms and nets are helpful but enemy
detection systems can be degraded in many other ways.
Properly using terrain and weather is a first priority. It
must be aware of various times of a day and a year. Small
capacities of army in combination with experience and
knowledge could beat even the best thermal imaging
devices. It is very difficult to create a system of universal
coverings of formation due to the large impact of
differences in emissivity on the formation and appearance
of thermal imaging pictures. The best effects can be
achieved in addition to hiding the target and the covering,
if the techniques are used to generate the false targets.

REFERENCES
Picture 2. IR frame of a tank without shields

[1] Kostic,I.,
Antonic,M.,
Damnjanovic,V.,
Milanovic,B., Tomic,Lj.: Comparison of calculated
and measured distance discrimination of thermal
systems, 2014, ETRAN,
[2] Harris,T.: How military camouflage works, 2011,
http://science.howstuffworks.com,
[3] Tomic,Lj., Karkalic,R.: Analysis of camouflage
uniform by IC thermography, ETRAN 2010
[4] Livada,B.: Using optoelectronic devices and systems,
Military Technical Courier, No 4/95, page 498-515,
1995
[5] Air force handbook - Civil engineer camouflage,
concealment and deception measures, 2011
[6] Kastek,M., Piatkowski,T., Dulski,R.: Multispectral
and hyperspectral advanced characterization of
solders camouflage equipment, SPIE Digital
Library, Volume 8897, 2013
[7] Rao,R.: Introductionto camouflage and deception,
New Delhi, 1999
[8] Murray,P.: New technology makes tanks disappear
right
before
your
eyes,
2011,
http://singularityhub.com

Tank is massive and the engine appears very bright when

the tank is running as it is showed at Picture 2. There is
solution for tanks which is showed at Pictures 3 and 4. By
this solution, tanks use shields that can both mask and
generate heat in specific patterns that makes them
invisible for infrared systems concerning environment [8].

Picture 3. Video frame of a tank with shields

284

ACQUISITION AND MEASURING PROCEDURES OF COMPLEX

ELECTRICAL SIGNALS FROM COMPONENTS AND SUBSYSTEMS OF
ANTI-TANK MISSILE SYSTEM
NENAD CAKI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, e-mail: cakicnnd@orion.rs
NATAA KLJAJI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, e-mail: natasha.kljajic@yahoo.com
MILO KOSTI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, e-mail: mixkostic@gmail.com
SRAN TRANDAFILOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade

Abstract: For the development, production and control of electronical, electro optical, electrical and electromechanical
components and subsystems of anti-tank missile system, measuring procedures of complex and mutually correlated
electrical signals are developed, based on National Instruments acquisition hardware and LabVIEW software. For
complex measurements, acquisition hardware is built in special measuring equipment, for other measuring procedures
is used directly. This paper describes acquisition and measuring procedures: display, analysis and automatic
diagnostic. Missile electronics function is tested by specially developed measuring equipment SUREL, with built-in NI
acquisition hardware. Gyro function, guidance and control unit launch and guidance signals are acquired directly and
processed, after acquisition, by dedicated software developed in LabVIEW environment.
Keywords: Acquisition, measurement, analysis, LabVIEW.

1. INTRODUCTION
Since high level of automation for the production of
missile systems is required, with ultimate need to avoid
human error factor and decrease production time and
expenses, the development of special automatic
acquisition, measuring, diagnostics and analysis devices is
considered to be the only solution. Due to these
requirements authors realized Special Missile Electronics
Testing Device, SUREL (Picture 1).
Described application requires reliable, multichannel,
flexible, accurate acquisition hardware and appropriate
software development environment, with high and
flexible signal processing and displaying capabilities.
This paper shows both hardware and software solution,
along with acquisition and measuring functions within
testing procedure of SUREL.

Picture 1: SUREL Total View

2. MISSILE SYSTEM

Guidance principle is semi-automatic. GCU electro optics

is, all the time, aimed to the target manually.

Missile system is SACLOS (Semi-Automatic Command

to Line-of-Sight) guided short range anti-armour
(AAGM) missile system, comprising guidance control
unit (GCU), tripod and missile in launcher tube. Missile is
rotating during flight.

At the same time, GCU localiser tracks missile and

measure its displacement related to aimed line-of-sight,
due to IR radiation of electro optical flare positioned at
the missile tail. Simultaneously, GCU receives missile
285

rotation information, measured by missile gyro, and sent

to the GCU trough micro cable. GCU guidance computer
uses measured displacements and missile rotation
information to calculate and generate appropriate
commands and sends them through the micro cable to the
missile, with tendency to reposition missile exactly at the
aimed line-of-sight.
Missile is composed of front section (gyro, thermal
battery, auxiliary warhead with fuse and missile computer
with steering electronics), rocket motor section (sustainer
and trust vector control steering electromechanical
device), warhead section (main warhead with fuse and
tandem warhead electronics) and tail section (buster,
micro cable and IR electrooptical flare).

Picture 2: Missile electronics (all components)

Missile electronics is realized around three digital signal
processors (DSP). One is core of missile computer,
primarily controlling communication with GCU, gyro
signal processing and realising steering function, second
controls electro optical flare and third controls safe & arm
and detonation functions of tandem warhead.

3. MISSILE ELECTRONICS
Missile electronics can be considered as missile
functional subsystem. Missile electronics components are
practically part of all missile sections, together with
complete missile electrical wirings.

Missile electronics functionality is defined by various

electrical signals. Missile electronics electrical signals, from
all missile electronics components, must satisfy complex and
mutually correlated set of voltage, current and time values
and relations. All electrical signals, as missile electronics
functional characteristics, are strictly defined by appropriate
waveform diagrams (Picture 3) and tables.

Missile electronics, generally, is physically and

functionally, composed of various electronics, electrical,
electro optical and electromechanical devices and
subsystems (Picture 2).
Missile electronics provides missile with guidance,
control and safe & arm functionality.

Picture 3: Missile electronics complex waveforms

verification of proper functioning of missile electronics, it
is designed with wider diagnostic and analysis
capabilities, in the case of the missile electronics
malfunctioning.

4. SUREL DESCRIPTION
Special Missile Electronics Testing Device, SUREL
(Picture 1), is used for automatic verification of missile
electronics proper functioning, during production,
acceptance testing and missile elaboration.

Benefit of this approach is the fact that during the missile

electronics life cycle, all acquired data (every single
measurement) can be saved in data base and analysed

Although the prime purpose of SUREL is automatic

286

unlimited number of times individually or comparatively.

This is very important because it provides ability to find if
any electric characteristic degrades with time or
environment change.

functioning. This procedure requires a few minutes.

For acceptance testing both verifications must be
successful.

7. SUREL SOFTWARE

5. SUREL STRUCTURE

SUREL software consists of three independent

applications developed in LabVIEW 2011 integrated
development environment. These are acquisition
(accqBER), diagnostics (dijagnostika) and analysis
(analiza) applications. Global flow chart of the program is
presented below (Picture 6).

SUREL (Picture 1, Picture 4) is composed of two

compartments. Electronics compartment (Picture 5)
contains all electronics (seven PCBs with five DSPs,
power supplies and NI acquisition card). PC compartment
contains powerful PC with installed dedicated software
applications developed in LabVIEW environment.
SUREL is connected with missile electronics by test
cables set.

Picture 6: Global flow chart of the program

The main purpose of acquisition application is acquisition
of signals from missile electronics with changeable
significant parameters and saving that data into a file in
order to use it later in diagnostics or analysis applications.
User interface is given below (Picture 7).
Picture 4: Global block diagram of the device SUREL

6. SUREL VERIFICATION APPROACH

SUREL verifies missile electronics proper functioning by
hardware and software algorithms executing
independently and concurrently.
Block of DSPs analyses and verifies all waveforms online
and displays result immediately (by LED indicators)
(Picture 5). This is fast verification and requires a few
seconds.

Picture 7 Acquisition application user interface

Picture 8Diagnostics application user interface

Picture 5: Electronics compartment with diagnose Hardware verification successful

Diagnostics application provides abilities of quick testing

the data, saved in the previous application, and indication
whether the acquired signals fulfill the requested
parameters or not. User interface of this application is
given below in the Picture 8. In the same picture, all the
indicators are green, which means that all acquired signals

At the same time acquisition card acquires the same

waveforms and saves the data in computer memory. After
acquisition, dedicated software realized in LabVIEW
environment, analyses acquired data and verifies proper
287

In case of malfunctioning, it is possible to use analysis

application to see waveform graphs of signals and
determine the error source. User interface allows selection
of desired set of signals.

that had been read from the acquisition file were correct,
i.e. they all met the defined requirements. If some of the
acquired signals did not fulfill any of the predefined
criteria, error indicator would light up red.
When diagnostics application shows error, analysis
application is used to display waveform graphs of signals
and criterion parameters in order to determine the error
source. User interface allows selection of desired set of
signals (Picture 9) and one example is given below
(Picture 10).

7. TESTING PROCEDURE
The preparation phase of test procedure requires five
steps. The first step is connecting missile electronics with
SUREL by test cables. After that, as second step, SUREL
and PC power supplies are turned on. The third step is
setting of all initial testing parameters on SUREL. The
fourth step is to turn on missile electronics power supply.
Final, fifth, step is activating acquisition application and
setting acquisition parameters. The device is now ready
for acquisition and testing.

Picture 10 Analysis Application Selected Set of Signals

Missile electronics verification is successful only when
both online and offline tests show the same positive
results.

Now predefined test sequence can be started. When

sequence is finished, SUREL hardware algorithm
displays immediate diagnostics result and, at the same
time, acquired data can be saved in specified folder for
the next step - offline software diagnostics and analysis.

8. CONCLUSION
SUREL was successfully used for development, testing
and verification of the missile electronics initial
production. It was, also, officially used for acceptance
testing. It can be concluded that missile electronics initial
production cannot be realized, in real time, without
SUREL.

Diagnostic application provides automatic diagnostics of

missile electronics data set acquired by previous
application. User interface shows diagnostics for all
signals and marks the waveforms with error.

Also SUREL was inspiration and predecessor for the

family of similar test& verification devices for other
missile system electronics and electrical subsystems.

REFERENCES
[1] Caki, N., Kljaji, N., Kosti, M., Trandafilovi, S.,
Uputstvo za rukovanje i odravanje SUREL-a,
VTI,2013.
[2] Bress, J. T., "Effective LabVIEW Programming",
2013.

Picture 9 Analysis application main window

288

EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF ROCKET MOTOR INTERNAL

BALLISTIC COEFFICIENTS AND PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
SAA IVKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vti@vti.vs.rs
MILO FILIPOVI
Faculty, University of Novi Pazar, Novi Pazar, mfilipovic@np.ac.rs
PREDRAG ELEK
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, pelek@mas.bg.ac.rs
MOMILO MILINOVI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, mmilinovic@mas.bg.ac.rs
NIKOLA GLIGORIJEVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, nikola.gligorijevic@gmail.com
MOHAMMED AMINE BOULAHLIB
Military Academy, University of Defense, Belgrade, vti@vti.vs.rs

Abstract: In solid propellant rocket motor internal ballistic calculation, next coefficients, performance parameters and
characteristics are required: specific impulse, discharge coefficient, thrust coefficient and propellant burning rate law.
All those RM working parameters can be theoretically or semi-empirically predicted, but depends from rocket motor
design and combustion products flow losses; theoretical values can be very unreliable. Correction of theoretical
working parameters can be provided using experimental data, although this approach is expensive and requires
necessary experimental equipment. By using corrected working parameters in internal ballistic calculation highly
precise results can be achieved, and accuracy of this approach is demonstrated in two different examples.
Keywords: rocket motor, internal ballistic calculation, coefficients, performances, measuring.
temperature, have strong influence on chemical potential
of combustion products [2]. Shifting of chemical
equilibrium can cause intense chemical reactions and
changing of summary products properties [3]. Those
properties are in strong interrelation with fluid flow, in
particular molecular mass, adiabatic constant, specific
heat, viscosity coefficient, etc.

1. INTRODUCTION
Accurate internal ballistic (IB) calculation of solid
propellant rocket motor (RM) working parameters is very
important process, in all design phases. Flow of propellant
combustion products, through internal empty space of RM
(flow domain) is very complex itself. Geometry of
propellant grain is various for every RM and also variable
during the working period. In many cases support
elements are present in RM flow domain, which
additionally increase geometry complexity. Frequently,
RM has multiple nozzles. Also, because of special
requirements for position or function, many RM have
long nozzle inlets (blast tubes). All those listed factors are
increasing products flow losses by viscosity, vorticity and
heat sink. Consequently flow velocity and gas-dynamic
efficiency of propulsion decrease [1].

Finally, most significant process which can influence

internal ballistics calculation accuracy is multiphase flow
[4]. Related processes which are consequences:
evaporation, agglomeration, melting or solidification of
components of combustion products. Those processes
have strong influence on fluid flow parameters due to
intense density and momentum change during phase
transformations. IB calculation can have significant error
if those processes are neglected [5].
In this paper is given short review of unsteady IB
calculation of RM, which is described in details in paper
[6]. Also, in brief are described well known identification
techniques, of real IB coefficients and performance

During the combustion products flow trough complex

domain, flow conditions rapidly changes. In first place,
change of flow parameters, such as pressure and
289

parameters, from experimental results. Aim of this paper

is demonstration of originally developed correction
technique of measured burning rate of propellant grain.
This correction, besides accurately determined discharge
and thrust coefficients, is necessary to be obtained, for
precision RM chamber pressure and thrust calculation.

2. INTERNAL BALLISTIC COEFFICIENTS

AND PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
Figure 1. RM IB coefficients and performance
parameters scheme.

The RM working regime calculation can be conducted

using IB coefficients, which express some characteristic
RM performance parameters or processes (Figure 1).
Those coefficients can be derived theoretically,
experimentally or semi-empirically.

Besides IB coefficients and performances parameters, RM

working regime strongly depends on combustion products
properties and combustion characteristics, such as burning
rate. Highly accurate thermo-chemical calculation is
crucial for precise IB prediction. Based on propellant
chemical composition, using thermo-chemical calculation
applications [2], necessary propellant combustion
products characteristics can be successfully predicted.
Burning rate is variable characteristic, which primarily
depends on pressure on propellant surface. Second major
factor is initial temperature of propellant grain (RM
working temperature). Those influences can be modified
and adjusted regarding requirements by chemical
composition of propellant and with production technology
treatments [2].

Thrust F(t) is total produced force by RM, in the axial

direction. Total impulse is integral of thrust curve during
the working period of time. It is equivalent of energy
amount, released from propellant charge mass.

I t = F ( t ) dt

(1)

Those two performance parameters are usually required

values at beginning of the RM design process, and they
are input for rocket system design.
Specific impulse is measure of propellant efficiency. It
defines amount of thrust generated from amount of mass
flow rate, i.e. total impulse per one kilogram of propellant
mass. Specific impulse is energy parameter of propellant,
but also depends from RM and nozzle geometry design
quality:
I
I sp = F = t
m m

Burning rate dependences couldnt be completely

theoretically predicted and always is needed experimental
measuring. Precise measuring could be conducted using
different methods, but always is necessary to conduct
numbers of tests. To decrease experimental costs, usually
is using experimental motors, much smaller then designed
RM. Gabarit scale difference between those RM usually
inflicts difference in measured burning rate. This
difference is consequence of different flow conditions
(different domain geometry, boundary layer and
turbulence scale), and thermal conditions (usually
different thermal insulation or case and nozzle materials)
[1]. This difference could be measured, and introduced as
burning rate correction factor, and this will be described
in next chapters. Also correction can be predicted by
precision numerical calculations [7].

(2)

Thrust coefficient represents efficiency of thrust

generation, regarding nozzle flow efficiency. For specific
nozzle throat area, thrust coefficient defines amount of
thrust generated from products pressure in combustion
chamber:

( )

2
2
CF = F = 2
1 + 1
pc At

+1
1

p p pa Ae (3)
1 e + e
pc At
pc

3. INTERNAL BALLISTIC CALCULATION

Design of the RM begins by defining technical
preconditions [8]. The type of propellant can be selected,
based on required performances and special requirements
[9]. Combustion products characteristics can be obtained
by thermo-chemical calculation, as previously mentioned.

Discharge coefficient is measure of chamber and nozzle

flow losses. It defines mass flow rate trough throat area,
inducted with products pressure energy in chamber.
CD = m =
pc At

( )

2
RTc + 1

+1
1

(4)

The pressure change in the combustion chamber can be

calculated using the mass conservation equation
(Equation 6). Total pressure in combustion chamber is
nearly uniform in entire free volume, in some particular
moment. Level of pressure can be determined based on
products mass balance, during generation, accumulation
and discharging trough nozzle. The products production
on burning surfaces is equal to change of combustion
products mass in chamber and discharge trough nozzle
throat. For unsteady flow through the RM domain (Figure

The characteristic velocity is relative performance of

propulsion system designs and efficiency of the propellant
combustion. It is parameter similar to specific impulse,
but it is essentially independent from nozzle
characteristics:
C* =

pc At
= 1
m
CD

(5)
290

2), continuity equation has the following form:

m b (t ) = d mc (t ) + m t (t )
dt

Finally we can express the mass balance equation as first

order differential equation of unknown variable chamber
pressure, which is nonlinear and inhomogeneous.
Extracting of this equation is described in [10], in details.
Nonlinearity of this ordinary differential equation is
reflecting in function of burning rate, dependent from
chamber pressure. Some functions are expressed in
dependence from burned web x(t), as it burning area and
the chamber free volume. Burned web is also function of
time, and can be derived from burning rate function r(pc).
Those dependences can be written in form of system of
two differential equations, one integral and two algebraic
equations (equations 9 14). Solving this system we can
obtain pressure-time and burned web-time curves:

(6)

The products mass flow rate through entrance of the

domain is determined by the quantity of combusted
propellant per unit of time. Products generation rate is
product of time functions of burning area and burning
rate, multiplied with propellant density.
Change of the products mass in chamber mc depends from
products density and free volume size. According to ideal
gas equation, density can be expressed using the chamber
total pressure and total temperature.

d p (t ) = R Tc Ab (t ) r ( pc , t ) p
dt c
Vc (t )

( )

+1

At
1
R Tc 2

+1
Vc (t )
A (t ) r ( pc , t ) pc (t )
pc (t ) b
Vc (t )

(9)

Figure 2. Combustion products mass balance in RM flow

domain.

d x (t ) = r ( p , t )
c
dt

(10)

Mass flow rate trough throat can be expressed using

critical flow values, gas velocity, density and nozzle
throat area. Critical values can be expressed using total
chamber values of pressure and temperature, using gas
dynamics relations for one-dimensional flow [10]. These
relations are valid for ideal gas (single phase and
chemical inert flow), adiabatic, non viscous and onedimensional flow. In real motors these simplifications can
cause significant deviation from the true value of mass
flow through nozzle throat. Decrease of the real mass
flow in comparison to calculations can be from few to
over 10 percent [4].

Ab ( t ) = Ab [ x ( t )]

(11)

CD
CDt

r ( pc , t ) = r [ pc ( t )]

(13)

Using calculated real CF and pressure-time curve, thrusttime curve can be also calculated, according to equation:
F ( t ) = CF pc ( t ) At

(14)

4. EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF
REAL IB COEFFICIENTS
IB examination is conducted by RM static test. On one
component test stand, with load cell, thrust can be
measured. Products pressure in combustion chamber can
be measured using pressure transducers. Signals from
transducers must be processed with adequate amplifiers
and recorded with acquisition system. Results of
examination obtained with acquisition system are usually
stored in ASCII files, and can be drawn in diagram
(Figure 3).

(7)

where throat coefficient is [6]:

(12)

As defined in previous chapter, mass flow through nozzle

throat can be defined as product of chamber pressure pc,
throat area At and discharge coefficient. Theoretical
discharge coefficient is dependent only on products
characteristics and combustion temperature. According to
previous observation, we can define real discharge
coefficient CD and calculate real mass flow rate trough
throat:
m t (t ) = pc (t ) At CD = m tt (t )

Vc ( t ) = Vc (0) + Ab [ x ( t )] r (t )dt

(8)

Using different computational techniques pressure-time

and thrust-time curves can be drown and analyzed.
Integral of those two curves can be calculated, for
example, using trapezoid rule.

 tt (t) and CDt - theoretical throat mass flow rate

and: m
and discharge coefficient (equation 4).

Comparing with theoretical, real throat mass flow rate

usually have slightly higher value, but can be even lower,
caused by larger gas flow losses in complex RM
geometry [4].

291

between t1 and t3:

tefm = t3 t1

(18)

Mean pressure and mean thrust can be calculated as

follows:

Figure 3. Pressure and thrust vs. time curves,

experimental results.
In to define mean working parameters RM effective
working time must be determined. Propellant burning
effective time can be defined as period from beginning
t1, until the end of propellant combustion t2 (Figure 4).
Pressure integral which is induced by igniter is usually
small part of percent of total RM pressure integral, so
usually it could be neglected. Approximately can be taken
that at moment t1, propellant full combustion begins when
half of first peak maximum pressure level is reached.

(17)

It
tefm

(20)

kr =

rm
rme

r ( p ) = kr r e ( p )

Burning effective time corresponds to burning web, and

products mass generation in combustion chamber. Based
on this statement, mean burning rate and mean products
mass flow rate can be defined as:

m m = m
tefr

Fm =

rme = r e ( pcm )

(15)

(16)

(19)

From burning rate law re(p), obtained with experimental

motor, we can calculate experimental mean burning rate
rem, which corresponds to mean pressure pcm (Equation
21). Ration between mean burning rate rm and
experimental mean burning rate rem (Equation 22) can be
used as correction factor for measured burning rate curve
(Figure 5). With this technique, it will be obtained more
real burning rate curve (equation 23), which will provide
real burning effective time and mean values in IB
calculation:

Moment t2 is moment when burning web length is

reached. This moment is beginning of the RM
distinguishing phase, or chamber decompression phase.
This moment can be recognized when pressure level starts
rapidly to decrease. A common criterion for this moment
determination is intersection of tangents on curve before
and after curve sudden direction change [10]. Time period
between moment t1 and t2, can be defined as burning
effective time:

rm = w
tefr

Ip
tefm

It is expected that IB parameters have different levels on

different RM working temperature levels (usually,
experiments and calculations are conducting on extreme
and standard room temperature levels). The same analysis
procedure can be conducted on the results obtained in
experiments at any working temperature. Also calculation
procedure is independent on the RM working
temperature, and both demonstration examples in next
chapter are given only for one working temperature level.

Figure 4. Effective time determination.

tefr = t2 t1

pcm =

(21)
(22)

(23)

Finally real IB coefficients can be calculated. Real thrust

coefficient can be obtained using calculated mean thrust
and mean pressure:
CF =

Mean chamber pressure and RM thrust can be calculated

as ratio between pressure integral (or total impulse) and
effective time. Burning effective time is not adequate for
those mean values determination, because pressure and
thrust curves parts, after combustion termination also
contributing to pressure (or thrust) integral, and frequently
can not be neglected. From that reason, point t3 which
corresponds to pressure level pend/2 (Figure 4), is
introduced. Mean effective time is defined as time period

Fm
pcm At

(24)

Figure 5. Measured and corrected burning rate curves.

292

Real discharge coefficient can be calculated using mean

mass flow rate and mean pressure:
m m
CD =
pcm At

conducted in next steps, for both examples:

1) Analyzing experimental results we can obtain pressure
integral, total impulse, burning and mean effective time.
Also calculated mean values of pressure, thrust, mass
flow rate and burning rate are given in Table 1. Thrust
value in example 2 is axial component of the thrust,
measured in the RM axis direction.

(25)

which can be used to determine throat coefficient:

CD
= CD C
CDt

(26)

Table 1. Mean values calculation.

Units
[Pas]
[Ns]

Example 1
1.709107
5.414105

Example 2
4.07106
1.22103

[s]

3.761

0.502

tefm

[s]

3.77

0.548

pcm
Fm
m m

[Pa]
[N]

4533160
143614

7422430
2223.7

[kg/s]

74.39

1.23

rm

[m/s]

0.00584

0.0111

Ip
It
tefr

5. EXAMPLES
As accuracy demonstration and quality evaluation of
described procedure, IB calculation of large RM, about
550 mm in caliber, is chosen. This RM have nearly ideal
configuration (Figure 6), which inflicts minimal products
flow losses. Passive thermal insulation provides reduced
heat losses. RM working regime is slightly degressive,
nearly neutral regime.

Pressure and thrust time curves are given in Figure 3,

for example 1, and in Figure 8, for example 2.

Figure 6. First example RM geometry.

In second example is demonstrated ability of this method,
for accurate calculation of IB parameters for RM with
characteristics which are less ideal. Working regime is
degressive and have significant sliver. RM is much
smaller and has four nozzles on lateral sides of the
chamber, with 15 angle of inclination from RM axis
(Figure 7).

Figure 8. Pressure ant thrust vs. time curves. Example 2,

experimental results.

Figure 7. Second example RM geometry.

Figure 9. Burning area change for burned web, example 1

(above) and example 2 (below).

Some results of experiment for first example are

presented in previous chapter. Calculation procedure is
293

2) Analyzing geometry of propellant grain, using some of

available calculation tools, burning area change can be
defined in dependency from burned web. In first example,
fourteen simple uninhibited tubes are used as propellant
charge. Burning rate regression can be conducted
analytically in this case. In second example propellant
grain has more complex geometry, and is necessary to use
some of applications for numerical determination of
burning area change, like one described in [11] or [6].
Burning area regression diagrams are given in Figure 9,
for both examples.
3) Necessary products characteristics are: heat capacity ratio
and molecular weight, and combustion parameters:
combustion temperature and characteristic velocity (Table 2).

6) Using system of equations (9-13), pressure change in

time can be obtained. Calculated curve for both examples
is presented in Figure 11, where they are compared with
experimental results. For example 1, in experimental
curve it is obvious existence of erosion burning effect,
which inflicts moderate peak of pressure after ignition.
Pobedonoscevs coefficient with value of Ki=107 [10], for
this RM, also indicates possibility of existence of erosion
burning. To compensate this effect, point of combustion
ending t2 (Figure 4) is chosen 0.1 second later then point
of intersection of curve tangents. On this way part of
pressure integral in peak, inflicted by erosion burning, is
compensated with integral difference in decreasing part of
curve, where is present effect of intensified digressive
burning.

Table 2. Products and combustion characteristics.

Units
Example 1
Example 2

1.236
1.241
M
[kg/kmol]
24.543
23.915
Tc
[K]
2255
2318
C*
[m/s]
1333.1
1366.7
4) Burning rate curves are obtained by measuring in
experimental RM, for several selected values of pressure.
For calculated mean value of pressure, experimental mean
burning rate is extracted by interpolation and burning rate
correction factor is calculated (Table 3).
Table 3. Burning rate correction calculation.
Units
Example 1
Example 2
pcm
[Pa]
4533160
7422430
rme

kr

[m/s]

0.0632

0.01198

0.92422

0.9315

Measured and corrected burning rate curves are shown in

Figure 5 for example 1, and in Figure 10, for example 2.

Figure 11. Chamber pressure time curves, comparison

between calculation and experimental results, for example
1 (above) and example 2 (below).

Figure 10. Measured and corrected burning rate curves,

example 2.
5) Real IB coefficients and performance parameters are
calculated and given in Table 4. Thrust coefficient in
example 2 is calculated based on the RM axial thrust
component, regarding the nozzles inclination.
Table 4. IB calculation parameters and coefficients.
Units
Example 1
Example 2
Isp
[Ns/kg]
1933.7
1968.4
CF
1.446
1.32
CD
[s/m]
0.00075
0.000732

0.9987
1.0

Figure 12. Thrust time curves, comparison between

calculation and experimental results, for example 1
(above) and example 2 (below).
294

Using equation (14), thrust time curves can be

calculated. Thrust curve in example 2 is calculated using
thrust coefficient, in which has been already taken into
account the nozzles inclination. Those curves, compared
with experimental result are shown in Figure 12. Both
curves also have good agreement with experimental
results.

Subscripts:
burning beginning;
burning end;
2
mean end;
3
atmosphere;
a
chamber;
c
nozzle exit;
e
ef effective;
m mean;
burning;
r

throat.
t
1

Time integrals of calculated curves I , can be compared

with measured values of integrals I, and expressed trough
error (equation 27). For example 1, errors are
neglectable, and for example 2 are very small (Table 5).
c
= I I

(27)

Table 5. Calculation errors.

Units
Example 1
p
[%]
0.02477
t
[%]
-0.02527

Example 2
0.387
0.387

Superscripts:
c
calculated;
e
experimental;
t
theoretical.

5. CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

In this paper is described procedure for real RM IB

coefficients and performances parameters determination,
including specific impulse, thrust coefficient, discharge
coefficient. All those parameters are obtained analyzing
RM static tests.

[1] ,..:
, , , 1973.
[2] Filipovi,M., Kilibarda,N.: Calculation of Complex
Chemical Equilibrium Compositions of Composite
Rocket Propellants Combustion Products, J. Serb.
Chem. Soc., 2000,Vol.65 (11),803-810.
[3] Filipovi,M., Kilibarda,N.: 'The Calculation of
Theoretical Energetic Performances of Composite
Rocket Propellants', J. Serb. Chem. Soc., 66 (2)
(2001) 107-117.
[4] Suton,K.P.: Rocket Propulsion Elements, John Wiley
& Sons Inc, New York, 2001.
A
Study
on
[5] Filipovi,M.,
Kilibarda,N.:
Thermodynamic Functions of Composite Propellants
Combustion Products', Chemical Industry, 55 (2001)
109-113.
[6] ,., ,., .,
Program SVOD for solid propellant grain design''
OTEH-2012, MTI Belgrade.
[7] ivkovi,S., Sirovatka,R., Gligorijevi,N., Suboti,S.,
Kozomara,S., Nikoli,M., Solid propellant rocket
motor nozzle heat transfer model verification, OTEH2012, MTI Belgrade.
[8] ivkovi,S., Savkovi,M., GligorijeviN.: Solid
propellant rocket motor components initial design',
OTEH-2011, MTI Belgrad.
[9] Ocokolji,G., ivkovi,S., SubotiS.: Aerodynamic
coefficients determination for antitank missile with
lateral jets, OTEH-2011, MTI Belgrade
[10] ,., , I , -,
, 1972.
[11] ,., ,.:

, OTEH-2009, MTI
Belgrade.

Original concept of burning rate correction, necessary to

compensate diversity of working condition in small
experimental and real RM, is also described.
RM IB calculation for unsteady working regime,
including those real parameters, gives excellent results, in
comparison with experiments. Agreement with
experiments is demonstrated in two different examples.

NOMENCLATURE
A
Ab
C*
CD
CF
F
I
Ip
Isp
It
kr
m
mp
m
m b
p
R
r
T
t
V
w
x

error;
throat coefficient;
heat capacity ratio;
propellants density;
total working time.

Area;
burning area;
characteristic velocity;
discharge coefficient;
thrust coefficient;
thrust;
integral;
pressure integral;
specific impulse;
total impulse;
burning rate correction factor;
products mass;
propellant mass;
mass flow rate;
products generation rate;
pressure;
gas constant;
burning rate;
temperature;
time;
volume;
web;
burned web;
295

A BOW THRUSTER CONTRIBUTION OF SHIP MANEUVERABILITY

IMPROVEMENT
VOJKAN MADI
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, vmadic@gmail.com

Abstract: A bow thruster is propulsion device built into the bow of a ship to make it more maneuverable. Bow thruster
make docking easier, since it allows the captain to turn the vessel to port or starboard side, without using the main
propulsion mechanism which requires some forward motion for turning. The biggest ship of our River fleet BPN
Kozara was overhauled and modernized in Shipyard Apatin during period 2010-2013. Transverse bow thruster is
installed into the ship during this period. Reasons and criterions for bow thruster choice and installations technical
description are shown in this paper, as well as maneuvering trial results. All advantages and disadvantages which bow
thruster caused on ship Kozara are counted on the end of this paper.
Keywords: ship, bow thruster, maneuverable, turning circle.
The thruster takes suction from one side and throws it out
at the other side of the ship, thus moving the ship in the
opposite direction. This can be operated in both directions
i.e. port to starboard and starboard to port. The thrusters
are placed below the waterline of the ship. The prime
mover can be connected either horizontally or vertically
and thus incorporated optimally into the naval
architectural design.

1. INTRODUCTION
For efficient maneuverability of a ship, the propulsion
system is not enough. Today, the most of ships are
provided with transverse thrusters. Transverse thrusters
are propulsion devices fitted to improve maneuverability
of the ship. They enable easy movement of a ship in
confined areas and also for docking purposes. If a ship
without transverse thrusters needs a movement towards
port or starboard, it has to use the main propulsion system
to move the ship slightly forward first and then do the
needful maneuverability. But this kind of movement is
not feasible in waters with dimensional constraints, as it
can lead to collision or grounding of the ship. On the
contrary, a ship provided with transverse thrusters can
make such movements in an extremely smooth manner.

The thrusters can be electric driven, hydraulic driven or

diesel driven. When fixed-pitch propellers are used,
electric and hydraulic motors allow the direction of thrust
to be reversed. An additional reversing gearbox is
required if the thruster is powered by a diesel engine.
However, the most commonly used are electric driven, as
in hydraulic driven thrusters there occur many leakage
problems. Also, with diesel driven transverse thrusters,
the amount of maintenance required is more and every
time before starting someone needs to go to the thruster
room to check the thrusters.

The thruster placed in the forward end is known as the

bow thruster and the one placed in the aft is known as the
stern thruster. The requirement for the number of thrusters
to be installed depends on the length of the ship.

2. BPN KOZARA HISTORY AND

TECHNICAL DATA

The bow and the stern thrusters are placed in the throughand-through tunnels which open at both sides of the ship
(picture1).

Ship Kozara (picture 2) was built in Germany in 1939

(original name of the ship was Kiemhild). The main
purpose was to be commanding ship for Black sea and
Danube German river fleet.
Kiemhild was bought for the necessity of Yugoslav
army river fleet in 1961. Then, the name of ship was
changed toBPN Kozara. From 1961 until now the ship
is permanently using like commanding ship for Yugoslav
and Serbian River fleet.

Picture 1. Bow thruster

296

case gap is 7.5 mm (tunnel diameter is 585 mm and

propeller diameter is 570 mm), and its quite good.

5. BOW THRUSTER POSITION

The first step was to find bow thruster actual position. It
depends on the internal and external construction of the
ship.
For optimal performance the thruster should be mounted
within the following:
as far forward as possible - lever effect

Picture 2. BPN Kozara

( picture 3);

The ship is made from steel plate connected by riveting

joint.

1 x (1 x tunnel diameter) below the waterline to

prevent air being sucked into the tunnel (picture 4);

Ship dimensions:
Length ......................................................... Loa = 68.75 m
Width ........................................................... Bmax = 9.55 m
Hull high............................................................ H = 2.7 m
Draft........................................................... T = 1.1 - 1.3 m
Displacement ................................................. Dmax = 564 t

minimum suggested tunnel length 2 x .

Propulsion system:
Diesel-electric........................................... P = 2 x 250 kW

3. REASONS FOR BOW THRUSTER

INSTALLATION
Before reconstruction and modernization of Kozara two
diesel engines was installed into the ship. There were
Kleckner Humboldt Deutz AG (400 HP, 400 min-1,
6 cylinders).

Picture 3. Lever effect

It was slow-running diesel engine which was directly

connected to the propeller shaft. Marine transmissions
were manual and required the operator to physically move
a lever either forward or back to activate forward or
reverse directions.
This kind of marine transmissions caused many problems
during maneuver of the ship (especially during ship
docking). Strong river stream made maneuver more
difficult.

4. BOW THRUSTER TECHNICAL DATA

Picture 4. Thruster high position

The main parameter for bow thruster choice is a ship

displacement. According to this parameter in Kozara is
installed bow thruster with characteristics given in table 1.

Bow thruster position in BPN Kozara is not completely in

accordance with this instructions. The main constraints
which defined bow thruster position were:

Table 1: Bow thruster characteristics

type
producer
electric motor
max propeller thrust
force
max propeller rpm
propeller diameter
frequenty converter

bow shape;

tunnel thruster (electric driven)

Dutch Thruster Group
90 kW, 1500 min-1
13.1 kN

internal construction dimensions;

arrangement of existing equipment.
The main criterion was to find bow thruster positon as far
forward as possible. It was found position at the ship
centre line on Frame 119 (picture 5). It is inside sailor
compartment close to the chain locker.

1000
570 mm
ABB AC ACS 800-04

The bow thruster distance from the stem is 5.5.m (8% of

ship length). The distance between bow thruster tunnel
and ship bottom is 310 mm and between bow thruster
tunnel and full dispalcement waterline is 402 mm (0.69 x
tunnel diameter) (picture 6).

A major parameter for the effectiveness of a transverse

thruster is the size of the gap between the tunnel and the
propeller and should be reduced to a minimum. In this
297

This two ballast tanks should be always full (it doesnt

depends from displacement of the ship). Trimming of the
ship is performing with ballast tanks in forepeak and after
peak.

6. MANEUVERING CHARACTERISTICS
MEASUREMENT
Maneuvering characteristics measurement was performed
in October 2013 on the river Danube between Gornji
Milanovac and Veliko Gradiste. The weather was calm,
without wind and waves. The depth of the wather was 15
m. The weight of the ship was 564 t (full displacement)
and mean draft was 1.17m.

Picture 5. Thruster position on BPN kozara

During operation of both main engines at mode 1000 rpm

the next three turning circle measurement was performed:
1. The both propellers ahead and the max rudder drift on
right side.
235 m turning circle diameter was measured during this
maneuvre (picture 8).
There arent existing turning circle measurement data
before reconstruction of the ship (before installation of
new propulsion system and bow thruster). It can be
supposed that these results will be similar like results
from this turning circle measurement.
Picture 6. Fr 119 crossection
It was not possible to move down bow thruster tunnel
because of bottom longitudinal structure (centre girder).
About 60% high of centre girder is already cutted at the
tunnel position (cut more than this can be danger from the
aspect of longitudinal and local strength of the ship)
(picture 7).

500

1000

navigable way
ship trajectory
Picture 8. Turning circle maneuver in regime both
propellers ahead and the max rudder drift right

Picture 7. CL crossection
The demand about bow thruster depth below waterline
caused installing new ballast tanks.

2. Right propeller astern, left propeller ahead and the max

rudder drift on right side

Forward draft of full displacement ship is 1.3 m (pic. 5). It

was not possible to achieve this draft value without
building new ballast tanks. Two ballast tanks are builded
in the double bottom between Fr.106 118. Capacities of
the tanks are 2 x 9.3 t.

102 m turning circle diameter was measured during this

maneuvre (picture 9). It is 56 % less then diameter
measured in the previous measurement and shown to us
advantage disel electric propulsion system comparing
with disel propulsion system.
298

It can be noticed from pictures that ship trajectory during

turning circle maneuver is ellipse (not circle). Shape of
this ellipse is depended from river stream. The turning
circle diameter is distance between ellipse tangents.
Turning circle measuremenrt results are shown in table 2.
Table 2: Turning circle measurement results

500

1000

main
bow
full circle
diameter (m)
engines
thruster maneuver time
(rpm)
(rpm)
(s)
both propellers ahead and max rudder drift on right
side
1000
980
4.17
234
right propeller astern, left propeller ahead and max
rudder drift on right side
1000
980
7.51
102
right propeller ahead, left propeller astern, bow thruster
left and max rudder drift left
1000
980
3.42
73

navigable way
ship trajectory

7. CONCLUSION
Bow thruster installation in the ship Kozara caused next
advantages:

Picture 9. Turning circle maneuver in regime right

propeller astern, left propeller ahead and the max rudder
drift right

1. Better maneuverability of the ship

3. Right propeller ahead, left propeller astern, bow

thruster left and max rudder drift left.

If it is suppose that turning circle diameter before ship

reconstruction was 234 m it is obviously that after
installation of diesel electric propulsion together with bow
thruster turning circle maneuver is highly improved
(turning circle diameter is 73 m).

73 m turning circle diameter was measured during this

maneuver (picture 10).
It is 69 % less then diameter measured in the measurement
number 1 or 28 % less then diameter measured in the
measurement number 2. That means that bow thruster
improved maneuver characteristics of the ship.

Better maneuverability of the ship is much more visible at

low speeds of the ship (previously results were measured
during operation of main engines at mode 1000 rpm).
2. Safety of the ship increased when berthing in bad
weather.
Bow thruster installation on the ship Kozara caused next
disadvantages:
1. Builded of new ballast tanks (2 x 9.3 t capacity).
2. Increasing ship resistance to forward motion trough the
water.

REFERENCES

500

1000

[1] Glen L. Witt, Ken Hankinson, Inboard

motorinstallation, Glen-L Marine Designs.
[2] J. Dautovic, D Trifkovic, Z. Nikolic, Diesel-electric
propulsion of the reconstructed ship Kozara.
[3] Technical Testing Center, Final test report, TOC-123507, 2013
[4] Schottel, Transverse thruster, www.shottel.de
[5] John L. Beveridge, Design and performance of bow
thruster, Final report

navigable way
ship trajectory
Picture 10. Turning circle maneuver in regime right
propeller ahead, left propeller astern, bow thruster left and
the max rudder drift left

299

NATURAL TRACKING GUIDANCE LAW WITH INDIRECT IMPACT

ANGLE CONTROL
MILO PAVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, cnn@beotel.rs.rs
BOJAN PAVKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, bjnpav@gmail.com
SLOBODAN MANDI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, msmanda@open.telekom.rs
DANILO UK
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia, cukd@eunet.rs

Abstract: The proposed Natural Tracking guidance law is designed to be completely robust in respect to the system
internal dynamics and disturbance actions and could become an important alternative to the classic and modern
guidance laws. It is capable to achieve impact angle demands (although with some limitations), even in the case of a
moving target thanks to the Line-Of-Sight angle as the tracked variable. The Natural Tracking guidance law is
relatively easy to implement because it does not require the knowledge of time-to-go so it use only active homing head
with angle sensors on board the missile. On the other hand, it requires a continuous control system, or a discrete one
with very short sampling time to be implemented and has vast control effort requirements.
Keywords: natural tracking control, proportional navigation, impact angle, homing, missile.
strong candidate for a missile guidance law. The tracked
output variable, in this case, is the LOS angle.
Maintaining it to a certain constant value during the
engagement indirectly achieves the demanded impact
angle as well as the constant bearing course. The fact that
the impact angle is controlled via the LOS, which is being
kept constant, limits the maximum achievable values of
the impact angles.

1. INTRODUCTION
Missile guidance systems are designed and optimized
with the purpose of fulfilling certain demands which
come from their mission, i.e. the type and properties of
the target. In the case of air defense missiles, these
demands might be a minimum miss distance for a fast and
maneuvering target, and system robustness in regard to
the velocity and altitude of a missile. In the case of antitank missiles, however, an impact angle demand for a
static or slow moving target could be set. Depending on
demands, various guidance methods have been developed.
The proportional navigation (PN) method, where the
missile turn rate is directly proportional to the turn rate of
the missile-target line-of-sight (LOS), is widely used in
homing engagements [1] when the information on the
target manoeuvre acceleration is not available to the
missile. In the last decade, there were many investigations
where, besides the miss, the impact angle control was
constrained [2-5].

An overview of the state-space model of the guidance

system based on LOS angle tracking is given in this
paper. Further, the Natural Tracking guidance law is
presented as well as the necessary transformation of the
control system structure in order to make it naturally
trackable. Finally, the results of the numerical simulations
of a few engagement cases are presented as well as the
comparison to the classic and modern guidance laws.

2. MISSILE-TARGET ENGAGEMENT
MODEL

In this paper, a versatile guidance law based on the

Natural Tracking concept developed by Gruyitch and
Mounfield [6-8] is presented. The Natural Tracking
concept is applicable to a certain class of systems in a
state space (naturally trackable systems), and it provides a
completely robust control with respect to the system
internal dynamics and the disturbance, which makes it a

The conflict model is developed as a linear one, based on

the relative missile-target motion in a plane. The planar
motion is shown in Pic. 1. In the vertical plane, there is
also the additional gravity term which could be included
in the equivalent target manoeuvre, compensated or
regarded as a disturbance.
300

The LOS angle is chosen as a control variable with a hope

of having some additional control over the terminal
impact angle. With an assumption that all deviations are
small, Pic.1 shows that:

tan ( ) = ( yT yM ) r = y r

(6)

And the output equation for system (5) is:

= y r = [1 r 0][ y

y ] C x
T

(7)

The concept of the natural trackability of linear

continuous-time systems was presented by Gruyitch and
Mounfield [6], later extended to the Lurie systems [7].
They gave and proved the necessary and sufficient
condition for a system to be naturally trackable as:
det ( C B ) 0

(8)

Unfortunately, this condition is not satisfied for linear

system (5) because of:

det ( C B ) = det [1 r 0][ 0 1]

Picture 1. Geometry of the relative planar motion

In order to keep the direction of the instant LOS ( r )
parallel to its initial direction ( r0 ), the projections of the
missile and the target velocities normal to the initial LOS
direction have to be equal:
VT sin T 0 = VM sin M 0

)=0

(9)

so the system (5) with output chosen as (7) is not

naturally trackable.
Overcoming this fact requires a modification of the
structure of system (5). This can be obtained by a similar
procedure as in [9], changing the matrix B by formally
introducing a parameter 0 to make the modified
system naturally trackable, i.e., to satisfy Eq. (8). The
matrix B then becomes:

(1)

Denoting the deviations perpendicular to the initial LOS

direction for the missile as yM and for the target as yT ,
and letting y be the relative separation (namely

B = [ 1]

y = yT yM ), the following dynamic equation is

obtained:
y = VM cos M 0 M VT cos T 0 T

(10)

A corresponding block diagram of that system is shown in

Pic.2 a) where the operator s represents the time
derivative i.e. s d / dt .

(2)

Allowing the controls to be the normal accelerations and

introducing the state space variables:
u = aM cos M 0 ; w = aT cos T 0 ; x1 = y ; x2 = y (3)

after differencing, the mathematical model of the system

in a state space is obtained:
x1 = x2
x2 = u + w

a)

(4)

or in a matrix form:
x = A x + B u + D w
x
0 1
0
0
x = 1 , A =
, B= , D=

0 0
1
1
x2

(5)

b)

3. GUIDANCE LAW

Picture 2. Block diagrams of the modified system: a)

proposed and b) transformed

The main idea of the proposed guidance law is to control

the LOS angle and to be thus able to achieve the desired
impact angle with some limitations, while keeping the
zero miss.

For this modified system, the condition of Theorem 1 in.

301

[7] is satisfied, i.e.

4. NUMERICAL SIMULATION

det ( C B ) = r 0, 0

(11)

The performance of the Natural Tracking (NT) guidance

law and its comparison with the existing classic and
modern methods are evaluated using numerical
simulations of a non-linear mathematical model [1], with
the integration step of 0.1 ms. The NT guidance law,
Eqns.(12)-(14), was taken with its parameters:
K1 = 0.001 , K 2 = 0.01 s 1 and = 100 s 1 . The sampling
time of the guidance system was assumed to be equal to
the simulation integration step. These values, obtained by
the parameter tuning method, are dependent on the
sampling time and the desired dynamic characteristics of
the error reduction Eq.(16).

This modified system is naturally trackable, and Gruyitch

and Mounfield [8] presented the Proportional-Derivative
(PD) natural tracking control law in a form:
u ( t ) = u ( t ) + ( C B ) K 2 ( t ) + K1 ( t ) =
1

= u ( t ) + ( r / ) K 2 ( t ) + K1 ( t )

(12)

where u ( t ) denotes the control effort at the time t , and

u ( t ) designates the control that is being synthesized and

that has to be performed immediately at the same time t ,

i.e. u ( t ) = lim+ u ( t t ) . This condition holds for the

In order to get a more realistic comparison of the tested

guidance laws, the missile commanded acceleration was
symmetrically limited to the value of umax = 15 g , i.e.:

t 0

continuous-time systems without delay in the local

control feedback. For discrete systems, u ( t ) = u ( t TS ) ,
with the condition that the sampling time TS should be
very short.

SAT
C

The output error ( t ) is defined as:

( t ) = d ( t )

(13)

uCM =

is the actual LOS angle measured by the seeker.

Assuming the demanded LOS angle d = const , and
differencing Eq. (13), the error time derivative used in
control law (12) is obtained as the negative LOS rate
 ( t ) =  ( t ) . The LOS rate is also measured by the

uC ( t ) = r ( t ) N  ( t )

uC ( t ) = VM ( t ) N  ( t ) B ( t )

B ( t ) =

VM ( t ) d ( t )

Nr ( t ) max cos M , 1 ( + )

>0
( 0,1 )

(20)
N = 4 , = 1.3 , = 1
where
proposed in [2].

(14)

were chosen as

Time-to-go polynomial guidance (TPG) law proposed

in two variants:

TPG01 with the impact angle constraint only [3]:

uC ( t ) =

solution of the following differential equation:

VM ( t )

6 ( t ) + 4 M ( t ) + 2 Mf
t go ( t )

(21)

(15)

r ( t ) 2 M2 ( t ) M ( t ) Mf + 2 Mf
1
t go ( t )
+

30
VM ( t )

(16)

TPG23 with the additional terminal normal acceleration

zeroing constraint [4,5]:

which yields:
/ K1

(19)

Biased proportional navigation (BPN) guidance law by

Kim at al. [2], able to constrain the impact angle.

According to [8], the control authority defined by Eq. (12)

ensures that any naturally trackable system achieves the
exponentially asymptotic convergence of the tracked
variable with infinite reachability time. The achieved
output (tracked variable) error ( t ) is obtained as the

(18)

Proportional navigation (PN) guidance law, with the

navigation constant N = 4 :

In order to implement the synthesized control law as a

guidance command to the original guidance system
model, it is necessary to perform a transformation of the
block diagram of the modified system, shown in Pic. 2 b).
With this modification of the control signal before the
input of the original linearized system, the synthesized
control law can be implemented as a guidance command
to the original guidance model. The control signal
modification presented in Pic. 2 b) is formulated as:

( t ) = C et K

1
uCSAT
TM s + 1

For comparison, the following guidance laws were also

considered:

seeker and can be used in order to: avoid numerical

differentiation of the LOS angle [10] and the inevitable
presence of the measurement noise, and/or to eliminate
the need for a LOS rate estimator such as the Extended
Kalman filter.

K 2 ( t ) + K1 ( t ) = 0

(17)

The missile transfer function is assumed to be a 1st order

lag system, with the time constant TM = 0.5 s :

where d represents the demanded LOS angle, and ( t )

uC ( t ) = u ( t ) + u ( t )

umax , uC > umax

= uC
, umax < uC < umax
u

max , uC < umax

302

uC ( t ) =

VM ( t )

20 ( t ) + 8 M ( t ) + 12 Mf
t go ( t )

2
r ( t ) 4 M2 ( t ) 3 M ( t ) Mf + 36 Mf
t go ( t )
1 +
126
VM ( t )

(22)

In order to implement the proposed NT guidance law and

the BPN guidance law, it is necessary to obtain the
demanded LOS angle for the considered engagement
case. All kinematic terms, necessary to implement these
guidance laws, are shown in Pic. 1 for an arbitrary
moment and an arbitrary inertial reference direction. The
angular relations are:

M ( t ) = M ( t ) ( t ) , T ( t ) = T ( t ) ( t ) (23)
If the missile velocity value is constant and both velocity
value and a direction for the target are constant as well,
the velocity ratio is defined as:

= VT VM

(24)
Picture 3. Static target a) Trajectories and b) Guidance
commands

Using the collision course condition that the relative

velocity normal to the line-of-sight should be zero, Pic. 1,
in the arbitrary moment applied to Eq.(1), we obtain:
VM sin M ( t ) = VT sin T

In this case, all the considered guidance laws, except the

PN guidance law, met the impact angle requirement. The
proposed NT guidance law achieves a trajectory similar to
TPG23 which was designed to nullify the command
acceleration at the impact time. The NT guidance is,
notably, very demanding in respect to the control effort.

(25)

With the application of Eq.(23) and Eq.(24), the previous

equation becomes:
sin M ( t ) ( t ) = sin T ( t )

(26)

In the second engagement case, the target was uniformly

moving with a velocity of 20 m/s at 90 deg heading, and
its downrange coordinate varied from 0 m to 2000 m, and
for each of these values the full simulation was
performed. The resulting impact angles are shown in Pic.
4 a) and the miss distances in Pic. 4 b).

After the evaluation of the last expression at the terminal

(impact) time of flight and its solution for , the
demanded LOS angle which provides the desired impact
angle can be obtained:

d = ( t f ) = tan 1

sin Mf sin T
cos Mf cos T

(27)

The simulations considered the engagement scenarios

where the missile had a constant speed of 200 m/s, the
initial heading error of 30 deg above the collision course,
and the initial position of 0 m downrange and 0 m
crossrange. The target initial position was 2000 m
downrange and 0 m crossrange, while the target motion
belonged to the following cases: 1) static target, 2)
uniformly moving target and 3) moving target with
constant normal acceleration.
As described by Eq.(16), the NT guidance law
exponentially decreases the LOS error according to the
defined guidance law parameters K1 and K 2 . In the
considered scenario, it is impossible, due to kinematics, to
exponentially diminish the LOS error larger than 60 deg.
Therefore, in the comparison simulations, the impact
angle demand was set to 15 deg.
In the first case, the target was not moving and the result
trajectories are shown in Pic. 3 a), and the corresponding
guidance commands in Pic. 3 b).

Picture 4. Uniformly moving target a) Impact angles and

b) Miss
303

The PN guidance was omitted because it does not provide

impact angle control. The TPG01 and TPG23 guidance
laws did not provide accurate impact angle control
anymore, since they had originally been designed for
static targets. Both NT and BPN guidance laws achieved
the demanded impact angle on condition that the total
time of flight was long enough.

an inertial navigation system to provide the missile

velocity and its heading angle.
The Natural Tracking guidance, on the other hand,
requires a continuous control system or a discrete one
with very short sampling time, and has vast control effort
requirements.
Not requiring the knowledge of time-to-go (estimated by
inertial navigation system measurements), the Natural
Tracking guidance law can be implemented using only an
active homing head with angle sensors on board the
missile. Being significantly versatile, the proposed
guidance law could become an important alternative to
the classic and modern guidance laws, after the further
study to refine and optimize its performance.

Finally, in the third engagement case, the target was

moving with the normal acceleration of 3g, and with an
initial velocity of 20 m/s at 90 deg heading. As in the
previous case, its downrange coordinate varied from 0 m
to 2000 m and a full simulation was performed for each
value. Since none of the analyzed guidance laws was
designed to provide the demanded impact angle in such a
scenario, it was assumed that the impact angle and the
LOS angle values are 0 deg. The PN guidance law was
also considered and the miss distances are shown in Pic.5.

REFERENCES
[1] Zarchan, P., Tactical and Strategic Missile Guidance,
6th ed., Vol. 239, Progress in Astronautics and
Aeronautics, AIAA, Reston, DC, 2012, pp. 13-34.
[2] Kim, B.S., Lee J.G., and Han, H.S., Biased PNG law
for impact with angular constraint, IEEE
Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems,
Vol. 34, No. 1, 1998, pp. 277-288.
[3] Ryoo, C.K., Cho H., and Tahk M.J., Optimal
Guidance Laws with Terminal Impact Angle
Constraints, Journal of Guidance, Control, and
Dynamics, Vol. 28, No. 4, 2005, pp. 724-732.
[4] Lee, C.H., Kim T.H., Tahk M.J., and Whang, I.H.,
Polynomial Guidance Laws Considering Terminal
Impact Angle and Acceleration Constraints, IEEE
Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems,
Vol. 49, No. 1, 2013, pp. 74-92.
[5] Ryoo, C.K., Tahk M.J., and Cho, H., Optimal
Guidance Laws with Impact Angle Control,
Advances in Missile Guidance, Control, and
Estimation, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2012, pp. 343394.
[6] Grujic, L.T., and Mounfield, W.P., PD-Control for
Stablewise Tracking with Finite Reachability Time:
Linear Continous-Time MIMO Systems with StateSpace Description, International Journal of Robust
and Nonlinear Control, Vol. 3, No. 4, 1993, pp. 341360.
[7] Gruyitch, L.T., and Mounfield, W.P., Stablewise
Absolute Output Natural Tracking Control with
Finite Reachability Time: MIMO Lurie Systems,
Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, Vol. 73,
No. 5-6, 2008, pp. 330-344.
[8] Grujic, L.T., and Mounfield, W.P., PD Natural
Tracking Control of an Unstable Chemical
Reaction Proceedings of the Cairo Third IASTED
International Conference, Cairo, Egypt, Dec. 1994,
pp. 730-735.
[9] Ristanovic, M.R., Autopilot synthesis using natural
tracking control, Ph.D. Dissertation, Automatic
control Dept., Belgrade Univ., 2009, pp. 43-54. (in
Serbian)
[10] Gutman, O., and Palmor Z.J., Proportional
Navigation Against Multiple Targets, Journal of
Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, Vol. 34, No. 6,
2011, pp. 1728-1733.

Picture 5. Miss distance with the 3g moving target

In this case, only the proposed NT guidance law provided

the zero miss. All the other methods suffered
significantly from the slow autopilot and intense target
maneuver. The NT guidance proves its robustness in
respect to the control object properties and disturbance
actions.

5. CONCLUSIONS
The proposed Natural Tracking guidance law is a versatile
method, capable of performing in all types of engagement
scenarios. Designed to be completely robust in respect to
the system internal dynamics and disturbance actions, NT
guidance performs even in the case of a slow autopilot
and an intensely maneuvering target, the scenario in
which all other considered methods failed. With the LineOf-Sight angle as the tracked variable, it is able to satisfy
the impact angle demands (although with some
limitations), even in the case of a moving target.
The NT guidance law is relatively easy to implement,
since it demands measurements from an active seeker (the
range to a target, the line-of-sight angle, and the line-ofsight rate). The proportional navigation guidance law
requires the missile-to-target closing velocity and the lineof-sight rate, and the other guidance laws analyzed in this
paper, i.e. the biased proportional navigation guidance
law and the time-to-go polynomial guidance laws, besides
an active seeker to measure the range to a target, require
304

SIMULATION OF RESISTANCE AUTOFRETTAGE BARREL USING TO

HUBER-MISES-HENCKY CRITERION
ALEKSANDAR KARI
Military Academy, University of Defence in Belgrade, karial@ptt.rs
SAA DIMITRI
Military Academy, University of Defence in Belgrade, sadranel@yahoo.com
ZORAN RISTI
Military Academy, University of Defence in Belgrade

Abstract: The paper implemented a mathematical model of autofrettage pressure by HMH (Huber-Mises-Hencky)
criterion of strength theories for barrel, strengthened by the autofrettage. The algorithm and software solution for
determining the stress state and the safety factor in all layers of the barrel cross-section are made. Autofrettage
procedure is performed neglecting of longitudinal strain z. The calculation was made for the open weapon barrel with
known material properties. Result is the calculation of the stress state of autofrettage barrel for cases of 30%, 60% and
100% autofrettage with the possibility of changing parameters. The simulation is performed on the example of 152 mm
caliber weapon. The calculation results in a characteristic cross sections of barrel are shown in tables and graphs in a
suitable scale.
Keywords: autofrettage, barrel, Huber-Mises-Henckey criterion, simulation.

1. INTRODUCTION
One of the main tasks in the design and manufacture of the
gun barrel is to provide a reliable strength of the barrel. The
barrel must be resistant to wear in full, at any rate of fire, in
any mode of fire, any temperature conditions, when he
insufficiently cleaned and oiled and at all times tolerances in
mass of a gunpowder charge [1,2].

strength are different in the different cross sections of

barrel, ie. every cross-section of barrel has its own safety
factor, practically.
Safety factor of barrel n is a ratio:
n=

p1gr
,
pb

(1)

where:

In the production of barrel must be taken into account

inhomogeneity of the barrel material and substantial
change in the mechanical properties of metal under the
influence of temperature. Therefore permissible stress of
barrel must be lower than the yield strength of the
material e , order to avoid the occurrence of plastic
deformations during firing. In other words, it must be to
predict the certain reserve of barrel strength.

p1 gr

- yield strength of the barrel (toward theories of

the strength) and

pb
- ballistic pressure (obtained by internal ballistic
calculation or experimental).
Based on numerous experimental tests for typical barrel
sections, in the calculation of barrel, the next minimum
values of the safety coefficient are recommended to use.
[1,2].

In general, increasing the safety coefficient of barrel can

be achieved in two different ways: by increasing the of
barrel wall thickness ( a21 = r2 r1 ) or by increasing the
yield strength of the barrel material e . The first way
leads to increase of barrel and weapon mass, and the
second complicates a production of barrel [1,2].

Leaving aside the resistance of the parts connected with

barrel like yoke, breech, nut of barrel, barrel layer, etc.,
for the cross-section in the area of propellant chamber
safety factor ranges between nk = 0.8 0.9 . Otherwise, it
is considered that nk 1.0 .

Since the pressure of powder gases in the barrel is

changeable and it changes according to curve of pressure,
it is not the same in each cross section of the barrel.
Because the barrel wall thickness and the reserve of

For sections of the grooves beginning to the intersection

where the highest pressure of powder gases is achieved,
305

and where the channel of barrel is exposed the greatest

warming due to high temperatures during firing, safety
factor shall not be less than n fk 1.2 1.3 .

r1

For sections in the muzzle, the safety coefficient is the

largest and it must not be less than nu 1.9 .

(4)

after arranging expression, we get a relation for the elastic

resistance of monoblock barrel by HMH theory, which
states [1]:

This increase provides the necessary wall thickness for

structural reasons (for example, gas devices mounting) or
due to the request of exploitation. The values of safety
coefficient are generally recommended for the largest
relative deformations theory and practically are
determined based on years of experience and the
application of this theory in practice.

p1gr = e

2
a21
1
4
+1
3a21

(5)

This strength criterion is in accordance with the

experimental results, especially for thin-walled barrel, and
it is considered more fully compared to the other strength
criteria, but the calculations based on this theory are more
extensive. Lately, this criterion, together with the criterion
by Sen Venan, is most often used in practice when
defining the elastic resistance of monoblock barrel.

2. CRITERION OF ENERGY CHANGE FORM

Of the newer theories of strength of barrel, most used
theory of the potential energy of deformation, known as
the Hubert-Mises-Hencky (HMH) theory. This theory
uses the criterion of energy change forms.

2. STRENGTH OF AUTOFRETTAGE BARREL

BY CRITERIA HMH

Theory strength HMH is relatively young in the

application, therefore for it do not exist yet tested and
founded true values of the safety coefficient. For this
theory, in practice, without major mistakes, values of the
safety coefficient of barrel specified for theory of strength
by Sen Venan are adopted.

When designing self-strengthened (autofrettage) barrels,

for strength calculation should be to determine which
stresses emerge as a critical and, depending on them, to
calculate the barrels, according to the expressions for the
boundary strength of such a strengthened barrel,
respectively the pressure of autofrettage barrels.

In theory HMH, plastic state occurs when the potential

energy change of unit volume of material in the observed
point exceeds the limit value of specific strain energy,
what has been established for the same material under
uniaxial tensile specimen to the elastic limit.

The autofrettage or self-strengthening of barrels

essentially increases elastic strength of the monoblock
barrel. Autofrettage pressure is determined so that the
layers of the barrel channel, closer to the inner radius are
brought into a state of plastic deformation, to a certain
depth or the limit radius r0 , and then carry out load
shedding of barrel. After releasing actuating of pressure,
barrel layers, above the achieved zone r0 , stay in a state
of elastic deformation, pressing on the plastic zone
(Picture 1) [2,3].

If Hooke's law applies, the specific energy of deformation

can be expressed as the sum of specific energy of change
of body volume and specific energy change of body shape
[1,2].
A typical expression for the theory HMH is obtained in
the form:

( t r )2 + ( r z )2 + ( z t )2 = 2 e ,

r22 + r12
r22 r12
= p1

t1 = p1

(2)

where: t , r , z - barrel stresses in the tangential, radial

and axial direction,, a e - yield strength (limit of
elasticity) of the barrel material.
In order to obtain an expression for the elastic resistance
of monoblock barrel according to the criteria of HMH, a
case which is closer to practice, and a simpler for
calculation, is considered, when z = 0 i r = p1 ,

whereby p1 - - the pressure in the barrel.

On the inner surface of the barrel, for r = r1 , it follows
that:

t21 t1 r1 + r21 = e2 .

(3)

Picture 1: Stresses of autofrettage barrel in standby mode

a) semi-elastic mode of autofrettage ( c = 0,6)

If the expressions for the barrel stresses on the inner layer

t1 i r1 be included in (3):

r1 r0 r2 b) total mode of autofrettage r0 r2

306

In the wall of such autofrettage monoblock barrel there

are two zones: the plastic zone to radius r0 and elastic

3. SIMULATION OF RESISTANCE
AUTOFRETTAGE BARREL

zone of r0 to outside radius r2 . The autofrettage mode,

which provides this distribution of stresses in the standby
mode, is called the semi-elastic mode of autofrettage. This
autofrettage mode is defined by level of autofrettage:

Based on mathematical models, in MATLAB, a software

solution for the calculation and simulation of autofrettage
barrel resistance is made

(6)

Except that, for given values of initial parameters

(dimensions of barrel to the desired section r1 , r2 , the

If autofrettage of barrel is taking so that the limit radius

r0 leads to the outer radius of barrel r2 and is valid for up

characteristics of barrel material e and E , the degree of

autofrettage c and degree of residual permanent
deformations of barrel ) calculates autofrettage barrel
resistance, a software solution by interpolation performs
solving functions p1 = f ( a 21 ) .

c=

r0 r1
.
r2 r1

r0 r2 , to the crack of barrel, we talk about total

autofrettage (Picture 1b). Autofrettage barrel is able to
elastically resist any internal pressure p1 that is lower or

For the calculation of autofrettage barrel stresses that

there are in the standby mode, next superposition were
used:

maximum equal to the pressure of autofrettage pa .

Towards a Theory of deformation work, parameter
a21=r2/r1 and boundary resilience p1gr of autofrettage

p = p p

t = t t

barrel are linked by:

where p and t stress values calculated in the previous

point. Values p and t represents values of stresses
which, in the ideal the elastic barrel, generated due to the
internal pressure equal to the pressure of autofrettage.

a21 = 1 3 p12 + 1 exp 3 arcsin 3 p1 , (7)

4
2
2

where
p1 = p1gr e .

(9)

As outputs, the software solution provides:

(8)

pressure required to totally autofrettage of barrel,

limit resistance of autofrettage barrel,

Since from (7) cannot be analytically determined value

p1 = f ( a21 ) , in [1,3,4] is proposed a graphical solution.

pressure that will occur at the boundary between the

plastic deformed and elastic zone of barrel,

For this purpose, for a number of set values a21 are

calculated sizes p1 , and then, for thus formed curve
a21 ( p1 ), graphically determined value p1 which

change in pressure and stresses during autofrettage in

standby mode from internal radius r1 to boundary layer

r0 and from r0 to r2 , in desired barrel cross section in

a corresponding number of steps, and

corresponds to a value of ar1 = ri r1 for 30%, 60% and

100% of the boundary layer of barrel (Picture 2).

safety factor in each intersection.

4. SIMULATION RESULTS FOR 152 MM

CALIBRE BARREL
The simulation was performed for 152 mm calibre
autofrettage barrel for the cases of 30%, 60% and 100%
of autofrettage in three selected section:
I-I forced cone,
II-II place of maximum pressure by the internal
ballistic calculation and
III-III near muzzle.

Dimensions and selected characteristic sections of barrel

are shown in Picture 3.

Picture 2. The graphical solving of function

p1 = f ( a 21 )

307

Picture 3. Dimensions of barrel

In Table 1 are shown the input data for the simulation.

Table 1. Input data

Data
Internal diameter of barrel d1

Value
152.4 mm

External diameter of barrel d 2 :

section I-I
section II-II
section III-III
limit of elasticity e

300 mm
270 mm
220 mm
700 N/m2
2.11011 N/m2

Young's modulus of elasticity E

Degree of residual permanent
0.03
deformations of barrel
Coefficient of autofrettage c
30%, 60%, 100 %
Picture 4. State of pressures and stresses in 60%
autofrettage barrel for cross-section I-I

Simulation results for these inputs are shown in graphical

and tabular form.
In Table 2 are shown results of solving function
p1 = f ( a 21 ) for selected sections of barrel.
Table 2. Solutions of function p1 = f ( a 21 )

Crosssection
I-I
II-II
III-III

value

ar1

autofrettage degree
0.3
0.6
1
1.29
1.581
1.968

p1

0.2695

0.4998

0.7517

ar1

1.2315

1.463

1.7716

p1

0.2180

0.4106

0.6308

ar1

1.1330

1.2661

1.4435

p1

0.1285

0.2486

0.3955

Picture 5. State of pressures and stresses in 60%

autofrettage barrel for cross-section II-II

Pictures 4, 5 and 6 present the results of calculations for

these sections of barrel for 60% autofrettage.

308

pm
- internal ballistic pressure in normal
environmental conditions at +15C,

- calibre,

dk
- outer diameter of the barrel in certain crosssections,

- mass of projectile;

mb

- mass of gunpowder charge.

If the barrel is designed for autofrettage in semi elastic

mode, then the final curve of pressure increased by an
additional 5%, and in case of total autofrettage, the
increase is 10%.
Picture 6. State of pressures and stresses in 60%
autofrettage barrel for cross-section III-III

By substitution all the known values in the equation (11),

the values of constructional pressure obtained for
corresponding cross-sections (Table 3).

The value of the safety factor is obtained by the theory of

greatest relative deformation. The safety factor is:
nsi =

pgri
pki

Table 3. Values of constructional pressure

Constructional
Section
Section
pressure
I-I
II-II
pk N/mm2
358,26
175,53

(10)

where pki - constructional pressure that is determined by

67,6

That the real safety factor for the observed cross-section

of the barrel was determined in all cases of degree
autofrettage, as particular cases are used to limit pressure

the relation of Sluhocki, in the form:

m
pk = pm 1 + b d
2m d k

Section
III-III

0,6

HMH

values p1gr

(11)

, obtained by HMH theory of strength.

From (10), barrel safety factor is obtained, which values

are shown in Table 4

where:
Table 3. Values of real safety factor nsi

Crosssection

I-I

II-II

III-III

Degree of
autofrettage
c
30%
60%
100%
30%
60%
100%
30%
60%
100%

Constructional
pressure pk

Limit pressure
p1HMH
gr

N/mm 2

N/mm 2

188,653
349,839
526,219
152,619
287,436
441,557
89,939
174,02
276,84

358,26

175,53

67,6

Safety factor
pgr
nsi = i
pki
0,53
0,98
1,47
0,87
1,64
2,52
1,33
2,57
4,1

due to the statistical character of the simulation it is

necessary to perform a large number of simulations in
order to obtain the corresponding sample of the
simulation results, and the individually execution of the
simulation may require a lot of time and computer
memory. For correct use of simulation modeling is
necessary to know different methods and tools.
Evaluation of the model is quite complex and requires
additional experiments.

5. CONCLUSION
About the advantages and disadvantages of simulation
and its comparison with experiment cannot talk much, but
it is quite clear that the simulations provide assistance
even if the input data is in some way incomplete. Once
built the simulation model can be reused. It is easier to
apply simulation than analytic methods. The generated
data can be used to estimate any intelligible and
measurable characteristic. Simulation to describe and
solve complex dynamic problems with random variables
that are unavailable to mathematical modeling. However,

In this paper, based on the criteria HMH theory of barrel

strength made software solutions in Matlab. Simulations
309

of autofrettage barrel resistance were performed in three

selected barrel section and autofrettage degree of 30%,
60% and 100%. In the end, barrel safety factors in
selected sections are obtained.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is part of research on the Project III 47029 in
2014, supported by the Ministry of Education, Science
and Technological Development of Serbia.

From the results of the simulation it can be concluded that

by degree of autofrettage 30% do not receive a
satisfactory safety factors in any of the selected section of
barrel. By comparing the simulation results with the
proposed safety factors [2, 3] can be seen that autofrettage
of 60% gives the best results.

REFERENCES
[1] Orlov,B.V.,
Larman,E.K.,
Malikov,V.G.:
Construction and design of artillery weapons barrels
(in Russian), Masinostroenie, Moscow, 1976.
[2] Ristic,Z.: Mechanics of artillery weapons (in
Serbian), (in print), Medija centar Odbrana,
Belgrade, 2014.
[3] Ristic,Z.: A collection of solved problems in
mechanics of weapons (in Serbian), Military
Academy, Belgrade, 2006.
[4] Orlov,B.V.: Designing rocket and barrel systems (in
Russian), Masinostroenie, Moscow, 1974.

The obtained values of safety factor in case of total

autofrettage multiple exceed the recommended values,
which means that the barrel adopted dimensions is
oversized. Thus, the barrel could be much thinner walls in
case of total autofrettage but total autofrettage and has
negative effects on the barrel. Because of the plastic zone
in the wall of autofrettage barrel, impact toughness of the
material and wear resistance are reduced, and autofrettage
barrels have a lower lifetime compared to the use of twolayered strengthened barrels and monoblock barrels the
same dimensions.

310

SIMULATION OF WEAPON SILENCER EXITS USING OF FUNCIONAL

DECOMPOSITION APPROACH
NEBOJA HRISTOV
Military Academy, University of Defence in Belgrade, nebojsa.hristov@va.mod.gov.rs
ALEKSANDAR KARI
Military Academy, University of Defence in Belgrade, karial@ptt.rs
DAMIR JERKOVI
Military Academy, University of Defence in Belgrade, damir.jerkovic@va.mod.gov.rs
SLOBODAN SAVI
Faculty of Engineering, University of Kragujevac, ssavic@kg.ac.rs

Abstract: The basic approach of this paper considers the blast weapon effects by simulations and experimental
research. Silencer of weapon blast is considered as the acoustic dumping transformer and wave conductor. The basic
approach of simulation uses directed acoustic point source model. A convenient method for describing the outputs
creation of wave transformer is decomposition approach. The electrical acoustic analogies are also used in simulation
model. The simulation and experimental results are tested and compared, showing good results agreement and proving
accepted approach.
Keywords: silencer, simulation, decomposition approach, electrical acoustic analogies.
directed and has long-range propagation [3]. Muzzle blast
is strongly directed. The design of muzzle brake that
would decrease the noise involves theoretic studies of
acoustic systems and simulations as well as empirical and
experimental data. [3].

1. INTRODUCTION
Phenomena that occur when a gun is fired are the result of
high powder gas energy that manifests through high
intensity overpressure, high temperatures and high gas
flow velocities. The firing sound is a combination of a
number acoustic waves formed as a result of four main
components: the gunpowder gas flow muzzle wave, the
shock wave generated due to the supersonic projectile
movement, the wave formed by the air column ejected
from the gun barrel in front of the projectile and the
acoustic wave generated by collision of gun parts during
the firing process.

The primary objective of this paper is to create a

simulation model of a blast wave generated by small arms
equipped with a silencer. The simulation model is based
on electroacoustic analogies and application of
decomposition approach. Measuring parameters on the
experimental model yielded correct overpressure values at
chosen characteristic points around the muzzle. The
analysis of the obtained results has justified the use of the
simulation model and its application in designing
silencers for different types of small arms.

The main task of a silencer is to neutralize or reduce the

first component of the firing sound without affecting the
initial projectile velocity. A silencer suppresses the firing
sound in several ways: by reducing the inner energy of the
powder gases coming out of the barrel, by reducing their
output velocity and temperature or by breaking the
powder gas flow and by making it whirl.

2. DESCRIPTION OF SILENCERS AS
ACOUSTIC DEVICES
A silencer can be considered as a gas-dynamic wave
transducer inside which there are some connections and
obstacles [4]. The wave transducer basically consists of
the volume V0 with connected acoustic transmitters
(Fig.1) that border on the volume V0 with their crosssections S ( = 1, 2) . The volume V0 has energy

It is well known that while the projectile accelerates with

high temperature and high pressure, the explosion of
propellant gases generates the muzzle blast wave [1,2]. A
shoot, as an impulse shock wave coming from the
weapon, has a lot of negative effects on people and the
environment. Unlike other sounds, shock wave has high
energy, low frequency, impulsiveness; it is strongly

connection with the environment only through acoustic

transmitters in front of it and behind it. The cross sections
311

S1 and S2 are called input cross-sections.

Figure 2: Basic elements of the wave line (a - silencer,

b - cutout of the cylindrical conductor, c - a membrane
between two cylindrical cutouts)
In order to set a mathematical model of the multi-chamber
silencer, a cutout of the cylindrical wave conductor
(Fig.2.b) and membranes of two cylindrical lines of
different diameters (Fig.2.c) are used as basic elements.

Figure 1: Formalization of an acoustic device

The acoustic field of the wave transducer can be
presented as superposition of translational and whirling
waves [4]:

P (r,, z ) = ck+( ) Pk+( ) (r,, z ) +ck( ) Pk( ) (r,, z )

k =1

G
G+
G
v (r,, z ) = ck+( ) vk ( ) (r,, z ) +ck( ) vk ( ) (r,, z )

(1)

a)

k =1

where
P

b)

- output pressure,

Figure 3: Recomposition of the basic elements:

a a chamber consisting of connectors and a cylindrical line;
b a multi-chamber silencer obtained by joining chambers

r, a, z - cilindrical coordinates,
v

- output vector of wave velocity,

Pk()

- input pressure,

vk()

- input vector of wave velocity,

- the input cross-section index,

+
k ( )

- the amplitude of normal waves (decreasing),

ck( )

- the amplitude of reflected waves.

If two membranes and one cylindrical line cutout are

joined a silencer chamber is obtained (Fig.3.). Joining
three chambers (Fig.3.b) yields a multi-chamber silencer.
In Figs.2 and 3, virtual conductors are presented by
dashed lines. The membrane of the two cylindrical lines
of different diameters has no volume i.e. there is no
impedance matrix. The elements of the scattering
impedance matrices of the cylindrical cutouts and
membranes a method developed in electrical engineering
is used [4,5].

3. DECOMPOSITION APPROACH TO
DESCRIPTION OF WAVE PROCESSES IN
THE SILENCER

4. ELECTROACOUSTIC AND ELECTROMECHANICAL ANALOGIES

The area of the gas transducer between the input crosssections S1 and S2 (Fig.2a) is divided by imaginary crosssections into basic elements. The basic elements are
regarded as acoustic wave transducers for which elements
of the impedance matrix Z and the scattering matrix R are
determined [4]. The elements of the scattering and
impedance matrices of the wave transducer completely
define the final recomposition results. Virtual lines,
connected to the output cross-sections of the basic
elements are considered to have infinitely small lengths
during the recomposition. The recomposition of the basic
elements into virtual conductors is performed in
accordance with the conditions determined by the
continuity of the pressure and the longitudinal component
of the gas particles velocity for two adjacent crosssections connecting the basic elements. A multi-chamber
silencer (Fig.2) is used to demonstrate the decomposition
approach.

All the phenomena occurring during the firing of a

weapon can be described as acoustic processes hence it is
quite simple to register the acoustic pressure (powder gas
overpressure) of the sound wave. The silencer can be
considered as an acoustic system with input values at the
muzzle and output values at the point (Fig.4).

Figure 4: Scheme of overpressure measurement at the

point (S1- muzzle cross-section, S2- output crosssection of the silencer)
312

Applying electroacoustic analogies [5], the acoustic sound

suppressing device can be interpreted using an adequate
oscillating electrical circuit decomposed into its
constituting components.

cross-section, the air column is considered unique and its

whole length is taken (Fig.5e).

The volumes of the chambers (Fig.5b,5c and 5d) represent

the acoustic capacitance, Ca, that is obtained by:
Ca = V 2 .
c

(2)

a)

b)

c)

d)

where: V volume of chamber, - destinity of gass in

chamber and c sound velocity.
The chamber capacitance does not depend on its form but
only on the volume [5].
e)

The lines connecting the chambers (Fig.5a) have their

own inductance, i.e., they represent the mass of the air
column to be suppressed. The acoustic inductance is
obtained using the expression [5]:
ma =

l '
S

Figure 5: Adjustment of the air column length of the

acoustic inductance

5. SIMULATION OF PROCESSES IN
ACOUSTIC DEVICES

(3)

Using the above stated analogies and applying the

decomposition method, the silencer can be interpreted as
an electrical oscillating circuit.

where l ' is the adjusted length of the air column, i.e. the
sum of the length of the line l and the adjusted length l
in accordance with the connection diameter (Fig.5a).

The intensity of the powder gasses pressure in the muzzle

flow is introduced as an input parameter. The values are
obtained by an internal ballistics calculation for a
particular weapon. The input signal is introduced by a
signal-generator, and the output is recorded on a virtual
oscilloscope (Fig. 6).

The length adjustment is performed according to the

position of the connection in the acoustic system (Fig.5b,
5c and 5d).
If the distances between the lines of the same crosssection are smaller compared to the adjustment of the

Figure 6: Simulation model of an electro-acoustic system

It is necessary to step the signal function for a time
interval needed for the gas particles to travel from the
sound way source (muzzle) to the referential point. The
nature of the wave propagation after it has left the silencer
[5] is identical to the wave propagation generated in an
acoustic dotted source of the directed effect (Fig.7).

where: p pressure in the reference point, r reference point

distance of sound source, Pa sound power of sound source,
and applying the propagation direction factor:

The final signal values are obtained applying the function

of the distance from the referential point to the last
opening on the silencer:

where: p0 pressure in zero direction and p pressure in

direction under angle .

p=1
r

Pa c
4

( ) [5], ( ) = p

p0 ,

(5)

Simulations were performed for three cases: overpressure

was simulated around a weapon without a silencer,
around the weapon equipped first with a silencer Type 1
and then with a silencer Type 2 (Fig.8).

(4)

313

Silencer Type 1 (Fig.8a) is with an extended gunpowder

gases flow. It consists of two expansion chambers,
membrane for flow breaking and extended powder gas
flow. The extended flow is formed within the cutout at 36
perforated membranes, which are turned at the angle of
10, so that the whole flow is 2. The silencer Type 2
(Fig.8b) has a simpler design. It consists of five expansion
chambers mutually separated by a membrane for breaking
the flow of gasses and three flat membranes.
Simulation of the overpressure is done at referential
points in given directions and distances (Fig.9).

Figure 7: Propagation of the wave generated in an

acoustic dotted source of directed effect

Figure 9: Distribution of referential points (RP)

Figure 8: Experimental models of silencers a) Type 1,
b) Type 2

In order to simplify the data processing only maximum

simulation values were taken from all the points.

Table 1: Simulation values of the muzzle blast overpressure in bars

RP1
-45
r
0,2 m
0,4 m
0,6 m
1,0 m

0,46276
0,23138
0,15428
0,09255

without a silencer
RP2
RP3
45
- 90
0,46276
0,23138
0,15428
0,09255

0,22831
0,11415
0,07611
0,04566

silencer Type 1
RP2
RP3
45
-90

RP4
135

RP1
-45

0,15214
0,07607
0,05072
0,03043

0,0466
0,0233
0,0154
0,0104

0,0466
0,0233
0,0154
0,0104

0,0172
0,0086
0,0057
0,0038

RP4
135

RP1
-45

0,0138
0,0069
0,0046
0,0031

0,0409
0,0204
0,0136
0,0092

silencer Type 2
RP2
RP3
45
-90
0,0409
0,0204
0,0136
0,0092

0,0151
0,0075
0,005
0,0034

RP4
135
0,0121
0,006
0,004
0,0027

6. MEASUREMENT METHOD DESCRIPTION

measurement system.

Experiments were carried out to determine the dispersion

of the shock wave around the muzzle of weapon, resulting
in the firing process, with and without silencer. In
experiments are performed measurement decreasing of
shock wave around muzzle of weapon in appropriate
directions and at appropriate distance of muzzle (Fig.10).

The muzzle blast overpressure was measured first without

the use of a silencer and then, under the same conditions
(atmospheric pressure 998 mbar, temperature 20C), the
overpressure was measured with the use of two types of
silencers.

Measuring overpressure in the time base provides not only

the peak overpressure values but also some information on
the nature of the blast wave. Measurement systems based on
the principle of piezoelectric effect are most suitable for the
use here. Generated charge (based on the piezo-converter) is
introduced into the intermediate unit - amplifier via coaxial
cable and then into a special registration device. In order to
obtain an entirely physical image of this impulse
phenomenon, several sensors are used.
Piezotronics probes PCB 13723 were used to measure
overpressure, while the charge amplifier 494A21 PCB
piezotronics was used as an amplifying unit in the

Figure 10: Displaying of measurement methods

314

Since the same measurement chain was used, the

measurement error has no effect on the obtained results.
The overpressure was measured at referential points
(Fig.10) in compliance with the scheme identical to the
one used for simulation (Fig.9).
In addition to the overpressure intensity, the projectile
velocity was measured in order to establish the effect of
the silencer on the initial elements of the projectile flight
towards the target (Fig.10) [6, 7]. Since there was no
decrease in the initial velocity, it can be concluded that
the silencers had no effect on the elements of the
projectile flight. LabView software was used to record
measurement results of overpressure for numerical and
graphical processing (Fig.11).

Figure 11: Overpressure measured using the probe

PCB13723 in the time domain

The peak overpressure values at the referential points are

shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Values of the measured muzzle blast overpressures in bars

RP1
-45
R
0,2 m
0,4 m
0,6 m
1,0 m

without a silencer
RP2 RP3 RP4
45
-90 135

0,4513
0,2767
0,1465
0,0774

0,4405
0,2828
0,1573
0,0794

0,2111
0,1284
0,0758
0,0436

0,1232
0,0846
0,0544
0,0306

RP1
-45
0,05388
0,02522
0,01978
0,015502

silencer Type 1
RP2
RP3
45
-90
0,03344
0,02295
0,01506
0,0111

0,01074
0,00756
0,00739
0,00581

RP4
135

RP1
-45

0,009757
0,006801
0,00653
0,005216

0,03657
0,02578
0,0194
0,01393

silencer Type 2
RP2
RP3
45
-90
0,04312
0,02297
0,01601
0,0116

0,01365
0,00834
0,00704
0,00635

RP4
135
0,009236
0,00723
0,00665
0,00607

7. ANALYSIS OF THE OBTAINED RESULTS

The diagrams in Figs.12-15 give both the simulation and
experimental results for the maximum muzzle blast
overpressure values measured first without the use of a
silencer, and then with the use of the two types of
silencers for different angles depending on the distance.
Simulation curves are fitted curves of the data obtained by
simulation and measurements for the chosen points, per a
form function:
y = Ae Bx ,

(6)

Figure 13: Diagrams of measurement and simulation

results for angle 45

where: y overpressure, x distance and A, B constants,

which corresponds to the theoretical function of the
pressure change during the period of the subsequent
powder gases effect. The given coefficients A and B are
calculated for each single experiment using the software.

Figure 14: Diagrams of measurement and simulation

results for angle -90
Figure 12: Diagrams of measurement and simulation
results for angle -45

315

The simulation model is open to further improvement

until it becomes fully automatized by relating
construction data from the 3D silencer model and final
output parameters, by expanding the range of the output
parameters, as well as by taking the parameters from the
environment into account.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is a part of the research on the Project III
47029 in 2014, supported by the Ministry of Education,
Science and Technological Development of the Republic
of Serbia.

Figure 15: Diagrams of measurement and simulation

results for angle 135

Based on the shown diagrams it can be concluded that a

silencer as an acoustic device reduces the peak
overpressure ten times. The simulation results obtained by
application of the decomposition approach are in good
agreement with the experimental results. The simulation
results for the angles of -45 and -90 show the least
error, which is important for the silencer use.

REFERENCES
[1] Rehman,H., Hwang,S.H., Fajar,B. et all: Analysis
and attenuation of impulsive sound pressure in large
caliber weapon during muzzle blast, Journal of
Mechanical Science and Technology, 25 (10) (2011)
2601-2606.
[2] Kang,K.J., Ko,S.H., Lee,D.S.: A study on impulsive
sound attenuation for a high-pressure blast
flowfield, Journal of Mechanical Science and
Technology, 22 (2008) 190-200.
[3] Guo,Z., Pan,Y., Zhang,H. and Guo,B.: Numerical
Simulation of Muzzle Blast Overpressure in
Antiaircraft Gun Muzzle Brake, Journal of
Information & Computational Science, 10:10 (2013)
30133019.
[4] Golovanov,O.A., Smogunov,V.V., Grachev,A.I.:
The mathematical modeling of waves processes in
acoustic equipments based on decomposition
algorithm, Penza University Review, 4(20) (2008)
92-101.
[5] Kurtovi,H.S.: Basis of technical acoustic (in
Serbian), Nauna knjiga, Belgrade, 1982.
[6] Li,H.,
Lei.Z.:
Projectile
Two-dimensional
Coordinate Measurement Method Based on Optical
Fiber Coding Fire and its Coordinate Distribution
Probability, Measurement Science Review, 13(1)
(2013) 34-38.
[7] Zhao.Z., Wen.G., Zhang.Y., Li.D.: Model-based
Estimation for Pose, Velocity of Projectile from
Stereo Linear Array Image, Measurement Science
Review, 12(3) (2012) 104-110.

The noticed error for the angles of 45 and 135 is the

result of not taking into account, in simulations, the
projectile rotation and air whirling, which are negligible.

8. CONCLUSION
This paper gives a comparative analysis of the obtained
results for the muzzle blast overpressure peak under given
conditions and at given distances without the use of a
silencer and with the use of two types of silencers.
The silencer with an extended (spiral) powder gas flow
has been noticed to exhibit better performance in reducing
the muzzle blast overpressure at longer distances.
Decomposition approach and electroacoustic analogies
were used to simulate the silencer performance.
The simulation results are in a good agreement with the
experimental results, which together with other
advantages of simulation (cheap, fast, no need for
experiments) justify its use.
The simulation method offers many possibilities like a
simple way to change distances and referential point
angles, which practically means that the whole area
around the silencer can be simulated. It is also very easy
to generate the input signal for any kind of weapon, while
the desired type of a silencer can be modeled using the
right combination of its constituent elements. Time
needed for preparation of a new simulation model is very
short, and the simulation results are obtained quickly.

316

AN APPROACH TO DESIGN OF BATTLEFIELD SIMULATOR FOR

DECENTRALIZED DATA FUSION SIMULATOR
NADICA KOZI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, SERBIA, nadica.kozic@gmail.com
PREDRAG OKILJEVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, SERBIA, predrag.okiljevic@mod.gov.rs
IVAN POKRAJAC
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, SERBIA, ivan.pokrajac@vs.rs
DANILO OBRADOVI
Department J-2 General-Staff of Serbian Armed Forces, Belgrade, obradovicdanilo@gmail.com

Abstract: Multisensor data fusion is very important in the defence-oriented field. Data fusion can be used to integrate
the individual sensor data into common operational picture of the battlefield in real-time in the area of interest (AOI).
Reliable forming common operational picture of battlefield requires detecting, locating, identifying, classifying and
monitoring of dynamic entities such as radio-emitters, different platforms, weapons, and military units. In this paper we
discuss the ongoing efforts on development of a simulator for analysis and design of a distributed fusion-based tracking
system. We have developed a fully interactive, graphical user interface based scenario generation tool for creating
battlefield scenarios, and a simulation tool for running algorithm on scenarios and displaying the simulation results in
an easy to understand fashion. Primarily, the battlefield simulator is described, as a basic part for data fusion. Using
this battlefield simulator it is possible to test different techniques and methods for decision-level fusion approach.
Decision-level fusion assumes that the results of the initial object detection and classification by the individual sensors
are inputs to a fusion algorithm. Final classification occurs in the fusion processor using an algorithm that combines
the detection, classification, and position attributes of the objects located by each sensor.
Key words: battlefield simulator, data fusion, decision level, sensor.
each sensor detects, classifies, identifies, and estimates
the tracks of potential targets before data entry into the
data fusion processor. The data fusion processor combines
the information from the sensors to improve the
classification, identification, or state estimate of the target
or object of interest. In the feature-level fusion, some
target features are extracted from each sensor or sensor
channel and combined into a composite feature,
representative of the object in the field of view of the
sensors. Decision-level fusion assumes that the results of
the initial object detection and classification by the
individual sensors are inputs to a fusion algorithm. Final
classification occurs in the data fusion processor using an
algorithm that combines the detection, classification, and
position attributes of the objects located by each sensor.

1. INTRODUCTION
In the defense community decentralized data fusion is
used to integrate the individual sensor data into common
operational picture of the battlefield in real-time in the
area of interest (AOI). Reliable forming common
operational picture of battlefield requires detecting,
locating, identifying, classifying and monitoring of
dynamic entities such as radio-emitters, different
platforms, weapons, and military units. These dynamic
data is used in order to form common operational picture,
but not only to display data on a map. Users usually seek
to determine the relationships among entities and their
relationships with environment and higher-level enemy
organizations [1]. Some of the defence applications are
battlefield intelligence, surveillance and target
acquisition, and strategic warning and defense.

Reliable data are essential to be able to fuse sensor data in

sensor fusion system. Nevertheless, in some cases it is
difficult or even impossible to build a real environment
complete with deployed sensors in order to ensure reliable
data for the research, development and testing of sensor
data fusion systems.

In order to perform data fusion in multisensor system it is

necessary to apply one of the data fusion architectures. In
the literature, there are three basic data fusion
architectures, sensor level fusion, feature-level fusion and
decision-level fusion [2]. Sensor-level fusion assumes that
317

In this paper, we consider possibility to simulate data

extracted from each sensor, for simulated battlefield
scenario, which represents the input to a data fusion
processor algorithm in the case of decision-level fusion.
The ongoing efforts on development of a simulator for
analysis and design of a distributed fusion-based tracking
system have been presented in this work. Generally, this
simulator consists of three main elements, such as
battlefield simulator, sensor simulator and simulator of
data fusion processor. To perform data fusion input data
consist of information from each sensor simulator such as
simulator of electronic support (ES) system, simulator of
optoelectronics system for surveillance, simulator of
ground radar, simulator of acoustic sensor. These
simulators generate data such as positional measurement
and identity information based on simulated battlefield
scenario, and these data are inputs for data fusion
processor simulator. In this paper the battlefield simulator
is primarily described, as a basic part for data fusion.

roads, vegetation etc. influence the behavior of ground

targets. Hence it becomes imperative that a database
which includes this information be integrated into the
testbed to permit realistic simulation. There should be
provision for importing realistic Geographical
Information System (GIS) and terrain data in testbed. The
targets are ground based such as tanks, radar guns and
human. The testbed should allow selection of these target
models for scenario creation and simulation.

Battlefield
simulator

Surveliance
radar

Typical battlefield scenario consists of ground or air

targets that are observed by sensors on air platforms and
ground platforms. Sensors are partitioned into groups
called sensor networks and within each sensor network, a
master sensor is chosen, using a network topology
algorithm, to receive information from other sensors in
the sensor network. Optionally, sensor can run a tracking
algorithm to generate tracks for the observed targets. The
master sensor provides information about the positional
mesurment and some identity information. This work
consists of five parts. Introduction is given in Section 1.
Concept of data fusion simulator is presented in Section 2.
Section 3 describes battlefield simulator. Section 4
presents visualization of simulation results. Conclusion is
given in Section 5.

SensorsforEP
ofradarsystems

Acousticsensor

OEsensors
Decision

SensorsforEP
ofcom.systems

Decision

Decision

Decision

Decision

Radars
Decision

Integratingofthedata

Picture 1: Basic hardware configuration of decentralized

data fusion simulator

2. CONCEPT OF DECENTRALIZED DATA

FUSION SIMULATOR
Decentralized data fusion simulator aimed to examine
different data fusion methods and techniques for some
simulated scenario that incudes selected targets in the
AOI and the selected sensors or sensors networks that
observe AOI. Usually this kind of simulator consists of
three components: battlefield simulator, sensor simulator
and simulator of data fusion processor. In the Picture 1 a
basic hardware configuration of decentralized data fusion
simulator is shown. In the Picture 2 the data flow among
different software components is shown.
Utilizing real life battle scenarios as data sources for
simulation is unsuitable, as data acquired is not ideal and
would require refinement to suit development and testing
of decentralized fusion concepts [3]. At the design and
development stage there is a need for a scenario
generation system that facilitates generation of test
scenarios, for the use in the simulation testbed. The
creation of scenario should be easy, interactive and
intuitive. The user would create the scenario through the
user interface. The scenario generated should be saved
and made available for later reuse and edits. In addition to
this, simulation results should be saved for performance
evaluation. Simulation is closely tied with geospatial
information. Terrain features and cultural artifacts such as

Picture 2: Data flow among different software

components of decentralized data fusion simulator
In the battlefield simulator, there is a special graphical
user interface (GUI) for simulation of the insertion and
placement of units of different levels on the map. When
the unit is completely defined by the specified criteria,
user can input its location to the previously selected map.
This is done in a way that user enters top left boundary of
FLOT (Forward Line of Own Troops). At this point,
general boundaries of the unit are shown on the map
318

depending on the chosen unit type and size, type of

deployment and form of combat operations.

subordinate units are arranged in two rows,

selection of type of the unit (infantry, tank, artillery or
mechanized).

In addition to this there should be means for defining a

complex motion behavior for a target as well as
specifying its attributes. An Extended Kalman filter
tracking algorithm was selected for all targets in the
scenario. Kalman filter is a method of recursively
updating an estimate of the state of a system by
processing successive measurements. It takes account of
target motion uncertainties. It uses state vectors, and
covariance matrices to maintain bookkeeping [4].

User also can choose between platforms which carry the

radars and platforms which carry artillery. Platforms
which carry the radar can move trought the terrain and
stand at one place and platforms which carry artillery can
also move trought the terrain and stand at one spot but
they can shoot while standing.
Targets in the begining have their positions which are
expressed in x and y coordinates, they have their
velocities and accelerations. In every scan simulator
calculates next position of every target, based on the
current positions and current velocities and accelerations
of targets with an Extended Kalman filter tracking
algorithm.

Sensors contribute to the battlespace awareness and can

be a human or a device deployed on ground or on air
based platforms. In data fusion simulator there are various
fixed sensors as well as moving sensors.

3. BATTLEFIELD SIMULATOR

The Kalman filter maintains information about the target.

An example could be determination of the next position,
using current position and rates of change (velocity,
acceleration, ...). This target data is stored in a state
vector. In addition, Kalman filters remember how good
these determinations were. These uncertainties are stored
in a covariance matrix.

Battlefield simulator defines the activities and positions of

the ground targets, meteorological conditions and saves
these activities to the scenario file.
In order to develop a battlefield simulator it is necessary
to known its function. Our intention was to develop the
battlefield simulator that has to provide data for
multisensor data fusion. Before we start to develop
battlefield simulator it is necessary to specify the possible
sensors: ES (Electronic Support) systems, Optoelectronic
sensors, ground radar, acoustic based sensors. Each off
these sensors detects targets in a different way. Using ES
system it is possible to detect and to estimate position
based on emitters installed on the targets. Optoelectronic
sensors detect targets based on visual representation of
targets and differences with background. Ground radars
detect targets based on moving targets. Acoustic sensors
are based on acoustic signals generated by targets.

As time progresses a target moves, and its rates can also

change. These changes in a targets state over time have
influences on next position of target. The covariance
matrix is extrapolated and a propagation matrix is used to
extrapolate the estimate and covariance matrix.
The determinations of target position and rates are kept in
state vectors. The state vector usually contains the first
derivative of all the components from the measurement
vector. This is usually one more component that the
sensor can measure. For example, if the sensor calculates
only x then the state vector should contain both x and
v (the velocity, or rate of x s change). The standard
notation for the state vector is X .

Our application has been developed using Matlab Grafical

User Interface (GUI). Using Graphical User Interface
allows interactive creation of a scenario and generation of
ground truth. The user has the capability to edit scenario
entities while creating a scenario; this adds additional
flexibility to the scenario creation process.

To calculate the state of a target the state vector is used.

x x + v * t
v
v

In Matlab GUI, the user has the option to import realistic

GIS map with all terrain features and cultural artifacts.
User can chose just one region which he wants to observe.
That region is then graphically displayed in one part of
GUI with 2D axes. On map, there are also shown terrain
heights which can be read from the map. This map is used
further in the simulation.

(1)

This can be treated as a matrix multiplication:

1 t x = x + v * t
0 1 v

(2)

The time propagator will need to be tailored to the

specific state vector. For our example here is:

After loading map in GUI, user must enter data about the
units. In that purpose there is another GUI for input of
units. The following functions have been implemented in
that GUI:

1 t
( t ) =
0 1

(3)

Giving the extrapolated state vector:

loading map from selected folder,

selection of unit size (section, platoon or company),
selection of form of combat operations (offensive or
defensive),
selection of types of unit deployment (formation)
between single line where the subordinate units are
arranged in one row or multiple lines where the

X = ( t ) X ( t )

(4)

The propagation operation must be linear in state

components! The components of the state vector
appearing within the time propagation matrix must be
only a simple multiplier, no trig functions, or even powers
319

of the components. There will be present some examples

of propagation matrices for some of the more complex
state vectors.

4. VISUALIZATION
Positions of the targets are shown in the map which is
import to GUI. User is able to see how targets are moving
through the map. Every target is presented with another
colour so it is easy to separate targets on map.

Here is a state vector with a measurement x , its velocity

v , and acceleration a :
x + v * t + 1 a * t 2
x

2
v

v + a * t
a

In the GUI there are also presented actions of platforms

which carry the radars and platforms which carry the
artillery. These actions are shown in two graphics, one
graphic is showing platforms which carry the radars and
another graphic is showing platforms which carry the
artillery. User is able to see in every scan if platforms are
moving or standing. Also, if the platform carries artillery
it is shown if there was a shooting.

(5)

gives a propagation matrix:

1

( t ) 0
0

t
1
0

1 t 2

2
t
1

This is all shown in the following Pictures.

(6)

Picture 3: Battlefield simulator

Picture 4: GUI representation of input of units

320

Picture 5: Targets moving through the map

In Picture 3 a representation of GUI in Matlab after
Picture 7: Activities of platforms which carry artillery
completed simulation is shown. It could be concluded that
there are four targets, ground based. Their trajectories, In Picture 7 it is shown if the platforms which carry
which show how targets are moving through the map, are artillery are moving or standing at one spot. This is shown
represented with different colours, Picture 5.
with stars where less value means that target is moving
Special GUI for input of units is run from GUI for and the greater value means that the platform is standing
at one place. Also, in this figure it is shown if platforms
battlefield simulator and is shown in Picture 4.
which carry artillery are shooting while in position of
standing at one place. That is shown with violet stars.
Like in platforms which carry radar we limit the time
during which the platform can move and also we limit the
time during which platform can stay at one place.

5. CONCLUSION
In the defense community it is very important to form a
reliable common operational picture of the battlefield. In
this paper we presented the establishment of fully
interactive, graphical user interface of battlefield
simulator, as a basic part for decentralized data fusion.
Using this battlefield simulator it is possible to test
different techniques and methods for decision-level fusion
approach.

Picture 6: Activities of platforms which carry radars

In Picture 6 the activities of platforms which carry radars
during the observed time interval is shown. This is shown
with stars where less value means that platform is moving
and the greater value means that the platform is standing
at one place. We limit the time during which the platform
can move and also we limit the time during which
platform can stay at one place.

REFERENCES
[1] Hall, David L. (David Lee), 1946-, Liggins, Martin E
and Llinas, James Handbook of multisensor data
fusion : theory and practice (2nd ed). CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL, 2009.
[2] Klein, Lawrence A. Sensor and data fusion: a tool
for information assessment and decision making.
Vol. 324. Bellingham^ eWA WA: SPIE press, 2004.
[3] Chandresh Mehta, Govindarajan Srimathveeravalli,
Thenkurussi Kesavadas An approach to design and
development of decentralized data fusion simulator,
Virtual Reality Lab 809 Furnas Hall SUNY at
Buffalo Buffalo, NY 14260, U.S.A.
[4] Peter P. Eiserloh An Introduction to Kalman Filters
and Aplications, Data Systems Branch, Code
525300D Electronic Combat Range Naval Air
Warfare Center China Lake, CA 93555

321

AN ANALYSIS OF THE EFFICIENCY OF UTILIZATION OF INVOLUTE

CYLINDRICAL GEAR PAIRS
PREDRAG DOBRATI
University of Defence in Belgrade, Military Academy, dobraticp@yahoo.com
MILETA RISTIVOJEVI
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, mristivojevic@mas.bg.ac.rs
BOIDAR ROSI
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, brosic@mas.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: The impact of geometric and kinematic parameters of a teeth to the efficiency of utilization of involute spur
gears, when the total contact ratio is 1 < < 2 , i.e. transverse contact ratio is 1 < < 2 , has been analyzed in this
paper. The mathematical model and computer program for determining the current and the effective value of the
efficiency of utilization has been developed. The influence of the character of load distribution during the meshing
period is included in the factor of load distribution. The results of computer program are given in the form of a diagram
of the current values of the efficiency of utilization during the meshing period and the values of effective efficiency of
utilization for the considered cylindrical gear pair have been calculated.
Keywords: cylindrical gears, efficiency of utilization, double mesh of teeth.

1. INTRODUCTION

wherein:

Meshing profile of the gear teeth of the contact period is

characterized by rolling and sliding, i.e. friction that
occurs between flank of teeth. Friction, as a negative
occurrence, can not be completely eliminated, which
results in spending a part of force transmitted from the
pinion to the gear on overcoming it. The power loss that
occurs during the meshing teeth is shown through
efficiency of utilization. Given the increasingly stringent
requirements in terms of energy conservation, the
efficiency of utilization is a very important qualitative and
quantitative characteristic in the selection of geometric
parameters of gear pair. Based on the model for
determining efficiency of utilization all relevant
parameters that have a distinct influence on the efficiency
of utilization can be identified.

Fni force transmitted by the considered pair of teeth,

Fn total force of teeth pair,

i = 1, ..., n number of meshed pair of teeth.

From the aspect of load distribution, two characteristic
extreme cases may appear with the simultaneously
meshed pair of teeth. The first corresponds to the ideal
even distribution of the load and the other a highly uneven
distribution of the load, so that the actual distribution of
the load is situated between these extreme cases. The
actual load distribution is based on the elastic deformation
of the simultaneously meshed pair of teeth, shafts and
supports. A set of simultaneously meshed teeth is
considered as a statically indeterminate system. From the
condition of elastic deformation and variations of the base
pitch and the profile shape of teeth one comes to an
analytical expression for the load distribution factor.

2. LOAD DISTRIBUTION IN THE SIMULTANEOUSLY MESHED PAIR OF TEETH

At highly uneven distribution of the load it is

characteristic that even when higher number of
simultaneously meshed pairs of teeth is present, total load
is transmitted over a single pair of teeth. Load distribution
factor then reaches an upper extreme value ( Ki = 1 ). In
the ideal even load distribution, all simultaneously
meshed pairs of teeth are equally involved in the transfer
of the total load of the gear pair ( Ki = 1 2 with a double
mesh, Ki = 1 3 with a triple mesh, and so on).

For consideration of the load distribution in the

simultaneously meshed pair of teeth, load distribution
factor is defined, which shows the level of engagement of
certain simultaneously meshed pair of teeth in the
transmission of the total load of teeth pair:
K i =

Fni
,
Fn

(1)

322

In determining the efficiency of utilization of gear pairs,

the following assumptions have been made:

3. MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR

DETERMINATION OF THE EFFICIENCY
OF UTILIZATION

friction losses in the bearings are small in comparison

to the losses due to sliding and rolling friction, which is,
given the exclusive application of the rolling bearings
with these transmitters, very close to reality,

Torque transferring T1 , from pinion to the gear is

achieved with the power with whom the flank of the first
gear affects the flank of the second gear. Wherein beside
the normal force at the point of contact meshed flanks of
teeth, forces of friction sliding and rolling occur. Prefer
attacking lines of friction force lie in a common plane of
meshed flanks and their directions change when the
contact point is passed through pitch point.
At the moment of contact of one pair of teeth profile at
point A2, at a distance pb from this point along of line of
action, i.e. at point D2, a second pair of teeth will be in
meshed. In the mesh area between points A2 and B2, and
D2 and E2 two pairs of teeth will be in meshed, and that is
a period of double mesh. Point B2 is the start of a single
mesh, as the previous pair went out of the mesh at the
given moment and the next pair has not yet entered the
mesh. Thus, along the line of action between the points B2
and D2 only one pair of teeth is meshed. Depending on the
geometric parameters of gear pair, the pitch point may be
in the domain of single or double mesh of the considered
gear pair. It is therefore necessary to incorporate the size
IND in the model which defines characteristic points in
which the load hadover is performed, compared to the
pitch point. Related to that, Figure 1 shows the algorithm
for determining the position of the characteristic points of
contact in which the load handover is performed,
compared to the pitch point. In the presented algorithm,
the size of IND defines appropriate intervals of the load in
comparison to the current pitch point (C), so:
IND=1 the pitch point is located in the area of single
mesh,
IND=2 the pitch point is located in the double mesh
area, where the angle in the inner point of single mesh is
lower than the working pressure angle, i.e. D1 < w ,

rotational speed, i.e. angular frequency is constant,

the coefficient of friction is determined by Benedict and
Kelly [6],
torque acting on the working machine during operation
of the gear unit power is constant.

The intensity of the sliding friction force, acting on the

flanks of teeth meshed during contact period depends on
the normal force and the friction coefficient at the
considered point of contact, i.e.:
F ( ) = ( ) Fn ,

wherein:
29,66
Fn

( ) = 0,0127 log b
2
vkl vko

by Benedict and Kelly [6],

dynamic viscosity of lubricating oil,

vkl sliding velocity of teeth profile of the pinion
compared to the gear,
vko rolling velocity of teeth profile of the pinion
compared to the gear.

The intensity of the rolling friction force, acting on the

teeth flanks of meshed gears during the contact period, at
a current point of contact can be displayed depending on
the thickness of the oil film [7], i.e.:
Fk ( ) = C h( ) b ,

C = 9 10 7 N m 2 constant of proportionality,

SUBROUTINE (IND)

h( ) thickness of the oil film.

CALL GEOMETRY

According to Dowson and Higginson [7], the thickness of

the oil film separating the flanks of the meshed teeth of
the gear pair is determined by the following expression:

D1 C1
yes

IND = 3
D1 > C1

yes
IND = 2
D1 < C1

(3)

wherein:

START

B1 C1

coefficient of friction

b face width of teeth pair,

IND=3 the pitch point is located in the double mesh

area, where the angle in the inner point of single mesh is
higher than the working pressure angle, i.e. D1 > w .

no

(2)

h( ) = 1,6 0,6 ( vko )0,7 E 0,003

no

R 0, 43
Fn0,13

(4)

wherein:
pressure viscosity coefficient,

IND = 1

R equivalent radius of curvature of meshed teeth

profiles,

STOP

E equivalent modulus of elasticity.

Figure 1: The algorithm for determining the appropriate

domain of mesh
323

Ft2 = 2 Fn 2 Fk 2 = 2 K 2 Fn Fk 2 .

Lets presume that parameters of the gear pair are selected

so that the pitch point is in the domain of a single mesh,
i.e. in the case when IND=1. With that in mind, Figure 2
shows the forces acting on simultaneously meshed profile
of teeth in comparison to a fixed coordinate system
attached to the axis of rotation of gear pair.
1

'

w
sin

F t2
F

A1
K2 E2

D1
"
B 2 F n1

"

F t1

"
n2

rb

T1

forces acting
on the gear

O1

B1
2
' D

F n2

'
n1

Fnp1 =

1
E1 K
2
A

pb

'

Fn (i +1) Fn (i )

F t2
rb

Fn (i )

(7)

(8)

T2

wherein:

2
A2E1, B2D1, D2B1, E2A1

= 0,01 preset accuracy,

O2

i number of iterations.

Figure 2: The load acting on the gear pair in case of

IND=1

In determining the efficiency of utilization for a given

gear pair, it is necessary to know the torque T2 which acts
on the gear. Starting from the condition that the sum of
torque to the axis O2 of the gear is zero, the torque is
determined T2 , i.e.:

At the point of contact the normal force has a constant

direction in comparison to the coordinate system attached
to the axis of rotation of meshed gears, and friction forces
are in the tangent plane of meshed flanks of teeth.

T2 = K 2 Fn d b 2 Ft1 p3 + Ft2 p2 ,

The intensity of the normal force, which acts on

simultaneously meshed profiles of teeth is determined
from the condition that the sum of torque to the pinion
axis O1 is equal to zero, i.e.:
T1 K 1 Fn d b1 + Ft1 Ft2 p1 = 0 ,

(9)

wherein:
d b 2 the base circle diameter of the gear,

(5)

a center distance of the gear pair,

w working pressure angle,

and it follows:
Fn =

T1
.
d b1

Interactive method for determining the intensity of the

normal force acting on the flanks of teeth of meshed
gears, lasts until you meet the requirement in terms of
desired accuracy, which can be written in the following
form:

"
F t1

forces acting
on the pinion

However, the intensity of the normal force can not be

explicitly determined based on the expression (6) since
the coefficient of friction and rolling friction force the
function of the normal force. Therefore, it is necessary to
assume an initial value for the intensity of the normal
force. It is assumed that the intensity of the normal force
in the first iteration amounts to:

T1 Fk1 Fk 2 p1
,
K 1 d b1 1 K 1 + 2 K 2 p1

p 3 = a sin w ,

(6)

p 2 = a sin w ( + p b ) = a sin w p1 .

wherein:

What are the given point of contact has determined

torques acting on the considered gear pair, one can
determine the current value of the efficiency of utilization
for a given gear pair in the considered current point of
contact, i.e.:

E1 < D1 area of the double mesh,

pb the base pitch,
d b1 the base circle diameter of the pinion,
p1 = + pb ,

Ft1 = 1 Fn1 Fk1 = 1 K 1 Fn Fk1 ,

T2 1

,
T1 u1 2

wherein:

Ft1 = 1 Fn1 + Fk1 = 1 K 1 Fn + Fk1 ,

T1 torque acting on the pinion,

T2 torque acting on the gear,

Ft2 = 2 Fn 2 + Fk 2 = 2 K 2 Fn + Fk 2 ,

324

(10)

wherein:

z2
gear ratio,
z1

p 4 = pb

z1 number of teeth of the pinion,

p 5 = a sin w ( p b ) = a sin w p 4 ,

z 2 number of teeth of the gear.

p 6 = a sin w .

In a completely analogous way one determines the normal

force and torque acting on the gear in the domain of a
single mesh. It should be noted here that the points of
contact going through pitch point change direction of
sliding speed, and sliding friction force. Therefore, the
meshing of profiles is first considered through the field
before passing the point of contact through the pitch
point, i.e. in the area of line of action of the teeth:

1
l

(11)

(12)

(13)

wherein:
rb1 the base circle radius of the pinion,
rb 2 the base circle radius of the gear.

If the meshing teeth profiles are examined in the field

after passing the point of contact through the pitch point,
i.e.:

Domain mesh

(16)

double

If meshing of the teeth profiles is considered after the

point of contact of meshed teeth profiles is out of the field
of single mesh and re-entring into the domain of the
double mesh, i.e.:

B1 < A1 ,

(17)

the intensity of the normal force is:

Fn =

T1 Fk1 p 4 Fk 2
,
K 1 d b1 1 K 1 p 4 + 2 K 2

T1 Fk1 Fk 2 p1
K 1 d b1 1 K 1 + 2 K 2 p1
K 2 Fn d b 2 Ft1 p 3 + Ft2 p 2
T1 Fk
rb1
Fn rb 2 ( Fn + Fk ) p3
T1 Fk1 p 4 + Fk 2
K 1 d b1 1 K 1 p 4 2 K 2
K 2 Fn d b 2 Ft1 p 5 Ft2 p 6
T1 Fk1 p 4 Fk 2
K 1 d b1 1 K 1 p 4 + 2 K 2
K 2 Fn d b 2 Ft1 p 5 + Ft2 p 6

Consider the following scenario of meshing (IND=3)

when the gear pair parameters are chosen so that the pitch
point is in the area of double mesh, that is between points
A2 and B2 (Fig. 2). In a completely analogous manner, as
for the two previous cases, one can determine the normal
force Fn and torque T2 in the case where the IND=3. In

(18)

i.e., the torque acting on the gear:

T2 = K 2 Fn d b 2 Ft1 p 5 + Ft2 p 6 ,

E1
<D1

(15)

i.e., the torque acting on the gear:

T2 = Fn rb 2 + ( Fn Fk ) p3 .

T2

(14)

D1
<B1

T1 Fk
,
rb1 +

(20)

Fn

IND=2

the intensity of the normal force is:

Fn =

E1 A 2

T2 1

d ,
T1 u1 2

Table 1: Normal force Fn and torque T2 for IND=2

double

C1 < B1 ,

Consider the following scenario of meshing (IND=2)

when the gear pair parameters are chosen so that the pitch
point is in the area of double mesh, that is between points
D2 and E2 (Fig. 2). When the point of contact is passing
through the pitch point there is a change of direction of
sliding velocity, which results in changing the direction of
sliding friction force. In a completely analogous manner,
as in the previous case, one can determine the normal
force Fn and torque T2 in the case where the IND=2. In
Table 1 we give the final expressions for the normal force
Fn and torque T2 , to determine the efficiency of
utilization of a gear pair considered, for the case where
the IND=2.

i.e., the torque acting on the gear:

T2 = Fn rb 2 ( Fn + Fk ) p3 ,

E1 A 2

A1 E 2

l length of line of action.

B1 <C1

T1 Fk
,
rb1

1
l

d =

wherein:

In doing so, the intensities of the normal force and torque

acting on the gear are given the following expression:
Fn =

A1 E 2

ef =

C1 <A1

D1 < C1 .

Therefore, an effective efficiency of utilization for a given

pair may be determined based on the following relation:

single

u1 2 =

(19)
325

Table 2 shows the final expressions for the normal force

Fn and torque T2 , to determine the efficiency of
utilization of a gear pair considered, for the case where
the IND=3.
Table 2: Normal force Fn and torque T2 for IND=3
Fn

D1 <B1

C1 <D1

E1 <C1

T2

B1 <A1

single
double

Domain mesh

double

IND=3

T1 Fk1 Fk 2 p1
K 1 d b1 1 K 1 + 2 K 2 p1
K 2 Fn d b 2 Ft1 p 3 + Ft2 p 2
T1 + Fk1 Fk 2 p1
K 1 d b1 + 1 K 1 + 2 K 2 p1

Figure 4: Flow changes in the current value of the

efficiency of utilization in the contact period for IND=1

K 2 Fn d b 2 + Ft1 p 3 + Ft2 p 2

( mn = 4 mm , z1 = 50 , z 2 = 200 , x1 = 0,3 , x 2 = 0 ,

= 1,44 , = 0,036 Pa s , = 1,344 10 8 Pa -1 )

T1 Fk
rb1 +
Fn rb 2 + ( Fn Fk ) p3
T1 Fk1 p 4 Fk 2
K 1 d b1 1 K 1 p 4 + 2 K 2
K 2 Fn d b 2 Ft1 p 5 + Ft2 p 6

4. RESULTS OF THE PROGRAM

Results of a computer program, for determining the
efficiency of utilization, are shown in diagrammatic form
in Figures from 3 to 10. For the given diagrams shows the
flow changes the current value of the efficiency of
utilization in the contact period. The diagrams were
produced for internal gear pairs, which are in an
analogous way of determining the normal force Fn and
torque T2 , as well as for external gear pairs.

Figure 5: Flow changes in the current value of the

efficiency of utilization in the contact period for IND=1

( mn = 4 mm , z1 = 50 , z 2 = 200 , x1 = 0,3 , x 2 = 0 ,

= 1,44 , = 0,075 Pa s , = 2,19 10 8 Pa -1 )

Figure 3: Flow changes in the current value of the

efficiency of utilization in the contact period for IND=1

( mn = 4 mm , z1 = 50 , z 2 = 200 , x1 = 0,3 , x 2 = 0 ,

Figure 6: Flow changes in the current value of the

efficiency of utilization in the contact period for IND=1

= 1,44 , = 0,0065 Pa s , = 1,2773 10 8 Pa -1 )

( mn = 4 mm , z1 = 50 , z 2 = 200 , x1 = 0,3 , x 2 = 0,3 ,

= 1,02 , = 0,075 Pa s , = 2,19 10 8 Pa -1 )

326

Figure 7: Flow changes in the current value of the

efficiency of utilization in the contact period for IND=2

Figure 10: Flow changes in the current value of the

efficiency of utilization in the contact period for IND=3

( mn = 4 mm , z1 = 50 , z 2 = 200 , x1 = 0 , x 2 = 0 ,

( mn = 4 mm , z1 = 50 , z 2 = 200 , x1 = 0,3 , x 2 = 0,3 ,

= 1,91 , = 0,075 Pa s , = 2,19 10

= 1,82 , = 0,075 Pa s , = 2,19 10 8 Pa -1 )

-1

Pa )

Based on received results indicate that changes the

efficiency of utilization follows the character of the
change of the load distribution in the simultaneously
meshed pair of teeth.

5. CONCLUSION
Based on the graphical interpretation of the results shows
that the present current value of the maximum efficiency
of utilization in the pitch point, where the sliding velocity
is zero. Higher values of the efficiency of utilization can
be found in the area of a single mesh, a lower values in
the area of the double mesh, i.e. in points that are most
distant from the pitch point. Power losses caused by the
rolling friction are much lower than the power loss caused
by sliding friction, i.e. energy losses due to rolling friction
are very small. Should be pointed out a significant impact
on efficiency of utilization have the geometrical sizes of
the considered gear pair (Figs. from 5 to 10), as well as
the characteristics of lubricating oils meshed pair of teeth
(Figs. from 3 to 5).

Figure 8: Flow changes in the current value of the

efficiency of utilization in the contact period for IND=2

( mn = 4 mm , z1 = 50 , z 2 = 200 , x1 = 0 , x 2 = 0,3 ,

= 1,50 , = 0,075 Pa s , = 2,19 10 8 Pa -1 )

As in every other use of the power transmissions

(gearboxes), thus and in the military use, it is important to
save energy, and this can be achieved by construction of
the power transmissions (gearboxes) with the gear pairs
corresponding geometry and the use corresponding oils
for their lubricating.

REFERENCES
[1] Ristivojevi, M., Mitrovi, R., Raspodela optereenja
zupasti parovi i kotrljajni leaji, Univerzitet u
Beogradu, Mainski fakultet, Beograd, 2003.
[2] Rosi, B., Planetarni prenosnici unutranji
cilindrini parovi, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski
fakultet, Beograd, 2003.
[3] Anderson, N. E., Loewenthal, S. H., "Efficiency of
Nonstandard and High Contact Ratio Involute Spur
Gears", Journal of Mechanisme, Transmissions and
Automation in Design, 108 (1986) 119-126.

Figure 9: Flow changes in the current value of the

efficiency of utilization in the contact period for IND=2

( mn = 4 mm , z1 = 50 , z 2 = 200 , x1 = 0,3 , x 2 = 0,3 ,

= 1,99 , = 0,075 Pa s , = 2,19 10 8 Pa -1 )

327

[4] Anderson, N. E., Loewenthal, S. H., "Design of Spur

Gears for Improved Efficiency", ASME Journal of
Mechanical Design, 104(4) (1982) 767-774.
[5] Martin, K. F., "The Efficiency of Involute Spur
Gears", ASME Journal of Mechanical Design, 103(1)
(1981) 160-169.

[6] Benedict, G. H., Kelly, B. W., "Instantaneous

Coefficients of Gear Tooth Friction", ASLE
Transactions, 4(1) (1961) 59-70.
[7] Dowson, D., Higginson, G. R., Elastohidrodynamic
Lubrication, SI Edition, Pergamon Press, Oxford,
1977.

328

MODEL OF INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR

SMART TARGET SHOOTING
MIHAJLO TOSHEVSKI
Military Academy General Mihailo Apostolski, Skopje, mihajlo.tosevski@gmail.com
BOBAN TEMELKOVSKI
Military Academy General Mihailo Apostolski, Skopje, temelkovskiboban@yahoo.com
JUGOSLAV ACHKOSKI
Military Academy General Mihailo Apostolski, Skopje, jugoslav.ackoski@ugd.edu.mk

Abstract: Processing shooting results is difficult activity, which takes very long time to collect and analyze the results
from the shooting. In the interest of all is to collect the results as soon as possible, and then to transfer them to the
higher commanding levels. Reducing the time for collecting and analyzing the results from the shootings in one main
server is the main objective of this paper. Obtained data from the smart target is processed to the control unit of the
smart target, which is connected to the wireless device. The Wi-Fi device transfer data to the main server of the
shooting range, where the final results are made (processing shooting results, analyses, plans, improving methods etc.).
From the main server shooting results are transferred to the higher commands, through secured network. Also the
information system provides live-streaming of the shooting training i.e. showing every result from the smart target in
the real time. Administrator of the main server set the permissions for the other users of the SRIS1. The information
system is consisted of different modules. Every module is representing different core of the problem, so there are
module for planning, for video-streaming, for collecting and calculating the results, module for type of shooting etc.
This rapid way of collecting and analyzing the results would speed up the decision making process (based on analyzes
of the results), producing improving methods for better shooting results.
Keywords: information system, results, server, processing, analyze.

1. INTRODUCTION

All this elements are merged in one complete information

system for smart target shooting. The information system
is consisted of the following modules:

Shooting training as an inevitable part of the general

training of every soldier must be brought to perfection.
But one of the main problems is collecting, analyzing the
shooting results and further development of methods and
simulators for improvement of the results. So the main
aim of this paper and this information system is reducing
the time for collecting the shooting results, and then
analyzing every shoot particularly, providing complete
information about the accuracy of aim and errors being
made before and during shooting.

Module for collecting data (results)

Module for transferring data
Module for analyzing
Module for improvement
Module for monitoring
Module for live streaming
Management module
o Planning
o Shooting data
o Permission

Another part of the information system for smart target

shooting is monitoring. Monitoring of shooting training is
helpful for giving live advices to shorten the time needed
for improving the skills and results of the shooter. Also
live streaming of the shooting training allows following
of the whole process from the higher command level,
perceiving the method of organizing shooting training,
errors in commanding and their improvement.
1

The whole system is run from the administrator of the

main server which is set in the General Staff. The main
server, through secured network, is connected with
workstations at every shooting area where there are

Shooting results Information system

329

capabilities for installing this kind of information system.

recognized and later on, through one of the models, there

should be presented a method for improvement.

The next table shows where is located the core of every

of the modules.

3.1. Pulse technique

Table 1: Module location

Module

One case study from the SCATT systems, analyzed the

dependence of Pulling the trigger in the interval between
the Heart Beats at Riffle Shooting Pulse Technique [3].
So during the riffle shooting there is a constant movement
of the arms, which directly determinate the stability of the
shooter.

Location
Control unit
Collecting data
(Behind the smart target)
Control unit Wi-Fi Workstation
Transferring data
secured network main server
Analyzing
Main server
Main server workstation shooters
Improvement
monitor
cameras at the shooting area main
Monitoring
server
Live streaming
allowed users
Management
Main server and workstations

This problem accordingly to the analysis could be

subdivided into two components. First component is
contributed by poorly-coordinated muscles and their
tremor. The second component is contributed by the heart
beats. First component depends on training, and can be
reduced by constant training on the muscles that are
directly used for this kind of shooting. The second
component cant be reduced by constant training, and
may often be of the same order both for beginner and
marksman. When analyzing the trajectory of aiming of a
marksman both components are clearly distinguishable.
Pulsation at shooting from prone and from the kneeling
positions represents 60 to 80 per cent of the total
movement.

2. MODULES FOR COLLECTING DATA AND

TRANSFERING DATA
One of the core modules of this information system is the
module for obtaining data and further transfer of it.
Depending of the type of the smart target, it can be used
various types of microcontrollers as a control unit from
which the data will be transferred.

3.2. Shooters coordination analysis

Meggit Training Systems[1] uses wireless target

technology where through Individual Control Unit (ICU)
or from a control room area, the targets are locally
controlled. ICU also represent module for collecting and
transferring data.

Other type of case study also made by the SCATT

implicates of the coordination diagram [4], which
represents the time of one second to the actual time during
which a shot is made along the X axis, and the deflection
from the centre of the target along the Y axis, while the
resulting curve shows the mean deflection of all the
aiming trajectories from the centre of the target.

Other type of training system used for collecting data

from the shooting is SCATT systems [2]. It operates on
the following principles: An optical sensor is fixed to the
barrel of the weapon, or the compressed air cylinder of an
air weapon. The shooter then aim at the smart target. A
trace of the point can then be followed on a real-time
display screen. On activating the weapon trigger, the point
of impact is then displayed on the screen. All results of
the training session can be recorded for further analysis.

This type of analysis of the curve will help to make an

evaluation of the shooters skill and readiness at a given
time.

3.3 Shot model

The special kind of smart target which is described in

other paper by my colleague, explains a target for fire
shooting system based on vibration detection with
vibration sensors planted on steel plate which is used as
target.
Module for transferring data is coordinated between
control units on the smart target, workstation at the
shooting area and the main server where the analyses are
done. This module is also used when the results from
analyses are presented to the shooters monitor as an
improvement method.

Picture 1: Influence to the result

3. MODULES FOR ANALYZING AND

IMPROVEMENT

The main factors for success and their relations are

described in this type of model, called shot model,
developed by Noptel [5], for analyzing the skill of
shooters in an objective, reliable and understandable way.

Before improving the shooting results, as a step before is

analysis of every single shoot previously made, or a group
analysis for a particular weapon or shooter. This module
is directly connected with the module for improvement,
because depending on the analysis, the error should be

The shooters hold reveals his ability to control his

muscles and prevent unwanted movement. The aiming
reveals the accuracy, and it is the capability to direct the
gun at the desired point on the target. Trigger control
reveals the timing of the actual triggering event relative to
330

the hold/aim process, and also the cleanness of triggering.

These factors interact with each other, and represent real
indicators for the final result.

and also to register the movement while the soldier is

aiming at the target, which is later used for analyses.
The recorded action then is transferred to the main server
where the administrator set the permissions. This is
directly connected with the module for live streaming.
The video from the shooting area with the special
permissions is transferred to higher commands, but the
proceeded shoots from the smart target camera through
module for analyzing are further sent to the shooters
monitor where the module for improvement helps them to
observed the errors and develop a better shooting skills.

Holding instability and aiming inaccuracy will reduce the

actual achievable result level, while trigger control can
either improve or further reduce the final result. The
characteristics of the discipline define the role of each
success factor. Holding ability has the greatest role in a
standing position and in pistol shooting, but the major
element in military prone shooting is aiming ability.
The priority of this model is measurement and further
analyzing of holding and aiming ability. And the fastest
way for analyzing a shot is to observe the basic target
replay. That is one of the ways that can be used for
analyzing the aiming and holding ability. Also, it can be
done with graphical hold analysis, by observing the
extend and symmetry of the movement. Asymmetry in
pistol shooting may indicate problems with shooting
position, grip or muscle condition.

5. MANAGEMENT MODULE
This module is consisted out of three separate parts. First
there is the part for planning, where all the data about the
shooting ground, setting the equipment used in the
shooting area i.e. cameras, smart targets, obstacles. In the
part planning are made the preparations for every
shootings, from giving an order, until setting the
movement of the last target.

Graphical aim analysis is done with the centre of gravity

which should be found as close to the middle of the target.

The shooting data part is responsible for having a

database with all the shooters, their results from every
shooting. Also depending on the type of the shooting and
which gun is used there is a special target situation for
every soldier. Shooting sub-module is responsible for
installing and setting the parameters to every target,
whether is stationary or moving target. Depending on the
situation, if it is a tactical operation with shooting, then
there is a capability of target management in real time and
in every weather conditions.

Triggering ability is analyzed using different replay

views. The triggering introduces extra energy into the
movement.
At the end of the shot method there is a trend curve of
an average shot which discloses the style of a shooter.
The success factors are also quantified and can be used to
compare shooters or to trace a shooters development in
time. Connecting these three models in one big module,
gives the desirable analysis, that are later used in the
correction of the further shoots.

The permission sub-module is also very important in the

functioning of the whole system. This sub-module is
managed directly by human. Data which is collected from
working of the system is placed in the main server. From
there, the administrator sets the permissions, who can see
that data, particularly shooting results, analysis, methods
of the improvement, results after the analysis, planning
for shooting, target management. Also this sub-module is
directly connected the live streaming module, because the
administrator directly decides which commands, people,
authorities can watch the live streaming shooting, or
which of them can only see the live results.

3.4. Improvement
When the module for analysis made the appropriate
analysis, then they are sending to the shooters monitor,
where the shooter receives a feedback about every shot.
Module for improvement converts the analysis to the
understandable tips and directions which are later used by
the shooter to improve the results. After the conversion
into real methods for improvement, these data is sent to
the shooters monitor, helping him to develop better
shooting skills. The system also transfer the burden of
marksmanship fault identification from human instructor
to the training system and helps the instructors to train
recruits safely and efficiently to become skilled shooters
in short time.

6. CONCLUSION
Smart Target Shooting Information system, is a special
kind of information system which purpose is to help for
improving the results in the shooting training. With this
information system, the time for collecting and analyzing
the results from the shooting is reduced. That will
definitely help the shooters to improve their skills, by
giving them methods based on the analysis made one of
the modules in this information system.

4. MODULES FOR MONITORING AND LIVE

STREAMING
Module for monitoring is directly represented by the
cameras on the shooting area and on the smart targets.
The cameras on the shooting area are used for filming the
whole action, the tactical procedures, and the movement
of the soldiers, while they are attacking the targets.

STS IS2 in general is consisted by 5 big modules. The

main modules in STS IS are: Module for collecting data,
which is located behind or near the smart target which is
used. Collecting data methods at the smart target can be
various, using optical, sound, vibration and other sensors.

Cameras on the smart targets are specific, and have two

major differences from other types of cameras. First,
those cameras should capture every shoot at the target,

331

STS IS Smart Target Shooting Information system

Module for transferring data is responsible for

transferring the data, whether it is collected data or
analysis or maybe with special permission, results from
the shooting. That means any kind of transfer in the whole
system.

Modules for monitoring and live streaming are modules

that will help the results and the shooting training to be
presented to everybody, or with using the module for
management to set permissions for availability of data. As
a part of the module for management is the database with
all the shooting data, where is storage the information
about every shooting training, shooter, targets etc.

Module for analyzing and improvement is the core of this

information system because in this module is realized the
improvement of the skills. In this paper I mentioned three
types of analyses for shooting errors, but the information
system will have the capabilities to be upgraded with new
methods and models for analyzing and improvement.

This information system will allow to the armies in the

world to follow the progress of their men, and directly to
participate and in same time to monitor their
improvement.

Picture 2: All modules of the SMS Information system

REFERENCES

[8] Hall, Howard F. "System for training and evaluation

of security personnel in use of firearms." U.S. Patent
No. 4,948,371. 14 Aug. 1990.
[9] Darilek, Richard, et al. Measures of effectiveness for
the information-age army. No. RAND/MR-1155-A.
RAND CORP SANTA MONICA CA, 2001.
[10] Fernandes, Jorge M., et al. "Target shooting game."
U.S. Patent No. 4,898,391. 6 Feb. 1990.
[11] Bartsch, Friedrich. "Target shooting scoring and
timing system."
[12] Gonzales, Dan, et al. Assessing the value of
information superiority for ground forces-proof of
concept. No. RAND/DB-339-OSD. RAND CORP
SANTA MONICA CA, 2001.
[13] McCarthy, Brian D., and Bernard J. Regan. "Position
measuring apparatus and method." U.S. Patent No.
4,885,725. 5 Dec. 1989.

[1] http://www.meggitttrainingsystems.com/Portals/6/20
14%20Data%20Sheets/XWT_Wireless_Target_Carri
er.pdf
[2] http://www.scatt.com/home/
[3] http://www.scatt.com/articles/17/pulse-technique/
[4] http://www.scatt.com/articles/19/coordination_analys
is+/
[5] http://www.brenzovich.com/noptel.htm
[6] Huaiping, Cai, et al. "Survey of the research on
dynamic weapon-target assignment problem."
Systems Engineering and Electronics, Journal of
17.3 (2006): 559-565.
[7] Matsuyama, Shigenobu, et al. "Target shooting video
game device, and method of displaying result of
target shooting video game." U.S. Patent No.
6,582,299. 24 Jun. 2003.

332

ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON OF A COMMAND GUIDANCE AND THE

COMBINATION OF PROGRAMMED AND HOMING GUIDANCE
NOVAK ZAGRADJANIN
MoD RS, Department for Defence Technologies, Belgrade, zagradjaninnovak@gmail.com
STEVICA GRAOVAC
School of Electrical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, graovac@etf.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: The applied missile guidance system, as well as the missile guidance method, has a significant influence on
the technical and tactical performances of air defence systems. In this paper using MATLAB - Simulink program we
analyzed the command to line of sight (CLOS) or three-point guidance and half leading guidance, as the most frequent
methods in the group of command guidance methods, as well as the combination of programmed and homing guidance
(proportional navigation). We simulated several scenarios of target trajectories and presented the results consisting in
appropriate missile trajectories, final misses of target and profiles of missile normal acceleration. In order to analyse
command guidance, we simulated the effects of the real tracker, dynamic model of the missile and autopilot. For the
purpose of control the seeker, within the simulation and analyse of the combination of programmed and homing
guidance we used heavy precession free gyroscope. Finally, we compared a command guidance and the combination of
programmed and homing guidance in terms of final misses of target and maneuvering requirements for the missile, as
well as in terms of advantages and disadvantages in the tactical area of using air defence systems.
Keywords: command guidance, programmed guidance, homing.

According to the type of the implemented guidance

system, missile guidance methods are generally divided
into methods of command and homing guidance. Both
groups of methods have their advantages and
disadvantages. In other words, there is no ideal method
which will respond with an equally high quality on all the
above listed requirements. Consequently, the different
combinations of guidance systems and methods are used.
One such concept is the combination of programmed and
homing guidance.

1. INTRODUCTION
Development of the assets for attack from the air implies
that modern air defence systems should possess high
tactical and technical performances in order to ensure
effective protection of the forces, territory and facilities.
These performances are primarily related to the ability to
perform air defence operations in all weather conditions,
in a broad spectar of range, in environment of electronic
warfare, the use of "stealth" technology, ballistic and
cruise missiles, unmanned aerial vehicles and asymmetric
threats. At the same time, the diversity of threats from air
imposed with equal importance the need to minimize the
electromagnetic emission from own sources during the air
defence operations, in order to as much as possible
increase the probability of survival of air defence
systems and personnel [5].

In this paper we analized and compared a command

guidance and the combination of programmed and
homing guidance in terms of final misses of target and
maneuvering requirements for the missile, as well as in
terms of advantages and disadvantages in the tactical area
of using of air defence systems.

The applied missile guidance system, as well as the

missile guidance method, has a significant impact on the
above mentioned performances of air defence systems.

2. COMMAND GUIDANCE
2.1. Synthesis of simulink model of command
guidance

If we analyze air defence systems in strictly technical

sense, as automatic control systems, the basic
requirements for the choice of missile guidance method
consist in achieving as close as possible encounter with a
target, in increasing the effects of its destruction, as well
as in the minimization of maneuvering requirements for
the missile [1].

Structural block diagram of simulink model of command

guidance is shown in Picture 1.

333

xm

xm

ym

ym

between the command station and the target. The basic

equations of this guidance is [1]:

rmcs

t = m

epsm
velocity

(1)

rtcs
xt

yt

xt

yt

and the corresponding linear guidance error (on which our

model is based) is:

epst

deltaeps

h = rm ( t m )

epstdot
xcs

elevation

xcs

(2)

rtmdot
ycs

positions of missile, target

and command station

ycs

rtm

2.3. Half leading guidance

distances and LOS

output
epsm

elevation
velocity

command

norm. accelerat.

missile

command

This method is characterized by the requirement that the

angular acceleration of the LOS between the command
station and the missile should be independent of the
angular acceleration of the LOS between the command
station and the target as the missile approaches the impact
point with the target. The basic equation in this case can
be defined as [1]:

To Workspace

epst

Clock

rmcs

>

command guidance

STOP

0
Constant

Switch

Stop Simulation

Picture 1: Structural block diagram of simulink model of

command guidance

m = t

Block positions of the missile, target and command

station - simulates the current position of the command
station (xcs, ycs), missile (xm, ym) and the target (xt, yt)
in the vertical plane of the reference coordinate system.

t
r
2r

(3)

where m* is nominal angle of spatial orientation of the

LOS between the command station and the missile, and
the corresponding linear guidance error (on which our
model is based) is:

Block distances and LOS - calculates the distance

between the missile and the command station
(rmcs=rm), between the target and the command station
(rtcs=rt), between the target and the missile (rtm), the
spatial orientation of the line of sight (LOS) between
the command station and the missile (epsm=m), the
spatial orientation of the LOS between the command
station and the target (epst=t), and the difference of
angles epst and epsm (deltaeps).

h = rm ( t m

t

2r

r )

(4)

2.4. Model of the tracker

Devices for target tracking (trackers) are one of the most
important parts of the guidance system. They are based on
the appropriate sensors that detect electromagnetic energy
emitted by the target itself or reflected the target.
Tracking of the moving target implies the existence of an
automatic system (platform) for tracker angular position
control. The accuracy of target angular tracking with
tracker (i.e. its dynamic and static error) directly acts on
the accuracy of the determination of the guidance error,
and hence the overall accuracy of the guidance system.

Block missile - models the missile and includes the

basic elements of its dynamics.
Block "command guidance system" - the content of this
block depends on the implemented method of guidance
and will be explained in detail below.

2.2. Command to line of sight (CLOS) or threepoint guidance

Command to line of sight or three-point guidance can be
considered as basic method to the whole class of the
command guidance methods. For this method, the missile
is constantly being guided so as to remain on the line

Picture 2. shows the structural diagram of simulink model

of the servo-system for tracker angular positioning, that
we used in command guidance system in this paper [1].

rate gyroscope
-K-

internal feedback

Band-Limited
White Noise
1
epst

PI(s)
PI Controller

-Kamplifier

Km
Tm.s+1
motor

-Kreducer

Kp

1/s

Tp.s+1
platform
0 disturbance moment

integrator
0

1
epst measured

angular velocity
of vehicle

external feedback

Picture 2: Structural diagram of simulink model of the servo-system for tracker angular positioning

334

The purpose of the tracker servo-system is to direct sensor to

the target. Besides the basic angle of sighting the target, three
parasitic inputs are considered in this system. First of all, the
noise as well as the primary input are acting at the same
place inside the sensor device. The main type of noise in the
majority of receivers used within the trackers is thermal
noise. In addition, the disturbance moment acts around the
rotary axis of platform (eg. gusts of wind in the case of the
radar antenna). If tracker is located on moving object, then
clearly the movement of carrier vehicle has an impact on the
spatial orientation of the sensor, too.

angular velocity of the vehicle.

Analyzing the structure of the tracker servo-system we

can conclude that the influence of the angular velocity of
the carrier vehicle can be eliminated by using high values
of the gain in direct branch. The high gain, however,
bring negative consequences since it increases the noise in
receiver. Therefore, it is recommended to use the internal
feedback by the signal of the angular velocity via tachogenerator or rate gyroscope. The bandwidths ratio of
external and internal feedback should be between 5 and
10 in order to effectively eliminate the influence of the

We assume that dynamic model of the missile is

equivalent to the linear system of first order and set the
time constant to be equal to 0.2s. In order to prevent
excessive normal acceleration, a maximum fin deflection
must be limited, and therefore in front of the block,
dynamics we added limiters (assuming that the actuator
is ideal), whose parameters we determined analyzing the
step response of normal acceleration. In this case, we
limited fin deflection at 6 degrees.

In our case, we adopted the values of the time constants of

electric motor and platform to be equal to 0.5s, while the
gain of the PI controller and of the internal feedback are
set so that the dynamic error of tracker's response on the
typical signals of type ramp and parabola does not exceed
50mrad (otherwise the target will be irretrievably lost for
tracker). The parasitic inputs are neglected.

2.5. Model of the missile

1
s

1
elevation
2
velocity

s+1
dynamics

fin deflection
limiter

vm

1
command

Constant

3
normal acceleration

vm
elev_dot
angle of attack

0
Constant1

Picture 3: Structural diagram of simulink model of the missile

Blocks positions of the missile and target, distances
and LOS and missile are essentially identical as in
the model of command guidance, noting that the block
distances and LOS in this case, because of the need to
implement proportional navigation, provides spatial
orientation of the LOS between the missile and the
target (eps).

3. COMBINATION OF PROGRAMMED AND

HOMING GUIDANCE
3.1. Synthesis of simulink model of the combination
of programmed and homing guidance
Structural block diagram of simulink model of
combination of programmed and homing guidance is
shown in Picture 4.
xm

xm
rtm

ym

programmed guidance

xt

xt

yt

yt

conditions for transition

from programmed
guidance to homing

xm
command
ym

eps

control signal 1

ym

control signal 2
elevation

eps

rtm

velocity

elevation

positions of missile
and target

rtmdot

distances and LOS

Switch
command

elevation

output

elevation

velocity

To Workspace

norm. accelerat. command

elev_dot

command epsdot
elev_dot

epsdot

eps

seeker

Clock

angle of attack

missile

homing
proportional navigation
>

STOP

0
Constant

Stop Simulation
Switch1

Picture 4: Structural block diagram of simulink model of the combination of programmed and homing guidance
335

 Blocks programmed guidance, homing -proportional

navigation, conditions for the transition from
programmed guidance to homing and seeker will be
explained below.

to the angular velocity of LOS between the missile and

the target [1]:

The system is designed so that missile in the first phase

flies the programmed trajectory, while in the final phase
missile homing is applied.

where c is the navigation constant (1 < c < ).

 = c

In our model of proportional navigation, guidance

command is based on the guidance error derived from the
above basic equation:

3.2. Programmed guidance


 = c

Programmed guidance is used in order to guide the

missile toward the area where seeker can lock on the
target. Programmed trajectory is designed to minimize the
total energy requirements for the missile, taking into
account the current target position. One of the possible
solutions to implement the programmed guidance is
shown in Picture 5.
K2

Switch1

sqrt

(6)

The navigation constant was determined by analyzing the

final misses of target for different values of c.

3.4. Model of the seeker

The seeker is in fact the tracker integrated into the missile
for the purpose of tracking the target and implementation
of homing. There are several possibilities for the technical
integration of seeker into the missile and modes of target
tracking. In this paper, we used the principle that is most
used and which is the support of proportional navigation.

1
xm

K1
>

1
command

(5)

2
ym
du/dt

For the purpose of control the seeker we used heavy

precession free gyroscope, due to its stable orientation [1].
Electronic, mechanical part of the seeker and the
gyroscope we modeled with the linear systems of first
order.

Picture 5: Structural diagram of simulink model of

programmed guidance
Adjusting the gain K1 and K2 in the block of programmed
guidance we can choose the programmed trajectory of
linear form (at given angle to the line of the soil) or which
is a combination of a parabola (of different geometrical
parameters) in the first part and linear form in the second
part.

EGSN ( s ) =

K1
K2
;M
( s) =
; Z ( s ) = 1 (7)
T 1 s + 1 GSN
T2 s + 1
Hs

We adopted T1=0.02, T2=0.2 i H=1 and determined the

coefficients (gain) K1 and K2 we analyzing the step
response of the seeker.

Target and missile trajectories

18000
missile
target

16000

1
eps

14000

deltaeps

epsdot
1

K1
T1.s+1
electronics

epstr

y [m]

12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0

0.5

1.5

2
x [m]

2.5

3.5

K2

H.s
heavy precession
free gyroscope

T2.s+1
torque motor

Picture 7: Structural diagram of simulink model of the

seeker.

4
4

x 10

Picture 6: Different forms of the missile trajectory in the

programmed guidance phase

Angles eps and epstr in Picture 7. represent the spatial

orientation of LOS and the central axis of seeker. The
input values for the electronic part of the seeker is the
angle at which the target is seen in the sensor's FOW
(deltaeps). On the output of this block is a voltage signal
proportional to the angular deviation of the target from
the central axis of seeker. Current proportional to this
signal excites electro-mechanical actuator, generally
torque motor. Torque motor produces the moment
proportional to the input current, which causes the
precession of free gyroscope. Free gyroscope acts as a
integrator. Since the sensor of seeker is rigidly fixed to
the inner frame free gyroscope, output value of this block
is actually the spatial orientation of the LOS.

For the analysis in this paper we used the programmed

trajectory of linear form. Guidance command is based on
linear deviation of the current value of the missile
coordinate in a vertical plane from its optimal value
dictated by the desired programmed trajectory.

3.3. Proportional navigation

Proportional navigation is general method of homing. It is
based on the requirement that the rate of change of spatial
orientation of the missile velocity vector is proportional
336

The adventages of this kind of seeker technical realization

are the following:

Angular scanning sector of the seeker is determined by

the maximum scan angle of central axis of the seeker's
FOW in relation to the longitudinal axis of the missile (in
our case this angle is 45 ), as and the width of the
seeker's FOW (in our case FOW is 2 ). The first
condition for start of homing, therefore, is fulfilled when
the angle of sight (the angle at which the target is seen
from the missile in relation to its longitudinal axis) is less
than 46. The second condition for start of homing is
fulfilled when the distance between the missile and target
is equal to or less than seeker maximum lock on range (in
our case seeker maximum lock on range is 10000m). We
neglected the time of directing the seeker central axis on
target from the moment of fulfilling the above two
conditions. As we said, proportional navigation implies
that spatial orientation of the seeker is changed
continuously so that it is always directed along the LOS.
Accordingly, the relative angle of seeker in relation to the
longitudinal axis of the missile is measure of angle of
sight (under the realistic assumption that in neutral
position central axis of the seekers FOW and the
longitudinal axis of the missile are coincided). Angle of
sight in our case is equal to the difference of the angle of
spatial orientation of LOS and the angle of elevation,
taking into account that we defined the angle of attack is
zero.

the central axis of seeker follows the LOS,

the signal proportional to the angular velocity of LOS is
contained at the output of the electronic part of the
seeker so it can be directly used for the proportional
navigation.

3.5. Conditions for the transition from

programmed guidance to homing
Homing starts from the moment when the seeker lock on
the target. For this, it is necessary to be fulfilled two
following conditions:
The target is within the angular scanning sector of the
seeker,
The distance between the missile and target is equal to
or less than seeker maximum lock on range.
Compare
To Constant

<= SeekerMaxLockOnRange

field of view/2
-C-

Relational
Operator
Logical
Operator
2
control signal 2

angle of scanning/2

>=

-C-

2
rtm

AND

1
eps
1
control signal 1

angle
of sight

Compare
To Constant1

3
elevation

Abs2

Logical
Operator1

< MaxTrackAngle

|u|

AND

Compare
To Constant3

Abs1

Derivative2

< MaxTrackAngVelocity

|u|

du/dt

4. SIMULATION RESULTS
Pictures 9. and 10. shows simulation results for four
scenarios. There are presented target trajectories and
appropriate missile trajectories, final misses of target and
profiles of missile normal acceleration.

Picture 8: Structural diagram of conditions for the

transition from programmed guidance to homing

Target and missile trajectories

12000
three-point
half leading
program. + prop. nav.
target

10000

y [m]

8000

6000

4000

2000

5000

10000

15000

x [m]
Missile norm. accelerat.

Final miss of target

10

500

-5
300

an [g]

miss [m]

400

-10
200

-15
100

-20

0
18.8

-25
18.9

three-point
half leading
program. + prop. nav.

X: 19.38
Y: 13.39

X: 18.89
Y: 11.64

19

19.1
t [s]

19.2

19.3
X:
19.36
Y: 1.353

19.4

10
t [s]

15

a) rtm0=15km, ht0=6km, vt=300m/s, vm=800m/s, ntarg.=3g

337

20

Target and missile trajectories

14000
three-point
half leading
program. + prop. nav.
target

12000

10000

y [m]

8000

6000

4000

2000

5.000

10.000

15.000
x [m]

20.000

25.000

30.000

Missile norm. accelerat.

Final miss of target

5
500
0

450
400

-5

300

an [g]

miss [m]

350

250
200

-10

-15

150
100

-20

35.7

three-point
half leading
program + prop. nav.

X: 36.19
Y: 15.24

X: 35.74
Y: 11.88

50

35.8

35.9

36

36.1
X: 36.18

t [s]

-25

36.2

10

15

Y: 0.8371

20
t [s]

25

30

35

40

b) rtm0=30km, ht0=6km, vt=300m/s, vm=800m/s, ntarg.=2g

Picture 9: Target and missile trajectories, final misses of target and profiles of missile normal acceleration
(for incoming target)
Target and missile trajectories
12000
three-point
half leading
program. + prop. nav.
target

10000

y [m]

8000

6000

4000

2000

5.000

10.000
x [m]

15.000

20.000

Missile norm. accelerat.

Final miss of target

25
three-point
half leading
program. + prop. nav.

500

three-point
half leading
program. + prop. nav.

20

400

300

an [g]

miss [m]

15

10

200

100

0
X: 26.64
Y: 0.6397

X: 26.93
Y: 16.35

X: 27.29
Y: 12.35

-5
26.5

26.6

26.7

26.8

26.9
27
t [s]

27.1

27.2

27.3

27.4

10

15
t [s]

20

a) rtm0=15km, ht0=6km, vt=300m/s, vm=800m/s, ntarg.=2g

338

25

30

Target and missile trajectories

18000
three-point
half leading
program. + prop. nav.
target

16000
14000

y [m]

12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0

5.000

10.000

15.000

20.000
x [m]

25.000

Final miss of target

30.000

35.000

40.000

Missile norm. accelerat.

18

2000

three-point
half leading
program. + prop. nav.

16

1800

14

1600
12
1400

an [g]

miss [m]

10
1200
1000

8
6

800
4

600

400
200
0

X: 50.58
Y: 14.31

50
X: 50.14
Y: 15.02

50.5

51

X: 52.76
Y: 1.486

51.5
t [s]

52

52.5

-2

53

10

20

30
t [s]

40

50

60

b) rtm0=30km, ht0=6km, vt=800m/s, vm=300m/s, ntarg.=1g

Picture 10: Target and missile trajectories, final misses of target and profiles of missile normal acceleration
(for outgoing target)

5. ANALYSIS OF SIMULATION RESULTS

5.2. Comparison of a command guidance and the

combination of programmed and homing
guidance (technical and tactical aspects)

5.1. Comparison of the analyzed methods of

command guidance

By analyzing the simulation results, it can be concluded

that the disadvantage of homing compared to the
command guidance in terms of smaller range caused by
limited capabilities of seeker, can be compensated using
the combination of programmed and homing guidance. At
the same time, this combination keeps the key advantage
of homing concerning the high accuracy of guidance [3].
From simulation results we can see that final misses of
target for the combination of programmed and homing
guidance are one order of magnitude less than for the
command guidance (few meters versus a few tens of
meters). This can be explained by the fact that situation
from the perspective of an angular resolution of tracker in
this case improves while the missile approaches the impact
point with the target (homing phase is active). But, the
price of higher accuracy of guidance is that maneuvering
requirements for the missile are more pronounced (one
order of magnitude greater) for the combination of
programmed and homing guidance compared to the
command guidance. In other words, this disadvantage of
homing is not eliminated, as it was reasonable to expect.

Based on the presented theoretical analysis and simulation

results we can conclude the following:
Three-point guidance:
Advantages: Technical realization is simple and it is not
necessary to measure the distance of the target.
Disadvantages: The curvature of trajectory is large and
increases while the missile approaches the impact point with
the target. Normal accelerations of the missile strictly
depend on the angular velocity and acceleration of the
LOS between the command station and the target. They
are smaller if the initial distance of the target are greater.
Half leading guidance:
Advantages: For this method the maneuvering
requirements for the missile decrease during the guidance,
so it is suitable for the cases of maneuvering target.
Disadvantages: The technical implementation is complex
and requires measurement the distance of the target.

Another advantage of the combination of programmed

and homing guidance compared to the command
guidance, also of great importance for military use, is the
339

fact that for this concept of guidance the minimization of

electromagnetic emission from own sources during the air
defence operations is possible. Of course, this advantage
is fully valid only for the case of passive homing. In
modern air defence systems, an active homing is often
used in combination with passive homing. In other words,
the same system can use missiles of different types (e.g.
Israel middle and short range air defence systems
SPYDER MR and SPYDER SR) or seeker can be
changed to the same type of missile, depending on the
concrete situation (e.g. French short range air defence
system VL MICA).

command guidance, which was not analyzed here, but that

certainly deserves to be mentioned, is the fact that a
missile in this case is much more complex and therefore
more expensive [2].

6. CONCLUSION
The combination of programmed and homing guidance is
concept of guidance that provides an opportunity for
extending the application of homing to the air defence
systems of larger range.
By using this combination of guidance, the problem of
relatively small range of air defence systems with homing
caused by limited capabilities of seeker can be eliminated,
retaining at the same time the key advantages of homing
in terms of high accuracy of guidance and the
minimization of electromagnetic emission from own
sources during the air defence operations.

The primary challenge in the case of the combination of

programmed and homing guidance is to create such a
form of a programmed trajectory that will ensure guiding
the missile toward the area where seeker can lock on the
maneuvering target and start missile homing phase.
Therefore, in air defence systems which use this concept
of guidance the missile trajectory correction during the
programmed phase must be applied. This means that in
the programmed phase data from the battery radar are sent
to the missile by some kind of data link, in order to update
the target position (fire-and-update mode). In this way,
programmed trajectory is corrected and optimized during
the missile flight according to the current position of the
target. This mode is also called Lock On After Launch
LOAL (e.g. French middle and short range air defence
systems ASTER 30-SAMP/T and VL MICA, and Israel
middle range air defence system SPYDER MR).

The key limitation of this concept is the implementation

of such a technology solution that will enable missile
trajectory correction and optimization during the
programmed phase according to the current position of
the target, in order to ensure guiding the missile toward
the area where seeker can lock on the target.

REFERENCES
[1] Graovac,S., Automatsko voenje objekata u prostoru,
Akademska misao, Beograd, 2005.
[2] Siouris,M.G., Missile Guidance and Control Systems,
Springer, New York, 2004.
[3] Blakelock,J.H., Automatic Control of Aircraft and
Missiles, John-Wiley and Sons, New York, 1991.
[4] urovi,., Kovaevi,B., Sistemi automatskog
upravljanja, Akademska misao, Beograd, 2005.
[5] Sofrani,S., Operatika jedinica protivvazdune
odbrane, Vojna knjiga, Beograd, 1995.

Application of the full fire-and-forget mode is possible at

very small distances and should be used whenever is
possible, of course. This mode is also called Lock On
Before Launch LOBL. Technical realization of the
system in this case is usually such as to allow the launch
of a missile in the direction of the target, in order to
enable seeker to lock on the target before launch (e.g.
Israel short range air defence system SPYDER SR).
Finally, one of the key disadvantages of the combination
of programmed and homing guidance compared to the

340

DETERMINING OF WORKING TEMPERATURE OF ISOLATION BAR IN

"START RESISTANCE BOX" OF COMBAT VEHICLES PREHEATER
MOTOR AND INVESTIGATION OF POSSIBLE REPLACEMENT
MATERIAL FOR BAR
DRAGI LAKIEVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, dragilakicevic@gmail.com
JOVAN RADULOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vti@vti.vs.rs
GORAN JERKIN
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, goranjer@yahoo.com
DRAGAN MUNITLAK
Technical Overhaul DEPARTMENT, aak, draganmunitlak63@gmail.com

Abstract: Problems, work methodology, realization procedure and testing of the proposed solution of possible
replacement material for production of an isolation bar in "start resistance box" (SRB) which is used as resistor
carrier, in current circle of electromotor of combat vehicles motor preheater are presented. The basic goal of this paper
is investigation of possible material for production mentioned bar instead of previously used and now not available
material based on asbestos paper, melamine and phenol resins. The cause of a degradation of bar in SRB, as well as a
way a working temperature measurement in real exploiting conditions, are described. Results of temperature
measurement in critical places on a bar, necessary for a choice of possible replacement material for bar, are presented.
Based on the obtained temperature and other parameters measurements results, among eventually possible materials
replacements for bar production, pressed material based on nature resin (shellak) and mica was chosen. The working
temprature measurement in conditions very close to the real ones, using bar made of possible replacement material,
are repeated. The obtained acceptable results were a base for further activities, which implies determination of possible
replacement material properties in laboratory and investigation of bar in real exploitation conditions.
ey words: Combat vehicles, preheater motor, isolation bar, material replacement.

of mentioned resistors. Problem arises when there are

obstructions in functioning of the motor preheater (crowd
soot in boiler, dirty spark plugs, unsufficient electric
battery voltage), when the motor preheater works much
longer than in normal conditions (cleaned and correct all
components of preheater, electric battery voltage in
regular ranges).

1. INTRODUCTION
After the exploitation of combat vehicles in past decades,
the important problem appeared - deterioration of
isolation bar in assembly start resistance box.
The procedure for solving mentioned practical problem is
presented in this paper.

Material trade name AZBOHART 602, which was used

for isolation bar production until now, is not available any
more.

Assembly start resistance box (SRB) is used in

electrosystem of combat vehicles.
The isolation bar of SRB is used as a carrier for two wire
resistor in current circle of preheater electromotor of
combat vehicles main motor.

The basic goal of this paper represents choosing a

material-possible replacement for production isolation
bar.

Preheater serves for motor and auxiliary equipment

warming, before the motor starts.

Burned isolation bar pointed out that problem of overhaul

of the bar and choosing a material-possible replacement
must be performed very carefully (Picture 1).

Deteriorations on isolation bar, at numerous combat

vehicles, are caused by high temperature owing a heating
341

Individual asbestos fibers are invisible to the unaided

human eye because their size is about from 3 m to 20
m wide and can be as slim as 0.01 m. These fibers are
resistant to heat, fire, high temperature, many chemicals,
do not conduct electricity and improve strength and
modulus of elasticity of basic material [2]. For these
reasons, asbestos has been used widely in many
industries.
These extremely fine fibers can be used as fillers and
reinforcements in plastics materials.
All six asbestos mineral types are known to be human
carcinogens [2, 3].
Picture 1: Burned isolation bar in SRB in combat vehicle
after long period of exploitation

A lot of countries have forbidden the usage of asbestos

owing to primary and secondary human exposure to this
material and health dangerous [4].

This is especially important having in mind the place

where isolation bar of SRB is built inon a fuel reservoir
near partition toward motor section, on the preheater.
Reservoir is so designed that in the shaped openings the
ammunition is placed (Picture 2).

Only a few countries have not yet fully banned asbestos

(USA), although there are restrictions concerning trace
amounts of asbestos in drinking water, workplace air and
automobile industry [5, 6].

Fire, caused in these conditions, would have a

catastrophic consequence for the crew and combat
vehicle, especially at the battlefield. One fire indicator
sensor TD-1 is built in at this reservoir, because reservoir
is a critical place.

Phenolic or phenolformaldehyde resins are produced by

base- or acid-catalyzed stepwise condensation reaction of
aromatic alcohols (mainly phenol) and carbonyl compounds
(mainly formaldehyde), both shown in Picture 3 [6].

Picture 3: Basic reactants of phenolic resins

Belgium scientist L. H. Baekeland discovered 1909. phenolformaldehyde resins originally called Bakelite [1].
Owing to the chemical structure, phenol-formaldehyde
resins can be used in high-temperature conditions. A
range of applications of these thermo-reactive materials
can be broadened using various fillers and reinforcements.
A phenolformaldehyde molding compounds have good
high temperature resistance, good dielectric properties,
hardness, thermal stability, rigidity, and compressive
strength.

Picture 2: Place where a SRB and fire indicatorTD-1 are

mounted in a combat vehicle in overhaul proces

Melamine resins belong to amino resins and can be

obtained by stepwise condensation reaction of carbonyl
compounds (mainly formaldehyde) with NH components
(mainly 2,4,6-triamino-1,3,5-triazine), both shown in
Picture 4 [7].

2. MATERIALS
Until now isolation bar in "start resistance box" of combat
vehicle preheater motor was obtained by machining of
basic material trade name AZBOHART 602.
Product mark AZBOHART is electro-insulating laminate
material, based on asbestos, phenol resin and melamine
resin.
Asbestos is the commercial name given to a group of six
minerals that occur naturally in the environment as
bundles of fibers that can be separated into thin, durable
threads [1].

Picture 4: Basic reactants of melamine resins

Chemically, asbestos minerals are silicate compounds,

meaning they contain atoms of silicon and oxygen in their
molecular structure.

A nucleophilic component (mainly carboxylic acids,

alcohols, amines, etc), also, can be used in synthesis
process [8].
342

Melamine, or more precisely spoken melamine

formaldehyde resins, are discovered at the beginning of
the past century and are used for laminating and
production of parts, which are exposed to predominantly
mechanical and less to temperature influence [8].

3. PRODUCTION BAR PROBLEM

It is estimated that production problem of isolation bar, at
the time being, can be realized in two ways:
1. The first is machining of plate made of materialpossible replacement for basic material trade mark
AZBOHART (analogy to present production method),
2. The other is a direct molding which consists of
designing and producing of steel mold with chromium
and polished surfaces, choosing and providing thermoreactive molding material and direct molding of isolation
bar at another company.

Picture 5: Module sensor of temperature measuring

system glued to working surface of isolation bar by
silicone
Table 1: Technical properties of MIKATERM plate
Properties
Me-thod Unit Value
Flexural strength
ISO 178
230
Tensile strength
ISO 527
150
400
Compressive strength at ISO 604
20
250
Compressive strength at ISO 604
200
25
Dielectric strength at IEC 243 kV/
mm
20
Dielectric strength at IEC 243 kV/
13
400/1 h
mm
tested at 20
Dielectric strength at IEC 243 kV/
10
600/1 h
mm
tested at 20
/
>1016
Volume resistivity at IEC 93

cm
20
/
>1013
Volume resistivity at IEC 93

cm
400
Dielectric loss 160 IEC 250 %
<1
VDE
3
2.2.1.0
Arc resistance
0303
IEC
Tracking resistance
V
500
112
IEC
Density
g/cm3 2,15
371-2
Water absorption
%
<1
24 h/ /23
Heat resistance

500
continuous
Heat resistance

700
maximum
Weight loss-continuous
%
<1
temperature 500
Fire resistance
UL 94
V-0
ELECTRICAL MECHANICAL

It is concluded that the second possible procedure is

xtremely expensive and long lasting, so the first
treatment is chosen as a way for obtaining isolation bar in
"start resistance box" of combat vehicle preheater motor.

4. CHOOSING OF MATERIAL-POSSIBLE
REPLACEMENT
Based on a fact that basic material trade name
AZBOHART, which was used for isolation bar
production until now, is not available any more, an
investigation of the material-possible replacement is done.
The isolation bar in the "start resistance box" of combat
vehicle preheater motor during functioning is exposed to
high temperature, as mentioned before.
Among the few available materials with possible
acceptible characteristics, a molding material based on the
nature resin (shellak) and mica is chosen. That is material
trade mark MIKATERM.
Mica is a term for a group of silicates that are similar to
atomic structures but differing in their chemical
composition. This material has excellent resistance to heat
and good insulating properties and is used as filler in the
production of certain plastics parts [1].

THERMAL AND OTHERS

Tehnical characteristics of molded plate material, based

on the nature resin (shellak) and mica trade mark
MIKATERM, are presented in Table 1 [9].

5. TESTING PROCEDURE
Isolation bar in the "start resistance box" of proper
geometry is produced by machining of molded
MIKATERM plate.
At one, working side of the bar, which is directly exposed to
high temperature, module sensor of temperature measuring
system is glued by one-component silicone trade name
MASTICE SIGILLANTE REFRATTARIO manufactured
by Saratoga Int. Sforza SpA, Italia (Picture 5) [10].

On the opposite side of isolation bar, the cables of module

sensor of temperature measuring system is bonded by
two-component epoxy glue, consisting of epoxy resin
trade mark Araldite AV 138M and amine curing agent
trade mark Haerter HV 998, both produced by Huntsman,
USA (Picture 6) [11].

Used white silicone contains fiberglass and pyrogens

charges with a base of aluminum hydroxide, which
hardens by the means of water evaporation.
343

Used adhesive is grey, resistant to higher temperature and

hardens by reaction between epoxy group and amine
hardener.

Picture 9: Test station of combat vehicle preheating

motor with measuring system
Completed "start resistance box" i.e. SRB with isolation
bar made of MIKATERM material, module sensor of
temperature measuring system and two resistors is placed
on the test station of combat vehicles preheating motor
(Pictures 8 and 9).

Picture 6: Cables of module sensor of temperature

measuring system glued to opposite surface of isolation
bar by epoxy adhesive
A two resistors are mounted on isolation bar, equipped
with the module sensor of temperature measuring system.
Isolation bar, completed in the mentioned way, is
mounted on the "start resistance box" (Picture 6).

Three experiments are done:

1. Start resistance box (SRB) with isolation AZBOHART
(basic material) bar is exposed to standard properly
regime of combat vehicle preheating motor, i.e. working
time of resistor electromotor is from 5 s to 7 s.

In the same way, an isolation bar of the "start resistance

box" based on AZBOHART material, is produced.

2 Start resistance box (SRB) with isolation AZBOHART

(basic material) bar is exposed to extremely unsuitable
regime of combat vehicle preheating motor, i.e. working
time of resistor electromotor is 60 s.
3. Start resistance box (SRB) with isolation MIKATERM
(material-possible replacement) bar is exposed to the most
inconvenient regime of combat vehicles preheating motor,
i.e. working time of resistor electromotor is 90 s, in other
words, 1,5 time greater than time of extremely unsuitable
regime to which was exposed isolation bar made of basic
AZBOHART material.
Temperature measuring system consisting of module
mark NI 9211 Compact RIO, Carrier mark NI USB-9162
Hi-Speed USB Carrier, acquisition system mark NI USB9162 and PC LAP TOP is used for temperature
measuring.

Picture 7: Isolation bar with module sensor of

temperature measuring system and two resistors mounted
on "start resistance box"

6. INVESTIGATION RESULTS AND

ANALYSIS
Investigations encircle temperature measurement of
isolation bar during working time of resistor electromotor
and visual inspection of tested bar.
Already used and damaged isolation bar, made of
AZBOHART (basic material), was tested in experiments
1 and 2, so it was difficult to observe changes caused in
the mentioned testing.
The highest recorded temperarature at isolation bar made
of basic AZBOHART material during experiment 2
(extremely unsuitable regime of combat vehicles
preheating motor, i.e. working time of electromotor for

Picture 8: Isolation bar, made of MIKATERM material,

placed on test station of combat vehicle preheating motor
344

resistor is 60 s) is about 130. Time-temperature relation

for this experiment is shown in Picture 10.
Davac 2: Zagrevanje 60s
140

T2
120

T(C)

100

80

60

40

Picture 13:Surface of MIKATERM isolation bar which

was in direct contact with resistor, after testing

20
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Isolation bar made of MIKATERM material-possible

replacement, after testing, is shown in Picture 12 (overall
apperiance) and Picture 13 (surface which was in direct
contact with resistor).

80

t (s)

Picture 10: Time-temperature relation for experiment 2

During the experiment 3, i.e. in temperature measuring
process of isolation MIKATERM (material-possible
replacement) bar, exposed to the most inconvenient
regime of combat vehicle preheating motor (working time
of electromotor for resistor is 90 s), the highest recorded
value is about 130. Increasing of temperature with time
at MIKATERM isolation bar (experiment 3) is shown in
Picture 11.

7. CONCLUSIONS
From the previous text it can be concluded:
Damages, registrated on numerous isolation bars, are
caused by high temperature owing to heating the two
resistors, with which a bar is equipped.
Isolation bar is an integral part of the SRB assembly of
combat vehicles.

Davac 4 NM: Zagrevanje 90s

120

Overheating of isolation bar happened when starting of

preheater motor is difficult, i.e. when electromotor of
preheater is working much longer than it is expected.

T4

110
100

T(C)

90

Combat vehicle repairs and choosing a material-possible

replacement are extremely important activities, having in
mind that isolation bar of SRB is mounted on a fuel
reservoir, in which the ammunition is placed.

80
70
60
50

Any possibilities of fire appearing at this place must be

eliminated.

40
30
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Basic content and goal of this paper is testing of proposed

material-possible replacement for isolation bar.

140

t(s)

Picture 11: Increasing of temperature with time at

MIKATERM isolation bar (experiment 3)

Material based on asbestos, phenol resin and melamine

resin trade mark AZBOHART, which was used for
production of isolation bar, is not available any more.

By visual inspection of tested isolation bar, made of

MIKATERM possible replacement material, a small
acceptable damage of surface, which was very close or
even in direct contact with resistor, is observed.

Based on the results obtained by temperature measuring

on isolation bar, available technical informations about
materials and regulations about asbestos, a materialpossible replacement consisting of nature resin (shellak)
and mica, trade mark MIKATERM, are chosen.
Temperature measuring of the basic material
AZBOHART isolation bar, exposed to extremely
unsuitable regime of the combat vehicle preheating motor
(working time of electromotor for resistor is 60 s) is done
and highest recorded value is about 130.
The highest recorded temperature at isolation bar made of
MIKATERM material possible replacement during the
most inconvenient regime of the combat vehicles
preheating motor (working time of electromotor for
resistor is 90 s) is about 130.

Picture 12:Overall apperiance of MIKATERM isolation

bar after testing
345

On the tested isolation bar, made of MIKATERM

possible replacement material, a small acceptable damage
of surface, which was very close or even in direct contact
with resistors, is observed.

[2] Asbestos, CAS, No. 1332-21-4.

[3] Berman, D Wayne; Crump, Kenny S (2003). Final
draft:technical support document for a protocol to
assess asbestos-related risk. Washington DC: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. p. 474.
[4] Pravilnik o ogranienjima i zabranama proizvodnje,
stavljanja u promet i korienja hemikalija koje
predstavljaju neprihvatljiv rizik po zdravlje ljudi i
ivotnu sredinu, Slubeni glasnik republike Srbije
broj 89/10, 71/11 90/11.
[5] ToxFAQs for Asbestos, Agency for Toxic
Substances.
[6] Washington State Better Brakes.
[7] Manas C. and Salil K.R., Plastics Technology
Handbook, 4th Edition, CRC Press, Taylor and
Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2007.
[8] Elias H.G., Introduction to Plastics, Wiley-VCH
GmbH and Co.K Ga A, Weinheim, 2003.
[9] Technical characteristics for MIKATERM plate,
LAMINATI KOM, Prilep, Macedonia.
[10] http://www.directindustry.com/prod/saratoga-intsforza/silicone-sealants-72046-935365.html.
[11] http://www.resinsonline.com/ecommerc/product/av138m-hv998araldite-kit-formerly-araldite-2004-1.4-kg-kit.aspx.

Based on these results, a starting positive statement about

the material-possible replacement for isolation bar, is
defined. This statement includes proposal of further
investigation and quality observation of MIKATERM
isolation bar in real working conditions on combat
vehicles.
Proposed program does not disturb repairs process of the
mentioned combat vehicles.
The first activity of the proposed program defined
mounting of MIKATERM isolation bar in combat
vehicle, which will be used in real working conditions,
especially in the period between autumn and spring.
The second activity is a temporary quality observation
and visual inspection of MIKATERM isolation bar, about
every six months in the following period.
The third activity will be the final statement about using
the MIKATERM-possible replacement material for
isolation bar production.

REFERENCES
[1] Rosato,D., Rosato,M.G. and Rosato,D.V., Concise
encyclopedia of Plastics, Kluwer Publishers,
Norwell, 2000 ISBN 0-7923-8496-2.

346

PROJECT MANAGEMENT PUTTING TOGETHER THE MODEL AND

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR TWO-PHASE FLUID FLOW IN THE
SMALL-ARMS BY BOX-WILLSON'S METHOD
LJUBIA TANI
Military Academy, Belgrade, ljtancic@gmail.com
Abstract: The interior ballistics problem of firing process in the small arms is considered. A mathematical model of a
so-called two-phase flow, which is described by gasdynamic partial differential equations system, is used, without
deducing them. Partial differential equations system has been solved numerical by finite difference method. The initial
parameters variations and their influence to the calculations results are factor analyzed and parameters, which
influence the most on the changing of powder gasses maximum pressure and on velocity muzzle projectiles are chosen.
For chosen parameters, dispersional and regressional analyses are carried out on which the derived polynomials,
calculated average values of analyzed flow characteristics as well as allowed deviation limits are based. Comparative
analysis of the calculation results with experimental research results is realized. One of the possible ways of result
correction in experimental modeling by Box-Wilson's Method for gradual result approximation are given as a survey.
Adequate reciprocal accordance of the results confirms the correctness of given two-phase flow model.
Keywords: interior ballistic, firing process, initial parameters, dispersional and regressional analyses, Box-Wilson's
method.
1. Continuity equation for powder grains:

1. INTRODUCTION

( u u ) a (1 ) ub = b
2
b
t
s
s

Firing process in small-arms barrel is a gas-dynamic

process in volume between immovable barrel bottom and
movable projectile, which is characterized with the flow
of two phases: solid - burning powders grains and gaseous
- powders gases as product of combustion. Mathematical
model is developed for any time of powder combustion.
Firing process is considered from the moment when the
powder gases pressure, as the product of powder
combustion, becomes enough value for projectile
envelope engraving in barrel grooves and so the projectile
starts to move. It figures that all initial and boundary
conditions in this moment are known. When the powder
combustion is finished, two phases flow process
transforms to one phase flow process, that means to the
gases flow. The defined mathematical model transforms
then to the classical gas-dynamic model.

(1)

2. Continuity equation for powder gases (2):

(u ub )
+ a1
+ a2
+
t
s

s
(1 ) ub b( b )
+ a2 u + a2
=
s
s

(2)

3. Moving equation for powder gases:

u
u
(k 1) e
+a
+a
+
t 1 s 2 (1 ) s
(k 1)
+ a2 e
= f
(1 ) 2 s 1

2. EQUATION SYSTEM IN LAGRANGE'S

COORDINATES

(3)

4. Moving equation for powder grains (4):

The equation system is done in Euler's co-ordinates t

(time) and x (anyone position in barrel from breechblock
head to projectile bottom). It's transformed then in
equation system with LaGrange's co-ordinates t and s (the
mixture of powder grains and powders gases at any
position behind projectile). The initial suppositions and
complete execution are given in [1], and here only the
finite equations are given:

ub
(k 1) e
ub
a1
+ a2
+
b (1 ) s
b (1 ) s
t
( k 1)
f
+ a2 e
=
b (1 ) 2 s b (1 )

347

(4)

5. Energy equation:
e + a e + a + pa2 u + a ub = f pb
3
t 1 s 3 s
s 4 s

automatic rifle 7.62 mm and monition which is based on

QPI and CIP. Parameters influence rank is received by
computer program realization for experimental factors
plan 2n in which the relative connection criterion of exit
and initial parameters influence is defined.

(5)

6. From Lagrange's co-ordinates "s" definition is:

x = 1
s a2

Table 1. Initial parameters influence on calculation results

(6)
Parameter

Where the flow variables are: u - powder gases speed; ub powder grains speed; - gas density; e - internal energy
of gases; p - gas pressure; - porosity; x - place in barrel.
The coefficients a1 to a4 , f, f1, f2, and f3 are the functions
of flow variables. The system (1) - (6) describes the flow
in the real small-arms barrel. The equations system (1) to
(6) joins all flow variables except powder gases pressure
which is defined by equation of powder gases state. This
equation system is valid for powders grains combustion.
When burning is finished next conditions are done:

Middle
Value

uz0 ,
7,767
m/sPa
E-10
mz0 ,
4,127 E-7
kg
mb0 ,
0,00162
kg
m,
0,0079
kg
,
0,000914
m3/kg
2
Sz0 , m 2,905 E-6
4,68
Sc , m2
E-5

= 0, ub = 0, b = 0, f1 = f 2 = f 3 = 0,
a1 = 0, a2 = i q = 0

Deviation
Entrafrom
nce
average
rank
values

psr =
3145bar
pmax , %

V0sr=
727m/s
V0 , %

Exit
rank

1,2%

2,45

1,19

1,3%

2,35

0,84

1,54%

1,65

1,15

1,56%

1,56

0,01

0,33%

0,19

0,07

1,3%

2,35

0,86

0,05%

0,13

0,04

The parameters have different influence on results, so for

example, the unit grain burning speed has the smallest
percent of change and the highest influence on the results,
while projectile mass has reversed characteristics.

The equations system (1) to (6) transforms in the system

which is valid to the moment when projectile exits from
barrel. Additional equation system (one of them is the
equation of state), initial and boundary conditions are
appended [2].

After the parameters influence selection is finished, all

parameters which increase the results is taken and with
these parameters values one border of results is received.
Initial parameters are based on QPI, with high and low
border allowance. After that, all initial parameters, which
decrease the results, are taken and so the other border of
results is received.

The numerical solution of presented equation system (1)

to (6) is based on the theory of finite-differences. Stability
and convergence conditions are deduced [3] and program
for personal computer is composed. This program is used
for initial parameters influence analysis.

Computer program is realized with the border values of

initial parameters and so the highest and lowest flow
characteristic values are calculated. From all flow
characteristics in this paper only powder gases pressure is
illustrated and analyzed (picture 1). If the mathematical
model is correctly defined, the experimental results must
be inside or near those border calculation results.

3. FACTORS PLAN 2n WITH DISPERSIONAL

AND REGRESSIONAL ANALYSES
Computer program for theoretical-numerical model can
be testing with difference values of initial parameters,
which differently influence to the results. All initial
parameters must be satisfied with quality product
instruction (QPI) [4] and Instruction of Commission
International Permanent CIP [5]. They are defined the
allowance tolerances for some parameters. However,
initial parameters can have higher and lower value as
allowance values with same reliability.
To estimate the initial parameters influence on the
mathematical model results and to execute the parameters
rank, the experimental factors plan 2n , based on the [6],
is realized. Factors plan results are:
There are initial parameters, which have essential
influence on the model either alone or in combination
with other initial parameters. They are: initial mass of
powder grain ( mz 0 ), initial area of powder grain ( S z 0 ),
projectile mass (m), initial powder mass ( mb 0 ), covolume of powder gases (), barrel cross section ( Sc )
and unit grain burning speed ( u z 0 ).

Picture 1. Diagrams p(t) model with min and max value

and experimental average value
The best informations about observed process give the
mathematical-statistical apparatus with large number
analysis. In this paper, on the base [6], the disperssional
and regressional analysis are used.

In the table 1 is shown the allowance tolerance in percent

for parameters with significant influence on the results for
348

Disperssional analysis for maximum powder gases

pressure and muzzle velocity, based on the values
calculated in [7], is realized.

in function of time are registered. Powder gases pressure

is registered on measure place in cartridge case.
Experiment is repeated at least 30 times. Results are
presented in [2], but here only the experimental results for
automatic rifle 7.62 mm and for one measure place is
given.

The highest influence on the value of maximum powder

gases pressure has the unit grain burning speed, while the
initial area of powder grain and the initial mass of powder
grain have equal influence on the value of maximum
powder gases pressure and the initial powder mass has the
smallest influence on the value of maximum powder
gases pressure. Mutually parameters have also the
influence on the value of maximum powder gases
pressure but considerable smaller then the influence of the
independently parameters.

For comparison analysis and to correct the model, the

average value diagrams for the model and experiments
(picture 2) are used.

The highest influence on the muzzle velocity has the unit

grain burning speed, while second influence in order has
the initial powder mass and third respectively fourth
influence have initial area of powder grain and initial
mass of powder grain. Disperssional analysis, for all
value, shows that mutually parameters the influence, are
minor.
After that, the regressional analysis of experimental
results is realized.
The regressional's polynomial [7] with the regression's
coefficients values gives the expression for maximum
pressure:

Picture 2. Diagrams p(t) average value model and

experiments

pm = 3146,5625 + 73, 6875mz 0 + 76,5625u z 0 +

+51,1875mb 0 + 73, 6875S z 0 + 1, 6875mz 0 u z 0 +
+1,3125mz 0 mb 0 + 1, 4375u z 0 mb 0 + 1,5625mz 0 S z 0 +
+1, 6875u z 0 S z 0 + 1,3125mb 0 S z 0

Diagrams on the picture 2 shows that model results and

experimental results have very good agreement and
conformable. The deviation on the large part is smaller
then 10%. There are some greater deviations at the curve
beginning on account of the differences in suppositions
and near the barrel muzzle as the consequence of
transducer inertia by pressure measuring.

And from them are:

pm = 3430,6875; when parameters have the upper level
pm = 2862,4375; when parameters have the lower level

5. CORRECTION OF CALCULATION
RESULTS

Deviation from 284,125 bar to average value of

maximum powder gases pressure shows that these
parameters influences on the maximum powder gases
pressure are essential because the maximum powder gases
pressure changes for 9% from his average value.

There are two manners for adjustment results calculation

and experimental to correct the experimental results and
to correct the model. Firing conditions in experimental
barrel are different from conditions in fighting barrel so
the mathematical model and computer program are
corrected with conditions for experimental barrel and the
calculations are executed with such conditions.

For the muzzle velocity is:

V0 = 726,875 + 6,125mz 0 + 8,5u z 0 +
+8,375mb 0 + 6,125S z 0

To correct the calculations results the logical way is to

influence at these initial parameters for which factors
analysis gave the highest influence on the calculation
results. It is necessary to make correction of calculation
results with alteration the value of unit burning speed
because this parameter has the highest influence. Second
parameters by the influence are initial mass of powder
grain and initial area of powder grain. On those
parameters can influence in the production process
powder laboration.

V0 = 756 m/s ; when parameters have the upper level

V0 = 697,75m/s ; when parameters have the lower level
Deviation from 29,125 m/s to average value of muzzle
velocity shows that these parameters influences on the
muzzle velocity are essential because the muzzle velocity
changes for 4% from her average value.

4. A COMPARISONS ANALYSIS OF
EXPERIMENTAL AND CALCULATIONS
RESULTS

Box-Wilsons method is used to correct the calculation

result with variation the values of unit burning speed. This
method, shown on the picture 3: as spiral diagram,
contents gradually approximation at the experimental
modeling.

Experimental research is realized to get real dates for

firing process in barrel and to compare them with
calculation results. The curves of powder gases pressure
349

Gradually approximations are repeated all while as

satisfaction agreement the calculation and experimental
results are realized. With values at this moment, the
numerical model can be taken as simulator for complete
firing process.

Picture 4. Diagrams p(t ) corrections model and average

value experiments
A comparison of experimental and calculation results for
powder gases pressure shows their good approaching for
complete firing process and so the mathematical model is
validated.

Picture 3. Spiral diagram Box-Wilsons method

Table 2. shows the calculated values for maximum
powder gases pressure and muzzle velocity with
phlegmatic powder using the method of gradually
approximation.

6. CONCLUSION
This paper gives theoretic-experimental analysis of firing
process in small-arms barrel based on the experimental
research and numerical computer modeling. By the
analysis it came to the knowledge which calculation
conditions gives optimal and acceptable results for
separate small-arms. Powder gases pressure in the small
arms barrel in function of time is presented by
comparisons analysis. A comparison of experimental and
calculation results for powder gases pressure shows their
good approaching.

Table 2. Influence phlegmatic powder on calculations

results
Phlegmatic is
Maximum
Muzzle
Unit burning penetrated of
powder gases velocity,
speed, uz0
powder grain
pressure, bar
m/s
depth, r
1/2
2933
718,68
1/3
2960
722,13
7,5 E-10
1/4
2985
724,06
1/5
3002
725,35
1/2
2638
690,12
1/3
2709
700,99
7,0 E-10
1/4
2778
707,71
1/5
2829
712,19

Factors analysis is realized for the moment when

maximum powder gases pressure and muzzle velocity are
realized. This proceeding can be used for the other fluid
flow characteristics also for each time in firing process
and each projectile position in the barrel.

A comparison of experimental and calculation results

shows their good approaching for phlegmatic powder
where phlegmatic is penetrated till 33% of powder grain
depth and with initial value of unit burning speed
7,5 E-10m/sPa. After that, the remaining part of powder
grain burn with unit burning speed value of
7,767 E-10m/sPa, that means with average value which is
taken by calculations in factors analysis. For this powder
the approaching values for maximum powder gases
pressure and muzzle velocity are smaller than 1%.

REFERENCES
[1] Cvetkovi,M.: Application insteady gas-dynamic on
the interior ballistics problem to small arms, Ph.D.
dissertation, High Military Technical School,
Zagreb, 1984.
[2] Tani,Lj.: Numerical computation of insteady
models in interior ballistics to small arms, Ph.D.
dissertation, Military Technical Academy of
Yugoslav Army, Belgrade, 1997.
[3] Cvetkovi,M., Tani,Lj.: Conditions analysis by two
phase flow numerical modeling in small arms, XII
Yugoslav Congress of Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics, YUCTAM, Vrnjacka Banja 97, June 27, 1997.
[4] Djokovi,V.: Quality Product Instruction (QPI),
Factory dedicated product "First Partizan", Uzice,
1997.

All experimental curves are compatible with the

calculations so that the correctness of given theory is
validated. The experimental results prove the character of
pressure in small-arms barrel as function of time and
position in barrel.
For better adjustment of calculation and experimental
results it is necessary to correct the model for increased
barrel volume made to put the pressure transducer.
350

[5] ***, Commission Internationale Permanente (CIP),

Geneve, 1995.
[6] Panteli,I., Introduction in theory engineer's
experiments, People's University - Radivoj Cirpanov,
Novi Sad, 1986.
[7] abarkapa,O.: Investigation of initial parameters for
the model of two-phase flow in small arms, master's
thesis, Military Technical Academy of Yugoslav
Army, Belgrade, 2000.
[8] Momirski,M.: Contributions to the Methodology of
Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, 1986.
[9] Tani,Lj., Cvetkovi,M., abarkapa,O.: Putting
together the model and experimental results for twophase fluid flow in the small-arms by Box-Willson's
method, 7-th Symposium on Theoretical and Applied

Mechanics, Republic of Macedonia, Struga, 2000.

[10] Tani,Lj.: The experimental research two phase
flow parametars in the small arms barrel, Review
Technical Research of Yugoslav Army, Belgrade,
No 2, P. 3 -9 1999.
[11] Tani,Lj., Cvetkovi,M.: Two phase flow models
sensibility in small arms on initial parameters,
Review Technical Research of Yugoslav Army,
Belgrade, No 3, P. 3 -7 1999.
[12] Jovanovi,P., Tani,Lj.: Project quality management
of complex interior ballistic systems, 5-th
International Scientific Conference on Defensive
Technologies OTEH 2012, Belgrade, Serbia, 18-19
September, 2012.

351

SECTION IV

AMMUNITION AND ENERGETIC MATERIALS

CHAIRMAN
Aleksandar Kari, PhD
Ljiljana Jelisavac, PhD

ANALYSIS OF LEAD REPLACEMENT IN SMALL ARMS AND CARBINE

AMMUNITION PRODUCTION
IHAILO EREVI
Prvi Partizan .D, Uice, m.ercevic@yahoo.com

Abstract: This research discusses the replacement of lead in production of small arms and carbine ammunition.
Materials that may eventually replace lead in production are considered, as well as advantages and disadvantages
compared to the lead, possibility of procurement, price, technology of development.
Here are presented some constructive solutions for leadless bullets in certain small arms and carbine calibers, as well
as analysis of leadless ammunition through the results of internal ballistics, accuracy and effects upon target. Research
also contains structural solutions for bullets made of solid material, so-called solid bullets and bullets manufactured of
sintered material, and their analysis.
Realistic evaluation of the possibilities of leadless ammunition production is presented, as well as level of quality and
reliability that can be achieved and the fulfillment of tactical and technical requirements that are imposed.
Key words: lead, tin, tungsten, bismuth, sinter.
Leadless bullets with core from other metals (tin, zinc,
tungsten, tungsten, and others);

1. INTRODUCTION
It is widely known that lead is one of the basic elements
in the ammunition production. Its mostly used in the
production of bullet core and primers (initial mixture).
Each year there are several new calibers for small arms or
carbine weapon, at the same time bullets that need to
achieve tactical and technical requirements that are
imposed are developing. Taking into account the growing
tendency of appearance of new calibers and the
production of existing ones, it is evident that the
consumption and use of lead in ammunition production is
increasing. It is known how much lead is harmful to
human health and the environment, with time some
environmental organizations began to interfere in the
ammunition production demanding the reduction of lead.
Up to certain level they have succeeded, we can see that
some countries prohibit use of lead ammunition in some
hunting areas and in military use, as well as some
countries members of NATO introduce restrictive
measures for the use of lead in production and they reduce
percentage of above mentioned ammunition in favor of
the so-called, ecological ammunition, that is leadless.

Leadless bullets with core from sintered material;

So-called solid bullets, which don't have conventional
jacket in the construction.
It will be presented concrete structural solutions and their
results in accuracy, terminal ballistics and internal
ballistics, and also comparison of these results with
results obtained with standard bullets with lead core.

2. LEAD AND HIS BAD EFFECTS ON

AMMUNITION USERS
The first will discuss just the presence of lead for
ammunition users who may be affected. Definitely the
most vulnerable are the workers who work at the
outpouring of lead wires and workers who are involved in
further processing to obtain the lead core, then we should
mention the people who work on the testing of
ammunition, namely the shooter who is responsible for
checking the function of weapons during the shooting and
testing of the bullet accuracy, where combustion of initial
mixture, powder and emissions of the gases come into the
workspace. Lead particles are also formed under the
influence of hot gases around 2000C on lead on the
bottom of the bullet.

In that sence, the question is whether Serbia and Prvi

Partizan AD as ammunition manufacturer can follow the
development and requests of that ammunition.
In this research first will be presented bad effects caused
by lead ammunition and who is exposed to the effects of
such ammunition; alternative materials that can replace
lead will be discussed, their advantages and disadvantages
compared to the lead, technology application of such
materials and in the end it will be shown some of the
structural solutions for bullets that do not contain lead,
according to the following order:

Next according to exposure to lead, along ammunition

manufacturers, are the users of ammunition, either small
arms or rifle. This group includes soldiers and hunters and
all other users of such ammunition. If we take them into
consideration then it should also be noted that the training
ground and all outdoor hunting and shooting ranges are
355

indirectly endangered .This primarily refers to the remains

of fired bullets, lead that remained, and also on lost
bullets on the ground.

Lead poisoning is an insidious threat to general health

because there are no unique signs of poisoning. Because
of general nature of symptoms it is often not suspected on
lead poisoning [1].

The fourth type of exposure would include users of

animal meat that was shot with bullets that contained lead.
Despite preventive cleaning of the catch, lead particles
remain and decompose in the body of the animal and
indirectly reach to the user's body.

3. LEADLESS BULLETS WITH CORE FROM

OTHER METALS
All bullet types that contain lead as a major element of the
core of the bullet are generally the type FMJ, TMJ, SP,
and the second type is one where lead core is surrounded
completely or partially by a jacket, or it is present at the
top of the bullet like in the case of SP bullets. Before
mentioning alternative materials for lead it will be
presented a schematic representation of design of the
bullet where all applicable alternative materials can be
applied:

All above listed lead ammunition users are exposed to the

same bad effects that lead causes to the organism. Some
of the consequences of lead exposure are [1]:
Early symptoms of poisoning (Loss of appetite, fatigue,
abdominal pain, etc.).
Reduces the ability of hearing, vision and muscle
coordination
Harmful effects on the blood, kidneys, heart and
respiratory system.

Picture 1: Overview of Environment friendly bullets

Practical look of above listed bullets is shown in the
To determine the right materials that can replace the lead,
following picture:
first should be determined why in the first place lead has
been used, and its physical-chemical and other properties.
Lead is one of the heavy metals. His density is 11.34
g/cm3, melts at 327.30 C and boils at 1750 C. [2] It is soft
and can be cut with a knife into sheets or drawn into wires
that have little hardness. Due to his high density and
resistance to corrosion lead found a great application. In
military purposes is used for his high density and easy
workability. It is easy to melt and cast and to be further
processed to the desired shape of the core of the bullet.
Definitely, the biggest reason why the lead is used as
material for making cores of the bullets is its density, and
therefore the weight due to which bullet achieves
considerable kinetic energy. When hitting the target there
is no ricochet, especially when it comes to harder
surfaces. Considering the availability of lead as the
needed raw material, then it all comes in his favor. It is
cheep, easy to procure, and therefore reduces the cost of
the production process. Price of approximately 1.5 euros
Picture 2: Overview of Environment friendly bullets
per kilo can be said to be quite affordable compared to the
according to design
prices of other metals, like tin, which is 20 times more
The design of the bullets 0-5 requires the existence of the expensive.
core, so first will be discussed alternative materials that
As an alternative materials to lead the following metals
may be used instead of lead in these designs.
are mentioned:
356

deforms, tin has become the replacement for lead. Prvi

Partizan is working on the development of hunting
bullets where lead core is completely replaced with tin
core, and the only difference from the old one , with lead
core, is in the lenght of bullet. Due to differences in
density between lead and tin, tin bullets are lightly longer
in order to compensate above-mentioned differences.

Bismuth
Tin
Zinc
Iron / Steel
Tungsten

All the above listed metals have advantages and

disadvantages in relation to lead. Each metal and his
characteristics that stand out for use in ammunition
instead of lead will be discussed.

Below in the picture is represented one hunting bullet

where core was replaced with tin:

The following picture graphicaly represents comparison

of the density of lead with aforementioned metals (density
of lead is 100%).

Picture 4. Hunting SP bullet with tin core

Ballistics and accuracy results of this bullet are excellent
and they are represented in the following tables:
Table 1: Summary of ballistic results, bullet with tin core
in caliber 30-06 Springfield
No. of shot
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean value
Deviation
ximum
inimum
RV( x-in)
Correction
Prescribed values
according to C.I.P

Picture 3: Comparison of the density of lead in relation to

the density of alternative metals
Bismuth is a reddish-white metal, with silver shine, looks
like antimony, very brittle, it melts at 271,0C, boils on
1560C, has density of 9.78 g/cm3. Non-toxic.
The difference in the density of lead (11.34 g/cm3) and
the density of bismuth (9.78 g/cm3) allows bismuth to be
a replacement for lead in a variety of applications
including the manufaturing of the small arms and carbine
ammunition. Similar impact energy as in the lead cores is
achieved. There is no ricochet when hitting a hard
surface. The combination of bismuth-tin gives an alloy
that provides an alternative to lead and gives similar
ballistic results as lead. However, disadvantage of
bismuth is that it is difficult to be forged into thin sheet
metal or wires and can not be applied in the expanding
hunting bullets and others.Also, one of the disadvantages
is that bismuth is one of the rare metals and its price is up
to ten times higher than the price of lead.
Steel with a density of 7.5 g/cm3 can not be classified as
alternative material. It is evident the lack of density in
comparison with lead. Easily bounces from hard surfaces.
The only major use of steel in the production of small
arms bullets is production of penetrators.

Velocity ( m/s)
786.81
789.92
777.94
791.58
794.16
788.08
6.27
794.16
777.94
16.22
-1.92

Pressure ( bar)
3916
3749
3698
3894
3931
3837.60
106.52
3931.00
3698.00
233.00
-212.40

790.00

4050.00

Picture 5: Picture of shooted bullets with tin core in

caliber 30-06 Springfield

Tin is a silvery shiny metal, melts at 231.90 C, boils on

to 2260C, his density is 7.28 g/cm3. Belongs to a group
of metals with small hardness, easy to process, can be
drawn into wire, can be forged into thin peaces. Due to its
easy workability, and that when it hits the surface easily

If we take into consideration the required values and the

obtained values, it can be said that the bullets fully meet
the criteria because permitted deviation has speed of
357

25m/s, and the values of the pressures have not exceeded

the limit of 4050 bars. As for precision, medium radial
deviation is Rs = 1.51 cm, and the allowed limit is 3cm.

entire surface of the target. Of course, all these parameters

include price as the main factor. Depending on purposes and
desires of what we want to achieve with the bullet, we will
get lower or higher price.

It should be noted that the aforementioned hunting bullets

has 100% tin core, namely, there is no any alloy of tin or
other metals. The presented results show that the
substitution with tin is justified, as far as for the
application in hunting bullets. It should be considered use
of tin in military bullets M03 (5.56 mm), and whether it is
possible to completely replace lead core with tin or alloy,
and what performances would give such bullets, which
only can be noticed with further analysis.

Generally the use of tungsten as a replacement for lead is

still to come. When we look at all the possibilities that we
have and control over bullet performances, it is easy to
notice that these bullets can easily be applied in all
segments: in hunting purposes, for military, for special
units, security forces, police and others.

4. LEADLESS BULLETS WITH CORE OF

SINTERED MATERIAL

Zinc was mentioned as an alternative to lead but the last

analysis by SAAMI showed that zinc is toxic and it is
recommended that all researches on replacing lead with
zinc should be stopped.

The technology of metallurgy of metal powder in the

Prvi Partizan exist from 1961, under name '' Sinter'' and
technology for mass production of demanding industrial
parts has been won. While technology of processing of
metal powder was developing, gradually the idea of
application of that technology in production was created.
These days this operations and capacities apply in
production of ecological sinter bullet, according to
customer requirements in ammunition production.
Worldwide this technology of powder metallurgy is much
more used for this purposes, especially in the U.S. , where
the bullets manufactured by this method are known as the
'' Green bullets ''. Prvi Partizan is also considering to
expand the production with certain calibers whose bullets
would be worked with sintered material. Mentioned
technology aims to eliminate lead in bullets in the process
of mass production of ammunition, in that sense Prvi
Partizan is already manufacturing several calibers whose
bullets are made from metal powder. As mentioned in the
section on tungsten and its powder, the same is here. It is
possible to optimize sintered bullet with the
characteristics of the regular bullet with lead, then if we
want bullet to decompose or ultra decompose on plate of
soft steel, or we want sinter bullet to be superior in the
transfer of kinetic energy to the target and when perforate
the target. The superiority of metallurgy of metal powder
is shown in possibility of complete recycling of sintered
bullet material. The technology of metallurgy of metal
powder represent a revolution of a new possibilities for
the construction of bullets and in the fulfillment of tactical
and technical requirements in a wide range.

Tungsten (Wolfram) is a silvery-white metal, one of the

metals who dissolves very difficult, melts at 3380C and
boils on 5530C. His density is 19.3 g/cm3 [2]. Tungsten
is a very hard material, the value of the Brinell hardness is
2570, in comparison with the lead which is 5 or 22-25 for
the heavy alloy of lead. The density of tungsten is 1.7
times higher than the density of lead. For example,
accurate bullet that has mass 11 grams in .30 caliber
where lead core has mass of 7,64 grams in comparison
with identical bullet, but with tungsten core, will give
value of the mass of such bullet around 16,4 grams. Due
to such a difference in densities, tungsten has found an
important application in the production of ammunition.
While for penetrators tungsten is used as a whole piece,
for other bullets purposes it is used as metal powder that
can be compressed under big pressure to the desired
density. It is a very hard metal and difficult to process, so
only use of the technology of fine powder is justified.
Purity and size of small particles of the metal powder
directly affect the performance of the bullet. The particle
size of 10 microns or less is unfavorable for many
reasons. At first, on such small diameters it is difficult to
control materials, weighing of bullet is monotonous, very
expensive and less accurate, and when it hits the surface
and bullet decompose there is an excessiv metal dust .
With the increase of the diameter of the powder particles,
increases also the ability to precisely measure mass. The
size of particles of about 30 microns allows to compress
the powder to a density approximate to density of solid
material. The cost of production of these cores directly
depends on the size and purity of particles. Percentage of
purity of particles around 99.5% is a standard, around
99.95% is medium, and the price of such powder is
normal, while for the percentages over 99.95% the price
is higher up to 10 times. [3]

Sintered bullet is an alternative to the classic bullet with

lead:

The possibility of a balance between particle size contributes

to easier controlling of the density of the material, which can
directly affect the very size of the core of the bullet and
dimensions. We can choose whether we want the same
dimension of the bullet but heavier bullet, or easier bullet
with increased length or even shorter bullet but with
drastically weight increase, and all that thanks to the ability
to control the size of the particles and pressure. Thanks to
this we can choose whether we want bullets of penetrating
character or we want bullets that will transfer energy over the
358

Meets the requirements of the protection of the working

space, the environment and reduces operational risk.
starts to decompose after hitting the barrier of mild
steel,
there is a low risk of rejection of bullet fragments,
low level of impact in conventional systems for
capturing the bullets
easy transition from training and other exercises in
operational use,
there are no injuries from bullet decomposition.
Operational use, training and other exercises, trajectory,
accuracy, function, maximum pressure, handling and the
recoil are the same. Sintered bullet does not penetrate into

plate of mild steel with thickness of 6.4 mm (1/4 in), at a

distance of 10 meters. There is no bullet and perforation
(of hole), but there is powder and fragments with mass up
to 0.32 g, picture 6.

Picture 8: Comparative review of ballistic trajectories of

sintered bullet FSPB, HPSB and FMJ, variations in
caliber 9 x 19 mm

Picture 6: One sintered bullet and its fragments during

impact
There is no rejection of fragments while using sintered
bullets, and it decompose without ricochet when
confronted with the plate of mild steel with thickness of
6.4 millimeters, at an angle of 15 degrees and distance at
10 meters. Regarding the function of arms, bullet has to
provide cartridge feeding in powder chamber without any
problems. When firing fragments or pieces of bullet
should not appear. Ammunition has to function in the
temperature range from 00C to 400 C. In the next pictures
are represented tactical and technical requirements for the
bullet from sintered material for caliber 9 x 19 mm.

25 mMJ
50mMJ
Picture 9: Comparative review of accuracy results from
bullets from standard series and sintered bullet
It can be seen that the sintered bullet gives better results than
the standard bullet, but more analysis and a series of shooting
should be done, in order to definitely determine which bullet
is better and whether the sintered bullet can be considered as
an adequate substitute for military and police purposes.
Regarding the application in carbine weapon, it was made
variant in caliber 375 H & H , whose testing have shown
remarkable accuracy and ballistics results, and where the
best advantage of the sintered bullet can be seen and that is:
easy manipulation of the powder particles and compression
to the desired density .

Picture 7: Tactical and technical requirements for the

sintered bullet caliber 9 x 19 mm.

5. LEADLESS BULLETS, SO CALLED

SOLID BULLETS

Regarding the requirements for cartridge, they are exactly

the same as for standard ammunition with lead cores. All
the requirements has to be fullfiled, starting with the use
of same powder and primers which are used in standard
ammunition, velocity of the bullet, the maximum
allowable pressure, extraction force from cartridge case,
trajectory, function, handling etc. Also, the purpose of the
ammunition has to be respected, in sense whether this
ammunition will apply for training and exercises or for
official operations.

In addition to the above mentioned variants for

replacement of lead, that mainly has discussed the
replacement of just the core of the bullet with other metals
or sintered metal, in the so-called ''SOLID bullets
principle is to replace the entire construction of the bullet.
Therefore, there is no classical structure with core and
jacket, although variants of bullet where there is a
standard jacket and core are in the process of
development, but in a different form, such as is the case
with the american bullet M885A1. The main material
used for ''SOLID bullet manufacturing is brass and its
alloys. Brass that is commonly used for manufacturing is
CuZn10. His chemical composition is as follows:

The proof that sintered bullets have similar performance

like regular bullets, or have even better performance, can
be seen in shown graphic bullet trajectory and represented
results. of the accurac

359

ble 2: The chemical composition of the brass which is

used for making of '' SOLID'' bullets
Alloy
CuZn

In the military purposes this type of manufacturing of the

bullet was applied to caliber 12.7 mm. As for the usage
abroad, only M855A1 is important to mention, in which
lead core is replaced with a core of brass alloy.

Cu % Zn % Al % Fe % Ni % Pb % Sn %
91

rest 0,02

0,05

0,30

0,05

0,10

6. CONCLUSION

Advantages of solid bullets, manufactured from brass, are

shown in the following:

The answer to the question whether we can replace lead

with other materiales would be positive. Depending on
bullet purposes we can choose whether we want the core
of other metals, of metal powder or we want solid bullet.
Prvi Partizan can keep up with the development trend
of environmental ammunition. We are already working
with the hunting bullets with tin core and we will try to
develop bullets for military purposes in the calibers 5.56
mm and 7.62 mm. We already work on sintered bullet 9 x
19 mm and solid bullet 12.7 mm. Therefore, Prvi
Partizan completely follows the development of
environmental ammunition and further development
depends solely on the market and overview of the
financial feasibility of development of such ammunition,
according to market demands.

ammunition made by this method does not damage the

weapon barrel, no additional cleaning inside the barrel
is needed, which is not the case with lead bullets;
brass bullets tolerate well the load and are not subject to
fragmentation or breaking;
brass bullets have good penetration and distribution of
impact, of the kinetic energy;
Can be used in light weapons, without big recoil;
brass bullets open easily at low and high speeds;
100% sustainable bullet weight after hitting the target;
simple manufacturing (processing on CNC lathes)
completely harmless to the environment and
environmentally the best option.
Regarding disadvantages, the only one is that the material
density is less than the density of lead, so there is a need
to manufacture a bit longer bullets than the standard, to
compensate the difference in the densities.

REFERENCES
[1] Group of authors, Ecological ammunition, Prvi
Partizan, Uzice, 2012.
[2] Stanimir,R.Arsenijevic: Chemistry-General and
inorganic, Scientific book, Belgrade, 1990.
[3] Korbin,D.R.: Using tungsten powder in small arms
projectiles, USA, 1998
[4] Texts created in the company Prvi Partizan during the
development of ecological ammunition.

For now Prvi Partizan has been developing hunting

bullet of this type in the caliber 375 H & H HP and great
ballistics and accuracy results were obtained. All
pressures are in the allowed limits and result of accuracy
is 0.76 cm (mean radial deflection) on 100 m. The
following pictures presents the results of the accuracy of
this bullet and the picture of bullet:

Picture 10: Accuracy results of bullet 375 H&H and

appearance of bullet

360

COMPARISON OF SOLID PROPELLANTS CONTAINING DIFFERENT

COMBUSTION STABILIZERS
VESNA RODI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vesna_rodic@vektor.net
MIRJANA DIMI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, mirjanadimicjevtic@gmail.com

Abstract: The comparison of composite solid propellants based on hydroxyterminated polybutadiene/isophorone

dyisocyanate including four different compounds as combustion stabilizers has been represented in this paper. Various
combinations in relation to total solid content, ammonium-perchlorate bimodal and tromodal content and mutual
particle sizes ratio and types of combustion additive have been made for this research. Burning rate law's parameters of
all compositions have been determined at two different temperatures for temperature sensitivity calculating.
Keywords: Composite solid propellant, aluminium, zirconium carbide, titanium (IV) oxide, antimony (III) oxide,
ballistic bahaviou.
The burning behavior and flame structure of an AP/HTPB
composite propellant are influenced by many factors
including the chamber pressure, local velocity, AP
particle size and mass fraction [2]. The occurrence of
various degrees of irregular combustion will occur at a
specific particle size distribution of oxidizer powder
(which determines the packing density and unfilled space
between) and oxidizer/binder ratio. In order to achieve
certain requirements, it is necessary to define different
combinations of AP particle size distribution of various
bimodal or tromodal fractions, total AP and total solid
phases content. When the particle size ratio (coarse/fine)
is increased up to a level of significant interspace, the
burning of fine AP particles will be inhibited by the
melting layer of binder.

INTRODUCTION
The appearance of instability during the combustion of
composite solid propellants (CSP) can be prevented by
adding different additives. These compounds may have an
influence on other important parameters of the ballistic
performance and achieving the necessary requirements for
the propellant. While designing the composition, the
propellant sensitivity on pressure and temperature must be
taken into account, as well as the influence of solid
component packing (in particular the ratio of different
oxidizer fractions) and casting properties. For this
purpose, it is necessary to come to terms with the needs
and characteristics of the propellant.
The internal ballistic test results of CSP including
different stabilizer additives will be represented in this
paper: aluminium, zirconium carbide, titanium (IV) oxide
and antimony (III) oxide. Their influence on burning rate
law and temperature sensitivity values of compositions
with three different particle size distributions will be
tested.

The burning rate enhances with an increase in the

pressure and a decrease in the AP particle size. For
example, for the particle size of 20 m, it may be
assumed that the AP and HTPB are thermally isolated in
the condensed phase. If energy transfer is allowed
between the two segments, the surface temperature of AP
will be reduced, leading to a decrease in the overall
burning rate [2]. So, if there are some compounds in the
propellant mixture taking over the energy transfer to
themselves, because of their higher melting points, it is
very possible to change the combustion process during the
form of laminar flow.

THEORETICAL PART
As basic component of CSP, whose content, particle size
distribution and fraction ratio significantly affect the way
of combustion, ammonium perchlorate (AP) is one of the
most extensively used oxidizers in these formulations.
Due to its unique characteristic of self-supporting
deflagration, AP combustion has been studied primarily in
order to understand the combustion phenomena in APbased CSP [1]. It happens that the exothermic
decomposition of AP takes place before melting at
temperatures above 200 C (270 - 300 C).

In order to produce a usable propellant formulation, it is

necessary to control the burn rate of the propellant, to
prevent unacceptable performance (too high or too low
pressure) for the intended purpose of the device. The
value of temperature sensitivity of propellant is very
important for defining and predicting ballistic
361

performance and it is expressed as the percent change in

burning rate per degree change in propellant temperature.
The first requirement is to obtain a set of burning rate data
at various initial temperatures and pressures [3].

Antimony trioxide is the inorganic, amphoteric

compound, melting point is at 656C. Its structure
depends on the temperature. Dimeric Sb4O6 is the gas at
1560C with the same structure as phosphoric trioxide.
The cage structure exists as the mineral senarmontite, but
above 606C, the more stable form is orthorhombic and
exists as the mineral valentinite.

Once the experimental burning rate data is collected, it

must be smoothed or fitted. This fitting should be with
minimal disturbance of the natural shape of the burning
rate curve. Over small ranges of pressure, a power law fit
in equation (1) may be adequate [3].
v=B pn
where:
v
p
B
n

Antimony trioxide powder is shown in Fig. 3.

(1)

burning rate,
pressure in the motor chambre,
const. depending on grain temperature and
pressure exponent.

It has often been a practice to add some additives to the

propellants in order to modify the burning rate and to
maintain the burning rate and temperature sensitivity
within acceptable parameters [4, 5].

Fig. 3: Antimony trioxide powder

ZrC, Al, TiO2 and Sb2O3 are used for that purpose
because of their ability to effect CSP combustion
characteristics: it was noticed that those compounds
increase the melted binder viscosity of solid propellant,
thereby preventing it to stir with fine AP. This process
enables proper burning at low and high pressures owing
to loss of bad burning region in the pressure range [4].

Aluminium is a silvery white, soft, ductile metal with

melting point at 660 C. This metal is so chemically
reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to
extremely reducing environments. Instead, it is found
combined in over 270 different minerals. It is remarkable
for the metal's low density and for its ability to resist
corrosion due to the phenomenon of passivation with
Al2O3. Al metal powder is shown in Fig. 4.

Zirconium carbide (ZrC) is an extremely hard refractory

ceramic material. It has the appearance of a gray metallic
powder with cubic crystal structure. It is highly corrosion
resistant. Strong covalent Zr-C bond gives this material
very high melting point (3532C).
Zirconium carbide powder is shown in Fig.1.

Fig. 4: Aluminium powder

The comparisons of all mentioned additives effects on
combustion properties are presented in this work [6, 7, 8].
Fig.1: Zirconium carbide powder

EXPERIMENTAL PART

Titanium dioxide, (TiO2), or titania, has the melting point

at 1843C. Titanium dioxide occurs in nature as wellknown minerals rutile, anatase and brookite and as two
high pressure forms, a monoclinic and an orthorhombic.
The metastable anatase and brookite phases convert to the
rutile phase upon heating above temperatures 600C 800C. Titania powder is given in Fig. 2.

The three groups of compositions with different AP

fractions have been prepared for this research:
Group 3: bimodal CSP (AP - 200 m and 80 m);
Group 4: tromodal CSP (AP - 200 m, 80 m 10 m);
Group 5: bimodal CSP (AP - 200 m, 10 m).
The compositions including ZrC (labeled as Z), titania
(T) and antimony trioxide (S) are made in each
group, but only in the group 3 one with Al (3A) and one
without stabilizer (3P). The CSP binder compositions are
based on hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) and
isophorone-diisocyanate (IPDI) as curing agent, with
addition of other standard components such as plasticizer,
bonding agent and antioxidant.
All ingredients have been homogenized at 50 C in the
laboratory vertical planetary mixer. Afterwards, the

Fig. 2: Titania powder

362

propellant is casted in the experimental motors for the

static tests and cured at elevated temperature.

Table 5: Burning rate law parameters at -40 C

Table 1: Bimodal CSP with 200 and 80 m AP

No
3P
3A
3Z
3T
3S

200,
(%)
60.80

80,
(%)
15.20

62.40

15.60

60.24

15.06

Add,
(%)
6.0
0.8
1.0
0.7

Ptot.
(%)
76.0
78.0
75.3

Total solid
phase, (%)
76.0
84.0
78.8
79.0
74.0

Coarse to fine AP fraction ratio in Table 1 is 80/20,

known as the best fraction combination of 200/80 m.
Total AP content for CSP with antimony oxide (3S) is
lower because of its effect on the increase in viscosity
values, especially presence of 0.5 % Fe2O3, (with * in
Table 3), and decrease in the casting period [9].

4Z
4T
4S

200,
(%)

80,
(%)

10,
(%)

22.5

34.3 21.5

Add,
(%)
0.5
0.8
0.6

Ptot. Total solid

(%) phase, (%)
78.8
78.3
79.1
78.9

p =

200,
(%)

5Z
5T
5S

55.0

10,
Ptot.
Add, (%)
(%)
(%)
0.5
24.0
79.0
0.7
0.5

Total solid
phase, (%)
80.0*
80.2*
79.5

No
3P
3A
3Z
3T
3S
4Z
4T
4S
5Z
5T
5S

RESULTS OF EXAMINATIONS
Casted experimental two-inch-motors have been
subjected to static tests at fire station at two temperatures
and examination results of burning parameters at 50 C
and -40 C are given in Tables 4 and 5: burning rate
values at 70 bar (v70) and pressure exponents (n).
Table 4: Burning rate law parameters at 50 C
v70 (mm/s)
6.49
9.71
8.48
7.16
5.54
8.30
8.29
8.82
11.70
11.27
7.32

T2 T1

(2)

Table 6: Calculated values of temperature sensitivity

Coarse to fine AP fraction ratio in Table 3 is 70/30, as

convenient for this fraction combination powder of 200
m and 10 m.

No
3P
3A
3Z
3T
3S
4Z
4T
4S
5Z
5T
5S

ln (v 2 v1 )p

burning rate at pressure p and temperature T2

v2
(mm/s);
burning rate at pressure p and temperature T1
v1
(mm/s); T2>T1, and
p
working pressure value in the motor chambre
corresponding to burning rates v1 and v2, (bar).

Table 3: Bimodal CSP with 200 and 10 m AP

No

n
0.2383
0.4458
0.4050
0.2037
0.0888
0.3085
0.3714
0.4121
0.4623
0.3368
0.2224

Temperature sensitivity values have been determined over

burning rates at the chosen pressure values at two extreme
testing temperatures. The calculated temperature
sensitivity values (p) at 70 bar for all batches
corresponding to the equation (2) are given in Table 6:

Table 2: Tromodal CSP with 200, 80 and 10 m AP

No

v70 (mm/s)
5.39
8.70
7.23
6.39
4.65
6.91
7.31
7.55
10.39
10.08
6.15

No
3P
3A
3Z
3T
3S
4Z
4T
4S
5Z
5T
5S

All the formulations are shown in Tables 1, 2 and 3.

n
0.1546
0.3461
0.5013
0.2300
0.1150
0.4238
0.3745
0.3991
0.4242
0.3956
0.2583

70 (%/ C)
0.2063
0.1210
0.1763
0.1257
0.1948
0.2034
0.1401
0.1731
0.1320
0.1240
0.1928

DISCUSSION
Burning rate laws at two temperatures will be graphically
presented for the sake of a more convenient consideration
and comparison of the compositions. Firstly, it may be
seen for the group 3 at 50 C and -40 C in Figs. 5 and 6,
respectively.

363

v2
v1
= const 2 ln p
T2 - T1
ln

(4)

It can be seen as an example in Fig. 7 for composition

without additives - 3P.
By fitting this dependence with the line through a plot, the
obtained mathematical model defines the trend change of
this characteristic (in %/C) as a function of pressures for
all the considered compositions.

Fig. 5: Burning rate laws for group 3 at 50 C

Fig. 7: Dependence =f(p) of composition 3P

By calculating the values from burning rate laws of four
others from the group 3 at two temperatures, labeled as
3A, 3Z, 3T and 3S, the change of temperature sensitivity
with pressure can be seen in the summarized data diagram
in Fig. 8.
Fig. 6: Burning rate laws for group 3 at -40 C
Based on the values in Tables 4 and 5
50 0C :
v 2 = B2 p n 2
v1 = B1 p n 2

-40 0C :

by dividing the equations of burning rate law at two

working temperatures according to the equation (1) the
next dependence is obtained:
v2
B
= 2 p n 2 - n1
v1
B1

(3)

By taking the natural log of burning rates quotient at two

different temperatures as a function of working pressures,
the change of temperature sensitivity with pressure is
obtained (Eq. 4)

Fig. 8: Dependence =f(p) for bimodal group 3

v
B
ln 2 = (n 2 - n1 ) ln 2 ln p
v1
B1
ln

v2
= const1 ln p
v1

Burning rate laws, from the Table 4 and 5, obtained from

tests at two temperatures of the next two groups (4 and 5),
for tromodal and bimodal AP fraction compositions from
the Table 2 and 3 are given in Figs. 9 and 10.

/: (T2 - T1 )

364

Finally, for the last group of bimodal compositions

(200/10 m AP fractions), labeled as 5Z, 5T i 5S, from
the data from Table 4 and 5, calculated temperature
sensitivity with pressure were obtained. The collection of
these diagrams for group 5 is seen in Fig. 12.

Fig. 9: Burning rate laws for groups 4 and 5 at 50 C

Fig. 12: Dependence =f(p) for bimodal group 5

Diagram dependencies represented in Fig. 8, 11 i 12 may
be mathematically fitted by means of the next log
function appearance: y=Aln(x)+B, as can be noticed in
Fig. 7. Values of coefficients A and B for all the
combination are shown in Table 7. If these functions are
approximated by straight line equation, the value A will
be the slope of that line (the rate of the rise and fall of
values) and B an intercept where line crosses the Y axis
- and it serves as a prediction of the level of values.
Table 7: Data of equation y=Aln(x)+B
Fig. 10: Burning rate laws for groups 4 and 5 at -40 C
So, the change of temperature sensitivity values with
pressure range from equation (2) and results from Tables
4 and 5 at two temperatures for batches 4Z, 4T and 4S,
(200/80/10 m) are given in Fig. 11.

Batch

3P

-0.090

0.601

3A

-0.111

0.592

3Z

0.107

-0.278

3T

0.029

0.001

3S

0.029

0.071

4Z

0.128

-0.340

4T

0.003

0.125

4S

-0.010

0.234

5Z

-0.040

0.311

5T

0.065

-0.153

5S

0.039

0.023

From batches No 3 (200/80 m AP), Fig. 5 and 6, it is

noticed that 3A and 3Z have the highest (pressure)
exponent and increase in the burning rate at 90 bar and
more as opposed to the three other. But, only 3A, 3Z and
3T have the same total AP content and they can be
compared: the composition including titania has the
lowest rates and that with aluminium - the highest.
From Fig. 8 it is obvious that the opposite curve character
for 3Z, 3T and 3S corresponds to 3P and 3A where, by

Fig. 11: Dependence =f(p) for tromodal group 4

365

increasing the pressure, decreases (A<0, Table 7). It

means that the differencies between burning rates at 50 C
and -40 C are significantly dropping (3A) at higher
pressures (> 120 bar). Nevertheless, a great change of
these rates' ratio occurs at lower pressures, (< 80 bar). On
the other hand, the trend of curves for compositions 3Z,
3T and 3S are in opposition to 3A and 3P, and those three
show lower temperature sensitivity in the whole range of
pressure and milder change (particulary for 3T and 3S),
while 3Z do not show desirable trend. However, is
always under 0,2 %/C.

compositions are divided into three groups of AP

fractions:
the first - bimodal AP fractions (200 m i 80 m in ratio
80/20) including four combustion stabilizers: ZrC, TiO2,
Sb2O3 and Al, and one without any additive;
the second tromodal AP fractions (200 m, 80 m and
10 m) including ZrC, TiO2, Sb2O3 and
the third - bimodal AP fractions (200 m i 10 m in ratio
70/30) also with ZrC, TiO2, Sb2O3.
Examinations of the burning rate law parameters at 50 C
and -40 C of all batches have been done. Using them, the
temperature sensitivity was determined at the chosen
pressure and the change of temperature sensitivity with
pressure was plotted because of the comparison of the
curves for all compositions.

From batches No 4 (200/80/10 m AP) and from their

burning rates, Fig. 9 and 10, it is seen that all of them
have similar (-40 C) or identical (50 C) burning rate
laws with exponent values at the upper limit of
acceptance.
From Fig. 11 it is very downright that the different
character of = f(p) exists for 4Z and the two other
compositions. This can be evaluated from Table 7 and by
observing values of gradient A. Temperature sensitivity of
tromodal version 4Z is very undesirable because of the
fact that that characteristic has rather high values in the
whole optimal pressure range. 3Z and 4Z can be well
compared because of the same total amount of solid
content, but different fraction content. 4T and 4S are more
prosperous, because their are below 0,15 and 0,19
respectively. These are tromodal CSP with very sensible
combustion stability and higher pressure exponent
comparing to the bimodal CSP with the same total solid
content and the same additive.

3A and 3Z have the highest exponent and the burning

rates, as opposed to the 3T, 3P and 3S with very desirable
properties. The titania composition has the lowest rates,
and the one with aluminium - the highest. The opposite
character of = f(p) curve was obvious for 3Z, 3T and 3S
in regard to 3P and 3A: by increasing the pressure, is
decreasing so the difference of burning rates at 50 C and
-40 C is significantly dropping for 3A (and 3P) at higher
pressure. The curves for 3Z, 3T and 3S show lower
temperature sensitivity in the whole range and milder
change of , which is under 0,2 %/C.
For batches No 4 it is noticed that burning rates of
tromodal formulations are very narrow range of the
adjustment with the exponent values at the upper limit of
acceptance.

From batches No 5 (200/10 m AP), and their burning

rate law parameters, Figs. 9 and 10, it was not possible to
cast the same samples of 5S with Fe2O3, because of its
adverse "pot life", so its burning rate parameters look very
"controlled". The same parameters for the two other
batches discourse somewhat better combustion properties
of titania additive with expectable levels of rates.

The character of = f(p) for 4Z and the two others is

different in observance of values of gradient A. The
temperature sensitivity of tromodal version 4Z is very
undesirable because of rather high values in the whole
pressure range. 4T and 4S are more prosperous, because
their is below 0,15 and 0,19 respectively.

Meanwhile, the temperature sensitivity dependencies at

the same group (5) are presented in Fig. 12. The run of
CSP with zirconium carbide is diametrically reverse from
the others with the same additive in groups 3 and 4, but
also from the others in the same group 5: by increasing
the pressure, is decreasing (A<0, Table 7) it means that
difference of burning rates at 50 C and -40 C is falling
down. CSP incorporated with antimony and titanium
oxide show the increase in , but it is an important fact
that it is not over 0,16 %/C, especially for those two with
ferry oxide, which have an undesirable effect on the
combustion stability and give higher values of exponents
at both temperatures. 5S has the highest ordinate values in
the whole range. It is interesting that 5S with greater total
solid and AP content has lower rates than 4S for both
temperatures.

For batches No 5 it was not possible to cast the same

samples of 5S with Fe2O3, because of its adverse pot
life, and very acceptable burning rate parameters. There
are somewhat better combustion properties of titania
additive with expectable levels of rates.

CONCLUSION

The curve trend of CSP with zirconium carbide (5Z) is

diametrically reverse from the others with the same
additive in groups 3 and 4, but also from the others in the
same group 5: by increasing the pressure, is decreasing,
which could be the concequence of 10 m presence. CSP
with antimony and titanium oxide show the increase of
, but not over 0,16 %/C, especially for those two with
ferry oxide, which have an undesirable effect on the
combustion stability and give higher values of exponents
at both temperatures. 5S has the highest ordinate values in
the whole range.

Examination from this paper corresponds to comparison

of developed composite solid propellants based on
hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene prepolymer and
ammonium-perchlorate as oxidizer. The eleven

The choice of some type of a compound in the role of a

combustion stabilizer depends on the requirements and
desirable properties. Except the observed characteristics,
many other can effect our consideration and decisions.
366

REFFERENCES
[1] Kishore K., Sridhara K. Effect of Surface
Microstructure on the Temperature Sensitivity of
Burning Rate of Ammonium Perchlorate : Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore-560 012 - Defence
Science Journal, Vo1 47, No 2, April 1997, pp. 177184
[2] Cai, W. Thakre, P. Yang, V. A Model of AP/HTPB
Composite Propellant Combustion in Rocket-Motor
Environments, Combust. Sci. and Tech. 180: 2143
2169, 2008.
[3] Atwood, A. Boggs, I. T. L. Curran, P. O. Parr, T. P.
Hanson-Parr, D. M. Burning Rate of Solid Propellant
Ingredients, Part 2: Determination of Burning Rate
Temperature Sensitivity U.S. Naval Air Warfare
Center, China Lake, California 93555 JOURNAL OF
PROPULSION AND POWER, Vol. 15, No. 6,
NovemberDecember 1999.
[4] Kum, . I. Composite propellants with bi-plateau

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

367

burning behaviour, Weapons system division,

DSTO-GD-0344, 2003.
Daume, E. Sarbach, J. Incendiary Composition
Containing A Group IVB Metallic Fuel, US Patent
4,402,705, Sept. 6, 1983.
Rodi, V. The effect of titanium (IV) oxide on burning
stability of composite solid propellants, 3th
symposium OTEH, Belgrade, 6-7.10.2011.
Rodi, V. Fidanovski, B. Burning Stability of
Composite Solid Propellants Including Zirconium
Carbide, Scientific Technical Review, Belgrade,
2013., Vol. LXIII, No. 3
[8] Rodi, V. ffect of titanium (IV) oxide on
composite solid propellant properties, Scientific
Technical Review, Belgrade, 2012., Vol. 62, No 3-4,
pp 21-27
Petri, . Rodi, V. The effect of additives on solid
rocket propellant behavior, Scientific Technical
Review, Belgrade, 2004., Vol. LIV, No.3-4.

DEFINE METHOD VACUUM STABILITY TEST FOR CHEMICAL

STABILITY OF SINGLE BASE AND DOUBLE BASE PROPELLANTS
BOJANA FIDANOVSKI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, b.fidanovski@gmail.com
MIRJANA DIMI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, mirjanadimicjevtic@gmail.com
ALEKSANDAR MILOJKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade
NATAA KARIIK
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade

Abstract: This paper includes the results of the examination of the single base propellants and double base propellants
with Czech Vacuum Stability Test STABIL. For this method the main term was to analyze and define the best options for
preparation the samples, selection of the optimal mass of the samples and conditions of examination. Chemical stability
of these samples was determined according to the standard method STANAG 4556.
Keywords: Powder, single base propellants, double base propellants, chemical stability, Vacuum stability test.

Important information about behavior of energetic

materials powder, single base propellants and double base
propellants, rocket propellants etc. is based on the
chemical stability. This information is essential to a safe
production, handling and disposal. Method of chemical
stability can be used to predict life time and to choose
adequate storage conditions. Chemical stability is an
ability to keep as long as possible chemical properties in
the defined criteria.

Nitrogen oxides occur as degradation products. They

cause further autocatalytic degradation of double-base
propellants on the storage temperatures. This degradation
can lead to spontaneous combustion of double base
propellants. In that case double base propellants should be
removed promptly from the warehouse or from the
ammunition, to avoid this very dangerous situation. In
order to predict when such situations might occur
different tests of stability were developed. The most
widely used methods that specify the chemical stability of
energetic materials are manometric methods.

There are a several types of powder and double base

rocket propellants. The basic energetic component of all
of them is nitro-esters (nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin).
Depending on purpose, in order to achieve the desired
properties, rocket propellants may also contain other
additives. Thermal decomposition of these nitro-esters
starts from the very beginning of the production of
nitrocellulose (NC) and nitroglycerin (NG), takes over the
production of rocket propellants, and continues long after
their preparation, during storage [1]. The reaction of
thermal decomposition of nitrocellulose began hemolytic
tearing CO-NO2 bond

For about a century, a variety of vacuum methods has

been used for this purpose. Among the best known today,
are the isothermal manometric method in the Russian
version [5, 6] and the American vacuum stability test. The
American vacuum stability test, however, is more suitable
for the technical assessment of an explosives stability [79]. In former Czechoslovakia, a manometric method was
developed [10] which is known under the name STABIL:
it can be considered- to a certain extent- to be an
automatic version of the American vacuum stability test
[11]. This method was designed for technological
checking of quality in production of energetic materials.

(RO-NO2 ROo + NO2). This reaction form as products

free radicals, ROo and NO2, which then recombines
immediately and attack the molecular chains of
nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine, the conduct of
secondary reactions, each of them takes place at its own
speed and the exothermic effect [2, 3, 4].

Therefore, the goal of this work is to use Vacuum stability

test for analyzing the single base and double base
propellants, aside finding and defining the best options for
prepare the samples, select optimal mass of the samples
and conditions of examination by using the standard
method STANAG 4556.

INTRODUCTION

368

EXPERIMENTAL PART

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In order to succeed in defining work conditions for the

method, it is necessary to go through the following stages:

The results were in the form of time dependence of the

gas volume evolved from 1 g sample per second (i.e. V
values in cm3 g1 s1) and corrected to standard conditions,
according to equation (1) [12],

Select the samples of single and double base

propellants;
Select the optimal dimension of samples;

p 273 p1 273
V = Vc + Vt m 2

1
(1)
273 + t2 273 + t1 1.013

Pick the best period of time for drain samples;

Choose the optimal mass of samples;

Where:

Comparative analysis of chemical stability of test

results of samples obtained using the vacuum stability
test and defined criteria for this method.

V
Vt

p1, t1

Samples of single base and double base

propellants
For the experimental investigation were selected samples
of single base propellants: NC-28, NC-43, NC-44 and
double base propellants: NGB-051, NGB-061. Before
using Vacuum Stability Test method, all the samples were
analyzing by using the classical methods of chemical
stability. They shows acording to the criteria for classical
methods excellent chemical stability.

p2, t2

- the volume of transducer,

- the volume of glass test tubes,
- mass of the samples,
- density,
- pressure, temperature at the beginning
of experiment,
- pressure, temperature at the end of experiment.

The criteria for single base and double base propellants

for this method are given in table 1 [13].
ble 1. Criteria of the chemical stability for single base
and double base propellants
Temperature of
Time of
isothermal
Type
experiment,
measurement,
minutes
o
C
NGB
90
2400
NC
100
2400
Note:* corrected to standard conditions

Preparation of samples
Dimension and mass of samples: Single base propellants
have small rectangular form. Because of that, they were
use as well as it is in their original shape. On the other
hand, double base propellants samples were chopped into
small pieces, dimension 2 mm x 2 mm x 3 mm. In the
heating tubes, length 140 5 mm and diameter 18 mm,
was measured approximately 1,000 0,0001 g and 2,000
0,0001 g of samples. The heating tubes are with the
steel male part of a ground metal joint. This part is welded
to the transducer and includes a hole for gas extraction.

Criteria of
chemical
stability*,
cm3 g-1 s-1
1,2
2

Results of testing the chemical stability of NC-28, NC-43

and NC-44 by OZM vacuum stability at 100 C are
shown in Tables 2, 3and 4.
ble 2. Results of testing the chemical stability of the
sample NC-28
Dry
V,
Density,
mass, g V, cm3
No. time,
cm3g-1s-1
g/cm3
min
1
0,997
0,898
0,901
2
0,999
0,906
0,906
0
0,800
3
1,998
1,128
0,565
4
2,001
1,083
0,542
5
0,999
0,845
0,845
6
1,002
0,791
0,790
60
0,800
7
1,993
1,189
0,597
8
1,997
1,174
0,588
9
1,004
0,911
0,907
10
0,975
0,744
0,764
240
0,800
11
1,997
1,215
0,608
12
1,995
1,193
0,593
13
1,000
0,682
0,682
960
0,800
14
2,001
1,051
0,525

Period of time for drain: Chopped samples were used

with and without drying. For dried samples the
temperature of heating was 55 oC to the 60 oC. And the
time that samples were on that temperature was 0 (no
drying) 60, 240, 960 minutes. After that and before
putting the sample in the instrument they need to cool in
desiccators to the room temperature, approximately 4
hours.

STABIL vacuum stability test

A modernized STABIL 20 apparatus was used for these
measurements (manufactured by OZM Research; the error
is < 1 %). Tests were performed 2400 min. The
temperature for the isothermal measurements was 100 C
for single base propellants, and for double base
propellants the temperature was 90 C, according to
STANAG 4556. The samples in evacuated glass test tubes
were placed into the heating block for 40 hours and
heated to the desired temperature. Pressure transducers
continuously estimated the pressure increase in the glass
tubes. The results were in the form of time dependence of
the gas pressure evolved per one gram sample.

In table 2 all the results for the sample NC-28 are satisfied,
according to criteria (table 1). It means that no meter which
was the drying time, 60 min., 240 min. or 960 min., or even

369

if we didnt dry the sample, volumes of gas evolved from

this sample are all regular. All though, both weight did we
choose, one or two grams of samples, showed analogy with
criteria.

43. Samples of tow grams showed better correspondence

white criteria if we analyzed single base propellants from
point of view of stability.
Results of testing the chemical stability of NGB-051 and
NGB-061 by OZM vacuum stability at 90 C are shown
in Tables 5 and 6.

ble 3. Results of testing the chemical stability of the

sample NC-43
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6

7
8

Dry
Density,
time,
mass, g
g/cm3
min
0,998
0
1,500
1,892
60

240

960

1,500

1,500

1,500

2,904
4,518

V,
cm3 g1
s1
2,909
2,388

0,992
1,960

1,949
2,917

1,964
1,488

0,994
1,008

1,317
1,429

1,324
1,417

2,002

2,410

1,204

2,009

2,439

1,214

0,999

1,684

1,686

1,957

2,399

1,226

V, cm3

ble 5. Results of testing the chemical stability of the

sample NGB-051
Dry
V,
Density,
No. time,
mass, g V, cm3 cm3 g1
g cm-3
min
s1
1
1,001
0,606
0,606
2
1,003
0,631
0,631
0
0,670
3
2,004
1,021
0,510
4
1.999
0,863
0,432
5
1,000
0,628
0,628
6
1,007
0,598
0,589
0*
0,670
7
2,000
1,101
0,550
8
2,002
1,208
0,604
9
1,011
0,525
0,525
10
1,003
0,536
0,536
60
0,670
11
1,997
0,969
0,485
12
2,001
1,075
0,537
13
1,003
0,491
0,491
14
1,010
0,568
0,568
240
0,670
15
2,001
1,020
0,510
16
2,000
1,039
0,520

ble 4. Results of testing the chemical stability of the

sample NC-44
Dry
V,
Density,
No. time,
mass, g V, cm3 cm3 g1
g cm-3
min
s1
1
0,993
2,270
2,287
0
1,500
2
1,999
2,808
1,405
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

1,500

0,995
1,003
1,993
2,000

1,699
2,281
2,993
2,512

1,707
2,274
1,502
1,256

240

1,500

1,002
0,994
1,999
2,002

1,693
1,749
2,413
2,398

1,689
1,763
1,207
1,197

960

1,500

0,998

1,568

1,571

2,003

2,476

1,236

60

Note:* Samples were left in vacuum desiccators for 24 hours.

ble 6. Results of testing the chemical stability of the

sample NGB-061
Dry
Density,
V,
No. time,
mass, g V, cm3
g cm-3
cm3 g1 s1
min
1
0,991
0,605
0,605
2
1,007
1,201
0,600
0
0,700
3
2,002
1,227
0,613
4
2,010
1,920
0,960
5
1,003
0,641
0,641
6
0,999
0,590
0,590
240
0,700
7
2,001
1,230
0,615
8
2,000
1,263
0,632
On the other hand, double base propellants showed much
better analogy whit criteria in regard to the samples of
single base propellants.

On the other hand, results of experiments showed in table

3 for the sample NC-43 are partly dissatisfied in regard to
criteria. Mean problem for this samples are probably the
age of the samples. Also, NC-43 absorbs too much damp
and evaporation residual solvent and because of it value
of the evolved gas from sample are too big. But, even if
the results of the samples weigh whit mass of one gram
and no meter which was the dry time did not satisfy the
criteria, it can be seen that mass of approximately two
grams and dry time of 240 minutes gave value which
satisfy the criteria, precisely meet the upper limit criteria.

In table 5, we can see that values of the gas volume

evolved from 1 g sample per second are very low. In this
table we have several samples that were treated without
drying. They were put in vacuum desiccators, and left for
one day. The result of that way of treatment shows not so
good matching, but according to the criteria they are
acceptable. Samples of NGB-051, with mass of two
grams and the 240 minutes of dry time show the best
mutual agreement.

For the results showed in table 4 for NC-44, we have also

several values of evolved gas which are across the
criteria. But increases are showed only in samples with
mass of one gram dray 60 minutes, and without drying. It
can be said that this sample have similar problem as NC-

Observing the table 6, in the row where two grams of

samples were treated 240 minutes it can be seen the same
trend as it is in the table above, for the same conditional.
The values of the evolved gas are narrow.
370

Investigated by Heat Generation, Stabilizer

Consumption and Molar Mass Degradation,
Propellants, Explos., Pyrotech 17, 1992, pp.171-176.
[4] [4] Bohn, M. A., Methods and Kinetic Modelsfor
the Life time Assessment of Solid Propellants, 87th
Symp. of the Propulsion and Energetic Panel of the
AGARD: Service Life of Solid Propellant Systems,
Athens, 1996.
[5] Andreev, K. K., Belyaev, A. F., Teoriya
vzryvchatykh veschestv (Theory of Explosives),
Oborongiz, Moscow, 1960.
[6] Golbinder, AI., Laboratorniye raboty po kursu teorii
vzryvchatykh veschestv (Laboratory Practice in the
Theory of Explosives), Rosvuzizdat, Moscow, 1963,
p. 9.
[7] Rosen, A. M., Simmons, H. T., Improved Apparatus
and Techniques for the Measurement of the Vacuum
Stability of Explosives, U.S. Govt. Rep. AD 226
940, Washington DC, 1959.
[8] Simmons, H. T, The Vacuum Thermal Stability Test
for Explosives; Report NOLTR 70-142, U.S. Naval
Ordnance Lab., White Oak, Oct. 1970, U.S. Govt.
Rep. AD 718 806, Washington DC.
[9] Hauseler, E., Symp. Chem. Problems Connected
Stab. Explos., Stockholm, May 1976, Sektion for
Detonik och Fiirbrlnnig, Stockholm, p. 34.
[10] Kuera, V., Vetlicky, B., Investigation of the
decomposition processes in single-base propellants
under vacuum using minicomputer-controlled
automated apparatus, Propellants Explos. Pyrotech.
10 (1985) 65.
[11] Baytos, J. F., High-temperature vacuum thermal
stability test of explosives, Los Alamos Nstl. Lab.,
Sci. Lab. Rep. LA-5829MS, 1975.
[12] STANAG
4556:
EXPLOSIVES:
VACUUM
STABILITY TEST Brussels: North Atlantic Treaty
Organizat, Military Agency for Standardization,
1999
[13] Bohn, A., Manfred, NC-based energetic materialsStability, decomposition and ageing, Presentation on
the meeting Nitrocellulose-Supply, Ageing and
Characterization, England, 2007

CONCLUSION
In the study of defining the best methods for chemical
stability of single base and double base propellants a
modification of the American vacuum isothermal stability
test was used, the Czech system STABIL 20.
The analysis showed that the observation of each samples
individually there is a deviation, which mostly depends on
the age of powder, chemical composition, geometry of the
propellant grain and technological process. If we look at
this method from the standpoint of chemical stability for
the samples of single base propellants, NC-28, NC-43,
NC-44, this method indicates that these samples are on
the boundary of chemically stable. As opposed to single
base, samples of the double base propellants, NGB-051
and NGB-061, showed excellent matching with the
criteria which indicating their chemical stability.
If we look at all the tabular results of this study we can
find out that the mass of tow grams is better solution then
mass of one gram. The reason for this conclusion is that
the samples are not homogeneous. Bigger mass of the
sample used gives more relevant result. Also we found
out that the drying time of 240 minutes in the temperature
from 55 oC to the 60 oC is optimal for all the samples
(single and double base propellants). The explanation is
simple, if we dry samples less than 240 minutes, samples
cannot relieve absorbed damp and evaporation residual
solvent is incomplete. On the other hand, if we let
samples more than the 240 minutes the chemical reactionthermal decomposition of nitro-esters will start.

REFERENCES
[1] Dimi, M., Jelisavac, Lj., Kariik, N., Bajramovi,
D., Correlation Of Chemical Stability Assessment Of
Accelerated Aged Double-Base Propellants Using
Stabilizer Depletion And Conventional Methods,
International Scientific Conference on Defensive
Technologies - 2011, Belgrade, Serbia, 2011.
[2] Kuo, K., Summerfield, M., Fundamentals of Solidpropellant Combustion, Progress in Astronautics,
Martin Summerfield Series Editor-in-Chief, 90,
1984, pp.181-190.
[3] Bohn, M. A., Volk, F., Aging behavior of Propellants

371

EXPLOSIVE PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING POSSIBILITIES OF

RECYCLED TRINITROTOLUENE
SLAVICA TERZI,
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, slavica@alogodesk.com
DANICA SIMI,
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade,
URO ANELI,
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade,
SINIA PETROVI,
Prva Iskra-Namenska proizvodnja, Bari
DANKA SIMI
Prva Iskra-Namenska proizvodnja, Bari

Abstract: This paper presents characterization of the explosive TH-5 - recycled trinitrotoluene with maximum 5% of
hexogen (RDX). The explosive TH-5 was obtained by delaboration of explosive charges based on TNT and hexogen,
and by their recycling at the company Prva Iskra-Namenska proizvodnja(Baric, Serbia). The possibility of
processing of explosive TH-5 by pressing and casting is examined. The kinematic viscosity and solidification
temperature of melt TH-5 were determined. The comparative analysis of the sensitivity of TH-5 and TNT to friction,
compressibility values of explosives and the detonation velocities of pressed explosives as a function of density are
presented. Based on the analysis of processing possibility and detonation properties of TH-5 and TNT samples, their
quality was estimated.
Keywords: explosives, TNT, recycled trinitrotoluene, TH-5, pressed TH-5, cast TH-5, detonation velocity.

1. INTRODUCTION

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF GRANULATED
AND PRESSED TH-5 EXPLOSIVE

The high energy material TH-5 is recycled trinitrotoluene

(TNT) with maximum 5% hexogen (RDX) and inert
components (wax, stearic acid etc.). The Prva IskraNamenska proizvodnja company (Baric, Serbia) has
developed and improved the procedure by which TH-5
and pure hexogen are produced from delaborated
explosive charges based on TNT and hexogen.
Comparative characterization of the granulated, cast and
pressed TNT and TH-5 was realized to define the
requirements for the quality and practical application of
recycled explosive TH-5.

The sensitivity of granulated TH-5 LOT 12016 (Picture

1.) and TNT to friction, compressibility values of
explosives and detonation velocities of pressed explosives
as a function of density are determined and presented.

The results of the conducted examinations show that the

quality of TH-5 explosive is close to pure TNT, therefore
TH-5 can be used as an adequate substitute for pure TNT
in pressed and cast explosive charges, when it is
necessary (e.g. lack of TNT, or too high TNT price on the
market).
The explosives TH-5, LOT 12016 (94.95 mass% of TNT
and 5.05 mass % of RDX) and pure TNT were cast,
pressed and examined in the laboratories of the Military
Technical Institute (MTI), in Baric [1].

Picture 1. Sample of granulated TH-5, LOT 12016

372

2.1. Sensitivity of granulated explosives to friction

Sensitivity tests of granulated explosives samples show
that TH-5 (LOT 12016) is slightly more sensitive to
friction (288 N) then pure TNT, which is characterized as
insensitive (the maximum force of 360 N defined by
standard [2] didnt cause any reaction).

2.2. Pressing of explosives and compressibility

determination
H-5

In order to determine compressibility and detonation

velocity, samples of pure TNT and TH-5 were pressed [3,
4] in cylindrical 20 mm pressing tool (Picture 2), by
hydraulic press (Picture 3).

NT
Picture 4. Pressed charges of TH-5and TNT
The values of experimentally obtained density () of
explosive charges and the corresponding values of
porosity in function of specific applied pressure are given
in Table 1.

Picture 2. Cylindrical pressing tool

Table 1. Compressibility of TH-5 and pure TNT

Characteristics of pressed pellets
Specific
TNT
TH-5
pressing
pressure
porosity

porosity

(bar/ cm2)
(%)
(g/cm3)
(%)
(g/cm3)
1.
1280
1.5387
6.97
1.5367
7.43
2.
1600
1.5867
4.07
1.5388
7.30
3.
2080
1.5929
3.70
1.5928
4.05
4.
2400
1.5987
3.35
1.5942
3.96
5.
2880
1.6080
2.78
1.5987
3.69
6.
3200
1.6103
2.64
1.5987
3.69
7.
3680
1.6103
2.64
1.6002
3.60

density, g/cm3

The graphic of compressibility (explosive charge density

as a function of applied pressure) is given in Picture 5.
1,65

1,61

1,57

TNT
TH-5
D(TH-5)
TMD(TNT)

1,53
1280 1600 2080 2400 2880 3200 3680

Picture 3. Hydraulic press

spec. applied pressure, bar/cm2

Recycled explosive TH-5 shown good compressibility

characteristics, and pressed explosive pellets (Picture 4)
were easily taken out from the pressing tool.

Picture 5. Explosive charge density as function of applied

specific pressure
373

79,02oC. The measured value is lower than the quality

requirement for the pure TNT (80.0 to 80.4oC [7]).
Lowering of the solidification temperature of TH-5 is a
direct consequence of the presence of RDX crystals in the
melted TH-5, so that crystallization has started earlier (i.e.
at lower temperature).

The results of compressibility determination (Table 3 and

graphics on Picture 5) showed that with the same applied
pressures TH-5 samples had lower values of charge
densities then TNT samples. Also, charge densities of
TNT samples were very close to maximal theoretical
densities (MTD) for TNT and were less porous than TH-5
charges pressed under the same conditions.

2. 3. Detonation velocities of pressed explosives

The values of experimentally determined detonation
velocities in function of explosives charge density () are
given in Table 2.
Table 2. Detonation velocities of pressed charges of TH-5
and TNT as function of charge density
Charge Detonation
Average value
Explosive
velocity,
density,
of detonation
sample
m/s
g/cm3
velocity, m/s
6726.78
1.55
6716.64
6692.23
6730.91
TNT
6825.16
1.60
6825.06
6838.17
6811.86
6786.92
1.55
6793.64
6800.35
TH-5
6879.18
1.60
6879.32
6879.18
6870.59

(a)

(b)

Picture 6. a) Melt TH-5 and b) laboratory equipment for

casting TNT-based compositions
The explosives were cast directly, from the laboratory
equipment (Picture 6-b) into previously prepared shells
(radius of casting shell was 24 mm and its height
350 mm), according [5, 6]. Cast charges of TH-5 and
TNT are shown on Picture 7.

The detonation velocities of pressed TH-5 charges are

0.75% and 1.15% higher than those of pressed TNT
charges, for the same density charge values. This increase
of detonation velocity of pressed TH-5 is caused by RDX
presence in TH-5 compound, which has higher detonation
velocity than pure TNT.

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF CAST TH-5

EXPLOSIVE

(a)

3.1. Kinematic viscosity and solidification

temperature of melt explosives

(b)

Picture 7. Cast charges of: a) TH-5 and b) TNT

Kinematic viscosity was determined on Koch Freiwald

viscometer, with two thermometers (one of them was
contact thermometer). The working temperature was set
to 85 C, and the nozzle hole diameter was 8 mm. The
results of determining of the kinematic viscosity are given
in Table 3.

3.2. Density and detonation velocities of cast

explosives

Table 3. Kinematic viscosity of melt explosives

Explosive
Mass of sample,
Time of leakage,
sample
g
s
386
2.54
TNT
386
2.33
H-5

Table 4. Densities of cast charges of TH-5 and TNT

Average
Explosive Charge Segment density,
density value,
3
sample
segment
g/cm
g/cm3
Upper
1.561
1.564
TNT
Middle
1.561
Lower
1.571
Upper
1.598
1.608
TH-5
Middle
1.608
Lower
1.619

In order to perform precise estimation of quality, densities

of cast explosive charges (Picture 7) were determined in
predefined segments (Table 4).

Test results show that the value of the kinematic viscosity

of TH-5 is lower than the value for pure TNT. The reason
for this is presence of crystalline hexogen in recycled
explosive.
The solidification temperature of the melt explosive TH-5
(Picture 6-a), determined according to [5, 6], was
374

The detonation velocities of cast TH-5 and TNT were

determined using electronic counter Pendulum CNT-91,
with electronic probes. The results are given in Table 5.

For the same charge density, pressed TH-5 explosive has

slightly higher detonation velocity than pure TNT. The
same behaviour can be observed for cast charges of TH-5
and TNT.

Table 5. Detonation velocities of cast TH-5 and TNT

Charge Detonation Average value
Explosive
velocity,
density,
of detonation
sample
m/s
g/cm3
velocity, m/s
6722.41
1.564
6747.2
TNT
6765.65
6753.55
6983.29
1.608
6980.0
TH-5
6976.74

The shown results indicate that the quality of TH-5

explosive is similar to the quality of pure TNT. Therefore
recycled explosive TH-5 can be used as sufficiently good
substitute for pure TNT in pressed and cast explosive
charges, when it is necessary (e.g. lack of TNT, or too
high of TNTs price on the market).

REFERENCES
[1] Terzi, S., Dimi, M., Simi, D., Quality
investigation of recycled explosive TH-10,
Technical rapport, VTI-04-01-0783, Belgrade, 2013.
[2] EN 13631-3:2002 Explosives for civil uses-High
explosives-Part 3: Determination of sensitiveness to
friction of explosives, 2002.
[3] Terzi, S., Technology procedure for production of
pressed explosive charges, VTI-04-01-0420, 2005.
[4] Manual for work, safety, health and environment
protection in laboratory for production of pressed
explosive charges in Workshop for energetic
materials in Baric, Technical manual, MTI, 2011.
[5] Anti, G., Technology procedure for production of
cast explosive charges based on TNT,
Technological
procedure,
VTI-004-01-0422,
Belgrade, 2005.
[6] Manual for work, safety, health and environment
protection in laboratory for production of cast
explosive charges in Workshop for energetic
materials in Baric, Technical manual, MTI, 2011.
[7] SORS 1133/97 Brizantni (sekundarni) eksplozivi:
TROTIL, TRINITROTOLUEN
[8] SORS 1131/97 Brizantni (sekundarni) eksplozivi:
HEKSOTOL.

The results show that detonation velocity of TH-5 is

3.5 % higher compared to cast TNT, which was expected
because of 5 mass % of RDX in TH-5 compound, and its
slightly higher density values than for samples of pure
TNT.

4. CONCLUSIONS
The explosive TH-5, recycled trinitrotoluene with
maximum 5% of hexogen (obtained by delaboration of
explosive charges based on TNT and hexogen, and by
their recycling) was investigated and compared to pure
trinitrotoluene.
The senssitivity of TH-5 to friction and its compressibility
characteristics are similar to those of pure TNT.
The presence of RDX crystals in the TH-5 caused lower
value of the kinematic viscosity and solidification
temperature of melt TH-5 than the values for pure, melt
TNT.
Recycled explosive TH-5 shown good compressibility
characteristics, and pressed explosive pellets were easily
taken out from the pressing tool. Also, this explosive is
suitable for processing by casting technology, but it is
necessary that concentration of impurities (natural and
artificiel waxes, plasticizers etc) is as low as possible.

375

HIGH EXPLOSIVE PLANE-WAVE GENERATOR

URO ANELI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, uroshcs@gmail.com
VESNA DINGALAEVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, dzingalasevic@sezampro.rs

Abstract: A new plane wave generator has been designed, consisting of two explosives, LX-14 as the fast component,
and TNT as the slow component, i.e. the attenuator. The outline of the attenuator was calculated, and it was shaped
as a cone. Experimental models with different base angles of the cone were made for testing. Components were pressed
into shape. Detonation arrival time was measured by ionization probes. Deviations of the detonation arrival time are
within 40 ns bounds.
Keywords: plane wave generator, explosive, detonation.

1. INTRODUCTION
By managing the process of initiation and detonation of
explosives, one can achieve different effects that may be
found in a wide array of industry and military application.
One of the most used effects is the generation of a plane
shock wave (SW) or a plane detonation wave (DW). For
fundamental research on explosives and characterization
of explosives, generating a plane SW or a DW is of great
importance, mostly to avoid divergence effects. Also,
measuring detonation parameters like pressure or velocity
of the products of detonation requires a plane DW in
order to achieve a simultaneous stimulus on the
measuring surface [1]. The most practical planar initiators
are solid explosive plane wave lenses because of the
quality of their planar simultaneity, and because they can
be manufactured in large quantities and stored for long
periods of time.

Figure 1: Some possible shapes of the plane wave

generator (darker surface represents the attenuator)

An example of practical military application of a plane

wave generator would be its use in the construction of
cumulative war heads. The cumulative effect is enhanced
by a plane wave in comparison to a quasi-spherical one.
Figure 2: Plane wave generator principle (only half of the
plane wave generator is presented)

2. THEORY OF DESIGN
An explosive plane wave generator consists of two parts,
the explosive and the attenuator (Figure 1), which is
responsible for the straightening of the DW. The
attenuator can be made of an inert material or a slower
explosive i.e. with a lower DW velocity. The shape of the
main explosive and the attenuator can vary from author to
author [2, 3, 4], but the principle is the same. Its lower
DW or SW velocity, for explosive or inert attenuator,
respectively, and its characteristic shape turn the quasispherical wave into a plane one.

To calculate the shape of an explosive attenuator, one

needs to know the DW velocities of the fast and the
slow explosives, Df, and Ds, respectively. For the inert
attenuator the calculation is more complicated. Next, one
needs to chose the half width w and the detonator standoff
distance a from the slow component. The basic
requirement for the shape of the attenuator is that the DW,
traveling from the detonator to the end of the plane wave
generator, arrives to every point at the same time (Figure
2). That means that the transit time through any path must
376

to each other in the process, without additional glues or

binders. Finally, the explosives should be as homogenous
as possible so that the shock to detonation transition
length is reduced as much as possible. Inert and semi-inert
components like binders, oxidizers and metals should be
reduced to a minimum.

be the same, and is equal to the sum of the transit time

through the fast and slow components. By equating the
center line value, tl with the time from the origin to the
point (l,w), tl,w, it is possible to calculate the length of the
lens [4]:

tl = tl , w

(1)

a (l a)
l 2 + w2
+
=
Df
Ds
Df

(2)

a + (l a ) = l 2 + w2 , =

Df
Ds

Out of all of the explosive compositions available, two

that satisfy the required qualities the most were chosen.
For the fast explosive it is the plastic bonded explosive
LX-14 (octogen/estane 95/5), and for the slow
explosive it is TNT. Their densities and detonation
velocities are presented in Table 1. Required densities
were obtained by pressing a defined mass into a defined
volume. Detonation velocities were determined on 20 mm
diameter cylindrical charges by electrocontact probes.

(3)

Making the substitutions of = D f / Ds for the ratio of

Table 1: Densities and detonation velocities.

detonation
Explosive
density (g/cm3)
velocity (m/s)
LX-14
1.79
8592
TNT
1.55
6717

the detonation velocities, = 1 , = + 1 , and

solving Eq. 3 for the length of the lens, Eq. 3 becomes:
l=

a + (a 2 + w2 )

(4)

The second step is the choice of the half width w and the
detonator standoff distance a. Our choice was w = 25
mm (the whole plane wave generator has a diameter of 50
mm -50), and a = 12 mm. By using the detonation
velocities from table 1, the length, l was calculated
according to Eq. 4, and the shape of the attenuator was
obtained according to Eq. 6, and it is presented in Figure
3. This shape was simplified by a triangular intersection
with the base angle of 50, i.e. the three dimensional
shape of the attenuator is a cone. The cone shape is much
easier to make, and the difference between it and the
original shape is not significant.

where all values are known and the length can be

calculated. The equation that describes the middle
intersection border between the fast and the slow
component can be determined by using the same time
requirements as before:
x 2 + y 2 + (l x) = l 2 + w2

(5)

Making the substitution of = l 2 + w2 , and solving Eq.

5 for y, Eq. 5 becomes:
y = ( ( x l ) + ) 2 x 2

(6)

The coordinates of the interface are obtained by

evaluating this solution from a x l .
Obviously, this calculation is based on some
approximations, the most notable one being that the DW
has
an
infinite
acceleration/deceleration
when
transitioning between two explosives with different
detonation velocities, or between the detonator and the
explosive. In a real case scenario, the detonation in the
lens is mostly in an unstable state since it takes time for
the DW to stabilize to a constant velocity. For this reason,
theoretical shape of the attenuator has to be tested
experimentally, and modified accordingly.

Figure 3: Calculated (solid line) and simplified shape

(dashed line) of the TNT attenuator

3. EXPERIMENTAL MODEL
The first step towards constructing an experimental model
is the choice of the two explosives, one with high and one
with low detonation velocity, which would meet certain
requirements. It is mandatory that they are stable over
longer periods of time and insensitive enough so they can
be manipulated safely. On the other hand, the fast
explosive has to be sensitive enough so the detonator can
initiate it (without a booster charge). Next, they have to be
pressed into an appropriate shape, and they have to stick

Figure 4: The complete model of the plane detonation

wave where a = 12 mm, H c depends on , h = 5 mm,
H p = 25 mm, = 46, 48, 50, 52, 54, 56
377

The cone shaped attenuator was expanded by a 5 mm

TNT cylinder at its end, so that the sharp 50 base angle
of the cone would be avoided at pressing. When a plane
DW exits the attenuator, its outer part has a higher
velocity compared to the inner part due to the different
attenuator lengths, i.e. the DW is unstable [5]. For this
reason, two LX-14 25 mm pellets were added at the end
of the attenuator to stabilize the detonation wave. The
complete model is presented in Figure 4.

Table 2: Arrival time of the probes for different base

angles of the attenuator
Probe
t (ns)
position
46
48
50
52
54
56
x (mm)
-20
10
-10
-90
-120 -110 -120
-15
40
-30
-110 -120
-80
-90
-10
-10
-40
-100
-60
-50
-40
-5
10
-20
-40
-30
-30
-20
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
-20
-20
-80
-10
-10
-30
10
-40
-30
-80
-40
-60
-80
15
-30
-40
-140
-60
-100 -150
20
-70
-120 -190

Because of the approximations used in the design of the

attenuator, experimental models were made with different
base angles around the calculated 50 angle. The chosen
angles were 46, 48, 50, 52, 54, and 56.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The shape of the DW after passing through the plane
wave generator was determined using nine ionization
probes. The probes were placed linearly at the end of the
plane wave generator, 5 mm apart from each other, one in
the center, and four on each side. Signal acquisition was
done with a logic analyzer.

100

46
48
50

50

t (ns)

A stable DW in a cylindrical explosive charge, initiated

from a single point, will have a defined curvature. Viewed
from the end of the charge, the wave is convex. Having
that in mind, there are three possible scenarios
considering the base angle of the attenuator, presented in
Figure 5. From 0, to a specific angle (0) the DW will
stay convex, but the curvature will decrease. If the angle
is equal to 0 the curved DW will become a plane wave.
Further increase in this angle will make the DW become
concave.

-50
-100
-150
-200
-25 -20 -15 -10

-5

10

15

20

25

x (mm)

100

52
54
56

50

t (ns)

0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-25 -20 -15 -10

-5

10

15

20

25

x (mm)

Figure 5: Shape of the DW in dependence of the base

angle,

Figure 6: Arrival time of the probes for different base

angles of the attenuator

Having these scenarios in mind, the experiments were

conducted. Results are presented in Table 2, and Figure 6.
Center probe was used as a reference ( t = 0 s). For other
probes, if a signal arrives earlier compared to the central
one, the detonation arrival time (t) would be negative and
vice versa.

5. SUMMARY
A new, 50 mm diameter plane wave generator was
constructed, consisting of two explosives, LX-14 with
higher detonation velocity, and TNT with lower
detonation velocity. The attenuator, made of TNT, is cone
shaped, having the base angle of 46. To avoid sharp
angles, the attenuator cone was expanded by adding a 5
mm cylinder made of TNT, and two LX-14 25 mm pellets
were added for DW stabilization. Obtained detonation
arrival time deviations of 40 ns are acceptable for a
plane wave.

All of the angles, except the 46 one, gave a concave DW

which means that they are too big. Regarding from the
biggest angle, 56, to the smallest one, 46, the curvature
decreases, and it converges to 46, the 0 angle. The
results show some scattering because of the imperfect
experimental setup (if the probe deviates just 0.09 mm up
or down from the measuring line it makes an error of 10
ns) which is expected. Even so, deviations of 40 ns are
acceptable.

Future research will include improvements in measuring

equipment so that more precise measurements can be
378

[2] Fritz,J.N., A Simple Plane-Wave Explosive Lens, Los

Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico 87545, 1990.
[3] Olinger, B., Solid Explosive Plane-Wave Lenses
Pressed-to-Shape with Dies, Los Alamos National
Laboratory, New Mexico 87545, 2007.
[4] Morris, J. S., Jackson, S. I., Hill L. G., A Simple Line
Wave Generator Using Commercial Explosives, AIP
Conf. Proc. 1195, 408, 2009.
[5] Pimbley, G. H., Mader, C. L., Bowman, A. L., Plane
Wave Generator Calculations, Los Alamos National
Laboratory, New Mexico 87545, 1982.

done. This would enable designing more reliable plane

wave generators with smaller deviations in arrival time.

REFERENCES
[1] Dingalaevi,V., Anti,G., Simi,D., Borkovi,Z.,
Shock to Detonation Transition of High Explosives
Investigation, 5th International Scientific Conference
on Defensive Technologies, OTEH 2012, Belgrade,
18-19 September 2012. p.326-337. ISBN 978-8681123-58-4

379

AN EXAMPLE OF A SUCCESSFUL EROSIVE BURNING REDUCTION IN

A SMALL ROCKET MOTOR
MOHAMMED AMINE BOULAHLIB
Military Academy, University of Defence, Belgrade, PhD researcher, mohammed.amine.boulahlib@gmail.com
TORCHE RADHIA
Military Academy, University of Defence, Belgrade, Master student, torche.ritta@yahoo.com
SAA IVKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Rocket Armament Sector, Belgrade, sasavite@yahoo.com
SREDOJE SUBOTI
Military Technical Institute, Rocket Armament Sector, Belgrade, sredoje.subotic@gmail.com
NIKOLA GLIGORIJEVI
Military Technical Institute, Rocket Armament Sector, Belgrade, nikola.gligorijevic@gmail.com

Abstract: Solid rocket propellant grain is designed for approximately neutral burning, with hollow tube and both
burning ends. The outer surface is inhibited. During the initial rocket motor static tests, a kind of irregular propellant
burning appeared above 250C, looking like a very strong erosive burning, and its intensity highly increased with
temperature. It was concluded that the cause had been the high burning surface to nozzle throat ratio. The intensity of
rocket motor combustion irregularity is reduced by suitable grain redesign. The burning surface is increased as well as
the nozzle throat area, without significantly affecting the motor performances. In parallel, the surface to nozzle ratio is
reduced below the critical threshold appearance of irregular burning.
Keywords: Propellant, Double base, Grain, Erosive burning, Port/throat ratio, Thrust, Burning surface.
The grain combines internal and double-end burning [1,2]
with outer surface inhibited. With the length to diameter
ratio (L/D<2), mildly progressive-degressive geometric
distribution of the burning surface is achieved, with a
quite high degree of neutrality (Fig.2).

1. INTRODUCTION
Rocket Propulsion Department of Military Technical
Institute, http://www.vti.mod.gov.rs/ (MTI), designed a
double based propellant grain in the simple form of
internal-burning tube (Fig.1), for the use in sustainer
rocket motor of antitank guided rocket Bumbar.

500

Burning surface, Ab (cm2)

450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

Web burned, x (cm)

Figure 1. Propellant grain

Figure 2. Burning surface geometric distribution

380

4.5

On the basis of the propellant grain geometry, it was

expected for pressure-time and thrust-time curves to be
approximately neutral, with a mild parabolic form.

propellants [3]. At high temperatures, especially for the

propellants with high temperature sensitivity, the pressure
increase leads to an increase in the burning rate.

Unfortunately, during the initial static tests of the

propellant grain in an experimental rocket motor, in the
operating temperature range between -300C and +500C,
erosive burning [3-7] appeared on higher temperatures
(Figs. 3 and 4).

In addition, above a limit pressure value, it is very likely

for the pressure exponent (n) in the Saint Roberts
combustion law [3] to become also increased, thereby
further increasing the burning rate.
Erosive burning is more likely to occur in small rocket
motors [3, 7] and in propellants with lower burning rates
[3, 4, 7, 8].
This test motor can be considered as a small motor [1].
Burning rate of the tested double base propellant at the
standard temperature is less than 9 mm/s, and it can be
treated as relatively small, but not too small rate [1,3].
It may also become troublesome in the motors with low
port to throat area ratio [5, 8].
Despite the fact that the two mentioned properties are
suitable for the erosive burning appearance, it was quite
unexpected for the following reasons:
1.

Solid propellant hollow-cylindrical grain is the least

susceptible of all configurations to the erosive
burning [2].

2.

Length to diameter ratio for the grain is very small

(L/D1.3). As a rule of thumb, the port to throat area
ratio (Aport/Athroat) should be a minimum two, for a
typical grain L/D ratio of six [9, 10]. The tested grain
was quite short with the ratio Aport/Athroat >7.

Figure 3. Pressure curves on different test temperatures

The opposite two reasons that may favor the occurrence

of erosive burning are as follows:
1.

A central tube passes through the grain channel

reducing its cross section (Fig.5).

Figure 4. Thrust vs. time distributions

In the tests at the upper boundary of the temperature range
(+500C), it can be seen that the pressure and thrust curves
are extremely increased during the most period of the
motor work. It can be recognized on the ridge at the right
end of the parabolic curve, before the end of burning, that
the pressure decreases and enters normal mode, just
before the final pressure drop. Similarly, a slight pressure
increase above normal can be seen even in the diagram at
initial temperature +350C, although this phenomenon is
less pronounced there.

Figure 5. The test motor intersection, propellant grain and

central tube
The gaseous combustion products are passing through
the cross-section in the shape of a ring, between the two
separate areas. One of them is the outer surface of the
central tube and the other is the inner surface of
propellant grain channel. In this way the passage for
gases is significantly reduced, creating conditions for
increasing the speed of flow through the channel.

Pressure and thrust-time distributions at standard ambient

temperature (+200C) and lower boundary temperature of
the range (-300C) are of the expected form. Their
differences are acceptable as a common result of double
base propellant temperature sensitivity.
What are the possible reasons for erosive burning
appearance?

During the burning rate measurements, it was found

that the full-scale propellant grain has an unfavorable
ratio of the burning surface and nozzle throat area
(coefficient Kn = Ab/At), which is dangerous for the
erosive burning appearance.

Temperature may directly affect [3] the intensity of

erosive burning ratio [4]. Moreover, this phenomenon is
more pronounced in double-base than composite
381

For the grain burning surface (Fig.2) and two nozzles with
the throat diameter of 7.5 mm, the values of Kn are in the
range between 450 and 500 in the first burning phase,
decreasing at the end of the proces to the value of 340.

The only remaining possibility of moving the burning

regime outside the plateau is in the direction of higher
pressures, as in the case of high temeparatures, due to
propellant temperature sensitivity. Moreover, it was found
that there is a risk of an increase in pressure due to the
occurrence of erosive burning, which is significantly
affected by the value of Kn.

The propellant burning rate was determined using small

ballistic evaluation (BEM) motors [8], with FLS internalexternal burning tubes without inhibitor, which produce a
rather neutral pressure-time distribution. In each test, the
FLS propellant grain of the identical size was used,
(32x 16x125mm), but with a different nozzle throat
diameters, thereby achieving the various pressure values.
Therefore, in each test a different value of factor Kn was
obtained. Complete identification of the burning rates
over the whole pressure and temperature range of interest
for the full-scale rocket motor has been done.

In the burning rate diagram for three characteristic

temperatures (Fig.6) the critical values of factor Kn are
listed at the points where the pressure exponents rapidly
grow and exit from the plateau.
The limit values of factor Kn (Fig. 6) differ due to initial
operating temperatures of the propellant. The values of Kn
decrease when the propellant temperature increases. At
standard ambient temperature (+20 0C), as well as at
lower limit temperature of the range (-30 0C), these values
are higher than the value of the factor Kn in the full-scale
rocket motor. This explains the fact that at these
temperatures there is no occurrence of erosive burning in
real motor (Figs. 3 and 4).

A number of similar double-base compositions has been

tested and a typical diagram with the results of burning
rate measurements on three characteristic temperatures
(+50, +20 and -30 0C) is shown in Fig. 6.
14

The minimum limit value of the factor Kn (445) appears at

the upper boundary temperature of the range (+500C). It is
less than the values of Kn in full-scale rocket motor (450500).

13

+50 0C

Burning rate, r (mm/s)

12
11

+20 0C

10

If the complete correlation is assumed between the results

in the real rocket motor and the test (FLS) motors, there is
a strong possibility for the burning rate and pressure to
increase in the real motor. This fact could explain the
occurrence of erosive burning, shown in Figures 3 and 4.

445

-30 0C

504

8
7

KN = 605

6
5

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

The main task of the rocket motor designer was to find

the cause of erosive burning and to make changes of the
grain design to eliminate this phenomenon.

140

Pressure, p (bar)

Figure 6. Burning rate vs. pressure

2. EROSIVE BURNING CORRECTION

Rocket propellant burning rate dependence on pressure at

standard ambient temperature is usually used for motor
calculations. For the considered double-base propellant
(middle curve in Fig.6) it consists of three distinctive
parts. In the range of pressures from 65 to 90 bar, which is
ideally suited to normal calculated rocket motor mode, the
pressure exponent (n) is low, resembling a plateau
burning. This plateau is even better seen in the curves that
correspond to extreme operating temperatures of +50 and
-30 0C. At +20 C, the Saint Robert's law is of the form:

2.1. Factors affecting the erosive burning

There are different criteria for assessing erosive burning.
Their purpose is to assess the factors that affect the rate of
gaseous products flow over the burning surface where the
increased burning rate appears.

(1)

The main criterion that is most often mentioned in the

literature [3] is combustion/throat area ratio, Kn. Reducing
this ratio in the full-scale motor reduces the risk of erosive
burning.

The motor combustion is planned only in the range of

pressures where the propellant is in the plateau burning
regime. However, outside this range, below 60 (bar) and
above 90 (bar), the pressure exponent is growing rapidly
and combustion law changes and exits the plateau.

A similar criterion is the ratio of total burning surface to

grain port area Ki = Ab/Aport. In Russian literature [11-13]
this criterion is is named "Pobedonoscev ratio". It is
recommended for this value not to exceed 100. This is
just a standard recommendation, and in some cases the
lower values can be critical. It depends on the type of gas
flow, propellant composition [14], as well as on ambient
temperature [3].

If the operating mode of the rocket motor starts to come

out of this range, in the direction of lower pressure, e.g. at
low temperatures, it could cause unstable combustion.
Therefore, the motor operating mode is designed in the
area of higher pressures in the plateau range.

The highest value of this ratio is at the beginning of the

combustion. In this case, the grain initial burning surface
is 403,1 cm2. The gases flow through the channel with the
grain diameter of 4,0 cm, and diameter of the central tube
of 3,3 cm. The maximum value of the ratio is:

r=3,14p0,22 (mm/s)

p(bar) - pressure

382

K imax =

A bmax
403,14
=
@100,4.
A port (4,02 -3,32 )

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

(2)

This value is large at the beginning of the combustion

process and close to the recommended limit, but quickly
drops below it. Therefore, this criterion cant be used to
explain the long duration of the erosive burning process.
Another possibility is that the recommended limit (100) is
not good in this case. Passing through the annular channel
certainly creates more turbulence, so it is quite possible
that the limit of this factor is much smaller, and the risk of
erosive burning is higher. The pressure and thrust traces
in Figs 3 and 4 show a very strong erosive burning.
Possibility of erosive burning increases proportionally to
the gaseous flow velocity over the burning area. The
highest velocities occur mainly at the end of the grain
channel, at the rear of the rocket motor, near nozzles. Gas
flow speed reduction can be achieved by extending the
channel, increasing its diameter.

For example, it is known that the parameter Ki = Ab/Aport

represents the ratio of the total burning surface to grain
port area. However, the intensity of the gas flow in the
grain channel depends not on the total burning surface of
the grain, but only on the part of grain that produces gases
which move through the channel: Ki1 = Ab1/Aport.

The values of erosive burning parameters (section

2.1) should be reduced as much as possible.

2.

Propellant grain volume should not be reduced, in

order to remain the total impulse of the motor;

3.

The initial pressure should not be higher than in the

motor design No.1. At the beginning of the motor
work, there is the largest possibility of erosive
burning, because the cross-section of the grain
channel is small. This possibility increases along with
pressure, which means with burning rate.

In principle, the problem of erosive burning can be

solved by reducing the velocity of gas flow through the
grain channel. This could be achieved by increasing the
diameter of the propellant grain channel, thereby
increasing the passage for the gases.
Increasing the grain channel diameter, the burning
surface of the channel also increases. On the other hand,
the surface of the grain burning ends decreases.
Altogether, the impact of the channel and the grain
length is higher, and the total burning area of the grain
increases.

Similarly, if we consider the criterion Kn, the combustion

to throat area ratio, we should also find that the erosive
burning occurs in the grain channel, where the mass flow
depend only on the surface that produces gases that flow
through the channel. Thus, we can define the criterion
Kn1=Ab1/At where Ab1=Ab-AL.

Along the increasing the channel diameter, the grain

volume and mass reduce. This can be compensated by
increasing the length or the outer diameter of the grain.
In this case, the length of the grain could not be
changed, but it was possible to increase the outer
diameter over the initial value of 12.05 cm, up to the
inner diameter of the combustion chamber (12.6 cm).

Finally, among the all considered parameters, only the

feature Kn may be a real basis for comparison, obtained
during the propellant tests in the FLS motors.

2.2. Initial parameters of the motor geometry

Basic characteristics of the initial motor and propellant
grain design are shown in Table 1.

Increasing the outer diameter of the grain is less than

the increase of the grain channel diameter. Thus, the
web fraction is reduced, as well as calculated burning
time. Small differences in web thickness between the
initial (No.1) and the new grain solution could be
further compensated by adjusting the propellant
composition and the nozzle throat.

Table 1.
cm
cm
cm
cm

1.

What are the possibilities of changing the basic geometry

of the grain No1? The following elements are considered:

In our case, the left end of the grain (Figs.1 and 5), near
the nozzle, is not involved in the production of gases that
flow through the channel. Therefore, the effective burning
area is equal to the difference between total burning area
and the left end of the grain: Ab1=Ab-AL.

Dci
D
d
L

cm 2x0,75
cm3 1608,5
cm2 403,1
bar
82,6
456,2
494,0
341,3
412,4
100,4
100,4
75,15
75,15

On the basis of test results (Fig. 3 and 4), the initial

design (design No1) of the motor and propellant grain
was not satisfactory and its correction was needed.
Discussing the rocket motor requirements, the principles
of possible design corrections are defined:

In addition to the above parameters, it is possible to

define some other ones for evaluation the erosive burning.

Inner diameter of the chamber

Outer diameter of the grain
Grain channel diameter
Grain length

dt
V
Ab0
p0
Kn0
Knm
Kn1-0
Kn1-m
Ki-0
Ki-m
Ki1-0
Ki1-m

2.3. Principles of the motor design correction

The limit values of these criteria vary from case to case

and it is not possible to clearly define critical values for
erosive burning appearance. However, this may not be
necessary. It is enough for designers to know what are the
possibilities of changing and improvement of flow image
and conditions in the rocket motor.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Nozzle throat diameter

Propellant grain volume
Initial burning surface
Initial chamber pressure
Initial ratio (Ab/At)
Maximum ratio (Ab/At)
Initial ratio (Ab1/At)
Maximum ratio (Ab1/At)
Initial ratio (Ab/Aport)
Maximum ratio (Ab/Aport)
Initial ratio (Ab1/Aport)
Maximum ratio (Ab1/Aport)

12,60
12,05
4,00
16,00
383

 The initial pressure should not rise, due to the defined

principle No.3. Then, it is required for the nozzle throat
to be increased, due to increased burning surface. It is
possible to perform a simple analysis using the
expression [1-4] for stationary pressure:
1
1-n

p c bA b
pc =

At

13.
14.
15.
16.

The change of factors Kn and Kn1 is more important. After

all, the test results in the FLS motors (Fig.6) talk about
critical values of factor Kn.

(4)
(5)

A b2 = A t2
A A
b1 t1

(6)

40,9
40,9
31,8
31,8

For example, parameters Ki and Ki1 decreased 2,5 times,

but it is very likely that they are not authoritative for the
assessment of erosive burning. Their values rapidly
decrease in the beginning of the combustion process,
while erosive burning lasts much longer, as can be seen in
the motor thrust and pressure traces.

All the elements in the above expression are constant,

except the burning surface Ab and the nozzle throat At. If
it is required for the two different cases, both at the start
of the combustion (Ab1, At1) and (Ab2, At2), to have the
same initial pressure values (due to the principle No3), we
have:

A b1 = A b2
A A
t1 t2

Ki-0
Ki-m
Ki1-0
Ki1-m

Compared to the initial solution (No1), the values of all

the erosive burning parameters have been reduced.

(3)

pc1 =pc2

Initial ratio (Ab/Aport)

Maximum ratio (Ab/Aport)
Initial ratio (Ab1/Aport)
Maximum ratio (Ab1/Aport)

In Fig.7 the traces of these factors vs. web are shown, the
basic design (No1) and the design with expanded grain
channel diameter (No2). There are two pairs of curves that
correspond to designs No1 and No2, and factors Kn and
Kn1. From the point of erosive burning, the factors Kn and
Kn1 are better for (No2) than for the initial design (No1),
but they dont prove that the problem is solved.
600

Equation (6) shows that the nozzle throat should be

increased proportionally to the increase of the initial
burning surface.

KN - No2

KN - No1

550

Burning surface to nozzle throat ratio

KN=AS/A t

500

The possibility of the propellant composition variations is

left in the end, as the least desirable option. By the way, a
number of different propellant compositions was tested
and none of them gave a satisfactory result. Only several
different positions of "plateau" in the propellant burning
law have been achieved, but not a plateau in higher range
of pressures.

450
400
350

KN1 - No1

300

KN2 - No2

250
200
150
100
50
0

2.4. The procedure of motor design correction

Web thickness, x (cm)

Figure 7. Factor Kn vs Web

The correction is carried out in two phases.

In the first phase, the diameter of the grain channel is
increased, and also the initial burning surface. In order not
to reduce the required weight, the outer diameter of the
grain is also increased, close to the inner surface of the
motor case. In order not to change the initial pressure,
nozzle throat was also increased. After the changes, the
properties of the design No2 are shown in Table 2.

Static tests of the revised rocket motor design (No2)

showed that the thrust trace is better than in the case of
initial design, but the problem persists. The maximum
value of the thrust force is still too high and is not
acceptable due to the negative impact on the executive
elements of the Thrust Vector Control system (TVC).
140

Table 2.
Inner diameter of the chamber Dci
Outer diameter of the grain
D
Grain channel diameter
d
Grain length
L
Nozzle throat diameter
dt
Propellant grain volume
V
Initial burning surface
Ab0
Initial chamber pressure
p0
Initial ratio (Ab/At)
Kn0
Maximum ratio (Ab/At)
Knm
Initial ratio (Ab1/At)
Kn1-0
Maximum ratio (Ab1/At)
Kn1-m

120

cm 12,60
cm 12,40
cm
5,00
cm 16,00
cm 2x0,80
cm3 1618,0
cm2 453,6
bar
81,5
451,2
469,9
350,6
395,6

100

Thrust, F (daN)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

80
60
40
20
0

Time, t (s)

Figure 8. Thrust (+500C)

384

 Compared to the previous form of grain, the parameter

Kn is reduced, It is less than the critical value obtained
by FLS tests (Fig. 6). This factor decreases during the
whole rocket motor work (Fig.11). The hatched field in
Fig.11 indicates the critical values of the factor Kn.

Thrust distribution of the modified rocket motor on the

critical temperature of +500C is shown in Fig.8 (lower
curve - No2), along with the diagram of the initial motor
version (upper curve - No1).
After the changes introduced in the first phase, no more
possibilities of extending the grain channel remained,
which would achieve a further reduction in gas flow
velocity through the channel.

600

(No1): Dt = 7,5 mm

Burning surface to nozzle throat ratio,

KN = AS/A t

In order to reduce the intensity of the gas flow through the

grain channel, the following changes are introduced:
the burning surface is increased by opening a part of
inhibitor at the outer surface of the grain, near the
nozzle (Fig. 9).
The nozzle throat is increased, proportionally, so that the
initial pressure remains unchanged.

(No2): Dt = 8,0 mm

500

400

300

(No3): Dt = 8,3 mm

200

100

Web thickness, x (cm)

Figure 11. Kn ratio for three different cases

2.5. Final results

The results of static tests of the modified rocket motor
design are presented in Figs. 12 and 13. Pressure and
thrust traces on 4 different ambient temperatures are
shown. Stable diagrams of the motor work are achieved
at all operating temperatures.

Figure 9. Modified propellant grain

What is the idea of this solution?
The relative gas flow through the grain channel is
reduced. It can be assumed that the gases generated on
the outer side of the grain flow towards the nozzle from
the outer side of the grain.

140
0

Pressure, p (bar)

At the beginning of the combustion, the value of the

ratio Kn (initial burning surface to nozzle throat area)
remained the same. But the burning surface slightly
decreases vs. web thickness during the whole period of
rocket motor combustion (Fig. 10), compared to the
parabolic change of the initial grain burning surface.

+ 20 C

- 30 C

80
60
40
20
0

124/ 50 x 160 (mm)

Time, t (s)

600

Figure 12. Pressure curves on different test temperatures

Nozzle diameter
Dt = 8,3 mm

Dt = 8,0 mm
140

+ 20 C

+ 35 C

+ 50 C

120

400

300

Thrust, F (daN)

Burning surface, AS (cm2)

+ 35 C

100

In this way, the parameter Kn1 is decreased. This

parameter describes the part of burning surface that
produces gases that flow through the grain channel.

500

+ 50 C
120

Dt = 7,5 mm

200

100
0

- 30 C
80
60
40

100
20

Web thickness, x (cm)

124/ 50 x 160 (mm)

0

Time, t (s)

Figure 13. Thrust distribution

Figure 10. Burning surfaces for three different cases

385

140

Table 3. Average motor properties for two

designs
No 1
+50 3,80
Effective burning
+35 4,50
teff (s)
time
+20 4,85
-30 5,45
+50 402,83
Itot
+35 397,55
Total impulse
(daNs)
+20 385,78
-30 379,24
+50 106,01
+35 88,34
Average thrust
F (daN)
+20 79,54
-30 69,59
+50 103,63
+35 87,16
Average pressure
pc (bar)
+20 78,85
-30 70,27

N 1
120
0

+50 C

Pressure, p (bar)

100
80

N 2

60
40
20
0

Time, t (s)

Figure 14. Pressure curves for the two different motor

designs

140
o

Table 4.

+50 C

No 1

No 3

3,8 - 5,45

4,3 - 4,55

70 - 106

82 - 90

70 - 104

82 - 89

100

Thrust, F (daN)

No 3
4,40
4,32
4,36
4,55
395,94
390,20
378,17
371,84
89,99
90,32
86,74
81,72
87,98
89,00
85,95
82,50

N 1

120

Effective burning
time

80
o

N 2

60

Average thrust

40

Average pressure

20
0

different

teff (s)
F
(daN)
pc
(bar)

The results in Table 4 and in Figs. 12 and 13 show that

the modified design (No3) is stable. Very low temperature
sensitivity of the motor characteristics is achieved. This is
demonstrated by the fact that the different temperature
curves are very close. Numerical data of the mean values
of the motor performances show the intensity of the
improvement that has been achieved. The ranges of the
modified motor design characteristic values are much
smaller than the ranges for the initial solution.

Time, t (s)

Figure 15. Thrust

For a better comparison, Figs. 14 and 15 show extreme
cases for the two different motor designs, the initial (No1)
and modified design (No3). Pressure and thrust curves at
the upper boundary temperature +500C are presented. On
the basis of a simple visual comparison, the effects of the
motor modification are seen in extreme conditions.

At the same time the values of all the characteristic

parameters of erosive burning are reduced (Tab.5).
Table 5.

3. DISCUSSION

Initial ratio (Ab/At)

Maximum ratio (Ab/At)
Initial ratio (Ab1/At)
Maximum ratio (Ab1/At)

Kn0
Knm
Kn1-0
Kn1-m

No 1
456,2
494,0
341,3
412,4

No 3
455,2
458,3
325,7
367,7

The results of the modified motor static tests showed that

the erosive burning problem is succesfully solved. Thrust
and pressure traces on the upper boundary temperature
(+50oC) still show a slightly visible maximums. It looks
like the erosive burning, but the intensity of this
phenomenon is small and acceptable.

4. CONCLUSSION

The shapes of the thrust and pressure curves are partially

caused by the burning surface distribution (Fig. 10). There
are no occurrence of erosive burning for other working
conditions.

For the rocket motor propellant grain production, a

double-base propellant is selected with plateau burning
range between 65-90 bar.

Table 3 shows the comparative values of the motor

performances, for the solutions No. 1 and 3.

The rocket motor is designed to work exactly in this range

of pressures. Outside this range, the pressure exponent is
growing quickly and the burning rate is rapidly changing.

Table 4 shows the ranges of the characteristic values for

the both considered motor designs.

The high temperature sensitivity of the propellant affects

the appearance of a large pressure increase at the upper
boundary of the temperature range (+500C).

386

This increase can be attributed to the increased pressure

exponent, but it also has all the characteristics of erosive
burning. These two phenomena are not accompanied by a
clear boundary between them.

[4] Wimpress,R.N.: 1950. Internal Ballistics of SolidFuel Rockets. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York-Toronto-London.
[5] King,K.Merrill: 1993. Erosive burning of solid
propellants. Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol.9,
No6. pp. 785-805. doi: 10.2514/3.23692.
[6] King K. Merrill: 1981. Erosive burning of composite
solid propellants. Atlantic Research Corporation. Air
Force Office of Scientific Research, AFOSR-TR-810395, AD A098088.
[7] Landsbaum M. Ellis: 2005. Erosive Burning of Solid
Rocket Propellants-A Revisit. Journal of Propulsion
and Power, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 470-477. doi:
10.2514/1.5234.
[8] NASA. 1971. Solid propellant selection and
characterization. NASA Space Vehicle Design
Criteria SP-8064.
[9] Richard Nakkas Experimental Rocketry Web Site.
2003. Solid propellant burn rate.
[10] http://www.braeunig.us/space/propuls.htm, Rocket &
Space Techn., Rocket propulsion, Solid Rocket
Motors.
[11] ,..: ,
, 1980.
[12] ,..: , , 1982.
[13] ,..,
,..:
, "",
, 1987.
[14] Gligorijevi,. & group of authors: 2013. Solid
propellant rocket motors-Selected Topics, Belgrade,
MTI, ISBN 978-86-81123-63-8, ID 199479052.

The propellant burning rate evaluation tests have shown

that there exist critical values of the parameter Kn which
are used to describe erosive burning. These limits are not
clearly defined anywhere in the literature, but the values
specified in the FLS motors were used as a guide to find
the correct solution.
In the literature (3, 5, 6, 11-14) there are other parameters
too, for description the erosive burning, but their limits
are not clearly defined, and depend on different factors.
The new motor design, especially the propellant grain,
was found through the process of repairing the values of
these parameters that charcterize the erosive burning.
In the process of developing a new motor solution, a
simple, but original propellant grain design was made.
Similar solutions are not known in the literature. By
opening the part of outside surface of the propellant grain,
relative gas flow through the grain channel is reduced.
From the standpoint of achieving inter-ballistic
requirements, a reliable and stable motor design is made.

REFERENCES
[1] George,P.Sutton, Oscar Biblarz> 2010. Rocket
Propulsion Elements. Eighth edition. John
Wiley&Sons inc. ISBN: 978-0-470-08024-5.
[2] NASA. 1972. Solid propellant grain design and
internal ballistics. NASA Space Vehicle Design
Criteria SP-8076.
[3] Marcel Barrere, Andre Jaumotte, Baudouin Fraeijs de
Veubeke, Jean Vandenkerckhove: 1960. Rocket
Propulsion,
Elsevier
Publishing
Company,
Amsterdam-London-New York.

387

COMBINED INFLUENCE OF EXPLOSIVE CHARGE DENSITY AND

SCALED DISTANCE ON SHOCKWAVE OVERPRESSURE FOR
CYCLOTOL 50/50
ZORAN BAJI
Military Academy, Belgrade, zoran.bajic@va.mod.gov.rs
JOVICA BOGDANOV
Military Academy, Belgrade, jovica.bogdanov@va.mod.gov.rs
VLADIMIR MLADENOVI
Military Academy, Belgrade, vladimir.mladenovic@va.mod.gov.rs

Abstract: This paper investigates the influence of explosive charge density and scaled distance on shockwave
overpressure for cyclotol 50/50. Series of tests were conducted in order to measure the shockwave overpressure at
different distances for 0.4 kg explosive charge weight. Shockwave overpressure was measured using piezoelectric
probes at different distances. Obtained correlation between density and overpressure has shown linear dependency with
COD from 0.9857 to 0.9984. The shockwave overpressure experimental data was further fitted in order to get the
relationship between the shockwave overpressure, density and scaled distance using rational Taylor model with COD
of 0.9987.
Keywords: Detonation, Shockwave overpressure, Density, Cyclotol 50/50

1. INTRODUCTION
The influence of explosive charge density on shockwave
parameters has been investigated in few papers. The
experimental investigation of density influence on
shockwave parameters for spherical charges made of
pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) showed that the influence
of density on overpressure stops at r/m1/30.8 m/kg1/3 [1].
Parameter r/m1/3 depicts scaled distance, Z, according to the
Hopkinson-Cranz scaling law [2, 3]. However, the
experiment in [1] was conducted for scaled distance between
0.8 and 1.6 m/kg1/3. Calculated relationship between
explosive charge density and shockwave parameters is given
in [4]. In addition, energetic equivalent, which comprises
shockwave overpressure and explosive charge density, is
presented in [5].

thick cylindrical shaped cardboards 65 mm in diameter

[10]. On the test site, charges were primed with a standard
No. 8 electric detonating cap and booster charge made of
15 g of plastic explosive PPE-01 based on PETN. Priming
is located in the one base of the charge on the opposite
side from probes. Explosive charge was set on a
cardboard on top of a 1 m high wooden pole (pic.1).

Picture 1. Explosive charge set up, 1 Priming device

On the other hand, the effect of scaled distance on

shockwave
overpressure
has
been
thoroughly
investigated. Sadovskiy [6], Brode [7], Held [8], Kingery
and Bulmash [9] gave various equations for the
dependency of shockwave parameters over scaled
distance or other mass/distance ratios. TNT equivalent
should be used instead of explosive mass in equations.

Since the booster only accounted for 3.75% of the total

mass of the charges, and the TNT equivalent of PPE-01
and cyclotol 50/50 are similar (1.16 and 1.10 respectively)
when determined by measuring overpressure [11] the
effect of using a different explosive in the booster
compared with the main charge was expected to be
insignificant [12].

2. EXPERIMENT

Piezoelectric probes model 113B51 from PCB

Piezotronics were used for shockwave overpressure
measurements [13]. Probes were set on massive metal
carriers and they were directed towards the explosive

Explosive cyclotol 50/50 with four different densities

1.08, 1.11, 1.19 and 1.68 g/cm3 is used in the experiment.
Explosive charges, weighting 400 g, were cast in 2 mm
388

charge. Other equipment was positioned in well protected

nearby facility. Picture 2 shows the experimental site.

diagram for shockwave overpressure time dependence

for tested explosive charge was recorded at the distance of
5 m (picture 3).
Diagrams at other distances indicated strong influence of
reflected shockwave due to the superposition of different
shockwaves and the experiment site topography (picture
4). For example, at 20 m secondary and tertiary peaks of
reflected shockwave were so visible and dominant that the
obtained diagrams became practically unusable for further
primary shockwave analysis.

Picture 2. Scheme of experiment 1 Explosive charge, 2

Probe, 3 Coaxial cable, 4 Oscillograph, 5 Software
Probes were fixed in angled directions from explosive
charge so there cannot be disturbing influences among
each other while registering shockwave overpressure.
Probes were positioned on metal poles 1 m high at 5 m,
7.5 m, 10 m, 15 m and 20 m from explosive charge.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The experiments have shown that none of the pressuretime recordings from the gauges exhibited the typical
blast wave characteristics according to the modified
Friedlander equation [14, 15]. The only near ideal

Picture 3. Overpressure - time dependence at 5 m for

cyclotol 50/50, =1.68 g/cm3

Picture 4. Overpressure - time dependence at 7.5, 10, 15 and 20 m for cyclotol 50/50, =1.68 g/cm3

389

Measured shockwave overpressure values for all

investigated densities of cyclotol 50/50 at depicted
distances were given in table 1.

The calculated parameters A, c and coefficient of

determination (COD) were given in table 2.
Table 2. Values of maximum shockwave overpressure for
cyclotol 50/50

Table 1. Values of maximum shockwave overpressure for

cyclotol 50/50
Density
(g/cm3)
1.08
1.11
1.19
1.68

5m
0.243
0.245
0.255
0.327

7.5 m
0.109
0.111
0.122
0.153

pm (bar)
10 m
0.0542
0.0583
0.0641
0.0869

15 m
0.0395
0.0402
0.0413
0.0568

Z (m/kg1/3)
6.79
10.18
13.57
20.36
27.14

20 m
0.0295
0.0301
0.0314
0.0373

A
0.1425
0.0719
0.0516
0.0294
0.0127

c
0.0872
0.0328
0.0005
0.0073
0.0160

COD
0.9984
0.9862
0.9857
0.9939
0.9966

Parameter A from the equation 1 can be correlated with

the scaled distance using power function type with
equation A=aZb. Fitted parameters are as follows:
a=2.755, b=1.549, COD=0.99488 and reduced chisquare is 1.73617E5. The readjusted and simple
equation for calculating shockwave overpressure
involving scaled distance and explosive charge density is
shown in next equation:

Calculated scaled distances for the tested explosive

charge were 6.79, 10.18, 13.57, 20.36 and 27.14 m/kg1/3
respectively. The dependence of shockwave overpressure
on explosive density for cyclotol 50/50 at different
distances m is given in the picture 5.

p=aZb+c

(2)

Where is in g/cm3, Z in m/kg1/3 and p in bar. Standard

error for equation 2 is 0.004615 and COD=0.99755.
Rational Taylor model can also be used to analyze and fit
shockwave overpressure experimental data with density
and scaled distance. The model was given in the equation
3:
p ( , Z ) =

(3)

This model was chosen because it showed the best fitting

properties using Origin 9.0 (OriginLab Corporation). The
influence of scaled distance and explosive charge density
on shockwave overpressure has been correlated with
experimental data (red dots in picture 6). The correlation
gives calculated parameters for equation 3 with COD of
0.99867 and reduced chi square 2.07563E5:

Picture 5. The dependence of shockwave overpressure on

explosive charge density for cyclotol 50/50
The experimental data show that the dependency of
shockwave overpressure on explosive density is linear, in
the same way like the relationship between the detonation
velocity and the explosive charge density [5], according
to the equation:
p = A+c

A + B01 + C01Z + C02 Z 2 + D02 Z

1 + B1 + C1 Z + B2 2 + C2 Z 2 + D2 Z

p ( , Z ) =
28.5 + 59.1 2.66 Z + 0.123Z 2 0.148 Z
=
1 + 225 133Z 62.8 2 + 2.63Z 2 + 41.8 Z

(1)

Picture 6. The dependence of shockwave overpressure on density and scaled distance for cyclotol 50/50
390

(4)

4. CONCLUSION

[3] Cranz, C., Lehrbuch der Ballistik, Springer-Verlag,

Berlin, 1916.
[4] , .., , .., "

", , 3 (1983).
[5] , .., , ,
, 2002.
[6] , .., "

",

, 1 (1953).
[7] Brode, H.L., "Numerical solution of spherical blast
waves", J App Phys, 26 (1955) 766-775.
[8] Held, M., "Blast waves in free air", Propellants,
Explosives, Pyrotechnics, 8 (1983) 1-7.
[9] Kingery, C.N., Bulmash, G., Technical report
ARBRL-TR-02555: Air blast parameters from TNT
spherical air burst and hemispherical surface burst,
AD-B082 713, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD,
USA, 1984.

The analysis of shockwave overpressure experimental

data for cyclotol 50/50 has shown that, analogous to
detonation velocity, shockwave overpressure grows
linearly with the density increase. This linear dependency
has revealed good agreement with experimental data with
COD from 0.9857 to 0.9984. Moreover, it has been
shown the shockwave overpressure experimental data can
be successfully fitted by two functions, simple power
function and rational Taylor function based on two
independent variables, density and scaled distance, with
excellent values of COD, 0.99755 and 0.99867
respectively.

REFERENCES
[1] , .., "

", , 6
(1961).
[2] Hopkinson, B., UK Ordnance Board Minutes 13565,
1915.

391

INITIAL CHANGES OF COMPOSITE PROPELLANT MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES
NIKOLA GLIGORIJEVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, nikola.gligorijevic@gmail.com
MOHAMMED MAOUCHE,
Military Academy, University of Defence, Belgrade, Master student, mido269@hotmail.fr
ASSIA TABOUCHE
Military Academy, University of Defence, Belgrade, Master student, assia.tabouche@yahoo.com
CHAWKI TENNACHE
Military Academy, University of Defence, Belgrade, Master student, mino.persie@yahoo.fr
SAA IVKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, sasavite@yahoo.com
SREDOJE SUBOTI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, sredoje.subotic@gmail.com
VESNA RODI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vesna_rodic@vektor.net
Abstract: Propellant modulus increases up to 200% and allowable strain decreases below 50% of its initial value.
Ultimate stress, modulus and allowable strain values for the virgin propellant are necessary for monitoring the
production quality and comparison of different compositions or batches. Moreover, their time distributions after
production are necessary for propellant grain structural analysis. Short time aging must be acounted for the evaluation
of reliability and rocket motor service life.
Keywords: Composite, Propellant, Mechanical properties, Structural analysis, Aging, HTPB, Stress, Strain, Modulus.
on real time, due to aging. There are not many papers
dealing with them in the initial period and most authors
mainly analyse them during long-term aging [1-3, 11, 12].

1. INTRODUCTION
From the time it is cast, composite solid rocket propellant
is continuously exposed to chemical (natural) aging,
which is reflected in the change of its physical properties
[1-3]. The first aging effect is seen even during the curing
process, when the propellant hardening and softening
occurs, primarily due to migration of plasticizer [4, 5].

Our analysis of different HTPB propellant compositions

have shown that the changes of mechanical properties are
rather extensive in a short period after production. Their
influence on the results of propellant grain structural
reliability is important and they shouldnt be neglected.

The physical properties of the propellant intensively

change over the curing process. This process should last
as long as it is necessary for the properties to stabilize, but
in practice it is not possible for this process to take very
long. Therefore, the changes continue afterwards with
reduced intensity. Curing parameters are chosen to
complete the process as quickly as possible, but also to
improve the properties to stabilize as much as possible.

Uniaxial tension tests in VTI have shown that changes of

the propellant mechanical properties due to the natural
aging take place in two distinct phases. The first phase is
relatively short (2-3 months, sometimes up to 6 months)
[12]. During this phase there is an intensive change of
mechanical properties of HTPB propellant. Later, they
continue to change slowly, usually in the opposite
direction than in the first phase [12, 13].

It is expected for mechanical properties to stabilize at the

end of the cure process. These properties are viscoelastic
and depend on strain rate and temperature [6-10], but also

The changes of the HTPB mechanical properties in the

initial period are intensive and it is necessary to define
them accurately as an input for the structural analysis.
392

number of different test temperatures (in the range

between -60oC and +50oC) and different strain rates,
using constant crosshead speeds in the range between 0,2
and 1000 mm/s, with statistically acceptable number of
replicates in each test regime [7, 9, 10].

2. PARAMETERS OF PROPELLANT
PRODUCTION AND TESTING
2.1. Composite propellant compositions
Seven similar solid propellant compositions were tested,
composed by 23,4% HTPB based binder, 75%
ammonium-perchlorate (AP) crystalline oxidizer), 1%
aluminum (Al) metal fuel powder, 0,5% lithium-fluoride
(LiF) as burning rate depressant and 0,1% black powder
(C) as burning stabilizer. Within the HTPB binder,
isophorone-diisocyanate (IPDI) as curing agent was used,
as well as dioctyl-adipate (DOA) as plasticizer, (AO22) as
antioxidant and triethylene-tetramine () as bonding
agent. Differences between compositions are related to
oxidizer granulations and plasticizers and curing agent
mass fractions.

2.4. Some aspects of aging in the initial period

There is not much information in literature about the
effects of natural aging on propellant mechanical
properties in the initial period after production. As a rare
example, it has been found in [13] that tensile strength
( m ) and modulus ( E ) increase first sharply and then
slightly, while strain values ( m ) decrease in the same
manner. Since this issue is not sufficiently considered in
literature, it could be wrongly concluded that aging effect
on mechanical properties could be neglected in the
beginning of the rocket motor service life.

2.2. Curing conditions

In the initial period after curing, the effects of plasticizers

content and its migration are usually considered in order
to analyze the impact of this phenomenon on propellant
adhesion with bond. There is not much information about
changing the mechanical properties of the propellant itself
throughout the grain. Moreover, Sutton [20], for instance,
does not consider the effects of natural aging and he finds
that the decrease in mechanical properties is primarily due
to cumulative damage [2, 12, 21, 22, 23].

In the VTIs practice, for HTPB based propellants with

AP as oxidizer it is found that optimal curing parameters
are about 70oC and 120 hours. These parameters are
adopted as standard values for a whole class of composite
propellant compositions. For example, similar, but not
same curing parameters (50oC and 120 hours) are used in
[14], while 65oC and 7 days are used in [13]. These
conditions are usually based on experience [15], as well
as on analysis of diisocyanate to total hydroxyl ratio
(NCO/OH) [13]. During the cure, propellant properties
are unstable due to migration of plasticizer [4, 5, 13, 16]
until it reaches equilibrium [4]. The optimal curing
parameters depend on a number of influencing factors
[17], like percentage and composition of polymer binder,
type, granulation and amount of oxidizer powder,
different additives, etc.

Some authors [5] consider propellant aging as a result of

simultaneous action of chemical, physical and aging due
to the effects of mechanical loads. The last one is treated
sometimes separately, as cumulative damage [6, 9, 10].
Different authors mainly discuss the mechanical
properties after a long period of storage, using the
methods of accelerated aging [3, 11, 24].
The values of ultimate propellant mechanical properties
are required for the grain structural analysis [6, 8-10].
These features are time dependent: m (t ), m (t ) . At first,
it is necessary to determine their initial values ( m 0 , m 0 ).
Failure analysis is based on comparison between real
stresses (or strains) and the values of propellant tensile
strength (or allowable strain).

2.3. Initial mechanical characterization

In VTIs process of composite propellant production, an
own standard has been introduced. According to this
standard, propellant mechanical quality control is always
carried out two days after the cure process, by a set of
uniaxial tension tests in standard conditions (temperature
20oC and tester crosshead speed 50 mm/min). These tests
have to be done for each production batch.

According to Hellers model [2, 12, 22] which makes a

distinction between different influences, the values of
tensile strength and allowable strain ( m , m ) are products
of the initial values that represent new propellant
( m 0 , m 0 ), aging factors ( , ) and cumulative
damage (1 D ) , Eqs.1 and 2:

The propellant tested in this moment should be called

new or virgin because it is important to distinguish in
relation to the term unaged, that some authors [5, 18,
19] use for propellant that has not been subjected to
accelerated aging. It is usually expected for propellant to
be in use for many years. It means that the term aging
involves a long process, and the term unaged could
imply a wide period in the beginning of the service life. In
that way a significant error could be made due to the
change of the propellant mechanical properties in the
initial period after production.

m (t ) = m 0 (t ) [1 D(t ) ]

(1)

m (t ) = m 0 (t ) [1 D (t ) ]

(2)

Composite solid propellant is a viscoelastic material with

highly dependent mechanical properties on temperature
and strain rate [7, 9, 10]. Mechanical properties of a new
propellant ( m 0 , m 0 ) are formally represented in Eqs. (1)
and (2) as constants due to the real time, because they are
related exactly to the initial moment of time after the end

In addition to the standard tension tests, from time to time

it is necessary, for a propellant grain structural analysis, to
make a complete mechanical characterization of a new
propellant. These tests are more extensive and include a
393

of curing. Really, these features are variables, usually

presented in form of master curves [6-10, 12] that depend
on temperature and strain rate. Ideally, the master curves
should be performed immediately after curing, before
beginning the natural aging process. However, this
procedure of the master curves determination could take a
long time, sometimes up to several months [12]. After
that time, the propellant is no longer new or virgin
because its mechanical properties are changed, and it is
necessary to determine the intensity of these changes and
to find an acceptable way to take them into account.

Different symbols and colors in diagrams correspond to

different propellant compositions.
Figures 1-3 for each composition from the tested group
show significant relative changes of the mechanical
properties, during more than one month after production.

Aging factors for the tensile strength, allowable strain and

initial modulus ( , , E ) are time-dependent features
i (t ) . They represent the ratios between current and
initial values of each property. In order to define the
initial values of aging factors for in the beginning of the
service life, the uniaxial tension tests were carried out for
several different HTPB propellant compositions, over the
first 45 days after production.
Figure 1. Modulus aging factor for seven different HTPB
compositions over 45 days

3. EXPERIMENT

For two selected compositions (No6, No7), aging factor

distributions for strength, allowable strain and modulus
( m , m , E ), during ten months are shown in Figs. 4-6.

3.1. Test conditions

Uniaxial tension tests have been performed using
universal Instron-1122 tensile tester with temperature
conditioning provision. Propellant specimens of
JANNAF-C type [9] were used.
In the first set of tests, seven propellant compositions
were tested in standard conditions (+20oC and
50mm/min) and different periods. In all cases, initial tests
were done exactly two days after curing and this moment
is treated as the beginning of the propellant service life
( t = 0 ). All the compositions were tested several times
over next 45 days. In addition, two compositions, selected
from the group of seven, were subsequently tested in
different intervals over a period of 10 months.
In the second set of uniaxial tension tests, one of the
compositions was tested in different strain rate regimes, in
order to explain better the aging influence on mechanical
properties of the propellant. The tests on standard
temperature (20oC) were performed in two different
periods within three months, at nine different tester crosshead speeds in the range between 0,2 and 1000 mm/min
(Table 2). For all regimes, statistical sample of 7-9
specimen replicates was used.

Figure 2. Allowable strain aging factor for seven

different HTPB propellants over 45 days

3.2. Test results

Results for the first set of uniaxial tension tests (seven
different compositions) in standard conditions (20oC,
50mm/min), are presented in Table 1.
Absolute values for the modulus, allowable strain and
tensile strength ( E , m , m ) for different compositions are
rather different, and they are not suitable for comparison.
However, it is possible to compare the aging factors as the
ratios of their current and initial values. The timedistributions for different aging factors ( E , , )
(modulus, strain and strength) are shown in Figs.1-3.

Figure 3. Tensile strength aging factor for seven different

HTPB propellant compositions over 45 days

394

For an arbitrary rocket propellant as a linear viscoelastic

material, in tension tests at a constant temperature, with
different sets of tester cross-head speeds, the results
usually form an approximately linear tensile strength vs
strain rate dependence [7, 8, 10, 25].

Figure 4. Modulus aging factor for two different HTPB

propellant compositions over 10 months

Figure 7. Modulus vs. strain rate and aging time

Figure 5. Allowable strain aging factor for two different

HTPB propellant compositions over 10 months

Figure 8. Allowable strain vs. strain rate and aging time

Figure 6. Tensile strength aging factor for two different

HTPB propellant compositions over 10 months
The second set of tests demonstrates, in a different way,
the influence of short-term aging on the mechanical
properties of the propellant. For the HTPB composition
labeled in Table 1 as No7, uniaxial tension tests were done
at constant temperature (+20oC), in two different periods,
each with nine different strain rates. The first set of tests
was carried out approximately 15 days after curing. The
second set was done three and a half months after curing
(105 days). The values for three characteristic mechanical
properties ( E , m , m ) are shown in Table 2.

Figure 9. Tenslie strength vs. strain rate and aging time

For the propellant No7, the dependences of all the three

characteristic mechanical properties are also linear. The
initial modulus, allowable strain and tensile strength
dependences on the strain rate in two different periods are
shown, respectively, in the Figs 7, 8 and 9.

395

replicates, at single regime, with a constant temperature

and cross-head speed of 0,2 mm/min, an average
elongation at the break point of a specimen is
approximately 10 mm. Including preparation time for
each specimen, it is necessary to spend almost a whole
day for testing. For all regimes of testing, a lot of time is
required. Taking into account the restrictions caused by
other reasons (insufficient number of testing machines,
tester unavailability due to standard control testing of
propellant samples from regular production, interruptions
due to weekends and holidays, etc..) the full procedure
can last even longer than three months. Then, some
corrections are necessary due to the aging in the initial
stage, in order to get true values of the initial properties.

The abscissa of each of these diagrams represents the

reciprocal value of strain rate (  1 = R 1 ) , and it has time
dimension. Since the measurements were done at standard
temperature (+20oC), time-temperature shift factor [7, 9,
10, 25] does not affect the results.
In this type of tests, constant tester cross-head speed (V )
allows the direct determination of the specimen strain and
strain rate:

= V t =  t

(3)

d = ( s 1 ) = R = V (mm / min)
dt
60 l0 (mm)

(4)

l0

l0 -

Effective gage length, 68,6 mm.

Strain

For an illustration, absolute modulus values for different

HTPB based compositions (Table 1) are quite different.
Their mutual ratio is in range between one and three.
However, the fact is that the values of modulus aging
factors are similar for all tested compositions (Fig.1), as
well as their distributions during the initial period.

4. DISCUSSION

The second set of tests was carried out for two reasons:
1. To confirm the results of the first set and to show in a
different way the effect of initial aging on the
mechanical properties of the propellant,
2. To show (under condition that a complete mechanical
characterization and master curves for the new
propellant have already been determined) that the
periodical tests in standard environmental conditions
(+20oC, 50 mm/min) are sufficiently representative
for monitoring the propellant mechanical properties
over time in all operating regimes.

The basic tensile tests for analysing the influence of shortterm aging on the propellant mechanical properties, were
carried out over the first 45 days after production, only at
standard temperature (+20oC). During this period, for the
whole considered group of seven different HTPB based
propellant compositions, intensive changes in mechanical
properties appear. The initial modulus ( E ) increases and
approximately doubles its value (Fig.1). The allowable
strain ( m ) decreases, in all cases, and falls bellow 50%
of its initial value (Fig.2). The tensile strength initial
values changes (Fig.3) are not so expressive, and they can
go in both directions. For different compositions, tensile
strength increases or decreases, but the maximum change
in this period does not exceed 30%.

The first result can be seen in Figures 7, 8 and 9, where

the results of the second set of uniaxial tension tests are
shown. In these diagrams, there are significant differences
between values measured after 15 days and values
measured 105 days after production.

Testing the two selected compositions, labeled as No6 and

No7, during the next several months (Figs 4-6) has shown
that after some time, the intensity changes of all the
mechanical properties is reduced, returning slowly to the
initial state, as it was concluded in [12, 13].

This applies to all the three characteristic mechanical

properties. Pairs of regression lines that correspond to
different test times are linear, and more or less, mutually
equidistant, in each diagram. It indicates that relative
aging effect on the propellant mechanical properties is
approximately same for all different strain rates.

Sometimes, structural analysts ignore the initial changes

of the mechanical properties. However, the tension tests
in the initial phase are required due to monitoring and
comparison of various propellant compositions.

In the Fig.7, the values of propellant modulus are shown.

On the abscissa, reciprocal values of strain rate are shown
in
logarithmic
time
scale.
For
the
time
( log t = 1.9155 2 ) which corresponds to the standard
cross-head speed, ( 50 mm min ), there are two different
modulus values: for the tests after 15 days,
E15 68 daN cm 2 , as well as for the tests after 105

It is important to define exact terms of comparing the

mechanical properties of different propellants, especially
the moment of conducting the initial tests because in this
period the mechanical properties rapidly change.
Let us consider the following situation: for the structural
analysis of a rocket motor and its reliability and service
life estimation, it is necessary to perform a complete
uniaxial mechanical characterization of the new
propellant, right after production. This means that the
propellant has to be tested in a wide range of temperatures
and strain rates.

days, E105 85 daN cm 2 . The modulus is changed by

approximately 25% during three months. This difference
is less than the whole change from the initial value,
because the first 15 days are not taken into account. This
result shows that in this period the change of mechanical
properties shouldnt be ignored.

For technical reasons it is not possible to complete the

whole procedure of the propellant mechanical
characterization immediately after curing. For example,
for a statistical sample of 79 JANNAF-C specimen

The second result of these tests can be seen indirectly.

When an aging process is considered, it is questionable if
the data obtained by measuring at the standard ambient
396

temperature (+20oC) and tester speed (50 mm/min) are

enough representative? The answer depends on how much
the propellant is actually a linear viscoelastic material.

should be determined to correct these results.

When the results of complete mechanical characterization
of a new propellant are known, the standard tests are
sufficient for the further monitoring of the aging effects.

Relative position of the regression lines that correspond to

different test times (Figs.6-8) is not much affected by the
short-aging process. In all three cases the pairs of
regression lines are approximately equidistant, not
perfectly parallel, but with nearly equal slopes.

Although the most authors neglect the initial changes of

the propellant mechanical properties, the tension tests
during the initial period have shown that these changes
are too large. They must not be neglected, because they
affect significantly the quality of rocket motor reliability
determination and service life estimation.

The abscissas in these diagrams represent the reciprocal

values of strain rate, with time dimension. If a regression
line that represents strain rate dependence of a mechanical
property is moved horizontally along the abscissa to meet
and overlap another one, the movement along the timeline
is equal to the aging impact in the observed period.

REFERENCES
[1] L.H. Layton. Chemical Structural Aging Studies on
an HTPB Propellant. 1975. A-Division of Thiokol
Corporation, Final Technical Report, AD A010731.
[2] Heller, R.., Singh, .P. 1983. Thermal Storage Life
of Solid-Propellant Motors. Journal of Spacecraft
and Rockets, Vol.20, No2, pp. 144-149.
[3] Brinson, L.C., Gates, T.S. 1994. Effects of Physical
Aging on Long-term Creep of Polymers and Polymer
Matrix Composites, NASA, Technical Memorandum
109081.
[4] L. Gottlieb, S. Bar. 2003. Migration of plasticizer
between Bonded Propellant Interfaces. Propellant,
Explosives, Pyrotechnics, Vol. 28, Issue 1, pp12-17.
[5] Cerri S., Bohn A.M., Menke K., Galfetti L. 2009.
Ageing Behavior of HTPB Based Rocket Propellant
Formulations. Central European Journal of Energetic
Materials, 6(2), pp.149-165.
[6] Williams, M.L, Blatz P.J., Schapery R.A. 1961.
Fundamental Studies Relating to Systems Analysis
of Solid Propellants. Final report GALCIT 101,
Guggenheim Aero. Lab., Pasadena, California.
[7] Landel, R.F., Smith, T.L. 1960. Viscoelastic
Properties of Rubberlike Composite Propellants and
Filled Elastomers. ARS J., Vol.31, No5, pp.599-608.
[8] Williams M.L. 1964. Structural Analysis of
Viscoelastic Materials. AIAA Journal, May: pp. 785798, Calif. Institute of Tecnology, Pasadena.
[9] Fitzgerald J.E., Hufferd W.L. 1971. Handbook for the
Engineering Structural Analysis of solid Propellants.
CPIA publication 214.
[10] NASA. 1973. Solid propellant grain structural
integrity analysis. NASA Space Vehicle Design
Criteria SP-8073.
[11] Thrasher D.I., Hildreth J.H. 1982. Structural Service
Life Estimate for a Reduced Smoke Rocket Motor.
Journal of Spacecraft, Vol.19, No6, pp. 564-570.
[12] Gligorijevi, N., Rodi,V., Jeremi R., ivkovi S.,
Suboti S. 2011. Structural Analysis Procedure for a
Case Bonded Solid Rocket Propellant Grain.
Scientific Technical Review, Vol.61, No.1, pp. 1-9.
[13] Ozgur Hocaoglu, Tulay Ozbelge, Fikret Pekel, Saim
Ozkar. 2002. Fine-tuning the mechanical properties
of hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene/ammonium
perchlorate-based composite solid propellants by
varying the NCO/OH and triol/diol ratios. Journal of
Applied Polymer Science, Vol.84, Issue 11, pp.2072-

When the assumption of propellant linear viscoelasticity

is accepted, which is usually valid for small strains, there
exists a strong time-temperature dependence [6-10].
According to this analogy, if the aging process does not
affect the character of the strain rate dependence, it also
will not affect the relative dependence on temperature.
This statement should not be confused with the real
temperature influence on the propellant mechanical
properties. It is well known [6-10] that the absolute values
of mechanical properties strongly depend on temperature.
This analysis indicates that the effects of changing the
mechanical properties due to aging are approximately the
same for different constant strain rates as well for
different temperatures. Finally, it means that it is
sufficient to test aging effect only in the standard test
conditions, and the effects related to other regimes will
follow the basic, standard effect.
When it is necessary to make an estimation of rocket
motor reliability in an arbitrary time, the propellant
mechanical properties have to be determined exactly for
this time point. This means that all points of each master
curve for a virgin propellant have to be moved along the
real-time axis, due to aging, in the same manner as the
point that corresponds to the standard test regime.

5. CONCLUSION
Process of composite rocket propellant grain production
requires the quality control of ballistic and mechanical
propellant properties immediately after curing. It is
important to perform a proper quality control of the virgin
propellant, right at the beginning of service life, to
provide correct production acceptance, monitoring and
relative comparison of different compositions, as well as
more precise evaluation of the rocket motor reliability.
In the initial period, mechanical properties of the HTPB
propellant extensively change. Their stabilization takes
place up to 2-3 months after production, sometimes even
6 months. Afterwards, the mechanical properties continue
to change slowly, usually in the opposite direction.
It is not possible to make a complete uniaxial mechanical
characterization immediately after production because
this procedure can last quite a long time and the measured
values usually do not correspond to the real virgin values,
due to the influence of initial aging. The aging factors
397

Fraunhofer Institut Chemishe Technologie, 40; V3.

[20] George P. Sutton, Oscar Biblarz. Rocket Propulsion
Elements. Seventh edidion. John Wiley&Sons inc.
[21] Structural Assessment of Solid Propellant Grains.
1997. Agard Advisory Report 350. ISBN 92-8361063-6.
[22] Heller, R.., Singh, .P., Zibdeh, H. 1985.
Environmental Effects on Cumulative Damage in
Rocket Motors. Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets,
Vol.22, No2, pp. 149-155.
[23] Liu, C.T. 1997. Cumulative Damage and Crack
Growth in Solid Propellant. Media Pentagon Report
No A486323, 1997.
[24] Kadiresh, P. N., Sridhar, B. T. N. 2007. Mechanical
and Ballistic Property Variations of a Solid
Propellant During Accelerated Ageing. Journal on
Design and Manufacturing Technologies, Vol.1,
No.1, pp.71-73.
[25] Bills,
K.W.,
jr.
1983.
Time-Temperature
Superposition Does Not Hold for Solid Propellant
Stress Relaxation. Aerojet Solid Propulsion
Company, Sacramento, California, AIAA Journal,
CPIA Publication 283.

2079.
[14] Shekhar, H., Sahasrabudhe, D.A. 2010. Assessment
of Poisson.s Ratio for Hydroxy-terminated
Polybutadine-based Solid Rocket Propellants.
Defence Science Journal, Vol. 60, No. 5, pp. 497501, DESIDOC.
[15] Rodi V., Petri M. 2005. The effect of curing agents
on solid composite rocket propellant characteristics.
Scientific Technical Review, Vol.55, No.1, pp. 4650.
[16] Jullano Libardi, Sergio Ravagnani, Ana Morais,
Antonio Cardoso. 2010. Diffusion of Plasticizer in a
Solid Propellant Based on Hydroxyl-Terminated
Polybutadiene. Polimeros, Vol.20, No4, pp.241-245.
[17] Ferry, D.J. 1980. Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers,
3-rd edition, Willey, ISBN: 978-0-471-04894-7.
[18] Baumgartner, W. E., 1974. Aluminum Hydride
Propellant Shelflife. Lockheed Propulsion Company,
Final Report, AFRPL-'R-74-78.
[19] Roduit, B. ; Folly, P. ; Sarbach, A. ; Berger, B. 2009.
Prediction of the Thermal Behaviour of Energetic
Materials by Advanced Kinetic Modeling of HFC
and DSC Signals. Intern.Annual Conference -

Table 1. Mechanical properties for different short-aged HTPB propellants (+200C)

Propellant
code
1.

VM 115

2.

VM 116

3.

VM 117

4.

VM 118

5.

2183 N

6.

2224 N

7.

VM 133

Strain,
m
%

0 Modulus, E

Days

Time,
t-2
Days

(daN/cm2)

2
5
40
2
5
33
2
11
18
32
2
11
13
25
2
5
35
2
5
25
45
82
144
274
2
14
18
42
106
185
300

0
3
38
0
3
31
0
9
16
30
0
9
11
23
0
3
33
0
3
23
43
80
142
272
0
12
16
40
104
183
298

37,556
30,883
17,014
44,013
36,714
20,238
62,520
53,873
36,880
29,904
66,242
54,998
54,810
36,464
31,783
28,426
17,481
41,744
34,397
26,173
22,166
17,658
16,489
20,455
27,430
21,999
19,338
14,730
12,508
12,892
14,154

1
0,822
0,453
1
0,834
0,460
1
0,862
0,590
0,478
1
0,830
0,827
0,550
1
0,894
0,550
1
0,824
0,627
0,531
0,423
0,395
0,490
1
0,802
0,705
0,537
0,456
0,470
0,516

32,044
35,575
53,076
24,051
29,859
46,680
20,222
21,126
30,858
38,332
14,943
18,588
20,166
27,899
42,065
46,200
68,187
33,507
35,350
45,536
62,021
68,455
69,728
67,249
44,954
61,497
67,970
78,984
83,300
90,358
88,290

Time, t

398

Strength,
m
(daN/cm2)

1
1,110
1,656
1
1,241
1,941
1
1,045
1,526
1,896
1
1,244
1,350
1,867
1
1,098
1,621
1
1,055
1,359
1,851
2,043
2,081
2,007
1
1,368
1,512
1,757
1,853
2,010
1,964

6,320
6,256
5,746
5,921
5,885
5,633
4,901
5,179
5,484
5,720
4,155
4,525
4,831
5,366
7,012
7,166
7,747
7,197
7,010
6,585
5,851
5,621
5,499
5,830
7,838
6,498
6,082
5,714
5,816
6,286
6,631

1
0,990
0,909
1
0,994
0,951
1
1,057
1,119
1,167
1
1,089
1,163
1,291
1
1,022
1,105
1
0,974
0,915
0,813
0,781
0,764
0,810
1
0,829
0,776
0,729
0,742
0,802
0,846

E E0

Table 2. Mechanical properties of HTPB propellant in two different periods

Temperature
T (oC)
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20

Propellant Cr.-head
Strain rate
age
speed
Days
mm/min
R (s-1)
17
16
15
12
15
12
16
18
18
106
105
106
106
105
106
104
105
105

0,5
1
2
5
10
20
50
100
200
0,5
1
2
5
10
20
50
100
200

0,000121
0,000243
0,000486
0,001215
0,002430
0,004859
0,012148
0,024295
0,048591
0,000121
0,000243
0,000486
0,001215
0,002430
0,004859
0,012148
0,024295
0,048591

399

Time,
log t
log (1/R)
3,9155
3,6145
3,3134
2,9155
2,6145
2,3134
1,9155
1,6145
1,3134
3,9155
3,6145
3,3134
2,9155
2,6145
2,3134
1,9155
1,6145
1,3134

Strength

Modul

(daN/cm2) (daN/cm2)
2,860
3,630
4,211
4,679
4,989
5,464
6,082
7,136
7,361
2,659
2,353
2,669
4,029
4,758
4,989
5,816
6,674
7,190

42,653
45,380
49,253
48,595
60,780
58,586
67,970
68,261
80,445
58,889
56,893
62,319
71,003
72,394
80,415
83,300
91,496
95,179

Strain
%
12,744
15,330
16,755
18,608
17,610
19,844
19,338
21,498
21.651
8,392
7,876
10,619
10,138
11,390
11,095
12,508
14,039
14,072

PREDICTION OF DETONATION CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPLOSIVES

USING STATISTICAL APPROACH
JOVICA BOGDANOV
Military Academy, Belgrade, jovica.bogdanov@va.mod.gov.rs
ZORAN BAJI
Military Academy, Belgrade, zoran.bajic@va.mod.gov.rs
RADUN JEREMI
Military Academy, Belgrade, radun@mail.com
RADENKO DIMITRIJEVI
Military Academy, Belgrade, radenkod@beotel.rs

Abstract: Efficient and accurate prediction of many characteristics of explosive materials can be done using many
different approaches. Methods with statistical approach are based on the correlation of detonation characteristics with
chemical and physical characteristics, which has a theoretical basis also. The main advantage of such approach is
small amount of input data. Methods are especially applicable for hypothetical chemical substances, where high
performances are often anticipated. Different methods with statistical approach of prediction of detonation
characteristics for most military used explosives are presented. The calculation results of detonation velocity and
pressure were compared with experimental data.
Keywords: explosives, detonation, detonation velocity, detonation pressure, chemical structure.
still considered to be up-to-date [2]. There are many other
models of this type, which can be used for prediction of
detonation characteristics of CHNO energetic materials
[3-7] an even other physical and chemical characteristics
[7-9]. Many models are developed for energetic materials
with aluminum, chlorine, fluorine, boron etc. [9-11]. Such
models can be successfully applied for prediction of
detonation and many other characteristics of energetic
materials. This is especially true for chemical substances
that are difficult to synthesis or with hypothetical
structure. Some results suggest that statistical approach is
even better in this field than detailed numerical
calculations. The main reason for that is the fact, that all
numerical models include numerous assumptions, which
can result in high uncertainty of calculation results [11].

1. INTRODUCTION
It can be said, that research on detonation of condensed
energetic materials has many difficulties, primarily
because of the intensity of the process itself. The most
important detonation parameters are detonation velocity D
and detonation pressure p.
In recent decades, there were many efforts made in the
field of research on possibilities of prediction of
detonation characteristics. As in other fields of
engineering practice, the statistics is widely used to
mathematically describe the correlations of detonation
parameters on influencing factors. Such statistically
obtained equations can vary significantly. The simplest
represent empirical relationships, thus often called
"empirical equations" (i.e. dependence of inert component
or initial density on detonation velocity or pressure of
explosive mixture etc.).

New methods are also used in this field, based on

following approaches:
Quantitative Structure-Property Relationships (QSPR)
and

More complex ones can have numerous variables and are

partially based on empirical data. Such equations are
often called "semi-empirical" and are often used to predict
detonation characteristics of energetic material. Both
types have significant advantages, due to their simplicity
and small amount of input data needed. Also, the
calculation results show surprisingly good correlation
with experimentally obtained data. Certainly the most
used semi-empirical model is Kamlet-Jacobs [1], which is

Artificial Neural Network (ANN) methods.

Both approaches are based on statistical analysis of
known experimental data in order to find structureproperty relationships with minimum error [12]. They are
often used in models for prediction of important
characteristics of energetic materials, i.e. energy,
sensitivity, chemical stability etc.
400

maximum heat of explosion Qcal and Qe.

2. DETONATION VELOCITY AND

PRESSURE CALCULATIONS

The equations for calculation of detonation parameters

are:

Calculations of detonation velocity and pressure were

done using three different semi-empirical models,
published in [1,9,6]. The most used military high
explosives were considered, with general chemical
formula CxHyNzOu.
First model was developed using a statistical analysis of
calculation results from numerical model proposed by
Mader and incorporated in Ruby computer code [1]. As
authors said, the computer printouts showed surprisingly
good correlation of detonation velocity and pressure with
quantity, average molar weight of detonation products and
energy of detonation reaction. The following equations
were used in this paper:
DKJ = 125.6 (1 + 1.3 0 )

(1)

pKJ = 24.06 0 2

(2)

DS = 0.481 0 0.607 z 0.089 0.066 Qcal 0.221 ng 0.19

(4)

pS = 0.02139 0 2.100 z 0.102 v 0.00745

0.147 Qe0.519 ng 0.554

(5)

In equation (4) and (5) z, v and ng are in molkg-1, while

Qcal and Qe are in kcalkg-1.
Third model [6] was developed using experimental data
and elemental equations for Chapman-Jouguet state
according to hydrodynamic theory of detonation. The
main assumptions are that detonation velocity and
pressure depend on initial density, quantity of gaseous
detonation products and heat of detonation. Using a
regression analysis of experimental values for 74
energetic materials, the following equations were
proposed:

where is:

= N M Q

DJB = 2264.1 + 7.7072 0 ng Qe

(6)

pJB = 0.48 0 2 n Qe

(7)

(3)

In previous equations 0 is initial density of energetic

material in gcm-3, N quantity of gaseous detonation
products in molkg-1, M average molecular weight in
kgmol-1, Q energy in kJkg-1, DKJ is expressed in ms-1
and pKJ in Pa. Factors N, M and Q are then calculated,
according to simplest possible chemical reaction. In this
case, there is presumed that H2O, CO2, N2 and solid C are
in the detonation products.

where Qe is heat of explosion in kJkg-1 and ng is total

number of gaseous detonation products in molkg-1. Heat
Qe is calculated using a thermochemical tables and ng
using Avakyans method [6].
Detonation velocity and pressure for considered
explosives were calculated using equations (1) (7).
Results are presented in Tables 1 and 2. Differences
between calculated and experimental values are:

Second model was developed using a statistical analysis

of experimental data [9]. Data arrays have been generated
with factors describing the composition and structure of
energetic materials. Total set of 460 experimental data
was considered for detonation velocity and 167 for
detonation pressure. The statistical analysis showed that
significant factors are initial density of explosive charge
0, number of nitrogen z and fluorine atoms v in
explosive, oxygen coefficient of explosive , quantity of
gaseous detonation products ng and calorimetric and

Dcalc =

Dcalc Dexp
Dexp

(8)

pcalc =

pcalc pexp
pexp

(9)

where Dcalc = {DKJ;DS;DJB} and pcalc = {pKJ;pS;pJB}.

Table 1. Comparison of experimental and calculated detonation velocities

Explosive

TNT

HMX

0,73

Experiment
Dexp
(ms-1)
4200

DKJ
(ms-1)
4389

Calculated detonation velocity

DKJ
DS
DS
DJB
(%)
(ms-1)
(%)
(ms-1)
4,50
4120
-1,90
4425

DJB
(%)
5,36

1,06

5254

5293

0,74

5284

0,57

5332

1,48

1,45

6500

6496

-0,06

6430

-1,08

6557

0,88

1,64

6950

7052

1,47

6980

0,43

7120

2,45

0,85

5450

5513

1,16

5330

-2,20

5274

-3,23

1,68

8340

8340

0,00

8320

-0,24

8213

-1,52

1,90

9100

9089

-0,12

9010

-0,99

8992

-1,19

0
(gcm-3)

401

Table 1. Comparison of experimental and calculated detonation velocities (continued)

Explosive

RDX

PETN

CL-20
HMX/TNT (77/23)
RDX/TNT (60/40)

PETN/TNT (50/50)

1.00

Experiment
Dexp
(ms-1)
5981

Calculated detonation velocity

DKJ
DS
DS
DJB
(%)
(ms-1)
(%)
(ms-1)
1.14
6011
0.50
5845

DKJ
(ms-1)
6049

DJB
(%)
-2.27

1.20

6750

6732

-0.27

6802

0.77

6561

-2.80

1.77

8700

8681

-0.22

8755

0.63

8602

-1.13

0.50

3800

4345

14.34

3610

-5.00

4019

5.76

1.60

7770

8110

4.38

7700

-0.90

7880

1.42

1.77

8300

8692

4.72

8230

-0.84

8476

2.12

1.71

8470

8509

0.46

8300

-2.01

8366

-1.23

2.00

9400

9505

1.12

9440

0.43

9401

0.01

1.82

8600

8521

-0.92

8550

-0.58

8437

-1.90

1.56

7480

7485

0.07

7531

0.68

7422

-0.78

1.61

7670

7645

-0.33

7721

0.66

7588

-1.07

1.71

8030

8001

-0.36

8070

0.50

7962

-0.85

1.28

6400

7693

20.20

6441

0.64

6379

-0.33

1.65

7470

7693

2.99

7420

-0.67

7620

2.01

1.70

7530

7810

3.72

7468

-0.82

7729

2.64

0
(gcm-3)

Average difference of results (%)

2.9

1.0

1.9

Table 2. Comparison of experimental and calculated detonation pressures

Calculated detonation pressure

pKJ
pS
pS
pJB
(%)
(ms-1)
(%)
(ms-1)

pJB
(%)

7.0

2.65

7.0

2.94

6.4

-6.03

10.9

11.1

2.20

11.2

2.75

10.2

-6.42

1.60

19.0

19.8

4.21

20.1

5.79

18.1

-4.58

0.70

5.2

5.1

-1.35

4.9

-5.77

5.0

-4.42

1.63

28.0

27.8

-0.71

27.2

-2.86

26.9

-3.86

1.07

11.6

12.1

4.14

11.7

0.86

11.9

2.24

1.76

32.5

32.7

0.52

32.0

-1.54

32.1

-1.26

0.50

2.6

2.6

0.00

2.2

-16.67

2.5

-5.68

1.77

31.5

33.1

5.17

28.5

-9.52

31.2

-1.02

CL-20

2.04

42.7

44.2

3.61

43.9

2.81

42.8

0.28

HMX/TNT (75/25)

1.80

31.4

31.6

0.76

31.4

0.00

30.2

-3.89

1.66

25.4

25.7

1.10

26.1

2.76

24.4

-4.13

1.71

28.7

27.5

-4.18

28.5

-0.70

26.2

-8.57

1.68

24.6

25.8

4.88

23.7

-3.66

24.0

-2.32

1.70

25.5

26.1

2.31

24.7

-3.14

24.1

-5.37

Explosive

TNT

HMX
RDX
PETN

RDX/TNT (60/40)
PETN/TNT (50/50)

0
(gcm-3)

Experiment
pexp
(ms-1)

pKJ
(ms-1)

0.95

6.8

1.20

Average difference of results (%)

2.5

402

4.1

4.0

CHNO explosives". Bull. Korean Chem. Soc. 24 (1).

(2003), 19-22.
[5] Keshavarz, M.H., "Simple Determination of
performance of explosives without using any
experimental data", J. Hazard. Mater., A119. (2005)
25.
[6] Jeremi, R., Bogdanov, J., "Development of New
Model for High Explosives' Detonation Parameters
Calculation", J. Serb. Chem. Soc. 77 (3), (2012) 371380.
[7] Smirnov, A., Lempert, D., Pivina, T., Khakimov, D.,
"Estimation of basic characteristics for some
energetic polynitrogen compounds", Proc. of 14th
Seminar on NTREM, Pardubice, Czech Republic.
(2011), 34-42.
[8] Smirnov, A., Voronko, O., Korsunsky, B., Pivina, T.,
"Impact sensitivity investigations of individual
explosives: some experimental and calculation
approaches", Proc. of 16th Seminar on NTREM,
Pardubice, Czech Republic, (2013), 341-353.
[9] Smirnov, A., Smirnov, S., Balalaev, V., Pivina, T.,
"Calculation of detonation velocity and pressure of
individual and composite explosives", Proc. of 17th
Seminar on NTREM, Pardubice, Czech Republic,
(2014), 24-37.
[10] Keshavarz. M.H.. et. el.. "Determination of
performance oh non-ideal aluminized explosives". J.
Hazard. Mater.. A137. (2006) 83-87.
[11] Smirnov, S.P., Smirnov, A.S., "Forecasting the
characteristics of the explosives", Russian Journal of
Applied Chemistry 82 (10), (2009) 1807-1815.
[12] Smirnov, A., Smirnov, S., "The influence of
calculation accuracy of formation enthalpy and
monocrystal density estimations on some target
parameters for energetic materials", Proc. of 15th
Seminar on NTREM, Pardubice, Czech Republic.
(2012), 282-293.
[13] Orlenko, L.I. (red.), Fizika Vzryva (in Russian), Vol.
1, 3rd Edition, FIZMATLIT, Moscow, 2002.
[14] Dobratz, B.M., Properties of Chemical Explosives
and Explosive Symulants, LLNL Explosive
Handbook, University of California, USA, 1981.
[15] Mader, C.L., Numerical Modeling of Explosives and
Propellants, 3rd Edition, CRC Press, 2008.

Experimental data was taken from publications

[1,9,13,14,15]. There were considered energetic materials
with wide range of initial density, in order to test the
applicability of models used.
Compositions of explosive mixtures are given as mass
percentages of individual components. The total average
differences of results in Table 1 and 2 were calculated for
absolute values of individual differences. for each of the
considered models.

3. CONCLUSIONS
According to Tables 1 and 2, it can be said that
calculation results show good correlation with
experimental data for all considered models. Average
differences between calculated and experimental values
are in the range 1.0-2.9% for detonation velocity and
2.5-4.1% for detonation pressure, which is within the
uncertainty of experimental data. The results for
explosives with extremely low or high initial density are
least precise using all considered models.
It can be said that used semi-empirical models have
similar precision of calculation results in spite their
differences. Second model has significant advantages, as
it uses more variables and is applicable for wider range of
energetic materials [9]. Third model gives less precise
results, which can be due to its assumptions and
simplicity. First and third models are developed to be
used for CHNO energetic materials with moderate values
of initial density [1,6], which are major disadvantages.

REFERENCES
[1] Kamlet, M.J., Jacobs, S.J., "Chemistry of
Detonations. I. A Simple Method for Calculating
Detonation Properties of CHNO Explosives", J.
Chem. Phys. 48 (1), (1968) 23-35.
[2] Kazandjian, L., Danel, J.-F., "A Discussion of the
Kamlet-Jacobs Formula for the Detonation
Pressure". Propellants. Explosives. Pyrotechnics
31(1), (2006) 20-24.
[3] Makhov, M.N., Pepekin, V.I., "Calculation of
chemical composition of detonation products". Pol.
J. Chem., 55. (1981), 1381-1385.
[4] Keshavarz, M.H., Oftadeh, M., "Two new
correlations for predicting detonating power of

403

FINE GRAIN, HIGH-DENSITY GRAPHITE FOR ROCKET MOTOR

NOZZLES
SLAVKO D. KARI
Vina Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Serbia,
karic@vinca.rs
PETAR Z. LAUEVI
Vina Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Serbia
GVOZDEN S. TASI
Vina Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Serbia
VLADIMIR M. NIKOLI
Vina Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Serbia
MILICA P. MARETA KANINSKI
Vina Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Serbia
NIKOLA GLIGORIJEVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, nikola.gligorijevic@gmail.com
SAA IVKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade

Abstract: The fine grain high density graphite is preferred material for many military applications in vehicle nose tips,
thrust tabs, heat shields, nozzle throats of rocket motors, etc. Graphite is suitable constructing material because of its
ability to withstand extremely high temperatures while maintaining its strength and shape, and his relatively low
density. The graphite used in nozzle throats must have high thermal shock resistance and withstand extreme and sudden
temperature changes. There are several technological processes which are used for designing and preparation of high
density graphite for nozzles throats, such as cold-pressing, extrusion, die-molding process, etc. These differ in the
composition of raw materials used, operating temperatures and continius/discontinious production. In this work we
present development and examination of the fine grain, high-density graphite using modified die-molding process,
aimed for specific nozzle throat application. Obtained graphite material has high density of > 1.8 g/cm3, and good
mechanical and electrical characteristics.
Keywords: high-density graphite, rocket nozzle, die-molding
military applications for fine grain, high density graphite
are reentry vehicle nose tips, thrust tabs, heat shields, and
nozzle throats of missiles. Graphite is the preferred
material for these items because of its ability to withstand
extremely high temperatures while maintaining its
strength and shape. It is also inexpensive, light weight,
easy to machine, and easy to replace compared to other
materials. For these military applications, fine grain, high
density graphite represents a strategic material, which
export/import is regulated by varuois law regulations [1].

1. INTRODUCTION
High density graphite material has been investigated and
produced for several decades, due to very high demand
for, both, civilian and millitary applications. There are a
multitude of civilian applications for fine grain, high
density graphite. It is used in crucibles, ladles, and
moulds for molten metals and in blast furnace linings and
fixtures. Because of its low absorption of neutrons and
strength at high temperatures, graphite is used in nuclear
reactors. Due to its high electrical conductivity, graphite
is also used for electrodes and brushes in electric motors,
as well as in solar energy applications. Graphite can also
be used for biomedical applications and as a lubricant or
coating to reduce friction and corrosion. The primary

There are several mature technologies used for high

density graphite production, such as cold pressing,
extrusion, die molding process, etc. For the preparation of
high density graphite for rocket motor nozzles, different
404

raw materials could be used: petroleum coke, pitch

coke, carbon black, natural graphite, etc. The raw
material has to be prepared, as shon in Figure 1.

phenolic resing (Fenolit) was used. The selected

granulation of the raw material was mixed with
appropriate amount of the binder. The die design was
selected to be as close as possible to the desired
dimensions of the motor rocket nozzle, diammeter of 2
cm, Figure 2.

Figure 1. Schematic presentation of the raw material

preparation.
At the first step the raw materials are pulverized and the
resulted powder is separated according to the particles
size distribution. The last step of powder preparation
process is blending the powder with a binder [2]. Coal tar
pitch, petroleum pitch or synthetic resins are commonly
used as binders. After the raw material is prepared,
different technologies are developed for the graphite
production

Figure 2. Schematic veiw of the die used.

The die was placed in the electric heater at 150 C, and the
hidraullic press was used to apply 10MPa pressure, for
one hour. Obtained samples were thermally treated in the
Protherm high temperature furnace, at 1000 C in nitrogen
atmosphere.

Cold isostatic pressing is the powder compaction

method conducted at room temperature and involving
applying pressure from multiple directions through a
liquid medium surrounding the compacted part.

Visual inspection of the samples was performed using an

optical microscope equiped with CCD camera.

Extrusion is a shaping a powder mixture by forcing it

through a die with an opening. Extrusion results in a
long product (rods, bars, long plates, pipes) of regular
cross-section, which may be cut into pieces of required
length.
Extruded graphite materials are isotropic (properties in
the extrusion direction differ from the properties in
other directions).

Four series of fine grain, high density graphite samples

were prepared and the bulk density, compressive strength
and electrical resistance values are compared to the
commercially
available
high
density
graphite
characteristics, Table 1.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1.
No

Die molding (pressing) is the powder compaction

method involving uniaxial pressure applied to the
powder placed in a die between two rigid punches.

I
II
III
IV
Commercial

Among these, the last could be designed so the

produced fine grain, high density graphite has desired
dimensions, in order to reduce machining and avoid
unneccessary material vaste for rocket nozzles
production. This paper presents the results of the
investigation of die molding techology improvements
using different raw materials, thermal treatment and
changing the binder composition, while producing
desired rocket motor nozzles. The results are presented
to show the most important characteristics of the high
density gfraphite: bulk density, compressive strength
and electrical resistance.

Density Compressive
(g/cm3) strength (MPa)
1.85
1.83
1.74
1.72
1.75

23.3
28.9
33.5
44.5
48.9

Electrical
resistance
(m)
11
28
34
32
17

The results obtained show that the samples from series I

and II show higher densities compared to the extrusion
obtained commercial material. The compressive strengths
of the prepared samples are lower than for the commercial
one, which can be explained with the raw materials used.
Namely, the extrusion process uses petroleum coke and
we have used natural graphite. On the other hand, the
extrusion process involves a high temperature treatment
(> 2000 oC), which requires an expensive equipment,
when compared with the 1000oC treatment for our
samples. Electrical resistance values are comparable for
all investigated samples.

EXPERIMENTAL
The selected raw material was natural graphite
commercially available from Timcal Ltd, with the particle
size between 50 and 500 m. As a binder, a thermo stable

Figure 3. shows images obtained at optical microscope at

405

magnification of 40X.

series III and IV resulted in decreased bulk density.

Future investigations will be oriented towards the in-situ
investigation of the selected fine grain, high density
graphite samples into a real-time rocket motor
performance.

CONCLUSIONS

In this work we have presented the results on preparation

of fine grain, high density graphite for rocket motor
nozzles. The obtained results, in the terms of bulk density,
compressive strength and electrical resistance were
compared to the commercially available, extrusion
prepared, high density graphite. We have determined that
the modification of the die-molding process could give
higher densities. Future step in our investigations will be
integrations of the selected samples into real-time rocket
motor nozzles.

II

REFERENCES

III

[1] T. Telesco, U.S. Department of commerce, bureau of

industry and security, office of technology
evaluation, 2010.
[2] V. Srebrenkoska, G. Bogoeva-Gaceva, D. Dimeski,
Composite material based on an ablative phenolic
resin and carbon fibers J. Serb. Chem. Soc. 74
(2009) 441453.

IV

Figure 3. Optical microscopy images of high density

samples at 40X magnification.
It can be seen that the samples from series I and II have
uniform grain size, while the increase of the grain size for

406

CHARACTERIZATION OF HYDROXYL-TERMINATED
POLY(BUTADIENE) BASED COMPOSITE PROPELLANT BINDER
CONTAINING 1,4-BUTANEDIOL
SAA BRZI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, sasabrzic@gmail.com
MIRJANA DIMI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, sasabrzic@gmail.com
SOFIJAN ALLILI
Military academy, Belgrade

Abstract: In the present study, 1,4-butanediol was incorporated into a composite propellant binder formulation based
on hydroxyl-terminated poly(butadiene). All the testing has been done on propellant binder formulation consisted of
hydroxyl-terminated poly(butadiene) as prepolymer and isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI) also toluene diisocyanate
(TDI) as curing agents. The attention was focused on propellant binder network and mechanical properties, influenced
by presence of 1,4-butanediol. Network characteristics, such as sol-gel content and crosslink density have been
calculated and successfully correlated to mechanical properties of tested propellant binders.
Differential scanning calorimetry studies showed that 1,4-butanediol level did not influence the glass transition
temperature, however the tensile properties were shown to be a function of the crosslink density.
Keywords: composite propellant binder, hydroxyl-terminated poly(butadiene), mechanical properties, crosslink density
groups/equivalents of OH groups). Increasing the tensile
strength should not be done at the expence of the ultimate
elongation, as occurs when crosslinks density in HTPB is
increased by increasing isocyanate/hydroxyl (NCO/OH)
equivalent ratio [5]. The ammount of urethane bonds can
be increased by adding low molecular weight diols to the
polymer. These types of diols are called ''chain
extenders''. The most common aliphatic diol for this
purpose is 1,4-butanediol, BD [6]. In this work, the
polymer network and mechanical properties of
HTPB/BD cured with aliphatic (IPDI) and aromatic (TDI)
diisocyanates were examined. The main goal was to
analyze the influence of the 1,4-butanediol level on the
binder mechanical properties, ie. the dependence of
mechanical properties on the binder crosslinking density.

1. INTRODUCTION
Composite propellants consists primarily of inorganic
oxidizer and an organic binder [1]. The binder (polymer
matrix), as the name implies, holds the composition
together and acts as an auxiliary fuel. Once cured, the
binder makes the propellant flexible, which decreases the
likelihood that the propellant will fracture under stress
and pressure. The binder comprises at least two
components. The first one is a liquid prepolymer and the
second one is a curing agent. Poliurethane-based binder
systems (hydroxyl-functional prepolymers, such as
hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene, HTPB, cured using
multifunctional isocyanates) are extensively used in
composite solid propellants, due to convenient reaction
conditions and relative lack of adverse side reactions [2].
An essential requirement in the selection of a particular
polymeric component is that it must exhibit good
mechanical properties. In fact, the major cause of failure
in solid rocket motors is linked to the structural integrity
of the propellant [3]. Therefore, the use of different types
of polyurethanes is typical for the above-mentioned
applications because of the alternating hard and soft
segments within their structure [4].

2. EXPERIMENTAL PART
2.1 Materials
Eight
HTPB-based
composite
propellant
binder
compositions (Table 1) selected for this study consisted of
100 php of HTPB (R-45HT, Sartomer, viscosity at 23oC:
8000 mPas, OH value: 47.12 mg KOH/g, hydroxyl
functionality: 2.4 - 2.6, average molecular weight: 2800
g/mol, specific gravity at 23oC: 0.901 g/cm3, glass transition
temperature, Tg: -76oC) and 2.5 php of antioxidant (2,2'methylene-bis-(4-methyl-6-tertbutylphenol),
which
is

The mechanical properties of a composite propellant

depend mainly on the tensile properties of the binder. The
ultimate mechanical properties of the binder can be
tailored by the varying the R-value (equivalents of NCO
407

commercially available as a product called -2246;

Fluka AG, Switzerland). Tested propellant samples
differed from each other in a 1,4-butanediol (average
molecular weight: 90.12 g/mol, OH Value: 1245 mg
KOH/g, Tg: -42oC) level.

Sol-Gel measurements
The sol content of the propellant binder is the weight
fraction of the propellant, which is obtained by the
extraction with solvent, as described in STANAG 4581
[8]. The extraction was carried out in three Soxhlet
extraction units (refluxing with solvent) for 16 hours with
approximatelly 150 ml of dichloromethane CH2Cl2 each.

Curing occurs when hydroxyl groups on the prepolymer

(HTPB) react with isocyanate groups of the curing agent
(IPDI, TDI, purity: 98%, Sigma Aldrich, Germany) to
form urethane crosslinks (Figure 1).
IP D I

HTPB

HO

C H2

CH

Tensile properties of the composite propellant binder

samples

CH

C H2

OH

The mechanical (uniaxial tensile) properties of the cured

propellant binder samples were evaluated at 20C using
INSTRON 1122 tensile test machine fitted with a 500 N
load cell. JANNAF C dog bone samples (120.65 mm
length, 25 mm width, 8 mm thickness) were used.
Crosshead speed of tensile machine was 50 mm/min,
while effective gauge length of the JANNAF C samples
was 68.6 mm.

NCO

OCN

H
N
O

nO

N
H

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)

Picture 1. Shema of urethane reaction

DSC analyses were carried out using the DSC Q20

manufactured by TA Instruments with liquid nitrogen for
low temperatures. The temperature scale was calibrated
using the melting temperature of high purity indium.
These measurements were made with the purpose to
investigate the thermal based glass transition temperature
(Tg) of the tested samples. The small amount of the
samples (~5 mg) was scanned with a heating rate of 10oC
min-1, starting from -90C and ending at +50C. The Tg of
the samples were detrmined from the midpoints of the
transitions.

The NCO/OH ratio between the isocyanate groups of

curing agent to the hydroxyl groups of the prepolymer
was 0.85. Mixing of propellant binder was conducted at a
temperature of 60oC in 1.5 l DRAIS FH planetary mixer,
cast and cured in moulds to obtain 4 mm thick slabs. The
curing was performed for 5 days at 70C.
Compositions A and B are a baseline propellant binder
compositions containing no 1,4-butanediol, with IPDI and
TDI as curing agent, respectively. 1,4-butanediol level ()
was varied from 1 to 3 moles per mole HTPB.

3. RESULTS

Table 1. Tested propellant binder compositions

Sample
A
1
2
3
B
11
22
33

Ingredient [PHP]
R45HT
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

IPDI
8.14
15.14
21.87
28.61
-

TDI
6.31
11.01
15.71
20.41

BD
3.22
6.44
9.66
3.22
6.44
9.66

Polymer networks are generally characterized by three

important parameters namely, sol content, density of
effective chains or crosslinks density and effective chain
length.

AO22
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5

Network density of a composite propellant binder

samples
The gravimetric technique is used for measuring the swell
ratio of crosslinked polymeric propellant binder networks.
A sample is carefully weighed (Wd), then immersed in
toluen as a solvent at the required temperature for 24
hours. At the end of this period, the sample is again
carefully weighed (Wg), and the swell ratio is computed
from this and ratio of the densities of the solvent to the
polymer, K, as

2.2. Methods
Determination of network density of a composite
propellant binder samples

q=

The network density of a cured propellant binder samples

was estimated by the degree of swelling by an appropriate
solvent at equilibrium [7]. As solvent, toluen was used.
Swelling test was carried out on cube specimens length of
20 mm, width of 20 mm and thickness of 3 mm at the
T=25oC. In preliminary experiment, the sample was
allowed to swell for 4 days, but weight became constant
after two days, indicating that equilibrium is reached. In
this study, binder samples were swelled for two days.

Wd + Wg Wd K
Wd

(1)

The density of toluene is 0.86 g cm-3, and those of cured

binder samples were in the range of 0.927 to 0.971 g cm-3 [9].
The network density (Nx10-5 mol cm-3) of the polymer
can be estimated by the value of r as follows:
1

ln(1 r ) + r + r 2 = NV1 ( r 3
408

r
2

(2)

Knowing soluble fraction content (Spoly), the crosslink

density (C) of the propellant binder (Table 2) can be also
estimated following the modified version of CharlesbyPinner [10] equation, see Eq. (3).
C=

(1 S poly ) ( 2 ( S poly +

(S

poly

+ S poly

S poly

))

The differences between Tg values of tested binder samples

determined through DSC are within experimental error.
Obtained Tg values show that it cannot be observed any
regularity of its change with increasing 1,4-BD content in
the propellant binder formulations. The Tg of HPTB cured
with IPDI determined by DSC is higher than that of IPDI
cured HTPB reported as -83oC by Bhagawan et al. [12].
Thus, 1,4-BD has very little influence over the glass
transition temperature, which may be due to the fact that
for the elastomers, glass transition temperature is
dependant more on segmental motion of the polymer
chains rather than on the concentracion of crosslink
points.

(3)

Crosslink densities obtained in this manner for various

1,4-BD level are tabulated in Table 2 and compared with
the corresponding values obtained using the swelling test.
Table 2. Values determined by swelling test and sol-gel
analysis
Sample
A
1
2
3
B
11
22
33

Swell test
r
0.087
0.077
0.078
0.086
0.124
0.115
0.083
0.084

N
3.255
2.620
2.709
3.144
6.391
5.848
3.010
3.030

Tensile mechanical characteristics

Sol-gel analysis
Spoly
C
0.351
0.728
0.409
0.535
0.434
0.470
0.453
0.426
0.226
1.430
0.282
1.047
0.359
0.697
0.352
0.725

The results of influence of 1,4-BD on tensile properties of

a composite propellant binder are presented in Figure 2.
As used types of curing agents having different structures,
tensile mechanical properties are caused by the formed
polymer network as well as secondary bonds in the
polymer. The results revealed that TDI based propellant
binder are of high tensile strength and low strain at
maximum load with respect to IPDI. This behaviour is
attributed to the stiffer and rigid benzene ring which is
absent in IPDI.

The soluble or extractable content is a useful parameter

to characterise the extent of cross-linking within a crosslinked polymer [11]. The greater the fraction of not crosslinked polymer chains, the higher the soluble fraction. N,
also C values, are higher for propellant binder
compositions containing TDI as curing agent. The
baseline formulations containing TDI also IPDI (A ad B)
have the higher soluble fraction values, whereas the
formulation containing 1,4-BD are characterised by
higher Spoly content and therefore lower formal cross-link
density values.

6
a)

22
33

3
A

Decrease of network density can be explained by an

increase in physical crosslinking due to the high
concentration of linear 1,4-BD polymer chains.

The parameters obtained by the sol-gel analysis are very

useful and will be used for correlation with responses
obtained by the mechanical characterization of the tested
propellant binders.

1000

[-]

b)

TDI
IPDI

DSC measurements

800

Table 3 shows Tg values of the tested propellant binder

samples determined through DSC.

m [%]

Table 3. Tg values of the tested propellant binder samples

Sample
A
1
2
3
B
11
22
33

11

m [daN/cm ]

TDI
IPDI

Tg (oC)
-73.41
-73.68
-73.14
-71.48
-72.97
-73.15
-73.28
-73.07

600
11

22

400
33

200

409

[-]

c)
3

E [daN/cm ]

4
B

1
A

1
0

As can be seen from Figure 2, for binder samples

containing IPDI as curing agent, increase in modulus is
realized at the expense of decreased m value. The
modulus increases linearly with increasing ammount of
1,4-BD.

11

to decrease of the value by 46% (=3, sample 3), i.e. an

increase of 193 % (=2, sample 22). The most elastic
composition is obtained with TDI as curing agent and 2
moles of 1,4-BD per mole HTPB (sample 22).

TDI
IPDI

In order to dependences of binder mechanical properties

(m and values) on the binder crosslink density are
presented in Figure 4.

33

22

2
[-]

1000

m [%]

33

The number of urethane bonds is affected by the choice of

curing agent and the hard segment content (, calculated
as the mass fraction of 1,4-BD and curing agent in the
binder composition) is altered to only a slight extent.
Figure 3 shows tensile strength (m) values as a function
of hard segment content for tested propellant binder
samples. IPDI achieves similar number of urethane
groups as TDI, but due to its cyclic structure the
orientation of polymer segments is weaker. This leads to
difficulties in establishing a secondary bonds (interchain
forces) and lower the values of tensile strength.

E [daN/cm ]

m [daN/cm ]

0,5

1,0

3
2

1,5

TDI
IPDI
3

33

2
22

1
A
11

33

C [-]

b)

22

200
0,0

11

600

TDI
IPDI

400

TDI
IPDI

22

800

Picture 2. 1,4-BD ammount dependences of a) tensile

strength (m), b) strain at maximum load (m) and
c) Young's modulus () for tested propellant binder
samples

11

a)

0
0,0

10

15

[-]

20

25

0,5

C [-]

1,0

1,5

Picture 4. Dependences of a) strain at maximum load (m)

and b) Young's modulus () on network density for tested
propellant binder samples

30

Picture 3. Tensile strength (m) dependence on hard

sement content for tested propellant binder samples

It is evident, for HTPB/TDI binder samples, with a

decrease in the crosslink density, the m value increases.
Explanation is as follows: incorporation of 1,4-BD into
the binder increases the molecular weight of polymer
chains between crosslinks, which further increase the m
value. Conversely, for HTPB/IPDI binder samples, with a
decrease in the crosslink density also decreases the m
value. The explanation could be as follows: the N-H
group in polyurethane could develop hard segment by
hydrogen bonding with the oxygen of carbonyl groups.
Such strong hydrogen bonding acts as physical crosslinks
leading to restrict the segmental motion of the polymer

Level of 1,4-BD (=1, sample 11) contributes to increase

the tensile strength value by 34% compared to the
baseline composition with TDI. Composition 2 (=2)
increases this value by 45%. Percentage-wise, this
corresponds to an increase in the hard segment content.
The effect of the 1,4-BD on m value of tested binder
samples varies in dependence on the applied curing agent.
Considering the m value of the baseline compositions,
and the trend of changes, addition of 1,4-BD contributes
410

chain. So, a significant phase separation occurred between

the hard and soft segments of the polymeric chains and
decreases the elasticity of propellant binder [13].

Different Types of Composite Propellant Grain",

CEJEM, 10(3) (2013) 409-417.
[4] Fuente, de la J.L., Garcia,M.F., Cerrada,M.L.,
''Viscoelastic Behavior in a Hydroxyl-Terminated
Polybutadiene Gum and Its Highly Filled
Composites: Effect of the Type of Filler on the
Relaxation Processes, Journal of Applied Polymer
Science, 88, (2003) 1705-1712.
[5] Wingborg,N., Improving the Mechanical Properties
of Composite Rocket Propellants, Royal Institute of
Technology, Stockholm, 2004.
[6] Oertel,G., ''Polyurethanes handbook'', 2nd Edition,
Carl Verlag, Munich, 1994.
[7] Kohga,M., ''Viscoelastic behaviour of Hydroxyl
Terminated Polybutadiene Containing Glycerin'',
Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 122, (2011)
706-713.
[8] STANAG 4581-Explosives, Assessment of ageing
characteristics of composite propellants containing
an inert binder, Military Agency for Standardization,
NATO, 2003.
[9] MIL-286 B, ''Measuring the propellant density at
Moor balance''.
[10] Charlesby,A., ''Atomic radiation and Polymers'',
Pergamon press, Oxford, 1960.
[11] Bohn,M., Cerri,S., ''Ageing behaviour of composite
rocket propellant formulations investigated by DMA,
SGA, and GPC'', IMEMT Symposium, 2010.
[12] Bhagawan,S.S., Prabhakaran, N., Rama Rao, M.,
Ninan,N.K., ''Viscoelastic behaviour of solid
propellants based on various polymeric binders'',
Defence Science Journal, Vol. 45 (1), (2011), 17-23
[13] Rehman-Ur-Fazal, Synthesis and Characterization of
Speciality Polyurethane Elastomers, University of
agriculture, Faisalabad, 2010.

4. CONCLUSION
Tensile mechanical characterization, sol-gel analysis and
differential scanning calorimetry were employed together
with gravimetric swell method to elucidate the behaviour
of eight HTPB-based composite propellant binder
formulations, whereby the levels of 1,4-butanediol as
chain extender were changed. Crosslink density values
of the polymer network evaluated by sol-gel
analysis indicates that the specified 1,4-BD level
sol fraction of the tested binder sample is 20 to 45
percent. The obtained network densities trend values are
similar meaning that with different analytical techniques
the same phenomena was investigated and characterised.
Baseline compositions, HTPB cured with IPDI or TDI,
gave propellant binders with quite different mechanical
characteristics. 1,4-BD into propellant binder
composition affects an increase or decrease of strain at
maximum load values and Youngs modulus without any
influence on tensile strength values. The Tg values of
tested binder samples were aproximately -72oC, without
any influence of 1,4-BD on this value.

REFERENCES
[1] Space
Research
Corporation,
Development,
Chemistry and Properties of the Base Bleed Grain,
1984.
[2] Sekkar,V., Bhagawan,S., "Polyurethanes based on
hydroxyl terminated polybutadiene: modelling of
network parameters and correlation with mechanical
properties", Elsevier Science, 41(1) (2000) 67736786.
[3] Santgyani,R., Kumar,A., Kumar,A., Gupta,M.,
"Optimization of Network forming agents for

411

PREDICTION OF ENERGETIC PERFORMANCES OF DOUBLE BASE

PROPELLANTS
MILO FILIPOVI
State University of Novi Pazar, Novi Pazar, mfilipovic@np.ac.rs
ALEKSANDAR MILOJKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, alexandar.milojkovic@gmail.com

Abstract: A suitable method for calculating energetic performances of a double base propellant was developed and
successfully verified. This method is based on generally accepted hypotheses, consistent and simple calculation of the
chemical equilibrium in a predominantly gaseous, multi-component reactive mixture, and on an appropriate numerical
scheme involving the propellant formula and the assigned rocket motor operating conditions. A computer program,
which permits the calculation of the equilibrium composition of the combustion products and the theoretical energetic
performances of double base propellants, has been developed. The results of the calculations have been compared with
experimental data obtained by static tests of several rocket motors. All comparisons gave satisfactory agreement.
Keywords: double base propellants, combustion, combustion products, chemical equilibrium, theoretical energetic
performances.

1. INTRODUCTION
Thermochemical analyses, i.e., theoretical energetic
performances calculations, are needed to characterize the
performances of a given propellant. Such analyses provide
theoretical values of average molecular mass, combustion
temperature, average heat capacity ratio of combustion
products, and the characteristic velocity. These parameters
are functions of the propellant composition and chamber
pressure. A specific impulse can also be computed for a
particular nozzle configuration [1-5].
These theoretical thermodynamic performances of a
propellant are useful for evaluating and comparing the
performances of various rocket systems; they permit the
prediction of the operational performance of any rocket
unit, and the determination of several necessary design
parameters for any given performance requirement [1-5].
The objective of this work was to find a suitable method
for the calculation of theoretical performances of a double
base propellant (DBP) by using generally accepted
hypotheses [1-5], a consistent and simple method for
calculating chemical equilibrium in a predominantly
gaseous, multi-component reactive mixture, and an
appropriate numerical scheme based on the propellant
formula and the assigned rocket motor operating
conditions.

of conventional DB propellants. This program should be

capable of obtaining equilibrium compositions for
assigned thermodynamic states: the temperature and
pressure, enthalpy and pressure, and entropy and pressure,
and be capable to perform calculations of theoretical
energetic performances of DB propellants, with high
convergence rate.

2. DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL

The calculations of various ideal performance parameters
are based on the following assumptions [1-5]: zero
velocity in the combustion chamber, complete
combustion, adiabatic combustion, isentropic expansion,
homogeneous mixing, ideal gas law, one-dimensional
form of the continuity, energy and momentum equations,
and zero temperature and velocity lags between the
condensed and gaseous species.
For equilibrium performances, the composition is
assumed to attain equilibrium values instantaneously
during expansion.
For frozen performances, the composition is assumed to
remain unchanged during the flow through the nozzle.

3. CALCULATION OF COMPLEX CHEMICAL

EQUILIBRIUM COMPOSITIONS

In addition, because of active interest in a specific

program for the extensive calculations of the theoretical
energetic performances of propellants, it was considered
extremely desirable to write such a program for the case

It is assumed [1-5] that the equation of state for an ideal

gas can be applied for the combustion products mixture
even when small amounts of condensed species (up to
several percents by mass) are present.
412

Chemical equilibrium is described by the equilibrium

constants formulation. This formulation involves nonlinear equations of chemical equilibria among combustion
products and linear mass-balance equations:

The mass balance equations (Eq.1) and the equilibrium

constants equations (Eq.3) permit the determination of
equilibrium compositions for thermodynamic states
specified by an assigned temperature and pressure.
The thermodynamic functions of the combustion products
being in their standard state are obtained from the JANAF
thermodynamic tables [6]. For each combustion product
(subscript j), the total molar enthalpy is given in the form
of least squares coefficients [7] as follows:

NP

aij n j xi = 0

i = 1, 2,..., NEL

(1)

j =1

where xi is the coefficient in the specific formula of a

propellant for the element X i , aij is the number of atoms
of the element X i in the combustion product j
(coefficients in molecular formula of the combustion
product j), nj is the number of moles of the jth combustion
product in the mass unit of the combustion product
mixture, NP is the total number of chemical species in the
combustion products, and NEL is the total number of
chemical elements in a propellant.

h0j (T ) = a0, j +

NK

k =1

qk ik
, i = 1, 2, , NEL
Mk

a A
k

'

Table 1. Components of the combustion products of DBP

H
OH
O
O2
N2
NO
H2 H2O
N
NH
NH2 NH3 N2O NO2 CO2 CO
C HCO HCN CH CH2 CH3 CH4 C2H2
Cu CuO
Pb
PbO Ca CaO Mg MgO

and bl are the stochiometric molar concentration

coefficients of the chemical molecules (or atoms) of the
reactants Ak, and the products Bl respectively, the
equilibrium constant equation can be expressed as:

(n
(n

Bl

Kp =

)l

The developed method for calculating chemical

equilibrium in such predominantly gaseous, multicomponent reactive mixture, involves the stated
equilibrium reaction scheme, including, first, the
formation of major chemical species, which
concentrations
prevail in the mixture, then the formation
(3)
of gaseous atomic species by dissociation/recombination
of previous ones, and finally, the formation of the
complex chemical species from atomic species.

k
Ak )

p l
n p
o

(5)

A typical DB rocket propellant contains C, H, N, O, Pb,

Cu, Ca, and Mg, etc. as constitutive chemical elements.
Hence, the combustion products consist of the given eight
elements or contain them in a bounded form. In DB
propellants, combustion products mixture may contain
gaseous atomic species and gaseous complex chemical
species (some of them can simultaneously exist in
condensed phase). The most probable chemical species
which can be formed from the propellants atoms and
which can exist in the conditions of combustion have to
be known or postulated. It is assumed that the combustion
products consist of 32 components, which are presented
in Table 1.

(2)

b B , where a

where a0 and ai are the least squares coefficients, i

denotes the degree of polynomial, and X = 10-3 T.

where qk is the mass percentage of the constituent k in a

propellant, ik is the number of atoms of the element i in
the constituent k (coefficients in the molecular formula of
the constituent k), Mk is the molar mass of the constituent
k, NK is the number of constituents in a propellant, and
NEL is the number of elements in a propellant.
For the general reaction:

i, j X

i =1

When the constituents of a propellant are defined by their

molecular formulas, the coefficients of the propellant
specific formula are calculated using the following set of
equations:
xi = 0.01

bl ak
k

where Kp is the equilibrium constant and the nBl and nAk

are the number of moles of the reactants Ak and products
Bl, p is the actual pressure at which the reaction occurs,
and po is the reference pressure.

As experience and calculations confirmed [3, 5], CO2,

CO, H2O, H2, N2, Cu, Pb, Ca and Mg are the major
combustion products.

The values of Kp for this general reaction are calculated

using the following equation:

The mass balance equations and the equilibrium constant

of the water gas reaction are used for the calculation of
the main combustion products concentrations.

ln K p (T ) =

bl s( po , T ) Bl k ak s( po , T ) Ak
R l

bl h( po , T ) Bl a k h( po , T ) Ak

RT l
k

Gaseous atomic species (except Cu, Pb, CA and Mg),

according to the stated reaction scheme, are calculated
from the equilibrium constants corresponding to their
reactions of formation from main combustion products.
Other complex chemical species are obtained from the
equilibrium constants corresponding to their formation
from gaseous atomic species. If in such thermodynamic
equilibrium system at assigned temperature, any species
coexists in gaseous and condensed phases, the partial
pressure of gaseous phase must be equal to the vapor

(4)

where s(p0, T) and h(p0, T) are the molar entropy and the
total molar enthalpy in standard conditions for the
reactants and products, and R is the universal gas
constant.
413

corresponding equations [5].

pressure of the condensed phase of this species. It permits

to determine the amount of possibly present condensed
phase in combustion products.

The derivatives of nj and n with respect to temperature

may be obtained from differentiation of mass balance
equations (1), equilibrium constants equations (3), and
equation for the number of moles of gaseous products n.
The thermodynamic derivatives are obtained directly from
solution of these equations [5].

The equilibrium reaction scheme, representing the

formation of secondary combustion products is given in
Table 2. It yields the obligatory stoichiometric
coefficients ak and bl for the equilibrium calculation.
Table 2. Reaction scheme of the formation of secondary
combustion products
2COCO2+C
0.5N2N
2OO2
H+C+NHCN
C+4HCH4
N+2HNH2
N+2ONO2
Ca+OCaO

0.5H2H
H+OHO
H+C+OHCO
C+2HCH2
2C+2HC2H2
N+3HNH3
Cu+OCuO
Mg+OMgO

The derivatives of nj and n with respect to pressure can be

obtained in a manner similar to that described for
obtaining derivatives with respect to temperature [5].

H2OH2+O
N+ONO
C+HCH
C+3HCH3
N+HNH
2N+ON2O
Pb+OPbO

The derivatives of nj and n with respect to temperature are

needed to evaluate values for Cp, , a, p and T in the
case of equilibrium performances. The obtained values
characterize the thermodynamic conditions in the
combustion chamber.
Nozzle exit conditions. Exit conditions may be defined for
assigned pressure ratios, pc/p, or area ratios, Ae/At. Throat
conditions, however, are always determined after
combustion in chamber is completed and before any
assigned pressure ratios or other assigned area ratios are
considered. Isentropic expansion is assumed.

This iterative procedure is continued until convergence is

obtained:
n Ij 1 n Ij
n Ij

(6)

For an assigned pressure ratio, equilibrium composition

and exit temperature are determined for the pressure p
corresponding to the assigned ratio and for the
combustion entropy Sc (SP problem). For the throat and
other assigned area ratios, iteration procedure is used to
determine the correct pressure ratios.

where I denotes the number of the Ith iteration, and is the

criterion of convergence. For this type of the chemical
equilibria calculation, 0.00001 is the recommended
convergence criterion. The convergence rate of the
applied calculation method is very high.

After equilibrium composition and temperature are

obtained for an assigned pressure ratio or area ratio, all
thermodynamic functions and thermodynamic derivatives,
which characterize the thermodynamic conditions in the
considered nozzle section, are calculated from the
corresponding equations, and all energetic performances
of rocket propellants may be calculated by the following
equations:

5. CALCULATION OF EQUILIBRIUM AND

FROZEN PERFORMANCES
Combustion
chamber
conditions.
Combustion
temperature and equilibrium composition are obtained for
an assigned chamber pressure and the DB propellant
enthalpy. The energy balance requires that the total
enthalpy of the combustion products mixture at the
temperature of combustion must be equal to the enthalpy
of formation of the propellant:
Hc H f ,P = 0

Characteristic velocity:
p
C = 1 = c
CD t wt

(8)

Mach = w
a

(9)

Ae t wt
=
At e we

(10)

Mach number:

(7)

where Hc is the total enthalpy of the combustion products

mixture and Hf,P is the enthalpy of formation of DB
propellant.

Nozzle area ratio:

A Newton-Raphson method is used to solve for correction

to initial estimate of temperature Tc. Iteration procedure is
repeated until condition Tc < 0.001 is achieved.

Thrust coefficient:

Once the values of nj,Tc and Tc are known (pc is also

known as desired chamber pressure), it is possible to
calculate: the number of moles of gaseous products n, and
the molecular mass of the combustion gases M, the heat
capacity Cp and the heat capacity ratio , the enthalpy of
combustion products mixture H, the sound velocity a, the
entropy of combustion product mixture S, the density of
the combustion gases , using the equation of state for an
ideal gas, the isobaric coefficient of thermal expansion p,
the isothermal coefficient of compressibility T using

CF =

e we2 Ae
pc

At

Ae pe pa
At
pc

(11)

Specific impulse:
I sp =

Specific impulse, vacuum:

414

CF
CD

(12)

 w2 A A p
I sp ,v = C e e e + e e
pc At At pc

ln

Specific impulse, adapted:

w2 A
I sp , a = C e e e
pc At

(16)

6. COMPUTER CODE

(14)

A computer program, named DB-ProPEL (Double Base

Propellant Properties Evaluation), has been developed on
the basis of the above-mentioned algorithm. DB-ProPEL
is a PC-based computer code and is assigned for a 32-bit
Windows environment. It is written in Visual Basic
programming language.

Specific impulse, non-adapted:

w2 A A p pa
I sp , na = C e e e + e e
pc
pc At At

av =

(13)

(15)

Average isentropic flow exponent:

Flow chart of main program and of subroutine for

equilibrium calculations are represented in the Figure 1.

Fig. 1. Flow charts of main program with basic subroutines and of subroutine for calculating equilibrium composition

415

Fig. 2. DB-ProPEL main screen

Fig.3. DB-ProPel Output

that is less ideal - Example 2 [9]. Calculated values are
compared with the corresponding experimental values
obtained by static tests of these rocket motors. Namely,
the successful verification of the presented method and
the DB-ProPEL program has been conceived to give
affirmative answer with respect to the results of this
computer code and experimental values obtained by static
tests of analyzed rocket motors.

7. RESULTS AND DISCUSION

Numerous results of these calculations were obtained for
different DB propellant formulations and rocket motor
conditions. Only two examples are presented here to
illustrate typical values of the thermodynamic functions
and derivatives, which characterize different locations in a
rocket motor, and all energetic performances of DB
propellants, for a rocket motor that have nearly ideal
configuration (which causes minimal combustion
products flow losses) - Example 1, and for a rocket motor

These results and comparative analyses are presented in

Tables 3, 4 and 5.
416

Table 3. Equilibrium Performances for Example 1

Chamber
Throat
Exit
Ae/At
4.48
1
1.797
29.352
Pc/P
P, bar
55
30.606
1.874
T, K
2218
1980
1148
S, J/gK
9.811
9.811
9.811
H, J/g
-2750.44 -3170.91
-4628.4
Cp, J/gK
1.791
1.761
1.805
1.238
1.242
1.236

0.04114
0.04114
0.04113
ngas, kmol/kg
average
1.242
1.00242
1.0008
1.00466
Tp
pT
-1.00012 -1.00004 -1.00035
M, kg/kmol
24.305
24.308
24.313
, kg/m3
7.25
4.518
0.477
a, m/s
968.891
917.03
696.618
1327.5
1327.5
C*, m/s
Mach
1
2.782
1
4.48
Ae/At
0.691
1.46
CF
1655.71
2140.63
Isp,v, Ns/kg
917.03
1938.02
Isp,a, Ns/kg
1631.25
2031.07
Isp,na, Ns/kg

As can be seen from Table 5, there is good agreement

between the calculated values with the corresponding
experimental values obtained by static tests of these
rocket motors.

8. CONCLUSION
A suitable method for calculating energetic performances
of a double base propellant was investigated and
successfully verified.
A computer program, which permits the calculation of the
equilibrium composition of the combustion products and
the theoretical energetic performances of double base
propellants, has been developed.
The results of the calculations have been compared with
some experimental data obtained by static tests of some
rocket motors. All comparisons gave satisfactory
agreement.
Contrary to the other considered programs, the DBProPEL computer code is assigned to extensive
calculations on particular chemical systemt - typical DB
propellants, with a high convergence rate.

REFERENCES

Table 4. Equilibrium Performances for Example 2

Chamber
Throat
Exit
2.713
Ae/At
1
1.799
14.211
Pc/P
P, bar
72
40.013
5.066
T, K
2318
2067
1370
S, J/gK
9.853
9.853
9.853
H, J/g
-2266.49 -2713.74 -3931.26
Cp, J/gK
1.804
1.769
1.749
1.241
1.245
1.248

0.04181
0.04181
0.0418
ngas, kmol/kg
average
1.247
1.00366
1.00125
1.00067
Tp
pT
-1.00019 -1.00007 -1.00007
M, kg/kmol
23.915
23.919
23.922
, kg/m3
8.935
5.57
1.064
a, m/s
999.86
945.783
770.915
1366.7
1366.7
C*, m/s
Mach
1
2.367
1
2.713
Ae/At
0.692
1.335
CF
1705.30
2085.61
Isp,v, Ns/kg
945.78
1824.71
Isp,a, Ns/kg
1686.07
2033.43
Isp,na, Ns/kg

[1] Davenas,A., Solid Rocket Propulsion Technology,

Pergamon Press, New York, Oxford, 1993.
[2] Sutton,G.P.. Rocket Propulsion Elements, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York, 1992.
[3] Davenas,A., Technologie des propelgols solids,
Masson, Paris, 1989.
[4] Zeleznik,F.J., Gordon, S., Calculation of Complex
Chemical Equilibria, Industrial Engineering
Chemistry, vol.60. No.6, 1968, p.27-57.
[5] Filipovi,M., Kilibarda,N., The Calculation of
Theoretical Energetic Performances of Composite
Rocket Propellants, J. Serb. Chem. Soc.,
2001,Vol.66 (2),107-117.
[6] JANAF Thermochemical Tables; Third Edition,
1985., NSRDS, National Bureau of Standards, US
Government Printing Office, Washington DC 20402.
[7] Filipovi,M.,
Kilibarda,N.,
A
Study
on
Thermodynamic Functions of Composite Propellants
Combustion
Products,
Chemical
Industry,
2001,Vol.66 (2),107-117.
[8] Filipovi,M., Kilibarda,N., Calculation of Complex
Chemical Equilibrium Compositions of Composite
Table 5. Comparative analyses of some calculated and
Rocket Propellants Combustion Products, J. Serb.
experimental performances of DB propellants
Chem. Soc., 2000,Vol.65 (11),803-810.
CalculatedExperimental [9]
Diff. % [9] ivkovi,S., Filipovi,M., Elek,P., Milinovi,M.,
Expample 1
Gligorijevi,N., Boulahlib,M.,A., Experimental
1327.5
1333.1
-0.42
C*, m/s
determination of rocket motor internal ballistic
0.00075
0.00075
0
CD, s/m
coefficients and performance parameters, 6th
1.460
1.4596
0.027
CF
International Scientific Conference on Defensive
Expample 2
Technologies, OTEH 2014, Belgrade, Serbia, 9-10
1366.7
1333.3
2.51
C*, m/s
October 2014.
0.00073
0.00075
-2.67
CD, s/m
1.335
1.318
1.29
CF

417

QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE VERIFICATION OF CAST PBX

EXPLOSIVE
DANICA SIMI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, simic_danica@yahoo.com
DANILO SERDAREVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade
SAA SAVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade
SINIA GAI
Technical Test Center, Belgrade
SLAVICA TERZI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade
URO ANELI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade

Abstract: Possible application of cast PBX explosive instead of conventional explosive charges is examined, in order to
increase safety and to reduce vulnerability. Verification of the quality is done and level of the performance is tested for
the chosen cast composite explosive composition HMX(73)/Al(10)/HTPB(17) in projectile 125 mm M86A1 in
comparison to the conventional composition HAl-20, for the application in devastating HE artillery projectiles. In order
to verify the quality of PBX explosive obtained by technological process of casting, it was laborated in the control
casing to check the physico-chemical properties of the explosive charge. Insensitivity was tested performing the test of
the effect of high temperatures (simulated fire conditions) and by shooting of small arms ammunition. Test of safety
firing under higher pressure of powder gas was done from a cannon, for a group of projectiles charged by the examined
explosive and HAl-20. A comparative evaluation of efficacy was done for the projectile 125 mm M86A1 containing
pressed HAl-20 and cast PBX in the pit and arena test.
Keywords: cast PBX, HAl-20, 125 mm projectile, insensitivity, testing the effectiveness, pit test, arena test.
composite cast explosives represent a new generation of
mixtures of a crystalline, high energy explosive and a
polymer, thermosetting binder, with or without inert
additives (hereinafter referred to as cast PBX).
Immediately after preparation, they are cast in the chosen
casings and left at an elevated temperature, so after the
curing of the polymer binder, the explosive mixture
converts into a solid charge of rubber-elastic properties.

1. INTRODUCTION
Conventional cast explosives are mixtures of crystalline,
high energy explosive (hexogen, octogen and pentrite)
and trinitrotoluene (TNT), as energetic binder, with or
without inert additives.
Worldwide, researches in the field of explosives are
directed to the synthesis of new crystalline explosives
(characterized by extreme thermal and chemical stability),
and the definition of high explosive composition of
reduced sensitivity compared to conventional explosives.
These compositions are intended for laboration of
"insensitive" (IM, Insensitive Munition) and "less
vulnerable" munition (LOVA, Low Vulnerability
Munition). The most studied area in the field of
explosives are composite explosives based on crystalline,
high energy explosive (octogene, hexogen) and polymer
binders (PBX - Polymer Bonded eXplosives). This

Missiles of the Army of Serbia are made mostly in the

former Soviet Union. Due to the age of missiles, for some
series about 40 years, it is necessary to periodically
perform a control and inspection of all of the elements,
including warheads and explosive charges. That requires
the involvement of material and financial resources, as
well as the necessary manpower, and carries certain risks.
This could be avoided in the future by applying this PBX
explosives, so it is necessary to consider the possibility of
replacing conventional TNT-based explosive charges by
418

this new generation of composite explosives. This work

represents a step in that direction.

2.1. Classification of cast PBX

Based on the energy potential, and on the effect, cast PBX
are classified into three categories [1, 2]:

The aim of the study presented in this paper is to verify

the quality of the selected composite cast explosive
composition: HMX(73)/Al(10)/HTPB(17), for the
purposes of, primarily, the application in the HE (high
explosive) artillery projectiles. For the selected explosive
to be verified, it is necessary, among other things, to make
the following tests of an explosive charge:

1) Brisant - devastating explosives, used as an explosive

charge in the cumulative destructive missiles.
2) Aluminised compositions; devastating effects, used in
air bombs and underwater weapons. This group is a
ternary mixture of explosive, next to which the
crystalline explosive and the binder component,
containing the fuel component and - aluminum (or Al
in combination with magnesium, for a more complete
combustion).

to check the functionality, safety and efficacy,

verification of physical-chemical characteristics,
check consistency for casting (processability).
To perform the verification, projectile 125 mm M86A1 is
selected for comparative tests, which contains the
standard explosive HAl-20. Selected caliber is
authoritative for this comparative analysis because in the
future come it would into consideration for laboration by
composite explosives. When it comes to conventional
explosive charge of the projectile, it is worth noting that
HAl-20 is completely different type of explosive - a
mixture of pressed aluminum and FH-5 (hexogen
flegmatized with 3-5% wax).

3) Explosives of spatial effects, which, in addition to

crystalline explosives, binders and fuels contain the
oxidizer (ammoniumperchlorate - AP, bariumnitrate BN), are intended for underwater application and
specific effects [3, 4].

2.1. Development of cast PBX in MTI

The Military Technical Institute (MTI) developed the
compositions of all the three above mentioned categories
of PBX. As explosive components of these compositions,
most often used are hexogen (RDX), octogen (HMX) and
pentrite (PETN), and as a binder, thermosetting
polyurethane elastomers (PU) based on polyether polyol
(PE) or hydroxyterminated polybutadiene (HTPB). A
variety of two- and multi-component compositions are
developed having a range of characteristics given in Table
1 [1, 2].

In this analysis of the feasibility of replacing conventional

explosives by cast PBX explosive, studies were conducted
in order to verify the quality of cast PBX, implementation
in selected munitions and tests of the effectiveness along
with a chosen conventional explosive charge, in field
conditions. After the selection of a representative
composition of the cast PBX, ammunition was also
selected: a projectile from the production of Company
"Sloboda" aak, 125 mm M86A1.

Table 1. Scope of the compositions and properties of cast

PBX developed in MTI

2. CAST PBX
Increasingly stringent quality requirements and
limitations regarding using the TNT-based and other
conventional explosive compositions, prompted the
development of a new generation of cast explosive
mixtures. Replacing TNT with a polymer binder in the
composition of the cast PBX brought the desensitization
of HMX/RDX to the point at which the explosive mixture
can be safely produced and laborated into the selected
munitions. Cast PBX exhibit improved properties and a
number of advantages: good mechanical properties, low
porosity and high homogeneity of the material, process
reproducibility, excellent thermo-mechanical and thermochemical stability up to 150C, long service life, no risk
of exudation or cracks, so they need not periodic checkups, reduced sensitivity to impact and friction, the shock
wave and sympathetic detonation, safe storage, transport
and handling.

or RDX (wt. %)

30 85

HTPB or PE (wt.%)

15-20

Al (or Al + Mg) (wt. %)

0 - 35

P (wt. %)

0- 35

density (g/cm3)

1,56 - 2,05

velocity of detonation (m/s)

4300- 8200

So far, the quality of PBX explosives has been verified

through the testing of effectiveness of the active armor
box for ballistic protection of the tank and through the
development of the warhead (WH) MALJUTKA 2F.

3. EXPERIMENTAL
3.1. Preparation of cast PBX

So far, for every area of application of TNT-based

explosives, PBX compositions of equivalent performance
are developed, and practically took over as the explosive
charge of modern weapons systems. Cast PBX are used in
shaped explosive charges, artillery projectiles, missile
warheads and bombs, naval battle means, thermobaric
weapons, battalion assets exposed to extreme conditions.

Cast PBX explosive of the selected composition:

HMX(73)/Al(10)/HTPB(17) is manufactured in batches,
according to [5], in a vertical mixer HKV-5, in the
laboratory of MTI in Baric.
For the preparation of explosive charges the following
materials were used:

419

 Octogene (HMX, manufacturer "Prva Iskra" - Baric),

Viscosity of cast PBX

Aluminum of average particle diameter 5m,

Examination of the viscosity time dependence of the

explosive mixture is carried out at a temperature of 50C.
Viscosity was measured by a Brookfield viscosimeter
type RVT, Spindle TC, at the speed of measuring spindle
5 min-1. The sample for measurement is taken
immediately after the homogenization of the explosive
mixture (15 min from the time of adding the crosslinking
agent), and the first value is determined 15 minutes after
sampling.

Polymeric binding agent based on the HTPB, in

combination with a curing agent isophorone
diisocyanate (IPDI) with the addition of a plasticizer
(DOA-dioctyladipate), and other necessary additives
(TET - triethylentetranitramine, FNA - phenyl-naphtylamine).
Technological parameters for all batches were constant
(order of dosing components, stirring speed and time of
homogenization of components, as well as the time of
mixing the composite mixture after the addition of
crosslinking agent). After homogenization, the explosive
is directly poured into:

The density and porosity of the cast PBX

The density of the lower, middle and upper segment of
the control sample is determined according to MIL 286B
method, on the Mohrs scale in toluene at 25C. The
porosity values were calculated according to the formula:

a three-part control casing,

molds of 50 mm in diameter, for obtaining samples for
general quality control (density, velocity of detonation),

= 1

casings of warheads: 125mm projectiles for efficiency

testing.

e
100[%]
t

(1)

where: e - experimental value of the density (g/cm), and

t - theoretical value (for the selected composition T =
1,661 g/cm).

3.2. Quality control and general characterization

of cast PBX
In order to control the quality of cast PBX charges,
selected explosive composition was poured into a threepart control casing. Characterization of cast explosive was
carried out according to standard methods (determination
of the chemical composition of the PBX, density and
porosity, measurement of the detonation velocity, etc.).

Detonation velocity of cast PBX

Detonation velocity of cast PBX was determined by the
electrocontact probes and electronic counter. Tests were
conducted in area of stable detonation at explosive
charges of 160-200 mm height and a diameter of 50 mm,
which were initiated by detonating primer DK N8 and
boosters of FH-5, density 1.60 g/cm3.

In order to perform quality control, obtained test sample

was cut in half along the axis of symmetry. By visual
inspection it was noted that the cut surface has no air
cavities or cracks. From one half of the control sample
segments were taken to determine the density, as well as
the chemical composition (Picture 1). Tests were
performed according to the instructions given in the
Program [6] and profoundly elaborated in [7].

3.3. Sensitivity tests

Within the research task of Department of ammunition,
comparative testing of susceptibility to the effects of high
temperature (simulated fire conditions) and small arms
ammunition was conducted on different models of
warheads, different explosive samples, and also the WH
125mm containing explosive composition which is the
subject of these verification tests [8].
In examining the sensitivity to the effects of high
temperatures WH was set over a burning fuel - kerosene
(as shown in picture 2), so that it was placed in the top of
the flame, or at least in its upper third, which should
simulate fire conditions. Testing was recorded by highspeed and thermal imaging camera.

Picture 1. Longitudinal cross-section of the control

sample and segments for density determination
Within the basic characterization, the following analysis
were done:
time dependence of viscosity,
density and porosity of segments of the explosive
charge,
determination of velocity of detonation.

Picture 2. Set-up for test of sensitivity to high temperature

420

Sensitivity to the ammunition shooting was tested from

long range by Crna strela M93 rifle using 12,7mm
ammunition (bullet PHC B32). Shooting was done from a
distance of 100 m (picture 3).

a)

Picture 3. Set-up for test of sensitivity to ammunition

shooting

3.4. Tests of the efficacy and performance

Tests according to program [6] were carried out at the
Technical Test Center in Nikinci. Following tests were
performed on the missiles 125 mm M86A1 containing
pressed HAl-20 and cast PBX:
Test of the safety and function of the projectile in
conditions of increased pressure of propellant gas,
Test in the pit,
Arena test.

b)
Picture 4. Tank gun D-81 (a), and tested projectiles (b)
Test in the pit

Test of the safety and function

First, 3 missiles containing explosive composition HAl-20
were fired from a 125 mm tank gun D-81 (Picture 4a): 2
projectiles for conditioning the system and one projectile as a
pilot shot, and then a group of seven projectiles containing
new composite explosive - cast PBX (Picture 4b).

Picture 5 shows some phases of the preparation and

execution of the test of the efficiency in the pit: filling a
wooden barrel with sand (~ 5 m3 of sand), projectile
prepared for experiment is set in a wooden box in the
middle of barrel filled with sand, sifting sand after the
activation and fragmentation of the projectile, and
manually extracting metal fragments using magnets.

Picture 5. Testing the efficiency in the pit

421

Arena test

PBX is 7813 m/s, which is in an expected value for this

type of explosive.

Tests of the efficiency of a devastating missile 125 mm

M86A1 in arena, a schematic view is given in picture 6a,
and assembly of segments on the polygon is shown in
picture 6b.

4.2. Sensitivity to the effects of high temperature

and to the shooting ammunition
According to the previously described setting, WH is
heated in the flame of kerosene. Thermovision recording
showed that the temperature of the flame was above
550C, which was the requirement of the test protocol.
After 9 minutes in the flame, the casing broke in two
pieces due to the explosion of gases under high pressure,
liberated during combustion inside a closed casing
(deflagration of explosive), but there was no detonation of
explosive. Proof of this is the fact that the casing just split
in two (Picture 7), but it did not burst into fragments,
which would happen in the case of detonation.

a)

b)
Picture 7. A piece of WH casing after the test of
sensitivity to high temperature

Picture 6. Scheme of arena test (a) , and the set-up on the

test field(b)

After shooting WH, there was a burning of the explosive

inside the casing which remained intact with one inlet.
The increased pressure of the released gaseous products
of combustion (deflagration) resulted in the expulsion of
the fuze (Picture 8).

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. General characterization of cast PBX
The mass of the explosive charge in WH is very uniform
and averages 3,19 kg.
Time dependence of viscosity is shown in Table 2. Based
on the obtained results, it can be said that the chosen
explosive composition is suitable for casting, since having
very slow increase of viscosity in time.
Table 2. Time dependence of viscosity (BROOKFIELD
HBT: T-C, 5 min-1)
Time, min
Viscosity,

15
177,
6

30

45

60

70

177,6

177,6

180,8

180,8

Picture 8. Projectile after testing sensitivity to the effects

of small arms ammunition

Average density values and porosity of the cast PBX are

given in Table 3. It might be said that the control sample
has good homogeneity and adequate density.

4.3. Efficiency of WH containing HAl-20 and cast

PBX

Table 3. Density and porosity of PBX

Sample
segment
top
middle
bottom

Density,
g/cm3
1,636
1,639
1,645

Before testing the efficiency of the missile, the test of

safety in the tank barrel was performed.

Porosity, %
1,52
1,34
0,98

First three missiles containing pressed HA1-20 were fired,

for the set up of the parameters of shooting, and it was
found that the weight of the additional propellant charge
should be 660 g. Then seven new missiles were fired, and
each of them fell in the expected range. For each shot, the

Average value of measured velocity of detonation of cast

422

required pressure with adequate increase in muzzle

velocity was reached.

Testing the efficiency in the pit

Table 5 shows summarized results of comparative tests of
efficiency in the pit for missiles containing pressed HA120 and cast PBX.

Ammunition has met the criteria of safety, since there was

no unwanted effects in terms of safety and security (there
was no premature explosion / detonation of missiles, nor
deflagration in the gun barrel or on the path of the
projectile).
Table 5. Results of the test in the pit
Projectile number

Type of explosive
Mass of
projectile, g
Mass of
explosive, g
Mass of casing, g
Mass of lost
fragments, g

HAl-20

HAl-20

PBX

PBX

19250

19220

19206

19123

3250

3370

3247

3230

16000

15850

15959

15893

1624,96

393,66

812,15

1773,59

Number of fragments and mass arranged by groups

Mass of
fragments

Number

Mass (g)

Number

Mass (g)

Number

Mass (g)

Number

Mass (g)

<0.5

--

494,80

--

212,03

--

182,95

--

309,78

0.5-1

272

214,70

325

242,69

429

310,58

355

273,04

1-2

383

561,15

361

528,77

412

575,25

356

510,22

2-3

198

490,39

221

542,96

231

572,59

199

486,23

3-5

260

995,32

228

895,47

255

994,00

299

1167,48

5-10

225

1585,20

208

1428,57

260

1844,22

264

1917,36

10-15

112

1355,40

91

1110,20

127

1568,42

102

1227,87

15-20

55

952,58

54

929,76

73

1264,78

61

1027,92

20-30

82

2011,87

58

1421,36

82

2009,93

80

1980,67

30-50

65

2534,19

49

1811,43

62

2394,19

37

1726,25

50-75

35

2051,67

31

1887,57

28

1675,73

36

2213,68

75-100

417,93

13

1110,62

13

1082,27

13

1065,47

100-150

614,48

20

2457,72

911,51

926,88

>150

485,36

1267,19

150,51

1054,71

Total

--

14765,04

--

15846,34

--

15536,85

--

14519,41

Arena test
Comparation of the effectiveness in arena test was done
for missiles containing HA1-20 and cast PBX. After
activation of the projectile in the center, the casing
fragments were blown radially from the place of
explosion, and, depending on the mass and kinetic energy,
penetrated through the segments of different sectors of the
wooden corral, or interfered with the boards of these
segments. Efficiency is observed as a number of
punctures and penetrations per unit area of wooden
segments of the corral, in the sectors I - IV. Picture 9
shows representative examples of punctures and
penetrations in the wooden corral. Table 6 presents the
comparative results of the efficiency in the arena, and the
table 7 presents the lethal radius of compared warheads.

Picture 9. Punctures and penetrations in wooden segment

423

Table 6. Results of arena tests of the efficiency

Number of penetrations per m2
Missile / WH
I
II
III
IV
P01: 234 (1-20)
6,79
3,78
1,92
0,68
P02: 1087(1-20)
6,99
3,94
2,16
0,88
Average value
6,88
3,86
2,04
0,78
P01: 896 ()
6,56
2,94
1,69
0,66
P02: 071 ()
5,83
2,78
1,57
0,42
P03: 655()
6,49
3,23
1,69
0,51
Average value
6,29
2,98
1,65
0,53

I
4,39
2,80
3,60
3,66
3,10
2,46
3,07

number of punctures per m2

II
III
IV
1,58
1,15
0,22
2,54
0,94
0,19
2,06
1,05
0,21
1,82
1,17
0,76
2,54
0,70
0,56
2,65
1,00
0,63
2,34
0,96
0,65

Based on the quality control and the results of general

characterization, it can be said that examined PBX
explosive has homogeneous structure (no cavities and
cracks in the intersection of the control sample), and that
it is very suitable for casting (moderate increase of
viscosity in time). Detonation velocity is in the level of
the expected values for this type of explosive.
Comparative study of the efficiency of projectile 125 mm
M86A1 containing pressed HAl-20 and cast PBX was
done on the test fields of Technical Test Center in
Nikinci. Checking the safety and function of the missile in
terms of increased pressure of propellant gas, by firing
from the tank gun, revealed that ammunition containing
this new explosive meets the safety criteria (did not come
to any adverse events in the gun barrel, nor on the path).
Efficiency tests in the pit and the arena were done, and the
results were lower for PBX comparing to HAl-20, but this
was expected, since the compared explosives are of
different type. It can be said that PBX meets the expected
efficiency, safety and insensitivity requirements.

Table 7. Lethal radius of projectiles with HAl-20 and cast

PBX
Lethal radius
Type of
1-20, pressed
, cast
explosive
WH 01
28,1
24,5
WH 02
26,2
23,2
WH 03
24,4
Average
27,3
24,0
value
Based on the results of comparative tests carried out in the
arena, explosive projectiles containing HAl-20, compared
to missiles containing PBX), achieved 28.92% greater
efficiency. Three-component composite explosive and
similar compositions based on octogen are not quite
optimal substitute for HAl-20 for laboration of artillery
projectiles, which does not mean they do not meet the
requirements for efficiency. It should be had in mind that,
in terms of explosive charges of different types (HA1-20
is pressed and PBX is a cast composite explosive). The
content of inert polymeric component in cast PBX (17%)
is much higher than the content of flegmatizer, montan
wax, in HAl-20 (less than 5%). Also it is important to
mention that the densities that can be achieved by
pressing and casting in practice vary, and are larger for
the pressed explosive compositions.

REFERENCES
[1] Antic, G., Rodic, V. Cast composite explosives based
on hydroxyterminated polybutadiene binders, Study,
VTI 04-01-0526, Belgrade, 2007.
[2] Antic, G . Cast explosive mixtures for underwater
applications,
Scientific-technical
information,
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, 2005.
[3] Chan, M. L., Meyers, G. W. United States Patent:
Advanced thermobaric explosive compositions,
Patent No: US 6,955,732 B1. 2005.
[4] Simi, D., Petkovi, J., Milojkovi A., Brzi S.
Influence of composition on the processability of
thermobaric explosives, Scientific Technical Review
vol. 63, Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, 2013.
[5] Anti, G. General technological process of making
cast PBX, TP, VTI 004-01-0419, Belgrade 2005.
[6] Momilovi, V. Program of verification testing of
composite explosives based on polymers as binders composition HMX(73)/A1(10)/HTPB(17), VTI 0201-0289, Belgrade 2013.
[7] Simi, D., Momilovi, V. Comparative summary of
techno-economic factors of production and
application of conventional explosive and cast PBX
charge, VTI 004-01-0796, Belgrade 2014.
[8] Savi, S. Internal susceptibility testing of warheads
containing composite explosives to the effects of
small arms ammunition and high temperatures, VTI
02-01-0275, Belgrade 2013.

The original idea was to carry out the verification of the

quality of cast PBX, so it can be used instead of cast
TNT-based charges (which have defects, discussed in this
paper), so it can be said that not quite adequate choice of
explosive was made for the comparison. However,
although not containing similar type of the explosive
charge, WH chosen from the defense industry resources
was the one of the adequate caliber.

5. CONCLUSION
Verification of the quality of PBX explosive is performed
through the application in projectile 125 mm M86A1.
This projectile was proposed and selected for testing
because its caliber is suitable for laboration by cast
composite explosives, and these warheads containing
conventional explosive already exist in the resources of
the defense industry.
The possibility of applying cast PBX explosives instead
of conventional explosives, to increase safety and to
reduce vulnerability, is examined by comparing the
quality of a conventional explosive charge HA1-20 and a
chosen PBX composition HMX(73)/Al(10)/HTPB(17).
424

IMPACT OF BLAST WAVE FROM MIXTURE OF AN AND UROTROPINE

ON CRITICAL ELEMENTS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
ILIYAN HUTOV
National Military University Vasil Levski, Veliko Tarnovo, iliyan.hutov@abv.bg
RADI GANEV
University of structural engineering and architecture Lyuben Karavelov, Sofia, radiganev@abv.bg

Abstract: This paper presents the findings from a research, which explores the blast characteristic of mixture from AN
and urotropine. A group of scenarios simulated and examined by analysis the concept of using new protection
techniques, as assessed using LS-DYNA software. The main contribution achieved in this paper declared in the results
of the simulations. The analysis of the simulation output reveals that the way of reinforcing columns increases their
resistance to blast wave. The proposed techniques are applicable for protection of critical infrastructure sites.
Keywords: AN, urotropine, blast load, RC, LS-DYNA.
observed. On the surface facing the detonation, the
concrete experiences triaxial compression and may fail
under high compressive force. When the compressive
shock wave propagates within the concrete and interacts
with the free surface, it will be reflected and converts to a
tensile wave. Under this condition, due to the low tensile
resistance of concrete, crack will form if the net stress
exceeds concrete dynamic tensile strength. If the trapped
impulse is large enough to overcome the resistant forces
such as the bond, shear around the periphery of the
cracked portion, and the mechanical interlocking, the
cracked off parts will separate from the backside of the
structure at some velocity. Even though it may not
generate obvious overall structural failure, spall and
fragmentation can bring threat to the personnel and
equipment around the area. Such damage is usually not
considered in normal protective designs of concrete
structures. In extreme cases, spall damage can cause
severe damage and lead to significant reduction on loadcarrying capacities of the structural element although the
damage could be limited to a small area. Therefore
investigation upon such damage is important and
essential.

1. INTRODUCTION
In the recent past, structures all over the world have
become susceptible to the threat of terrorist attacks,
accidental explosions and other unthought-of explosion
related failures. Buildings and critical infrastructure
vulnerable to explosions include government buildings,
embassies, financial institutions, densely populated
commercial structures, and other buildings of national
heritage or landmarks. Consequently, a number of
concerns have been raised on the vulnerability and
behavior of these structures under extreme loadings.
In recent years is observed widespread use of homemade
explosives (HME) for attacking building structures all
over the world. The most used ingredient for HME is
ammonium nitrate (AN), which main use is soil
fertilization. Mixtures of AN and mineral oils, aluminium
powder and others are used in numerous attacks. From the
safety point of view explosive properties of AN are a
disadvantage. The explosive properties of AN are
relatively low, but its mixtures with many fuels are typical
explosives.
The analysis of concrete structures against short duration
dynamic loads, such as those induced by air blast
detonation, is a topic of extensive study in recent several
decades. The dynamic analysis of the structural
performance is a complex issue because short duration
high amplitude blast loading often exhibits strong time
variation which results in a varying strain rate for the
concrete material as well as the steel reinforcement.

2. TESTED MATERIALS
For preparing explosive mixtures commercially available
AN based fertilizers were chosen. The fertilizer was AN
and urotropine as fuel. There were tested mixtures with
AN and urotropine (AN/U) with proportion 90:10. [1]
It is known that physical structure influences on
explosives properties of materials significantly. This
influence is especially important in the case of materials
with low explosive properties like AN and its mixtures
with non explosive ingredients. One of the factors that

Reinforced concrete (RC) components are commonly

used in the protective design against potential blast
loading conditions. When concrete components are
subjected to close-in blast loads, local failure can be
425

renders AN and mixtures containing AN more sensitive

and improving their explosive characteristics are
dimensions of prills, crystals, grains etc.. In order to
increase explosive properties of the tested mixtures the
fertilizers were milled in a centrifugal mill equipped with
a sieve of 0,25 mm trapezoid holes, mixed and heated to
145 C. Photo (made by SEM) of the mixture AN/U
(90/10) after that treatment is presented below. [2]

(MAT_72_REL3) is used. It is a plasticity-based model,

and it uses three shear failure surfaces which change
shape, depending on the confinement pressure. The
damage and strain rate effect is included in this model.
The major advantage of this model is that it is based on a
single user input parameter, i.e., the unconfined
compressive strength. The remaining model parameters
are automatically generated using a built-in algorithm and
can also be modified by the user. [8]
The material properties used in the simulations are the
same as those used to model the RC column and are listed
in Table 1.
Table 1: Material model in LS-DYNA
Input
Value
parameters
Concrete
MAT_Concrete_
40 MPa
strength
Concrete Damage_Rel3
Principle
Erosion creation
0,01
tension strain
Mass density 7800 kg/m3
Reinforce- MAT_Piecewise_L Elastic
2,00E+11
inear_Plasticly
ment
modulus
Yield stress 350 MPa
Material LS-DYNA model

Picture 1: Photo of the mixture AN/U magnification

1000 times [2]
TNT equivalence of the mixture AN/U (90/10) was
estimated to 0,8 and verify by both laboratory and filed
blast experiments.

3.2. Blast load modelling

In the present numerical simulations, the blast load is
simulated with the Load_Blast function in LS-DYNA.
This function is developed based on a report by RandersPehrson and Bannister and is mainly based on empirical
relations derived from blasting tests. The utilization of
this function avoids the detailed modelling of the
explosive charge and shock wave propagation in air, thus
it can save the calculation cost. The disadvantage of this
function is that it cannot model the shock wave and
structure interaction. The reliability of this function in
simulating blast loads on structures has been proven and it
is very commonly used in numerical simulations of
structural responses to blast loads [9].

3. NUMERICAL MODEL CALIBRATION

In the present study, the numerical simulations are carried
out in commercial hydro-code LS-DYNA 971. LSDYNA, which is based on explicit numerical algorithm,
has been widely used in the dynamic simulations of RC
structures to blast loads, and it has been proven yielding
reliable numerical predictions of structural dynamic. [3,4]
To validate the accuracy and reliability of the numerical
model developed for simulating concrete structure
response and damage to blast load, a reinforced concrete
column tested by other researchers is modeled first
according to the testing conditions [5]. The dynamic
response of the column to the blast loads is simulated.
The results are compared with those recorded in the test
[6] to verify the numerical model. The modeled column is
a reinforced concrete column subjected to close-in blast
loadings. Testing data on RC columns should be used to
calibrate the model since the model will be used to
simulate spall damage of RC columns. It should be noted
that spall damage is a local phenomenon. It depends on
concrete material properties, reinforcement confinements,
and cross-section thickness. It does not depend on
structural type and boundary conditions as will be
numerically proven in this study. Therefore the calibrated
model based on testing data is considered reliable for
simulating RC column responses. [7]

3.3. Model calibration and discussion

To calibrate the present numerical model the experimental
study was made.
The RC columns with parameters H (height):D(depth)
:W(width), fixed in both ends were considered. The blast
load was generated from a 5 kg mixture of AN/U
explosion with 4 kg TNT equivalence at a standoff
distance of 0,5 m. According to the UFC code [10], the
peak pressure in this blast scenario is 100,7 MPa, while in
the numerical simulation, the predicted peak pressure is
103,0 MPa. The two results agree well.
Pic.2 shows the comparison of the damaged areas
obtained from the numerical simulation and blasting tests.
The numerically simulated plastic strain contour is shown
for comparison. As displayed in Pic.2a, clear compressive
crushing damage can be observed on the RC column with
full collapse at the column centre. A number of concrete
cracks are obvious. The numerical simulation well
captures these damages as shown in Fig.2b. shows the
column in general.

3.1. Material model

In LS-DYNA, a number of material models can be used
to simulate the dynamic behavior of concrete materials. In
the
present
study,
Concrete_Damage_Rel3
426

Pic.3 shows the structural response of the three columns

under the same blast loading scenario (1,25 kg mixture of
AN/U at 0,2 m).
It can be easily observed that with the increase of the
column depth, less spall damage is experienced by the
column. For column with 250 mm depth, more than one
third of the column depth has spall damage,
corresponding to the severe spall damage category [11].
For column with 300 mm depth, a shallow spall area
forms under the blast loads, and the damage level more
closely matches the medium spall damage according to
the above definition. For column with 350 mm depth,
only a few visible cracks can be observed on the column
rear surface, and the damage level fits in the light spall
damage category.

a)

Pic. 4 shows three similar structural spall damage cases

which fit closely to the severe spall damage category. In
these three cases, about half of the column depth
experiences the spall damage. In case one, the blast
scenario is 5 kg of the investigated mixture at 0,3 m; in
case two, the blast scenario is 6,25 kg at 0,3 m; and in
case three, the blast scenario is 7,5 kg at 0,3 m.

b)
Picture 2: Comparison of the numerical and experimental
results of the RC column damage (a) experimental results;
(b) numerical results.
As shown spall damage can be clearly observed in the
experimental study. In the numerical simulation, the spall
damage is also well captured, and the major cracks are
also reasonably reproduced.

4. NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS
The above calibrated numerical model is used in this
study to simulate dynamic responses of RC columns to
blast loads.

4.1. Columns with different depths

In this section, numerical simulations are conducted to
study the effect of column depth on spall damage. In these
case studies, the column height is 2500 mm and width is
250 mm. The concrete cover thickness is 15 mm. The
reinforcement ratio (1,5% for longitudinal reinforcement
and 0,2% for stirrup reinforcement) and arrangement
remain the same as defined in the last section. The
columns are constructed by C40 concrete and
reinforcement with yield strength of 335 MPa.

Picture 4: Column response under different mixture

AN/U weigh in three columns of different depths
corresponding to different blast scenarios: (a) 5 kg at 0,3
m; (b) 6,25 kg at 0,3 m; (c) 7,5 kg at 0,3 m.
It can be generally concluded that in order to achieve the
same spall damage level, larger blast load is needed for
thicker columns.

4.2. Columns with different longitudinal

reinforcement spacing
Besides the column dimensions, the reinforcement of the
column could also have significant influence on the spall
damage because reinforcement cage itself provides
confinement to the concrete.
In this section, three columns with approximately the
same percentage of reinforcement ratio (1,5% for
longitudinal reinforcement and 0,2% for stirrup
reinforcement), but different sizes of longitudinal
reinforcing bars and spacing between the longitudinal
bars, are numerically tested. The materials are the same as
defined in the last section. The column height is 2500 mm

Picture 3: Column response under 1,25 kg mixture AN/U

explosion at 0,2 m: (a) 250 mm depth column; (b) 300
mm depth column; (c) 350 mm depth column.
427

while its depth and width are 250 mm. The stirrup
reinforcement rebar has a diameter of 10 mm, spaced at
250 mm along the column height. The concrete cover is
15 mm the column is fixed at the both ends. The
reinforcement of the three columns is displayed in Pic. 5.
They are: a) 4B20 mm longitudinal rebars with spacing
between bars 190 mm; b) 6B16 mm longitudinal rebars
with spacing between bars 90 mm; and c) 8B14 mm
longitudinal rebars with spacing between bars
approximately 55 mm. Pic. 5 shows the reinforcement
cage of the three columns considered in the study.

Results from 2,5 kg of mixture AN/U detonated at 0,2 m

from the column is shown in Pic. 7, similar observations
can be drawn. In the column with 190 mm longitudinal
rebar spacing, the spall depth is about 15 cm, whereas the
spall depth in the column with 90 mm longitudinal rebar
spacing and 55 mm longitudinal rebar spacing are 13 cm
and 11 cm, respectively.

Picture 7: Column response under a 2,5 kg of mixture

AN/U explosion at 0,2 m: (a) longitudinal rebar with 190
mm spacing; (b) longitudinal rebar with 90 mm spacing;
(c) longitudinal rebar with 55 mm spacing.

Picture 5: Reinforcement of the columns (a) longitudinal

rebar with 190 mm spacing; (b) longitudinal rebar with 90
mm spacing; (c) longitudinal rebar with 55 mm spacing.

The reason that more reinforcement bars gives better spall

mitigation can be attributed to that the longitudinal
reinforcement with close spacing causes more significant
wave dispersion of the stress waves, and thus reduces the
peak net stress which can generate spall. Moreover, when
the spall damage happens, the cracked off concrete must
break into smaller parts to pass through the small spaced
reinforcement bars. The smaller spaced reinforcement
bars provides more uniform resistance force to better
confine the concrete. These results indicate that it is better
to use more numbers of smaller size rebar than less
numbers of larger size rebar in structural design. This
observation is consistent with the common understanding
that more numbers of small-size rebar provides better
confinement and crack control of concrete in RC
structures.

Pic. 6 shows the results from a 3 kg TNT explosion at 0,3

m standoff. It can be clearly observed that with the
increase of the number of longitudinal rebar and decrease
of the rebar spacing, the level of spall damage reduces,
indicating the confinement of rebar mitigates concrete
spall damage. In the column with 190 mm longitudinal
rebar spacing, the spall depth is about 18 cm, whereas the
spall depth in the column with 90 mm longitudinal rebar
spacing and 55 mm longitudinal rebar spacing reduce to
15 cm and 13 cm, respectively.

4.3. Columns with different stirrup reinforcement

spacing
In this section, three columns with four longitudinal
reinforcement bars of reinforcement ratio 1,5% and
varying stirrup reinforcement bar sizes and spacing are
considered. The stirrup reinforcement ratio is
approximately 0,2% for all the three columns. The
columns are constructed by C40 concrete and
reinforcement with yield strength of 335 MPa.
The other column parameters and material properties are
the same as those given in the previous section.

Picture 6: Column response under a 3,75 kg of mixture

AN/U explosion at 0,3 m: (a) longitudinal rebar with 190
mm spacing; (b) longitudinal rebar with 90 mm spacing;
(c) longitudinal rebar with 55 mm spacing.

They are: a) B10 mm stirrup rebars with spacing between

bars 25 mm; b) B8 mm stirrup rebars with spacing
428

between bars 15 mm; and c) B7 mm stirrup rebars with

spacing between bars approximately 12,5 mm.

5. CONCLUSION

The reinforcement cages of the three columns are

displayed in Pic. 8.

This paper presents a numerical model in 3D to predict

spall damage of RC columns as a critical element of RC
structure. The validity of the numerical model is
calibrated with use of blasting test. Intensive numerical
simulations are carried out to investigate the influence of
RC column parameters on spall damage under close-in
explosion loads. It is found that column depth and
reinforcement layouts have profound effects on RC
column spall damage. Increasing column depth, and/ or
using more dense reinforcement bars that provides better
confinement to concrete are very effective in mitigating
spall damage..

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support provided
by University of structural engineering and architecture
Lyuben Karavelov, National Military University Vasil
Levski, Institute of metal science, equipment and
technologies
Acad.
A.
Balevski
with
hydroaerodynamics centre.

Picture 8: Reinforcement cages of the columns with

different stirrups, (a) B10 mm at 0,25 m spacing; (b) B8
mm at 0,15 m spacing; (c) B7 mm at 0,125 m spacing.

REFERENCES
[1] ., .,

,

16-18

2013..
.
[2] ., .,
,


2014,
, , 20-21 2014 .,
, . 234-238, ISSN 1313-7700.
[3] Malvar LJ, Crawford JE. Dynamic increase factors
for concrete. DTIC Document; 1998.
[4] Malvar L, Crawford J. Dynamic increase factors for
steel reinforcing bars. In: 28th DDESB seminar;
1998. Orlando, USA.
[5] Lian YP, Zhang X, Zhou X, Ma ZT. A FEMP
method and its application in modeling dynamic
response of reinforced concrete subjected to impact
loading. Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng
2011;200:1659-70.
[6] Rabczuk T, Eibl J. Modelling dynamic failure of
concrete with meshfree methods. Int J Impact Eng
2006;32:1878e97.
[7] .,

, XIV
2014, 05-06 2014
., , . , .
[8] LS-DYNA. LS-DYNA keyword users manual,
version 971. Livermore, USA: Livermore Software
Technology Corporation; 2007.

Pic. 9 shows the results generated by a 2,5 kg mixture

AN/U explosion at 0,2 m. As shown with the decrease of
the stirrup spacing, less cracked off pieces eject from the
column, indicating using denser stirrups can mitigate spall
damage.

Picture 9: Response of columns with different stirrup

reinforcements under a 2,5 kg mixture AN/U explosion at
0,2 m, (a) B10 mm at 0,25 m spacing; (b) B8 mm at 0,15
m spacing; (c)B7 mm at 0,125 m spacing.
Similar to the observations made above on spall damage
of columns with different longitudinal reinforcement
layouts, the closely spaced stirrup reinforcement can
provide better confinement to the concrete therefore
mitigate spall damage.

429

[9] Randers-Pehrson G, Bannister KA. Airblast loading

model for DYNA2D and DYNA3D. DTIC
Document; 1997.
[10] UNIFIED FACILITIES CRITERIA (UFC) 3-340-02.
Structures to resist the effect of accidental

explosions. Thenical manual. US Department of the

Army, the Navy and the Air force; 5 December 2008.
[11] McVay MK. Spall damage of concrete structures.
DTIC Document; 1988.

430

CHEMICAL STABILITY ASSESSMENT OF UNUSUAL DOUBLE-BASE

PROPELLANTS COMPOSITIONS WITHOUT A STABILIZER
LJILJANA JELISAVAC
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vti@vti.vs.rs
NIKOLA BOBI
Defence Technologies Department, Belgrade, SERBIA
SLAVIA STOJILJKOVI
TRI ore Dimitrijevi ura, Kragujevac, trzk@trzk.co.rs
AHMED KOIBI
Algeire
SAA BRZI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vti@vti.vs.rs
BOJANA FIDANOVSKI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vti@vti.vs.rs

Abstract: This paper studies the chemical stability of the nitrocellulose double based propellants charges of START
engine of Soviet surface-to-air missile system, S-125 "Neva" which was introduced in the armament of the Army of
Serbia, in the early seventies of the last century and it is still in use. The experimental results of examinations of tested
propellants by different analitycal methods, confirmed the fact that the role of the stabilizer does not perform classic
organic propellant stabilizers. Therefore, the chemical stability of this unusual type of propellant had to be additionally
tested by STANAG 4582 microcalorimetry method of heat flux measuring, which is not based on measuring of the
consumption of stabilizer.
Keywords: double-base rocket propellant, chemical stability.
RP "Neva" is very specifically because of the inability to
use, methods for assessing the chemical stability, by
determining the content of stabilizers which prescribe
Serbian standard SORS 8069/91 [4], and NATO standard
AOP-48 Ed.2 [5].

1. INTRODUCTION
Surface-to-air missile system, S-125 "Neva" was
produced in the USSR in the 60's of the 20 th century. It
is still in use in many countries, including Serbia. It is a
missile defense system for anti-aircraft defense of the
territory. In the armament of the Army of Serbia, missile
system S-125M-Neva was introduced in the early
seventies of the last century.

Therefore, in Serbia, the categorization and the final

decision on further action with tested DB RP "Neva", for
years is performed based on the results of traditional
high-temperature methods of chemical stability control,
which showed certain disadvantages in the assessment of
the chemical stability of the old propellants [1-3,6].

This paper studies the chemical stability of the

nitrocellulose double based propellants charges of START
engine of missile system Neva. During the periodic
control and technical inspection of the samples of DRG
"Neva" following components were identified:
nitroglycerin,
trinitrotoluene,
dinitrotoluene
and
dibutylphtalate, but it is important to emphasize that the
presence of any of the commonly used stabilizers such as
ethyl centralite, methyl centralite, 2-nitrodiphenylamine,
akardite and diphenylamine, was not confirmed [1-3].

Hence, the chemical stability of these unusual propellants

has to be checked by another technique not based on
stabilizer consumption, like Heat Flow Calorimetry
according standard STANAG 4582 [7] or Vacuum
Stability test according standard STANAG 4556 [8].
But, the basic aim of this study is definition of optimal
work conditions of method of semi-preparative high
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for
separation and isolation of the organic components of

The issue of assessment of the chemical stability of DB

431

samples of DB RP "Neva", and then the identification of

the isolated fractions by methods of gas chromatography
and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) [9,10].

Table 1. Optimal operational conditions of analytical

HPLC method in gradient mode - DB RP Neva 66/88/24
pump mode

gradient
Agilent ZORBAX Eclipse XDB-C18
analytical column with internal diameter
column
4,6mm; length 250mm; the particle size of
package, 5 m.
PDA detector analytical photo-cell, 190-400 nm
solvent 10% methanol in deionization water
solvent B 100% methanol
temperature 30o
flow rate of 1 ml/min
mobile phase
volume of 20 l (volume of sample injected)
sample loop

On the basis of these results, the possible presence of

unknown component which plays role of stabilizer, and
which during previous investigations of DB RP Neva was
not identified, will be checked.

2. EXPERIMENTAL
In order of development of the optimal work conditions of
semi-preparative HPLC method for separation and
isolation of the organic components of samples of DB RP
"Neva", samples were prepared according to procedure
described in literature [9].
The base for development of semi-preparative HPLC
method were the results of application of analytical HPLC
method for separation of organic components of the same
samples.

Initial gradient was changed in steps until reaching the

optimum values for the separation of the components of
the sample DRG Neva 66/88/24 [9]. The final
composition of the mobile phase that achieves the best
separation of the components of the sample DB RP Neva
66/88/24 is shown in Picture 2 [9].

For the analytical HPLC and semi-preparative HPLC,

"Waters 1525 EF Binary HPLC Pump with EF (extended
flow)" instrument was used. It consisted of: a column
heater, a injector "Rheodine Model 7125", "Waters 2998
photodiode array detector (PDA)" and Waters vacuum
degasser, Picture 1.

Picture 2. Change of the composition of the mobile phase

during gradient mode of analytical
HPLC- DB RP Neva 66/88/24
Picture 1. High Performance Liquid Chromatograph

2.2. Separation of the components of samples of

DB RP by semi-preparative HPLC

HPLC system has the possibility of application in

analytical (with flow of mobile phase 0 mL/min to 10
mL/min) and semi-preparative aims (with extended flow
of mobile phase to 22,50 mL/min).

Work conditions of semi-preparative HPLC in gradient

mode, were defined and presented in Table 2.

Hence, it contains: "FlexInject" manual double function

injector for analytical HPLC and semi-preparative HPLC,
photo cells for PDA detector (analytical and semipreparative HPLC) and loops for injection of samples,
with volume of 20 L (analytical) and 200 L (semipreparative ).

Analytical and semi-preparative columns had the same

stationary phase and the same particle size.

2.1. Separation of the components of DB RP by

analytical HPLC

Using the Waters OBD Prep Calculator, the flow rate

through the semi-preparative column (4.73 ml/min) was
automatically calculated, Picture 3 [9,11].

Transition from analytical to semi-preparative HPLC, is

based on data about the diameters of the columns (4.6
mm and 9.4 mm) and the flowof mobile phase through the
analytical column (1 ml/min).

Operational conditions of analytical HPLC in gradient

mode, for separation of the components of DB RP Neva
66/88/24, were defined and presented in Table 1.

432

Table 2. Optimal work conditions of semi-preparative

HPLC in gradient mode - DB RP Neva 66/88/24
pump mode
gradient
Agilent ZORBAX Eclipse XDB-C18
analytical column with internal diameter
column
9,4mm; length 250mm; the particle size
of package, 5m.
PDA detector analytical photo-cell, 190-400 nm
solvent
10% methanol in deionization water
solvent B
100% methanol
temperature 30o
flow rate of 1 ml/min
mobile phase
20l (volume of sample injected)
volume of
sample loop

2.5. Quantitative analysis of DB RP samples

Quantitative analysis of methylene chloride extract of DB
RP samples by methods of gas chromatography (flame
ionization detector-FID), HPLC (photo diode array
detector- PDA) was carried out [9]. Contents of the metal
component in DB RP Neva, were determined by the
method of inductively coupled plasma optical emission
spectrometry (ICP-OES) [9].

2.6. Chemical stability assessment of DB RP by

HFC method
Measurement of heat flow of the DB RP was performed
in accordance to STANAG 4582 on HFC
microcalorimeter TAM III, Figure 4. Samples of
propellants after grinding and sieving are placed in
hermetically sealed vials for testing samples [9,12,13].
Sample volume was about 2cm3. Measurement was
carried out at 90oC and the duration of the test was 3.43
days from time when released heat became greater than
limit value, 5J/g. To satisfy the requirements of
propellants stability, the value of the measured heat flux
should be lower than the criterion prescribed limits of
heat flux, 350.0 W/g at 90 C [7].

Picture 3. Change in the composition of the mobile

phase during gradient mode of semi-preparative HPLCDB RP Neva 66/88/24Separated and isolated components of DB RP Neva
66/88/24 were collected as fractions in volumetric flasks
of 25 cm3 volume and then identified using the mass
detector [9]. In the absence of an automated fractional
collector, fraction collection was performed manually,
which reduced the possibility of obtaining pure fractions.

Picture 4. Heat flow microcalorimeter TAM III

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Separation of the components of DB RP by
analytical HPLC

2.3. Identification of isolated fraction of DB RP

sample components by GC-MS

Chromatogram of the sample DB RP "Neva" 68/88/24,

using analytical HPLC method in gradient mode, is
shown in Picture 5 [9]. The picture shows that the
components of the sample are separated, and the duration
of the analysis is satisfactory (14 minutes).

Isolated fractions of DB RP were identified by using the

mass detector, thanks to the computer library of mass
spectra and characteristic ions with characteristic of the
ratio of the weight / charge (m / z) [9].
Detection of the isolated component was performed by
mass detector scanning + s Full ms [30.00-450.00].

3.2. Separation of the components of samples of

DB RP by semi-preparative HPLC

2.4. Qualitative analysis of the methylene chloride

extract of DB RP by GC-MS

Picture
6.
shows
the
simultaneous
overlay
chromatograms of the same sample DB RP "Neva"
68/88/24 obtained by semi-preparative HPLC and using
PDA detector at wavelengths of 220 nm and 254 nm [9].
Separated fractions were designated as samples 1 to 5,
and then identified using GC-MS [9].

In order to identify potential stabilizer present in DB RP

Neva 66/88/24, qualitative analysis of methylene chloride
extract of samples by GC-MS were carried out,
additionally [9].

433

Picture 5. Chromatogram of DB RP "Neva" 68/88/24 - analytical HPLC in gradient mode

separated and isolated fractions of DB RP "Neva"
68/88/24 by GC-MS method are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Isolated and identified components of DB RP
"Neva" 68/88/24
Isolated and identified components
Fraction
2
trinitrotoluene
3
2,4-dinitrotoluene
4
dibutylphtalate
1 and 5
nitroglycerin, isomers of DNT:
2,3- DNT; 2,4- DNT; 2,6- DNT.

3.4. GC-MS analysis of the methylene chloride

extract of DB RP

Picture 6. Chromatogram of DB RP "Neva" 68/88/24 semi-preparative HPLC in gradient mode

By GC-MS analysis of the methylene chloride extract of

DB RP "Neva" 68/88/24, components shown in Table 4,
were identified [9].

3.3. Identification of isolated fraction of DB RP

sample by GC-MS method

Table 4. Qualitative analysis of the methylene chloride

extract of DB RP "Neva"" 68/88/24 by GC-MS

Chromatogram of fraction 4 and mass spectra of the most

abundant peak at retention time RT = 15.71 min, is
presented at Picture 7.

R, min
component
10,35
nitroglycerin
10,64 acetanilide (internal standard)
11,45
2,6- dinitrotoluene
12,21
2,4- dinitrotoluene
13,71
trinitrotoluene
15,71
dibutylphtalate

By analysis of the figure, a component of the sample DB

RP "Neva" 68/88/24 which is isolated by semipreparative liquid HPLC, was identified as dibutyl
phthalate [9].
Results of GC-MS analysis of the other the fractions (1, 2,
3 and 5) are given in the literature [9]. Due to library of
data of mass spectra and ions with characteristic relation
mass / charge (m/z), their mass spectral (MS)
identification and characterization was made.

In tested sample, 2,3-dinitrotoluene and 3,4- dinitrotoluene were identified, also [9].
Mass-spectral analysis of each peak of the GC-MS
chromatogram (Picture 8) was carried out [9].

Due to the manual collection, fractions 1 and 5 represent a

mixture in which in addition to nitroglycerin, there are
different isomers of dinitrotoluene (2,3-DNT, 2,4-DNT,
and 2,6-DNT) [9]. Results of the identification of

434

Picture 7. Identification of "fraction 4" isolated from DB RP "Neva" 68/88/24

435

Picture 8. GC-MS analysis of DB RP "Neva" 68/88/24

A satisfactory chemical stability of DB RP Neva can be
explained by the fact that the role of stabilizer is not
performed by classic organic stabilizers, but inorganic
stabilizers, like magnesium oxide, MgO and calcium
carbonate, CaCO3 and aromatic compounds like
dinitrotoluene and trinitrotoluene, also [5,14-16].

3.5. Quantitative analysis of DB RP samples

Results of quantitative analyses of DB RP "Neva" by gas
chromatography, HPLC and ISP-ES methods are
presented in Table 5 [9].
Table 5. Quantitative analysis of DB RP samples
content,
66-8844- 713-X44- mas %
24
137
70
153
NG
22,50
22,17
23,60
22,90
2,4 -DNT
4,79
4,67
4,34
4,57
TNT
1,75
1,90
1,79
1,82
DBP
3,00
2,91
2,96
2,77
Mg
1,96
1,69
1,62
1,72
Ca
0,25
0,26
0,22
0,28

4. CONCLUSION
Operational conditions of semi-preparative HPLC method
for separation and isolation of the organic components of
samples of nitrocellulose double based propellants charges
of START engine of missile system S-125 Neva, were
defined. The isolated organic components were identified
by method of GC-MS, as: nitroglycerin, trinitrotoluene,
dinitrotoluene and dibutylphtalate.

3.6. HFC chemical stability assessment of DB RP

The results confirmed that in tested DB RP, some of

which were 40 years old, stabilizing role is not performed
by classical organic stabilizers. Hence, the assessment of
the chemical stability of DB RP "Neva" is very important,
because of the inability to use methods based on
stabilizers depletion, which are prescribed by the Serbian
standard SORS 8069/91 and NATO standard AOP-48
Ed.2.

Results of HFC measurements of DB RP "Neva"

according STANAG 4582 are presented in Table 6 [9].
Table 6. HFC measurements of DB RP "Neva"
DB RP
heat flow,
criteria
"Neva"
W/g
(STANAG 4582)
390 W/g
66-88-24
111,957
44--137

88,304

Therefore, the chemical stability of these unusual

propellants was checked by another technique, not based
on stabilizer consumption like Heat Flow Calorimetry

chemically stable
10 years at 25
436

according standard STANAG 4582. Results of

examination predicted and guaranteed that tested DB RP
Neva will remain chemically stable if stored at ambient
temperatures (25 oC) for minimum of 10 years.
Satisfactory chemical stability may be explained by
the presence of inorganic stabilizers, like magnesium
oxide and calcium carbonate, and aromatic compounds
like dinitrotoluene and trinitrotoluene, also.

for Standardization, Brussels, 2004.

[7] STANAG 4556: Explosives, Vacuum stability test,
NATO, Military
Agency for Standardization,
Brussels, 1999.
[8] Dong, M.W., Modern HPLC for Practicing Scientist,
J. Wiley & Sons, New York, 2006.
[9] Jelisavac,Lj.,
"Primena
preparativne
tene
hromatografije u oblasti energetskih materijala",
VTI-04-01-0786, Beograd, 2013.
[10] http://www.waters.com/prepcalculator
[11] Jelisavac,Lj., Unapreenje sistema kontrole hemijske
stabilnosti baruta i raketnih goriva, doktorska
disertacija, Vojna akademija, Beograd, 2013.
[12] Jelisavac,Lj., Stojiljkovi,S., Gai,S., Brzi,S.,
Bobi,,N., Comparative Examination of the
Chemical Stability of Powders and Double-Base
Rocket Propellants by Measuring Heat Activities and
Stabilizer Content, Sciencific Technical Review,
64(1) (2014) 48-54.
[13] Jelisavac,Lj., Hemijska stabilnost i vek upotrebe
baruta i raketnih goriva, Kumulativno-nauno
tehnika informacija, VTI, Beograd, 2009.
[14] Urbanski,T., Chemistry and Technology of
Explosives, Vol III, PWN-Polish scientific
publishers, 1967.
[15] Miheli,B., "Energetske materije - eksplozivi, baruti,
pirotehnike smee", Univerzitet u Sarajevu,
Mainski fakultet, 2011.
[16]Urbanski,T.,
Kwiatkowski,B.,
Miladowski,W.,
Przemysl Chem., 19, 22, 1935.

REFERENCES
[1] Milojkovi,A., "Razvoj dvobaznih raketnih goriva za
pogonsko punjenje start faze rakete V601 Neva",
VTI 004-01-0802, Beograd, 2013.
[2] Popovi,B., Milojkovi,A., "Procena mogunosti
produenja roka upotrebe PP start i mar motora
rakete Z-V V6001Neva-M1", VTI-004-01-0656,
Beograd, 2011.
[3] Tot,L., Rodi,V., Paagi,S., Dimi,M., "Procena
mogunosti produenja roka upotrebe pogonskih
punjenja start i mar motora i pirotehnikih
elemenata rakete Z-V V60 Neva-M1", VTI-004-010553, Beograd 2009.
[4] SORS 8069/91, Praenje hemijske stabilnosti baruta
i raketnih goriva, Beograd, 1991.
[5] AOP-48 Ed.2: Explosives, nitrocellulose based
propellants - stability test procedures and
requirements using stabilizer depletion, NATO,
Military Agency for Standardization, Brussels, 2008.
[6] STANAG 4582: Explosives, nitrocellulose based
propellants - stability test procedures
and
requirements using HFC, NATO, Military Agency

437

CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY AND NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF

GAS BUBBLES EFFECT IN THE UNDERWATER EXPLOSION
MOHAMED MAOUCHE,
Military Academy, University of Defence, Belgrade, Master student, mausmohamed2@gmail.com
ASSIA TABOUCHE
Military Academy, University of Defence, Belgrade, Master student, assia.tabouche@yahoo.com
CHAWKI TENNACHE
Military Academy, University of Defence, Belgrade, Master student, mino.persie@yahoo.fr

Abstract: The detonation of an explosive charge under water-surface causes complex sequences of physical phenomena
to occur, appreciably changing in the ambient parameters after the explosion. The main purpose of this paper is the
description of underwater detonation used for effects against targets on the water and under water. In the first step, the
paper will shed light many concepts and equations describing the phenomena during underwater detonation such as:
shock waves, the effect of the free surface of water and the gas bubble resulting from the detonation of the explosive
charge. In the second stage, this work will be provided by modeling and numerical simulation, using MATLAB, to
estimate the parameters of gas bubbles. The simulation results could be regarded as an important reference in the
optimal design of the hydrodynamic characteristics of underwater detonation also it may provide information to look
into the details of fluid (water) model appearance.
Keywords: underwater explosion, shock wave, gas bubble, numerical modeling, numerical simulation.
liquid medium. This process is accompanied by chemical
and physical reactions, release of large quantities of heat,
gas formation and energy transmission in a relatively
short time. The first step of the underwater detonation
process is the chemical reaction of the explosive material,
resulting in a detonation wave representing the surface of
discontinuity and the formation of gas in this process.
Established detonation wave propagates from the centre
of the detonation to the surface of gas bubble and transmit
energy to the adjacent water molecules. The gas takes the
form of a bubble and moves upwards with a particular
speed. The bubble may not exceed gas pressure of 14 000
MPa and temperature of 3300 K [2]. Such large pressures
give rise to the effect of water compressibility and thus
the compression zone, which generates a pressure wave,
which is often referred as a shock wave. Front of this
wave moves in the initial period of approximately 2.5 s
with the detonation velocity (about 6000 - 8000 m/s), and
after a few milliseconds to a top speed (sound speed) in
water (about 1500 m/s) [1]. During this time the wave
front moves a distance of several dozen meters.

1. INTRODUCTION
Underwater explosions present a significant risk of
damage to structures in or on the water. Because water
transmits explosive energy much more efficiently than air,
relatively small explosive charge detonated underwater
may cause structures much more damage than those
detonated in the air [1]. Several realms of behavior exist
during the process of an underwater explosion and they
can be summarized as the loading due to the shock wave,
bubble expansion, bubble jetting, effects of the free
surface of water and cavitations.
After shedding light on the underwater explosion process
as well as on the different changes in the environment and
its parameters, a numerical simulation is realized by the
MATLAB software based on theoretical models and
equations developed in this area, in addition to using the
experimental data which are obtained by testing different
warheads charged by TNT.

2. GENERAL CONCEPTS OF UNDERWATER

EXPLOSION

Activity of the pressure wave and the expansion of gases

in the bubble cause increase in the size and movement of
water molecules at a speed of up to 600 - 800 m/s [2].
Since the velocity of expansion of the bubble is less than
the speed of the pressure wave, separation of the front
wave from the surface of the bubble follows. With the

The underwater explosion is a process that takes place

sequentially as well as in parallel with natural
phenomena, leading to a system imbalance, which
consists of an explosive material and the surrounding
438

increase in the size of the bubble, the pressure inside it

decreases. At the time of leveling in the amounts of the
pressure inside the bubble and of the hydrostatic pressure,
it will continue to increase its size. This inertia is caused
by water molecules, which was attributed to kinetic
energy. The diameter of the bubble grows until the
internal pressure will be approximately 20% of the
hydrostatic pressure.

detail. Just as in air, there is a sharp rise in overpressure at

the shock front. However, in water, the peak overpressure
does not fall off as rapidly with distance as it does in air.
Hence, the peak values in water are much higher than
those at the same distance from an equal explosion in air.
The velocity of sound in water is nearly one mile per
second, almost five times as great as in air. Consequently,
the duration of the shock wave is developed shorter than
in air [4].

The next step is the process of return of water molecules in

the gas towards the centre of the sphere. As a result, the ball
reduces its volume to the minimum value. This moment
means the completion of the so called first pulse [3].

3.2. Behaviour phases for underwater explosion

In underwater explosion, the reacted gas sphere interacts
with the surrounding fluid in two different phases. The
first is a transient shock wave, which causes a rapid rise
in the fluid velocity, and large inertial loading. The peak
pressure of this phase is very high, but its duration is
extremely short.

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GAS

BUBBLES FORMED AT THE
UNDERWATER EXPLOSION

The second phase in the explosion is a radial pulsation of

the gas sphere. The water in the immediate region of the
gas bubble has a large outward velocity and the diameter
of the bubble increases rapidly. The expansion continues
for a relatively long time, the internal gas pressure
decreases gradually, but the motion persists because of
the inertia of the outward flowing water. The gas pressure
at later times falls below the equilibrium value determined
by atmospheric plus hydrostatic pressures. The pressure
defect brings the outward flow to a stop, and the boundary
of the bubble begins to contract at an increasing rate. The
inward motion continues until the inside compressed gas
acts as a powerful check (stopper) to reverse the motion
abruptly. The inertia of the water together with the elastic
properties of the gas and water provide the necessary
conditions for an oscillating system, and the bubble does
in fact undergo repeated cycles of expansion and
contraction.

3.1. Underwater explosion of warheads

The mechanism of an under-water explosion presents
some interesting phenomena associated with a medium of
higher density than air. An underwater explosion creates a
cavity filled with high-pressure gas, which pushed the
water out radially against the opposing external
hydrostatic pressure. At the instant of explosion, a certain
amount of gas is instantaneously generated at high
pressure and temperature, creating a bubble. In addition,
the heat causes a certain amount of water to vaporize,
adding to the volume of the bubble. This action
immediately begins to force the water in contact with the
blast front in an outward direction. The potential energy
initially possessed by the gas bubble by virtue of its
pressure is thus gradually communicated to the water in
the form of kinetic energy. The inertia of the water causes
the bubble to overshoot the point at which its internal
pressure is equal to the external pressure of the water. The
bubble then becomes rarefied, and its radial motion is
brought to rest. The external pressure now compresses the
rarefied bubble.

In reality, oscillations of a physical bubble can persist for

a number of cycles, ten or more such oscillations having
been detected in favorable cases [5, 6].

Again, the equilibrium configuration is overshot, and

since by hypothesis there has been no loss of energy, the
bubble comes to rest at the same pressure and volume as
at the moment of explosion (in practice, of course, energy
is lost by acoustical and heat radiation).

3.2.1. Pressure-time history

The bubble of compressed gas then expands again, and

the cycle is repeated. The result is a pulsating bubble of
gas slowly rising to the surface, with each expansion of
the bubble creating shock wave.

Upon arrival of the shock wave, the pressure rises

instantaneously to the peak value and decreases at
nearly exponential rate.

Fig.1 illustrates the pressure-time history, which is

observed in the water at a fixed distance from the point of
explosion. It can be described as follows:

Subsequent to the shock wave, other pressure pulses

occur. These pulses arise from a much slower
phenomenon, namely the pulsating of the gas bubble,
which contains the gaseous products of the explosion.

Approximately 90% of the bubble's energy is dissipated

after the first expansion and contraction. This
phenomenon explains how an underwater explosion
appears to be followed by other explosions. The time
interval of the energy being returned to the bubble (the
period of pulsations) varies with the intensity of the initial
explosion.

The high pressure of the gas causes an initially rapid

expansion of the bubble and the inertia of the outward
moving water carries it far beyond the point of pressure
equilibrium.
The outward motion stops only after the gas pressure
has fallen substantially below the ambient pressure.
Now the higher surrounding pressure reverses the
motion.

The rapid expansion of the gas bubble formed by an

underwater explosion results in a shock wave, being sent
out through the water in all directions. The shock wave is
similar in general form to that in air, although if differs in
439

 Again the flow overshoots the equilibrium and when

the bubble reaches its minimum size, the gas is
recompressed to a pressure of several hundred
atmospheres. At this point we have effectively a second
"explosion" and the whole process is repeated.

V (t ) = V0 + (Vmax V0 ) sin t
Tb

(3)

where is V0 - initial volume of an explosive charge; Vmax the maximum volume of the gas bubble, calculated at R =
Rmax in the first oscillation; and Tb - the oscillation period
of the gas bubble [5].

The bubble oscillates in this way several times. The

position and the size of the bubble are shown in Fig.1
for a few specific moments, which correspond to the
pressure-time curve as indicated above.

3.2.4. The loss of energy after each pulsation

The pressure-time history reflects the low gas pressure

during the phase where the bubble is large and it shows
the pressure pulses, which are emitted from the bubble
near its minimum.

In underwater explosion, energy is first transferred from

the point of burst to the immediately adjacent water mass.
In the underwater explosion shown in Fig.2, a strong
shock wave which propagates away from the explosion
point, carrying with it about 70% of the explosion energy,
and leaving behind it a cavity (carrying with it about 30%
of the explosion energy) which contains steam at high
pressure. If the explosion is deep enough, this cavity, or
"bubble", will grow in size. The internal pressure drops
rapidly, to a maximum diameter determined by the
explosion energy and the burst depth, and then collapse to
a minimum size, re-expand, and continue to oscillate with
decreasing amplitude and period [5].

The period of the bubble pulsations is very long when

compared with the shock wave portion of the pressuretime history of an explosion. In particular, this duration is
long enough for gravity to become effective. Such a
bubble has great buoyancy and, therefore, migrates
upward. However, it does not float up like a balloon, but
shoots up in jumps [5].

Fig.2. Explosion under free-field conditions.

The function that describes the loss of energy after each
pulsation (to achieve the minimum radius of the gas
bubble) is given in the expression:

Fig.1. Pressure waves and bubble phenomena.

E = 0.2575 + (1 0.2575 ) e

0.8148 n

(4)

3.2.2. Bubble radius and oscillation period for the first

cycle

where n is order number of pulsations.

The maximum bubble radius for the first cycle can be

calculated as:

Thus, for the first pulsation after detonation n = 0 and

E = 1.

R max = J

( EP )

1/3

(1)

3.2.5. The mechanics of damage by underwater

explosions due to the gas bubble effect

where P is the hydrostatic pressure at the burst point, E is

the energy available for first cycle bubble motion (about
half of the total explosion energy).

More possibilities to use the gas bubble destructive effects

on underwater constructions are reason of its theoretical
and experimental studying. Having that is very complex
phenomenon the mechanics of damage by underwater gas
bubble are not sufficiently well understood and exactly
evaluated in the theory. Actually, well sophisticated
experiments make a base for prediction of the relative
effectiveness of the underwater explosive ordnance.

The oscillation period for the first cycle can be calculated as:
1/3
T = K E5/6
P

(2)

where is the density of water. For underwater

explosions at hydrostatic pressures of order 1~100105 Pa
we have J 0.58, K 1.12.

Regarding effects on nearby structure caused by gas

bubble there are two different types of damaging
mechanisms:
First damaging mechanism (whipping effect). While
the pressure loading due to the shock impact can be
very high, the duration is usually very short compared
with the dynamics of the bubble. The explosive
products form a high-pressure gas bubble and this

3.2.3. Volume of a gas bubble over time

According to the change of the radius of the gas bubble,
its volume V(t) changes according to the sinusoidal
function:
440

bubble expands owing to the high pressure. However,

inertia causes the bubble to over-expand and the
pressure inside the bubble becomes lower than the
surrounding reference pressure; it then stops expanding
(for example, the maximum bubble diameter in a
typical explosion of a torpedo of 500 kg TNT is of the
order of 10 to 20m). The hydrostatic pressure is now
larger than the pressure inside the bubble and a collapse
phase will follow. If the frequency of the bubble
"matches" the eigen-frequency of the structure, it can
lead to the so-called "whipping" effect which can
potentially constitute this damaging mechanism.

They should be mentioned other necessary parameters in

this simulation such as water density (1000 kg/m3) and
atmospheric pressure (P0 = 1.012105 Pa).

4.1. Shock wave pressure as a function of distance

Fig.4 and Fig.5 show respectively the pressure in water
shock wave in Pa versus the distance from the center of
explosion for various TNT charges and depths.

Second damaging mechanism (jet impact). In most

cases, in the collapse phase, the attraction of the bubble
towards the structure, the influence of gravity and
inertia will cause a high-speed water jet to develop
(Fig.3). The jet traverses the bubble and impacts on the
other side of the bubble surface. This jet can be directed
towards the structure and is then associated with others
damaging mechanisms.

Fig.4. Maximum pressure vs. distance at h=100m.

Fig.3. Experimental testing of gas bubble destructive

effect on underwater structure (jet forming and impact).

4. MODELLING OF THE PARAMETERS OF

THE GAS BUBBLES FORMED BY AN
UNDERWATER EXPLOSION

Fig.5. Maximum pressure vs distance for m=300kg.

Underwater explosion is meant as a violent upset of

balance of a given system due to detonation of explosive
charge in the water environment. The process is
accompanied with emission of large quantity of energy
within a short time, fast running chemical and physical
reactions, emission of heat and gas products in the gas
bubble.

These diagrams reveal a violent fall of the pressure versus

the distance from the center of explosion.
It is clear that the variation of the underwater explosion
depth (100m, 150m and 200 m) hasnt practically any
influence on the shock wave pressure, which means that
the variation of the explosive charge fairly influences on
the shock wave maximum pressure.

A numerical simulation was conducted using MATLAB

software in order to verify the effectiveness of the
analytical model and investigate the shock wave
propagation characteristics, taking into a consideration the
parameters of bubbles formed after an underwater
explosion as a main target of this research.

4.2. The radius of the gas bubbles as a function of

time
Fig.6 and Fig.7 give respectively information about the
bubbles radius versus the time for various TNT charges
and depths from the water surface.

By the use of a theoretical analysis of the dynamic

interactions with respect to detonation of the basic
material, numerical simulations of different TNT charges
(m=100, 300 and 500 kg) of spherical shape were carried
out. The warheads were placed at different depths (h=100,
150 and 200 m) from the water surface.

From these graphs, it can be noticed that the bubbles

radius depends mainly on both: the warhead depth and the
mass of explosive charge.
It is obvious that amplitude impulse gets higher
441

significantly with the increase of warhead charge mass

whereas it gets smaller with the growth of warhead depth.

BUBBLE PRESSURE vs. TIME

x 10

BUBBLE PRESSURE, Pbubble [Pa]

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

50

100

150

200
250
300
TIME, t [ms]

350

400

450

500

Fig.9. Bubble pressure vs. time at h=100 m (m=100 kg).

Fig.6. Bubble radius vs. time at h=100m.
7

BUBBLE PRESSURE vs. TIME

x 10

BUBBLE PRESSURE, Pbubble [Pa]

Fig.7. Bubble radius vs. time for m=300kg.

BUBBLE PRESSURE, Pbubble [Pa]

300

400
500
TIME, t [ms]

600

700

800

900

However the surge of the explosive charge (comparison

of diagrams Fig.9 and Fig.10) provokes approximately a
double augmentation of both the bubbles pressure and the
time period.

BUBBLE PRESSURE vs. TIME

4.4. Change of the specific impulse of pressure in

the gas bubble as a function of time

1.5

Fig.11 illustrates the pressure-time history, which is

observed in the water at a fixed depth (100m) and for
various TNT charges from the center of explosion.

It is totally observed that the bigger the quantity of TNT

produces the higher the bubbles pressure impulse. It
reaches maximum value almost 4.7 105 Pas in period of
time 850 ms for the explosion of 500 kg TNT. However,
the third of this impulse is recorded after 500 ms from the
explosion of 100 kg of TNT.

0.5

0
0

200

By comparing the graphs on Fig.8 and Fig.9 for the same

explosive charge (m=100kg) where the depths of the
underwater explosion were respectively 50m and 100m, it
is reasonably predicted that the rise of the warhead depth
is accompanied by the decrease of the time period (from
240ms to 100ms) and the climb of the gas pressure
(from 2.1108 Pa to 3.5107 Pa).

Fig.8, Fig.9 and Fig.10 point out the variations of bubbles

pressure as a function of time. The horizontal line here
represents the total pressure in water medium at the given
depth.
x 10

100

Fig.10. Bubble pressure vs. time at h=100 m (m=500 kg).

4.3 Changes in pressure in the gas bubble as a

function of time

2.5

100

200

300
400
TIME, t [ms]

500

600

700

Fig.8. Bubble pressure vs. time at h=50m (m=100 kg).

442

However, in the case of the variation of the underwater

explosion depth as it is revealed in Fig.14, the bubbles gas
have nearly the same migrated distance is about 8m
despite the fact that the migrated time is strongly
different, the longest one is around 720 ms which is
recorded in the case of depth (100m) from the water
surface, while the smallest one is roughly about 520 ms
which is recorded in the case 200m of depth.

Fig.11. Bubble pressure impulse vs. time at h=100m.

Fig.12 indicates the variation of the pressure-time history,
which is observed in the water for a fixed charge of TNT
(300kg) and for various depths from water surface.

Fig.13. Bubble migration vs. time at h=100m.

Fig.12. Bubble pressure impulse vs. time for m=300kg.

From the Fig.12, it is clear that the deeper underwater
explosion causes the smaller bubble pressure impulse. In
the case of the underwater explosion at a depth of 200m
the impulse has a little amount 0.4 Pas after 510 ms from
the explosion. While a value of 3.3 Pas is recorded after
720 ms from the underwater detonation at a depth of 100
m from the free surface of water.

Fig.14. Bubble migration vs. time for m=300kg.

5. CONCLUSION
In the purpose of estimating the parameters of gas bubbles
in the underwater explosions the MATLAB software was
successfully used.
Numerical simulations were carried out taking into a
consideration two main parameters which are the
explosive charge and the explosion depth. It is obviously
seemed that the gas bubbles parameters get significantly
higher with the expansion of explosive charge and the
decline of warhead depth.

4.5. Parameters of the gas bubble migration

Occurring concurrently with the oscillation of the gas
bubble and pulse generation is the migration of the bubble
towards the surface of the water as it is displayed in
Fig.13 and 14.

Qualitatively, it was found that this numerical simulation

provides accurate general trends in the experimental
measurements, which means that it can be taken as a good
reference for underwater explosion phenomenon. In
addition, it was observed that the bubble impulse collapse
when it gets deeper underwater, as well as the migration
time. This was observed in both the numerical simulations
and experiments.

As regards the graphs in Fig.13, it is logically expected

that the migration of gas bubbles directly depends on the
quantity of explosive. The higher explosive charge is, the
greater migration distance and its time will be. For 500 kg
of TNT gas bubbles migrate about 12 m during a period
of 850 ms, while the bubbles can run only the half of this
distance during 500 ms for 100kg of TNT.
443

[4] Commander, Naval Air Systems Command, Joint

Munitions Effectiveness Manual, Basic JMEM A/S.
NAVAIR 00-130-AS-1. Washington, D.C.: GPO.
[5] Klaseboer,E., Hung,K.C., Wang,C., Wang,C.W.,
Khoo,B.C., Boyce,P., Debono,S. and Charlier,H.:
Experimental and numerical investigation of the
dynamics of an underwater explosion bubble near a
resilient/rigid structure. J. Fluid Mech. 537:387
413, 2005.
[6] Ugri,M.: Numerical simulation of projectile
functioning Lectures, MA, Belgrade, 2014.

REFERENCES
[1] J.L. ODaniel and all: Underwater explosion bubble
Jetting effects on infrastructure, US Army Engineer
Research and Development Center, 2011.
[2] Andrzej Grzadziela: Ship impact modeling of
underwater explosion, Journal of KONES
Powertrain and Transport, Vol. 18, No. 2, 2011.
[3] [P.Ding, A.Buijk: Simulation of Under Water
Explosion using MSC. Dytran, MSC.Software
Corporation 2300 Traverwood Drive, Ann Arbor, MI
48105-(734) 994-3800.

444

OPTIMIZATION OF CHROMATOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS FOR

SEPARATION OF DIPHENYLAMINE AND ITS NITRO AND NITROSO
DERIVATIVES BY LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY
VESNA PETROVI
Technical Overhaul Works Kragujevac, trzk@trzk.rs
SLAVIA STOJILJKOVI
Technical Overhaul Works Kragujevac, trzk@trzk.rs
JELENA ULTANS
Technical Overhaul Works Kragujevac, trzk@trzk.rs

Abstract: Optimization of conditions for baseline separation of diphenylamine (DPA) and its nitro and nitroso
derivatives by reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography is performed. Chromatographic resolving of Nnitroso DPA, mononitro DPA, N-nitroso-mononitro DPA, dinitro derivatives and some N-nitroso-dinitro derivatives of
DPA but also some other components of gunpowder and rocket propellants (dinitrotoluene, nitroglycerine and
phthalates) is achieved with no influence on quantitative determination of effective stabilizers, DPA and N-nitrosoDPA. The method is optimized for estimation of chemical stability of nitrocellulose based powders and rocket
propellants and selected parameters are in accordance with AOP48 Ed.2 method regarding to resolution and maximum
column temperature.
Keywords: Diphenylamine, gunpowder, propellant, HPLC, liquid chromatography, AOP48 Ed.2

nitrocellulose (nitrogen oxides) forming nitrated

consecutive products with an increasing degree of
nitration, suspending the decomposition of NC.
Presence of some nitrated DPA derivatives and its
concentration as well as rate of consumption during
artificial accelerated aging at elevated temperatures can
be used for chemical stability assessment and
prediction of further behavior of propellant. Besides
diphenylamine, there are several substances that can be
added to gun propellants composition like akardite I
and II, centralite I and II, triphenylamine and other to
stabilize them.

1. INTRODUCTION
Nitrocellulose (NC) is main component of smokeless
gunpowder and propellants. Because of the low
binding energy of the nitric ester CO-NO2 bond,
nitrocellulose is subject to slow decomposition even at
normal storage temperatures.
The
spontaneous
chemical
degradation
of
nitrocellulose takes place over time, producing
nitrogen oxides and excess of heat which causes its
further autocatalytic degradation leading to critical
conditions for possible self-ignition of propellant. To
prevent autocatalysis and minimize degradation effects,
components known as stabilizers are added to
propellants composition. Diphenylamine (DPA) is one
of those components usually used as a stabilizer and it
is often the only additive of single-base gun propellant
composition.
Stabilizers
easily
react
with
autocatalytically acting decomposition products of

The consecutive nitration and nitrosation products of

DPA, from the N-nitroso-DPA and mono-nitroderivatives of the DPA up to the hexa-nitro-derivatives
of DPA, are formed over time [1] and some of them
also have a stabilizing effect. All possible nitration and
nitrosation products of DPA are shown in Table 1.

445

Table 1. Possible nitration products of DPA

Compound
Diphenylamine
N-Nitrosodiphenylamine
2-Nitrosodiphenylamine
4-Nitrosodiphenylamine
2-Nitrodiphenylamine
4-Nitrodiphenylamine
4-Dinitrosodiphenylamine
2,4-Dinitrodiphenylamine
2,6-Dinitrodiphenylamine
N-Nitroso-2-nitrodiphenylamine
N-Nitroso-4-nitrodiphenylamine
2,2 '-Dinitrodiphenylamine
2,4 '-Dinitrodiphenylamine
4,4 '-Dinitrodiphenylamine
4-Nitroso-2-nitrodiphenylamine
N-Nitroso-2,4-dinitrodiphenylamine
N-Nitroso-2,2 '-dinitrodiphenylamine
N-Nitroso-2,4'-dinitrodiphenylamine
N-Nitroso-4,4-dinitrodiphenylamine
2,4,6-Trinitrodiphenylamine
2,2 '-4-Trinitrodiphenylamine
2,4,4'-Trinitrodiphenylamine
2,2',6-Trinitrodiphenylamine
N-Nitroso-2,2',4-trinitrodiphenylamine
N-Nitroso-2,4,4'-trinitrodiphenylamine
2,2',4,4'-Tetranitrodiphenylamine
2,2',4',6-Tetranitrodiphenylamine
2,2' ,6,6 '-Tetranitrodiphenylamine
2,4,4',6-Tetranitrodiphenylamine
2,2',4,6-Tetranitrodiphenylamine
2,2',4,4',6-Pentanitrodiphenylamine
2,2 ',4,6 ',6-Pentanitrodiphenylamine
2,2 ',4,4',6,6 '-Hexanitrodiphenylamine
For assessment of chemical stability it is important to
obtain information about stabilizers content in
propellant. Reversed phase high performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) is considered as preferable
analytic technique for determining stabilizers content.
In reversed phase liquid chromatography, water in
combination with other organic solvents is used and
separation is very dependent on mobile phase
composition, solvent strength (organic solvent
content), type and characteristics of stationary phase,
column dimensions and temperature and pH value of
mobile phase.

Abbreviation
DPA
N-NO-DPA
2-NO-DPA
4-NO-DPA
2-nitro-DPA
4-nitro-DPA
N-4-NO-DPA
2,4-di-DPA
2,6-di-DPA
N-NO-2-N-DPA
N-NO-4-N-DPA
2,2'-di-DPA
2,4'-di-DPA
4,4'-di-DPA
4-NO-2-N-DPA
N-NO-2,4-di-DPA
N-NO-2,2 '-di-DP A
N-NO-2,4'-di-DPA
N-NO-4-4'-di-DPA
2,4,6-tri-DPA
2,2',4-tri-DPA
2,4,4'-tri-DP A
2,2',6-tri-DPA
N-NO-2,2 ',4-DPA
N-NO-2,4,4'-DPA
2,2 ',4,4 '-tetra-DPA
2,2',4'6-tetra-DPA
2,2',6,6'-tetra-DPA
2,4,4',6-tetra-DPA
2,2 ',4,6-tetra-DPA
2,2' ,4,4 ',6-penta-DP A
2,2',4,6',6-penta-DPA
2,2' ,4,4 ',6,6 '-hexa-DPA
nitro and nitroso derivatives also have stabilizing
influence to propellant but in calculations in this
stability assessment procedure, they are not considered
as stabilizers. Regardless of that, because of possible
influence on chromatographic separation and
quantification, suitable HPLC method should to
consider occurrence of mononitro DPA and their Nnitroso derivatives (2-nitroDPA and 4-nitroDPA as
well as 2-nitro-N-nitrosoDPA and 4-nitro-N-nitrosoDPA) and dinitro DPA derivatives and some of their
N-nitroso derivatives (2,2-, 4,4-, 2,4- and 2,4dinitroDPA as well as 2,4-dinitro- and 4,4-dinitro-NnitrosoDPA) according to AOP48 Ed.2.

According to NATO AOP48 Ed.[2], effective

stabilizers, for diphenylamine stabilized propellants,
are DPA and its first degradation product, N-nitrosoDPA and they need to be base line separated from the
other C-nitro and N-nitroso derivatives. Some of other

The aim of this work was to establish reliable and

efficient HPLC separation method capable to resolve
peaks of effective stabilizers from the other C-nitro and
N-nitroso derivatives. For most of them it is
446

challenging task to ensure base line separation because

they are constitutional isomers with very similar
chemical performances and close retention times.

DPA) which were synthesized and recrystallized in our

laboratory, according to reference[3].
All standards were prepared at same concentrations of
0,024 mg/ml.

Requirements for HPLC method were to establish

reliable and efficient isocratic method for base line
separation of DPA and N-NO-DPA from other
derivatives keeping run time in up to 25 minute range,
holding system pressure at less than 17 000 kPa and
column temperature below 40C to avoid
decomposition of thermally unstable stabilizer
daughter products (AOP48 Ed.2 source).

Experimental
Several methods developed for this purpose were
published. We tested some in our laboratory but none
of them met all requested criteria. As an example,
method suggested by AOP48 Ed.2 is reproduced on the
Supelco column 150x4.6 mm, filled with phase
Supelcosil ABZ+, particle size of 3 m, column
temperature 35C. Eluent is mixture of the solvents
acetonitrile/methanol/water (14:25:61). Suggested flow
rate is 1.5 ml/min but system pressure under those

2. EXPERIMENTAL
Instrumentation
All analysis were performed on integrated HPLC/PDA
system - Waters Alliance 2695/2996 PDA detector. For
data acquisition and processing, chromatographic
software Waters Empower 2 was used.

conditions on new column is about 35000kPa which is

too high for conventional HPLC, much higher than
requested maximal 27000kPa and grows rapidly
making this method unsuitable for routine usage.
Decrease of flow rate to 1.2 ml/min yields some
improvements regarding system pressure but at same
time brings unacceptable long analysis run time of
about 1 hour for last eluting diphenylamine derivative.
Additional problems are propellants containing
dibutylphthalate or other highly retained components
requiring extra time for wash out from the column
under isocratic condition or temporary change of
mobile phase composition (organic solvent or strong
gradient for wash out) followed by time consuming
equilibration of whole system. Chromatogram shown
in Figure 1 is obtained using flow rate of 1.2 ml/min.

Reagents and reference materials

For all eluent (mobile phase) HPLC gradient grade
acetonitrile, methanol and water were used.
Diphenylamine, N-nitroso-DPA, 2-nitro-DPA and 4nitro-DPA were produced by Sigma Aldrich Company.
Dinitro DPA derivatives (2,2-dinitroDPA, 4,4dinitro-DPA, 2,4-dinitro-DPA, 2,4-dinitro-DPA) were
custom synthetized according to procedures we have
developed in our laboratory as well as N-nitroso
mononitro and dinitro DPA derivatives (2- and 4-nitroN-nitroso-DPA and 2,4- and 4,4-dinitro-N-nitroso-

Figure 1. Chromatogram of DPA and derivatives on Supelcosil ABZ+ Column, flow rate 1.2ml/min
Another HPLC separation from reference [4] was
reproduced on column Supelcosil LC-18-DB, 15x4.6
mm, 3 m. Eluent was mixture of acetonitrile/water
(40:60). Chromatogram shown in Fig. 2 was obtained
under flow rate of mobile phase of 2 ml/min and
column temperature of 55C. System pressure was

about 19 000 kPa. Efforts made regarding decrease of

column temperature yield no improvements and
compromise selectivity of important pairs of
components as well as system pressure at the same
flow rate.

447

Figure 2: Chromatogram of DPA and its derivatives on the Supelcosil LC-18-DB Column
In this method peak of interest, N-nitrosoDPA is not
150x4.6 mm, 3 m column which was used with
base line separated from 2,4`-dinitsroDPA and column
corresponding precolumn. Optimized mixture of
temperature of 55 C is too high and beyond
acetonitrile / water (47:53) was selected as eluent and
requirements (AOP48 Ed.2 source) making the method
column temperature of 35C, at flow rate of 1.2
inadequate or limited usable. During the method
ml/min. Injection volume was set to 20 L to assure
development several types of reversed stationary
good reproducibility of peak areas. Under those
phases (CN, C18, ODS, Amide, monolithic block,
conditions, operating system pressure was about 17300
deactivated, endcaped) and a lot of different brand
kPa. Chromatogram of standard mixture composed of
columns were tested with limited success. The best
DPA, N-NO-DPA and next ten consecutive
result we achieved on Supelco Discovery HS C18,
degradation products of DPA is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Chromatogram of DPA and eleven consecutive nitration products on Discovery HS C18 column
Also, two mononitro derivatives, 2- and 4-nitro-DPA
are base line separated from other peaks and it is
possible to determine their concentrations easily,
according to SORS 8069/91 [5]. All compounds were
identified by retention times of corresponding peaks
and by UV spectra obtained from PDA detection

system for all peaks of interest. Recorded UV-VIS

spectras are presented in Table 2. All of them were
scaned in acetonitrile in wavelenght range of 200-400
nm. Possible peak overlapping and peak purity were
checked by symmetry of peaks and by comparison of
UV spectra at beginning, top and end of peak.
448

449

4,4` - dinitro - DPA

2,4 - dinitro - DPA

4,4` - dinitro - N - NO - DPA

2,2` - dinitro - DPA

2,4` - dinitro - N - NO - DPA

2,4` - dinitro - DPA

4 - nitro - N - NO - DPA

2 - nitro - N - NO - DPA

4 - nitro - DPA

2 - nitro - DPA

N - NO - DPA

Diphenylamine

Table 2. UV-VIS spectras of DPA and its nitro and nitroso derivatives in wavelenght range of 200-400 nm.

Neither of peaks of DPA derivatives interferes with

possible constituents of propellants like dinitrotoluene
(DNT), nitroglycerine (Ngl) or dibutylphthalate (DBP).

Chromatogram of dinitrotoluene and nitroglycerine at

the same conditions is shown in Fig.4. Retention time
of DBP is about 55 minutes under the same conditions.

Figure 4. Chromatogram of DNT and Ngl on Discovery HS C18 Column

Parameters of method validation

Validation of a method is the process by which a method
is tested by the developer or user for reliability, accuracy
and preciseness of its intended purpose [6]. Precision is
the measure of how close the data values are to each other
for a number of measurements under the same analytical
conditions.
As the part of validation procedure, some parameters
were tested in our laboratory. First of all, injection
repeatability was tested and results are shown in the Table
3 for ten measurements. Relative standard deviation (%
RSD) of area repeatability is below 1% for both
components of interest, DPA and N-nitroso-DPA.
Table 3. Component Summary for Area
Number
NNO DFA
Sample Name
of
(V*sec)
Standard of DPA and
1
6462115
NNO DPA
Standard of DPA and
2
6477440
NNO DPA
Standard of DPA and
3
6444420
NNO DPA
Standard of DPA and
4
6448579
NNO DPA
Standard of DPA and
5
6461704
NNO DPA
Standard of DPA and
6
6462773
NNO DPA
Standard of DPA and
7
6526613
NNO DPA
Standard of DPA and
8
6300208
NNO DPA
Standard of DPA and
9
6500868
NNO DPA
Standard of DPA and
10
6509001
NNO DPA
Mean

6459372

Std.
Dev.

62120

21891

% RSD

0.962

0.884

The linear range of detectability that follows Beer's Law

was tested in the range of concentrations of 0 to 0.04
mg/ml and correlation factors R2 for DPA was 0.998472
and for N-nitroso-DPA was 0.997872. The range of
concentrations was chosen arbitrary because real
concentration can be adopted through sample preparation
procedure. Calibration dates for DPA and N-NO-DPA are
presented in Tables 4 and 5.
Table 4. Table of calibration data for DPA
Level
1
2
3
4

DFA
(V*sec)
2443587
2453534

X Value
0.800000
1.000000
1.200000
2.000000

Calc.Value
0.821870
0.973683
1.209180
1.998902

% Deviation
2.734
-2.632
0.765
-0.055

Table 5. Table of calibration data for N-NO-DPA

Level
1
2
3
4

2448198
2465307
2470655
2484804

X Value
0.800000
1.000000
1.200000
2.000000

Calc.Value
0.803380
0.964266
1.222562
2.002978

% Deviation
0.423
-3.573
1.880
0.149

Accuracy is the measure of how close the experimental

value is to the true value. Recovery data, in triplicate, at
each level (80, 100 and 120% of label claim) was
performed. Obtained results are shown in Tables 6 and 7.

2485130
2496719

Table 6. Recovery data for DPA

2498922

Conc. level

DPA

% Deviation

80%

102.6
102.8
102.4

2.625
2.750
2.375

2503132
2474999

450

97.6
97.4
98.0
100.6
100.8
100.9

100%
120%

but, also, on mononitro derivatives of DPA too, according

to SORS 8069/91.

-2.400
-2.600
-2.000
0.583
0.750
0.917

REFERENCES
[1] E.o`N.Espinoza and J.I.Thornton, Characterization of
smokeless gunpowders by means of diphenylamine
stabilizer and its nitrated derivatives, Analytica
Chimica Acta, 288 (1994) 57-69.
[2] AOP48 Ed.2 Explosives, nitrocellulose-based
propellants,
stability
test
procedures
and
requirements using stabilizer depletion, NATO,
Oct.2008
[3] Neville J. Curtis, Isomer Distribution of Nitro
Derivatives of Diphenylamine in Gun Propellants:
Nitrosamine Chemistry, Propellants, Explosives,
Pyrotechnics 15, 222-230 (1990).
[4]
Lj.Jelisavac and M.Filipovi, Determination of
Diphenylamine and its Mono-Derivatives in SingleBase Gun Propellants During Aging by High
Performance
Liquid
Chromatography,
Chromatographia, 2002, 55.
[5] SORS 8069/91 Praenje hemijske stabilnosti baruta i
raketnih goriva; Tehniki zahtevi, postupci i metode.
[6] Validation of Chromatographic Methods, Reviewer
Guidance, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research
(CDER), Nov 1994.

Table 7. Recovery data for N-NO DPA

Conc. level

N-NO-DPA

% Deviation

100.9
100.4
101.4
96.5
96.4
97.0
102.0
101.9
102.5

0.805
0.375
1.375
-3.500
-3.600
-3.000
2.000
1.917
2.500

80%
100%
120%

3. CONCLUSION
An isocratic reversed phase HPLC method employing
photodiode array detection, suitable for quantitative
analysis of effective stabilizers in DPA stabilized
propellants was developed. Method meets requirements
for run time, system pressure and column temperature
with no interferences between peaks of interest and peaks
of other compounds in propellant.
Method is useful also for chemical stability assessment of
propellants based not only on DPA and N-nitroso DPA

451

REVIEW OF CRITERIA FOR CHEMICAL STABILITY ASSESSMENT

OF NITROCELLULOSE BASED PROPELLANTS BY VACUUM
STABILITY TEST
JELENA ULTANS
Technical Overhaul Works Kragujevac, trzk@trzk.rs
SLAVIA STOJILJKOVI
Technical Overhaul Works Kragujevac, trzk@trzk.rs
VESNA PETROVI
Technical Overhaul Works Kragujevac, trzk@trzk.rs

Abstract: Because the Vacuum Stability Test (VST) is promising method for chemical stability assessment of
nitrocellulose based propellants, review of criteria is made based on correlation between results obtained by several
different testing methods as well as review of criteria accepted by some countries. Some conclusions about the criteria
for chemical stability of propellants according to VST are made in connection with results obtained by Heat Flow
Calorimetry, Heat Storage Test and Stabilizer Consumption Methods.
Keywords: chemical stability, propellant, Vacuum Stability Test.
propellant under specified conditions [4]. Calculation of
evolved gas volume is based on pressure measurement in
test tube during thermal treatment of tested propellant.
Instead of mercury as pressure measuring tool,
contemporary modified method involves pressure
transducers connected to computerized data acquisition
and processing system. Results are expressed normalized
volume of liberated gasses per 1 gram of sample after
thermal treatment during 40 hours at 100C for single
based propellants or 90C for double based propellants.
Although the method is very old and well-known, criteria
for assessment of chemical stability still are not unified
and differs across the world ranging from 1.2mL/g up to
2.0mL/g [2].

1. INTRODUCTION
A nitrocellulose, main component of smokeless
propellants, is thermally unstable and first step of its
degradation involves breakage of the nitric ester bond
(RO-NO2 RO+NO2). One important feature of NO2 is
its capability to catalyze thermolysis of nitrocellulose and
accelerates further nitric ester decomposition. The results
are heat production and increase of temperature in
propellant grain. This accelerating action of NO2 is called
self-catalysis. Both the interior of the propellant grains
and the surrounding atmosphere, are exposed since
diffusion of the evolved gases outward and diffusion of
atmospheric oxygen into the grains have important
influence [1] on further behavior of material.

The aim of this work is to compare the results obtained

from different methods, like Heat Flow Calorimetry, Heat
Storage Test at 100 C and stabilizer content are with the
results on Vacuum Stability Test with regard to typical
boundary criterions of 1.2 mL/g and 2.0 mL/g.

Stabilizers are added to gun propellants to stabilize

nitrocellulose due to reactions with nitrogen oxides.
Diphenylamine is common stabilizer but also centralite I
(N,N`-diethyl-N,N`-diphenylurea), centralite II (N,N`dimethyl-N,N`-diphenylurea),
akardite
I
(N,Ndiphenylurea), akardite II (N,N-diphenyl-N`-methylurea),
resorcinol, 2-nitro-diphenylamine and others.

Four test methods have been conducted to 82 samples of

different single based (SB) and double based (DB)
propellants

Important information about behavior of energetic

materials can be acquired by thermal methods as Vacuum
Stability Test [2]. This information is essential to a safe
production, storage, handling and disposal [3] of
propellants and ammunition loaded with those materials.

2. EXPERIMENTAL
Instrumentation for VST
An electrically heated metal thermo block controllable
within 0.2C. The block contains holes provided with
appropriate reducing sleeves and able to accommodate

The vacuum stability test is used for thermal stability

assessment of explosives or propellants by measuring the
volume of gas evolved after heating the explosives or
452

 Tools for cutting propellant into appropriate size

total length of the sample heating tubes and transducers

[2].

Sieves with 2 mm and 1 mm pore size

The transducers must be capable of operation in the

pressure range 0 to 1 bar absolute and be able to detect
a pressure variation corresponding to volume variation
of 0.02 cm3 [2].

Nylon membrane and syringe filters pores 0.22 m

Glass Syringes with stainless steel needles
Apparatus and tools for heat storage test according to
SORS 8069[6].

Heating tubes fits to the transducers so that each

assembly has a free volume of 25 2cm2. Figure 1.
represents assembly of glass testing tube and pressure
transducer [2].

Solvents and chemicals

All solvents for mobile phase were HPLC grade or better.

Vacuum pump, able to attain a pressure 6.7 mbar [2].

Extraction solvent for stabilizer content analysis was

HPLC grade methylene chloride.

Calibrated gastight syringe of 5 cm3 capacity [2].

High vacuum silicone grease as a lubricant [2].
Sieves with 2 mm and 0.2 mm pore size [2].

Preparing of samples for VST

Propellants with grain size up to 2.0 mm 2.0 mm are
used without preparation. Propellants with bigger grain
size were cut into appropriate size and sieved. For
analysis fraction passed through 2 mm pores but stayed at
sieve 1 mm was used.

pressure transducer

Because moisture plays significant role in gas evolution

drying of samples is necessary. All samples are dried for
2 hours at 655C then cooled to room temperature in a
desiccator. For testing 5 0.001g was used. Testing tubes
must be clean and dry.

ground steel joint

welded by electron
beam

Heat Storage Test at 100C experiments

evacuation hale
evacuation part

All experiments are carried out according to procedure of

SORS 8069/91.

ground glass joint

Heat Flow Calorimetry experiments

All experiments are carried out according to procedure of
STANAG 4582 at 80, 85 or 90C.

Stabilizer content determination experiments

After mechanical preparation, 2g of propellant was
extracted in methylene chloride in a volumetric flask of
50 ml for 48 hours. Extract is analyzed by HPLC
according to validated internal procedure.

heating tube

Vacuum Stability Test experiments

All experiments were carried according to procedure of
STANAG 4556 (procedure with pressure transducers).

Picture 1. Assembly glass testing tube and pressure

transducer [2]

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Instrumentation for comparable methods

All results are divided into two categories: samples that

pass VST (Table 1) and samples that didn`t pass VST
when upper limit is set to 1.2ml/g (Table 2).

Heat Flow Calorimeter, 24-channel, TA Instruments

and accessories according to STANAG 4582 [5]
HPLC, Waters Alliance with photo diode array
detection (PDA)

453

Table 1. Gun Propellants that passed VST either to upper limit of 1.2 ml/g or 2 ml/g
No.
Sample
HFC1
HFC2
HFC3
HST4
% m/m5
VST6
U.l. 71.2 ml/g
1
SB1
24.95
7.2
1.16
0.198

2
SB2
31.28
6.8
1.06
0.233

3
SB3
35.57
5.8
1.42
0.925

4
SB4
36.13
7.5
1.27
1.117

5
SB5
39.79
7.5
1.11
1.023

6
SB6
44.07
5.8
0.81
1.056

7
SB7
30.88
5.8
1.21
1.080

8
SB8
41.87
5.3
0.35
0.720

9
SB9
17.21
6.8
0.87
0.499

10
SB10
32.93
9.0
0.79
0.935

11
SB11
16.42
6.3
1.04
0.623

12
SB12
315.5
3.8
1.26
0.664

13
SB13
92.08
7.3
1.30
0.373

14
SB14
15.79
6.3
1.17
0.416

15
SB15
22.40
7.0
1.18
0.357

16
SB16
20.52
9.0
1.03
0.310

17
SB17
28.91
8.8
1.02
0.674

18
SB18
23.91
9.0
1.11
0.228

19
SB19
33.87
6.8
0.89
0.836

20
SB20
18.58
7.0
1.32
1.015

21
SB21
22.01
9.0
1.05
0.323

22
SB22
43.94
5.3
0.63
1.024

23
SB23
55.70
5.0
0.03(0.63)
1.129

24
SB24
15.75
6.0
1.10
0.645

25
SB25
13.79
5.0
1.13
0.388

26
SB26
23.65
7.3
1.09
0.678

27
SB27
43.82
6.3
0.47
0.434

28
SB28
21.55
6.8
0.38
0.439

29
SB29
25.19
4.8
1.31
0.114

30
SB30
11.99
4.3
1.21
0.561

31
SB31
14.48
8.0
1.16
0.413

32
SB32
52.16
4.7
0.03(0.66)
1.039

33
SB33
28.60
6.8
1.14
0.644

34
SB34
15.53
9.8
1.44
1.007

35
SB35
16.18
5.8
1.48
0.539

36
SB36
13.67
4.8
1.48
0.666

37
SB37
64.11
4.3
0.21
1.122

38
SB38
79.83
5.0
0.30
1.038

39
SB39
25.57
5.3
0.71
0.880

40
SB40
28.05
5.5
1.06
0693

41
SB41 very unstable very unstable very unstable
2.7
0.01(0.74)
0.950

42
SB42
80.48
7.5
1.18
0.216

43
SB43
262.5
4.3
0.05(0.57)
0.910

44
DB1
23.33
3.0
1.32
0.465

45
DB2
23.54
8.8
3.54
0.399

46
DB3
45.90
9.0
0.04+2.46
0.854

47
DB4
27.79
9.0
2.78
0.261

48
DB5
90.80
3.8
2.45
0.812

49
DB6
16.72
9.0
2.70
0.305

50
DB7
189.6
5.3
2.85
0.732

51
DB8
24.35
8.3
2.38
0.338

52
DB9
47.48
5.0
0.15+1.82
0.389

53
DB10
71.76
9.0
0.01+2.58
0.625

54
DB11
58.23
9.0
0.02+2.42
0.542

55
DB12
68.92
9.0
0.01+2.46
0.604

56
DB13
71.62
6.8
0.10+2.47
0.482

57
DB14
68.00
9.0
0.02+2.59
0.680

1)
HFC-Heat Flow Calorimetry - test at 80 C; 114
2)
HFC-Heat Flow Calorimetry - test at 85 C; 201
3)
HFC-Heat Flow Calorimetry - test at 90 C; 350
4)
HST- Heat Storage Test, presented in days;
5)
% m/m stabilizer (in brackets are given contents of effective stabilizer according to SORS 8069, for DPA);
6)
results for VST in ml/g;
7)
sign if propellant meets criteria for chemical stability according to upper limit of 1.2 ml/g;
8)
sign if propellant meets criteria for chemical stability according to upper limit of 2.0 ml/g.
454

U.L8 2 ml/g

First of all, we found that value of 2.0 ml/g as an upper

limit for stability assessment according to VST is too high
and even extremely unstable propellants were unable to
reach this limit. According to results shown in table 1, if a
value of 1.2 ml/g is taken as upper limit for VST, all
propellants that passed test have good results on the heat
storage test and have more than 0.2 % of DPA or more
than 50% of initial concentration of diethyl-diphenylcarbamide (centralite I). Exceptions are SB23, SB32,
SB41 and SB43, but they have good result on HFC test

and content of effective stabilizers (according to SORS

8069/91) is over the 0.5%. Also, propellants containing
both DPA and dimethyl-diphenyl-carbamide (centralite
II) passed VST, whatever upper limit is set, although
DPA content is less than 0.2%. Generally, good
correlation of VST results and stabilizer content is
observed. But some samples pass VST even if an upper
limit is set to 1.2ml/g although are unstable according to
other methods.

Table 2. Gun Propellants that pass VST when upper limit is set to 2 ml/g but not 1.2 ml/g
No.

Sample

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

SB44
SB45
SB46
SB47
SB48
SB49
SB50
SB51
SB52
SB53
SB54
SB55
SB56
SB57
SB58
SB59
SB60
SB61
SB62
SB63
SB64
SB65
SB66
SB67
SB68

HFC1)

HFC2)

HFC3)

101.1
43.85
32.04
35.35
35.68
52.24
588.7
59.82
78.08
32.67
146.2
105.9
67.61
72.25
82.49
80.48
85.39
75.08
635.3
131.2
280.9
280.5
107.8
195.6
87.5

HST4)

% m/m5)

VST6)

U.L.7) 1.2 ml/g

U.L8) 2 ml/g

5.8
5.8
9.0
8.5
8.5
4.7
0.0
5.3
4.3
5.8
9.0
4.5
5.0
5.0
5.0
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
6.3
9.0
4.5
5.3

0.07(0.52)
0.75
0.20
0.33
0.50
0.13(0.78)
0.05(0.24)
0.04(0.72)
0.01(0.41)
1.0
0.01(0.60)
0.03(0.51)
0.08(0.77)
0.03(0.68)
0.10(0.83)
0.10(0.68)
0.03(0.49)
0.07(0.69)
0.01(0.32)
0.01(0.50)
0.01(0.68)
0.02(0.49)
0.00(0.52)
0.01(0.52)
0.35

1.902
1.526
1.152
1.211
1.305
1.299
1.685
1.146
1.349
1.846
1.415
1.195
1.250
1.380
1.270
1.951
1.601
1.734
1.829
1.308
1.214
1.245
1.348
1.241
1.270

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

1)

HFC-Heat Flow Calorimetry - test at 80 C, results in W/g;

HFC-Heat Flow Calorimetry - test at 85 C, results in W/g;
3)
HFC-Heat Flow Calorimetry - test at 90 C, results in W/g;
4)
HST- Heat Storage Test, presented in days;
5)
% m/m stabilizer (in brackets are given contents of effective stabilizer according to SORS 8069, for DPA);
6)
results for VST in ml/g;
7)
sign if propellant meets criteria for chemical stability according to upper limit of 1.2 ml/g;
8)
sign if propellant meets criteria for chemical stability according to upper limit of 2.0 ml/g.
2)

Results in Table 2 shows that all samples of propellants

pass criteria if upper limit is set to 2 ml/g, even the
propellant with result on HST of 0.0 hours but no one of
propellants pass criteria if upper limit is set to 1.2 ml/g.
Good correlation of VST results with stabilizer content is
still obvious although several samples have more than
0.2% of DPA, have good results at HFC test and also
HST but didn`t pass VST criterion.

stability assessment of propellants but results in

accordance with other methods can be achieved only if
criterion of upper limit is set close to 1.2ml/g.

Propellant samples with stabilizer content below 0.2%

also failed vacuum stability test. We didn`t found explicit
correlation with results at HFC test.

[1] Milo Filipovi, Kinetic Modeling of the Chemical

Transformations of the Stabiliser in Single Base Gun
Propellants during Ageing, Scientific Technical
Review, Beograd, 2004, Vol. LIV, No.3-4, pp.3-8.
[2] STANAG 4556 PPS Ed.1: Explosives, Vacuum
Stability Test, NATO, Military Agency for
Standardization, Brussels, November 1999.
[3] Maria Alice Carvalho Mazzeu, Elizabeth da Costa
Mattos, Koshun Iha, Studies on compatibility of

Good correlation of VST results and stabilizer content is

observed.

REFERENCES

4. CONCLUSION
VST is good auxiliary and suplementary method for
propellants stability assessment.
Both of criteria, 1.2 ml/g and 2 ml/g were used for
455

energetic materials by thermal methods, Journal of

Aerospace Technology and Management, 2010, Vol.
2, No.1, pp.53-58.
[4] Manfred A. Bohn, NC-based energetic materialsstability decomposition, and ageing, Presentation on
the Meeting Nitrocellulose-Supply, Ageing and
Characterization, Aldermaston, England, April 24 to
25, 2007.

[5] STANAG 4582: Explosives, nitrocellulose based

propellantsstability
test
procedures
and
requirements using HFC, NATO, Military Agency
for Standardization, Brussels, 2004.
[6] SORS 8069/91: Praenje hemijske stabilnosti baruta
i raketnih goriva, Beograd, 1991.

456

PYROTECHNIC MIXTURES FOR INFRARED DECOY

DRAGOSLAV NEGOICI
Tara Aerospace and Defence Products a.d, Mojkovac, negoje@ptt.rs
GORDANA BOKOVI
Tara Aerospace and Defence Products a.d, Mojkovac, gboskovic@tara-aerospace.com
VITOMIR MEDOJEVI
Tara Aerospace and Defence Products a.d, Mojkovac, vmedojevic@tara-aerospace.com
DRAGAN EBEK
Tara Aerospace and Defence Products a.d, Mojkovac, dsebek@tara-aerospace.com

Abstract: The mechanism of MTV (Magnesium/PTFE/VitonA) mixtures combustion and influence of granulation and
components content on characteristics were shown in this paper. The characteristics of infrared (IR) decoy TM-M206,
which was developed were presented.
The keywords: MTV mixture, infrared decoy.
reaction was thoroughly investigated by Kubota and
Serizawa [2,3] and they had given the fullest theoretical
consideration of Mg/PTFE burning. In Picture 1 a
schematic representation of a Mg/PTFE mixture burning
mechanism
obtained
by
micro-thermocouples
measurements [1] is given. The temperature increases
exponentially by thermal conduction from the initial
temperature of the mixture T0 to the temperature of
burning layer Ts. The gas phase temperature located
above the burning layer is growing very rapidly. Detailed
temperature analysis in the gas phase is not possible
because it can not provide an accurate measurement in the
gas phase sensitive structure.

1. INTRODUCTION
IR decoys are flares that aircraft ejected in flight when
threatened by infrared- guided rockets. The flares are
composed of a pyrotechnic mixture which during
combustion develops a higher temperature over 2000oC,
i.e. temperature that is higher than the temperature of the
exhaust system of an aircraft. The aim is to confuse
guided IR rockets, and instead that they follow the
aircraft, to follow IC decoy.
Development and production of the flare for IC decoys:
PPI-26-2-1 (26.5 mm), PPI-50-1 (50mm) and PPI-50-3
(50mm), were presented in the paper [1]. Our work is
actually a continuation of the study of Mg/PTFE/Viton A
pyrotechnic compositions, which are a part of the flare for
IR decoys, because some problems that appeared during
the research of the above infrared decoys should have
been resolved and thus create conditions for development
and production a new infrared decoys. The studies of
MTV mixtures and mechanism of combustion are
continued, and as a result the new composition of the
appropriated characteristics were defined which have
made it possible to develop a new infrared decoy TMM206, which is already in serial production.

Picture 1 shows that there is inflection point on the

temperature diagram, after which the temperature rises
rapidly and this temperature value is taken as the surface
temperature of the burning fuel (mixture). Due to the
heterogeneity of the surface (the presence of Mg particles
and PTFE) experimentally obtained data for the
temperature value are different and it is not the same at all
points of the burning surface. It can be said that the
influence of the specific surface area of Mg particles and
particle concentration of Mg and PTFE on the surface
temperature of burning is very high and that it is almost
impossible to determine it experimentally. Measurements
by thermocouples have shown that the surface
temperature of burning (mean value) is higher than the
melting temperature of Mg (923K) and the decomposition
temperature of PTFE (800K-900K). The surface
temperature of burning decreases with Mg content
increase at constant combustion pressure, which is due to
energy consumption of Mg melting.

2. MTV MIXTURES
Burning Mg with PTFE is a very complex oxidation
reaction closely associated with a physical changes in
particular aggregate state of the reactants (the transition
from the solid through the liquid to the gaseous aggregate
state). According to the available literature data this
457

conductivity (PTFE = 0.0025J/scmK), and therefore the

heating rate of the unreacted mixture, i.e. the heat transfer
from the gas phase to the solid, increases with increase of
Mg content. Increasing the Mg content, and increasing of
heat transfer from the gas to the solid phase, the burning
rate increases. Therefore, in the the Mg/PTFE mixtures,
Mg is usually in excess so one of its part is used for
increasing the thermal conductivity of the mixture. In
practice, Mg/PTFE compositions with Mg content
between 50% and 60% are most often in use.
For the process of oxidation (combustion) the quantity of
released heat is very important, and it is higher than at
oxidation with oxygen. Burning of Mg with PTFE is a
typical example of rapid oxidation of Mg with fluorine.
The released heat at Mg oxidation with fluorine is
16.8MJ/kg [4].

Picture 1. Diagrammatic review of Mg/PTFE mixture

burning mechanism [1]

The Mg combustion with PTFE, for its stoichiometric

ratio, can be shown by the following simplified equation:

It was also found that the surface temperature of burning

decreases with increasing combustion pressure. Based on
all of the above a certain image of burning process can be
created. The magnesium particles melt on the surface, and
are partially oxidized by fluorine which is formed by
decomposition of PTFE particles. Simultaneously, the
PTFE particles are completely decomposed releasing
gaseous fluorine and the other products. Due to the
decomposition of PTFE and its transfer into the gas phase,
Mg particles are ejected from the surface of combustion
to the gas phase carried by gases from decomposed PTFE.
Oxidation of Mg particles continues to be carried out very
quickly in the gas-phase The oxidation runs on the surface
of the particles, so the burning rate depends on the surface
of Mg particles (in case of a spherical particles surface is
smaller, in case when particles are irregularly shaped
surface is larger). In other words, the burning rate
increases with decreasing particle size of Mg (by
increasing the specific surface of the particles) at a
constant ratio of Mg and PTFE, and constant combustion
pressure.

2Mg + (C2F4) = 2MgF2 + 2C

(1)

The Mg mass fraction in the stoichiometric composition is

32.7%, so for this Mg and PTFE ratio an adiabatic flame
temperature of 3818K on the pressure of 4MPa is
calculated. Equation (1) has a limited application due to
the fact that in practice, the stoichiometric ratio of the
reactants is very rarely used. It is common that Mg is
added in excess, and then the following equation is used :
mMg + (C2F4) = 2MgF2 + (m-2)Mg + 2C

(2)

As the mixture usually has a binder Viton A, the

following simplified equation is used:
mMg + ( C2 F4 ) + n ( C5 H3,5 F6,5 ) =
= (1,5n + 2 ) MgF2 + 3,5nHF+
+ ( 5n + 2 ) C + ( m 1,5n 2 ) Mg

(3)

By addition of the Viton A in the mixture the

stoichiometric part of Mg is decreased. The binder has a
small influence on the flame temperature in calculated
extent. Flame temperature rapidly decreases for higher
and lower Mg contents of stoichiometric and slightly
increases with increasing of the pressure. Flame
temperature decreases if the content of Viton A is
significant and the content of carbon in the combustion
products increases. All other influences on the
composition of the combustion products are negligible,
since the chemical composition of Viton A is similar to
PTFE.

The Mg/PTFE mixture burning rate, depends on the size

of the PTFE particles - an increase in the content of larger
PTFE particles in the mixture increases the burning rate.
This is explained by varying the local concentration of
Mg particles which is greater when the PTFE particles is
larger, and the thermal conductivity of a mixture at these
points is higher, and hence the burning rate is higher.
Also, the local concentration of fluorine derived from
larger particles is greater than that when smaller PTFE
particles are used, so the burning rate is increased. In
other words the effect of larger PTFE particles has its
limits and contra effect, and it is optimal to use small and
large PTFE fractions in the ratio of 1:1 in the mixtures.

The combustion pressure mainly affects the equilibrium

of the reaction between the gaseous and liquid phase of
MgF2. Theoretical calculations show that the combustion
products propagate isotropic, thereby leads to partial
condensation of MgF2.

The Mg/PTFE burning rate is directly dependent on the

heat flux from the gas to the burning surface. The major
part of the Mg oxidation reaction is carried out in the gas
phase, and the heat released here is the highest. Heating
rate of the unreacted mixture also has a high influence on
the burning rate. By more rapidly heating of unreacted
mixture, the PTFE decomposition rate is increased and
thereby the influx of fluorine in gas phase. Since the Mg
thermal conductivity (Mg = 1.554J/scmK) is
approximately 600 times higher than the PTFE thermal

In the Picture 2 it is shown how to change the burning rate

of pressed mixture depending on the Mg content and
granulation of PTFE. The obtained results are consistent
with what we have put forward by increasing Mg
content and by increasing PTFE granulation, burning rate
increases.
458

Picture 2. Burning rate of MTV mixture versus Mg

content and PTFE granulation

Picture 3. Burning rate of the MTV mixtures versus

average Mg particles diameter

The Mg granulation influence were examined on the

mixture : Mg - 48%, PTFE - 48% (using the PTFE
particles of average diameter 4m and 425m in the ratio
1:1) and Viton A 4%. Particular granulation was
obtained when Mg was sieved and for each fraction was
determined the average particle size. The effect of Mg
particle size on the characteristics of the Mg/PTFE
mixture is opposite to the PTFE particle size influence.
Increasing the Mg particle size leads to reduction of the
mixture burning rate either in loose or pressed state
(Picture. 3). Larger Mg particles slowly turn into a liquid
state and then slowly remove in the gas phase where bulk
of oxidation takes place. Their specific surface area is
small, and since the oxidation takes place on the Mg
surface, the burning rate is decreased.. Since the burning
rate of large Mg particles is smaller than the burning rate
of small Mg particles, their complete oxidation lasts
longer and ends at a greater distance from the
incandescent surface of the solid phase, so the transfer of
heat to the unreacted phase is more difficult. When Mg is
significantly in excess the metal Mg balls size from 2 mm
to 8 mm are observed in the combustion products. This
suggests that in the process of melting the agglomeration
of dissolved particles occurs and their burning is weaker.
Due to incomplete combustion and the different
mechanism of burning the values of the thermal potential
and maximum pressure of combustion products decrease
with an increase of average Mg particle diameter. Also
the shape of particles has big impact on the burning rate,
because the burning surface is bigger for the particles of
irregular shape compared to the spherical. The authors of
this paper draw attention that the Mg which was sieved
was not from the same manufacturer. The finer Mg
fractions were obtained from one manufacturer and a
larger Mg fractions were obtained from another
manufacturer, and from experience it is known that the
origin of raw materials has a big influence on the
pyrotechnic mixture characteristics. From Picture 3 it can
still be clearly seen that the burning rate increases by
reducing the average Mg particle diameter.

The Viton A influence (copolymer of hexa fluoric

propylene and vinylidene fluoride) on the MTV mixture
characteristics was examined. The first Mg/PTFE mixture
testing was performed without addition of Viton A as a
binder. Combustion of these mixtures was significantly
non-reproductive, the combustion products pressure
versus time curve (when tested in the man metric bomb)
has an irregular shape with striking peaks due to the
occurrence of local cease of mixture burning and reignition of the mixture. After reaching the maximum
pressure curve does not have the usual downward trend,
but either slightly increases or maintains the obtained
value, indicating a later post combustion of the mixture
and that the process is not fully completed. After addition
of Viton A, even in small amounts (2%), all burning
irregularities are lost, the expected diagram pressure
versus time is obtained,indicating that the presence of a
binder in these mixtures is very important. The effect of
Viton A on burning rate was examined on a Mg - 50%
PTFE 50% mixture, so that the part of the PTFE in
mixture is replaced with Viton A. From the diagram
(Picture 4) it is clearly seen that a small amount of binder
increases the burning rate and the further increase of
Viton A gradually decreases burning rate.

Picture 4. Burning rate of MTV mixtures versus

Viton A content
459

The MTV mixtures have intense radiation in the range

from 2m to 5m (mid-infrared) and are exclusively used
for making infrared decoy flares. However, recent
research [5, 6] indicates that flares made on the basis of
MgB2 and Mg2Si as fuel, the PTFE as oxidizer and Viton
A as a binder have a much higher radiation than MTV
mixture in medium infrared area. Apparently the new IR
decoys, made on the basis of these new mixtures are more
efficient than those made on the basis of MTV mixture.

the Earth's surface (vertical shot at full visibility), the

intensity of radiation is bigger than 11,000W/sr.
In the Picture 5 the IR decoy flare TM-M206, flare, wrap
in Al-foil, with igniter and flare are shown.

3. INFRARED DECOY FLARE TM-M206

Based on the presented tests several MTV composition
(from MTV 1 to MTV 5) were selected, and they are built
into the flares for IR decoy flare TM-M206. The
composition of MTV-4 and MTV-5 has the best results,
and these compositions are built in several series of
infrared decoys.
IR decoy flare TM-M206 has following characteristics:
Length

205mm

Body dimensions

25x25mm

Rim Dimensions

27x27mm

Weight

195g

Weight of explosive
substance, max
Initiation

Picture 5. IR decoy flare TM-M206, flare with igniter

and flare for IR decoy flare TM-M206
In Table 1 the values of radiation intensity and burning
time for series of IR decoy flares which are produced in
Tara Aerospace and Defence Products a.d. Mojkovac are
presented (In brackets are given variation from maximum
and minimum value of radiation intensity and combustion
time of IR decoy.). All measurement were performed in
SLOBODA Dedicated Company in aak on spectro
radiometer SR-5000. Spectro radiometer is designed for
spectral radiance measurement or origin intensity of
radiation in chosen spectral range. The measurement
system consists from three sets: calculating unit (PC AT
286), optical head and software for measurement control
and the results processing.

130g
Impulse cartdge TM-BBU-35

Bridge Resistance

0.8 1.2

Current strength

Not less than 4.25A

Combustion time

from 3s to 7s

Ejecting speed

from 20m/s to 50m/s

The IR decoy radiates in the range of 1.8m to 2.8m and

a range from 3.4m to 5.4m. During the activation from

Table 1. Mean values of radiation intensity in two ranges and combustion time of different series of IR decoy
Radiation intensity in range Radiation intensity in range Combustion time
Mark of built-in
Series number
from 1.8 to 2.8m (kW/sr) from 3.4 to 5.4m (kW/sr)
(s)
mixture
The Czech
15.4
Republic
production

460

1301

MTF-4

1302

MTF-4

1401

MTF-4

1402

MTF-4

1403

MTF-5

1404

MTF-5

1405

MTF-5

1406

MTF-05

4. CONCLUSION

[2] Kubota,N.:
Combustion
of
Magnezium
/
Polytetrafluorethylene, AIAA Paper, 86-1592, 1986.
[3] Panin,A.J.,
Malkevi,G.S.,
Dunaeskaja,S.C.:
Ftoroplasti, Himia, Lenjingrad, 1978.
[4] Koch,E.C.: Metal-Fluorcarbon Based Energetic
Materials, Weinhem: Wiley-VCH., John Wiley
(distributer), 2012.
[5] Koch,E.C., Hahma,A., Weiser,V., Roth,E., Knapp,S.:
Metal-Fluorcarbon
Propelants.
XIII:
High
Performance IR Decoy Flare Compostions Based on
MgB2 and Mg2Si and Politetrafluoretilen/Viton,
Propelants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics, Volume 37,
Issue 4, page 437-438, August 2012.

Based on the study of burning mechanism and MTV

mixtures examination the several composition were
selected and incorporated into the flare for IR decoy flare
- TM-M206, which is in series production in Tara
Aerospace and Defence Products A.D., Mojkovac. IR
decoy flare - TM-M206 has remarkable characteristics
and fully meets the requirements for aircraft protection
from self-guided IR rockets.

5. REFERENCE
[1] Kubota,N., Serizava,C.: Propellants
Pyrotechnics, 12, 145-148, 1987.

Explosives

461

RESEARCHING OF THE INITIAL PYROTECHNIC MIXTURES

GORDANA BOKOVI
Tara Aerospace and Defence Products a.d, Mojkovac, gboskovic@tara-aerospace.com
VITOMIR MEDOJEVI
Tara Aerospace and Defence Products a.d, Mojkovac, vmedojevic@tara-aerospace.com
MIRA GOJAK
Tara Aerospace and Defence Products a.d, Mojkovac, mgojak@tara-aerospace.com
DRAGOSLAV NEGOICI
Tara Aerospace and Defence Products a.d, Mojkovac, negoje@ptt.rs

Abstract: Some theoretical aspects of the initiation and ignition processes, experimental examination of initial
pyrotechnic mixtures and development of few new initiators were shown in this paper.
The keywords: initiation, initial pyrotechnic mixtures, initiators.

Initiator assemblies generally have initial pyrotechnic

mixture or initial explosive. If the initial pyrotechnic
mixture is initiated by the energy that is released during
the current flow through a high resistance wire (bridge),
then such initiator is called electro-ignitable head (EIH),
squib, or electric initiator. The aim of this work is to
present an examination of initial pyrotechnic mixtures for
squibs and initiators, as well as some of the solutions that
have emerged from these studies.

1. INTRODUCTION
A pyrotechnic assemblies and components (initiators,
squibs, caps, etc.) which activate a pyrotechnic or
explosive chain by initiating a self-sustain reaction in
explosive materials are called, in general, initiators.
Depending on the method of activation, initiators can be
divided in two groups, those which are initiated by
mechanical force (impact, friction, etc.), and initiators
which are initiated by electrical energy. In both cases
energy input (mechanical or electrical) is converted into
heat, which warms the initial pyrotechnic mixture unill it
reaches the ignition temperature and ignites. According to
the mode of action we can divide initiators in three
groups: first, with a mixture that burns and initiates other
pyrotechnic mixtures, second, with a mixture which
deflagrates and performs some mechanical work and
third, with a mixture which detonates and initiates the
detonation of an explosive chain.

2. INITIATION PROCESS
Initiation (ignition) process of pyrotechnic mixtures, solid
rocket fuel or other explosive materials involves the
processes of heat transfer, fluid flow, phase changes, mass
diffusion and chemical kinetics. The interdependence of
these processes complicates the theoretical and
experimental consideration and solution of these
processes. The complete comprehension and formulation
of the initiation process requires a thorough knowledge of
the theory of combustion. To obtain a proper description
of events in the initiation process it is necessary to know
information of the physical, chemical and kinetic changes
which are occurring. Experimental study of the initiation
process is very complex because the period of time in
which the process occurred is very short (a few
microseconds to a few milliseconds), which,
consequently, requires the use of high-speed measurement
systems. The area within the explosive material, where
most activities take place during the ignition, is very small
- only a few hundred microns. The process of the
initiation should be considered as a two stage process: the

Initiators which are activated by electrical energy, have

electrodes with a high resistance wire between them,
commonly called the bridge. There are also initiators
which (instead of the bridge) have a thin layer of an
electro-conductive material, initiators with no gaps or
initiators where the mixture itself conducts the current.
Energy (electricity) required for the activation of initiators
can be very small (initiators with bridge, initiators with a
thin layer of a conductive material and initiators with a
electrically-conductive mixture), or very high for example
in initiators without gaps and initiators with explosion of
the bridge (where the electric current of several thousand
volts is needed for activation).
462

first stage includes heating of explosive material, and the

second stage includes beginning and establishing a selfsustaining chemical reaction. Depending on the type of
the explosive material, on the surface of contact between
the explosive material and the source of heat may occur
melting of material with consequent gasification of
molten layer (evaporation or sublimation), followed by
simultaneous occurring of several chemical reactions with
mass and heat transfer in the vapor, liquid and solid
phase. If the released heat is greater than the heat of
losses, temperature continues to rise, which provides the
conditions for faster progress of chemical reactions and
the release of greater amounts of energy and heat, which,
finally, leads to the stable burning of explosive material

contact something has to cross the boundary between

them to begin the reaction. It is obvious that, in the case
when the cohesive structure of each particle is ideal,
nothing can cross the border and begin the reaction,
because there is no place from which something could be
moved, nor place on which something could be put.
Because of that, imperfections in the particles structure,
even those at atoms level makes possible chemical
reactions and play a decisive role in the reactivity and the
speed of the chemical reaction. Therefore the functional
characteristics of the pyrotechnic mixture greatly depends
on the origin of the pyrotechnic mixture components, i.e.
method of raw materials obtaining, although their
characteristics meet standard requirements.

We pay our attention to initiators where the heat source

was the hot-wire (bridge), where the electric energy turns
into the heat in a high-resistance wire. Ignition of
pyrotechnic mixtures by hot wire is a complex
phenomenon involving many physical changes and
chemical processes and includes:

All of this have to be considered during during

examination and research of the new pyrotechnic
mixtures (whatever kind they are). The aim of this work is
to define the new initial pyrotechnic mixtures and develop
a new initiators and electric-ignitable head with that
mixtures.

1.

Transition of electricity into the heat which leads to

warming up the bridge,

2.

Transfer of heat energy from the bridge to the initial

pyrotechnic mixture by conduction, convection and
radiation,

3.

Heating and decomposition of solid phase,

4.

Diffusion of
environment,

5.

Exothermic reactions on the bridge surface,

6.

Heterogeneous reactions under the surface,

7.

Reactions in a gas phase.

the

gases

(evaporation)

in

3. INITIAL PYROTECHNIC MIXTURES

EXAMINATIONS
The first phase of the examinations included a big number
of tests which considered the possibility of initiation of
the initial pyrotechnic mixture by hot wire. The hot wire
was made when between two electrodes was soldered the
bridge Ni-Cr (80% -20%) wire thickness of 32m, length
of about 2mm, the melting point of 1400oC, the thermal
conductivity of 0.134J/scmK, density 8.4g/cm3, specific
heat 0.46J/gK and the specific resistance of 1.1210-3
mm2/mm was soldered between two electrodes. The
bridge was dipped in the mixture of the initial mixture and
nitrocellulose lacquer. Dry-homogeneous initial mixture
was mixed with 4% nitrocellulose lacquer (NCI-900 in
acetone), forming a thick sticky mass - on 1g of dryhomogeneous mixture was added between 0.5ml and 1ml
nitrocellulose lacquer. The bridge was dipped in the
mixture twice (second dip was done after the first layer
had been dried). The mass of the mixture on the bridge
was between 30mg to 50mg.

the

The phenomena related to the ignition of the initial

pyrotechnic mixtures by the hot wire involves all kinds of
mass and energy transfer in the gas phase. In spite of this,
we suppose that there is no transfer in the gas phase,
based on the fact that inside the initial pyrotechnic
mixture there is no free space (voids) and inclusions of
air, i.e. the mixture is considered to be a compact and
homogeneous and the contact with the bridge is ideal.
Such simplification reduces the problem of theoretical
considerations of initiation of the pyrotechnic mixture
with hot wire to the consideration of phenomena related
to solid-state chemistry and thermal theory of ignition are
also known as PIR (pre ignition) reactions. These
reactions include the crystal transformations, the phase
changes and the thermal decomposition of one or more
components in the mixture. The heat released by this
reactions raises the temperature of the mixture to the point
where the individual components of the mixture begins to
melt, forming the liquid phase, which also leads to
degradation of components and the rapid acceleration of
chemical reactions and, finally, to the self-sustaining
reaction. Considering that, in the most cases, oxidizers
have melting temperature, decomposition temperature and
phase transition temperatures lower than the fuel (except
for sulfur and phosphorus as well as some organic fuels) the reaction rate in a pyrotechnic mixtures depends on the
nature of the oxidizer. If two particles are in intimate

Each of those elements (electro-ignitable heads shortened EIH or squibs) was checked for the following
characteristics: electrical resistance, no fire current, all
fire current, the ballistic characteristics in the manometer
bomb volume of 2cm3, the initiation delay time of the
mixture, the flame length, the ignition temperature of the
mixture, the energy of activation, the static electricity
sensitivity, mechanical effects and damage.
Test results of various pyrotechnic compositions are
shown in Table 1.
The electric resistance of the EIH was ranged between
1.5 and 2.5 and was measured after each operation and
tests (exposure to high humidity, mechanical action and
exposure to extreme temperatures). The test results
showed that there is no resistance change after any of
those treatments of the EIH.
The EIH were subjected to, so called, climate testing
testing their functions after subjected elevated humidity
463

for 24 hours, elevated temperature of 50oC and reduced

temperature of -30oC. Certain number of EIH were tested
on the effect of static electricity by measuring the
insulation resistance. It was found that the layer of the
lacquer over the free surface of the initial mixture is not a
sufficient to protect EIH of static electricity influence. If
there is a plastic protection ("outer casing") over the
ignition mixture the protection is satisfactory. In this case
the EIH is not activating even at the voltage of 30kV
(without the protection of plastic the 100% EIH is
activating at the voltage of 8kV).

All fire current is defined as the minimum intensity of the

unilateral electric current which, during flowing through
the bridge, causes the initiation of the initial mixture for a
period shorter than 10ms. All fire current was 1A for EIH
tested in this study (although all mixtures had no delay
times less than 10ms, Table 1). Beside the mixtures from
the Table 1, some other mixtures were tested (based on
Al/KClO4 as well as other composition), with
significantly higher no fire current, but the results were
omitted from this work (some were fairly nonreproductive).

Table 1. The results of testing for different initial pyrotechnical mixtures

Length of
Max
Ignition
Composition
Delay time
the flame
pressure
temperature
(%)
(ms)
(cm)
(bar)
(0C)
Zr
70
50
3.5
8.3
280
PbO2
30
Zr
59
25
9
7.5
480
PbCrO4
41
Zr70-Ni30
70
30
9.8
15
375
KClO4
30
Zr
63
40
10
5.0
305
Pb3O4
37
B
20
25
8.5
9.2
295
KClO4
80
B
6
20
8
5.0
260
PbO2
94
B
4
25
27
5.0
265
Pb3O4
96
Ti
22
30
19
5.0
Pb3O4
78

Activation
energy
(kJ/moll)

Thermic
potential
(J/g)

77.5

2870

81.5

3440

90.0

4970

74.8

3090

108.5

3560

102.5

2030

Lead
Styphnate

100

15,3

282

250,0

5240

KClO3
Pb(CNS)2
PbCrO4

50
47
3

10

17.5

260

195.0

2030

The initial mixtures tested in this paper are not sensitive

to shock and friction, under the conditions that are applied
for initial explosives testing. For example, the most
sensitive mixture KClO3/Pb(CNS)2/PbCrO4 is initiated in
65% cases by falling bob when the mass of 0.5kg falls
from a height of 1m and the mixture B/PbO2 is initiated in
15% cases by falling bob when the mass of 2kg falls from
a height of 1m. Sensitivity to friction of tasted mixtures is
also very small, which makes them more perspective for
practical use.

second, so called, main mixture, which provides enough

energy for initiating the ignition mixture.

Combustion products of tested initial mixtures

During these tests the problem of reproducibility of the
results appears, whenever was changed the origin of basic
raw materials (from which were made the pyrotechnic
mixtures). In the production of pyrotechnic mixtures this
problem is important, because, beside that the raw
materials from different manufacturers correspond to
existing technical conditions, they give significantly
different quality of pyrotechnical mixtures. It is obvious,
that the process of obtaining raw materials, particle shape,
particle structure (crystal), the presence and quality of
impurities in the basic components can significantly affect
the characteristics of pyrotechnic mixtures [2, 3]. The
greatest changes in the quality of pyrotechnic mixtures
occurs in mixtures based on Zr and especially if its
content is low (below 20%). The influence of the other
materials origin on the quality of the initial mixture can't
be neglected (the structure of oxidant may be different
although their molecular formula is the same). This
problem was present during examination and therefore the

The initial pyrotechnic mixtures, which has been tested,

has relatively low ignition temperatures and activation
energy is in the order of magnitude of the activation
energy of ignition pyrotechnic mixtures [1]. The quantity
of heat released during the combustion of initial mixtures
is sufficient for initiating the ignition mixtures (activation
energy of ignition mixtures should be between 350J/g to
180J/g [1]). If the energy released by the combustion of
the initial mixture is not sufficient to initiate the ignition
mixture there is a need for introducing two new
pyrotechnic mixtures. The first is, so called, intensive
mixture, which is initiated by the heat released by initial
mixture and it releases more energy that can initiate the
464

origin of raw materials was carefully chosen, so the

results may be comparable. This problem had to be taken
into account especially in defining the new products and
maintaining the quality of products during the serial
production.

binder layer (especially when the mixture was put on by

dipping or pouring, although the influence of binder was
observed and with pressing). Therefore, in the initial
mixtures, by the rule, the binders that have a low
decomposition temperature (less than 2000oC) are used.

The influence of binders on the EIH quality is very

important because the first layer on the bridge is the

In Table 2 are given the characteristics of the mixture

Zr/PbO2 (30:70) made with different binders.

Table 2. EIH characteristics with mixture Zr/PbO2 (30:70) and different binders
4% lacker of
Phenol formaldehyde
resin
Ethylene cellulose
Acetate cellulose
Nitrocellulose

Length of the flame

(cm)
25

Delay time
(ms)
9

Combustion time
(ms)
11

Maximal pressure
(bar)
5

25
30
50

4
29.5
6

18.5
7
9

5
5
5

It was shown that the best adhesion between mixture and

bridge has nitrocellulose binder. It was obvious after
exposure EIH to mechanical action (shaking and
vibration), and especially in cases when the dry mixture is

put on the bridge by pressing. Based on the results from

Table 2 it can be concluded that the EIH characteristics of
the samples with nitrocellulose binder is better than
thesamples with other binders are given.

Table 3. The Intensive and Main mixture compositions

Intensive I
B
16%
KNO3
79%
Phenol formaldehyde resin
5%
Main I
B
4.5%
Hexogen (RDX)
39%
KClO4
32.5%
KNO3
16%
Fluorine(viton A)
8%

Intensive (main) II
Zr
Pb3O4
Nitrocellulose
Main II
Pb(Fe(CN)6)2
KClO4
Colophony

A great number of initial mixtures were investigated, but

the results are not presented here because those mixtures,
for some reasons, were not interesting for further
research. The most common reason was that the EIH with
these mixtures has a large number of failures (the
mixtures could not initiate reproductively), large ignition
delay time, high all fire current, large combustion time,
the lack of the gaseous phase (absence of flame), nonreproducibility of mixture combustion and so on.

40%
59%
1%
44%
54%
2%

these mixtures. Here, we will mention only the composition

(Table 3) of those mixtures, which are fully defined and are
practically used into a larger number of initiators.

4. NEW PRODUCTS
Further exploration has enabled the design of a large
number of new initiators and squibs (electro-ignitable
heads) which are in serial production of factory TARA
AEROSPACE AND DEFENCE PRODUCTS AD. In this
paper we will present three newest products: Impulse
Cartridge TM BBU-35, electric cap EKV - M83 and
electro-ignitable head EZG - M11 (the appearance of this
product is shown in Picture 1).

Various effects obtained during this research have created

conditions for developing the series of initiators and electric
caps. As the active parts of the initiators are not only the
initial pyrotechnic mixtures, but also portable and the main
mixture, part of the exploration was dedicated to the study of

Impulse cartridge TM-BBU-35

465

Electric cap EKV-M83

Electro-ignitable head EZG-M11

Picture 1. Initiators and electro-ignitable heads from production line "TARA AEROSPACE"
The impulse cartridge TM-BBU-35 has been used for
activating infrared decoy flare TM-M206 and chaff under
measure TM-RR170. The impulse cartridge TM-BBU-35
is equivalent to NSN 1370-01-037-8651.

No fire current

50mA for 10min,

Electric current expansion

safely activate

5,5 do 16 V,

Ignition delay

max 0.3 ms,

Technical specifications:

Electrical resistance of
circuit ignition

0.5 2.0 ,

Length

14mm,

Body Diameter

12.7mm,

Rim Diameter

16mm,

Weight

4.6g,

Electro-ignitable head EIH-M11 is the integral part of

electric-pyro-break shock EPU-253 which is dedicated for
cap activating E-68.
Technical specifications:

Weight
explosive substance

0.55g,

Length of cable

30010mm,

No fire current

1A for 5min,

Body diameter

40,1mm,

All fire current

4.25A,

Ignition delay

max 15ms,

Weight of explosive
substance

0.05g,

No fire current

80mA for 5min,

All fire current

2.0A,

Ignition delay

max 3ms,

Electrical resistance of
circuit kindle

0.3 2.0.

of

Electrical resistance
of circuit kindle

0.8 1.2,

Max pressure in a
45 cm3 closed bomb

30 55 bar,

The electric cap EKV_M83 is dedicated for PPL pyro

cartridge initiating which repeaters aero-cannon GS-23L
and for initiating and for ejection IR decoy PPI-26.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Technical specifications:
Length

6.05mm,

Diameter

9.07mm,

Weight

2.25g,

Weight of explosive
substance

0.15g,

The basic settings of the process of initiating with a hot

wire were discussed and tested on a series of initial
pyrotechnic mixtures. The pyrotechnic mixture
combustion examination showed varied effects: from
combustion without gas (flame) to composition with
strong flame, some mixtures had a very small delay time,
some had very high no fire current and some were
466

activated by a weak electric current. The various

techniques of applying the mixture on the bridge (dip and
pressing) were tested and their influence on the initiating
process was examined. The effect of the binder on the
initial mixture features and the effect of the raw materials
origin (manufacturer) was tested. The results obtained
allowed the design of new initiators and electro-ignitable
heads (squibs). In this paper were presented only three,
which may be used independently or as an integral part of
a cartridge.

REFERENCE
[1] Vujacic, M., Addition to the studding of ignition
mixtures for the solidly driving substance, Masters
Work, Faculty of Technology Metallurgy, University
of Belgrade, Belgrade, 1984.
[2] Speros, M.,D., Debases, R.,J., Combustion of Solid
Oxidant Systems: Thermodynamic and Kinetic
Criteria Leading to Amplification of the Combustion
Rate, Combustion and Flame, 45, 235-250, 1980.
[3] McLain, H.,J., Pyrotechnics-From the Viewpoint of
Solid State Chemistry, Franklin Institute Press,
Philadelphia, 1980.
[4] Matijevi, J., The initial pyrotechnic mixtures for
squib, Masters Work, Faculty of Technology
Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, 1986.

In the following period, in the factory TARA

AEROSPACE AND DEFENSE PRODUCTS A.D. will
be conducted research and development of the electroignitable heads without the bridge where the initial
pyrotechnic mixture conducts electricity and heat itself
until the combustion.

467

SECTION V

INTEGRATED SENSOR SYSTEMS AND ROBOTIC SYSTEMS

CHAIRMAN
Branko Livada, PhD
Ivan Pokrajac, PhD

AN APPROACH TO DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT SIMULATOR FOR

COMINT SYSTEM FOR DECENTRALIZED DATA FUSION SIMULATOR
IVAN POKRAJAC
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, ivan.pokrajac@vs.rs
NADICA KOZI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, nadica.kozic@gmail.com
PREDRAG OKILJEVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, predrag.okiljevic@vti.vs.rs
DANILO OBRADOVI
Department J-2 General-Staff of the Serbian Armed Forces, Belgrade, danilo.obradovic@vs.rs

Abstract: Multisensor data fusion has become important in order to integrate individual sensor data into common
operational picture of battlefield. The ongoing effort on development of decentralized data fusion simulator analysis
and design of a distributed fusion based tracking system require modeling behavior of different sensors such as
COMINT and ELINT sensors, EO sensors, acoustic sensors, surveillance radars. In this paper we present an approach
to design and development of COMINT system (only direction finders) for decentralized data fusion simulator. The
proposed simulator of direction finder generates position measurements based on the detection of electromagnetic
radiation from targets. Target behavior is simulated in the battlefield scenario. This gathered data are inputs to data
fusion simulator. To generate position measurements several factors such as sensitivity, observation error, target
activity, methods for position determination were considered. Three methods for target position determination are
implemented in the simulator. These methods are two-step positioning technique (indirect technique) based on
estimation of a specified parameter such as angle of arrival (AOA).
Keywords: data fusion, direction finder, position determination, simulator.
networking, data fusion and visualization. Generally, this
simulator consists of three main elements such as
battlefield simulator, sensor simulator and data fusion
processor. To perform data fusion input data consist of
positional measurement and identity information from
each sensor simulator such as simulator of COMINT
system, simulator of optoelectronics system for
surveillance, simulator of ground radar, simulator of
acoustic sensor. These simulators generate data such as
positional measurement and identity information based on
simulated battlefield scenario, and these data are inputs
for data fusion simulator. In this paper p the simulator of
COMINT system for use in the decentralized data fusion
simulator is primarily described.

1. INTRODUCTION
In the defense community data fusion are used to
integrate the individual sensor data into common
operational picture of the battlefield in near real-time in
the area of interest (AOI). Reliable forming common
operational picture of the battlefield requires detecting,
locating, identifying, classifying and monitoring of
dynamic entities such as radio-emitters, different
platforms, weapons, and military units. These dynamic
data are used in order to form common operational
picture, but not only to display data on a map. Users
usually seek to determine the relationships among entities
and their relationships with environment and higher-level
enemy organizations [1]. Some of the defense
applications of data fusion are battlefield intelligence,
surveillance and target acquisition and strategic warning
and defense.
In order to design a distributed fusion-based tracking
system it is necessary to develop decentralized data fusion
simulator. This kind of simulator should provide data
from different kinds of sensors based on simulated
situation in AOI, data association and target tracking,
471

In this paper we present an approach to design and

development of COMINT system equipped only with
direction finders (DF) for decentralized data fusion
simulator. The proposed simulator generates position
measurements based on the detection of electromagnetic
radiation from targets - emitters. Behavior of each emitter is
modeled and simulated in the battlefield scenario through
simulation of radio-networks. Data gathered in the COMINT
system simulator are inputs in the simulator of data fusion

processor. To generate position measurements several factors

such as sensitivity of DFs, observation error, target activity,
methods for position determination were considered. Three
methods for target position determination are implemented in
the simulator of COMINT system. These methods are twostep positioning technique (indirect technique) based on the
estimation of a specified parameter such as the angle of
arrival (AOA).

different kinds of vehicles, humans, artillery platforms. In

the battlefield simulator is possible to define complex
motion behavior for a target as well as specifying its
attributes. Also, in battlefield simulator it is assumed that
each target is equipped with radio transmitter. Depending
on the selected unit different number of radio-network is
organized and modeled in the battlefield simulator.

This paper consists of five parts. Introduction is given in

Section I. Concept of decentralized data fusion simulator and
concept of COMINT system simulator are given in Section
II. Description of COMINT system simulator is given in
Section III. Some simulation and results are presented in
Section IV. Conclusions are given in Section V.

2. CONCEPT OF DECENTRALIZED DATA

FUSION SIMULATOR
Decentralized data fusion simulator should provide
possibility for analysis and design of the distributed fusion
based tracking system. To fulfill this task simulator first of
all should provide appropriate data. The architecting the
decentralized data fusion simulator is a very complex
process requiring the integration of target tracking,
networking, data fusion and visualization [2]. Data from
real life battle scenarios as data sources for simulation is
unsuitable, because of that it is necessary to simulate
battlefield scenario in the AOI during observed time period.
However, the battlefield scenario is only one part of the
data fusion simulator. In order to provide data for process
of data fusion it is necessary to model and simulate
different sensors. These sensors form useful outputs based
on the knowledge of sensors behavior and simulated
battlefield scenario. The proposed concept of decentralized
data fusion simulator is based on three main elements:
battlefield simulator, sensor simulator and simulator of data
fusion processor. The proposed concept of decentralized
data fusion simulator is shown in Picture 1.

Picture 1: Concept of decentralized data fusion simulator.

The second part in the decentralized data fusion simulator
is the sensors simulator. Ongoing efforts in the Military
Technical Institute are to simulate behavior of the set of
sensors such as COMINT system or electronic support
systems, surveillance radar, acoustic sensor and
optoelectronics sensors. In this paper, the simulator of
COMINT sensors is presented and corresponding part of
the battlefield simulator important for these sensors.

In the battlefield simulator, graphical user interface (GUI)

is intended to simulate the insertion and placement of
units of different levels on the map. The following
functions have been implemented in the battlefield
simulator:
loading map from selected folder,
selection of unit size (section, platoon or company),
selection of form of combat operations (offensive or
defensive),
selection of types of unit deployment (formation)
between single line where the subordinate units are
arranged in one row or multiple lines where the
subordinate units are arranged in two rows,
selection of type of the unit (infantry, tank, artillery or
mechanized).
When the unit is completely defined by the
aforementioned criteria, user can input its location to the
previously selected map. This is done in a way that user
enters top left boundary of FLOT (Forward Line of Own
Troops). At this point, general boundaries of the unit are
shown on the map depending on the chosen unit type and
size, type of deployment and form of combat operations.
The targets are ground platforms such as battle tank,

Picture 2: Necessary inputs and function modeled in all

three parts of the decentralized data fusion simulator.
472

In Picture 2 the necessary inputs and functions modeled in

all three parts of the decentralized data fusion simulator
are listed. In order to provide necessary data for COMINT
sensors in the battlefield simulator activity of the different
radio-networks have to be simulated. The number of
radio-networks, the number of participants in every radionetworks, assigned frequencies, and activities of
participants are defined in the battlefield simulator based
on the chosen units. These data are automatically
generated in the battlefield simulator for the chosen
scenario. In the battlefield scenario it is assumed that each
platform is equipped with at least one radio, and this radio
is a part of one or more radio-networks depending of
platforms role. For example, if a platform presents
command station it is necessary to provide
communication with higher command and with
subordinate elements.

3. SIMULATOR OF COMINT SYSTEM

The main purpose of COMINT system simulator is to
provide azimuth estimation for each active radio-emitter in
the selected observation time period. This can be done
modeling signals from each emitter at each antenna array of
DFs and after that estimating direction of arrival (DOA)
using some of the well-known techniques. Also, azimuth
estimation could be performed calculating exact bearings
between position of antenna array and targets in defined time
instance and adding errors in DOA estimation. The
simulation model includes Gaussian random errors of 0
average and root mean square (RMS) error added to the
azimuth. These errors include DF accuracy, bias and GPS
error in determination position of COMINT system. Bias and
GPS error are assumed to be constant for defined position of
COMINT system. However, DFs accuracy depends from the
signal field strength.

Also, there can be more than one radio-network depending

on unit size and type. Every radio-network has its own VHF
frequency which cannot be repeated in any other.

The signal filed strength depends from many factors. In

order to provide this information in the COMINT system
simulator the procedure for prediction of the signal field
strength estimation is implemented based on ITU
Recommendation ITU-R P.1546-1 for point to area
prediction for terrestrial services in the frequency range
30-3000 MHz. To estimate the signal field strength it is
necessary to know the position of an emitter, in our case a
platform, and the position of receiving antenna (COMINT
sensor). Also, it is necessary to know the frequency,
antenna gain, effective radiated power and terrain
information. All these data are defined in the battlefield
simulator for each radio-network. Based on these data,
and known position of COMINT sensor is possible to
predict the signal field strength E (dB(V/m)) and basic
transmission loss L (dB) during each transmission.

Depending on the number of entered units in the

battlefield simulator, a corresponding data matrix is
automatically generated and it contains the following
data: locations (x and y coordinates) of every possible
participant (platform) in radio-networks, frequencies of
every radio-network.
For the purpose of modeling behavior of the radionetworks, a particular communication structure has been
simulated. For each radio-network the total number of
communication exchange is defined and emitters are
randomly chosen. The length of each communication
exchange, in the radio-network is defined as a Gaussian
random amount of time with selectable maximum value.
Transmissions are followed by a period of silence. The
duration of a period of silence is defined as a Gaussian
random amount of time with selectable maximum value.

Based on estimated the signal field strength from

corresponding lock-up table is possible to read root mean
square (RMS) error.

Picture 3: Graphical user interface for simulator of battlefield scenario.

473

In the order to estimate emitter position in the COMINT

sensor simulator are implemented three different methods.
These methods are two-step positioning technique
(indirect technique) based on estimation of a specified
parameter such as angle of arrival (AOA).

'
PYX ( n, m ) = 1 PXY
( n, m )
C

(3)

where PXY(n,m) representing the emitter location. The

two-dimensional determination of the emitter location
(xT,yT) is determined by first taking the Probability Mass
Function (PMF) of PXY(n,m):

The first method is Discrete Probability Density (DPD)

method proposed in [3]. The DPD method combines
sensor measurements taken from different locations for
the spatial location determination. This method is based
on the assumption that the sensor measurement can be
modeled by some probability density function over the
range of possible values. The second method is the fusion
of multiple bearing lines (FMBL) method proposed in [4].
This method is based on the aggregation of multiple fixes
obtained through the fusion of two bearing lines (AOAs).
The third method is the mean-squared distance algorithm
(MSDE) based on minimizing the square of the miss
distance of the best point estimate from the measured
lines of the position [5].

PMFX ( n ) =
PMFY ( m ) =

( n, m ), n = 1...N

( n, m ), m = 1...M

XY

m =1
N

XY

(4)

n =1

The estimated value is determined from the indices n and

m weighted by PMF. In order to estimate the position
error (error ellipses) of the DPD method, the covariance
matrix should be determined. The location error estimate
is determined by the variances and covariance of the joint
DPD array about the indices of the estimated emitter
position [3]:

A) Methods for position determination

Fusion of multiple bearing lines method

Discrete Probability Density (DPD) method

Suppose that there are three bearing lines with the

parameters set Bi(xi, yi, i, i), (i=1, 2, 3) where xi and yi
represent the coordinates of the i-th sensor, i is the
estimated DOA from the i-th sensor and i is the standard
deviation. The fused fix from these three bearing lines can
be represented by EEP with the parameter set E(xT, yT, a,
b, ) and it could be estimated by optimizing the objective
function J [4] given by:

The DPD method is based on the assumption that the

sensor measurement of a given parameter, in this case
AOA, can be modeled by some probability density
function (PDF) over the range of possible values. These
PDFs may be represented by various distributions such as
Gaussian distribution or von Mises PDF. The DPD
method combines the probability density distribution of
measurements directly by sampling each PDF at common
intervals and calculating the joint product over the space.
The DPD method is applied to determine the spatial
locations by projecting the measurement PDF from each
sensor onto a common grid of sample points. This
requires that some transform function exists in order to
map the measured parameter into the 2-dimensional space
(2-dimensional grid in X, Y of the Cartesian coordinate
system). The angular transform function between the
sensor location (xi, yi) and a grid point (x, y) is simply
expressed as i(x,y)=arctan((y-yi)/(x-xi)). The twodimensional AOA DPD array can be represented by:
FXY ( n, m ) = f (i ( X ( n ) , Y ( m ) ) ) ,
n = 1,..., N ; m = 1,..., M

( ) ( ) ( )
J = 1 1 21 + 2 2 2 + 3 2 3
2 1
2
3

'
PXY

( n, m ) =

FXY ( s, n, m )

(1)

xT 12
yT 12 =

(2)

where S is the total number of sensors. The joint DPD

N

(5)

The interception point (xT12, yT12) obtained using the first

two bearing lines characterized by theparametersB1(x1, y1,
1, 1) and B2(x2, y2, 2, 2) could be computed as:

s =1

array is normalized by C =

where i is the bearing line from the i-th sensor to the

center of the EEP. This is a non-linear least square
problem, and it is very unlikely to find an analytic
solution due to the difficulty of nonlinearity. Paper [4]
proposes an approximate analytic solution using
formulation of two bearing lines. In this case, for each
pair of bearing lines it is possible to determine a fix and
the EEP and then fuse all S(S-1)/2 fixes to obtain the
emitter position and its EEP.

where FXY is the AOA DPD array of size NM and f(i)

isGaussian or von Mises PDF. For multiple DOA
measurements, the joint DPD array is calculated over a
common NM grid [3]:
S

j =1
2

j =1

cos 2 j
sin j cos j

sin 2 j
sin j cos j

cos 2 j
sin j cos j x j

y
sin 2 j
sin j cos j
j

(6)

In order to form the EEP for each interception point, the

major a12 axes and the minor b12 axes have to be
calculated as:

'
PXY
( n, m ) and can be

n =1 m =1

expressed by:

474

2
=
a12

x j xT 12 T

y y
j =1
j T 12

lines of position [5]. The sum of the squares of the total

miss distance can be expressed as:

1
2

(1cos 2 ( 12 j )) cos 2 j

j =1

(7)

D=

1+cos 2 j cos 2 j sin 2 j cos 2 j x j xT 12

sin 2 j cos 2 j 1 cos 2 j cos 2 j y j yT 12

d s2 =

s =1

( as xT )2 +

s =1

b122 =

(1 + cos 2 (

12

x j xT 12 T
y y
T 12
j =1
j
2

1
j ) ) cos 2 j

j =1

1+cos 2 j cos 2 j sin 2 j cos 2 j x j xT 12

sin 2 j cos 2 j 1 cos 2 j cos 2 j y j yT 12

) (
1

2as bs xT yT

s =1

s T

s s T

s =1

2a c x

s s T

s =1

(b y ) 2b c y +
2

s =1

and

(9)

cs2

s =1

where as=sins, bs=-coss, cs=xscoss- yssins.

Using statistical estimation arguments, based on the linear
(8) system theory, the miss distance in a matrix form is
expressed as:
D = HP C

(10)

In this expression C = [ c1 c2 " cS ] , P = [ xT

where 12 = 1 12 + 1 22 1 12 + 2 22
represent
the angle between the major axes and the x-axis. For each
pairs of bearing lines, the interception point and the EEP
by (6), (7) and (8) should be calculated.

yT ] ,
T

a a " aS
T
D = [ d1 d 2 " d S ] and H = 1 2
.
b1 b2 " bS

The least-squared error estimator for the emitter location

vector P is given by [6]:

After the determination of all S(S-1)/2 interception points,

it is possible to fuse all interception points and EEPs in
order to estimate the emitter position. The method for
fusing multiple interception points with the corresponding
EEPs is the same as the method for combining the twodimensional emitter location ellipses using the equation of
an ellipse.

P = HT R 1H HT R 1C

(11)

where ()-1 denotes inverse, and ()T denotes transpose

matrix operations. R is a weighting matrix that is selected
to optimize calculation. The variance of this estimator is
given by [6]:

Mean-squared distance algorithm

The mean-squared distance algorithm is based on
minimizing the square of the miss distance of the
determined emitter position from the measured bearing

Q = H T R 1H

x2
x y
=

y2
x y

Picture 4: Graphical user interface for COMINT system simulator

475

(12)

Position of the COMINT systems and movement of targets

are shown in Picture 4. The targets were assumed to all have
an effective radiated power of 50W with vertical polarization
and transmitter antenna heights were 5m. Signal losses and
the signal field strength are estimated based on the ITU
Recommendation ITU-R P.1546-1.

4. SIMULATION RESULTS
In this Section we describe one battlefield scenario and
corresponding results obtained using the simulator of
COMINT systems.
The simulator was implemented in the MATLAB
software packet. In the simulated scenario it is assumed
that there are three units (two sections and one platoon) in
the selected AOI. In this scenario there are seven ground
based platforms-targets and each target is equipped with
radio-emitters. Platforms were placed in scenario with
their motion without constrained.

The test scenario created in the battlefield scenario

simulator was opened in the COMINT system simulator.
In this scenario four COMINT systems are deployed.
Fusion of the multiple bearing lines method is used in
order to determine position of targets. Picture 5 and
Picture 6 show the screenshots of simulation window.

5. CONCLUSION
In this paper we describe an approach to design and
development of the COMINT system that is intended to
be used in the simulator for decentralized data fusion
simulator. In order to provide necessary data from
COMINT system, for the decentralized data fusion
simulator, the battlefield simulator and COMINT system
simulator have been developed. Data from the COMINT
system simulator and data from other sensors should
provide multi sensor ground target tracking. The modular
concept of simulators provides us the possibility to
upgrade these simulators with some features. Developed
simulators provide realistic data for decentralized data
fusion simulator that is intended to be used by Network
Centric Warfare application for developing a Common
Operational Picture.

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was performed under the research task Data
fusion in the multisensor systems.

Picture 5: COMINT system simulator window shoving

estimated azimuth from each sensor.

REFERENCES
[1] Hall, David,L. (David Lee), 1946-, Liggins, Martin E
and Llinas, James Handbook of multisensor data
fusion: theory and practice (2nd ed). CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL, 2009.
[2] Mehta, Chandresh, Govindarajan Srimathveeravalli, and
Thenkurussi Kesavadas. "An approach to design and
development of decentralized data fusion simulator."Proceedings of the 37th conference on Winter
simulation. Winter Simulation Conference, 2005.
[3] Elsaesser,D., Sensor Data Fusion Using a
Probability Density Grid, Proc. 10th International
Conference on Information Fusion, 9-12 July 2007.
[4] Xing,Z and other, Novel Fusion Algorithms For
Multiple Sensor Systems - New Algorithms for
Fusion of Multiple Fixes, Multiple Bearings, and Fix
with Bearing, Proc. 9th International Conference on
Information Fusion, 10-13 July 2006.
[5] Brown,R.M., Emitter Location Using Bearing
Measurement from a Moving Platform, NRL Report
8483, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington D.C.,
June 1981.
[6] Sage,A.P. and Melsa,J.L., Estimation theory with
Applications to Communications and Control, New
York: John Wiley&Sons, 1983.

Picture 6: COMINT system simulator window shoving

determined position placed in the centers of ellipses that
are sensor covariance.

476

WAVELET ANALYSIS RADIATED HYDROACOUSTIC NOISE OF FEW

TYPE WAR SHIPS
MIODRAG VRAAR
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vracarmiodrag@open.telekom.rs

Abstract: Wavelet analysis is a special technique of signal analysis with variable time sized regions. Therefore, wavelet
analysis allows using long time intervals when it is necessary to obtain more precise information in low frequencies
domain, and shorter time intervals when is interest to find out high frequency content of the signal. Noise in water that
produces ships and other navigable objects is of special interest in case when navigable objects are military. Frequency
band of such hydroacoustic noise is in wide limits starting with low frequencies, lower than 20 Hz, which originate from
hydrodynamic process when ships hull is moving through the water, and goes to high frequency limit of few tens of kHz
due the cavitations process at the ships propulsion propellers. Such hydroacoustic noise signals are non-stationery
signals and continue wavelet transform, or discrete wavelet transform, as computational efficient technique for
extracting information about non-stationary signals, is used to analyze radiated hydroacoustic noise few type war ships.
Keywords: discrete wavelet transforms, hydro acoustic radiated noise, war ship.

time intervals allows gating very good high frequency

information from the signal. The ability to analyze localized
area of long duration signal is significant advantage of
wavelet analysis over other signal analysis techniques and
methods. In addition, other aspects of the signal as selfsimilarity, breakdown points, discontinuities in higher
derivations and trends is something that other signal analysis
techniques and methods miss. De-noising and compression
of the signal is afforded by wavelets, too.

1. INTRODUCTION
Hydroacoustic field of the ships is significant subject of
research in many navies worldwide during last two
centuries. Today, this assertion is still valid.
Hydroacoustics is a branch of technical sciences that
incorporates many disciplines, such as acoustics, signal
analysis, physics of fluids, electronics, sensors, etc. It is
widely used in planning and realization of numerous
military systems, as well as non-military applications.
Namely, theoretical and practical investigations
conducted during last six decades in this field can be
systematized on various ways, but one of possible is
systems for underwater inspection; underwater
communication; navigation; underwater telemetry;
underwater combat systems; investigation of the
biosphere using acoustics methods, and investigation of
natural resources of the seas and oceans.

The essence of wavelet analysis is the breaking up of a signal

into shifted and scaled versions of the original, or so called
mother wavelet. The waveforms used in wavelet analysis are
limited duration and their average value is zero.
The wavelet transform is a relatively new concept and
therefore relatively small number of the application of
them is used in hydro acoustics. Two types of wavelet
transformation techniques, viz., discrete wavelet
transformation technique (DWT) and continuous wavelet
transformation (CWT) technique are being used for signal
analysis. The CWT is defined as the sum over all time of
the signal multiplied by scaled, shifted versions of the
wavelet function.

Using military hydroacoustic devices is common in

various types of naval systems, war ships, submarines,
naval helicopters, diving equipment, torpedo and naval
mine systems, equipment for detecting and locating
objects in the water environment, underwater
communication equipment, etc. In river water
environment is possible to use all techniques of
hydroacoustic inspection of the navigable objects [1].

Hydroacoustics signals are mostly non-stationery. It is

well known that Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) is
computationally efficient technique for extracting
information about non-stationary signals. There are few
significant applications of the wavelet analysis. The first
is automatic classification of non-speech audio data using
statistical pattern recognition with feature vectors derived
from the wavelet analysis, and the second is extraction of
beat attributes from music signals.

In this paper, wavelet analysis is used to discover

interesting features in radiated hydroacoustic noise of the
four classes of war ships. Wavelet analysis is windowing
technique with variable sized time regions. Using long
time intervals allows extracting very precise information
from signal in low frequency band, and opposite, shorter
477

and Heitmeyer presented in their report a set of 50 source

spectra obtained from merchant ships near Genoa, Italy.
The radiated noise was measured over a 6-day period
using a horizontal hydrophone array [3].

2. HYDROACOUSTIC NOISE OF THE SHIP

Underwater signatures denote all fields (e.g. acoustic,
electro-magnetic or pressure) revealing the presence and
characterizing naval ships by underwater sensors.
Underwater weapons, like sea mines and torpedoes, use
those sensors to detect, classify and localize targets. To
deal with this threat, underwater signature control of the
ships is the key element in process of naval platform
design and its operational use. Reliable signature prediction
models are essential throughout the life cycle of the naval
platforms, ranging from preliminary concept studies,
detailed design studies, signature control and operational
guidance to counselling at the final disposal of the
platform. Improved capabilities of hydroacoustic sensors
and systems, and in addition signal processing techniques,
as well as advances in platform and propulsion system
design, require continuous development and improvement
of the prediction models of ships hydroacoustic signatures.
Ship hydroacoustic signatures are of the most importance
when naval military operations are conducted.
Hydroacoustic noise signature measurement is performed
after major maintenance work, modifications, or
installation of the new equipment, in order to reveal any
changes in the radiated hydroacoustic noise levels of the
ship. Noise levels of the new ships are measured to ensure
that the radiated noise is within the limits stipulated by the
project specifications, and that noise levels are in
accordance with other regulations and requirements. It is
customary that both the static and dynamic ranging of the
ships is carried out in practice.
Static ranging is carried out when the ship is anchored in
the appropriate static range. While performing the static
hydroacoustic tests, various units that are on-board of the
ship (pumps, funs, blowers, generators, air conditioning,
etc.) are turned on, and the noise they produce is
measured.
Dynamic ranging is carried out by means that ship is
following a particular course. The noise from the ship is
then analyzed when it passes specific points on the
course. The most interesting point is the Closest Point of
Approach, or (CPA) point. Normally, the ship is tested by
performing a number of test runs. Acoustic noise ranges
have always been situated where, besides a low ambient
noise level, the water is relatively deep, and the sound
velocity profile is isovelocity.
Ships and submarines range from 30 to 300 meters, or
more, during propelling through the water deliver from a
few thousand to a hundred thousand shaft horsepower,
while a small portion of this tremendous energy is
radiated from the ship into the water environment as
hydroacoustic energy [2].
Detection the presence of the ships in the water is possible
either by directly sensing hydroacoustic energy radiated
from the object, or by transmitting a hydroacoustic signal
and detecting the reflection (echo) from the object.
Systems that work on target-generated hydroacoustic
signals are called passive, while systems relying on echo
detection are active systems.

When the main goal is detection, identification and

localization of the ship knowing the parameters of
hydroacoustic signals radiated from ships is of particular
importance. Information about ship characteristics is
contained in the signal of the radiated hydroacoustic
noise. The main contribution to the radiated hydroacoustic
noise of the ship in the water environment produces:
1. propulsion system, which includes the engine,
reduction gears (if any), drive shaft, bearings etc.;
2. propeller which, although is a part of the propulsion
system, contributes to the generation of the acoustic
signals on a quite different way. Namely, the noise is a
consequence of cavitations produced by the rotating
blades;
3. auxiliary machinery, such as non-propulsion related
mechanical and electrical systems (air conditioning,
electrical generators and pumps) and
4. hydrodynamic phenomenon i.e. radiated flow noise
and flow-induced excitation of plates, or other
structural features of the hull.
The main contribution to the process of noise generation
is given by the propulsion system of the ship, which
generates power-full rotation motion of the drive shaft,
gear leaver and other ship systems. Slight dynamic
unbalances of these devices result in oscillating forces
appearing. Frequency of the drive shaft rotation and
fundamental rotation motion is transformed into higher or
lower vibrating frequencies during the process of the
vibration transfer through the ships hull structure. The
study of propagation of elastic waves in the ship bulk
structure is a special scientific discipline. According to
the theory of dynamic elasticity, solids can transmit not
only longitudinal waves like fluid do, but also flexural,
shear and torsion waves, as well as their combinations.
The process of wave propagation is actually a process of
energy propagation. Beams mainly transmit vibrating
energy in the near field, and when distance to the
excitation grows, the energy is gradually radiated to the
plates in beams; so in the far field, energy is mostly in
plates. Deck plating is the last plate where the vibration
energy passes into elastic water environment. Such elastic
disturbances of water are commonly designated as
underwater-radiated noise of the ships.
The spectrum of the radiated hydroacoustic noise of the
ships possesses some special features. Namely, the
spectrum contains a broad continuous spectral
components as well as narrowband or/and sinusoidal
components. Such characteristics of the spectrum,
depending of their origin, may or may not be functions of
speed, depth, or other factors related to the operation of
the ship.
Underwater noise is recorded using special sensors, called
hydrophones. Hydrophones are pressure sensors capable
of converting small fluctuations of pressure from the
water environment into analogue electrical signals whose
voltage amplitude is proportional to the intensity of the

In addition, hydroacoustic source-level measurements

were done for variety types of merchant ships. Scrimger
478

The wavelet, (t), is a complex valued function. A

general wavelet function is defined as

water pressure at the place of the hydrophone. The

hydroacoustic signature is usually measured at a relatively
close range, such as 100 or 200 meters. Measured noise
levels are converted to the reference range of 1 m using
the spherical spreading low, if recording of the radiated
noise is done in deep water environment. If the
measurements are performed in medium or shallow water
environments, then another law of spreading of the
acoustic waves should be used, cylindrical or a
combination of spherical and cylindrical spreading.
Relatively close range is essential because the seawater
possesses filtrating properties and therefore higher
frequencies are attenuated, since the absorption
coefficient increases with frequency.

( s )

1
s ,t ( t ) = s 2 t

(2)

where shift parameter, t, determines the position of the

window in time and thus defines which part of the signal,
x(t), is being analyzed. In WT analysis, frequency
variable is replaced by scale variable, s, and time shift
variable t is replaced by . The WT utilizes these wavelet
functions, and performs the decomposition of the signal
x(t) into weighted set of scaled wavelet functions (t) [4].
DWT can be viewed as a constant Q filter bank with
octave spacing between the centers of the filters. Each sub
band contains half the samples of the neighboring higher
frequency sub band. In the pyramidal algorithm, the
signal is analyzed at different frequency bands with
different resolution by decomposing the signal into a
coarse approximation and detail information. The coarse
approximation is then further decomposed using the same
wavelet decomposition step. This is achieved by
successive high pass and low pass filtering of the time
domain signal and is defined by the following equations:

Estimation of the parameters of electrical signals obtained

when recording a passing ship's characteristics is an
important task when the primary goal is the problem of
the ship identification. In addition, radiated hydroacoustic
noise possesses information about ship characteristics. As
pointed out previously, the most important contribution to
the noise characteristics gives the ships propulsion
system that generates the power of rotating motions.
Spectrum analysis enables acquiring insight into the
distribution of acoustic energy in the frequency domain.
Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) provides a link
between time and frequency content of the signal.
However, such analysis cannot give a direct answer to the
question whether any kind of connection between local
maximums in the observed spectra exists. Therefore, it is
necessary to perform additional analysis. One direction in
research would be to observe the phase coupling in the
complex hydroacoustic signal, using a standard
procedure, the so-called higher order spectral analysis.
Higher order analysis was used for the first time in the
second half of the last century emerging as a need for
solving the problem of recognition radar signals reflected
from multiple obstacles.

x [ n ] g [ 2k n ]
[ k ] = x [ n ] h [ 2k n ]

yHF [ k ] =

yLF

(3)

where yHF [k] and yLF [k] are the outputs of the high pass
and low pass filters, respectively after sub sampling by
two. The number of resulting wavelet coefficients is the
same as the number of input points due the application of
the down sampling procedure. A variety of different
wavelet families have been proposed in the literature in
purpose to get the best decomposition result [4, 5].
As previously pointed out in wavelet analysis a signal is
split into an approximation (cAi coefficients) and a detail
(cDi coefficients). The approximation is then itself split
into a second-level approximation and detail, and the
process is repeated. For n-level decomposition, there are
n+1 possible ways to decompose or encode the signal. In
wavelet packet analysis, the details as well as the
approximations can be split.

In addition, the measuring systems that are used in field

hydroacoustic detection of ships are possible to divide in
two groups, the first, one channel, and the second multi
channel measuring systems. The simpler, one channel
detection system enables single point measurement of
hydroacoustic field of the ship in water environment.
Multi-channel system enables measurements of space
distribution hydro-acoustic field of the ship. Hydroacoustic field of the ship is not uniformly distributed in
the water environment. Therefore, multi-channel systems
deliver better insight into the phenomenon of the ship
hydroacoustic field. The data that were measured using
one measuring channel are used for wavelet
characterization of the ships hydroacoustic field in this
work.

3. WAVELET TRANSFORM
The DWT, W(j,k), is defined by the following equation:
W ( j, k ) =

x ( k ) 2 2 ( 2 j n k ) ,

Picture 1: The wavelet decomposition tree of

approximation and detail coefficients

(1)

Wavelet packet analysis allows the signal, S, to be

represented as:

where, x(k) is original signal and (t) is wavelet function.

479

(4)

4. METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS OF

HYDROACOUSTIC NOISE ANALYSIS

In purpose to decompose radiated hydroacustic noise

signal, which originate from four classes of war ships in
this paper is used Daubechies db4 wavelet function.
Daubechies wavelets function db4 has regularity,
s=1.27. The regularity, s, of wavelets has importance in
theoretical and practical studies. When regularity is
integer, then regularity is the order of differentiability.
However, in case when s is not integer, and m is integer
such that m<s<m+1, then function, f, has regularity s in
x0, f(m) of order m resembles |x-x0|s-m locally around x0 [5].
There is relatively simple rule: the greater s, the more
regular signal is obtained.

Radiated hydroacoustic noise of four classes war ships

was measured with single hydrophone, B&K 8104 type.
Measuring position of hydrophone was at the depth of
2 m below sea surface with CPA position from ship of
around 50 m. The sea depth varied from 30 to 50 m. The
velocities of war ships were constant around 10 kn.
Time segments of the radiated hydroacoustic noise have
duration of around 0,18 seconds, or 9192 points, were
analyzed using wavelet packet transform with Daubechies
wavelets function db4. Results of wavelet analyze,
coefficients cA3, cD1, cD2 and cD3 according
decomposition, see Picture 1, are presented at Pictures
from 2 to 5.

Picture 2: Wavelet approximation and detailed coefficients of the first ship

Picture 3: Wavelet approximation and detailed coefficients of the second ship

480

Picture 4: Wavelet approximation and detailed coefficients of the third ship

Picture 5: Wavelet approximation and detailed coefficients of the fourth ship

Wavelet decomposition was performed according
equation (4). Coefficient cA3 of decomposed signal well
describe signal in frequency range from zero to around
700 Hz. Low frequency content of hydroacoustic signal is
of particular interest because the most powerful ships
activities produces hydroacoustic noise in this low
frequency range, such as ship propulsion system, pumps,
gears and other.
Ansari - Bradely test was used to test hypothesis that two
independent samples, vectors of cA3 coefficients of two
ships, came from the same distribution, against the
alternative that they come from distribution that have the
same median and shape, but different dispersions (e.g.
variances). The result of Ansari Bradley test is H=0 if
the null hypothesis of identical distributions cannot be
rejected at the 5% significance level, or H=1 if the null
hypothesis can be rejected at the 5% level. The mean
values and standard deviations of cA3 coefficients are
shown at Picture 6.

Picture 6: Mean values and standard deviations of cA3

wavelet coefficients of four ship classes

481

Wavelet approximation coefficients, like cA3 for

instance, posses significant features that are possible to
use in detection, identification and localization algorithms
based on ship radiated hydroacoustic noise. The results of
Ansari Bradley test are summarized in Table 1.

mentioned, the most of ship activities, that contributes to

radiate hydroacoustic noise, are in low frequency range,
lower than 1000 Hz. It is necessary to point out that
wavelet analysis is wide using in process of de-noising of
acoustic signal [6].
According results of Ansari Bradley test the most
similar cA3 coefficients, and their probability plots for
normal distribution, are in case of the first and the fourth
ship noise signal. Only at the tails of those distributions
are noticeable some differences. But in all other test
results is confirmed assertion that null hypothesis can be
rejected at the 5% level of significance.
This result is encouraging for further work on problem of
wavelet analysis of hydroacoustic noise signals which
originate from ship propulsion system. It is well known
that around of 1% of this tremendous ship propulsion
energy is transformed into energy of acoustic waves
which propagate through water environment.

Table 1: H and P values Ansari Bradely test of cA3

wavelet coefficients
Ship pairs
Hypothesis, H
P - value
1st & 2nd
H=1
9.027910-17
1st & 3rd
H=1
2.171510-15
st
th
1 &4
H=0
0.1139
2nd & 3rd
H=1
4.994210-6
2nd & 4th
H=1
5.370210-16
rd
th
3 &4
H=1
8.83010-14
Probability plots of normal distributions of cA3
coefficients good illustrate such assertion, see Picture 7.
Obtained result is not surprising because, as previously

Picture 7: Probability plot of normal distributions of cA3 approximation coefficients four ships

5. CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

Application of wavelet analysis in decomposition of

radiated hydroacoustic noise of war ships is useful signal
analysis technique. According available literature there
are not many published data about using wavelets in
analysis of radiated hydroacoustic noise of war ships.
Wavelet analysis enables to obtain low frequency content
of radiated hydroacoustic noise signals. In this paper,
particular attention is focused on cA3 wavelet
decomposition coefficient. Two reasons are important for
such decision. The first, relatively simple and
computational efficient estimation procedure of wavelet
decomposition coefficients and the second, cA3 wavelet
decomposition coefficient well describe low frequency
content of the ship noise signal. According wavelet
analysis preformed in this paper it possible to make
assumption that some of wavelet coefficients are possible
basis for synthesis of ship detection algorithms.

[1] Vraar Miodrag, "Spectral characterization of the

hydroacoustic field of the vessel in the river
environment", Scientific Technical Review, 2006,
Vol.LVI, No.3-4, 59-67.
[2] BURDIC,W.S, Underwater acoustic system analysis,
Prentice-Hall, INC, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1984.
[3] SCRIMGER,P.,
HEITMEYER,R.M.:
Acoustic
source-level measurements for a variety of merchant
ships, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 89 (2), February 1991,
pp.691-699.
[4] S. G. Mallat, "A Theory for Multiresolution Signal
Decomposition: The Wavelet Representation", IEEE
Transaction on Pattern Analysis and Machine
Intellegence, Vol. 11, 1989, 674-693.
[5] M. Misiti, Y. Misiti, G. Oppenheim, Jean-Michael
Poggi, "Wavelet Toolbox for Use with MATLAB Users Guide, Version 1", @Copright 1996 1997.
[6] S.V.Subba Rao and B. Subramanyam, "Analysis of
Acoustic Emission Signals using Wavelet
Transformation Technique", Defence Science
Journal, Vol. 58, No. 4, July 2008, pp. 559-564.
482

MAIN DIRECTIONS OF 3D RADAR DEVELOPMENT

SERGEI M.KOSTROMITSKI
JSC KB Radar Managing Company of Radar Systems Holding, Minsk, kb_radar@tut.by
PETR N.SHUMSKI
JSC KB Radar Managing Company of Radar Systems Holding, Minsk, kb_radar@tut.by
IGOR S.SADOVSKI
JSC KB Radar Managing Company of Radar Systems Holding, Minsk, kb_radar@tut.by

Abstract: Main approaches to resolving the task of designing radars detecting aerial objects (AO) and measuring their
coordinates in 3D space are treated. Analysis is presented of the requirements imposed on accuracy of AO coordinate
measurements, with special emphasis on accuracy of height-finding. Main performance characteristics of a number of
modern 3D radars by the worlds leading radar designers are reviewed. The company experience is expounded of
building combination (two-in-one) 3D radars and 3D radar suites composed of a 2D radar and a height-finder with
cylindrical phased array operating synchronously.
Key words: radar, radar coordinate measurements, radar height-finder.
systems (ADMS), the above-described task was
complemented by that of guiding the fighter aviation and
providing targeting for AAA and ADMS, the missions for
which the two coordinates measured became insufficient.
Moreover, since own search possibilities of fighter
aviation, AAA and ADMS were rather limited, the
necessity of high accuracy of coordinate measurements by
surveillance radars for targeting came to the forefront. As
a rule, the task would be resolved through employment of
3D radar complexes composed of a 2D radar providing
detection of aerial objects (AO) and measuring their
azimuth and range, and a mobile radar height-finder
(RHF) providing the height measurements. The 3D radar
complexes displayed unprecedented accuracy of
measuring the coordinates, especially the height. The root
mean square errors (RMSE) of elevation measurements
were 0.0500.080, which corresponds to the height
measurement RMSE of 180m280m at up to 200km
target ranges.

1. INTRODUCTION
Organizing an uninterrupted radar field over the territory
of a state is an important task, both from the point of view
of military security and safety of air traffic. The intensity
of employment of air attack assets (AAA) in the recent
military conflicts involving the developed countries is
high and ever increasing. In addition, as the experience of
the two air catastrophes with the Malaysian Boeings (in
South East Asia and in Ukraine) has shown, solution of
the tasks of surveying the airspace using secondary radars
alone does not provide full and authentic information for
the user. Consequently, the objective of building highly
efficient surveillance radars both for military and civilian
applications is very topical.

2. HISTORY OF SURVEILLANCE RADAR

DEVELOPMENT
We shall make here a short excursion into history in order
to trace the trends of development of surveillance radar.

hile boasting of indisputable advantages in terms of height

measurements, the 3D radar complexes had a number of
shortcomings. One of those was their bulkiness and low
mobility (due to being composed of several radar sets)
and limited throughput (the mobile height-finder beam
had to be mechanically thrown over to the needed
azimuth).

The advancement and increasing intensity of employment

of aviation in the armed conflicts of the 20th century
resulted in the acute necessity of early detection of
aircraft for the purpose of undertaking effective steps to
repel the air attacks. At that time, the priority issue was to
detect, at sufficient distance, the fact of the presence of
aircraft in the air and determine the direction and range.
The early radars were 2D ones and they coped fairly well
with this task.

As the intrinsic search capabilities of fighter aviation and

ADMS were improved, the requirements imposed on
external guidance and target became less stringent. As a
rule, the size of the narrowed-down sector search
performed by the active air defense assets came to be a

As a result of development of fighter aviation and then of

antiaircraft artillery (AAA) and air defense missile
483

 tangibly diminished radar visibility of the AAA (with

few degrees in azimuth and elevation. This resulted in the

opportunity of replacing the bulky 3D radar complexes
with relatively compact but less accurate 3D radars.

RCS below 1 m );
far greater spectrum density of the jammers employed
(up to 2000 W/MHz and more);

The trend of development and employment of 3D radars

as most called-for detection assets has been sustained
from mid 70's of the last century up to practically this
day. Table 1 below contains comparative characteristics
of various radars in terms of accuracy of height
measurements.

wider range of heights and speeds in the combat use of

AAA (min<50 m., m>120 km, Vmax 5-25);
considerably wider range of tasks entrusted to cruise
missiles.
In these conditions, the most critical missions of
acquisition radars become:

Table 1. RMS of height measurements by different radars

Height RMSE At range,
Radar type
Country
km
(t), m
400 (for t up
to 6 km)
19Zh6
RF
70
1500 (for t
greater than 6
km)
22Zh6
500
100
RF
Desna
850
200
600
200
55Zh6UME
RF
800
200-300
150
110
PRV-16
RF
250
170
PRV-17
RF
300
200
806
Ukraine
300-400
100
ProtivnikRF
450
340
GE
64L6
RF
400
300
GammaS1
67N6
RF
500
400
Gamma-D
610
150
FPS-117
USA
762
250
TPS-77
USA
915
250
JYL-1
China
600
200

the frequency range, ensuring effectiveness against

stealthy and small-size targets, immunity against active
and passive jamming, impossibility of employment of
antiradiation missiles;
high accuracy of measurement of the primary
coordinates, compensating the errors resultant from
delay of information about high-speed targets and errors
of filtering in engaging maneuvering targets;
compact size and high mobility, ensuring survivability
in the conditions of employment of precision weapons;
high degree of automation of combat procedures and
high throughput;
superior reliability.
An analysis of the entirety of the critical parameters of
modern radars would make one conclude that the
currently produced 3D radars do not fully meet the
current and, especially, future requirements. Moreover,
the same analysis would show that at times those critical
radar parameters are mutually antagonistic.
Thus, from the point of view of optimal selection of the
frequency range, the VHF band suits mostly the design
requirements. On the other hand, provided the classical
approaches are employed, with the VHF band it would be
hard to provide a high accuracy of coordinate
measurements (especially, of height), a compact setup and
high mobility.

3. MODERN TREND OF DEVELOPMENT OF

3D RADAR

The JSC KB Radar the leading company in the

Republic of Belarus in the field of development and
production of radar, EW and radio control equipment has
largely succeeded in reconciling those contradictions in
its product line, the Vostok family radars and radar
complexes. This has become possible owing to
employment of state-of-the-art in the technologies of
building the antenna systems, of digital synthesis and
digital signal processing. We have developed and offer
delivery of a unique line of Vostok 2D and 3D radars
and radar complexes:

Currently, we are seeing yet another revision of the views

on organization of an aerial reconnaissance system and,
accordingly, the principles of building radars and radar
complexes. The reason behind it is the new round in the
development of aerial attack assets. The main trends in
the development and employment of AAA are:
massed employment of cruise missiles to achieve the
required military effect;
employment of long-range antiradiation missiles and
other precision munitions capable of neutralizing the air
defense information and active assets from standoff
(with respect to air defense missile systems and fighter
aviation) distances;
wide employment of jammers disabling the air defense
information and firing assets;
employment of unmanned aerial vehicles.

3.1. New 3D radar complex

During this new stage of progress, we have reverted to
developing 3D radar complexes composed of a mobile 2D
VHF range-finder Vostok-D/E and a new mobile heightfinder with an active digital cylindrical phased array, the
Vostok-V. The mobile 2D VHF range-finder VostokD/E has by now received a wide coverage in publications
(e.g., our article titled Prospects of development of active
aerial platform detection radars, 2012).

The up-to-date specifics of employment of aerial attack

assets are:
greatly improved accuracy of fire of the firing means
(with RMSE of guidance down to 10 m);
484

Thus the 3D radar complex consisting of a mobile 2D

VHF range-finder Vostok-D/E and a new mobile
height-finder with active cylindrical phased array
Vostok-V features the advantages of high accuracy of
coordinate measurements of the classical radar
complexes, while being devoid of the deficiencies
connected with low mobility and low throughput (the
active digital cylindrical phased array is installed on a
self-propelled chassis). Thus the system offers the
advantages of a VHF radar and those of an S-band heightfinder.

Of special interest here is the new Vostok-V. Two

variants of building a height-finder with a cylindrical
active phased array (hereinafter, cylindrical APA) were
considered in the process of the system development.
The first variant would feature a cylindrical APA 12 mhigh with 10370 radiating elements (weight and size
characteristics: weight 58 tons, length 17.17m, width
4.2m, height in combat position 18.26m). The second
variant implied a cylindrical APA 6 m-high with 5185
radiating elements (weight and size characteristics: weight
34 tons, length 12.175m, width 4.2m, height in combat
position 11.8m). The Customers and our opinion was in
favor of the second variant. The comparative
characteristics of the two Vostok-V variants are
presented in Table 2, and the radar schematic drawing is
presented in Figure 1.

3.1. 3D two-band radar Vostok-3D

The 3D Vostok-3D two-band radar represents a
compromise conceptual solution.
The two-band 3D radar Vostok-3D is designed for
detection of aerial platforms, measurement of their range,
azimuth, height and range rate, automatic target
classification, and transfer of information into an
integrated control system.

Table 2. Comparative characteristics of two Vostok-V

variants
Vostok-V Vostok-V
Characteristics
(big one)
(small one)
Detection range, target with
310
305
1 m2 RCS, at higher than
10000 m heights, km
RMSE of coordinate
measurements:
range, m
50
50
azimuth, deg,
0.3
0.3
elevation, deg,
0.025
0.05
height, at ranges shorter
80
160
than 200km, m
height, at ranges greater
150
300
than 200km, m
Resolution:
range, m
300
300
azimuth, deg
4.5
5.5
elevation, deg
0.5
1.0
Weight & size
characteristics:
length, m
17.17
12.175
width, m
4.2
4.2
height (in combat position),
18.26
11.8
m
weight, t
58
34

Vostok-3D is an innovative radar based on state-of-theart digital technologies and advanced design solutions. It
can successfully compete with all known 3D radars and
radar suites consisting of a range finder + height-finder.
Vostok-3D is further development in the Vostok
radar family. The already renowned 2D VHF Vostok-E
radar with active phased array antenna is the core of this
new system. Essentially, Vostok-3D represents the
metric-wave (VHF) Vostok-E with an additional builtin height-finding channel operating in the S-band. A view
of the Vostok-E is presented in Fig. 2.

Figure 2. Vostok-3D radar

The advantages of usage of the VHF band in the target
detection, azimuth and range detection channel are related
to the specifics of propagation and reflection of radio
waves in this band. The undeniable advantages are:
The VHF band can, given all other equal conditions,
ensure greater ranges and ceiling of detection of aerial
platforms, especially small-size ones. This is explained
by the fact that the radar cross-section (RCS) of
aerodynamic aerial vehicles in the metric band is larger
than in the centimetric or decimetric bands (see Tab.1).
This is especially true for small-size targets whose radar
cross-section in the metric band is 10100 times
greater than in the centimetric band. The dimensions of

Figure 1. Vostok-V schematic drawing

485

where Vr - is the spread of values of radial components

in the speeds of reflectors within the radar pulse volume.
Secondly, the interval is greater between the neighboring
blind speed values

individual elements of the aerial vehicles structure are

commensurable with the VHF band wavelength. As a
result, resonance phenomena [1] emerge under
irradiation,
which
intensify
the
reflected
electromagnetic oscillations;
In the VHF band, there are lesser losses in absorption
and dissipation of electromagnetic energy in
propagation [2], which especially important for longrange radar;

VrBl =

FJ
2

(2)

where F j - is the radar probing pulsing rate. Which is

In the VHF band, the characteristic of secondary

radiation from aerial vehicles is less dissected than in
the centimetric band [3]. Therefore, probability of
detection of aerial platforms within a VHF radar
coverage is less dependent on range (Figure 3,
curvature 1 is for the metric band and curvature 2 for
the centimetric band) and their tracking is more stable;

why the number of blind speeds within the possible

target speeds range is not great,

mBl =

Vmax
VrBl

2Vmax

FrBl

=1 2

(3)

Thirdly, absolute stability of frequency of the transmit

devices in the VHF band is higher, which makes it
possible to shape probing signals of high coherence;
VHF radars are less vulnerable to weapons homing-in
on radiation. In the VHF band, it is difficult to achieve
the required accuracy of guiding antiradiation missiles
due to limited dimensions of the on-board antenna
systems;
The Stealth technology is practically ineffectual in
countering VHF-band radars.
However, the VHF band also possesses a number of
deficiencies. The greatest difficulty in designing VHF
radar systems consists in achieving the required accuracy
characteristics and resolution of angular coordinates while
using admissible dimensions, especially height, of the
antenna systems (taking into account the goal of ensuring
high mobility of the system).

Figure 3. Probability of detection of aerial objects

In the VHF band, there is practically no reflection from
hydrometeors (fog, rain, etc.). This is explained by the
nature of dependence of RCS of spherical bodies on the
ratio of the sphere radius vs. the wavelength R/ (Fig. 4)
[4]. For R/<<1, the RCS of a sphere (such as raindrop)
is negligibly small;

Due to employment of a number of specific design

solutions, the builders of Vostok radars have succeeded,
to a large extent, to minimize the above shortcomings of
the VHF band.
The tradeoff solution in reconciling the above
contradictions lies in employing the S-band in the heightfinder channel.
The S-band planar vertical active phased array APA (also
known as active electronically scanned array or AESA) is
located in the central part in the form of a tilted antenna
mouth (see Fig.2). The height-finder channel antenna
measures 1730 6050 mm, and consists of 86 horizontal
in-phase line radiators. Each line has its own solid-state
antenna module which performs digital synthesis and
digital processing of signals. In the process of folding, the
additional antenna is automatically stowed between the
middle sections of the main antenna, whereby the radar
overall dimensions in travel position are not changed.

Figure 4. Dependence of RCS of spherical bodies on the

ratio of the sphere radius vs. the wavelength

Owing to digital processing and digital synthesis of

signals in each of the APA 86 lines, digital synthesis of
patterns is implemented in both the transmitting and
receiving modes. Synchronous, with the range-finder
VHF channel, scanning is enabled due to mechanical
rotation (with 1800 difference.

VHF radars are basically more immune to passive

jamming (clutter) than centimetric-wave radars. This is
explained, firstly, by the fact that the spectrum width of
passive jamming fluctuations is lesser in the metric
waveband
JD =

2Vr

2 principal operating modes of the height-finder channel

are implemented in the Vostok-3D:

(1)
486

 sequential round scanning of the space in azimuth with

a rate of 10 or 20 seconds, and parallel scanning in
elevation within 00 up to 160 sector. In this mode, one
wide (about 200) cosecant pattern is synthesized in
transmission and 16 receive patterns in reception. The
operation mode is identical to that of modern solid-state
3D radars;
height-finder mode. In this mode, a single narrow (not
more than 20) pencil-beam pattern in transmission and 4
receive (serving to provide sum-difference processing
in elevation and azimuth) patterns in reception are
formed. This operation mode provides for the
maximum attainable accuracy characteristics of the
height-finder channel at maximum detection ranges.
Here, the height-finder channel potential I by
approximately 10 dB higher than in the first mode.
Surveillance is provided by the VHF range-finder
channel. The metric-wave channel serves as the range
and azimuth information channel for the height-finder
channel. The operating mode is identical to that of a
suite consisting of a separate height-finder and separate
range-finder, while its throughput is greater by a tall
order due to height-finding in the track-while-scan
mode during synchronous rotation of the range-finder
and height-finder antennas.

Number of probing signal types

Customers
requirement)

Jamming rejection factor for 40 dB

30
signal-to-noise ratio, dB
Automatic functional check of all radar
Provided
devices
Clutter rejection factor, dB
50
Distance of reach by enemy ELINT, km
203
Automatic
processing
of
radar
information and target tracking, with
Provided
output of rectangular coordinates and
their derivatives
Automatic tracking of jammer bearings
Provided
Throughput
(number
of
targets minimum 250
processed within 10 s scan time)
(automatic
track pickup)
Target recognition
Enabled
(5 classes)
Breakdown time, min
10 (by 3-man
crew)
MTBF, hrs
900
MTTR, min
maximum 30
Service life till first overhaul, years (hrs) minimum 10
(14 000)
Service life, years (hrs)
minimum 25
(32 000)

The 3D radar Vostok-3D operational characteristics are

presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Vostok-3D radar operational characteristics
Parameter
Value
Maximum operation range, km
360
Detection range for 0.5 detection
probability and 10-5 false alarm probability, in absence of jamming at 10,000 m
altitude, for target types, km:
B-52 strategic bomber
360*
F-14 fighter
360*
F-117A Stealth fighter
350
Detection range for 0.5 detection
probability and 10-5 false alarm probability
per resolution cell in jammed conditions
(200 W/MHZ equivalent spectrum density
of jamming at the jammer antenna output,
taking into account the antenna gain, 200
km distance to jammer), targets flying at
10,000 m altitude, km:
B-52 strategic bomber
F-14 fighter
255
F-117A Stealth fighter
150
57
Primary coordinates and
range, azimuth,
parameters measured
altitude,
range rate
Resolution:
range, m
200
azimuth, deg
5.5
elevation, deg
1.2
Single measurement (one scan) root
mean square error:
range, m
25
azimuth, deg
0.3
elevation, deg
0.08...0.1

Advantages of Vostok-3D radar with S-band heightfinding channel:

1.

Practically, two radars of differing frequency bands

are installed on a single transporter;

2.

High mobility and relatively compact dimensions;

3.

Combines all advantages of the Vostok-E as the

best VHF radar and those of a modern 3D radar with
APA (AESA);

4.

High jamming immunity, including due to the twoband design, 1.52 m and 10 cm;

5.

Protection from antiradiation missiles (there are no

missile homing heads working in the VHF band,
whereas the S-band channel can be activated only
periodically, also the VHF band is effective for
detection of ARMs);

6.

The price is more than 2 times lower as compared to

purchasing a separate Vostok-E VHF radar and a
separate height-finder.

4. CONCLUSION
Radars designed by KB Radar are notable for their
superior coordinate measurement accuracy, reliable
detection of small size and low-visibility targets,
enhanced jamming immunity, invulnerability to stealthy
attackers and antiradiation missiles.
All the Vostok variants ensure operation with
nationality identification systems of different standards
and can be integrated into a control system using the
relevant control and information exchange protocols.
487

The radars in this family are based on uniform technical

and production process solutions, which ensures a high
degree of unitization of their manufacturing components,
economical operation and shorter time for the user to
master the systems.

by K.N.Trofimov. Vol.1 Radar Basics. Edited by

Ya.S.Itshoki. M., Sov. Radio, 1976, 456 p.
[3] Scattering of Electromagnetic Waves by Aerial and
Ground Radar Objects: monograph/ O.I.Suharevski,
V.A.Vasilets, S.V.Kukubuko et al.// edited by
O.I.Suharevski. Kh.: KhUPS, 2009. 468 p., ill.
[4] Radar System Analysis and Modeling./ David K.
Barton. p. cm. (Artech House Radar Library) Rev.
ed. of: Radar system analysis. 1988.)

REFERENCES
[1] Kobak,V.O.: Radar Reflectors. ., Sov. Radio,
1975, 248 p
[2] Radar Handbook. Editor in Chief M.Skolnik. New
York. Translation from English (in 4 volumes) edited

488

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE CFAR DETECTORS

DEJAN IVKOVI
Military technical institute, Belgrade, divkovic555@gmail.com
MILENKO ANDRI
Military Academy, Belgrade, asmilenko@beotel.net
BOJAN ZRNI
Defense Technologies Department, Belgrade, bojan.zrnic@vs.rs

Abstract: This paper describes a fusion CA-TM-OS-CFAR and CATM-CFAR detectors. Mathematical models for the
above mentioned detectors are given in brief. Changes in the probability of detection depending on the size of the
reference window of detection and probability of false alarm rate are shown. The article presents detection of simulated
radar targets in Weibull clutter and real radar targets in real clutter and compares characteristics of fusion CA-TMOS-CFAR with CATM-CFAR detector.
Keywords: CFAR detection, radar target, clutter.

trimmed mean CFAR (TM-CFAR) [5] detectors belong to

this group. The third group consists of some algorithms
which are combination of above mentioned techniques,
also in order to reduce problems of clutter edge and
interfering targets. Within this group there are the
ordered-statistics smallest-of CFAR (OSSO-CFAR) [6]
and the ordered-statistics greatest-of CFAR (OSGOCFAR) [7] detectors. And finally, the fourth group
consists of algorithms that in theirs procedures have some
kind of a fusion center. This group can be divided into
two subgroups on the basis of the implementation method
of a data fusion. The first subgroup consists of models
which practice a data fusion from several distributed
CFAR detectors in space. The second subgroup consists
of models which practice a data fusion by using a parallel
operation of several CFAR detectors centralized in one
sensor. Distributed fuzzy CA-CFAR and OS-CFAR
detectors [8], fuzzy cell-averaging CFAR (FCA-CFAR)
[9], the linear combination of order statistics CFAR
(LCOS-CFAR) [10] and fusion CA-GO-SO-CFAR [11]
detectors belong to this group.

1. INTRODUCTION
CFAR (Constant False Alarm Rate) detector has a feature
that automatically adjusts its sensitivity to the intensity of
interferences variation. Because of this characteristic,
CFAR detectors are used in radar systems which always
work in an environment where there are different sources
of noise, such as unwanted reflections from the ground,
clouds etc.
The basic model of adaptive threshold detector is cellaveraging CFAR (CA-CFAR) [1]. There are two basic
detection problems associated with the CA-CFAR
algorithm. The first problem is the clutter edge and the
second problem is the appearance of multiple target
situation. The energy of interference changes in the case
of the clutter edge rapidly. For example, this occurs at the
border between land and sea. Multiple target situation can
cause the masking of weaker targets in neighborhood of
stronger targets. To reduce the negative effects of the two
above problems and to preserve the probability of
detection at the required level, many modifications of the
conventional CA-CFAR have been made. In general,
these modifications can be classified into several groups.

The first part of the paper briefly describes a fusion CATM-OS-CFAR and cell-averaging-trimmed-mean CFAR
(CATM-CFAR) detectors. They are described in detail in
the [12] and [13, 14], respectively.

The first group consists of CFAR algorithms that use the

averaging technique. The smallest-of CFAR (SO-CFAR)
[2] and the greatest-of CFAR (GO-CFAR) [3] detectors
are typically representatives. The second group consists of
algorithms that use ordering technique, in which, instead
of calculating the mean signal in the reference cells,
sorting them by the amplitude in ascending order is made.
The ordered-statistic CFAR (OS-CFAR) [4] and the

The second part of the paper gives a comparative analysis

of theoretical characteristics for fusion CA-TM-OSCFAR and CATM-CFAR detectors and presents
detection results of simulated radar targets in Weibull
clutter and real radar targets in real clutter and compares
characteristics of mentioned CFAR detectors.
489

Table 1: Possible fusion CA-TM-OS-CFAR outputs

CA
TM
OS
fusion CA-TM-OS
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1

2. FUSION CA-TM-OS-CFAR DETECTOR

Approach of this fusion CFAR detector is based on
parallel operation of three well-known types of CFAR
detectors: CA-CFAR, TM-CFAR and OS-CFAR.
Therefore, this new CFAR is called fusion CA-TM-OSCFAR detector. Simple block diagram of the new fusion
CFAR detector is shown in picture 1. On the picture 1 can
be seen three branches. In every branch there is one type
of CFAR detector (CA, TM or OS), which, depending on
the required probability of false alarm rate, the power of
the clutter and signal value in the test cell, make a
independent decisions about the presence of the reflected
signal from the target in the test cell. These three
decisions arrive at the fusion center simultaneously,
where a final decision about the presence of the target in
the test cell is made. The algorithm takes the final
decision by the appropriate fusion rules and potential
outputs of fusion CA-TM-OS-CFAR detector are given in
table 1 (a value of 1 represents the presence of the target,
a value of 0 represents no target). The output of the CACFAR detector is taken as reference for the fusion center
because it assures high probability of detection. However,
sometimes when CA-CFAR output is 1, there is a
possibility for a false alarm caused by multiple targets or
change of clutter features. To eliminate this false alarm
we apply "and" logic between CA-CFAR output and the
outputs obtained of applying the "or" logic between TMCFAR and SO-CFAR.

Also, there is a real possibility that target is present but

that CA-CFAR output becomes 0 because strong clutter
interference or multiple neighborhood targets. We apply
"and" logic between TM-CFAR and OS-CFAR detectors
for eliminate the target lost.
Events when we have target detection (rows 4, 6, 7 and 8
in table 1) are mutually exclusive since occurrence of one
of them excludes the occurrence of the other. We know
that CA, TM and OS-CFAR decisions are independent
events also. Probability of detection PDfusion for proposed
fusion CFAR can be calculate according to [12]:
PDfusion = PDTM PDOS + PDCA ( PDTM + 2 PDTM PDOS + PDOS

(1)

where PD , PD and PD are appropriate probabilities of

CA
TM
OS
detection of CA, TM and OS-CFAR detectors,
respectively.

Picture 1: Block diagram of the fusion CA-TM-OS-CFAR detector

T

3. CATM-CFAR DETECTOR
TM-CFAR algorithm

ZTM

STM=T ZTM
comparator

The cell-averaging-trimmed-mean CFAR (CATM-CFAR)

detector [13, 14] optimizes good features of two CFAR
detectors depending on the characteristics of clutter and
present targets with the goal of increasing the probability
of detection under constant probability of false alarm rate.
It is realized by parallel operation of two types of CFAR
detector: CA-CFAR and TM-CFAR. Its structure is
showed on picture 2.
CA-CFAR detector and TM-CFAR detector work
simultaneously and independently but with the same
scaling factor of the detection threshold T. They produce
own mean clutter power level Z using the appropriate
CFAR algorithm. Next, they calculate own detection
thresholds SCA and STM. After comparison with the content
in cell under test Y, they decide about target presence

TM decision

target

AND

X2n

Xn+1 Y Xn
test
cell

comparator

X1

FUSION
CENTER

no target

CA decision

SCA=T ZCA

CA-CFAR algorithm

ZCA

Picture 2: Block diagram of the CATM-CFAR detector

490

independently. The finite decision about target presence is

made in fusion center which is composed of only one
"and" logic circuit. If the both input single decision in the
fusion center are positive, the finite decision of the fusion
center is presence of the target in cell under test. In each
other cases finite decision is negative and target is not
declared at the location which corresponds with cell under
test.
Expression for probability of detection PDCATM for
CATM-CFAR are derived in [13] in detail. Because of
that, we give here only final expression:

PDCATM = 1 +

1 + SNR

N N T T
1 2

M
i =1

Vi

1 + SNR

(2)

where T1 is number of discarded smallest ranked cells, T2

is number of discarded greatest ranked cells in reference
window. Auxiliary variables MV and a are determined as
follow:
M V1 (T ) =
T1

j =0

Picture 3: Detection curves for constant value of N

The dependence of the probability of detection versus the
SNR for different sizes of the reference window of
detection N and the constant value of the probability of
false alarm rate Pfa is discussed. The results of this
analysis are shown in picture 4. We can see that by
reducing the size of reference window of detection it
occurs reduction in probability of detection. This is the
case for both models of the mentioned new CFAR
detectors. Again, we can see that each detection curve of
fusion CA-TM-OS-CFAR is above the detection curve of
CATM-CFAR detectors for the same size of the reference
window of detection. In this analysis, signal-to-noise ratio
losses in CATM-CFAR detector are higher than 2.5 dB to
2.8 dB from the corresponding losses in fusion CA-TMOS-CFAR detector for the same size of reference window
of detection and value of probability of detection PD=0.5.
Losses of CATM-CFAR detector increase with increasing
of size of the reference window of detection.

N!

T1 !( N T1 1)!( N T1 T2 )

T1 1 T1 j
j ( )

N j
+T
N T1 T2
M Vi (T ) =

(3)

ai
,
ai + T

i = 2,3,..., N T1 T2

ai =

N T1 i + 1
N T1 T2 i + 1

(4)

(5)

4. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
Features of the new fusion CA-TM-OS-CFAR and
CATM-CFAR detectors are not compared in previous
research. In this section the theoretical properties of the
mentioned detectors from the perspective of probability of
detection are compared. On the picture 3 and 4, solid lines
refer to fusion CA-TM-OS-CFAR detector and dashed
lines refer to CATM-CFAR detector.
The dependence of the probability of detection versus the
SNR for different values of the probability of false alarm
rate Pfa and the constant size of the reference window of
detection N is discussed. The results of this analysis are
shown in picture 3. We can see that by reducing the
probability of false alarm rate it occurs reduction in
probability of detection. This is the case for both models
of the mentioned new CFAR detectors. In addition, we
can see that each detection curve of fusion CA-TM-OSCFAR is above the detection curve of CATM-CFAR
detectors for the same value of probability of false alarm
rate. Signal-to-noise ratio losses in CATM-CFAR
detector are higher by about 2.6 dB from the
corresponding losses in fusion CA-TM-OS-CFAR
detector for the same probability of false alarm rate and
value of probability of detection PD=0.5.

Picture 4: Detection curves for constant value of Pfa

5. SIMULATION RESULTS
In this section we carried out a simulation to compare
practical features of new fusion CA-TM-OS-CFAR and
CATM-CFAR detectors. We considered first three
simulated targets in Weibull clutter and than real targets
in real clutter. Detection results of fusion CA-TM-OS491

CFAR and CATM-CFAR are compared. Main parameters

of realized CFAR detectors are listed in table 2. One
model of software radar receiver (SRR) [15] is used for
signal processing and target detection.

targets

amplitude

Table 2: Main parameters of realized CFAR detectors

model
Pfa
N
T
k T1 T2
CA
1.37 fusion
TM
2.38 2
2
-6
CA-TM-OS
16
10
OS
20.9 12 0.68 2
2
CATM

Simulated targets in Weibull clutter

First we simulated a group of three neighborhood targets
per azimuth and range. The distance between two
adjacent targets is only one radar resolution cell per range.
So, it is quite difficult to detect all of them by many older
CFAR algorithms since targets interfere strongly for each
other. Target parameters are listed in table 3. Targets have
different SNR and different speeds which are determined
by appropriated Doppler frequency fd. Targets have
similar range R for used model of SRR and approximately
same azimuth . Also, Weibull clutter power is increased
to the maximum value in order to identify the benefits of
new mentioned CFAR detectors over the older CA, TM
and OS-CFAR detectors when they work individually.

Picture 6: Fusion CA-TM-OS-CFAR output

Result of the signal processing in CATM -CFAR detector
is shown in picture 7. Also, in this situation, it detects all
three simulated neighborhood targets which are easily
visible. Again, there are not false targets.

targets

Table 3: Simulated targets parameters in Weibull clutter

SNR [dB]
9.1
17.1
10.7

fd [Hz]
2500
3000
3500

R [km]
8.9
10.8
12.6

[]
198.9
200.7
199.5

amplitude

target
1
2
3

Raw video signal for selected area per azimuth is shown

in picture 5. Three neighborhood targets can be observed
in homogenous Weibull clutter.

Picture 7: CATM-CFAR output

targets

amplitude

Real targets in real clutter

We made check of the fusion CA-TM-OS and CATMCFAR by detection of three real targets in real clutter
also. We use the card PCI-9812/10 (picture 8) for analogto-digital (A/D) conversion of signals from I and Q
branches of one real radar device. Sampling frequency
was 2 MHz. Transmitted pulse power of the radar device
was 15 KW, frequency was 5.4 GHz, pulse length was 6
s, pulse repetition frequency was 2350 Hz, intermitted
frequency was 30 MHz, antenna scan rate was 1 Hz and
horizontal antenna beamwidth was 2.1. After A/D
conversion follows the creation of range bin memory.
Then signals are processed in Doppler filter. The output
signal from the envelope detector is shown in picture 9.
This is raw video signal for one antenna revolution in real
clutter.

Picture 5: Raw video signal

Result of the signal processing in fusion CA-TM-OS-CFAR
detector is shown in picture 6. It detects all three simulated
neighborhood targets with a very clear reflections and no
false alarms. It kept a high level of detectability of the CACFAR detector, and suppress false alarms as TM and OSCFAR thanks to the fusion of individual decisions based on
decision rules listed in table 1.

Present real targets can not be seen in the raw video signal
because clutter is nonhomogeneous here. After signal
processing in CA-TM-OS-CFAR detector we can see in
492

picture 10 three real targets. Extractor of used SRR model

determined their coordinates. The coordinates of detected
real targets are shown in table 4. Again, there are not false
targets.
A/D
PCI-9812/10
Q
Q

I
RANGE BIN
MEMORY

Q
Q

CFAR

I
DOPLER
FILTER

Q
Q

EXTRACTOR

ENVELOPE
DETECTOR
Q
Q

target 3
amplitude

targets because real clutter fluctuation and the simpler

structure of the fusion center in CATM relative to the
fusion center in fusion CA-TM-OS-CFAR detector.

DISPLAY

target 2

Picture 8: Block diagram of the used software radar

receiver

target 1

amplitude

Picture 11: CATM-CFAR output

6. CONCLUSION
In this paper is presented some comparative analysis of
theoretical and practical features of new fusion CA-TMOS-CFAR and CATM-CFAR detectors. Fusion of
particularly decisions of appropriate internal CA-CFAR,
TM-CFAR and OS-CFAR algorithms within CA-TM-OSCFAR or CATM-CFAR detectors provides better finale
decision and detection than single CA, TM or OS-CFAR
detector.

Picture 9: Raw video signal

In case of detection of simulated targets in Weibull clutter

results of fusion CA-TM-OS-CFAR and CATM-CFAR
detectors are similar since clutter was homogeneous.
However, in case of detection of true targets in a real
situation, detection of fusion CA-TM-OS-CFAR detector
is better because there were not false targets, in contrast to
CATM-CFAR detector which had several false targets in
detection process. This result is logical since the fusion
center of the CA-TM-OS-CFAR detector is more
complex than fusion center in CATM-CFAR detector.

amplitude

target 3

target 2

target 1

Direction of further research would be moving toward an

examination of characteristics of the realized fusion CATM-OS-CFAR and CATM-CFAR detectors under
conditions of jamming signal presence and its effect on
detection of radar targets.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Picture 10: Fusion CA-TM-OS-CFAR output

This work was partially supported by the Ministry of

Education, Science and Technological Development of
the Republic of Serbia under Grants III-47029.

Table 4: Coordinates of real targets in real clutter

target
1
2
3

R [km]
7.3
12.4
6.1

[]
54
71
229

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Results of the detection of real targets in real clutter of the

mentioned CATM-CFAR detector is shown in picture 11.
Three real targets are easily visible and have the similar
amplitudes compared to the previous fusion CFAR
model. However, in this situation we have some false
493

[3]

[4]

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[6]

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detector in receiver of the software defined radar",
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[13] D. Ivkovi, M. Andri, B. Zrni, "A New Model of
CFAR Detector", FREQUENZ - Journal of RFEngineering and Telecommunications, VOL. 68,
Issue 3-4, Pages 125-136, jan 2014, DOI:
10.1515/freq-2013-0087, Print ISSN 0016-1136, Online ISSN 2191-6349.
[14] D. Ivkovi, M. Andri, B. Zrni, "False Alarm
Analysis of the CATM-CFAR in Presence of Clutter
Edge", RADIOENGINEERING - Journal of Radio
Engineering and Science, VOL. 23, NO. 1, Pages 6672, april 2014, Print ISSN 1210-2512, On-line ISSN
1805-9600.
[15] D. Ivkovi, S. Simi, M. Duki, M. Eri, "Software
model of the Signal Processing Unit in the
Conventional Radar", Proc. of the EUROCON,
Belgrade, Serbia, 2005.

494

CALIBRATION OF THE OPOS ET-250 RADAR CALIBRATOR

IVICA MILANOVI
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, metrologija@toc.vs.rs
NEDA SPASOJEVI
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, metrologija@toc.vs.rs
MIA MARKU
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, metrologija@toc.vs.rs
ZORAN VIGNJEVI
Directorate for Standardization, Codification and Metrology, Belgrade, zoran.vignjevic@mod.gov.rs

Abstract: This paper presents a method "how to calibrate" the test unit for Doppler radars like it is OPOS ET-250
radar calibrator. It gives an estimation of measurement uncertainty, also. In principal, there are two checks: first, how
much test unit is accurate when it generates Doppler frequency, and second, how accurate it can detect frequency
generated from the external source.
Keywords: Doppler, radar, calibrator, calibration, frequency.

1. INTRODUCTION

3) Detecting whether the transmitter is working or not.

Mission of the Technical Test Center is testing and

evaluation of the armament and military equipment. One
of the issues is measuring the initial velocity of the
projectiles, which conducts at the Testing Ground
Nikinci. For that purpose, Doppler radar Opos Electronics
BS-850 is used. Danish producer Opos Electronics,
nowadays Weibel, makes this radar for classic projectiles,
calibers from 5.56 mm.

The first two functions can be checked in the ML-02. This

paper presents ET-250 calibration method. There are two
basic checks: first, the accuracy of test unit when it
generates Doppler frequency and second, how accurate it
can detect frequency generated from the external source.
The conclusion if transmitter working fine or not, comes
up from the first two checks.

Assuming its basic function, this kind of radar is

definitely a measuring device, and it needs periodical
calibration, as any other measuring equipment. Further,
there is a need for its adjustment before every measuring
procedure. Standard calibration and adjustment methods
will be very complicated, practically impossible. Because
of that, a Doppler radar manufacturer supplies it with a
test unit in order to be used as a radar calibrator.

2. SIMULATOR FREQUENCY ACCURACY

TEST
The ET-250 can generates square signal in order to
simulate projectile velocity from 50 m/s to 3200 m/s.
Frequency accuracy of that signal can be checked in a
way presented in picture 1:

The Opos ET-250 is intended as a test unit for Doppler

radars working in the X-band, especially around 10 490
MHz to 10 512 MHz. Instead the radar itself, this test unit
is calibrated in the Metrology laboratory for microwave
technique (ML-02) of the Department for Metrology of
the Technical Test Center. In that way, radar has
metrological traceability to the Serbian national standards,
and further to the BIPM.

Picture 1. Simulator frequency accuracy test block

diagram

The ET-250 gives the following possibilities [1]:

The main reference is Pendulum CNT-91R frequency

counter. Its rubidium time base makes it very stable, and
very accurate, too. Only in order to prevent frequency

1) Simulating Doppler frequencies

2) Checking the transmitter carrier frequency, and
495

frequency (Tx) of the ET-250. If 10 490 MHz is chosen,

generated frequency should be [1]:

counter damage, a digital oscilloscope (Tektronix TDS

2022) is using to check signal shape and level. Tektronix
P6106 is 10x probe, and it is used to attenuate output
signal. Besides, it`s very convenient for measuring
directly from the circuits.

f (kHz ) = 70 V (m/s)

(2)

In case that oscillator frequency is 10 525 MHz, generated

frequency should be [1]:

At the beginning, we have to open ET-250. It`s very

important to connect battery properly, and make hard
connection between its negative end, and ET-250 case.

f (kHz ) = 70.24 V ( m/s )

Output frequency is measured at the Frequency

Generator circuit (chip U6, pin No.14):

(3)

Assuming chosen oscillator frequency and set velocity at

the ET-250, generated frequency has to be measured,
directly from the simulators output, as it is described in
the pictures 1 and 2. Frequency counter is set in Smart
mode - result is the mean value of 1000 successive
readings, sampled in 1 s period.
After that, achieved results have to be compared with the
frequencies calculated from (1) or (2) equation, depending
on chosen Tx. If the simulator works properly, frequency
errors should not exceed 0.2 % of the nominal values.
With the described method, and with the equipment used
in ML-02, experimental results show that maximal
frequency generator error do not exceed 0.016 %.
Simulator frequency accuracy should be tested for every
single velocity, which can be set on the Opos ET-250 (50
m/s to 3 200 m/s).

Picture 2. Frequency generator output (U6, pin 14)

3. SIMULATOR FREQUENCY METER

ACCURACY TEST

The ET-250 can works on two different basic oscillator

frequencies, 10 490 MHz or 10 525 MHz, which can be
changed manually (by switching Tx Freq. button). The
real value of projectile velocity can be calculate like [1]:
Vc = Vs

fs
fd

Absolute accuracy of radar`s carrier frequency is very

important to know. Opos ET-250 is equipped with
antenna and it can measure frequency from 8.4 GHz to
12.4 GHz, with accuracy of 0.05 %. Picture 3 presents
method how to calibrate ET-250 in the frequency meter
mode:

(1)

where: Vc is calculated velocity, Vs velocity set on the

simulator, fs radar frequency, and fd basic oscillator

Picture 3. Frequency counter accuracy test setup block diagram

CW signal (+10 dBm) is generated with Hewlett Packard
8673E signal generator. Despite it`s good frequency
stability, output frequency should be checked with
frequency counter Pendulum CNR-91R, which becomes
the main reference in this calibration method. Generator is
synchronized with 10 MHz output signal from
Pendulum`s rubidium reference.

attenuations, additional signal loss can made

measurement impossible. Method that is more elegant is
with splitter use, but we do not recommend it.
Opos ET-250 is equipped with antenna, which is placed
behind a plexiglass window. Signal from the HP 8673E is
delivered to ET-250 through gain antenna Scientific
Atlanta (12-8.2). Antenna and cable are connected with
HP X281B waveguide to N female adapter. The
polarization of those two antennas has to be the same
(vertical [1]), as is presented in the picture 4:

In order to improve calibration chain, power splitter can

be used generator output frequency will be checked
without removing cable every time you have to change
frequency. However, splitter enters attenuation, typically
6 dB. Signal generators can generate signal up to +12
dBm. Assuming cable, connector and antenna

The distance between them should be approximately

10cm, or even less.
496

frequency counter Pendulum CNT-91R. It has traceability

up to cesium beam standard Oscilloquartz 3210, which
was calibrate in the Directorate for Measures and Precious
Metals in Belgrade (BIPM traceability). Microwave
power and attenuation have traceability to METAS (Swiss
national metrology institute). Horn antenna SA hasn`t
been calibrated for years, but, in method described in
Chapter 3, it was used just to transport signal, and there is
no way how it can degrade value of signal frequency.
Signal absolute power, or its modulation are not important
for frequency measurement.
The measurement uncertainty estimation is the same for
both tests. It`s the measure how precise frequency is
measured with frequency counter in the first case,
frequency generated from the Opos ET-250, and in the
second case, frequency generated from the signal
generator.

Picture 4. Antenna polarization

Opos ET-250 works like frequency meter when it is set to
DETECTION mode. The first step is to detect radar
signal on METER scale: with FREQUENCY buttons
set nominal frequency. After that, changing METER
SENSITIVITY, adjust Meter scale needle to reach
approximately half of full scale, or even first third of it.
After that, a calibrator has to be set up to FREQUENCY
METER mode.
The second step is to determine the real value of
frequency by changing it on the ET-250: the signal level
is increasing, as the frequency is more accurate. The value
of frequency when ET-250 detects maximal signal level is
the nominal frequency.
On the front panel of Opos ET-250 producer gives
Correction graph, with values, which should be added
to measured ones, in order to achieve the real radar
frequency. If the results don`t exceed 0.05 %, calibrator
can be used without any corrections. But, when it`s not,
correction diagram has to be replaced with new values.

Measurement uncertainties fall into two categories [2]:

Uncertainty due to random effects (URND), and uncertainty
due to systematic effects (USYS).

4.1. Uncertainty due to random effects

Random effects vary in an unpredictable way each time
you make a measurement [5]. They produce an unstable
reading on the counters display. This uncertainty is often
assumed to have an approximately normal distribution.
There is two main error sources: resolution (or
quantization error) and trigger error due to noise.
Pendulum defines random uncertainty like [3]:
U RND =

2.5 EQ2 + ( STE ) 2

MT N

MR

(4)

where EQ is quantization error, STE is Start Trigger Error,

MT is Measuring Time, and MR presents Measurement
Result. EQ is specified like 65 ps. In this case, MT is 1000
seconds. Number N is 800/MT. Producer defines STE
like:
2
STE = Enoise
+ E 2jitter

(5)

Enoise presents error due to internal and external noise

level, and it`s defined by formula 6:
Enoise =

Vni2 + Vne2
du
dt

(6)

where Vni is rms level of internal noise, Vne the rms noise
of applied signal, and du/dt is input signal slew rate at
trigger point. Specification say that Vni is surely better
than 50 V. Input signal has noise level less than 1 mV.
We can calculate slew rate using formula 7:

Picture 5: Correction graph

Calibrator should be tested in the whole frequency
bandwidth. Experimental results show that ET-250 can
measure radar`s frequency with accuracy less than
0.02%.

du = 2 MR U 2
rms
dt

4. MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY

(7)

where Urms is rms level of input signal.

Measuring equipment used in both methods, have

traceability to different national standards. As it`s
mentioned in Chapters 2 and 3, the main reference is

Ejitter is error due to single period jitter [4], and it`s

basically defined with the short-term stability of rubidium
oscillator value of Allan deviation for = 1 s is 310-12.
497

For generator frequency accuracy testing, assuming that

measured frequencies are from 3.5 kHz to 224 kHz,
contribution of random effects are from 2.210-10 Hz to
1.610-8 Hz. When frequency meter is tested, measured
frequencies are from 8 GHz to 12.4 GHz, and random
uncertainty contribution is from 58 mHz to 90 mHz.

Table 1: Expanded uncertainties

TEST
Generator
Freq. meter

Unlike random, systematic uncertainty is unchanged

when a measurement is repeated under the same
conditions [5]. Instead, those effects cause an offset of the
measurement result from the true value. It results from
time base error, which presents error from long-term
stability, and error from instability due to temperature
changes. Formula 8 defines systematic uncertainty:

U SYS =

200 ps

MT

5. CONCLUSION
Calibration methods presented in this paper are used for
Opos radar calibrator, but they can be implemented for all
Doppler radar simulators. Estimated uncertainties are
more than enough that results can be acceptable.

Also, it`s shown that less quality equipment can be used

as well as presented one. The main conclusion can be
presented like formula: more stable reference = better and
better results.

(8)

where a is long-term stability for period of 1 year

(specified like 210-10), and t is instability of the CNT91R produced by environmental changes (specified like
2.510-10).

REFERENCES
[1] OPOS ELECTRONICS a/s, ET 250 Test Unit,
Technical Manual, Denmark, 1981.
[2] FLUKE, "Sources of Error in Time Interval
Measurements", Application Note.
[3] SPECTRACOM Corporation, "Frequency Calibrator
/ Analyzer CNT-91R, User Manual", Sweden, 2011.
[4] Staffan Johansson, Accurate Calibration of
Frequency, Pendulum Instruments.
[5] "Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in
Measurement - GUM", BIPM, IEC, IFCC, ISO,
IUPAC, IUPAP, OIML, 1995.
[6] "EA-4/02M Expression of the Uncertainty of
Measurements
in
Calibration",
European
Corporation for Accreditation, 1999.

For generator frequency accuracy testing, contribution of

systematic effects is from 0.6 mHz to 41 mHz, and for
frequency meter testing, they are from 1.5 Hz to 2.3 Hz.
The combined uncertainty [6] is calculating from form. 9:
2
2
U C = U RND
+ U SYS

(9)

Finally, the expanded uncertainty for coverage factor k=2,

is equal to:
U (k = 2) = 2 U C

Umax
83 Hz
4.6 Hz

The influence of systematic uncertainties is dominant, and

it`s shown that signal levels and noises have much smaller
effects than time base instability due to elapsed time, or
fluctuations of environmental conditions.

4.2. Uncertainty due to systematic effects

a2 + t2 +

U (k=2)
Umin
1.3 Hz
3 Hz

(10)

Expanded uncertainties are in table 1:

498

AN IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CORRELATIVE INTERFEROMETER

DIRECTION FINDING ALGORITHM ON MULTI-CORE DSP PLATFORM
VELIMIR VUJANOVI
RT-RK Institute for Computer Based Systems Novi Sad, velimir.vujanovic@rt-rk.com
ALEKSANDRA DAVIDOVI
RT-RK Institute for Computer Based Systems Novi Sad, aleksandra.davidovic@rt-rk.com
ALEKSANDAR TUCAKOV
RT-RK Institute for Computer Based Systems Novi Sad, aleksandar.tucakov@rt-rk.com

Abstract: Developing a complex system like radio direction finder (RDF) puts many challenges in front of system
designers. Most of challenges are related to real time nature of the system and need to preserve signal coherency. This
paper will present one of many challenges we have faced with, during development of the processing block of a
direction finding (DF) system. The processing module is based on commercially available multi-core DSP and it is
implemented as a standard PCIe card. Processing block in designed system is a bridge between data acquisition
module, and data presentation and post processing modules. Although several different DF algorithms are implemented
on DSP, this paper is devoted to problems and solutions applied in implementation of a correlative interferometer
algorithm, emphasizing the process of achieving acceptable results concerning real time requirements of the RDF
system. Fragments of selected spectrum are processed on DSP cores in parallel to reach acceptable real time
requirements. The implemented DF algorithm works with large amount of data that is pre-calculated and stored into
RAM. Hence, a memory throughput and RAM capacity limitation are taken into account.
Keywords: direction finding, correlative interferometer, DSP, multi-core, implementation.

1. INTRODUCTION

Developed direction finding system consists from input

block, acquisition block, processing block and PC as
block for high level processing (graphical presentation,
UI, emission identification, determining the location of
the emission/transmitter, etc.).

Direction finding system described in this paper is

developed for the HF Band (1.6 to 30MHz) of radio
waves.
Correlative interferometer direction finding algorithm in
radio waves is based on correlation between phases of
signal from the known source (direction) and phase of
radio signal from observed source. Direction of arrival is
determined by searching the maximum of correlation
between these two signals. Correlation is calculated for all
steering vectors (direction of arrival for known sources
and current antenna system). Steering vectors are formed
for known sources defined at finite and discrete direction
selected with resolution of 12 degree on azimuth and 4.5
degree for elevation. Results are improved by
interpolation of neighbor vectors weighted by calculated
correlation between corresponding neighbors.

Input block is receiver with three independent RF

channels that translate signal from base spectrum to
intermediate frequency (IF). Those three channels must be
synchronized and coherent in time. It is acceptable for
channels to have misaligned phases because phase
alignment is done in processing block. After acquisition
of signal and its transformation to frequency domain in
acquisition block, processing block aligns phases of three
channels. Thereafter correlative interferometer algorithm
is applied on data to find direction of arriving radio
signal. Result of direction finding algorithm and signal
power are passed to PC for presentation on appropriate
diagrams and further processing.

Steering vectors are characteristic of selected antenna

array and they depend on frequency of signal and antenna
array configuration (geometry). They are calculated to
represent a response of whole antenna array as an entirety
like it is a single element. This response is transformed to
OMNI/NS/EW coordinate system which is used because
of selected AD-COCK antenna system.

Processing block is built as a PCIe PC card with Texas

instruments 6678 series DSP and 2GiB of DDR3-1600
RAM. This module is connected with acquisition module
via high-performance packet-switched, interconnect SRIO
interface. Acquisition block is based on final product and
it dictates dynamic of the system. For PC connection,
499

processing block uses PCIe interface to achieve higher

maximum system bus throughput.

2048 frequency point (8192 points total). This

implementation defines dynamic of data acquisition and
processing block input bandwidth.

2. ANALYZIS

To preserve data consistency, processing block should

prevent overwriting arrived data and schedule it for
processing. If some of data could not be processed on
time whole frame should be omitted.

To build software for processing block of target direction

finding system, in addition of correlative interferometer
algorithm characteristic many requirements and hardware
restrictions are taken into account.

Time requirements analysis

System is built from some existing components that

defines data input format, data frame length and input
data throughput. At another hand, processing board is
designed on TI DSP 6678 that brings some restrictions
e.g. it supports only 2GiB of RAM.

Time requirements are mostly driven by the acquisition

block and requested configuration (spectrum width).
Spectrum observing width demands and periods of the
frame arriving are given in the Table 1. In most
demanding case, the processing block should acquire
input data, perform direction finding calculation and pass
results to next block in system for less than 1.6
millisecond.

Analyzing correlative interferometer algorithm two main

data sets are recognized. The first set of data is result of
antenna array response calculation and this set depends
only of antennas geometry and frequency for which
response is calculated. This set could be calculated once
for selected antenna array and stored in memory for use
with corresponding real time samples. Second set of data
is acquired from the receiver and it represents current
signal arrived to antenna array. In case of AD-COCK
antenna type signal from all antennas is transformed by
linear transformation to three channels of OMNI/NS/EW
coordinate system.

Table 1: Period of frame arriving for specified DDC

width
Total spectrum
width [kHz]

Spectrum width
per DDC [kHz]

Frame sampling
time[ms]

5000,00

1250,00

1,6384

2500,00

625,00

3,2768

1250,00

312,50

6,5536

625,00

156,25

13,1072

According to requirement, response vectors should be

calculated in discrete directions on every 12 degree of
azimuth and every 4.5 degree on elevation. This demand
defines number of antenna response vectors that must be
calculated per frequency point. The algorithm determines
that vector is calculated for every element of antenna
array. Several operating modes of direction finding
system with different resolution, range of observed
spectrum and sequence of observation in some operating
modes are defined. Choice of operating mode affects on
necessity of response vectors in certain circumstances and
therefore this data should be available during processing.
There is also need for real time data processing in manner
to process as much data as possible. This requirement is
determined by requested scan speed.

Processing should be performed on each point of input

frame. There are 8192 points in frame; therefore single
point should be processed in less than 0.2 microseconds.
This means that five million points should be processed in
a one second. Although modern digital signaling
processors operates on frequency of 1GHz and more this
calculation leads to about 200 CPU cycles available per
point for processing. Beside the fact that these processors
brings different speed improvements as pipelining, DMA,
internal memory and some improvements depending on
algorithm these 200 CPU cycles pretend to be
insufficient.

System dynamic analysis

Data amount requirements

Frequency resolution is characteristic of system that

defines one frequency point width in frame. Defined
resolutions are directly derived from implemented time
domain to frequency domain transformation algorithm
and acquisition module hardware specification.
Acquisition module can sample four independent
channels at frequency of 100MHz and translate these
channels to base band on four independent DDCs. Every
DDC can be configured to operate on all four channels.
There are some restrictions about possible decimation that
can be set for DDC. Decimation specifies the width of the
spectrum translated to base band. On this system DDCs
are configured for width of 1.25 MHz as maximum or
half, quarter, eighth that width (156.25 kHz as minimum).
Output form one DDC is input for time to frequency
domain transformation. There are four transformation
blocks dedicated to corresponding DDC that produce

Analysis of memory requirements of implemented

algorithm is made for single point. In this estimation, only
algorithm required data with significant size are taken into
account while some variables are ignored since they dont
make significant influence on the final result of this
analysis.
Starting point of algorithm is calculation of antenna array
responses. For every point in frame, a bundle of
coefficients that corresponds to antenna response in given
direction should be available. These parameters are
represented by complex numbers and defined for all
corresponding channels (OMNI/NS/EW). Antenna array
response for single direction and for single point is
described by three complex values. According to
requirements direction vectors are formed on every 12
degrees along azimuth and 4.5 degrees along elevation. It
is required to form a group of 30x21 direction vectors in
500

which antenna response is defined. Hence, for the single

frequency point, 630 complex response coefficients for
every channel are defined. Such coefficients set should be
created/provided for every frequency point in currently
observed spectrum. For one frame that is 15482880
complex coefficients that should be available for
correlative interferometer algorithm. Preparation of these
coefficients can be carried out in advance or it can be
performed during algorithm execution.

equipped with 2GiB of DDR3-1600 memory. Memory

blocks are stated above according to their speed from
fastest to slower memory interfaces.
There are 8 cores available on TMS320C6678; one core is
selected to take care about synchronization of processing,
data preparation and distribution, sending data to next
block while correlative interferometer algorithm is
implemented on other cores.

In the correlation based method, the direction of arrival is

obtained from the data with maximum correlation of
arriving signal with antenna response in selected direction
vector. For single point processing, measure of correlation
is calculated for all defined direction vectors using
available antenna response coefficients. Measure of
correlation is represented by a complex number and
search of maximum correlation is search for maximum of
the module of this complex value. For single frequency
point, 630 variables of measure of correlation should be
calculated, but these variables are temporary and can be
reused for next calculation (e.g. for next point).
In addition to these data sets, there is a set of data
describing used antenna array geometry. For the antennas
response coefficients calculation these data are used to
prepare another temporary set of data that correspond to
phase delay of antenna array elements at selected
frequency. This base is used to form response coefficients
on specific direction vector. These data are temporary or
negligible by amount and further analysis of them is
omitted here.

Picture 1: Functional Block Diagram of the

TMS320C6678 device [2]

3. IMPLEMENTATION

With the goal to minimize processing time for a single

point i.e. single frame, in the analysis is emphasized that
the response coefficients are depended only of selected
antenna array and chosen frequency. Antenna array is part
of direction finding system configuration. According to
above, coefficients could be calculated at start of direction
finding process. The problem is that a new set of
coefficients should be calculated every time when
selected direction finding parameters are changed
(spectrum range or width). Some of system operating
modes request continuous scanning of whole HW Band
by sequential moving scanning window through
spectrum. This means that coefficient should be
calculated on every move of scanning window. To
overcome this problem it is decided to prepare
coefficients for whole HF Band at system startup.

Analyzed time requirements were starting point for

selection of appropriate DSP processor. Because of
assessment that 200 CPU cycles for single point
processing are insufficient, possibility for parallel
execution of algorithm is discussed. In spite of the fact
that different approaches in parallelization could be
applied on algorithm, there is an eye-catching fact that
processing any point of frame does not influence
processing of other points. Direction of arrival could be
determined just for that point without need to know
anything about another one. That is the great potential for
parallelization of algorithm execution. With more
partitioning of processed spectrum and allocating
hardware to partition, faster processing should be
achieved. The analysis of multi-core CPUs against single
core CPU gives significant advantage in performance to
multi-core CPU [1] over the single core; although single
core CPU operates on higher frequencies. Therefore a
multi-core processor was natural choice and selection was
Texas Instrumentss TMS320C6678 multi-core DSP.

Coefficients of array response are represented with pair of

float numbers which on selected platform occupies 4
bytes. Size of allocated memory for whole HF Band
coefficients is given in Table 2. In this table critical
values are marked with red color. For the resolution of
152.58Hz per point more than 2 GiB is required to store
all coefficients and all available memory is exceeded.
Therefore some restriction had to be applied here. Using
same coefficient for close frequencies has acceptable
error, so decision to prepare coefficients just for
resolution of 610,35Hz per point was made. Array
response coefficient generated for frequency closest to
point frequency will be applied on that point. For the
finest resolution one coefficient will be applied on four

Functional block diagram of the DSP selected for the

processing block is given on the Error! Reference
source not found.. On the platform developed for this
direction finding system DSP operates on 1.25GHz.
Every core on TMS320C6678 has 512KiB of L2 memory
which can be configured as cache or data memory. A
block of 4MiB on die memory (MSMC block on Picture
1) is accessible from all cores. Finally processing block is
501

subsequent points.

input is performed in parallel by DMA controller and it is

controlled and synchronized by DSP core selected for
control function.

Since there is a significant amount of data that have to be

acquired from DDR3 in a short time, data bandwidth is
analyzed along with DDR3 bandwidth. DDR3 RAM is
the only possible storage for that data, because of its
capacity and data size. The declared speed of integrated
memory is 1600 MT/s and on 64-bit bus width it gives
declared bandwidth of 12.5 GiB/s.

Described solution is more memory demanded because a

parallel buffers for 16 input frames should be allocated.
Also it is necessary to allocate memory in on die memory
for response coefficients at least for two frequencies
(currently processing and next processing).

Table 2: Memory allocation for coefficients

Point
width
[Hz]

Points in
HF Band

Num of
response
coefficients

610,35 46530,56 87942758,4

305,17 93061,12 175885516,8
152,58 186122,24 351771033,6
76,29 372244,48 703542067,2

4. CONCLUSION

Total
BW
BW
data
real
delayed
size
time processing
[MiB] [GiB/s] [GiB/s]
670,95
70,4
4,40
1341,90 35,2
2,20
2683,80 17,6
1,10
5367,60
8,8
0,55

This paper gives some promising facts that real time

processing of RF direction finding based on correlative
interferometer algorithm is achievable. Implementation
described here could be distributed over more multi-core
CPUs with dedicated memory. With such CPU scaling,
significant speed improvement should be reached. When
developing similar system developers should pay
attention to provide or select a system with independent
CPU to memory bus. In system with more CPUs
problems with bandwidth would be decreased due to
direct connection between each CPU to dedicated
memory. Usage of several CPUs with dedicated memory
also increases data storage capacity.

In the worst case scenario, response coefficients for 8192

frequencies should be acquired from memory in 1.6
millisecond period. Above analysis leads to 70.4GiB/s
data bandwidth which makes memory a bottle neck of the
system. To overcome that problem idea is to store more
sampling frames before processing. Results of the
calculated data bandwidth with that concept with 16
frames collected before processing is given in the last
column of the Table 2. Collecting input frames provides a
possibility to run algorithm on one frequency 16 times on
corresponding frames. Here should be noticed that these
frames represents period of 16 times sampling period. If
processing is done through time and after though
frequency measure unit for memory access is 16 times
longer. Algorithm for data processing and data acquiring
is in sort: wait to collect enough of data (16 frames);
acquire coefficients for the first frequency in frame, and
apply it on all 16 points with that frequency generating 16
results; move to next point in first frame and repeat
processing. While processing is in progress acquisition of

REFERENCES
[1] Lina J. Karam, Ismail AlKamal, Alan Gatherer, Gene
A. Frantz, David V. Anderson, Brian L. Evans,
TRENDS IN MULTI-CORE DSP PLATFORMS,
IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, Special Issue on
Signal Processing on Platforms with Multiple Cores,
Nov. 2009
[2] SPRS691E, Multicore Fixed and Floating-Point
Digital Signal Processor, November 2010, Revised
March 2014 [online]
http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/tms320c6678.pdf

502

IMPLEMENTATION OF IEEE 1451.4 TRANSDUCER ELECTRONIC

DATASHEET USING AN MBED MICROCONTROLLER MODULE
BRANKO VUKELI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy Center of Microelectronic Technology, University of Belgrade,
branko.vukelic@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
MILO FRANTLOVI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy Center of Microelectronic Technology, University of Belgrade,
frant@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: In this paper we describe an implementation of IEEE 1451.4 Transducer Electronic Data Sheet using an
mbed microcontroller module. A program for the microcontroller is written, enabling communication with external
EEPROM memory containing Transducer Electronic Data Sheet (TEDS). A user application is created for the
communication with the mbed microcontroller module via the USB virtual serial port. It enables user-friendly
management of TEDS contents. This work is performed in order to facilitate manufacturing and maintenance of
intelligent pressure transmitters made by IHTM and based on proprietary Si piezoresistive MEMS pressure sensors.
Keywords: Smart Transducer; Transducer Electronic Data Sheet (TEDS); Mixed-Mode Interface (MMI);
Microcontroller.
The Center of Microelectronic Technologies (CMT) of
the Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy
(ICTM) conducts research, development and production
of piezoresistive MEMS pressure sensors. In this paper
we implemented a Transducer Electronic Data Sheet
(TEDS) for piezoresistive pressure sensors according to
the IEEE 1451.4 standard, using the mbed
microcontroller module.

1. INTRODUCTION
The transducers (sensors and actuators) market is very
diverse. The demand for transducers constantly increases
following the technological development of all industrial
fields such as pharmaceutical, aerospace, automotive,
chemical and food industry. Transducers have also
become ubiquitous in common commercial products from
vehicles to household appliances and mobile phones, so
the need has arisen for small and affordable, easy to use
and maintain transducers which can be economically
mass produced.

2. THE IEEE 1451.4 STANDARD

The IEEE 1451.4 standard allows analog transducers to
share digital information using an appropriate protocol
and interface, for the purpose of self-identification and
configuration. The standard defines the Transducer
Electronic Data Sheet (TEDS) and the Mixed-Mode
Interface (MMI) [1].

Although analog transducers are still predominant, many

advantages of digital interfaces and digital signal
processing have led to their increasing use in the fields of
transducers and measurement systems. Various mutually
incompatible digital industrial interfaces were developed
during the last 3 decades and are still in use today. Hence
the users are often compelled to use the measurement
equipment produced by a single manufacturer, in order to
avoid problems with incompatibilities. Due to the lack of
relevant standards, some manufactures introduced
proprietary solutions that have seen limited acceptance in
the industry. The need for standardized transducer
interface and a unique set of standardized protocols
became obvious during the 1990s. As a response, the
IEEE 1451 family of standards appeared in 1997,
introducing the smart transducer concept and offering a
number of standardized interfaces aiming to enable
transducer interoperability.

The Transducer Electronic Data Sheet (TEDS) contains

all relevant information necessary to describe an analog
transducer and to enable plug-and-play operation. TEDS
is usually stored in an EEPROM or in a flash memory.
The IEEE 1451.4 standard suggests an external 256-bit 1Wire EEPROM memory (DS2430A) to be used for TEDS
implementation. TEDS consists of one mandatory part
and one or more optional parts. The mandatory part is
known as Basic TEDS, and contains a minimum set of
information necessary for transducer description. A Basic
TEDS is usually followed by a Standard Template TEDS
defined by the IEEE 1451.4 standard. Although the latter
is optional, it is expected in a majority of cases. It
503

contains one or more templates, either chosen from the set

of Standard Templates (template IDs from 25 to 39) or
defined specifically for the given transducer in order to
describe its properties in the best way. Optionally a
Calibration TEDS can be used in conjunction with one of
the templates. Calibration templates specify the inputversus-output curve as well as frequency response for the
sensor. The rest of memory is available for user data
(free-form TEDS).

Picture 3: Class 2 MMI with separate connections

3. SMART TRANSDUCER CONCEPT

An intelligent or smart transducer is the integration of an
analog or digital sensor or actuator element, a processing
unit, and a communication interface [2]. In order to be
able to say that a transducer is smart, it must have at
least one of the following functions: self-identification,
self-description, self-calibration, data processing, data
fusion etc.

The Mixed-Mode Interface (MMI) enables both digital

and analog signal transfer between a Network Capable
Application Processor (NCAP) or measurement/control
device, on one side, and a transducer on the other side.
The context for a Mixed-Mode Transducer and the
Interface is shown in Picture 1.

Picture 4a) shows a smart transducer model. The smart

transducer transforms the raw sensor signal to a
standardized digital representation and transmits the
corresponding digital signal to its users via a standardized
communication protocol [3].

Picture 1: Context for the IEEE 1451.4 Transducer and

Interface
There are two classes of the Mixed-Mode Interface. The
Class 1 MMI multiplexes the same electrical connections
in order to transfer either transducer signals or digital
TEDS data. The Class 1 MMI is shown in Picture 2.

Picture 4: a) Smart transducer model, b) Smart

transducer architecture
Picture 4b) shows the smart transducer architecture. We
can see that the Transducer Electronic Data Sheet (TEDS)
has been added and that the system is divided in three
main parts. The first part is the Network Capable
Application Processor (NCAP), the second part is the
Transducer Independent Interface (TII) and the third part
is the Transducer Interface Module (TIM).
The NCAP is responsible for data processing and network
communication. The TII defines the communication
medium and is responsible for communication between
the NCAP and the TIM. The TIM is responsible for
conditioning and conversion of the signals from (or to)
transducers. The Network Interface (NI) defines a
network communication protocol for communication
between the NCAP and the network.

Picture 2: Class 1 MMI with shared connections

Class 2 MMI uses separate connections to transfer
transducer signals and digital TEDS data. A Class 2 MMI
with separate connections is shown in Picture 3.

4. IMPLEMENTATION
The algorithm for accessing and parsing the TEDS
contents is implemented on the NXP mbed
development platform based on the NXP LPC1768 ARM
Cortex-M3 core [5, 6]. This microcontroller has various
peripherals such as: USB, 2xSPI, 2xI2C, 2xSerial, CAN
etc. It has 512KB of flash and 64 KB of RAM built-in
memory. The clock frequency is set to 96MHz.
504

The TEDS implementation uses a 1024-bit 1-Wire

EEPROM memory (DS2431). Although not mentioned in
the standard, this memory IC was chosen for the
implementation because of the greater capacity compared
to the DS2430 used in the standard. Picture 5 shows a
photograph of the mbed development board with a
DS2431 chip connected to it. Both are mounted on a
prototyping board.

Using the LabWindows/CVI enviroment, a user

application was created for the personal computer in order
to enable communication with the microcontroller. The
communication uses an USB virtual serial port. The user
application allows the management of the TEDS contents
stored in the external 1-Wire EEPROM memory
(DS2431). It allows editing of TEDS data, reading and
erasing of memory contents, analyzing the contents of
memory in terms of the protection that was used,
determining the total number of attached memories etc.
Picture 6 shows a part of the user application that is
intended for analyzing the memory contents.
Additionally, it is also possible to load an external *.bin
file in the memory, and to save the memory contents to a
*.bin file).
For the purpose of communication between the
microcontroller and the user application, an appropriate
message format was devised. Picture 7 shows the message
format used in the communication between the
microcontroller and the user application.

Picture 5: Photograph of mbed development board and

DS2431 chip.

Picture 6: One part of the user application, intended for analyzing the contents of the memory.

Picture 7: Message format used in communication between the microcontroller and the user application.
505

Message validation is performed at both the transmitter

and the receiver side. If the message isnt in the
appropriate format that message is discarded. A message
consists of six fields, and each field carries specific
information.

means for management of pressure sensors during their

production and maintenance. In our future work the same
approach will be considered for some other types of
sensors.

The START field indicates the beginning of the message

and it has a fixed value (0xAA). The COMMAND field
specifies a command that microcontroller has to perform.
The OPTIONAL field is used if needed (e.g. for a
possible message format expansion). The DATA
LENGTH field is two bytes long and it defines the total
number of bytes sent in the DATA field. The DATA field
is reserved for data. Its length depends on the amount of
sent and received data. The last field is the END field that
indicates the end of the message.

REFERENCES
[1] Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
IEEE Standard for a Smart Transducer Interface for
Sensors
and
Actuators:
Mixed-Mode
Communication Protocols and Transducer Electronic
Data Sheet (TEDS) Formats, IEEE Standard 1451.42004, 2004.
[2] DS2430A
256-bit
1-Wire
EEPROM,
Maxim/Dallas
Semiconductor
Corp.,
http://www.maximintegrated.com/en/products/digital
/memory-products/DS2430A.html
[3] W. Elmenreich and S. Pizek, "Smart Transducers
Principles, Communication, and Configuration",
[Online], 10 July 2007, Available http://wwwu.uniklu.ac.at/welmenre/papers/elmenreich_Smart_Transd
ucers_Principles_Communications_and_Configurati
on.pdf.
[4] H. Kopetz, M. Holzmann, and W. Elmenreich. A
universal smart transducer interface: TTP/A.
International Journal of Computer System Science &
Engineering, 16(2):7177, March 2001.
[5] http://mbed.org/platforms/mbed-LPC1768/
[6] LPC176x Product Data Sheet, NXP Semiconductors,
http://www.nxp.com/documents/data_sheet/LPC176
9_68_67_66_65_64_63.pdf

5. CONCLUSION
The IEEE 1451.4 standard defines the Transducer
Electronic Data Sheet (TEDS) as well as the Mixed-Mode
Interface (MMI) for analog transducers with analog and
digital operating modes.
In this paper we presented an implementation of the IEEE
1451.4 TEDS in the case of a piezoresistive pressure
sensor. The implementation was realized using the
mbed microcontroller module. The TEDS data are
stored on a 1-Wire, 1024-bit EEPROM memory
(DS2431). The developed user application communicates
with the microcontroller via the USB virtual serial port
and enables user-friendly management of the TEDS data.
The significance of the performed work is mainly in its
practical aspects, as it yields a standardized and efficient

506

LIGHT CONCENTRATION IN SEMICONDUCTOR INFRARED

DETECTORS FOR NIGHT VISION BY GRADED ANTIREFLECTION
LAYER INCORPORATING PLASMONIC PARTICLES
MARKO OBRADOV
IHTM Center of Microelectronic Technologies, University of Belgrade, Republic of Serbia,
marko.obradov@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
ZORAN JAKI
IHTM Center of Microelectronic Technologies, University of Belgrade, Republic of Serbia,
jaksa@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
DANA VASILJEVI RADOVI
IHTM Center of Microelectronic Technologies, University of Belgrade, Republic of Serbia,
dana@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: Enhancement of responsivity and specific detectivity is one of the strategic goals of the technology of infrared
detectors for night vision. One of the recently proposed approaches to this purpose is the use of localized surface
plasmons polaritons which cause strong localizations of electromagnetic fields, ensuring extreme shortening of the
necessary propagation paths of incident radiation. This approach has been obtained as an extension of a similar
strategy used for solar cells, through modification by various redshifting approaches. Another method to increase
incident optical flux in detectors are antireflective (AR) coatings, among the most efficient ones being those with
refractive index gradient. Here we consider the design of monolithically integrated systems for detector enhancement
incorporating gradient index AR coatings with embedded plasmonic particles at their high-index surface. Such
structures ensure maximum transmission in infrared with simultaneous redshifting of plasmonic resonance, resulting in
large localizations of infrared radiation in the near field part overlapping with the active region of the photodetector.
We designed and optimized our structures utilizing finite element modeling, starting from Helmholtz equation. We
considered available materials and technological approaches to fabrication. We obtained an enhancement of figures of
merit of about 30 times compared to the conventional detectors without plasmonic/AR structures.
Keywords: Infrared photodetectors, night vision, plasmonics, gradient refractive index, antireflection layers.
antimonide or mercury cadmium telluride. Of the two
groups, the performance of photonic detectors is far
superior and these have been the devices of choice for
military applications for more than half a century.

1. INTRODUCTION
Infrared (IR) detectors for thermal imaging and night
vision remain extremely important for different defense
applications [1]. Their operating wavelengths are
typically in the atmospheric windows (3-5) m (midwavelength infrared, MWIR) and (8-14) m (longwavelength infrared, LWIR). The first one is mostly used
to detect aircraft, missiles and armored combat vehicles.
The latter is used to detect signature of human bodies in
absence of visible light (the peak wavelength
corresponding to the infrared signature of a person is at
about 10.6 m).

The most important problem with photonic IR detectors is

their need for cryogenic cooling. Since interband
transitions need to occur across very narrow bandgaps,
they compete with thermal processes of generation and
recombination (g-r) which are very large at elevated
temperatures. The cryogenic equipment (coolers or Dewar
flasks with liquid nitrogen) makes the detectors much
more expensive, bulky, complex and difficult for
maintenance. Thus the increase of the operating
temperature of photonic detectors has been denoted as one
of the prime targets of the development of these devices.

There are two large groups of IR detectors. One of them

are thermal devices [2], based on thermal effects (various
kinds of bolometers, bimaterial devices, thermopiles, etc.)
and typically using silicon as the building material. The
other are photonic detectors [3] that use interband
transitions in narrow-bandgap semiconductors like indium

The prevailing g-r mechanisms in photonic detectors are

Auger, radiative and Shockley-Read generationrecombination. Of these three, Auger processes are the
strongest, thus causing the highest level of noise in
507

detectors and strongly impairing their performance at

higher temperatures. The rates of these processes are
defined by the number of g-r acts and therefore directly
depend on the volume of the devices, the larger number of
charge carriers (electrons and holes) being contained in
larger active regions. Thus it is of interest to decrease the
thickness of the detector (keeping the lateral dimensions
constant) while simultaneously retaining the same or
better number of interband transitions that contribute to
the detector signal. These two requirements are
contradictory and without cooling it is very difficult to
reach their trade-off.

A much simpler and cheaper solution is to use plasmonic

nanoparticles and this is the reason why they are
extensively utilized for solar cells. However, when using
plasmonic particles for infrared detector enhancement one
has to apply alternative approaches to redshifting. In [13]
we proposed to use transparent conductive oxides (TCO)
[14] instead of metal for the particles. The resonant
frequency of these conductors is in near infrared, i.e. it is
already redshifted compared to metals, and the shift can
be tailored by doping. A more detailed treatise can be
found in [15].
A further redshift when using TCO can be obtained by
their immersion in high permittivity dielectric [16]. Since
such material will mandatorily have a large reflection
coefficient toward the environment, this scheme will
require the use of some kind of antireflective structure.

A method proposed to obtain very thin detector structures

with large quantum efficiency and large response is to
utilize plasmonics [4]. It is basically the use of metaldielectric (and generally conductor-dielectric) interfaces
that support the propagation of surface plasmon polaritons
(SPP), the surface-bound evanescent electromagnetic
waves resonantly coupled with free electron oscillations
in conductor. These structures can be fabricated as metaldielectric nanocomposites, including 1D, 2D and 3D
ordered patterns, but also as conductive nanoparticles in a
dielectric matrix. Plasmonic structures ensure an almost
complete control over frequency and spatial dispersion of
electromagnetic waves [5]. Using plasmonics it is
possible to perform spatial transformations of propagating
electromagnetic waves, the novel field of electromagnetic
optics opened by this possibility being denoted as
transformation optics [6-7]. Thus it is possible to localize
electromagnetic fields in volumes with subwavelength
dimensions [8]. The ensuing field concentrations may
reach several orders of magnitude.

In this work we consider the enhancement of photonic IR

detector for MWIR by spherical submicrometer galliumzinc-oxide TCO particles deposited on the top of the
detector active area, immersed in high-permittivity
dielectric and capped with antireflection coating. The
electromagnetic behavior of the structure is simulated by
Comsol Multiphysics finite element software package.
The calculations are performed ab initio and no
approximations are introduced when modeling the
structural parameters.

2. THEORY
The main figure of merit of an infrared detector is its
specific detectivity. It can be written as [1]

The usefulness of electromagnetic field localization in

photodetection is obvious. The quantum efficiency of a
detector is proportional to its optical thickness (the
product of absorption coefficient and the optical path),
and is thus constant for a given geometry. If plasmonic
localization is used, the signal is concentrated into a
vastly smaller volume than without it, and thus much
smaller optical path is necessary to reach the same
responsivity. This has been used in solar cells to obtain
ultrathin devices [9-10].

D* =

hc 2(G + R )

Ad
d

(1)

where is the operating wavelength, Ad is the detector

active area, is the external quantum efficiency, defined
by the detector geometry, h is Planck constant, c is the
speed of light in vacuum and d is the detector thickness. G
and R are generation and recombination rate, respectively.
It can be seen that the specific detectivity is inversely
proportional to the square root of detector active region
thickness. Thus its value can be tailored by modifying the
device thickness. On the other hand, responsivity of the
detector (the ratio of detector signal and incident flux) can
be written using quantum efficiency as

Solar cells operate at relatively short wavelengths,

peaking in the visible. Plasmonic resonance in the
majority of the often used materials (good metals like
gold, silver, chromium, etc.) is convenient for that, since
it is typically in the ultraviolet or possibly visible part of
the spectrum. However, to extend the wavelength range of
plasmonic enhancement to mid- and far infrared, it is
necessary to perform redshifting of its resonant frequency.

R=

e
hc

(2)

where e is the free electron charge (1.61019 C). Thus it is

possible to retain the same responsivity if the infrared flux
is increased. This is just what we obtain if we apply
plasmonic field localization.

A method to redshift the plasmonic resonance, thus

making it convenient for photonic IR detectors is to use
the designer (spoof) plasmons [11], i.e. to fabricate a 2D
array of subwavelength apertures in metal layer deposited
on the top of photodetector. The geometrical parameters
of the metal mesh determine the new resonance peak that
may thus have an arbitrary spectral shift. This approach
has been used to fabricate plasmon-enhanced
photodetectors at night vision wavelengths [12].
However, it requires implementation of expensive
submicrometer photolithography.

The total generation and recombination rates are [17]

G = G A + Grad + GSR =

508

n
n f
n
p
+ i + i + 1 t (3)
i
2 A1 2 A7 2 ri no

R = R A + Rrad + RSR =
n(1 f t )
np
+
+
2ni ri
no

np n
p
+ i
2 i
2ni A1 A7

may be approximated by the conventional Mie theory

[18]) and at the same time localize field near their surface.
The scattered field is concentrated within the active area
and thus the photodetector performance is enhanced.

(4)

Transparent conductive oxides are materials like indium

oxide, indium tin oxide, zinc oxide, etc., whose dispersive
properties can be described by Drude or Lorentz electron
resonance models, similar to those of metals. The Drude
model including absorptive losses is

where subscripts A, rad and SR denote Auger, radiative

and Shockley-Read processes, respectively, n is electron
concentration, p is hole concentration, ni is intrinsic
concentration for the given material at the given
temperature, iA1 is material-dependent intrinsic lifetime
for Auger 1 (CCCH) process, iA7 is intrinsic lifetime for
Auger 7 (CHHL) process, ri is intrinsic radiative lifetime,
no is Shockley-Read lifetime corresponding to
completely empty traps and ft is the trap occupation
probability. As mentioned previously, at near room
temperatures Auger processes are prevailing.

() =

2p

(5)

2 + i

where p is the plasma frequency, is the damping factor

describing losses, and is the asymptotic relative
dielectric permittivity.
The plasma frequency of the TCO is determined by the
concentration of free carriers

Spherical TCO particle

Antireflection layer

p =

Embedding
high- dielectric

ne 2

(6)

m* 0

where n is electron concentration, 0 is the dielectric

permittivity of the vacuum (8.8541012 F/m), and m* is
the effective mass of electrons. As seen from (6), the
plasma frequency of a TCO can be modified by doping,
but it can also be modified by a proper choice of TCO
fabrication procedure. This enables us to position plasma
frequency to the desired part of the spectrum. For our
calculations we chose gallium-zinc-oxide described by
Drude relation fitted to experimental results [19].

Detector
active region

When light is incident to a plasmonic particle, the free

electron plasma within the particle is driven by the EM
field of the incident light and begins to oscillate. This can
lead to resonant behavior when frequency of the incident
light matches the frequency of the electron plasma
oscillations affected by the restoring force from the
curved surface of the particle. This is localized surface
plasmon resonance (LSPR), characterized by a strong
near field enhancement in close vicinity of the particle
surface which decays exponentially away from the
particle. The scattering and the absorption cross-sections
for plasmonic particles at a wavelength can be
calculated as

Substrate

Picture 1: Schematic presentation of infrared detector

with spherical TCO plasmonic particles embedded in
high-permittivity dielectric and with an antireflection
(AR) layer (a part of the AR structure is removed to
improve picture clarity).
The geometry of the infrared detector structure is shown
in Picture 1. The device consists of a thin active
semiconductor layer on a thick substrate. For instance, in
epitaxial mercury cadmium telluride this structure is an
HgCdTe layer with a Cd molar fraction tailored to the
desired wavelength, while the substrate is CdTe, CdZnTe
or similar material with a wider bandgap.
Spherical submicrometer particles composed of TCO are
located on the top surface of the detector active region
and are immersed in a high relative dielectric permittivity
dielectric. Since the reflection coefficient of a dielectric
surface is proportional to its refractive index, it is
necessary to deposit an antireflective structure on top of
the dielectric layer to prevent large losses of incident
power flux due to reflection.

C sca

8 4 6 m
k a
=
3
+ m

C abs

m
= 4ka 3 Im

+ m

(7)

where m is the relative permittivity of the surrounding

medium (lossless dielectric), k is the wave vector of
incident light, is the complex relative permittivity of the
particle and a is the particle radius.
Based on (5) and (7) it is possible to redshift the LSPR
frequency by changing the submicrometer particle
material (and thus its plasma frequency) and the
permittivity of the surrounding medium. The spectral

When infrared radiation arrives to the top side of the

detector, the plasmonic TCO particles scatter it (which
509

characteristics can be also varied by utilizing different

particle shapes (for instance, pointed forms result in the
appearance of additional field localizations) and by
changing the density of the particles (electromagnetic
coupling occurs between plasmonic structures that are
close to each other, with a result that the response is
modified.

We simulated optical response for a single submicrometer

spherical TCO particle. For our simulation we have
chosen TCO particle with 220 nm radius embedded in
high- dielectric layer with its thickness equal to the
particle diameter. The antireflective layer is deposited on
top of the embedding layer, with a linear refractive index
profile and a thickness of 1250 nm. The dielectric
permittivity of the active layer was taken to be 10.

The simplest way to utilize plasmonic particles is to

deposit them directly onto the photodetector surface. As
mentioned before, to achieve stronger redshift we need to
embed the particles into the high- dielectric layer. This
can be achieved either by depositing material onto
particles or by fabricating a freestanding membrane in
which the particles are embedded as fillers and then
mechanically placing the membrane onto the detector
surface. The latter approach has a virtue that it is
applicable to already finished photodetectors, i.e. it can be
used to enhance completed conventional devices.

Relative dielectric permitivity

10

Our numerical simulation consists of two consecutive

steps; in the first step we calculate field distributions
without the plasmonic submicrometer particle. In the
second step we calculate the plasmonic response of the
particle to the driving field calculated in the first step. The
first step utilizes two parallel ports (one active and one
passive) to introduce electromagnetic radiation into the
system. We used the boundary conditions that simulate
the infinity of the medium in the directions parallel to the
ports. In the second step we numerically calculate the
scattered field when the plasmonic particle is present
using the stored solutions from the first step as the
background field. It is necessary to encapsulate the entire
domain in a perfectly matched layer (PML) to collect the
scattered field outside of the domain and thus avoid
artifacts due to unwanted reflections. The PML replaces
the ports and the boundary conditions in terms of infinite
medium simulation for the second step.

Sinusoidal

8
Linear

Parabolic

To determine the influence of the embedding medium

dielectric permittivity on spectral positioning of LSPR we
calculated the normalized scattering cross-sections for
different values of dielectric permittivity of the
embedding dielectric layer, as shown in Picture 3. The
normalized scattering cross-sections are calculated by
normalizing the calculated cross-sections values with the
geometric cross-section of the particle. Redshifting by
design and high level of tunability of our approach is
readily seen in Picture 3. Scattering cross-sections more
than 20 times larger than the geometrical cross-section are
observed. The resonant response is tailored for the midinfrared region (3-5) m atmospheric window.

0
0

0.25

0.50
0.75
Thickness, m

1.00

1.25

Picture 2: Dielectric permittivity profiles along z-axis

(propagation direction of incident light) for an indexmatching antireflective layer between a =10 dielectric
substrate and air: sinusoidal, linear and parabolic
dependency.
In case of detectors for MWIR and LWIR we propose to
embed particles into a dielectric layer with a relative
permittivity near to that of the underlying semiconductor.
To avoid strong reflections we propose to utilize an
antireflection layer with graded refractive index.

40

Normalized scattering
cross-section

14

The antireflection layers perform impedance matching

between air and the high- medium. In the case of graded
refractive index this matching is wide-range and close to
optimal [20-21]. Different refractive index profiles are
used and include linear, parabolic, sinusoidal, etc. In this
work we use a linear profile antireflective layer as shown
in Picture 2 (solid line). Picture 2 also shows some of the
possible antireflective layer graded refractive index
profiles.

30
10
20
6
10

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

Wavelength, m
Picture 3: Normalized scattering cross-sections
calculated for different values of embedding dielectric.
Normal incident light is assumed.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

To simulate the scattered field distribution and scattering
cross-sections of the submicrometer TCO particle we
utilized the finite element method (FEM). To this purpose
we applied the RF module of the Comsol Multiphysics
software package.

The scattered electric field distributions in the vicinity of

the submicrometer particle and within the photodetector
active region are shown in Picture 4. All distributions are
510

shown in two intersecting perpendicular planes, both

perpendicular to the photodetector surface for an incident
electromagnetic wave propagating from the top. The
distributions are determined for a resonant wavelength of
4.88 m with the embedding medium permittivity of 10,
capped with an antireflective layer with linear permittivity
gradient. The dipole response of the plasmonic TCO
particle in the plane parallel to the electric field
component of the incident light is observed together with
high field enhancement in the vicinity of the particle.

to be sufficiently far from each other to be treated

independently. The total energy and the ratio of the total
energies with and without a particle for different areas
associated with a single particle are shown in Picture 5 for
different values of the active region thickness.
Picture 5a shows that the total infrared radiation energy
contained within the active region increases with the
active region volume. The radiation field within active
layer consists of both propagating (scattered far field) and
nonpropagating modes (near field around the plasmonic
particle). The thicker the integration region is, the larger
the total energy will be because of the presence of the
propagating modes. Picture 5b shows the ratio between
the total radiation energy with a plasmonic particle and
without it. It can be seen that the ratio is largest for small
values of thickness and for narrower zones around the
particle accounting for high near field enhancement.

As seen from Picture 4b, when LSPR is achieved the

incident light is concentrated by the plasmonic particle in
a very small volume of the active region directly below
the particle (plasmonic light trapping). This high near
field localization enables us to increase the detector signal
without increasing the active region thickness.

12

a=2m

Total energy with 220nm

21
particle , 10 J

1.610

1.4105
5

1.210

1.0105
5

0.810

0.510

0.410

0.210
0.0

a=1.5m

8
a=1m
6
4
2

0.5

1.0

2.0

1.5

Active region thickness, m

Total energy ratio with and

without 220 nm particle

10

a=1 m

7.5
6.0

a=1.5 m

4.5

a=2 m

3.0
1.5
0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

active region thickness, m

Picture 4: Scattered electric field distribution a) in

dielectric layer containing the submicrometer particle in
close vicinity of the particle; b) in active area of the
photodetector directly under the layer containing the
submicrometer particle.

Picture 5: a) Total energy contained in the active region

volume defined by square area with side a on the detector
surface for increasing active layer thickness; b) total
energy ratio with and without particle for the same active
region volume.

To determine the efficiency of plasmonic light trapping

we calculated total optical energy averaged over time with
and without plasmonic particles within a finite active
layer volume defined by the square-shaped area with a
side a and by the active layer thickness. We adopted an
approach where a single plasmonic particle is assigned to
a finite active region volume positioned at the center of a
square-shaped area on a photodetector surface. In this
way we simulate the situation when the entire active
surface of the photodetector is covered by orderly
distributed plasmonic particles, but we consider particles

As seen in Picture 5, using light concentration by

plasmonic particles we can achieve much higher levels of
optical energy within a same active region volume than
without plasmonic enhancement. In this way we can make
an equivalency between a thin enhanced photodetector
and a thick conventional photodetector (the active regions
containing the same infrared radiation energy in both
cases). Both detectors have the same active area. The key
difference is that the thin photodetector will have much
lower levels of noise resulting in a much higher specific
detectivity. Alternatively we can allow higher levels of
511

noise in enhanced thin photodetectors by increasing the

operating temperature while retaining the same levels of
specific detectivity as with the conventional devices.

Optics, E. Wolf, ed., pp. 69-152, Amsterdam, The

Netherlands: Elsevier Science & Technology 2009.
[8] H.Chen, C.T.Chan, and P.Sheng, Transformation
optics and metamaterials, Nat. Mater., vol. 9, no. 5,
pp. 387-396, 2010.
[9] H.A. Atwater, and A.Polman, Plasmonics for
improved photovoltaic devices, Nat. Mater., vol. 9,
no. 3, pp. 205-213, 2010.
[10] D.M.Callahan, J.N.Munday, and H.A.Atwater, Solar
Cell Light Trapping beyond the Ray Optic Limit,
Nano Lett., vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 214-218, 2012/03/13,
2012.
[11] J.B.Pendry, L.Martn-Moreno, and F.J.Garcia-Vidal,
Mimicking surface plasmons with structured
surfaces, Science, vol. 305, no. 5685, pp. 847-848,
2004.
[12] Z. Yu, G. Veronis, S. Fan, and M. L. Brongersma,
Design of midinfrared photodetectors enhanced by
surface plasmons on grating structures, Appl. Phys.
Lett., vol. 89, no. 15, 2006.
[13] Z.Jaki,
M.Milinovi,
and
D.Randjelovi,
Nanotechnological enhancement of infrared
detectors by plasmon resonance in transparent
conductive
oxide
nanoparticles,
Strojniski
Vestnik/Journal of Mechanical Engineering, vol. 58,
no. 6, pp. 367-375, 2012.
[14] A.Boltasseva,
and
H.A.Atwater,
Low-Loss
Plasmonic Metamaterials, Science, vol. 331, no.
6015, pp. 290-291, January 21, 2011, 2011.
[15] M.Schmid, R.Klenk, M.C.Lux-Steiner, M. Topi, and
J. Kr, Modeling plasmonic scattering combined
with thin-film optics, Nanotechnology, vol. 22, no.
2, 2010.
[16] Jaki,Z., Obradov,M., Vukovi,S., Beli,M.,
"Plasmonic enhancement of light trapping in
photodetectors", Facta Universitatis, Series:
Electronics and Energetics, 27(2) (2014), 183-203.
[17] Z.Jaki,
Micro
and
nanophotonics
for
semiconductor infrared photodetectors: Towards an
Ultimate Uncooled Device, Springer Verlag, Berlin,
accepted, 2014.
[18] M.Quinten, Optical Properties of Nanoparticle
Systems: Mie and Beyond, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim,
Germany, 2011.
[19] P.R.West, S. Ishii, G. V. Naik, N. K. Emani, V.
Shalaev, and A. Boltasseva, Searching for better
plasmonic materials, Laser & Photon. Rev, pp. 113, 2010.
[20] W.H.Southwell,
Gradient-index
antireflection
coatings, Opt. Lett., vol.8, no.11, pp.584-586, 1983.
[21] X.Li, J.Gao, L.Xue, and Y.Han, Porous Polymer
Films with Gradient-Refractive-Index Structure for
Broadband and Omnidirectional Antireflection
Coatings, Advanced Functional Materials, vol. 20,
no. 2, pp. 259-265, 2010.

4. CONCLUSION
We analyzed the concept of IR photodetector
enhancement using TCO submicrometer particles
embedded in high refractive index medium and covered
by an antireflective layer with linear gradient of refractive
index. We used Comsol Multiphysics finite element
software to simulate the optical response of our system
without introducing approximations. We confirmed
tailorable resonant response of TCO submicrometer
particles depending on the surrounding medium
permittivity. The use of the antireflective layer ensured
achieving the scattering cross-sections more than 30 times
larger than the geometric cross-section. Near field
enhancement has been observed in the vicinity of the
particle both in the layer containing the particle and in the
active region of the photodetector. We have shown that it
is possible to bring all the benefits of plasmonic light
trapping to the infrared part of the spectrum and
demonstrated this for the (3-5) m atmospheric window.
Plasmonic light trapping for IR photodetectors enables us
to minimize the thickness of the detector active region
without sacrificing its quantum efficiency, responsivity
and specific detectivity. Ultrathin IR photodetectors have
their thermal gr processes suppressed through plasmonic
enhancement, including Auger generation and
recombination, thus allowing for their operation at
elevated temperatures.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work has been funded by Serbian Ministry of
Education, Science and Technological Development
within the framework of the project TR 32008.

REFERENCES
[1] Rogalski,A., Infrared Detectors, CRC Press, Bocca
Raton, 2010.
[2] Richards,P.L., "Bolometers for infrared and millimeter
waves", J. Appl. Phys., 76(1) (1994), 1-24.
[3] Rogalski,A., Piotrowski,J., "Intrinsic infrared
detectors", Progress in Quantum Electronics, 12(23) (1988), 87-289.
[4] S.A.Maier,
Plasmonics:
Fundamentals
and
Applications, Springer Science+Business Media,
New York, NY, 2007.
[5] W.L.Barnes, A.Dereux, and T.W.Ebbesen, Surface
plasmon subwavelength optics, Nature, vol.424, no.
6950, pp.824-830, 2003.
[6] J.B.Pendry, D.Schurig, and D.R.Smith, Controlling
Electromagnetic Fields, Science, vol.312, no.5781,
pp.1780-1782, 2006.
[7] U.Leonhardt, and T. G. Philbin, "Transformation
Optics and the Geometry of Light," Progress in

512

A TECHNICAL SOLUTION OF THE OPTOELECTRONIC MULTISENSOR

SYSTEM
NEBOJA API,
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, njsapic@gmail.com
NIKOLA JOVANOVI,
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, m.sc.nikola.jovanovic@gmail.com
KATARINA SAVI,
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, katarina.savic@gmail.com

Abstract: This paper presents an ISTAR-based model of an optoelectronic multisensor system designed for passive
observing, surveying and acquisition of targets. The model is mounted on a vehicle and consists of multiple
optoelectronic sensors which generate images in multiple spectral bands whose purpose is better detection, recognition
and identification of targets. Apart from optoelectronic sensors, namely a video imager, a thermal imager, and a laser
range finder, the model also integrates a GPS receiver, a digital compass, a pan-tilt mechanism, a computer network,
control units, and appropriate software for command and control.
Keywords: optoelectronic, multisensor system, surveillance, reconnaissance, target acquisition.
Almost all armies in the world have in their objectives a
plan to build some kind of digital battlefield infrastructure
which should convert and combine raw sensor data into
valid and useful information needed for making timely
and most effective decisions. Digital battlefield
hierarchical infrastructure is based on three types of
networks: a sensor network, an information network
(command and communication network), and a combat
network (Picture 1).

1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays prevailing concept of warfare describes future
military operations as very fast and very intensive [1],
[2]. The most important requirement of the concept is to
achieve information superiority, i.e., the capability to
collect, process, and disseminate an uninterrupted flow of
information while exploiting or denying an adversarys
ability to do the same [2]. Everyone who wants to have
strategic and tactical advantage in the field tries to make
an operational real-time picture of the battlefield and to
establish information link from remote sensors to
command centre. Popular name for this concept is digital
battlefield.

There is a long tradition of optoelectronic (OE) systems in

military use, so that we can say their usage has become
practically unavoidable. Due to rapid development of
digital technology, modern optoelectronics integrates
sensor and computer in one intelligent OE system that
is capable of collecting data from sensor, performing data
(pre)processing and distributing results to other
networked users. In other words, OE system outputs
information instead of raw data and situation awareness is
determined by the information product quality. Modern
OE systems usually integrate several complementary
sensors which observe scene and create its electronic
images in different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The resulting multispectral image enables several
functional improvements: extended area coverage with
more sensors, improved confidence in detection and
decision making, improved detection and tracking,
improved reliability through multiple redundancy,
increased countermeasure resistance, improved allweather performance and better performance against
stealth targets.

Picture 1: Digital battlefield infrastructure

513

Stated improvements were the main motivation for a

research project that led to development and building of
the model of a generic multisensor intelligence system,
called MIP. MIP is based on intelligence, surveillance,
target acquisition and reconnaissance (ISTAR) concept.
ISTAR is the process of integrating the intelligence
process with surveillance, target acquisition and
reconnaissance tasks in order to improve a commanders
situational awareness and consequently their decision
making. [3].

Sensor enclosure with sensors is placed on remotely

controlled two-axis unstabilized carrier unit (motorized
pan/tilt mechanism) which provides precise pointing in
azimuth and elevation plane. The pan/tilt mechanism also
provides mechanical interface for mounting on telescopic
mast. Sensors can be controlled from operator consoles
inside of the vehicle, or from the remote position out of
the vehicle.
System has three working places (operators command
consoles) inside vehicle: sensor operator console,
geographic information system (GIS) operator console
(Picture 3), and mobile commander console (Picture 4).
All consoles are based on standard PC technology and
networked into vehicles intranet. Sensor operator can use
a displays touchscreen, a mouse, a joystick and a
keyboard as input devices. Custom software application
fulfils complete functionality of the system.

2. PARTS OF THE MIP

In initial design phase some basic design decisions
determined by technical and technological restrictions and
approved funds, personnel and time budget had to be
made. On technical side it is decided to promote modular
architecture and to use standard network and computer
hardware and open network protocols for wire and
wireless networking (Ethernet, TCP/IP). To made lowcost system it is widely used Component-off-the-Shelf
(COST) and OEM components.
In general, the MIP (Picture 2) is a system that accepts
inputs (raw sensor data) and generates outputs (target
information). The MIP consists of three main subsystems:
sensors with control consoles, a telescopic mast, and a
vehicle platform. Also, in order to enhance drivers
performance at night and in low visibility conditions, MIP
has a thermal imaging camera mounted on the front of the
vehicle with monitor positioned above the dashboard.
Sensors and the mast are integrated on an available 4x4
off-road vehicle. The vehicles interior had to be
completely modified to accommodate control consoles for
three operators and a telescopic mast subsystem.
The telescopic mast subsystem includes: a mast base
construction, mast control and drive electronics, two-axis
unstabilized carrier unit, and a battery pack.
There is special command panel to command mast
extension, i.e. to adjust height of the telescopic mast from parking position to the maximal extension (6m from
the ground). Panel also includes light signalization of
extreme positions and switches for main power supply
and emergency situations.

Picture 2 MIP with the telescopic mast fully extended

System has independent power supply based on

rechargeable accumulator batteries.
The model's sensor subsystem integrates the following
sensors:
passive sensor for the visible part of the EM spectrum
(video camera),
passive sensor for infrared part of the EM spectrum
(thermal imaging camera),
semi-active sensor for measuring the distance to targets
(laser range finder),
GPS receiver for self-position determination,
digital magnetic compass for self-orientation.

Picture 3: Sensor operator console (left) and GIS

operator console (right). In between are the controls for
power supply and extension of the telescopic mast

All sensors and their accompanying electronic and

computer network are placed in common enclosure.
514

focus (AF) lens (focal length from 6.3 mm to 63 mm)

with view angles: horizontal (format 16:9) 5.5050.60;
(4:3) 5.2048.70, vertical (16:9) 3.1029.30; (4:3) 3.90370.
Networked video output supports Quad-Stream including
MJPEG and 1080p H.264 Full HD video stream with a
framerate of 25 images/s.
Camera also supports HDMI output, standard composite
analog PAL video signal and embedded video analytics,
digital pan-tilt-zoom (PTZ) and image stabilization. It
supports versatile power input options: PoE, 24Vac or
12Vdc.
Picture 4: Removable commander's console for remote
control of the sensor subsystem and the pan/tilt
mechanism

Thermovision module the night channel

Thermovision module converts images detected in
infrared 8 m -12 m subband of the EM spectrum into a
composite video signal. It integrates UFPA (Uncooled
Focal Plane Array) detector with dual-FOV optics
motorized lens (WFOV 45.7 mm/F1.1, 11.99 x 9.01and
NFOV 137 mm/F1.1, 4.01 x 3.01). Dual-FOV optics
enables fast searching and accurate targeting. Detector
resolution is 384288 pixels in 25 m x 25 m pitch
technology.

3. USING THE MIP

The MIP deals with following activities:
object detection (to obtain basic information about the
existence of the object),
object identification (to obtain information on the class
and type of object),
geo-location (determining the absolute or relative
position of the object in relation to the OE system),

The imager can automatically or manually perform the

non-uniform calibration. There are three modes for focus,
brightness and contrast adjustment: Manual, Semi-auto,
and Auto. Imager displays the temperature differences as
different grey level. Image polarity can be set to white-hot
or black-hot. It supports 2X/4X electronic zoom by
interpolation magnifying image (no mosaic) and image
processing by HF and LF digital filters for sharp or
smooth effects in video output. Module supports
graphics overlay and textual symbols, including
moveable/adjustable crosshair.

putting objects position (coordinates) in the GIS,

information distribution to the next hierarchical
command level for further processing and analysis.
Typical scenario for target acquisition looks like this: the
sensor operator observes an area of interest, detects
targets, and tries to recognize them and to evaluate their
tactical values. The sensor operator measures the distance
of a specific target with the laser range finder. When
distance to target is successfully measured, software
automatically records current pan/tilt position so the
target geo-location is determined by distance, azimuth and
elevation angles.

Video outputs are two standard composite CCIR video

signals and TTL level digital video output,
simultaneously. For remote control the thermovision
module has RS232 serial interface with manufacturers
defined protocol. To convert module into a true IP device
we use two additional devices a video server for analog
video and a serial server for RS232 serial link. Video
server converts composite analog video signal into IP
packets using MJPEG or H.264 compression. Serial
server enables remote control of module through the IP
channel by framing RS232 protocol messages into IP
packets. Serial-over-Ethernet conversion is completely
transparent to this module and simplifies integration and
networking.

Those
spherical
coordinates
are
automatically
transformed into input values for the local digital map (a
part of MIP custom software). On the local map, MIP
software shows current position of MIP system and
positions of selected targets.
Complete information about a target geo-location is
automatically transferred by the on-board intranet (LAN)
to the GIS operator console and shows up on main map
managed by GIS software.

4. SENSOR SUITE IN DETAIL

Laser range finder module

Sensor suite consists of: sensors, pan/tilt and

accompanying network and power supply subsystems.
Picture 5 depicts functional block diagram of sensor suite
interconnected by the intranet on-board of the vehicle.

Laser range finder (LRF) module measures the distances

to the objects [4]. Module can conduct measurement on
three targets at the same time, if these targets are on the
same optical axis. Measurement working range is from
80 m to 8000 m (visibility 10 km, target size
10 m x 10 m). In standard operational mode, the LRF
module supports up to 6 PPM (pulses-per-minute), with
distance resolution 30 m and measurement precision of
5 m. It works on 1.064 m wavelength and it is not
eye-safe.

Video camera the day channel

Video day/night camera forms an IP video stream of the
detected visible part of the EM spectrum. It is a Full HD
continuous zoom camera with 4 megapixel CMOS image
detector. It has continuous zoom achieved with 10x auto515

For remote control module has RS232 serial interface

with appropriate protocol. To convert module to a true IP
device it is used a serial server for RS232 serial link.

Again, Serial-over-Ethernet conversion is completely

transparent to this module and simplifies integration and
networking.

Picture 5: Block diagram of the sensor suite

(TTFF) which is less than 1 second. Once acquired,
satellites are passed on to a dedicated tracking engine.
This arrangement allows the GPS engine to
simultaneously track up to 16 satellites while searching
for the new ones and has 4 Hz position update rate. It
handles NMEA data format messages. It supports active
antennas which have an integrated low-noise amplifier.

Digital compass module

Digital compass module enables orientation of complete
OE system. Incorporating 3-axis magnetic field sensing
and 3-axis tilt sensing, the module provides accurate and
precise tilt-compensated heading measurements at up to
45 of tilt. It utilizes advanced magnetic distortion
correction algorithms to provide accurate heading
information. The module offers heading accuracy of 1
rms, resolution of 0.1 and repeatability of 0.05 rms.

Again, in order to integrate it through the on-board LAN,

the GPS receiver had to be converted to a true IP device
via serial server for RS232 serial link. The serial server
enables remote control of module through an IP channel
by framing a RS232 protocol message into an IP packet.

The module supports binary RS232 communication

interface with 300 to 115,200 baud rate with
manufacturers defined protocol. Maximum sample rate is
10 samples/s. For accurate measurements the module
needs a calibration with the minimum of 12 sample points
(positions) for successful calibration. Once calibration is
complete, module sends message which indicates the
quality of the calibration.

Pan/Tilt module
The Pan/Tilt (PT) module directs and points sensor suite.
It is a variable speed pan tilt, which offers top or double
load installation. The maximum load is up to 15 kg. PT
enables 360 continuous rotation, high repeatability and
accurate preset position and absolute angles/positions
control. It uses worm and worm-gear driving system. Pan
Speed is 0.01~60 /s, Tilt Speed is 0.01~30 /s. Tilt Range
is for top load: -75~+40, and for double load: 90.

In order to integrate the compass module through the onboard LAN, it had to be converted to a true IP device. To
do that it is used the serial server for RS232 serial link.
The serial server enables remote control of the module
through an IP channel by framing a RS232 protocol
message into an IP packet.

The PT module is controlled via RS-485/RS-422 serial

link using PelcoD/PelcoP protocols with 2400, 4800,
9600, 19200 bps baud rates. The module has several
motion modes: rotation, auto scan, auto cruise, apple
scanning, and scanning step 360. It also supports 128
preset positions.

GPS receiver module

GPS receiver module uses GPS positioning technology to
determine its position. It enables a Time-To-First-Fix
516

The PT module had to be converted to a true IP device via

serial server for RS485 serial link. The serial server
enables remote control of module through an IP channel
by framing a RS485 PelcoD protocol message into an IP
packet.

and actions, and, most importantly, hosting client access

from XProtect clients. Another fundament of MIP
software is XProtect Software Development Kit [6]. The
MIP software was developed in .NET framework of
Microsoft Visual Studio using the C# programming
language.

MIP application

The MIP application is a menu-driven, man-machine

interface that provides an operator with a user-friendly
control of essential subsystems of the MIP (Picture 7).
Application integrates command and control of each
sensor and bearing pan/tilt to desired direction. Apart
from that, the MIP software works with maps, target
symbols and communication. Applications GUI
simultaneously displays video content from both cameras
in real-time. So, MIP software is a central point of the
complete MIP system.

Once all above mentioned modules (sensors and PT

module) were connected in a single LAN, appropriate
software was devised to control them and to display their
results. Software handles sensor management, generates
graphical user interface (GUI), controls and processes
systems network communication. To manage such
complex tasks MIP software uses advantages of layered
architecture (Picture 6). Foundation of software is
Milestones XProtect Enterprise software as open and
independent IP video surveillance platform [5]. Milestone
XProtect and other Milestone background integration
technologies make the core of our surveillance system by
connecting, sharing and managing all networked devices.

Each sensor has its own command menu with setup

parameters and modes of operation. For example,
operator can start digital compass calibration or setup
laser range finder and start distance measurement.
Software exploits various pan/tilt motion modes to setup
observation patterns of scene (i.e. preset positions, patrol
mode, etc.).

XProtect Recording Server enables: connectivity to each

IP camera and IP video encoder, recording of video and
audio, receiving events and activating predefined alerts

Picture 6: MIP software architecture

Picture 7: MIP software GUI

517

To put selected and measured targets on the map,

application uses digital map generated and exported by
GIS software. Every selected target has an ID tag, geoposition parameters and an associated graphical symbol
according to Mil-Std-2525c standard (Picture 8).
Application automatically tracks current sensor suite
position and their current fields of view and overlays that
information on the map in real-time (Picture 9).

parameters which has to be included in calculation. In

summary, there is not an easy answer to the question
how far I can see with a system? [8]. Firstly, for getting
the first-order estimation of range prediction, system has
to be simulated. Secondly, in order to get the real system
performances, system has to be tested in the real
environment condition. According to the range prediction
methodology [9] and to field tests the system MIP has an
effective detection range of up to 5 km.

6. CONCLUSION
The MIP system is an ISTAR-based model designed for
passive observing, surveying and target acquisition, at
day, night and low visibility conditions. It integrates 5
different sensors: video and thermovision camera, laser
range finder, GPS receiver and digital magnetic compass.
The sensor suite is directed by motorized pan/tilt module
and mounted onto a telescopic mast. The MIP is an alldigital system which can be operated as a stand-alone or
as a node sensor network. System promotes modular
architecture and uses standard network and computer
hardware, and open network protocols. Custom software
application provides overall system functionality. Further
development of this model has a very important role to
facilitate communication between research community
and military and intelligence community.

Picture 8: Targets position and properties

REFERENCES
[1] Joint Vision 2010 Americas Military: Preparing for
Tomorrow, 1996.
[2] Research and Technology Organization, Technical
Report 8, Land Operations in the Year 2020
(LO2020), 1999.
[3] FM 34-2-1 (19910619) Tactics, Techniques, and
Procedures for Reconnaissance and Surveillance and
Intelligence Support To Counter-reconnaissance,
1991.
[4] JP 3-09.1 Joint Laser Designation Procedures
(JLASER), 1991.
[5] Milestone Systems A/S, XProtect Enterprise 7.0;
2010, http://www.milestonesys.com
[6] Milestone Systems A/S, Software Development Kit
(SDK), http://www.milestonesys.com/sdk
[7] R. L. Lombardo Jr., Target Acquisition: Its Not Just
for Military Imaging, Photonic Spectra, 1998, 123126.
[8] FLIR Technical Note, Thermal imaging: how far can
you see with it?, 2002.
[9] STANAG 4347, Definition of nominal static range
performance for thermal imaging systems, 1995.

Picture 9: Current MIP system position and sensor

direction and settings

5. SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
Human, technological and atmospheric parameters affect
range performance of any opto-electronic system [7].
Besides sensors, other factors which have to be
considered are: type of target, target and scene parameters
(reflectance, emittance, video and thermal contrast,
motion and scene clutter). Atmosphere attenuation is the
main obstacle to achieve long ranges for detection,
recognition and identification. Parameters such as
temperature, humidity, visibility, Sun angle and solar
irradiance, cloud coverage, and turbulence determine and
limit visible, infrared and laser radiation propagation due
to their spectral dependence. Operators training,
motivation, experience, fatigue, age and IQ still play
unpredictable rolls in overall system performance.
Platform parameters such as vehicle vibration, speed,
stabilization and crew size and interaction are additional

518

STUDY OF POSSIBILITIES OF APPLICATION OF A THERMOPILE-BASED

GAS SENSOR
DANIJELA RANDJELOVI
Centre of Microelectronic Technologies, Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade,
danijela@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
OLGA JAKI
Centre of Microelectronic Technologies, Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade,
danijela@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
MILE M SMILJANI
Centre of Microelectronic Technologies, Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade,
danijela@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
ARKO LAZI
Centre of Microelectronic Technologies, Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade,
danijela@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: The goal of this work is exploring the possibilities of application of a thermopile-based gas sensor. The main
task was to study for which kind of gases this type of sensor would be suitable. For this purpose self-developed 1D
analytical model was used. Modelling was done for multipurpose sensors developed at ICTM, but also for the same
structure that would be fabricated on SOI substrate. Output signal of thermopile-based sensor depends on thermal
conductivity of the surrounding gas. When this type of sensor is applied as a gas sensor, prerequisite is that the gases
have different thermal conductivities so that the sensor can distinguish between them. According to simulation results,
thermopile-based sensors could be applied for a number of gases which are important in industrial safety, homeland
security, healthcare, domestic safety, etc. The results obtained for hydrogen detection were already presented, so in this
work simulation data for other gases of interest will be given. This includes methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide,
chlorine. Important conclusion is that thermopile-based sensor is capable to detect wide variety of gases.
Keywords: thermopile, gas type sensor, gas thermal conductivity, analytical modelling, SOI

1. INTRODUCTION
MEMS sensors based on Seebeck effect have been a
subject of the long-term research at ICTM-CMT. One of
the main advantages of this type of sensors is very broad
range of applications (flow sensors, vacuum sensors,
thermal converters, IR detectors, accelerometers,
inclinometers, biological and chemical sensors, gas type
sensors, binary gas mixture composition sensors, ...) [1].
Till now sensors dedicated for several applications have
been developed at ICTM: 1) flow sensor [2,3], 2) vacuum
sensor [4], 3) helium gas sensor [5], 4) thermal converter
[2], 5) intelligent vacuum sensor [6].
Taking into account importance of portable gas sensors in
areas covering the fields of defence, anti-terrorism,
homeland safety, industrial safety, healthcare, etc. [7,8]
the goal of this work is exploring the possibilities of
wider application of a thermopile-based gas sensor. In the
previous work it was shown experimentally that ICTM

thermopile based sensor is suitable for Helium detection

[5]. Possibility of Hydrogen detection was confirmed only
theoretically and simulation data were already presented
[9]. The main task of this work is to study detection of
several more gases and examine how performance of
thermal gas sensor could be improved.
For this purpose self-developed 1D analytical model was
used. Modelling was done for multipurpose sensors
developed at ICTM [2-6], but also for the same structure
that would be fabricated on silicon on insulator (SOI)
substrate [10]. SOI structure is considered because it
offers high quality thermal isolation which improves
significantly sensor performance.
Output signal of thermopile-based sensor depends on
thermal conductivity of the surrounding gas. When this
type of sensor is applied as a gas sensor, fundamental
prerequisite is that the gases have different thermal
conductivities so that the sensor can distinguish between
them. According to simulation results, thermopile-based

sensors could be applied for a number of gases which are

important in industrial safety, homeland security,
healthcare, domestic safety, etc. This includes ammonia,
carbon dioxide, chlorine, hydrogen sulfide and methane
on which this work will be focused.

p+Si/Al
THERMOCOUPLE

p+Si
HEATER
Al
SPUTTERED

SiO2
l0

2. N-SI AND SOI THERMOPILE BASED

P-TYPE SENSORS

l1

p+Si
n-Si

RESIDUAL n-Si

(b)
Simulations were performed for two different sensor
structures, one fabricated on standard n-Si wafer, and the
other one fabricated using SOI wafer. The first structure is
practically identical with multipurpose sensor developed
at ICTM [2]. The SOI sensor has not been realized yet but
the fabrication process has been developed using the
already existing technological processes developed for
ICTM piezoresistive pressure sensors [10]. The
advantages of SOI structure have been theoretically
considered in several publications [10,11].

p+Si/Al
THERMOCOUPLE

p+-Si

Al

HEATER

SPUTTERED

SiO2
SOI SiO2

l0

l1

p+Si
n-Si

(
c)

In both cases the sensors consist of the same elements:

two independent thermopiles with N p+Si/Al
thermocouples, p+Si heater and thermally and electrically
isolating membrane. The crucial difference between the
two designs is that the SOI sensor has membrane of
pure oxide 1 m thick, while the n-Si sensor, apart from
the oxide layer, has also residual n-Si silicon in membrane
area thick dn-Si = 3 m.

Picture 1. Top view of the sensor with the main elements

and two zones used in 1D modelling (a), cross section of
the n-Si sensor (b) and of the SOI sensor (c) with
depicted lengths of the two zones, l0 and l1.
Performance of thermopile based sensors depends on
sensor design. In this work structures with N = 60 and
N = 120 thermocouples placed on the membrane area of
the same size are studied. When N = 60 widths of p+Si
and Al stripes forming a thermocouple are wp+Si = 60 m
and wAl = 40 m. For N = 120, wp+Si = 20 m and
wAl = 10 m. In both cases length of thermocouple
elements is 1090 m.

Top view, which is the same for both sensors, is shown in

Picture 1(a). Cross section of n-Si sensor is illustrated
in Picture 1(b) and the cross section of SOI structure is
shown in Picture 1(c). Hot thermopile junctions are
situated in the vicinity of the heater, while the cold
junctions are placed on the unetched part of the chip
surrounding the membrane the rim.

For the purposes of analytical modelling membrane area

is divided in two rectangular zones as illustrated in
Picture 1 (a). Length of the first zone is l0 = 180 m,
while l1 depends on thickness of the residual silicon and
equals l1 = 790 m in SOI sensor and l1 = 793 in n-Si
sensor.

3. ANALYTICAL MODEL AND SIMULATION

PROCEDURE
Binary mixture is formed of two gases with fraction of the
monitored gas x, and fraction of the carrier gas
(1-x). Expression for thermal conductivity of a binary gas
mixture given in [12] will be used
bin
mix
=

xgas1
(1 x ) gas 2
+
,
x + (1 x) F12 (1 x ) + xF21

(1)

where gas is gas thermal conductivity, while F12 and F21

are parameters depending on molecular weights, M, and
dynamic viscosities of the gases, .

(a)

Formula for calculating parameters Fij is

520

il are emissivities of the upper and lower surface of the

zone i (i = 0, 1) depicted in Picture 1(a).

gas (i ) 0.5 M gas ( j ) 0.25

1 +


gas ( j ) M gas (i )
, {i, j}={1, 2}. (2)
Fij =
0.5
M gas ( j )

8 1 + M
gas ( i )

For gas detection it is important to monitor the change of

thermopile voltage due to variation of the parameter x. If
reference voltageis the thermopile voltage value in pure
air, that is when x = 0, then the expression for the voltage
change is

We will consider here binary gas mixture of air and the

following 5 gases: ammonia, carbon dioxide, chlorine,
hydrogen sulfide and methane. Relevant parameters for
all gases are listed in Table 1 [13,14].

U ( x ) = U ( x ) U ( x = 0 ) ,

assuming constant pressure and temperature.

Dependence of the voltage change on the binary gas
mixture composition and on the number of thermocouples
was studied.

Table 1. Gas parameters used in simulations

GAS
Air (N2)
Ammonia
(NH3)
Carbon
dioxide
(CO2)
Chlorine
(Cl2)
Hydrogen
sulfide
(H2S)
Methane
(CH4)

(5)

Table 2. Material properties and corresponding values

used in simulations

[W/mK]

M
[u]

[Pas]

0.0259

28.0134

17.82

0.0247

17.2

10.15

0.01655

44.01

14.9

0.0081

70.906

13.27

0.0146

34.076

12.8

0.0341

16.044

11.18

MATERIAL/
PARAMETER
Thermal
conductivity
[W/(mK)]
Thickness
t [m]
Emissivity

Density
[kg/m3]

n-Si

p+Si

SiO2

Al

150

75

1.2

218

0.3

0.7

0.5

0.5

0.2

0.8

2330

2420

2220

2702

4. SIMULATION RESULTS

General analytical model for binary gas mixture detection

using thermopile based MEMS sensors is presented in
detail in [5]. This model is based on core 1D analytical
model with two zones given in [2].

Simulations were performed for the n-Si and SOI

structures assuming that the sensors are operating at
atmospheric pressure (105 Pa) and constant ambient
temperature of 20 oC.

Voltage generated at the thermopile is chosen to be the

parameter of interest. It is assumed that the output signal
equals the sum of voltages at both thermopiles. General
formula for Seebeck voltage is

Picture 2 shows simulation results obtained for n-Si

sensor with dn-Si = 3 m. We considered two different
designs. In the first one, N = 60 thermocouples was
placed on the chip (Picture 2(a)), while in the second one,
number of thermocouples was doubled, N = 120
(Picture 2(b)).

U ( x, p, T ) = N p +Si/Al T ( x, p, T )

(3)

Picture is showing voltage difference as a function of

fraction of the chosen gas in air. For 60 thermocouples,
the reference value of voltage equals to 128.35 mV. As
gas content is increasing, voltage difference increases
with positive sign for chlorine, hydrogen sulfide, carbon
dioxide and ammonia, while it also increases but with the
negative sign for methane. If we double number of
thermocouples, it can be seen that the voltage difference
will also be a little bit more than doubled.

Where N is total number of thermocouples in both

thermopiles, p+Si/Al = 300 V/K is the Seebeck
coefficient of p+Si/Al thermocouples and T is
temperature difference between the hot and cold
thermocouple junctions. Both the thermopile voltage and
temperature difference depend on fraction x, ambient
pressure p, and temperature - T.
Based on the brief theory given in [9], and general
expression for the temperature difference established on
the chip for given power generated at the heater at
constant ambient pressure and temperature, expression (3)
can be written as

Similar behaviour is observed for the SOI sensors

(Picture 3), only in this case it is obvious that a much
higher voltage level is reached. For N = 60, reference
voltage is about 735 mV, while for N = 120, it is almost
2V. Voltage differences now reach more than 200 mV for
chlorine, for example, while they are also much higher for
all other gases compared with relevant data in the case of
n-Si sensor.

bin
U ( x ) = N p +Si/Al T ( N , mix
( x ) , iu , il , RH I const ) , (4)

where electrical resistance of the heater is RH = 5.8 k,

current supplied at the heater is Iconst =3 mA, while iu and
521

(b)

(a)

Picture 3. Simulation results obtained for SOI sensor

for N = 60 (a) and N = 120 (b).

5. CONCLUSION
Analytical model was applied to study behaviour of
n-Si and SOI sensors in binary gas mixtures formed
by adding chlorine, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide,
ammonia and methane to air. Calculations were
performed at room temperature and atmospheric pressure.
When increasing selected gas content in the air, voltage
change was observed for all gases leading to conclusion
that the examined thermopile based sensors could be
applied for detection of presence of these gases in air.
Further, it was concluded that gas senor response could be
improved by increasing number of thermocouples. In the
case of n-Si sensor, the output voltage is more than
doubled for twice as many thermocouples. On the other
hand, the same increase in number of thermocouples
gives almost 4 times higher voltage difference in SOI
sensors.

(b)
Picture 2. Simulation results obtained for n-Si sensor
with dn-Si = 3 m for N = 60 (a) and N = 120 (b).

When comparing n-Si sensor with some residual silicon

and SOI sensor with membrane of pure oxide one can
conclude that SOI structure has superior performance.
If we observe results obtained for chlorine, which has the
most prominent change, for 60 thermocouples voltage
difference is about 40 times higher in SOI sensor than
in n-Si sensor for the respective chlorine fractions in
air. In the structures with 120 thermocouples this factor
increases up to 70.
This is a consequence of practically ideal thermal
isolation between the hot and cold thermocouple
junctioncs achieved in SOI structure with oxide
membrane. On the other hand, in n-Si structure heat
transfer via conduction through the residual n-Si is the
dominant mechanism.
It is worth mentioning that since sensors response
depends on the thermal conductivity of the detected gas
even better performance was observed for mixtures of
helium [5] and hydrogen [9] with air and these results
were already presented elsewhere. Important conclusion
is that thermopile-based sensor is capable to detect wide
variety of gases.

(a)

522

[7] Bogue, R., "Terrorism and military actions pose the

ultimate challenge to gas sensing", Sensor Review, 31
(2011) 6-12.
[8] MNT Network News Bulletin: MNT Gas Sensors
Roadmap,
Issue
14,
January
15
2007,
http://208.254.39.65/mntnetwork/e_article000729863
.cfm
[9] Randjelovi,D., Lazi,., Jaki,O., VasiljeviRadovi,D.: Analytical Modelling of Hydrogen
Sensing Using IHTM Thermopile Based MEMS
Multipurpose Sensors, in Proc. 5th International
Scientific Conference on Defensive Technologies
OTEH 2012, Belgrade, Serbia, September 18-19
(2012) 662-667.
[10] Randjelovi,D.,
Smiljani,M.M.,
Lazi,.,
Popovi,M.: Enhancement of the Performance of
Multipurpose Thermopile-Based Sensor Using
Proprietary
MEMS
Technology
for
SOI
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors Fabrication, in Proc.
56th Conf. for Electronics, Telecommunications,
Computers, Automation and Nuclear Engineering
ETRAN 2012, Zlatibor, Serbia, June 11-14 (2012)
MO3.3-1-4.
[11] Randjelovi,D., Kozlov,A., Jaki,O.: Vacuum
Sensing Based on the Influence of Gas Pressure on
Thermal Time Constant, Proc. 29th Int. Conf. on
Microelectronics MIEL 2014, Belgrade, Serbia, May
12-15 (2014) 179-182.
[12] Xensor Integration,
http://www.xensor.nl/txtfiles/hfdfiles/prodstan.htm.
[13] Matheson https://www.mathesongas.com
[14] Incropera,F.P., DeWitt,D.P.: Fundamentals of Heat
and Mass Transfer, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken,
2002

Finally, we can conclude that in terms of gas sensing

SOI structures have better perspective than the
conventional n-Si sensors. For the same top-view layout
SOI sensors provide much higher output voltage and
give much higher voltage difference when increasing
selected gas fraction in air.

REFERENCES
[1] Meijer,G.C.M., Herwaarden,A.W.: Thermal Sensors,
IOP Publishing, Bristol, 1994
[2] Randjelovi,D.,
Petropoulos,A.,
Kaltsas,G.,
Stojanovi,M., Lazi,., Djuri,Z., Mati,M.:
Multipurpose MEMS Thermal Sensor Based on
Thermopiles, Sensors and Actuators A, 141 (2008)
404-413.
[3] Randjelovi,D., Djuri,Z., Petropoulos,A., Kaltsas,
G., Lazi, ., Popovi, M.: Analytical modelling of
thermopile based flow sensor and verification with
experimental results, Microelectronic Engineering, 86
(2009) 1293-1296.
[4] Randjelovi,D., Jovanov,V., Lazi,., Djuri,Z.,
Mati,M.: Vacuum MEMS Sensor Based on
Thermopiles Simple Model and Experimental
Results, in Proc. 26th Int. Conf. on Microelectronics
MIEL 2008, Ni, Serbia, May 11-14, 2 (2008) 367370.
[5] Randjelovi,D., Lazi,., Popovi,M., Mati,M.:
Helium Sensing Using Multipurpose ThermopileBased MEMS devices, Proc. 28th Int. Conf. on
Microelectronics MIEL 2012, Ni, Serbia, May 13-16
(2012) 147-150.
[6] Randjelovi,D.V., Frantlovi,M.P., Miljkovi,B.L.,
Popovi,B.M., Jaki,Z.S.: Intelligent Thermal
Vacuum Sensors Based on Multipurpose Thermopile
MEMS Chips, Vacuum, 101 (2014) 118-124.

523

AN APPROACH FOR DEVELOPMENT OF EOB APPLICATION IN

DIRECTION FINDER FOR HF FREQUENCY RANGE
GORAN KRUNI
RT-RK doo, Novi Sad, goran.krunic@rt-rk.com
UGLJEA DRAGII
RT-RK doo, Novi Sad, ugljesa.dragisic@rt-rk.com
ELJKO JURCA
RT-RK doo, Novi Sad, zeljko.jurca@rt-rk.com
TOMISLAV MARUNA
RT-RK doo, Novi Sad, tomislav.maruna@rt-rk.com

Abstract: In this paper will be exposed a software solution of the application for Electronic order of battle (EOB) in
HERA wideband direction-finder for HF radio-frequency. The EOB application is the subsystem on the top of hierarchy
of data processing in the HERA direction-finders network. The EOB application collects all required and previously
prepared data from all available, particular direction-finders and creates the picture of radio- transmitters activity,
recognizes them as the white-list-location or as the black-list-location, examines their affiliation to known or unknown
radio-networks, and displays them on several different ways: on the georeferenced map, on the PTT diagram, on the
table and on docking property window. Input data for EOB application are previously processed data about emissions,
from segmentation subsystems of all available direction-finders. Transmitter location is result of the spherical
triangulation (in case that emission data are available from at least two direction-finders) with minimum RMS method,
or as result of SSL method (in case that the available data about ionosphere and azimuth and elevation comes from only
one direction-finder). If neither of the above mentioned data set is available, only the azimuth of the
emissions/transmitters will be presented.
Keywords: direction-finder, electronic order of battle, spherical triangulation, SSL, azimuth, elevation.
time and the database for storing a results of processing.
At the top of the processing hierarchy is the master
station. Master station may be any previously-mentioned
direction-finder station that has access to the databases of
all other stations in the network. Every direction-finder
station, for their local needs, can have the software
module EOB, and only master station has the full
functionality of this module.

1. INTRODUCTION
Electronic order of battle (EOB) is a software module
implemented in the software integrated development
environment Microsoft Visual Studio 2010, Visual C + +.
GUI is implemented using the graphics modules
(dialogues and controls) of the standard MFC library.
To understand the functionality of this module, we must
first explain its place in the HERA wideband directionfinders network. We must also explain what kind of input
data EOB module possesses, where it is prepared and
where it is stored.

Acquisition part comprises:

hardware module for the acquisition of the signal,
hardware-software module for spectral analysis (FFT),
digital signal processing software module for
processing and determining the direction of the signal
(azimuth and elevation) using three basic methods:
Watson-Watt, correlative interferometry and MUSIC,

HERA system is a network of wideband direction-finders

for HF frequency range, developed by the Military
Technical Institute and the Faculty of Technical Science
from Novi Sad.

software modules: broadband and narrowband clients to

display the results of processing

Each direction-finder station is comprised of: acquisition

part (hardware and software module to determine the
direction of the signal), segmentation part (softwaremodule for the spectrum segmentation and identifying
emissions), GPS module for the precise measurement of

Segmentation module is a module for analysis, finding

segments and identifying emissions.
524

GPS module is used for precise measurement of time (the

need for precise time will be explained later).

3. DETERMINING THE LOCATION OF THE

EMISSION/TRANSMITTER

The database used for the storage and preservation of the

results of processing.

Depending on how many direction-finders are available to

EOB application, there are two methods of determining
the current location of the emission / transmitter: spherical
triangulation (with or without minimum RMS method)
and SSL method.
If the available direction-finders network contains valid
information of exactly two independent direction-finders,
the most accurate method for determining the location of
the emission / transmitter is the method of spherical
triangulation. If the available network contains three or
more sets of data, then the spherical triangulation is
combined with the minimum RMS method, i.e. method of
minimization of mean square error of the estimated
azimuths. Azimuths of three or more direction-finder are
rarely intersects in one point, and for that reason, it is
necessary to find the point with the minimum mean
square error (within the space of all intersections). For the
method of minimization of mean square error of the
estimated azimuths, in addition to the value of the
azimuths and their intersections (as result of the spherical
triangulation), it is necessary to have the data about the
standard deviation of the estimation error of azimuth for
each individual direction-finder.
Example with intersections of the estimated azimuths and
the point with the minimum mean square error is shown
in Picture 2 (Given that the standard deviation of the
estimated error of azimuths is smallest at RG2 and RG3,
the point with the minimum mean square error is nearest
to the intersection of azimuths of these two directionfinders).

The basic functions of EOB module are: collection and

integration of all data about individual emissions of all
available direction-finders at any point in time,
calculating the current location of each emission,
transmitter identification, transmitter classification in
radio-networks, combining the results of processing
through time, graphical presentation of the results of
processing, storing the results into database of master
station.

2. DIRECTION-FINDERS NETWORK AND

INPUT DATA FOR EOB MODULE
EOB module is a subsystem on the top of the data
processing hierarchy in the HERA direction-finders
network. To operate, it requires previously prepared data
from at least one direction-finder.
The heart of each individual direction-finder is its
database with all relevant data about the current directionfinding. EOB module is a standard Windows application
which requires access to databases of each individual
direction-finder. Input data for EOB application are
previously prepared data about identified emissions, from
spectrum segmentation subsystems of all available
direction-finders. The spectrum segmentation stores the
data in its database. Every data record stored in the
database is marked by a very accurate timestamp.
The time in the HERA direction-finders is synchronized
by GPS devices, so that the time source of data creation is
very accurate. Precise time source of data creation is very
important for EOB module because its task is to combine
data about the same emission, at the same time, created in
several independent direction-finders. Therefore, the
direction-finders network means: several direction-finders
databases filled with synchronized, relevant data about
emissions, available to EOB module and connected to
LAN. EOB application can be run on any Windows
computer that has access to all necessary databases.
Logical scheme of HERA direction-finders network and
the data flow, relevant to the EOB module, is given in
Picture 1.

Picture 2: Intersection of the estimated azimuths (blue

spot) and point with minimum RMS value (red spot),
considering standard deviation of the estimation error of
azimuth
If data is available from only one direction finder, in order
to determine the location of the emission / transmitter, in
addition to azimuth, it is necessary to have the
information about elevation, as well as the data about the
height of the ionosphere and the cutoff frequency.
Updated information about the ionosphere above the area
of the Republic of Serbia and the surrounding area are
provided by Geodetic Institute. Methods for determining
the location with above mentioned data is SSL method:
azimuth determines the direction to the transmitter and
elevation and height of the ionosphere determine the
distance to the transmitter. Graphic presentation of

Picture 1: Logical scheme and EOB data flow in the

HERA direction-finders network

525

determining the distance as part of the SSL methods is

shown in Picture 3.

georeferenced map. All objects on the map are marked

with symbols belonging to MIL standard. Unknown
transmitters are marked with standard yellow symbols
(Picture 4.a). Known transmitters recognized as whitelist-location are marked with standard green symbols
(Picture 4.b) and transmitters recognized as black-listlocation are marked with standard red symbols (Picture
4.c). Trasmitters symbols can be changed manually by
the operetor. Direction-finders marked with standard blue
symbols (Picture 4.d)

Picture 3: SSL method, distance calculation

Picture 4: The most common symbols for directionfinders and transmitters

Each new moment provides new, partly different, input

data (azimuths and elevations of emissions) that produce,
by using one of the aforementioned methods, partly
different results about the locations of transmitters. The
obtained locations of the same emission / transmitter are
then averaged in time.

Affiliation to a particular radio-network is marked by a

certain color. Each radio-network is represented by
different color assigned to it. All transmitters assigned to
one particular network are marked with the color of their
network (colored point on the bottom-right side of their
symbols).

4. OPERATING MODES

Graphic presentation of direction-finders and transmitters

on georeferenced map is shown on Picture 5.

Depending on type of processed data and time of its

creation, EOB module has three basic operating modes:
Online, Offline i Replay.
Online operating mode process the data in the moments of
its creation, with deliberate delay of 5 seconds to
compensate for possible delays of data flow through the
LAN. The results of EOBs online operating mode are
dynamic, because each new moment provides new results.
Offline operating mode process pre-existing data from the
selected time interval, all at once, and gives the final
result averaging the locations of each transmitter for each
moment in time in the selected time interval. In addition,
the input data can be filtered by frequency (entire
frequency spectrum (without filtering), single frequency,
a series of individual frequencies or frequency range), and
by data source (wideband input data, narrowband input
data). In offline operating mode, if a filter is set at one
frequency (that means one radio-network), and is the
number of participants is known, it is possible to use
kmean statistical method to determining transmitters
location.
Replay operating mode is the possibility of repeated
graphical presentation of previously processed and
recorded results of EOB's processing.

Picture 5: Graphic presentation of results of EOB's

processing on the georeferenced map
Detailed information about transmitters and emissions
(last azimuths, elevations, frequency, geographic
coordinate, radio-networks to witch they belongs, etc) are
displayed on docking property window (Picture 6.a).
Radio-network and assigned transmitters are displayed in
hierarchal tree for fast visualization on the docking treeview window (Picture 6.b)

5. GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF THE

RESULTS OF PROCESSING

The PTT diagram provides a quick overview of

intercepted communications sessions versus time.
Transmitters assigned to different radio-networks are
represented by different colors. The PTT diagram is
powerful tool for verifying and editing the
communications relationship automatically detected by
the EOB module. PTT diagram is shown on Picture 7.

Results of data processing of EOB module, as previously

explaned, are the identified radio-networks and assigned
transmitters with all associated data. The main graphic
display of processing results is the picture with all
direction-finders and transmitters drawn on the
526

6. CONCLUSION
The quality of the EOBs processing results is very
sensitive to the accuracy of the input data. Even a small
error in the estimated azimuth can generate a large error
in the resulting locations of the transmitter. Preparation,
processing and averaging of the raw results of directionfinding in spectral segmentation module, as well as
averaging of EOBs processing results, reduces this error
and makes the whole system (direction-finder spectral
segmentation EOB) more robust.

REFERENCES
[1] Milan. M. unjevari., Radio-goniometrija, Beograd,
1991.
[2] http://cdn.rohdeschwarz.com/pws/dl_downloads/dl_common_library
/dl_brochures_and_datasheets/pdf_1/Presentation_S
uite_bro_en.pdf (Online)
[3] Sheffer, A., Gotsman, C., & Dyn, N. (2004). Robust
spherical parameterization of triangular meshes (pp.
185-193). Springer Vienna.2004.

a)
b)
Picture 6: Docking windows with information about
transmitters and radio-nerworks

Picture 7: PTT pattern analysis diagram

527

AN FPGA IMPLEMENTATION OF BEAMFORMING ALGORITHM

WITH DIGITAL MEMS MICROPHONES
IVA SALOM
Institute Mihailo Pupin, University of Belgrade, iva.salom@pupin.rs
VLADIMIR ELEBI
Institute Mihailo Pupin, University of Belgrade, vladimir.celebic@pupin.rs
MILAN MILANOVI
Institute Mihailo Pupin, University of Belgrade, m.milanovic@pupin.rs
DEJAN TODOROVIC
Dirigent Acoustics, Belgrade, dejan.todorovic@dirigent-acoustics.co.rs,
MIRJANA RADOSAVLJEVIC
Dirigent Acoustics, Belgrade, m.radosavljevic@dirigent-acoustics.co.rs
JURIJ PREZELJ
Faculty of Mechnical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, jurij.prezelj@fs.uni-lj.si

Abstract:The goal of the project described in this paper was to design an acoustic system for localization of the
dominant noise source by implementation of the conventional delay-and-sum beamforming algorithm on FPGA
platform with a sound receiver system based on digital MEMS microphones. Such configuration enables the execution
of the beamforming algorithm in real time.Additionally, FPGAs are bringing many benefits in terms of safety,
reliability, rapidity, and power consumption. The system was designed and ascertainedusing rapid prototyping
methodology with Matlab Simulink tools.A performance evaluation of the FPGA design is presented in terms of
hardware resources for the chosen Xilinx Spartan-6 family.
Keywords:beamforming, MEMS microphone, microphone array, Simulink, sum and delay, FPGA .

1. INTRODUCTION
Beamforming is a general signal processing technique used
to control directionality of the reception or transmission of a
signal with an array of transducers [1]. Acoustic
beamforming can be regarded as a spatial filter operation for
the data received from a microphone/sensor array. It can be
used to determine location and intensity of the sound source
[1-7]. This technique of sound source localization has found
a wide range of applications in many fields, from acoustic
cameras, medical ultrasound devices, military applications,
cataloging wildlife in rural areas, videoconferencing, home
surveillance, patient care,to localization of noise pollution
sources in urban environments. Examples of a military
applicationsare localization of the snipers position in a
counter-sniper system and localisation of submarines using
hydrophones [7], [8].
Since the most optimal solution assumes that data from all
the microphones to be processed in parallel, the
application of FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array)
528

technology arises as the best solution for the

implementation of the beamforming algorithmon a single
module, especially due to the possibility of adding new
algorithms and improving the existing [8]-[12].
Additionally, FPGAs are bringing many benefits in terms
of safety, reliability, rapidity, and power consumption.
Recently, digitalMEMS (Micro ElectroMechanical)
microphones have been introduced and are
nowadaysfound in most cell-phones, digital cameras,
Bluetooth headsets on the market. Their quality
iscontinuously improving, and pre-amplifier, signal
conditioningand analog-to-digital conversion are often
integrated ona single chip. This results in very compact
and lightweightdesigns [12].
The major drawbacks using FPGA technology are high
costs and need for integration of peripherals such as AD
(analog-to-digital)
and
DA
(digital-to-analog)
converters.On the other hand, a digital MEMS
microphone connects to an FPGA directly on the digital
level, without converters.

Picture 1. The conventional delay-and-sum algorithm in time domain

The time tmthat takes this signal to travel from a
The facts posed above induced an idea to design an
microphone in the array to the origin is proportional to the
acoustic system for localization of the dominant noise
source by implementation of the conventional delay-and- projection of the microphone m position vector, rm, on .
sum beamforming algorithm on FPGA platform with a Thetm shift for each microphone is determined by the
sound receiver system based on digital MEMS position of the microphone in the array and the desired
microphones.The realization of the system, presented in focus direction of the array:
JJGG
the paper, includedhardware and mechanics system
r i
design from the scratch, hardware and signal integrity
tm = m ,
(1)
c
verification using HypeLynks environment, algorithm
simulations in Matlab, algorithm implementation design
using rapid prototyping methodology with Matlab wherec is the speed of sound. The input signal on the
Simulink tools, and connection of all parts of the system microphone m is an attenuated and a delayed version of
in Xilinx ISEenvironment. Performance evaluation of the the sound source signal.Signals coming from the same
FPGA design is presented in terms of hardware resources direction as the focus direction will be amplified after the
for the chosen Xilinx Spartan- family.Comparison of the addition of all shifted outputs [8]:
simulation results and the results obtained on real system
N mic
is given, as well.
ssnd ( t ) =
am sm ( t = tm ) .
(2)

j =1

2. DELAY-AND-SUM BEAMFORMING
ALGORITHM

With the assumption of a planar incoming wave, the

attention of signal at the input of each microphone is the
same.

Beamforming is a method of spatial filtering which

differentiates desired signals from noise and interference
based on their location. The simplest beamforming
algorithm is the delay-and-sum beamformer which works
by compensating signal delay to each microphone
appropriately before they are combined using an additive
operation. The outcome of this delayed signal summation
is reinforcement of the desired signal, i.e. the signal
coming from a desired direction (array focus)
whilesuppressing signals coming from all other
directions, and the noise in each microphone tends to
cancel each other [8], [13].

The conventional delay-and-sum method is the most

primitive of all techniques and not surprisingly has the
greatest hardware requirements[3].Storage and sampling
prerequisites are of high magnitude and fast clock rates
must be maintained to achieve adequate delay
precision.However, it is the least complex algorithm to
implement [4]. Despite (or even because of) its simplicity,
delay-sum beamforming is still commonly used in many
applications [10].

3. REAL-TIME ACOUSTIC BEAMFORMING

SYSTEM DESIGN

The basic idea of the conventional delay-and-sum

beamforming algorithm in time domain is presented in
Picture 1. It is supposed that sound source is far away
from the microphone array (far field), thus the curved
wavefront approaches linearity, with respect to
microphone aperture, and the assumption is that all
incoming waves are plane [4]. In a planar microphone
array, the direction vector of a far-field propagating signal
G
with a bearing of is defined by the unitary vector, i .

The block diagram of the real-time acoustic beamforming

system is presented in Picture 2.
Sound signal acquisition.The sound is acquired using
digital MEMS microphones. These microphones integrate
an acoustic transducer, a preamplifier and asigma-delta
converter into a single chip. The digital interface allows
529

Real-time Acoustic Beamforming System

USB-FPGA-Module 1.11
Cypress USB
Microcontroller

XILINX Spartan 6 XC6SLX FPGA

Control

...

PDM to PCM

DELAY AND SUM

USB 2.0

SPI

mirSD Flash memory

(FPGA bitstream store)

SD Int.

PC with
LabVIEW
Application

MEMS
Microphones

SWITCH

LED signalization

128 kb EPROM

DC/DC

DCin

Picture 2. Real-time acoustic beamforming system block diagram

easy interfacing with the FPGAwithout utilizing extra
components, such as an analog-to-digital converter, which
would be neededfor analog microphones. The small
package size of these microphones allows for easy
handling bya common pick and place machine when
assembling the array of the sensor. Microphones
ADMP621designedby InvenSense, were used, because
oftheir fairly good wide-band frequency response from
100 Hz up to 16 kHz, their omnidirectional polar
response,high signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR) of 65 dBAand
high sensitivity of -46 dBFS, making it an excellentchoice
for far field applications[14]. These microphones need
only a clock signal between 1 MHz and 3 MHz as
theinput (apart from the ground and power supply lines).
Each microphone requires 4 lines: ground, power, clock
and data. The output of two microphones is a multiplexed
PDM(Pulse Density Modulation) signal on a single data
line using a single clock source. This means that the total
bus width and pins used on the FPGA to interface the
microphones is equal to half the number of microphones.

Picture 3. MEMS microphone PCB

Delay-and-sum block includes conventional delay-andsum algorithm in time domain and an RMS detector for a
chosen time averaging constant (125 ms or 1 s). The
outputs of this block are: polar stream for directivity
pattern presentation (in current implementation 60
measurement angles (6 degree step) are calculated),
dominant direction stream, a preselected direction stream
and a preselected microphone stream, all three with the
output rate of 48 kHz.

Sigma-delta
demodulation
(PDM
to
PCM
conversion).To get the framed PCM data from the PDM
bit stream, decimation filters are usually used in sigma
delta AD converters. A widely adopted approach in this
context is using CIC (Cascaded Integrator-Comb) filters
at the first stage of decimation to reduce the sampling
frequency, followed by 2:1 HB (HalfBand) low-pass
decimation filters and a LP (Low Pass) FIR filter to take
out the high frequency noise introduced in the sigma
deltamodulation process and the further decimation[15][17].Since the sigma-delta modulator inside the
microphone isof the 4th order, a 5th order CIC decimator
was implemented.

Data are transferred to a PC via USB 2.0 interface. The

data acquisition is performed with an application
developed
in
National
Instruments
LabVIEW
environment. USB communication is controlled using NIVISA high-level API (Application Programming
Interface)[18].

4. HARDWARE COMPONENTS

The frequency of the PDM data output from the

microphone (which is the clock input to the
microphone)must be a multiple of the final audio output
needed from the system. In the current implementation, a
decimation of 64 was performed; for the output rate of
48 kHz, thus aclock frequency 3.072 MHz to the
microphoneneeded to be provided [14],[15].

4.1. MEMS microphone PCBs

MEMS microphones are mounted on small and simple
separated PCBs (Printed Board Circuit), that are
connected to the connection board via USB A type
connector, as shown in Picture 3. In this way broken
530

microphones could easily be replaced, and various

microphone array patterns, both planar and space, could
be realized.

synthesizable VHDL (or Verilog) code can be generated

using Simulink HDL Coder within the Xilinx addition for
the Simulink System Generator. Sometimes there is a
benefit from mixture approaches and such approach is
chosen in this design. Block diagram is shown on
Picture 5. The design consistsof the following blocks:

4.2. The motherboard

The motherboard of the system connects connection
boards with flexible flat cables, and houses the FPGA
platform board, providing power supply for the system.
5 V power supply can be external or provided via USB
interface.

Algorithm block,
Clock generator,
MEMS adapter,
USB adapter.
All the blocks, except the algorithm block were
implemented as VHDL components, while the algorithm
blockwasbuilt as a model in Simulink.

4.3. FPGA platform board

For the realization of the main functions of the system a
USB-FPGA module was chosen, because of its
compactness, price, and the number of differential parts
that were brought out to its general purpose I/O
connectors.The module contains a Xilinx Spartan-6 LX25
FPGA and a USB 2.0 Cypress microcontroller for
interfacing to a PC. The module is simply pluggedinto the
motherboard of the systemthusquick start of the
developed VHDL firmware debugging was enabled. This
provided a considerable time savings since the effort to
incorporate a complicated Spartan-6 LX25 on the
motherboard would not have been insignificant. The
interface chip for USB 2.0 communication was integrated
on the module, with software for performing USB transfer
between a data acquisition PC, running LabVIEW, and
the XILINX Spartan-6. The USB-FPGA moduleplaced on
the motherboard is shown in Picture 4.

5.1. XILINX ISE VHDL environment

The Xilinx ISE software controls all aspects of the design
flow. Through the Project Navigator interface, one can
access all of the design entry and design implementation
tools. All components realized with VHDL or translated
Simulink model are synthetized, translated, placed and
routed under ISE.
Clock generator synthesize main (system) clock from the
incoming clock sourced by USB controller. The clock
generator is realized with Digital Clock Managers
(DCMs). DCMs provide advanced clocking capabilities to
Spartan-6 FPGA applications. DCMs optionally multiply
or divide the incoming clock frequency to synthesize a
new clock frequency. DCMs also eliminate clock skew,
thereby improving system performance. Similarly, a
DCM optionally phase shifts the clock output to delay the
incoming clock by a fraction of the clock period. The
DCMs integrate directly with the FPGAs global lowskew clock distribution network.
MEMS adapter providesall clock signals to MEMS
microphones and performs PDM signal acquisition. PDM
signal is passed to the algorithm block.
USB adapter collects all calculated data from the
algorithm block, format data adding header and check
sum and sends formatted data to the USB controller. It
receives control messages sent from the user application
on the PC, as well.

5.2. Development in the Matlab-Simulink

Environment
The FPGA design of the system was developed in
Simulink System Generator. System Generator enables
use of predefined elements (primitives) of the elementary
logical and arithmetical circuits [19],[20]. The design is
formed as block diagram with interconnections, as it is
usually done in the Simulink. Signals are separated from
basic Simulinks environment, with special elements
(input and output ports), so that the design for FPGA is a
separate entity.

Picture4.USB-FPGA module on the motheboard

5. HDLARCHITECTURE AND
IMPLEMENTATION RESULTS
FPGA systems are usually designed using hardware
description languages (HDLs) such as VHDL or
Verilogin Xilinx ISE environment. On the other hand,
when Model-Based Design is used to target FPGAs,
systems can be designed and simulated with MATLAB
and Simulink, and then bit-true cycle-accurate

The most of the system signal processing is realized in a

single component inSimulink - the algorithm block.This
block includes two smaller blocks: PDM to PCM block
and Delay and Sum block.
531

Picture 5. Block diagram of the HDL architecture of the system

90

120

60
-5
-10
30

150
-15
-20
180

210

330

240

300
270

Picture 6. Matlab simulation results (left) and LabVIEW screen shot (right) of wideband noise source located
at 30 degrees; RMS time constant was 125 ms, N = 8 (1 s averaging time)
Table 1. FPGA resource analysis on XILINX Spartan 6XCS6LX25
Slices
Block RAMs
DSP48A1s

Available
15032
104
38

averaging constant, and the dominant direction is

calculated.

Implementation
~60%
~ 65%
~ 71%

6. SIMULATION AND TEST RESULTS

In order to verify designed hardware solution, a system
with 24 MEMS microphones placed on a circle (radius
40 cm) was realized and an algorithm simulation in
Matlab was developed. Results of both simulation and
prototype system tests are presented in Picture 6. As it can
be seen from the Picture 6, simulation and test results
were in good agreement. Side lobe attenuation at 30
degrees is better than 12 dB.

PDM to PCM blockconverts input 1-bit PDM signals at

3072 kHz rate to 48 kHz PCM 16-bit signal. PDM to
PCM conversion consists of three parts: a CIC decimation
filter (realized using Xilinx CIC compiler 2.0) followed
by two 2:1 HB filters and a LP FIR filter (all three
realized using Xilinx FIR compiler 6.2).
Delay and Sum blockfirst performs delay function of all
input PCM signals using Dual Port RAM blocks. Delay
table values are stored in ROM blocks. After the delay
and sum of all the signals, in the RMS detector values of
the polar stream are calculated for the chosen time

7. CONCLUSION
Because of the flexibility of FPGAs, their
communications and functions can be specialized to
provide high performance for realization of many designs.
532

Capability for implementing highly parallel arithmetic

architectures makes the FPGA ideally suited for creating
high-performance custom data path processors for tasks
such as delay-and-sum beamforming algorithm. The
implementation design described in the paper, based on
FPGA platform and digital MEMS microphones, presents
a good solution for various efficient real-time low-power
systems with beamforming algorithm and a high number
of input signals.

[10] Graham,P.,
Nelson,B.,
FPGA-Based
Sonar
Processing, Proceedings of the Sixth ACM/SIGDA
International Symposium on Field-Programmable
Gate Arrays (FPGA 98), pp.201-208, 1998.
[11] Tomov,B.G., Jensen,J.A., A new architecture for a
single-chip multi-channel beamformer based on a
standard FPGA, IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium,
Vol.2, pp.1529-1533, Atlanta, GA, 07 Oct 2001-10
Oct 2001.
[12] Perrodin,F., Nikolic,J., Busset,J., Siegwart,R.,
Design and calibration of large microphone arrays
for robotic applications, IEEE/RSJ International
Conference onIntelligent Robots and Systems (IROS
2012), pp. 4596-4601, Vilamoura, 7-12 Oct. 2012.
[13] Ye H., Whittington,J., Himawan,I., Kleinschmidt,T.,
Mason,M., FPGA implementation of dualmicrophone delay-and-sum beamforming for in-car
speech enhancement and recognition, AutoCRC
Conference
2009,
Conference
Proceedings,
Melbourne, Convention and Exhibition Centre,
Melbourne, Victoria, 5 March 2009.,
[14] InvenSnese: ADMP621 datasheetWide Dynamic
Range Microphone with PDM Digital Output;
Technical Report DS-ADMP621-00; InvenSense
Inc. San Jose, CA, USA, 2013.
[15] Uchagaonkar P.A., Shinde S.A., Patil V.V., Kamat
R.K., FPGA based sigma Delta analogue to digital
converter design, International Journal of
Electronics and Computer Science Engineering1(2),

REFERENCES
[1] Ganse,C., An introduction to beamforming,
http://staff.washington.edu/aganse/beamforming/bea
mforming.html, 2003.
[2] Johnson,D.H.; Dudgeon, D.E., Array Signal
Processing: Concepts and Techniques, Prentice
Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, 1993.
[3] Mucci,R.A., A comparison of efficient beamforming
algorithms, IEEE Transactions onAcoustics, Speech
and Signal Processing, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 438-557,
1984.
[4] Harders,D., Development and Implementation of a
FPGA based digital beamformer for an ultrasonic
imaging system, thesis for the Degree of Bachelor
of Digital Systems with Honours, School of
Computer Science and Software Engineering at
Monash University, November 2003.
[5] Van Veen,B.D., Buckley,K.M., Beamforming: a
versatile approach to spatial filtering, IEEE ASSP
magazine Vol. 5, No. 2, pp: 4-24, 1988.
[6] Christensen,,J.;
Hald,,J.,
Technical
Review
Beamforming; Technical Report 1; Bruel&Kjr:
Nrum, Denmark, 2004.
[7] Ul,M., History of acoustic beamforming, Berlin
Beamforming Conference, November 21-22, 2006.
[8] Tiete,J, Domnguez,F, da Silva,B, Segers,L,
Steenhaut,K, Touhafi,A., SoundCompass: a
distributed MEMS microphone array-based sensor
for sound source localization, Sensors (Basel). 2014
Jan 23;14(2):1918-49.
[9] Zimmermann,B., Studer,C., FPGA-based real-time
acoustic camera prototype, Proceedings of 2010
IEEE International Symposium onCircuits and
Systems (ISCAS), Paris, France, May 30-June 2
2010.

pp. 508-513, 2012

[16] Hegde,N.,
Seamlessly
Interfacing
MEMS
Microphones with Blackfin Processors, Analog
Devices, Engineer-to-Engineer Note EE-350, Rev 1
August 3, 2010.
[17] Mili,Lj.,Multirate Filtering for Digital Signal
Processing: MATLAB Applications, Information
Science Reference, New York, 2009.
[18] USB Instrument Control Tutorial, Jan 16, 2014.,
National Instruments, www.ni.com
[19] Karris,S.T., Introduction to Simulink with
Engineering Applications,2nd ed., Orchard
Publications, 2008.
[20] System Generator for DSP Reference Guide, UG638
V11.4, December 2, 2009, www.xilinx.com

533

OPTIMIZATION OF SIZING, LOCATION AND ORIENTATION OF

PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATOR-SENSOR PAIRS ON COMPOSITE PLATE
NEMANJA ZORI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, nzoric@mas.bg.ac.rs
MIROSLAV JOVANOVI
Serbian armed forces, Technical test center, Belgrade, mjovano@sbb.rs
NEBOJA LUKI
Serbian armed forces, Technical test center, Belgrade, nesaluca@ptt.rs
ALEKSANDAR SIMONOVI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, asimonovic@mas.bg.ac.rs
ZORAN MITROVI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, zmitrovic@mas.bg.ac.rs
SLOBODAN STUPAR
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, sstupar@mas.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: Piezoelectric actuators and sensors have a wide range of application in the active vibration control of flexible
structures. Control performances of the smart structures depend on the size and position of piezoelectric actuators and
sensors on a smart structure. This paper deals with the optimization of sizing, location and orientation of piezoelectric
actuators-sensors pairs on thin-walled composite plate. Optimization criteria are based on eigenvalues of the
controllability Grammian matrix. The optimization problem is formulated by integration of finite element method based
on the third-order shear deformation theory and the particle swarm optimization method. Numerical examples are
provided for symmetric cross ply cantilever quadratic composite laminates. Linear quadratic regulator has been
implemented for active vibration control of the composite plates with the optimized piezoelectric actuator-sensor pairs
in order to show the efficiency of presented optimization method.
Keywords: Active vibration control, Composite plate, Piezoelectric actuators, Optimization.
a thin-walled composite plate. Optimization criteria are
based on eigenvalues of the controllability Grammian
matrix. The optimization problem is formulated by the
integration of the finite element method based on the
third-order shear deformation theory and the particle
swarm optimization method. Numerical examples are
provided for symmetric cross ply cantilever quadratic
composite laminates. Linear quadratic regulator has been
implemented for active vibration control of the composite
plates with the optimized piezoelectric actuator-sensor
pairs in order to show efficiency of the presented
optimization method.

1. INTRODUCTION
Optimization of sizing and location of the actuators and
sensors for the active vibration control of flexible
structures has been shown as one of the most important
issues in design of active structures since these parameters
have a major influence on the performance of the control
system. Review of various optimization criteria for
piezoelectric sensors and actuators location and sizing is
presented in [1].
There are many papers which deal with the optimal
placement of piezoelectric actuators / sensors on a
composite beam and composite plate, but to the best of
our knowledge, none of these papers does not deal with
the simultaneous optimization of sizing, location and
orinetation of fiber-reinforced acuator-sensor pairs on a
composite plate.

2. COUPLED EQUATIONS OF MOTIONS

The plate under consideration is composed of a finite
number of layers of uniform thickness covered by
piezoelectric patches at the top and the bottom (Picture 1).
The x-y plane coincides with a mid-plane of the plate and
z axis is defined as normal to the mid-plane according to

This paper deals with the optimization of sizing, location

and orientation of piezoelectric actuators-sensors pairs on
534

the right-hand rule. Both elastic and piezoelectric layers

are supposed to be thin, such that a plane stress state can
be assumed. Elastic layers are obtained by setting their
piezoelectric coefficients to zero. The equivalent single
layer theory is used, so the same displacement field is
considered for all layers of the plate. The formulation
results in a coupled finite element model with mechanical
(displacement) and electrical (potentials of piezoelectric
patches) degrees of freedom.

and [ K e ]S are the dielectric stiffness matrices of actuator

and sensor, respectively.
For practical implementation the obtained model needs to
be truncated, where only the first few modes are taken
into account. Thus, the displacement vector can be
approximated by the modal superposition of the first r
modes as

{u} [ ]{}

(4)

where [ ] presents the modal matrix, and {} the vector

of modal coordinates. Using Equation (4), Equation (3)
can be transformed in the reduced modal space as

{} + [ ]{} + 2 {} = [ ]T { Fm }
T
[ ] [ K me ]A { }AA

(5)

where 2 presents the diagonal matrix of the squares

of the natural frequencies, and

Picture 1: Laminated composite plate with piezoelectric

actuators and sensors

[ ] = diag ( 2 ii )

The displacement fields for the laminated plate based on

the third-order shear deformation theory (TSDT)
proposed by Reddy [2, 3] is given

(6)

i =1, r

presents the modal damping matrix in which i is natural

modal damping ratio of the i -th mode.

w
u ( x, y, z , t ) = u0 ( x, t ) + z x ( x, t ) 42 z 3 x + 0
x
3hpl

w ,(1)
v ( x, y, z , t ) = v0 ( x, t ) + z y ( x, t ) 42 z 3 y + 0
y
3hpl
w ( x, z , t ) = w0 ( x, t )

Equation (5) can be expressed in a state-space form as

{ X } = [ A]{ X } + [ B ]{}AA + {d }

(7)

where
where u , v and w are displacement components in the
x , y and z directions respectively, u 0 , v 0 , w0 are midplane ( z = 0 ) displacement, x and y are crosssections rotations at the mid-planeand hpl

is total

[ 0]

[ B] =
,
T
[ ] [ K me ]A

After finite element discretization [3], the following

equation of motion can be obtained

[ M ]{u} + [Cd ]{u} + K * {u} = { Fm } [ K me ]A {}AA

(2)

[ 0]

[ I]

,
2
[ ]

{}

thickness of the beam.

(8)

[ 0]

{d } =

T
[ ] { Fm }

present the state vector, the system matrix, the control

matrix disturbance respectively, where [I] and [0] are the
appropriately dimensioned identity and zero matrix.

where {u} presents the vector of generalized mechanical

displacements, [M ] presents the mass matrix, [ Kme ]A is

3. OPTIMIZATION CRITERIA FOR

PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATOR SIZING
AND LOCATION

the piezoelectric stiffness matrix of actuator, [Cd ] is the

damping matrix, {}AA is the vector of external applied

voltage on actuators, {Fm } is the vector of external forces

[ ]

Controllability is a function of system dynamics and the

location, size and number of actuators. The controllability
can be expressed quantitatively by using controllability
Grammian matrix [4] defined as

and K * is the coupled stiffness matrix given as

K * = [ K m ] + [ K me ]A [ K e ]A [ K me ]A +
1
T
+ [ K me ]S [ K e ]S [ K me ]S
1

{ X } = , [ A] =

[WC ( t )] = e[ A] [ B ][ B ] T e[ A]

where [K m ] presents the elastic stiffness matrix, [K me ]S

(9)

is the piezoelectric stiffness matrix of sensor and [K e ]A

In modal coordinates controllability Grammian is

diagonally dominant [4]

535

0
WC11
0 WC22
[WC ] =

0
0

0
0

WCnn

i : orientation of the actuator-sensor pair

(10)

Constrains of this optimization problem are:

constraints in dimensions:
ai min ai amax ,

and each diagonal term of controllability Grammian

matrix can be expressed in a closed form eliminating time
dependence of the solution
WCii =

( B) ( B)
4
1
i

()

[]

where B i is i-th row of matrix B . The value of WCii

gives information about the energy transmitted from the
actuators to the structure for the i-th mode. In other
words, larger i-th eigenvalue of controllability Grammian
matrix leads to smaller control efforts for suppression of
the i-th mode. Consequently, if any eigenvalue of
controllability Grammian is very low, the corresponding
mode is very difficult to control and would require a huge
energy for suppression. In [4] the performance index is
presented
1/ ( 2 Nc )

J e = trace ([WC ]) ( det ([WC ]) )

constraints in position:
0 xAi , xBi , xDi , xEi a,
i = 1, , N P ,

0 yAi , yBi , yDi , yEi b,

constraints in covered surface of the plate by the

actuators-sensors pairs:
NP

ai bi

i =1

ab

(12)

where presents tolerance of the coverage of the surface

where N C presents the number of controlled modes.

According to the equation (12), the objective function is:
OBJ = maximize(J e ) .

i = 1, , N P

where ai min and ai max present minimum and maximum

length of i-th actuator-sensor pair, bi min and bi max is its
minimum and maximum width while N P presents the
number of atuator-sensor pairs.

(11)

bi min bi bmax ,

constraints that do not allow overlapping of the

actuator-sensor pairs.

(13)

Taking into account constraints, the optimization problem

is finding parameters xi , y i , ai , bi , i ( i = 1, , N P ),
such objective function

In this paper, the actuator and sensor are conventionally

collocated [3], thus, only optimization of sizing, location
and orientation of the actuators will be performed and
corresponding sensor has the same size, location and
orientation but it is placed on the opposite side of the
plate. Picture 2 presents composite plate with i-th
actuator-sensor pair.

J , If constraints are not violated

Je = e
If constraints are violated
0,

(14)

is maximized.
Presented optimization method will be solved by using
the Particle swarm optimization (PSO) method [5]. A
particle changes its velocity and position in the following
way
vidk +1 = vidk + c1rand 1( lbestid pidk ) +
+c2 rand

( gbestd pidk )

pidk +1 = pidk + vidk +1

,
i = 1, , nPOP d = 1, , m

(15)

where is the inertia weight, c1 is the cognition factor,

c1 is the social learning factor, rand 1 and rand 2 are
random numbers between 0 and 1, the superscript k
denotes the iterative generation, nPOP is the population
size and lastly, lbest and gbest are the best local and
global position of the particle. The cognition factor and
social learning factors are usually set as c1 = c 2 = 1.5 .

Picture 2: Composite plate with i-th actuator-sensor pair

Parameters which determine size, location and orientation

of the i-th actuator-sensor pair are following:

In this paper, each actuator is determined with xi , y i ,

ai , bi , i . According to that, coordinates of the i-th
particle in the k-th iteration is

xi , y i : position of the center of the i-th actuator-sensor

pair with respect to coordinate system of the plate
ai , bi : length and width of the i-th actuator-sensor pair
536

 pik

xik1
=
k
xiN P

yik1

aik1

bik1

k
yiN
P

k
aiN
P

k
biN
P

ik1
.

k
iN P

Picture 4 presents the controllability of each controlled

mode versus orientation angle of the actuator layer.
Picture 5 presents performance index versus orientation
angle of the actuator layer.

(16)

4. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
In this example, the quadratic cantilever symmetric
laminated plate is considered. The dimensions of the plate
are 0.5mx0.5m. The plate consists of eight graphite-epoxy
layers. The thickness of each layer is 0.25mm and
orientations are 90 0 /0 0 /90 0 /0 0 S . Piezoelectric patches

are made of PZT5A fiber composite. Material properties

of the graphite-epoxy layer and PZT are given in Table 1.
Table 1: Material properties of graphite-epoxy and PZT

Material
properties
E1(GPa )

E 2 (GPa )

G13 (GPa )
G23 (GPa )

174
10.3
7.17
6.21
0.25

PZT5A Fiber
composite
30.2
14.9
5.13
5.13
0.45

Graphite-Epoxy

12

)
(C/m )
(C/m )

kg/m 3

1389.23

4600

9.41

0.166

k33 (F/m)

6.1x10-9

e31
e32

In the first case, the top and bottom surface of the plate is
covered fully with piezoelectric layers (Picture 3)
(actuator layers is on the top and sensor layer is at the
bottom of the plate). The influence of orientation of the
actuator layer on controllability of each mode will be
analyzed. The number of the controlled modes is 6, and
they are presented in Table 2. For this analysis, the plate
is discretized into 50x50 finite elements.
Table 2: Table name

Mode
1
2
3
4
5
6

Frequency (Hz)
8.628
14.54
54.069
62.908
81.181
114.663

Picture 3: Composite plate with i-th actuator-sensor pair

537

The number of initial population is 100 and the number of

iteration is 100. The coverage of surface ( ) is 15%.
Sizes, locations and orientations of the actuator-sensor
pairs obtained by optimization iz presented in Picture 7.
Picure 8 presents the convergence of the objective
function. The obtained performance index is
J e = 5.1x106 .

Picture 4: Controllability of controlled mode versus

orientation angle of actuator layer: (a) 1st mode, (b)2nd
mode, (c) 3rd mode, (d) 4th mode, (e) 5th mode, (f) 6th
mode

Picture 7: Sizes, locations and orientations of actuatorsensor pairs obtained by optimization

Picture 5: Performance index versus orientation angle of
actuator layer

In this part, optimisation of sizing, location and

orientation of the actuator-sensor pairs will be performed.
The number of the actuator-sensor pairs is 5 and they are
collocated. From Picture 4 it can be concluded that, for
particular modes, maximum controllability is achieved
when orientation of the actuator is 0, and for other modes
when orientation of the actuator is 90. In order to reduce
the number of parameters to be optimized, positions of the
three actuators are fixed: 1st and 2nd actuator have equal
dimensions, they are placed at the root of the plate on the
corners and their orientation is 0 (Picture 6). 3rd actuator
is placed in the middle of the free end of the plate and its
orientation is 90 (Picture 6).

Picture 8: Convergence of objective function

After finding optimal sizes, locations and orientations of

the actuator-sensor pairs, the next goal is an active
vibration suppression of this plate. In this case vibrations
occur due to the action of the impulse load of 300N for a
period of 0.1ms at the free end of the plate (point A:
Picture 9).

Picture 9: Action of impulse load on the plate

Picture 6: Parameters that are optimized

538

sizing, locations and orientations of actuator-sensor pairs

LQR optimal control is employed for active vibration

suppression of the plate. Weighting matrices have
following values: [Q]=106[I]12x12, [R]=[I]5x5. Picture 10
presents deflection of point A for the LQR optimal
control and in the uncontrolled case.

From Picture 11 it can be concluded that obtained

configuration with optimization has better control
performances compared to randomly generated
configuration.

5. CONCLUSION
This paper deals with the optimization of sizing, location
and orientation of piezoelectric actuators-sensors pairs on
thin-walled composite plate, where optimization criteria
are based on the eigenvalues of the controllability
Grammian matrix. Numerical examples are provided for a
symmetric cross ply cantilever quadratic composite
laminates. Also, the influence of orientation of the
actuator layer on controllabilities of particular modes are
examined. Comparing control performances of the
obtained actuator-sensor configuration with randomly
generated configurations it can be concluded that obtained
configuration with optimization has better control
performances than randomly generated.

Picture 10: Deflection of point A in the case of LQR

optimal control and in the uncontolled case

In order to present efficiency of the proposed optimization

technique, control performance of the obtained
configuration of the actuator-sensor pairs is compared
with two randomly generated configurations with
performance index J e = 2.84 x106 and J e = 1.92 x106 .
Weighting matrices for these configurations are
[Q]=106[I]12x12, [R]=2x[I]5x5. Comparison of their control
performance is presented in Picture 11.

REFERENCES
[1] Gupta, V., Sharma, M., Thakur, N., "Optimization
criteria for optimal placement of piezoelectric
actuator on a smart structure: A technical review",
Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and
Structures, 21(12) (2010) 1227-43.
[2] Reddy, Y.N., "On laminated composite plates with
integrated sensors and actuators", Engineering
Structures, 21(7) (1999) 568-593.
[3] Zori, N., Simonovi, A., Mitrovi, Z., Stupar, S.,
"Optimal vibration control of smart composite beams
with optimal size and location of piezoelectric
sensing and actuation", Journal of Intelligent
Material Systems and Structures, 24(4) (2012) 499526.
[4] Hac, A., Liu, L., "Sensor and actuator location in
motion control of flexible structures", Journal od
Sound and Vibrations, 167(2) (1993) 239-61.
[5] Kennedy, J., Everhart, R.C., "Particle swarm
optimization method", Proceedings IEEE
International Conference on Neural Networks, 4
(1995) 1942-48.

Picture 11: Deflection of point A in the case of LQR

optimal control: comparison of optimal with non optimal

539

EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF ACTIVE STRUCTURE

DAMPING RATIO USING DIFFERENT CONTROL STRATEGIES IN
SYSTEM OF ACTIVE VIBRATION CONTROL
MIROSLAV JOVANOVI
Technical Test Centre, Belgrade, mjovano@sbb.rs
ALEKSANDAR SIMONOVI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, asimonovic@mas.bg.ac.rs
NEBOJA LUKI
Technical Test Centre, Belgrade, nesaluca@ptt.rs
NEMANJA ZORI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, nzoric@mas.bg.ac.rs
SLOBODAN STUPAR
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia, sstupar@mas.bg.ac.rs
SLOBODAN ILI
Technical Test Centre, Belgrade, slobodan.ili@vs.rs

Abstract: This paper presents a design, development and experimental determination of the active vibration control
system of aluminum plate. Active structure consists of aluminum plate, strain gages like sensor platform and PZT
piezoelectric actuator. Based on characteristics of the integrated elements, the whole active vibration control sistem is
designed and developed. The active vibration control system is controlled by PI, PD and PID control strategies.
Control algorithm was implemented on the PIC32MX440F256H microcontroller platform. The experiment was
considered the change of damping ratio in the case of free vibration for different control strategies. The half-power
bandwidth method was using for determination the damping coeficient for different types of control. The experiments
confirmed the effectiveness of the developed system af active vibration control.
Keywords: Smart structure, modal analysis, damping ratio, active vibration control, controller, piezoelectric actuator.
vibration modes of the structure whose dynamic response
must be considered. If the set of actuators and sensors are
located at discrete points of the structure, they can be
treated separately [1].

1. INTRODUCTION
The presence of vibrations is a common problem in
mechanical structures, particularly in flexible parts, for
space industry, where large, lightly damped, flexible
structures characterized by closely spaced modes and low
natural frequencies are common. This can be reduced by
making the parts with high stiffness characteristics. For
many applications, e.g. in aircrafts and spacecrafts, it is
desirable to keep the weight as low as possible, which
makes such solutions less suitable. In order to improve the
performances of light structure, the best solution is the
system of active vibration control. In the case when such
a system is embedded in the structure it is often referred
to as an active structure.

Depending on the integrated sensor, the vibration can be

controlled by different control strategies. The design
methodology for active control has been presented by
Benning et al. [2] were discussed and proposed the
actuation concept, alternate control algorithm and, also,
an approach to the problem solving. In the design process
section, they have explored actuators and their
technologies, controller hardware and software, and
sensors to be integrated effectively into the system.
Yildrim [3] presented a simulation study with comparison
between PID (proportional integral - derivative), PI
(proportional-integral) and PD (proportional- derivative)
controller with the proposed neural network schemes
applied to a suspension system. He has shown that the

An active structure consists of a host structure

incorporated with sensors and actuators coordinated by a
controller. The integrated structure includes some
540

proposed scheme can guarantee the stability of the

adaptive system in the presence of the modelling
uncertainties. Jovanovi at al. [4] compared experimental
results corresponding to the modified PID controller with
corresponding results using proportionalintegral (PI)
control and proportionalderivative (PD) control of active
composite beam.

using strain gages and piezoelectric actuator. The

appropriate adjustment of proportional, integral and
differential gains is determined with effectiveness of
active control system on damping ratio of the free
vibration of active plate.

2. ACTIVE VIBRATION CONTROL SYSTEM

DESIGN

Reviewing available articles regarded to the active

vibration control of flexible structures [5, 6] it can be
concluded that, to the best of our knowledge, no study has
been reported on the detail active structures development
process with PID controller, strain gages like a sensor and
PZT material for actuation.

The active vibration control system was developed for

active damping around the resonance frequencies. The
system has four main subsystems: a) control subsystem,
b) integrated structure, c) high-voltage amplifier and d)
disturbance system. Schematic diagram of the designed
system is depicted in Figure 1.

This paper presents an experimental investigation of

damping ratio coefficient for different active vibration
control strategies of a smart cantilever aluminum plate,

Figure 1. Active vibration control system block diagram.

The Wheatstone full bridge (120 strain gages) is used
to detect the signal, y (t ) . The signal then goes to control
subsystem. The first task is to amplify the sensor milivolts
signal in region of volts. This is realized with
instrumentation amplifier AD623AN with matched gain
of 200. In system the output signal is the error, because
the desirable reference input is zero, r (t ) = 0V , the plate
needs to be in neutral position. The error signal,
e(t ) = y (t ) , passes through 16 bits A/D convertor
LTC1864 and discrete signal come in PID control
implemented on PIC32MX440F256H microcontroller.
The PID control algorithm is explained in the previous
section. Discrete control signal comes in 16 bits D/A
convertor DAC8523 and its analog values u (t ) passes
thought low-pass filter to neutralize signal noise from
D/A convert process. The analog control signal
u (t ) flows through one more signal amplifier and the
voltage regulator with primary function to prevent the

voltage of control signal goes across the range of -5V to

5V. The signal finally passes through a PDA X3 high
voltage amplifier before arriving at the actuators and the
control signal is amplified by factor of 40. The input
voltage of high voltage amplifier is limited between -5V
to 5V. Fig. 2 presents a schematic diagram of the
vibration active damping experimental setup considered
in this study.

3. DETERMINATION OF DAMPING RATIO

The value of material damping is often not readily
available. It requires some tests to properly calculate
damping ratio. The tests should be properly executed
because damping property depends on many parameters
such as material property, material geometry,
temperature, etc. Keep in mind it is expensive to do this
kind of tests. There are two methods to measure material
damping ratio: half-power bandwidth method and
logarithmic decrement method.
541

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of experimental setup.

3.1. Half power metod

3.2. Logarithmic decrement method

Frequency response function (FRF) of the system must be

obtained to use this method. Hammer or shaker tests can
be performed to obtain FRF. Peaks in FRF show natural
frequencies of the system. We can calculate two points
that are corresponding to half power bandwidth, 3dB
down from the top peak, as shown in Figure 3. The
damping ratio, , can be calculated once the
corresponding frequencies were known. Material has
more damping if frequency range between these two
points is wider.

Logarithmic decrement method is used to calculate

damping ratio for underdamped system in time domain.
Damping ratio, , can be calculated from natural log of
the ratio of the amplitudes of any successive peaks, as
shown in Figure 4. This method becomes less precise as
the damping ratio increases over 0.5.

Figure 4. Logarithmic decrement method.

1
n

= ln

f 2 f1
2 fn

(2)

where: - logarithmic decrement, x n - nth amplitude of

oscilation. Damping ratio can be calculated:

Figure 3. Half power method.

x1
xn+1

(1)

where: f n - natural frequency, f1 - lower frequency of

half power and f 2 - higher frequency of half power.

4 2 + 2

In this paper the half power method is used.

542

(3)

4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Aluminum rectangular plates were used for this
experimental investigation. The experimental set-up is
that of a clamp-free-free-free plate excited at opposite
side of clamped side. The strain gages and piezoelectric
actuator positions and orientations are bonded to give the
good controllability of controlled modes [7, 8]. The active
structure is given in Figure 5.

Figure 7. Active structure free vibration in open loop

frequency domain
Table 1. Damping ratios of active structure
Mode
I
II
Figure 5. Active structure for determination of damping
ratio

Active structure

n = 2f n 2 = 2f 2 1 = 2f1
60.38
189

60.62
189.46

59.76
188.68

0.0071
0.0021

When the active vibration system is switch ON, the

closed loop case, the piezoelectric actuator with PID,
PD and PI controller reduced the time needed for plate
vibrations cancellations. The free vibration of active plate
in time domain with different controller is presented in
Figure 8. The damping ratio is increased for the closed
loop in active vibration control system.

In this section, the results of damping ratio of active

structure in open and closed loop are presented for three
types of controllers (PID, PD and PI). Proportional,
integral and derivative gains of the proposed PID are
obtained by using the Ziegler-Nichols method. In ZieglerNichols method, the important step is the determination of
critical gain (gain margin of the closed-loop system). The
critical gain, K cr and period, Pcr are defined as the
amplifier ratio at which response of the controlled plant
has sustained oscillations and closed-loop system is at the
stability limit [9, 10].
In this case of free vibration, the active structure is loaded
by the force at the tip, and thus the static deflection of the
tip equals 20 mm. The time domain and frequency
response function (FRF) for open loop system are given
in Figures 6 and 7.

Figure 8. Active vibration control for free vibration in

closed loop with different controller time domain
It can be seen from Figure 8 that the best performances
are achieved in the case of the PID controller, where the
settling time is 1.2 s. This is followed by the PD (settling
time 1.4 s) and PI (settling time 1.9 s) controllers.
It is evident that damping ratio for all three types of
controllers is increased. The damping ratio coefficient for
the first two modes is given in Table 2.
Table 2. Damping ratios coefficient with different control
strategies

Figure 6. Active structure free vibration in open loop

time domain

Mode

In accordance with the equation (1) the damping ratio for

active plate in open loop can be determinate for the first
two modes. The results of damping ratios are given in
Table 1.
543

Open loop

Damping ratio,
PID
PD

PI

0.0071

0.0626

0.0496

0.0437

II

0.0021

0.0146

0.0141

0.0142

The values of attenuation coefficients, given in Table 2,

confirm that the use of active vibration control system with
different types of control increases the structure damping
ratio coefficient, which is consistent with the obtained
settling time. Using the PID, PI and PD controllers are
affected differently by the first mode of oscillation, while the
damping ratio of the active structure for the second mode of
oscillation is approximately equal regardless of the type of
the selected controller. The damping ratio is increased for
more than 6 times for active vibration control system at the
first mode. The damping ratio for the second mode is
increased for approximately 7 times and it is constant for all
controller types.

5. CONCLUSION
This work has presented the effectiveness of developed
active vibration control system. The active vibration
control system increased the damping ratio coefficient for
all controller types. The PID controller has the best
performances in vibration damping for the first mode, the
PD controller follows and the PI controller has the lowest
performances.
From the given results, it can be concluded that the active
vibration control system has the active damping at one
mode for PID, PD and PI controllers, while the effects on
another mode are the results of adequate orientation and
position of piezoelectric actuator and its influence on
active structure can be defined as a passive damping.

REFERENCES
[1] Preumont,A.: Vibration Control of Active Structures:
An Introduction, New York: (2002)
[2] Benning,R.D, Hodgins,M.G and. George,G.Z,: Active
Control of Mechanical Vibration, Bell Labs
Technical Journal Vol. 2, pp: 246-257. (1997)
[3] Yildirim,S.: Vibration Control of Suspension System
using A Proposed Neural Network, Journal of Sound

544

and Vibration, Vol. 277, pp: 1059-1069, (2004)

[4] Jovanovi,M.M.,
Simonovi,M.A.,
Zori,D.N.,
Luki,S. N., Stupar,N.S. and Ili,S.S.: Experimental
studies on active vibration control of a smart
composite beam using a PID controller, Smart
Materials and Structures, Vol. 22 No.11, 2013
[5] Metin,M., Guclu,R.: Active vibration control with
comparative algorithms of half rail vehicle model
under various track irregularities, Journal of
Vibration and Control, Vol. 17, pp: 1525-1539,
(2011)
[6] Iwamoto,H., Tanaka,N., Hill,S.G.: Feedback control
of wave propagation in a rectangular panel, part 2:
Experimental realization using clustered velocity and
displacement feedback, Mechanical System and
Signal Processing, Vol. 32, pp: 216231, (2012)
[7] Hac,A., and Liu,L.: Sensor and actuator location in
motion control of flexible structures, Journal of
Sound and Vibration 167(2), pp: 239261, (1993)
[8] Zori,D.N., Simonovi,M.A., Mitrovi,S.Z. and
Stupar,N.S.: Multi-Objective Fuzzy Optimization of
Sizing and Location of Piezoelectric Actuators and
Sensors, FME Transactions, 40 (1), pp. 1-9, (2012)
[9] Jovanovi,M.M.,
Simonovi,M.A.,
Zori,D.N.,
Luki,S.N., Stupar,N.S. and Ardeshir,G.: Active
vibration control of composite beam using a strain
gages sensor and piezoelectric patch actuator, The
11th International Symposium on Stability,
Vibration, and Control of Machines and Structures
(SVCS 2014), Belgrade, Serbia, 3-5 July 2014.
Zori,D.N.,
[10] Luki,S.N.,
Simonovi,M.A.,
Stupar,N.S.,
Jovanovi,M.M.
and
Ili,S.S.,:
Effectiveness of active vibration control on smart
plate using a PID controller, The 11th International
Symposium on Stability, Vibration, and Control of
Machines and Structures (SVCS 2014), Belgrade,
Serbia, 3-5 July 2014.

APPLICATION OF GOLAY COMPLEMENTARY WAVEFORMS IN PR-15

RADAR: SYSTEM ANALYSIS
ALEKSA J. ZEJAK
RT-RK Computer based systems, Novi Sad, Serbia, aleksa.zejak@rt-rk.com
SLOBODAN SIMI
Military Academy, Belgrade, Serbia, simasimic01@gmail.com
ZORAN GOLUBII
Peripolis elektronika, Belgrade, Serbia, golubicic.zoran@gmail.com

Abstract: In this paper, a system analysis of needs and possible application Golay complementary waveforms in
portable surveillance radar PR-15 is presented. We consider the potential advantages of pulse trains made up of pulses
have different waveforms pulse to pulse. This technique provides much more freedom in the synthesis of the desired
signal ambiguity function. Possible applications of waveform agility include all future pulse Doppler radars that
require enhanced range Doppler processing. Radar systems presently in service would require hardware changes to
implement waveform agility which would be very costly, but for future radar systems waveform agility could be
implemented with software changes only.
Keywords: Ambiguity function, Golay complementary sequences.
to obtain waveforms witch have good ambiguity
functions. We chose another approach. The goal is not
synthesis of waveforms with optimum distribution of
ambiguity than selection from among a set of predefined
transmitted signal configurations which can be practically
implemented easier.

1. INTRODUCTION
The transmitted pulse waveforms are usually fixed,
because then any phase changes from pulse to pulse is
only due to Doppler returns. On this way, side-lobes
occur along lag axis of signal ambiguity function
interfering detection of targets at same Doppler shifts.
Commonly, the side-lobes suppression is done by
mismatching the receiver filter [1]. Here we consider the
case where each pulse is different waveforms. This leads
to pulse-to-pulse phase changes in the received signal that
are due to the waveforms themselves. However it is
shown that the compression filter compensates for these
changes in the main lobe calculating. At the same time,
the side-lobes are randomized. After Doppler processing
the energy of the side-lobes is spread along the Doppler
axis resulting in side-lobes reduction. Picture 1 illustrates
this process. Nevertheless, side-lobes spill over whole
range Doppler plane interfering detection of targets at all
Doppler shifts. In order to minimize that, waveforms must
be selected carefully. Golay complementary sequences
are a good candidate for pulse to pulse diversity because
of sum of their autocorrelations has side-lobes level of
zero [2]. Yet, they have not been widely used in radar
systems, because of their relative high side-lobes for
nonzero Doppler.

b)

a)

Received signal
Pulse
compression

The main lobe

A side lobe

The main lobe

A side lobe

Range Doppler
map

Doppler

The idea of pulse-diverse modulation of radar/sonar pulse

train is not new. Some novel techniques have been
explored in [3, 4]. Authors deal with information theory

Range

Doppler

Range

Picture 1. Range Doppler map producing Pulse

waveforms: a) fixed, b) different

545

Procedure is to search for a sample with acceptable

properties and then design the system around this one
code sample. In [5] authors describe a method of
constructing a sequence of phase-coded waveforms for
peak side-lobe level (PSL) minimization in the thumbtack
type ambiguity function. Using of this kind of radar signal
allows arbitrarily high close-target resolvability at the
expense of introducing self clutter. But if the PSL
suppression is farther than expected target dynamic,
introduced self clutter practically do not affect target
detection process. In [6] and [7] authors use similar
mathematical model as in [5] but the goal is not PSL
minimization than Doppler resilience. They describe a
method of constructing a pulse train of phase-coded
waveforms, for which the ambiguity function is free of
range side-lobes along modest Doppler shifts. This
property is named Doppler resilience. In many practical
situations (e.g., in surveillance radar) number of targets
and their Doppler shifts are not known. If we used
Doppler resilient radar signal there is practically no self
clutter, but only if targets cause Doppler shifts in the
resilient zone. Otherwise, self clutter caused by targets
returns out of the resilient zone strong interfere detection
process.

Ambiguity function of a pulse train with constant PRI is

divided on pulse-Doppler ambiguity zones with recurrent
lobes in the middle and the unambiguous zone around the
main lobe. The main lobe is obtained at (,)=(0,0) and a
recurrent lobe at (=pTr, =2q/Tr) where p and q are
signed integers and (p,q)(0,0). When (-Tr/2<<Tr/2,/Tr<</Tr) the unambiguous zone is obtained.
Considering assumed chip shaping function, after
discretization in time at sampling period Tc, m-th discrete
pulse sm equals m-th code sequence cm. From (1) and (3)
it can be shown that discrete AF of whole signal inside
unambiguous zone follows the next relation:
M 1

s (l , ) = s (l , )e jmT

m =0

where l=-(L-1),,(L-1) and s (l , ) is the AF of m-th

m
pulse. For simplification, in further text we dropped
arguments (l,) in AFs and denote these functions as
matrix and m.

Golay complementary waveforms

Two length L unimodular sequences of complex numbers
a=[a0, a1, , aL-1] and b=[b0, b1, , bL-1] are Golay
complementary pair if for l= (L1),,(L1) the sum of
their autocorrelation functions (ACF) satisfies:

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2,

signal model and hypothesis are briefly stated. Then, in
Section 3 the results of simulations and measurements are
illustrated and discussed. The conclusions are outlined in
Section 4.

rla + rlb = 2 Ll

We considered radar signal s(t) in form of a train of M

pulses with pulse repetition interval Tr (PRI). All pulses
have the same duration Tp. The mathematical model of
this signal is given as:
M 1

m (t ),

m=0

0, mTr t mTr + Tp
sm (t ) =
= 0, otherwise

(1)

sm =

The m-th pulse sm(t) is binary phase coded by code

sequence cm length of L where cm = [c0m , c1m ,..., cLm1 ] and

c {1, 1} . Hence, this pulse can be represented in the

following form:

sm =

L 1

c h(t lT )
m
l

Xm =

where Tc denotes chip (sub-pulse) period Tc=Tp/L, h(t) is

chip shaping function and it is usually rectangular pulse
of duration Tc (which will be assumed to equal 1 without
lose of generality). The ambiguity function (AF) s(,)
of the pulse train s(t) can be expressed in the following
form:
s (t ) s (t + )e jt dt

a+b ab
+
qm
2
2

(7)

A+B AB
+
qm
2
2

(8)

where A and B denote the ambiguity functions of

sequences a and b respectively. Inserting (8) into (4)
discrete AF of radar pulse train becomes:
X=

M Tr

(6)

According to (7) the AF of m-th pulse is:

(2)

l =0

s ( , ) =

1 + qm
1 qm
a+
b
2
2

After arranging relation (6) becomes:

m
l

sm ( t ) =

(5)

Where rla and rlb are the autocorrelations of a and b

respectively at lag l and l is the Kronecker delta function.
We considered radar waveforms analyzed in [5 7] where
a pair of complementary sequences is used in radar signal
s(t), hence sm{a,b}. Let a binary sequence q length of M
determines which complementary sequence modulate mth pulse, where q=[q0,q1,,qM-1], qm{1}. When qm=1
then sm=a, when qm= 1 then sm=b. In [5] authors called q
a macro sequence. According to the assumptions m-th
pulse can be expressed as:

2. SIGNAL MODEL AND HYPOTHESIS

s (t ) =

(4)

(3)

A + B M 1 jmTr A B M 1
qm e jmTr
e + 2
2 m =0
m =0

after arranging AF of radar pulse train is finally:

546

(9)

X=

A + B j ( M 1)Tr / 2 sin( MTr / 2) A B

+
e
wq ( )
2
sin(Tr / 2)
2

classical approach is alternating macro sequence, qm=(1)m, m=0,1,,M-1. Pic. 2.c) shows AF in this case. In [5]
authors propose method for minimizing PSL over the
whole unambiguous zone (thumbtack type of AF), so they
suggest macro sequence with spectrum as flat as possible
and found that a Golay sequence length of M can be a
good choice. Pic. 2.d) shows AF in this case.

(10)

where wq() denotes spectrum of macro sequence q:

M 1

wq ( ) = qm e jmTr

(11)

m =0

From (10) it is clear that AF of radar pulse train consists

of two parts. If Doppler phase shift during the pulse
duration is negligible compared to phase shift during the
pulse repetition period Tr, AF of radar pulse can be
approximated by its ACF. So, considering main property
of Golay sequences from (5) the first part of describes
the main lobe while the second part represents side-lobs
of AF in range-Doppler plane. An important conclusion is
that for a given complementary pair [a, b] the side lobes
depend only on the spectrum of applied macro sequence.

Example of radar system parameters

In order to analyze needs and possible application Golay
complementary waveforms in portable surveillance radar
PR-15, we shall determine some relevant radar
parameters. Ground surveillance radar is intended for
detecting moving objects on the ground at a reasonable
distance of order tens kilometers with resolution of orders
tens meters. Operating frequency is f0=15 GHz and
wavelength is =2 cm. Range cell width is R=45 m i.e.
bandwidth is B=3.3 MHz and chip duration Tc=0.3 s. In
medium-range mode radar has unambiguous range Ru=15
km. It requires pulse repetition frequency of fr=10 kHz.
The maximum Doppler frequency of fDmax=fr/2=5 kHz
allows maximum unambiguous speed of radar target of
vmax=fDmax/2=50 m/s. The radar has to illuminate each
range cell less than Dt=R/vmax1 s (dwell time) in order
to keep target moving within the range cell, so maximal
M=Dt/Tr=10.000 pulses could be integrated. It requires
much memory resources so M=1024 is more appropriate.
In order to have reasonable clutter spillover zone pulses
should be shorter. However, reaching a large range
requires the longer pulses. Some compromise solution can
be pulses coded by sequence length of L=64, pulse
duration is Tp=640.3 s=19.2 s, so clutter can spill over
range of 2.9 km.

3. SIMULATION AND MEASUREMENT

Picture 2: Ambiguity functions of different pulse trains:

According to previous, we chose the next default system

parameters: L=64, M=1024, c=0.3 s, fr=10 kHz, both
for simulation and practical implementation in PR-15
radar.

a) Simple pulse train,

b) One sequence train,
c) Golay pair train, alternate macro,
d) Golay pair train, Golay sequence macro.
The behavior of the main lobe is similar in all four cases.
It is dominant but slightly scattered along the Doppler
axis, due to the spectrum leakage. The behavior of the
side lobes is what distinguishes these methods of pulse
train synthesis. In the first case, pulse train consists of M
simple pulses, so there are no side-lobes but reaching a
large detection range requires the longer pulses. In the
second case side-lobes occur along lag axis of signal
ambiguity function interfering detection of targets at same

Simulation results and discussion

Picture 2 shows normalized ambiguity functions of
different pulse trains. Pic. 2.a) shows AF in the classical
approach when pulse train consists of M simple pulses
which duration is Tc. This is an etalon example for
comparing to others pulse trains. Pic. 2.b) shows AF
when the same sequence was applied to all the pulses.
When a Golay complementary pair codes radar pulses, the
547

advantage over using alternating macro sequence because

of PSLs at maximal Doppler were equalized.

Doppler shifts. In the third case, alternating macro

sequence is applied. Side-lobes vanish along the axis
distance around the main lobe, which is the main feature
of complementary sequences. On this way the energy of
the compressed signal is rearranged in delay-Doppler
plane. However, as macro sequence is simply periodic,
the side lobes are not randomized but pushed away from
the main lobe along the Doppler axis at fr/2 and may
cause false alarms. In the fourth case, a Golay sequence
length of M=1024 is applied as macro sequence. Now, the
energy of the compressed signal is rearranged also.

a)
-20

alternate
Golay
PTM

-30

PSL [dB]

-40

-50

-60

-70

However, macro sequence is noise-like, so the side lobes

are randomized thus much more evenly distributed in
delay-Doppler plane. Therefore their maximum level is
substantially lower. Nevertheless, side-lobes spill over
whole range Doppler plane interfering detection of targets
at all Doppler shifts. However, if the PSL is suppressed
below the thermal noise level this self clutter practically
not affects the detection.

-80

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

/2 [kHz]

b)
-20

alternate
Golay
PTM

-30

PSL [dB]

-40

-50

-60

In [6] and [7] authors propose method for Doppler

resilient waveform synthesis. Hence, they choose macro
sequence with spectrum equals zero around =0.
Considering the Taylor expansion of AF around =0,
they found that Prouhet-Thue-Morse (PTM) sequence can
be a good choice. In this case AF has similar shape as in
Pic. 2.d). Difference is in sidelobe-free region around the
main lobe. It is better visible in Picture 3.a) where PSL
dependence on Doppler is shown projection of AF onto
Doppler axis excluding the main lobe. For sake of clarity,
only positive part is shown. If we accept that sidelobe-free
mean below -80 dB usage PTM as macro sequence
produces Doppler resilient region of 400 Hz, which is
better than when Golay sequence is used. If we declare
below -60 dB as sidelobe-free this two methods are the
same. However, using Golay sequence as macro, quite
lower PSL in whole range is obtained (-45 dB).
Alternating sequence as macro gives strong PSL at the
end of Doppler unambiguity zone, so it can cause false
alarms. For example, if a target moving away of the radar
by radial velocity of -20 m/s making Doppler shift of -2
kHz, the main lobe shifts at -2 kHz dragging side-lobe
from 5 kHz to 3 kHz. Hence detector decides there is
another target moving 30 m/s toward the radar. If there
are no targets moving faster than 25 m/s, strong side-lobe
at 5 kHz never comes to region of 2.5 kHz. As detector
now considers just that Doppler region, alternate sequence
becomes superior to other two methods. This is not so
unusual situation in practice, especially when surveillance
zone is not so passable.

-70

-80

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

/2 [kHz]

Picture 3: PSL vs. Doppler

a)M=1024 pulses; b)M=16 pulses.

An important conclusion from simulations is that

interference introduced by signal processing itself (selfclutter) can be signal-like (correlated) and noise-like
(uncorrelated). Correlated interference is spread along
range axis and good concentrated in Doppler. In classical
approach when there is no waveform agility this
interference is always correlated. If macro sequence is
simple periodic e.g. alternate sequence, the self-clutter is
rearranged in Doppler but correlated also. When Golay
macro sequence is used, introduced interference is
uncorrelated. So, self-clutter is noise-like thus spread over
whole range-Doppler plane. However, because of its
dependence of radar environment this interference is nonstationary in amplitude and frequency opposite to thermal
noise. This means that the threshold level has to be raised
in the whole range-Doppler plane, which may lead to
masking of weaker targets. Further, more complex
constant false alarm rate detector (CFAR) should be
applied. An FPGA based implementation of a CFAR
processor applied to a pulse-compression radar system is
proposed in [8]. However, if the interference is
suppressed below the thermal noise level this self clutter
practically not affects the detection. Hence, simple
detector with threshold based on stationary noise level
measure can be applied.

It may be interesting to analyze the properties of

complementary sequences when number of pulses in the
pulse train is smaller. For example, when it is necessary to
search the surveillance zone faster, dwell time is shorter
and number of reflected pulses is smaller. The radar
receiver sensitivity is deteriorated resulting in decreasing
of detection range. Hence, in Picture 3.b) PSL
dependence of Doppler is shown when there are M=16
pulses in the pulse train. Compared to the Picture 3.a),
performance is reduced. PSLs are raised approximately 20
dB (10log(1024/16)=18 dB). Doppler resilient zone is
narrowed. Using Golay sequence as macro lost the

Measurement results and discussion

Simulation results and conclusions give to us confidence
that Golay complementary sequences can be very useful
for PR-15 radar adaptation to environment changes. For
more accurate evaluation it needs to answer some
practical questions. Firstly, how accurate can
implementation be? How much interference it adds?
Then, how much it is necessary to suppress PSL? Is 45
548

interference. Hence, usage of Golay macro sequence is

fully justified at these environment conditions.

dB enough, what Golay sequence length of 1024 as macro

gives? In order to answer the first question, we implement
waveform agility and corresponding pulse compression
on the FPGA platform in PR-15 radar signal processing
unit. Test signals are generated in the FPGA by the
simulation model signals. Hardware precisions of 14 bits
for input signal samples and 16 bits for output AF
samples are used. Picture 4.a) shows the measured
normalized ambiguity function of pulse train when Golay
macro sequence length of 1024 is used. This AF is similar
to AF shown in Pic. 2.d) obtained by simulation. The
main lobe is sharp in both cases as we expected.
Difference manifests in spectral leakage.

Picture 5: CAF measured in the field

a)normal interference; b)strong interference

b)
-20
simulated
measured
-30

Picture 5.b) shows measured CAF when interfering

scaterrers are stronger. A big ground clutter source located at
8 km from the radar saturates the receiver. Clutter spills to 11
km and rises above the thermal noise level. A strong moving
target at 13 km from the radar causes Doppler shift close to 3
kHz and adds uncorrelated self clutter in zero Doppler
region. This clutter spills to 16 km and slightly rises above
the thermal noise level. Hence, usage of Golay macro
sequence at these environment conditions can mask weak
targets in zone of strong interference.

PSL [dB]

-40

-50

-60

-70

-80

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

/2 [kHz]

Picture 4:. Data measured in laboratory: a)AF; b)PSL.

Behavior of interference is better expressed in Pic. 4.b)

where measured and simulated PSL dependence on
Doppler are shown. Graphics fully agree at higher
Doppler, above 1.5 kHz. In low Doppler region, measured
AF has quite higher PSL than simulated. However, as
these are very low values (below -50 dB), it is not a
problem. If we want to achieve extremely low values of 80 dB as in simulations where floaty-point double format
precision is used, we need to increase hardware fix-point
precision. Based on the above we can conclude that this
fixed-point hardware implementation on the FPGA is
fully acceptable with minimal introduced interference
with regard to simulation model.

5. CONCLUSION
This paper presents the results of work that, in some way,
continues the work presented in [5]. The authors have
developed an algorithm intending to implement it in, at
that time, new ground surveillance radar named IR-10.
Unfortunately, this project shared the fate of most of the
projects 90s in former Yugoslavia. But, work on this
project created a high-quality team in the field of
application of spread spectrum in radar technique. A
considerable number of scientific papers in international
publications are published that are still quoted. We
investigate behavior of waveform agile radar signals
synthesized according to this method and two other
known methods and find out that this kind of signals can
significantly help ground surveillance radar to cope with
heavy environment dynamics. The methods fall down in
applications when small number of pulses is available. In
typical ground surveillance radar scenario, this number is
of order of thousands, so methods works well.

Another question seems more difficult. Is 45 dB PSL

suppression is enough? Picture 5.a) shows a typical
example obtained by realistic testing in the field of PR-15
radar where cross ambiguity function (CAF) is shown [9].
Clutter sources produces uncorrelated interference
slightly above the noise level up to 11 km along range
axis. Other parts of interference are correlated clutter at
zero Doppler up to 13 km and thermal noise uniformly
distributed in range-Doppler plane from 11 to 17 km
along range axis. There are a group of 3 targets at range
from 8 km to 9 km and Doppler of about 2 kHz. As can
be seen from the picture, these targets do not produce

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was partly supported by the Ministry of
Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia under
the Project TR-32041, year 2014.
549

[6] Pezeshki,A.,
Calderbank,A.R.,
Moran,W.,
Howard,S.D.:
Doppler
Resilient
Golay
Complementary Waveforms, IEEE Trans. Inf.
Theory 54(9), 2008, pp. 4254-4266
[7] Suvorova,S.,
Howard,S.D.,
Moran,W.,
Caldenbank,R., and Pezeshki,A.: Doppler resilience,
Red-Muller codes, and complementary waveforms,
in Conf. Rec. Forty-first Asilomar Conf. Signals,
Syst., Comput., Nov. 2007, pp. 18391843.
[8] Simi,S., Andri,M., Zrni,B.: An FPGA based
implementation of a CFAR processor applied to a
pulse-compression radar system, Radioingeneering
Vol. 23, No. 1, 2014, pp. 7383
[9] Simi,S., Zejak,A.J., Golubii,Z.: PR-15 radar
signals:
measurements
and
analysis,
6th
International Conference OTEH 2014, Belgrade,
Serbia, October, 2014. (submitted)

REFERENCES
[1] Zejak,A.J., Zentner,E., Rapaji,P.B.: Doppler
Optimized Mismatched Filters, Electronics Letters,
1991., Vol 27, No.7, p.p. 558-560.
[2] Golay,M.J.E.:
Complementary
Series,
IRE
Transactions IT, 1967, IT-7, pp. 8287.
[3] Guey,J.C., Bell,M.R.: Diversity Waveform Sets for
Delay-Doppler Imaging, IEEE Transactions on
Information Theory 44(4): 1998, pp. 1504-1522
[4] Bell,M.R., Monrocq,S.: Diversity Waveform Signal
Processing for DelayDoppler Measurement and
Imaging, Digital Signal Processing, Volume 12,
Issues 23, 2002, pp. 329346
[5] Budisin,S.Z., Popovic,B.M., Indjin,I.M.: Designing
radar signals by using complementary sequences, in
Proc. of Int. Conf. Radar-87, London, England, Oct.19
21, 1987 (A8833301 1332). IEE pp. 593-597.

550

PR-15 RADAR SIGNALS: MEASUREMENTS AND ANALYSIS

SLOBODAN SIMI
Military Academy, Belgrade, Serbia, simasimic01@gmail.com
ALEKSA J. ZEJAK
RT-RK Computer based systems, Novi Sad, Serbia, aleksa.zejak@rt-rk.com
ZORAN GOLUBII
Peripolis elektronika, Belgrade, Serbia, golubicic.zoran@gmail.com

Abstract: This paper presents the results of testing in the field of portable surveillance radar PR-15. A representative
signal set was obtained by measurements in real conditions and analyzed by MATLAB. Bearing in mind the two basic
modes of radar, acquired signals are separated into two subsets. The first one consists of short-time signals, with
duration of order 100 milliseconds, obtained by simultaneous observation of all range cells. The second of them
consists of long-time signals, with duration of order tens of seconds, obtained by continuous observation of the
resolution cell where target is detected. Signals from the first subset are analyzed in range-Doppler plane by cross
ambiguity function resulting in range-Doppler radar images. This is a base for detection and classification-while-scan
in PR-15 radar. Signals from the second subset are analyzed in time-frequency domain by spectrogram resulting in
time-Doppler radar images. This is the base for classification and target activity analysis in the observed range cell.
Keywords: radar, range-Doppler, time-Doppler.
presents time-Doppler (TD) processing of long-time radar
signals (non-stationary signals). In both sections, at first,
signal model and hypothesis are briefly described. Then,
the results of signal measurements and analysis are
illustrated and discussed. The conclusions are outlined in
Section 4.

1. INTRODUCTION
In our previous works [14] design and implementation of
portable surveillance radar PR-15 and its signal
processing parts are presented. This paper brings some
results of testing in the field of PR-15 which verifies its
main possibilities. According to the primary task of
performing, modes of operation of PR-15 radar are
searching and classification. In the first mode of
operation, the primary task is detection of targets in whole
surveillance zone and the secondary task is classificationwhile-scan (CWS). Given that the main task in this case is
searching the entire zone in reasonable time, the target
observation time is relatively short, so the performance of
classification are poor. In the second mode of operation,
after the target is detected, searching rate decreases and
signal from the range cell in which the target is detected
are analyzed only. The target observation time becomes
longer and it makes performance of classification
significantly improved. In this mode secondary task is
target detection in reduced surveillance zone, with several
resolution cells. Integration time is much longer, so signal
can be detected at very low signal-to-noise ratio. In that
way, radar receiver sensitivity is improved and target
detection range is increased.

2. RANGE-DOPPLER PROCESSING OF
SHORT-TIME SIGNALS
In this section, the point targets in range-Doppler plane
are considered. It means that during processing interval
(PI) radar target does not leave the range cell and their
Doppler content does not change significantly. Then, FFT
can be applied for coherent integration, and processing
interval is coherent (CPI). In the PR-15 radar, in
searching mode, CPI is of order of 100 ms [1], maximal
expected radial velocity is of order of 50 m/s and range
cell width is R=45m. It means that during CPI target
moves maximal 5 m, quite less than R. Further, during
this small interval the speed of real ground targets change
slightly which makes that Doppler content does not
change significantly. For example, if the target moves
with extreme acceleration of 10 m/s2, the speed changes
by 1 m/s during CPI. Keeping in mind that PR-15 works
in Ku-band, wavelength is of 2 cm, so this speed changes
occurring Doppler shift of 100 Hz. Considering that pulse
repetition frequency (PRF) is of order 10 kHz, this
Doppler shift occupies 1% of whole Doppler band. In

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2,

the range-Doppler (RD) processing of short-time radar
signals (stationary signals) is considered. Section 3
551

other words, dynamics of the target does not exhibit the

significant influence of the signal spectrum during that
short PI. Hence, a radar signal of this type can be
characterized as a stationary signal and FFT is a
convenient tool for its analysis.

different Doppler shifts in a given range, with some

acceptable loss in terms of SNR. When intra-pulse
modulated signals are transmitted, this filter does pulse
compression. After that processing along time axis (range
axis), the Doppler processing is applied commonly by
using the FFT. In [5] it has been shown that the FFT well
compensate the linear phase shifts occurred by Doppler in
radar signal. Thus, the coherent integration is achieved
resulting in SNR improving.

Signal model and hypothesis

Let s (t ) be the narrow-band signal transmitted by the
radar system, with carrier frequency fc and complex
envelope s(t) the portion of s (t ) other than the carrier
term. After being demodulated down to base-band, the
received signal due to a point target with round-trip delay
0 and Doppler shift 0 in radians per second is

r (t ) = s (t 0 )e j0t e j

Signal measurements and analysis

The signal after compression and Doppler processing, in
the form of a matrix, is often referred to as the cross
ambiguity function (CAF), since the signal at the
compressor input is different from the sent. Calculation of
CAF is also called mapping, so CAF is often called rangeDoppler map. This function is useful for several reasons.
Indeed, parameters necessary for detection, tracking or
radar imaging are estimated from the CAF. The round-trip
delays k and Doppler shifts k are estimated from peaks
positions in CAF. In the searching mode, the PR-15 radar
signal processing block, realized on an FPGA platform,
does Doppler processing by FFT in 1024 points and sends
range-Doppler images to the control/display unit namely
personal computer [1].

(1)

where is constant phase shift in the receiver carrier due

to round-trip delay 0, wherein =2fc0. In order to
maximize signal to noise ratio (SNR) it is common to
process this signal with a matched filter:
h , (t ) = s * (t 0 t + )e j (t0 t )

(2)

where * denotes complex conjugation. The filter in (2) is

matched to the signal q(t) with arbitrary round-trip delay
and Doppler shift :
q(t ) = s(t )e

jt

In Pic.1, a part of CAF measured by PR-15 radar and its

projections on range and Doppler axes are shown. There
are [77, 117] s or Range[11.5, 17.5] km, and
2[-3.25, 3.25] kHz. The CAF is shown in 2D, in
form of scaled image. For sake of clarity, the peaks in
CAF (bright points in their image representation) are
highlighted by rectangles (higher peaks) and ellipses
(lower peaks). In this picture, two strong targets at 14.6
km and 17.2 km are clearly visible. Their Doppler
frequencies are -1900 Hz and -1600 Hz respective
meaning they moving away from the radar. It can be seen
from projections of CAF on range and Doppler axes that
the target at 17.2 km produces peak in CAF about 20 dB
above the noise level. It means that maximal detection
range of this type of targets (big truck, bus) is far away of
17 km. Further; there are two weak targets at 14.3 km and
16.5 km, with Doppler frequencies of -1700 Hz and -2100
Hz. Among these targets, there are several false detections
between 12.6 km and 13.5 km, at Doppler of -1900 Hz,
same as at the first strong target. Hence, these are sidelobes of this target namely self-clutter produced by pulse
compression. Also, in the middle of CAF image at zero
Doppler there is a line representing ground clutter. In
Pic.2, the more crowded situation is presented. There are
four strong targets, five weak targets and strong selfclutter, so radar extractor has a harder task when bringing
the correct decision.

(3)

and designed to maximize output at time t0. Filter output

at time t0 is given by:
Ot0 ( , ) = e j s ( 0 , 0 )

(4)

where s(,) is ambiguity function (AF) of s(t) defined

as:

s ( , ) =

s (t ) s

(t )e jt dt

(5)

This is very important function both in radar theory (for

analysis of existing and synthesis of new types of signals
and filters) and in the radar practice (practical
implementation of detectors and parameter estimators are
based on AF calculating). When K point scatterers are
illuminated, the radar echo signal is superposition of
individual echo signals. Hence, matched filter output at
time t0 is:
K

Ot 0 ( , ) = e j k k s ( k , k )

(6)

k =1

Where k is amplitude, k is constant phase shift, k is

round-trip delay and k is Doppler shift of k-th scatterer.
In practice, this response is obtained by using a bank of
filters, thus each filter covers a certain range of Doppler
frequencies. Under certain conditions when transmitted
radar signal is Doppler tolerant, this two-dimensional
filtering can be separated into two independent onedimensional operations at the cost of a slight deviation
from the optimal case. Then it is possible to design a
unique filter for processing the echoes of targets with

Plot extractor, realized on control/display unit, associates

each peak in CAF exceed the threshold to the current
antennas main beam azimuth position. In Pic.3 the
typical radar display unit screen is shown. In this figure
we can see a Google earth image with surveillance zone.
Square markers represent extracted plots. The color of
marker indicates its Doppler shift radial velocity. Target
extractor uses these plots and some heuristic rules to bring
final decision about targets and their characteristics.
552

Picture 1. CAF measured by PR-15 radar: 2 strong targets Picture 2. CAF measured by PR-15 radar: 4 strong targets

Picture 3. Typical radar display unit screen

3. TIME-DOPPLER PROCESSING OF LONGTIME SIGNALS

In the previous section it was assumed that the targets are
points in the range-Doppler plane. In practice, it may be
important to observe radar signal in longer interval,
wherein the target is still not left in the range cell. In the
PR-15 radar range cell wide is 45 m. Therefore, this time
may be of order of tens seconds when targets are slow,
moving at speeds of the order 1-5 m/s, such as pedestrians
and cyclists. Now, dynamics of the target exhibits the
significant influence of the signal spectrum during that
long PI, even at small accelerations. Hence, a radar signal
of this type can be characterized as a non-stationary signal
and FFT is not anymore an appropriate tool for its
analysis. It is known that for the analysis of nonstationary signals 2D time-frequency transforms are more
suitable than 1D FFT. Therefore, in this case it is more
suitable to analyze signal in the time-frequency plane, at
553

the cost of calculation complexity increasing. Signal

analysis in such a long period of time requires
significantly more memory resources to store data.
Therefore, in this mode we decided to continuously
observe the signal from a single range cell, which can be
arbitrary selected.

Signal model and hypothesis

When K point scatterers are in selected range cell, the
radar echo signal after demodulation and pulse
compression can be generally modeled as:
K 1

r (t ) = ak (t )e jk (t ) t e jk

(7)

k =0

Where ak(t) is amplitude variation, k(t) is Doppler

content variation and k is constant phase shift of k-th
target. The detailed model including micro-Doppler effect

can be found in [6]. Beside this signal part, total signal

contains interference, which can be divided into two parts.
The first one is correlated to the signal (clutter, self-clutter
in form of side-lobes of a strong target from another range
cell close to selected). The second part of interference is
uncorrelated with the signal (thermal noise, self-clutter
when pulse-to-pulse waveform agility is applied [7]). In
the signal-processing block, firstly it is important to
determine number of targets K. Then, estimating
individual k(t) can be very useful for classification or
identification of targets. In the classification mode, the
PR-15 radar signal processing block realized on an FPGA
platform sends complex or real samples of signal from
selected range cell after the pulse compression to the
control/display unit.

Picture 5 brings TD signal representation at Scenario

No.2: A persons walking away of the radar and entering
into the range cell. After 4 sec the person turns-off and
starts walking toward the radar leaving the range cell.
Conditions: The signal originates from the range cell at
distance of 5.1 km of the radar. There is a strong fixed
scaterrer in the cell a high overpass, about 10 m above
the environment, with long iron fence. Bi-phase coded
radar pulse with duration of 19.2 s is applied in
transmitter. Golay complementary sequences lengths of
64 are used for coding.
Discussion: As there is noticeable variation in the amplitude
of its real (blue) and imaginary (red) parts we can conclude
that signal is above the noise. However, that variation is
slow, indicating that it is caused by strong ground clutter. It
is better shown in spectrogram, in the middle at zero
Doppler. We can see one non-stationary component
corresponding to moving person and his activities in the
range cell. Pedestrian are seen clearly at distance of 5 km of
the radar when long coded pulses are transmitted.

Signal measurements and analysis

Picture 4 brings TD signal representation at Scenario No.1.
The complex signal with duration of 13 seconds measured
by PR-15 radar (top), spectrogram of this signal (centre) and
its projections on Doppler axis (left) are shown.

Picture 5. TD signal representation at Scenario No. 2

Picture 4. TD signal representation at Scenario No. 1

Picture 6 shows the site of the observed range cells at

Scenarios No. 24. This is one Google earth picture.
There are two strong clutter sources extending over more
range cells, the farm at 3.7 km and the overpass at 5.1 km.
Other interesting objects are highway (which is extending
perpendicular to the radar line of sight) and the small road
from farm to the overpass. Targets in scenarios 24 was
moving along this road. The zone illuminated by the main
lobe of radar antenna (yellow lines) and the radar line of
sight (red line) are shown.

Scenario No.1: Group of two persons distanced each other

about 10 meters walking away of the radar. After 4 sec,
the first person turns-off and starts walking toward the
radar. After 8 sec, another person turns-off and starts
walking toward the radar faster than the first person.
Conditions: The signal originates from the range cell at
distance of 2.97 km of the radar. Simple radar pulse with
duration of 0.3 s is applied in transmitter.
Discussion: As there is no noticeable variation in the
amplitude of its real (blue) and imaginary (red) parts we can
conclude that signal is hidden in the noise. One-dimensional
Doppler spectrum (left) is obtained by combination of
coherent (FFT) and non-coherent integration (sum of
spectrogram over each row). This cumulative Doppler
spectrum gives information that there are signal components
above the noise level but does not give their time locations.
Spectrogram gives us much more information. We can see
two non-stationary components corresponding to two
moving objects and their activities in the range cell. It is
important to emphasize that the pedestrians are seen clearly
at distance of 3 km of the radar even when short simple
pulses are transmitted.

554

Picture 6. The site of the observed range cells

Picture 7 brings TD signal representation at Scenario No.3:
Pedestrian was walking toward radar. After 10 seconds, he
stopped and started to wave with a corner reflector.

Conditions: The signal originates from the range cell at

distance of 4.9 km of the radar. The strong fixed scaterrer
(overpass) is four cells away from observed range cell.
Bi-phase coded radar pulse with duration of 19.2 s is
applied in transmitter. Golay complementary sequences
lengths of 64 are used for coding.
Discussion: Compared to the previous image, clutter level
is lower than in previous scenario, but it is still strong
even though the cell has no strong clutter sources. So, this
is side lobe of mentioned strong fixed scaterrer from close
range cell. Indeed, when we use pulse with duration of
19.2 s, clutter can spill over range of 2.8 km. We can
see one non-stationary component corresponding to
moving person and his activities in the range cell. The
reflector wave causes emphasized non- stationary in the
received signal due to higher accelerations of target parts.
Signal spectrum is spread out and this wave is hardly
visible in the 1D Doppler representations.

moving person and his activities in the range cell. The

weaker component is a part of interference and may cause
wrong decisions.
Picture 9 brings TD signal representation at Scenario
No.5.: Specific target, a cement mixer truck moves away
from the radar.
Conditions: The signal originates from the range cell at
distance of 1.25 km of the radar. Simple radar pulse with
duration of 0.3 s is applied in transmitter. Real part of
signal is acquired only, so it is not possible to decide does
target goes to the radar or away from it.
Discussion: Strong target is close to the radar, the echo
signal saturates receiver and acquired signal is clipped
producing parasite harmonics in its spectrum. Neglecting
clipping, looking at the spectrogram and shape of the
main signal component, one can find a certain analogy
between this scenario and the previous one, when the man
walked carrying reflector.

Picture 7. TD signal representation at Scenario No. 3

Picture 9. TD signal representation at Scenario No.5

Picture 8 brings TD signal representation at Scenario

No.4.: Pedestrian was walking away of the radar carrying
the corner reflector. After 6 seconds interference appears
side lobe of strong target (truck in 5-th rang cell away of
observed, range of 5.13 km)

4. CONCLUSION
Configuration of the field (number of obstacles buildings, power lines and agricultural infrastructure) did
not allow verification of the maximum capabilities of the
radar especially at shorter distances, but some significant
results are obtained. Bearing in mind that pedestrians are
seen clearly at distance of 3 km of the radar when short
simple pulses are transmitted, with sequences of length 64
radiated energy is 64 times higher, we can expect
detection range of 2.8 times higher, i.e. about 8.5 km for a
pedestrian. In this test we verified detection range of 5 km
for pedestrians when long coded pulses are transmitted.
Smaller vehicles are registered at distances up to 12 km,
while large vehicles are registered at distances up to 17
km with high detection margin meaning that maximal
detection range of this type of targets (big truck, bus) is
far away of 17 km. At the same time, obtained timeDoppler images encourage us to continue working
vigorously to target classification and analysis of targets
activities within the range cell.

Picture 8. TD signal representation at Scenario No.4

Conditions: Same as in the Scenario No. 3.

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Discussion: Clutter level is same as in previous scenario.

However, beside the side lobe of mentioned overpass a
side lobe of strong moving target at the highway appears
5 cells away from the observed. We can see two nonstationary components. The stronger one corresponds to

This work was partly supported by the Ministry of

Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia under
the Project TR-32041, year 2014.
555

[4] Golubii,Z., Simi,S., Zejak,A.J.: Design and FPGA

implementation of digital pulse compression for
band-pass radar signals, Journal of Electrical
Engineering, Vol. 64, No. 3, 2013, pp. 191195.
[5] Levanon,N., and E. Mozeson: Radar Signals, Wiley,
New York, 2004.
[6] Chen,V.C., Li,F., Ho,S., Wechsler,H.: MicroDoppler effect in radar: phenomenon, model and
simulation study, IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron.
Systems, vol. 42, pp. 2-21, Jan. 2006.
[7] Zejak,A.J., Simi,S., Golubii,Z.: Application of
Golay complementary waveforms in PR-15 radar:
system analysis, 6th International Conference OTEH
2014, Belgrade, Serbia, October, 2014. (submitted

REFERENCES
[1] Simi,S., Golubii,Z., Zejak,A.J.: Design of High
Resolution, Coded, Portable Battlefield Surveillance
Radar PR-15, Proc. of 4th International Conference
OTEH 2011, Belgrade, Serbia, October, 2011.
[2] Simi,S., Zejak,A.J., Golubii,Z.: Range Sidelobe
Reduction in the Portable Battlefield Surveillance
Radar, Proc. of 10th International Conference
TELSIKS 2011, Ni, Serbia, October 2011.
[3] Simi,S., Zejak,A.J., Golubii,Z.: Hardware
implementation of DIRLS mismatched compressor
applied to a pulse-Doppler radar system,
Microprocessors and Microsystems, Vol. 37, No. 45, 2013, pp. 381393.

556

AN EFFICIENT SOLID STATE VHF BAND RADAR TRANSMITTER

ZVONKO RADOSAVLJEVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, zvonko.radosavljevic@gmail.com
DRAGAN PAUNOVI
MITEC d.o.o Belgrade, tamvuk@kbcnet.rs
DEJAN IVKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, divkovic555@gmail.rs
DRAGAN NIKOLI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, nikolicdragansiki@.gmail.com

Abstract: One of the most important parts of radar modernization is radar transmitter high power amplifier (HPA).
Modernized radar provides significant performance improvement: range, resistance to the electronic warfare (ECCM),
moving target indication (MTI factor). In this paper, we design and propose the VHF-band high speed pulsed high
power amplifier using four modules with MRF6V121KHR6 MOS FET. The construction and proposed technical
solution of 2000 W radar amplifiers is tested and experimental evaluation showed the feasibility of radar transmitter
modernization.
Keywords: Solid state radar transmitter, VHF-band MOS FET , High Power Amplifier (HPA).
Paper is organized as the follows: after introducing, in the
second section the main problem will be is considered.
Third section reviewed a proposed design of SOLIDSTATE High Power Amplifier (HPA) followed by the
results of experiments. Finally, the concluding remarks
will be presented.

1. INTRODUCTION
Military radar systems rely on amplifiers to deliver pulsed
and continuous wave power ranging from mere few watts,
to hundreds of kilowatts for microwave and millimeter
frequencies. Radar use varies greatly because it can
identify the range, altitude, direction, or speed of both
moving and fixed objects such as ships, spacecraft, guided
missiles, motor vehicles, terrain, and weather. In military
applications, radar is used in ground-penetrating,
ground/air surveillance, target tracking, air-defense
systems, antimissile systems, and fire control.

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT
The particular part of radar is given by the Pic.1. The
waveform generator box generates the synchronization
timing signals required throughout the system. A
modulated signal is generated, amplified and sent to the
antenna by the transmitter block.

The VHF band radars are usually 2D mobile early

warning radars. When operating in VHF band, radar
advantages are ability to detect stealth targets and
inability of anti-radiation missiles seeker to detect such
radar (VHF antenna does not fit into missile body) [1].

Switching the antenna between the transmitting and

receiving modes is controlled by the duplexer. The
duplexer allows one antenna to be used to both transmit
and receive. During transmission it directs the radar
electromagnetic
energy
towards
the
antenna.
Alternatively, on reception, it directs the received radar
echoes to the receiver.

Despite of highly reliable simple mechanical construction,

original radar cannot fulfill today's requirements. Original
radar signal processing is not able to detect and track
targets inside heavy jammed or cluttered regions. Manual
data readout does not fulfill requirements on target
processing capacity and accuracy. Consequently, a
modernization of available radar equipment is needed.

The receiver amplifies the radar returns and prepares them

for signal processing. Extraction of target information is
performed by the signal processor block. The targets
range R is computed by measuring the time delay T it
takes a of pulse to travel the two-way path between the
radar and the target [4].

Proposed radar modernization suppresses aforesaid

imperfections [2]. Modernized radar provides significant
performance improvement. In this paper, we propose a
simple and cost effective solution of mobile surveillance
VHF band radar solid-state transmitter [3].
557

Picture 1: Particular part of radar

Improvement performance

3. DESIGN OF SOLID STATE VHF HIGH

POWER AMPLIFIER

Main goal as improvement performance of radar with

tube amplifiers is that after modernization radar will be
able to give many of benefits [5], such as:

Conventional high speed switching pulsed circuits

In general, conventional switching circuit, is given by the
Picture 2. The output port of this circuit will be connected
to a power amplifier [6]. The operating current of
switching circuit is controlled by R Load. Q4 is p-channel
power MOSFET for switching the supply voltage of
power amplifier according to the input pulse. Q1 Q3 is
a drive circuit for fast switching of Q4 by using input
TTL level (5 V/0 V). It is based on a CMOS inverter
circuit [7].

Fully coherent all-solid state radar transmitter

Possibility of using Electronically Scanned Arrays
Radar pulse compression
Receiver with direct digitizing of signal at IF
Digital Signal Processor with MTD processing
Data Processor with automatic target coordinates
extraction
Local console for analogue and synthetic target data
and comprehensive monitoring and control information
Radar data recording equipment,
Reduce size and weight of complex radar systems
Improved MTBF,etc.
Current radar technology is realized with conventional
vacuum tubes and solid state amplifiers to deliver power.
Most military and civilian radar systems operate in the
following microwave and millimeter frequencies: UHFband (0.3 GHz - 1 GHz), L-band (1 GHz - 2 GHz), Sband (2 GHz - 4 GHz), C-band (4 GHz - 8 GHz), X-band
(8 GHz 12,5 GHz), Ku-band (12,5 GHz - 18 GHz), Kband (18 GHz 26,5 GHz) and Ka-band (26,5 GHz - 40
GHz). Power requirements vary from a few watts to tens
of kilowatts depending on the amplifier used in the
system.

Picture 2: Conventional switching pulsed circuits

The rise/fall time of FET depends on charge/discharge
time of the gate source capacitance (Cgs) according to the
gate source voltage (Vgs). The operating current of a
drive circuit is controlled by R1.

Decision to use vacuum tubes or solid state amplifiers

will be depend on the ratio of average power and
frequency (Pic.2).

The small R1 has a fast switching speed, and then the

current consumption is increased. Q4 must be selected by
considering power handling capacity and drain source
resistance [Rds(on)] for on state.

Method of obtain higher power

Higher transmitted power was obtain by combining
multiple amplifiers in parallel.
In general power amplifier (PA) design theory, the
method of using a conjugate match of the external
networks connected to the input and output of the
transistor devices, would seem to suffice. In practical
situations this does not take into account the limitations of
the devices.

Picture 2: Average power output versus frequency

558

This paper aims to investigate the development of four

separate VHF-Band radar HPA moduls using commonly
available transistor. The moduls would be combined in
paralel design in order to provide a high output power
(Picture 3). In the investigation of these developments,
certain aims need to be considered.

Duplexer function
The main function of duplexer is protection against strong
interference. Principle of operation of duplexer is to:
When transmitter on, than duplexer connects antenna to
transmitter with low loss. The receiver is protected from
high power.

Firstly, and most importantly for radar PA design, is the

available output power. It was decided that the designs
should, at least, meet the specified output power of the
device being used. Secondly, the amplifiers should
provide this output power over the specified bandwidth.

When receiver on, than connects antenna with receiver

with low loss. In this interval, transmitter must be
turned off. A limiter/switch is used for additional
protection against strong interference.

Tipical layout of a proposed cascaded power amplifier

system which includes driver amplifiers, main power
amplifiers as well as splitters, combiners, circulators and
high power terminations is given by the Pic.3.

Picture 4: Duplexer function

The duplexer is PIN diode based SPDT switch. The
transmitter is connected to antenna true series PIN diode.
The shunt PIN diode is at the quarter wave length, and it
protect receiver. This structure allows a single power
diode driver circuit
Picture 3: Block scheme of proposed power amplifier.

4. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS

In our design there are no high power circulators and

terminations. The input divider for four modules is
standard Wilkins divider realized in microstrip. The
output combiner is reflective four input type realized in
the microstrip. It consists of 25 quarter of lambda
transformer.

Practical results
Functional model of a modernized radar transmitter was
first tested in the laboratory. The level of input power was
2dBm.
As results of test, the output peak power is more than
2000W at 165MHz. The measured output power is shown
in Table 1. The rise/fall time of the output RF pulse is
20ns. The pulse power flatness is better than 0.1dB. The
pulse width can be is from 1s to maximum 10% duty
cycle.

The parallel work of two symmetrical transistors on the

same device is allowed by the push pull configuration.
There are two BALUNs: one at input and other at output.
The BALUNs are original; in the technique of
symmetrical microstrip. The BALUN is 180 divider and
the matching network at the same time.

Table 1: Results of experiments

The proposed HPA is fool solid state device. It consists of

four high power MRF6V121KHR6 MOS FET and one
NPT25100 GaN HEMT as a driver. It requires 50V DC,
400W power supply.
To design the pulsed power amplifier, we proposed the
novel switching circuit with the fast rise and fall time.

f[MHz]

150

155

160

165

In[dBm]
Out[dBm]
Power[kW]

2
62.6
1.82

2
63.1
2.04

2
62.7
1.86

2
62.9
1.95

After laboratory test, HPA radar transmitter was tested in

real conditions, on the P-type VHF band radar (in
operational use). The reached target range detection was a
distance of 65 [km]. Final appearance of HPA radar
transmitter is given by the Picture 5.

The RF switch is RSW-2-25P with the switch time of

10ns.
During the receive time, the power amplifier must be
turned off. In order to get fast switching on, the bias of
MOS FET must be done prior to RF input signal.

Basic tactical and technical characteristics, we have

achieved of the P-type radar before and after its
modernization, are given at the Table 2.
559

generation military and civilian radar applications. After

successful laboratory tests, we tested HPA on terain, in
field conditions.
The proposed design of the SOLID STATE HPA
amplifier was a great success, from the final testing with
P-12 radar experiments. A final output power of over
2000 W was obtained. The ripple of output power is less
than 0.5dB across the required frequency band. Although
the gain and output match measurements are acceptable,
there is the space for improvement of a slightly narrow
band response.
Overall, despite the fact that the amplifier meets all
desired specifications; a single redesign would result in an
overall improvement in the performance. The output
power of the amplifier is unlikely to improve, but the
iteration would allow for a better understanding of the
bias point and input output power dependence of the
amplifier.

Picture 5. Design of HPA model in practice

Table 2: Basic tactical and technical characteristics of
radar P-type before and after modernization
Parameter
PRT
Operating frequency
agility
Transmitted power
[kw]
- peak power
- average power

Before
modernization
2,77 ms

After
modernization
2,77 ms

electromechanical

electronic

260KW
500W

2KW
5-500W
transistor
based

Transmitting device

tube-based

Mean time between

failures (MTBF) [h]

140

REFERENCES
[1] Skolnik, M.I., Radar Handbook, Second Edition,
McGraw Hill, Boston, Massachusetts, TK6575.R262
1990.
[2] Mahavza B.R. Radar Systems Analysis and Design
Using MATLAB, COLSA Corporation, HuntSville
Alabama, 2000.
[3] McIver, S.RA., High Power LDMOS L-Band Radar
Amplifier, Master thesis, Stellenbosch University,
Department
of
Electrical
and
Electronic
Engineering, March 2010.
[4] F. H. Raab, et al., "RF and Microwave Power
Amplifier And Transmitter Technologies - Part 1,"
IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and
Techniques, 2002.
[5] Aichele D., Runton D. W., Anusic Z., and Schonthal
E., Compact L-and S-Band GaN High Power
Amplifiers, RFMD, white paper, 7628 Thorndike
Road, Greensboro, USA. 2010.
[6] H. Yi and S. Hong, Design of L-band High Speed
Pulsed Power Amplifier Using LDMOS FET,
Progress In Electromagnetics Research M, Vol. 2,
153165, 2008.
[7] Sedra, A. S. and K. C. Smith, Microelectronic
Circuits, Oxford University Press, 1992.

2000

Wide bandwidth, high output power, and high efficiency

operation enable simplification of high-power radar
system modules. Design using GaN devices allows for
multiple bands to be covered by a single matched design,
reducing size and complexity of the overall multi-kilowatt
amplifier.
The resulting designs allow for tighter integration through
smaller system footprints and reduced cooling needs,
which leads to enhanced device efficiency and lower
operational costs.

5. CONCLUSION
We was developed and tested high power matched radar
transmitter amplifier to provide solutions for next

560

NETWORK RECONFIGURATION IN BALANCED DISTRIBUTION

SYSTEMS FOR ACTIVE POWER LOSS REDUCTION BY BRANCH
EXCHANGE METHOD
BRANKO STOJANOVI
Technical Testing Center, Belgrade, elektronika@toc.vs.rs, stojanovic.branko@rocketmail.com

Abstract: Network reconfiguration is done by changing the status of the switches, mainly for two reasons, active power
loss reduction and load balancing and it attracts attention of distribution engineers for quite a long period of time. In
this article general formulation and solving method for the active power loss reduction is given. Searching of the
relevant radial configurations is used in this problem by the branch exchange method. To aid the search, two
approximate power flow methods with varying degree of accuracy have been developed. Applied Fortran programs are
very efficient and fast but can be used only as indication for the loss estimation because of the insufficient method
accuracies. At each iteration end it is necessary to run efficient power flow algorithm to determine the real situation
concerning loss reduction and go on from this point of calculation. Numerical example for Baran and Wu network is
given at the end of the work which indicates the possibility of application of these two approximate methods. Though
only indicative, developed methods converge to the global optimum what is given in a numerical example. The time
duration of the used methods depends thoroughly on the fast manipulation of incoming data files which give necessary
information of network configuration in concern. This flaw makes methods interesting for the time being only in
planning stage when the process duration is not of primary importance.
Keywords: network configuration, switches, active power loss, power flow algorithm, branch exchange.
In [4] sophisticatedly based Simulated Annealing method
is presented (with special cooling and perturbation
mechanism) for the large scale systems reconfiguration
problem. In [5] is used combined Simulated Annealing
method with taboo search for minimization of the losses
in distribution systems.

1. INTRODUCTION
In radial distribution networks sectionalizing switches are
used for protection, to isolate fault or to reconfigure network.
In Picture 1 distribution network with sectionalizing switches
is presented. Load is connected at the spots. There are two
types of sectionalizing switches, normally closed switches
that connect feeders (CB1-CB6) and normally open that
connect two primary feeders (CB7) or two substations (CB8)
or laterals that form loop (CB9).

In [6] is used an ant colony search algorithm for the

power loss reconfiguration problem.
Fuzzy mutated genetic algorithm for the optimal
reconfiguration problem with multi-objective function in
the form of discrete multi-objective optimization is
presented in [7]. One of the greatest problems that authors
face is achieving the radial network configuration by
enabling all consumers to be supplied.
Determination of the network reconfiguration as a fuzzy
genetic algorithm with multi-objective function which
takes normal states as well as faults into consideration is
given in [8].

Picture 1: Typical distribution system layout

Genetic algorithm is applied in [9].

Early papers concerning reconfiguration for power loss

reduction were done in [1] and [3]. In [3] the authors start
from network where all switches are closed and then
successively open them to eliminate loops. The choice is
done, which switch to open, after optimal flow pattern
application. The number of switches for open/close action
is much less than a branch number.

In all stated literature complicated software is applied that

is not presented and is run on fast PC-s (Pentium-IV),
especially in recent references.
In this paper network reconfiguration for the power loss
reduction is presented. The approach in [1] is completely
adopted. Two methods for the power flow approximation
after load transfer between two supply feeders or two
561

So, if variables P0, Q0, V0 at the first node are known or

estimated, the same variables in other nodes can be
calculated by the successive application of the above
mentioned equations. This is called a forward sweep.

laterals are given. New power flow equations developed

for radial distribution networks are presented [15]. These
approximate power flow methods are used to calculate
active power loss reduction [16]. In this reference listings,
A and B of developed programs are given.

DistFlow branch equations can be written in backward

sweep also, using active power, reactive power and
voltage effective value at the end of the branch Pi, Qi, Vi,
to determine the same values at the branch entrance. The
result is recursive formulae, called backward sweep
branch equations.

Slow but precise algorithm, exhaustive search is mostly

inconvenient because number of configurations which
37
ought to be searched is of order that amounts 435
5
897 while the number of possible states for the same
example is 237 which to tell the truth does not need to be
analyzed at all (just these that are connected and radial).

Pi 1 = Pi + ri

P 'i2 + Q 'i2
+ PLi
Vi 2

(2.i)

Qi 1 = Qi + xi

P 'i2 + Q 'i2
+ QLi
Vi 2

(2.ii)

2. PROBLEM FORMULATION
2.1. Stating the problem
In order to consider power loss reconfiguration problem
as an optimization it is necessary to note that radial
configuration corresponds to spanning tree as a graph
representing the network topology. So we come to the
minimal spanning tree problem that can be interpreted in
the following way. The graph is given, finding such
spanning tree to minimize the objective function taking
following constraints into consideration: (i) voltage
constraints, (ii) current constraints, (iii) reliability
constraints.

Vi21 = Vi2 + 2(ri P 'i + xiQ 'i ) + (ri2 + xi2 )

Pi'2 + Qi'2
Vi2

(2.iii)

where: Pi ' = Pi + PLi , Qi' = Qi + QLi .

As forward sweep, the backward sweep can be defined as
start upgrading with the last node of the network
supposing values Pn, Qn, Vn in that point for known and
carry on with the backward sweep calculating the same
variables in other nodes by the successive application of
the equations (2). Upgrading process is finished with the
first node (slack node), in which new upgraded injected
values are determined P0, Q0 .

This is a combinatorial optimization problem.

2.2. Power flow equations

In the course of reconfiguration, configurations with sublaterals can be obtained for the power flow algorithm (2)
which has to be applied .

Consider radial network in Picture 2.

2.3. Objective function calculation

For the power loss reduction the purpose is to minimize
total i2r losses which can be calculated as follows.

Picture 2: Radial network single line diagram

n 1

Lines will be represented by the impedances zl = rl + jxl,

(this is a simplification compared with schematic
diagram) and consumers will be modeled as constant
power loads SL = PL + jQL.

LP =

Pi 2 + Qi2
PLi +1
Vi 2

(1.i)

Qi +1 = Qi xi

Pi 2 + Qi2
QLi +1
Vi 2

(1.ii)

Vi2+1 = Vi2 2(ri Pi + xi Qi ) + (ri2 + xi2 )

Pi2 + Qi2
Vi2

2
i

i =0

(3)

3. BRANCH EXCHANGE SEARCH

Power flow in the radial distribution network can be

represented with the recursive equations called DistFlow
branch equations, which use active power, reactive power
and voltage at the entrance of the branch Pi, Qi, Vi
respectively to note the same variables at the end of the
branch in the following manner.
Pi +1 = Pi ri

r P V+ Q

On the way to the solution it is necessary to find the most

convenient tree among all (the one whose operating point
satisfies constraints and minimizes the objective
function). It is clear that the search of all spanning trees
gives solution but it is practically impossible because the
number of the possible spanning trees generated by the
branch exchange is too big for practical problems and for
each particular tree it is necessary to apply power flow
with intrinsic input data (system data) accompanied by
enumeration of the nodes unless some other power flow is
used for which enumeration is not necessary [10]. The
mistakes in the course of enumeration are also possible
(Ahmed) [11].

(1.iii)

Branch exchange can be applied to generate relevant

spanning trees from the initial one. For given spanning
562

tree T0 to each open branch, we assign loop as if it is

closed. Picture 3 shows such loop to which open branch b
is assigned. Branch exchange creates a new tree by
closing the open branch (branch b from the Picture) and
opening of loop closed branch (branch m from the Picture
for example).

Pi+1=

(5.i)

Lk

k =i + 2

Qi+1=

(5.ii)

Lk

k =i + 2

Vi 2+1 = Vi 2 2(ri Pi + xi Qi )

(5.iii)

These equations are called simplified DistFlow equations

and they will be used in this chapter for solving the power
flow for certain configuration from current searching
level.

Picture 3: Loop with open branch b

Power loss of a certain branch is possible to calculate, on

the basis of the following formula.

Basic idea of searching scheme which uses branch

exchange is to start with (feasible) tree and then create a
new one successively applying one branch exchange at a
time. On each level the best branch exchange is chosen
(the one which minimizes objective function, not
violating constraints) among all trees (children) that can
be generated from the initial tree by the branch exchange.

2
2
LPi=ri Pi + Qi ri( Pi 2 + Qi2 )
Vi 2

n 1

LP=

+ Qi2 )

p.u.

(7)

Step 1: Backward sweep

Update power flow along the loop by backward sweep
starting from node k and n of the loop applying backward
sweep DistFlow equations. We start with initial values for
the power and voltage at the end of the loop which are
calculated by a precise power flow algorithm for network
in question. Let us denote updated values for the power
and voltage as follows:
Pi ' , Qi' , i=k,....,0k; Pi ' , Qi' , i=n,....,0n; Von' , Vok' .

DistFlow branch equations can be simplified by

neglecting the member which denotes power loss in an
actual branch and which is much smaller than power
injected at the entrance and at the end of the branch. So
the following equations derived.

(4.iii)

For nominal branch exchange b-k in Picture 3 the method

consists of the following steps:

4.1. Algorithm 1 - simplified dist flow algorithm

Vi 2+1 = Vi 2 2(ri Pi + xi Qi )

4.2. Algorithm 2 - Updating of DistFlow

algorithm by backward and forward sweep

4. APPROXIMATE POWER FLOW

ALGORITHMS

(4.ii)

For power loss reduction estimation, because of the

branch exchange, consult [16].

Searching in the described manner draws failures as it is

only approximate and searching with real efficient
power flow will differ from one that is adopted.

Qi+1 = QiQLi+1

r (P
i =0

Computing efficiency depend on two things, choosing

of branch m which ought to be open because it effects a
number of trials that have to be done and in the same
time at each searching level (when the best solution for
that level is chosen) the actual power flow should be
run which is most time consuming because of the input
data files. Although efficient power flow is adopted for
running, the best will be not to use it, when it is not
necessary because it is obvious that it is very time
consuming.

(4.i)

(6)

Total power loss for the entire network can be calculated

by summation of the losses per each branch i.e.

By search we do not check all possible trees. On our

way to global optimum solution sometimes generates
local optima. Sometimes for saving we get positive
value while actual power flow shows that it is negative.

Pi+1=Pi - PLi+1

p.u.

(8)

Step 2: Forward sweep

Calculate the voltage difference in starting (slack) node
(difference between actual value V0 and updated Von' , Vok' ).
If calculated difference is too big (bigger than some
previously adopted value max) apply forward sweep to
reduce the error (this time starting from the slack node,
using updated values of power and voltage for applying a
forward sweep). Let us denote new updated values with:
Pi" , Qi" , i=0k+1,...., k; Pi" , Qi" , i=0n+1,....,n

As network is radial the solution of these equations is

easily obtained. For the network in Picture 2 the solution
is as follows:

(9)

Step 3: Perform correction of the power flow estimation

in initial node

563

Use the difference between backward and forward sweep

updated values as a mismatch and update initial node
power value by addition of these mismatches i.e.
P0"k = P0' k + ( Pk' Pk" ) ; P0"n = P0' n + ( Pn' Pn" )

open or closed by the means of sectionalizing switch.

Result of the applied calculation [16] is presented in
Tables 1 and 2.

(10)

In Tables 1, 2 each row represents a branch exchange.

The branch exchange is defined by the pair of figures in
the second column. The row after search level number,
row 6 of the Table 1 for example, denotes which branch
exchange is chosen in that search level having maximal
loss reduction in mind.

Details of this algorithm application are given in [1].

Note that backward and forward sweep represent iteration
of the Dist Flow equations implementation. In this case
the algorithm is applied for the loop generated by branch
exchange. We conclude:
method is computationally faster than a real power flow
application,
method preciseness depends on a transferred load Pk,
Qk.

Power loss calculation

To estimate the power loss please observe that:
"
P0k- P0k" Pk+LPL; P0n- P0n
-Pk+LPR

(11)

where LPR and LPL represent power loss reduction in

right (R) and left (L) loop branch respectively. Then for
the total loss reduction we obtain the following formula
"
LP=LPL+LPR=(P0k- P0k" )+(P0n- P0n
)

Picture 5: Method M1 and M2 final configuration that is

also the global optimum [12]

(12)

6. CONCLUSIONS
5. NUMERICAL RESULTS

Two different approximate power flow methods are

implemented. They are used to estimate power loss
reduction after branch exchange and are based on the
power flow equations developed for radial distribution
network.

Suggested solution methods are implemented in Fortran

77. Approximate power flow methods, (M1) simplified
Dist Flow and (M2) DistFlow method updated by
backward and forward sweep are used in the course of
programming. Besides, precise power flow algorithms
(M3) [2,15] are used to check the correctness of M1 and
M2 methods.

Numerical results show:

Both computing methods are very fast but of a different
accuracy degree. They include both active and reactive
power flow.

Tested system is hypothetical 12.66 kV system (given in

Picture 4) comprising of 32 buses and 5 tie switches
forming 5 different loops when closed. System data are
given in [16] along with the voltage picture of initial
configuration. Total active and reactive load of tested
network amount to 3715 kW and 2300 kVar respectively.
Total system active power loss is 202.675 kW which is
5.5 % of total active power demand.

Both algorithms are only indicative regarding

estimation of the active power losses, they show in
which direction to move because they do not give
precise losses, it is necessary to run precise power flow.
One algorithm (M2) is optimistic, gives bigger values
than actual for savings and converges to the same
configuration as algorithm M1. Precise injected powers
P0K and P0N into the loop from slack node can not be
obtained by deduction of the drain powers to generate
clean loops as performed in this article. Dependence
between the loop active powers is more complex and
for this reason we get much better results by this
method than real. The second algorithm (M1) indicates
further reconfiguration with an approximately minimal
reduction of losses which appears to be much greater
(they are neglected at the very beginning) so that its
indicative characteristic is of intrinsic value for
generating the acceptable optimum which in our case is
also global optimum [12] which is the advantage of this
method compared with others [1], [13] and [14].

Picture 4: Hypothetical 12.66 kV system

The lowest voltage of the initial configuration is

0.9131p.u. It is also supposed that each branch can be

Precise calculation of the loop node voltages by M2

method is almost senseless. When approximation is
564

applied, the same value for all the node voltages we get
results that differ almost negligibly and as such do not
influence the accuracy of a method. This voltage
approximation decreases the algorithm execution time.

Table 2:Test results, method M1

Loss reduction in kW compared
Search
branch
with initial configuration
level
closed-open
Actual loss
Method M1
reduction
(method M3)
1
33-7
1.057
34-13
1.711
35-9
2.697
48.684
36-17
0.004
37-each
<0
35-9
2.697
48.684
2
9-each
<0
33-7
1.055
34-14
0.429
36-32
1.226
51.528
37-each
<0
36-32
1.226
51.52848.684=2.844
3
9-each
<0
33-7
1.055
57.908
34-14
0.429
32-each
<0
37-each
<0
33-7
1.055
57.90851.528=6.380
4
7-each
<0
9-each
<0
34-14
0.422
63.124
32-each
<0
37-each
<0
63.12434-14
0.422
57.908=5.216
5
7-each
<0
9-each
<0
14-each
<0
32-each
<0
37-each
<0
Conclusion:
- Configuration remains as it is, branches 7, 9, 14, 32 i 37
are open and all others are closed.
- Total power loss for this configuration (see Picture 5)
amount 139.551 kW what is for 63.124 kW less,
compared with initial configuration, 31.1% saving is
achieved compared with the loss (202.675 kW) of
initial configuration.

Table 1: Test results, method M2

Loss reduction in kW compared
with initial configuration
Search
branch
Actual loss
level closed-open
Method M2
reduction
(method M3)
33-7
131.110
34-13
7.433
35-9
134.522
48.684
1
36- each
<0
37-28
97.072
35-9
48.684
9- each
<0
33-7
80.514
56.514
2
34-14
84.106
40.954
36-32
48.020
51.528
37-28
60.579
56.308
56.51433-7
48.684=7.830
7-each
<0
34-14
11.121
60.511
3
36-32
40.467
57.915
37-28
49.675
56.763
9-8
9.222
55.026
60.51134-14
56.514=3.997
14- each
<0
36-32
40.407
63.124
4
37-28
49.675
60.760
7-33
75.958
40.954
9-8
7.462
55.383
63.12436-32
60.511=2.613
32- each
<0
37-28
44.066
62.698
5
7-33
75.827
42.830
9-8
12.205
56.487
14-34
9.474
57.908
62.698-63.124=
-0.426
Conclusion:
- Configuration remains as it is, branches 9, 7, 14, 32 i 37
are open and all others are closed.
- Total power loss for this configuration (see Picture 5)
amount 139.551 kW.

Both shown algorithms, although indicative, converge and

find global optimum (escaping time consuming precise
power flow algorithm which will be applied on each
generated configuration in the course of calculation). By
the more complete programming of the developed
algorithms [14] notable saving in computing time will be
achieved and the shown algorithms will come closer to the
real symmetrical distribution networks problem planning.

The lowest voltage of the final configuration is 0.938

p.u. which is better than the previous value 0.913 p.u.
so with reconfiguration the voltage picture is only
improved.
The main problem encountered by the author is a
problem of input data for running of Fortran programs.
For each iteration actual network configuration, input
file was fed in again, so the real execution is very time
consuming, unless this difficulty becomes solved by the
further automation development, which is not a crucial
point in the planning phase.

REFERENCES
[1] Baran,M.,E., Wu,F.,F., Network reconfiguration in
distribution systems for loss reduction and load
balancing, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol.4, no.2,
565

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9] Stojanovi,M., Tasi,D., Vukovi,M., Risti,A.,

2012 CIRED conference, Optimal distribution
network configuration choice by genetic algorithm,
paper in Serbian.
[10] Nahman,J.,M., Peri,D.,M., Optimal planning of
radial distribution networks by simulated annealing
technique, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems,
Vol.23, No.2, pp.790-795, May 2008.
[11] Ahmed,R.,A.,W., A new heuristic approach for
optimal reconfiguration in distribution systems,
Electric Power Systems Research, 81, pp. 282-289,
2011.
[12] Gomes,F.,V.,
Carneiro,S.,Jr.,
Pereira,J.,L.,R.,
Vinagre,M.,P., Garcia,P.,A.,N., Araujo,L.,R., A
new heuristic reconfiguration algorithm for large
distribution systems, IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems , Vol.20, No.3, pp.1373-1378, August 2005.
[13] Borozan,V., Rajii,D., Akovski,R., Improved
method for loss minimization in distribution
networks, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems,
Vol.10, No.3, pp.1420-1425, August 1995.
[14] Strezoski,V., collaborators, Basic power calculations
for analyses and control of distribution networks,
(study in Serbian), Institute for power and
electronics, University of technical science, Novi
Sad 1998.
[15] Stojanovi,B., Simulated annealing method and its
application to capacitor placement problem in radial
distribution networks, masters work in Serbian,
University of electrical engineering, Belgrade, 1997.
[16] Stojanovi,B., Network reconfiguration in balanced
distribution systems for active power loss reduction,
Elektroprivreda, 3, pp. 25-40, 2007, paper in
Serbian.

pp.1401-1407, April 1989.

Sari,A., Artificial intelligence application for
reactive power and voltage regulation problem
solution in distribution systems, Doctoral dissertation
in Serbian, University of electrical engineering,
Belgrade, 1997.
Shirmohammadi,D., Hong,H.,W., Reconfiguration
of electric distribution networks for resistive line
losses reduction, IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, Vol.4, No.2, pp. 1492-1498, April 1989.
Jeon,Y.,J.,
Kim,J.,C.,
Kim,J.,O.,
Shin,J.,R.,
Lee,K.,Y., An efficient simulated annealing
algorithm for network reconfiguration in large-scale
distribution systems, IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, Vol.17, No.4, pp.1070-1078, October
2002.
Jeon,Y.,J., Kim,J.,C., Application of simulated
annealing and taboo search for loss minimization in
distribution systems, Electric Power and Energy
Systems, 26, pp. 9-18, 2004.
Su,C.,T., Chang,C.,F., Chiou,J.,P., Distribution
network reconfiguration for loss reduction by ant
colony search algorithm, Electric Power Systems
Research, 75, pp.190-199, 2005.
Prasad,K., Ranjan,R., Sahoo,N.,C., Chaturvedi,A.,
Optimal reconfiguration of radial distribution
systems using a fuzzy mutated genetic algorithm,
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol.20, No.2,
pp.1211-1213, April 2005.
Hong,Y.,Y., Ho,S.,Y., Determination of network
configuration considering multi-objective in
distribution systems using genetic algorithms, IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems , Vol.20, No.2,
pp.1062-1069, May 2005.

566

SECTION VI

TELECOMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS

CHAIRMAN
Professor Goran Diki, PhD

FIR FILTER SHARPENING BY FREQUENCY MASKING AND

PIPELINING-INTERLEAVING TECHNIQUE
MILENKO IRI
Technical Overhaul Works aak, aak, cciro@bluenet.rs
VOJKAN RADONJI
Technical Overhaul Works aak, aak, vojkan.r69@gmail.com

Abstract: This paper focuses on the improvements of digital filters with a highly sharp transition zone on the Xilinx
FPGA chips by combining a sharpening method based on the amplitude change function and frequency masking and PI
(Pipelining-Interleaving) techniques. A linear phase requires digital filter realizations with Finite Impulse Response
(FIR) filters. On the other hand, a drawback of FIR filters applications is a low computational efficiency, especially in
applications such as filter sharpening techniques, because this technique uses processing the data by repeated passes
through the same filter. Computational efficiency of FIR filters can be significantly improved by using some of the
multirate techniques, and such a degree of computation savings cannot be achieved in multirate implementations of IIR
(Infinite Impulse Response) filters.
Keywords: Digital filters, Field programmable gate arrays, FIR filters, Filtering theory, Programmable logic devices.

1. INTRODUCTION
The first approach to improving stop-band attenuation with a
filter sharpening method was to process the data by repeated
passes through the same filter. Each pass, while increasing
the minimum stop-band attenuation k times, also increases
the pass-band ripple also k times in decibels. It also increases
the order of the equivalent filter.
The following method for filter sharpening was a method,
based on the idea of the amplitude change function [1].
With this method, a signal is also processed several times
with the same filter, but the output signal is formed from
the input signal and other filtering stages output signals in
a specific order.
This method was restricted to
symmetric, finite impulse response (FIR) filters with a
constant group delay. However, the fact that FIR filters
order is considerably higher than that of an equivalent IIR
filter, and that FIR filters computational efficiency is
considerably poorer, has resulted in searching for new
methods, with IIR filters in the sharpening structure [2, 3].
These solutions are based on the addition of new blocks to
the sharpening structure, in order to eliminate the
influence of initial filter non-linear phase characteristics.
The advantage of this solution is increased computational
efficiency, which is achieved with IIR filters as an initial
filter in the sharpening structure. On the other hand, in
order to improve computational efficiency, nonlinear
phase characteristics of sharpening filter are obtained, and
this fact is the main drawback of these methods.

In contrast to such a solution, in this paper, a sharpening

filter is implemented with FIR filters. Computational
efficiency is achieved with frequency masking and PI
technique instead of IIR filter usage. This technique uses
the fact that computational requirements for FIR filters
can be reduced by the sampling rate conversion, and such
a degree of computation savings cannot be achieved with
multirate IIR filters implementations [4].

2. FIR FILTER SHARPENING METHOD AND

FREQUENCY MASKING TECHNIQUE
The basic principle of sharpening method based on the
idea of the amplitude change function is shown in Picture
1. Input data sequence is running through a filter giving
both the output sequence and the residual sequence.
The residual is then added to the original signal and this
sum is again run through the filter, giving the overall
filtering operation

H ( z ) [1 + 1 H ( z )] = H ( z ) [ 2 H ( z )] =
,
= H ( z ) [1 + H r ( z )]

(1)

H r (z ) = 1 H (z ) ,

(2)

where

is the filter residual.

569

Picture 1. Principle of sharpening method based on the

idea of the amplitude change function

With linear phase filters (filters with a constant group

delay), by multiple filter using, it is possible to realize
such amplitude change functions as to make
improvements in stop-band, pass-band or in both.

Picture 3. Cascade connections of periodic model filter

and masking filter

Frequency masking technique is a multirate technique

which is appropriate for sharp linear phase filters
realizations [5, 6, and 7]. This advantage derives from the
frequency masking filter structures (Picture 2).

3. LOW-PASS DIGITAL FILTER

IMPLEMENTATION USING FREQUENCY
MASKING TECHNIQUE
Software tools for designing structures that digital
programmable hardware manufactures provide for users
in recent years have become more complete and offer
more and more freedom in design. The user has the option
to choose whether to use one of the solutions from a wide
range of forms for a specific digital structure, or design
will start from beginning, using the original manufacturer
tool, or use some of the standard tools (including Matlab)
and then again via software manufacturers make a
compilation in VHDL, Verilog HDL, or the Verilog code
[10, 11].

Picture 2. Cascade connections of periodic model filter

and masking filter

Although the frequency masking technique is a multirate

technique, actually there is no sampling rate change
through the filter. Narrowing of the filter bandwidth is
performed by replacing each model filter unit delay z 1
with the delay block z M , where M is an integer. In this
way, the frequency response of the filter G z j is made

( )

In our example, filter design starts from frequency

masking filter realization, by using the Xilinx's System
Generator tool FDA tool and FIR compiler tool [12].
Such a FIR filter will be included in the further procedure
(frequency masking and modified PI technique).

periodic. The FIR filter in the cascade FL (z ) is used to

eliminate (mask) the images from the periodic model
filter frequency response. Picture 3 shows the
characteristics of model filter G (z ) , periodic model

( )

A model filter can be a lower order filter with poorer

specifications:

filter G z M , masking filter FL (z ) and overall narrowband low-pass filter H L (z ) . The important outcome of the
proposed approach is that the transition band of the
overall filter is M times smaller than the model filter
transition band. Consequently, the pass-band bandwidth is
also reduced by the same factor, and filtering is performed
with non-recursive filters, without sample rate
conversions, and without feedback loops. In practice, this
means realization without up-sampler and down-sampler
blocks. Hence, this method is suitable for sharpening
method design [8,9].

570

pass = 0,1

rad / sample

stop = 0,4

rad / sample

A pass = 0,5

dB

Astop = 40

dB

This characteristic is shown in Picture 5.

This model filter requires a masking filter in order to

eliminate (mask) the images from the periodic model
filter frequency response, with specifications:

pass = 0,1

rad / sample

stop = 0,7

rad / sample

A pass = 0,5

dB

Astop = 40

dB

Picture 5. Amplitude characteristic of frequency masking

filter

5. FPGA REALIZATION OF DIGITAL

FILTER BY COMBINING SHARPENING,
FREQUENCY MASKING AND PI
TECHNIQUE
Now, after initial implementation of the FIR filter (with
frequency masking technique), amplitude change function
can be used in order to complete sharpening method
realization. So, between input port 2 and output port 6 of
the structure from Picture 6, we should connect our FIR
digital filter realized with frequency masking technique.
Signals on the output ports should be processed as a
polynomial according to the amplitude change function.

Picture 4. Frequency masking technique realizations

For such masking filter specifications, we will use a third

order FIR equiripple filter and in this manner realize a
frequency masking filter.
Both filters will be realized using FIR compiler and FDA
tool. A periodic model filter is obtained from the model
filter by replacing each delay with two delays with
choosing FIR compiler option Filter type to be
interpolated and zero packing factor to be 2 (for
M = 2 ).

Picture 7 shows a realization with the simplest amplitude

change function F (H ) = 3H 2 2 H 3 , and Table 1 gives
an overview of a few amplitude change functions [1].
With increasing of functions order, improvements of
amplitude characteristic will be bigger and bigger. In
contrast to these improvements, a higher order of
amplitude change functions also means increasing filter
complexity. At the end, savings of hardware resources
that we have achieved with frequency masking and PI
techniques can be considerably reduced.

In this stage, with model filter definition and with factor

M selection, overall filter pass-band and stop-band
frequencies are determined. The following sharpening
method is used only to improve filter attenuation in the
stop-band and reduce ripple in the pass-band. So, with
choosing M = 2 , the characteristic of frequency masking
filter, recorded in out 1 (Picture 4) will be:

pass = 0,05
stop = 0,2

Table 1, Amplitude change functions

rad / sample

rad / sample

A pass = 0,5

dB

Astop = 40

dB .

571

Order
I

Function
F (H ) = H

II

F (H ) = H 2 (3 2 H )

III

F (H ) = H 3 10 15 H + 6 H 2

IV

F (H ) = H

(
)
(35 84H + 70H 20H )
2

Picture 6. "System Generator" model of frequency masking filter

Picture 7. "System Generator" model of frequency masking filter insertion in FPGA PI structure

Therefore, the selection of amplitude change function

should be a compromise between desired amplitude
characteristics of the filter, consumption of hardware
resources and acceptable value of fixed point
implementation errors.

Picture 8 shows the amplitude characteristic of filter

sharpening
structure
with
amplitude
change
function F (H ) = 3H 2 2 H 3 , and factor M = 2 of
frequency masking subsystem filter. Picture 9 shows the
passband of same filter. It is evident that improvements in
relation to initial filter characteristics are significant in the
stop-band, and in the pass-band also. At the same time,
the sharpening filter retains the linear phase characteristic.

5. CONCLUSION
Low computational efficiency is the main drawback of
FIR filter applications that involve cascade multiple
filtering with the same filter. One such method is filter
sharpening method that involves polynomial functions
implementations.
The application of multirate multistage techniques
combined with pipelining/interleaving technique provides
a solution for the rationalization of hardware resources for
applications that involve multiple use of the same filter
several times or a hardware structure that can be
rearranged so that the signal processing is performed in

Picture 8. Amplitude characteristic of overall filter

572

parallel. Combining the operations related to the

implementation of PI procedure together with the
operation related to the filter realization, it is possible to
achieve additional improvements of filters structure. In
this paper, for filter sharpening method, we introduce an
original approach to algorithm development and digital
filter design using pipelining/interleaving and frequency
masking technique.

[3] V.Pouki,
A.emva,
M.Lutovac,
T.Karnik:
Chebyshev IIR filter sharpening implemented on
FPGA, in: 16th Telecommunication Forum Telfor
2008, pp. 432435.
[4] Milic,L.: Multirate filtering for digital signal
processing: MATLAB applications. Hershey, PA:
Information Science Reference; 2009.
[5] Lim,Y.C.: (1986). Frequency-response masking
approach for the synthesis of sharp linear phase
digital filters. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and
Systems, 33(4), 357-364.
[6] Lim,Y.C., & Lian,Y. : (1994). Frequency-response
masking approach for digital filter design:
complexity reduction via masking filter factorization.
IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems-II:
Analog and Digital Signal Processing, 41(8), 518525.
[7] Lim,Y.C., & Yang,R.: (2005). On the synthesis of
very sharp decimators and interpolators using the
frequency-response masking technique. IEEE
Transactions on Signal Processing, 53(4), 13871397.
[8] Ramstad,T.A., & Saramki,T.: (1990, May).
Multistage, multirate FIR filter structures for narrow
transition band filters. Proc. 1990 IEEE Int. Symp.
Circuits and Systems ISCAS, New Orleans,
Louisiana, 2017 2021.
[9] M.Ciric and V.Radonjic: Realization of Multistage
FIR Filters using Pipelining-Interleaving, TELFOR
Journal, Vol. 4, No.2, pp. 107-110, 2012.
[10] Signal processing toolbox for use with MATLAB.
Users guide, The MathWorks Inc., 3 Apple Hill
Drive, Natick, MA, 2006.
[11] Filter design toolbox for use with MATLAB. Users
guide, The MathWorks Inc., 3 Apple Hill Drive,
Natick, MA, 2006.
[12] System Generator for DSP, release 10.1, March,
2010, www.xilinx.com.

Picture 9. Amplitude characteristic of overall

filter Pass-band

REFERENCES
[1] J.F.Kaiser and R.W.Hamming: Sharpening the
response of a symmetric nonrecursive filter by
multiple use of the same filter, IEEE Trans. Acoust.,
Speech, Signal Processing, vol. ASSP-25, pp. 415
422, Oct. 1977.
[2] V.M.Poucki and A.emva and M.D.Lutovac and
T.Karnik: Elliptic IIR filter sharpening implemented
on FPGA, Digital Signal Processing 20 (2010) 13
22, May 2009.

573

TARGET RECOGNITION USING CORRELATION METHOD

REEM ELTAYEB MOHAMMED ABD ELRAHMAN
Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Sudan University of Science and Technology, Sudan
MOUTAMAN MIRGHANI DAFFALLA
National Center for Research, Sudan
Abstract: Automatic Target Recognition (ATR) is a technique that is used in primary radar to identify a given target
using its radar signature and High Range Resolution (HRR) profile among other targets.ATR is essential in
surveillance systems which have no supporting Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) system .in this paper correlation
methodology has been proposed to detect the intended target. The methodology has been tested and confirmed using
correlation coefficient method to compare the results of each of the methods. Computer simulation are presented for the
proposed recognition system, applying modeling of targets using MATLAB.

1. INTRODUCTION

from specific direction.[2]

Automatic Target Recognition (ATR) is algorithm that

solve critical problem using the echo signal and the target
signature to recognize and detect the specific target from
many. This algorithm can be realized using different
techniques. In this paper we focus on correlation as
mathematical operation and simulate these by MATLAB
program.

A high-resolution range profile (HRRP) is a onedimensional signature of an object. In each highresolution range cell the amplitude of the signal is
measured giving the strength of the return at that time
delay.
This paper studies the realization ATR by means of the
high radar range resolution using step frequency
waveform, which has principal advantages compared to
conventional high resolution waveforms.

Data from targets are collected from the echo signals that
sent by RADAR antenna and processed in the transmitter
unit to out the information about the target in easy form.
ATR system consists of five stages. The five stages are:
Detection, Discrimination, Classification, Recognition,
and Identification. And we spot on the four stages. [1]

This waveform achieves high range resolution by

coherently processing the returns from N pulses each
having a different carrier frequency that changes by a
fixed amount, from pulse to pulse.[3]
HRR is main parameter used in realization of ATR
system as discuss later.

2. RADAR RANGE PROFILE

The ATR system that use different data either Geometry
or image, these data depends upon framework of the
problem and the purpose that use for.

2.1. Correlation

In this paper we use the geometric data. This can classify

as Radar Cross Section (RCS) or High Resolution Range
(HRR) Profiles.

Correlation is used to measure the similarity between two

signals, to detect a known signal in a noisy one, or to
search for data. Is given mathematically by:

RADAR CROSS SECTION (RCS) is defined as area

intercepting that amount of power which, when scattered
isotropically, produces at the receiver a density which is
equal to that scattered by the actual target [2].which is
ratio of reflected to incident power density, that is

(2)
The cross-correlation between range profile x( ) and
range profile y().[4] The best match of sets of data being
cross-correlated occurs when the maximum value is
obtained.

(1)

2.2. Correlation coefficient

Where RCS of the target, Ps is is is the power per unit

solid angle scattered in a specific direction and Pi is the
power per unit area in a plane wave incident on a scatterer

Correlation Coefficient (CC) Measures the strength of the

correlation between two variables is the correlation
coefficient. [5]
574

This represented by the symbol "r" and the value of the

correlation coefficient ranges from 1.00 to -1.00. A value
of 0.0 indicates that there is absolutely no relationship
between the x and y variables.[4] It gives as:

Computer implementation of various HRR profile, CC

and CCF were performed. [6] The results obtained
indicated that correlation can indeed be used for
classification.

(3)

From the results in the table (1), we notice that the first
model has higher correlation, which is closer to the
autocorrelation between the model and the shifted

where
x is the first input
y is the second input
n is the sample size

x 10

4
3.5
3
2.5
2

As mention before we use it to confirm my result that

calculated by CCF between the two targets.

1.5
1
0.5
0

3. OBSERVATION AND DISCUUSION

-0.5
-1

To realize ATR system we need to calculate the Data of

HRR Profile, Correlation Coefficient and Cross
Correlation. Also we need to use MATLAB to calculate
the resulting figure as follows:

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Figure1. The CCF between the 1st model and measured

target3 version.

Generate a code in MATLAB to calculate HRRP and save

it in M file, Generate a code in MATLAB to calculate CC
and save it in M file and finally, Classify the intended
target by choosing the higher CC value when it is closer
to one.

x 10

2.5

1.5

0.5

3.1. Simulation of atr system

To model an ATR system, we used MATLAB program,

specially the correlation function and the Correlation
Coefficient, so as to model the classifier and recognize the
intended target from other ones.

-0.5
50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Figure 2. Tthe CCF between the 2nd model and measured

target

Firstly, we use the CC to find the value that is closer to

one. It means that the highest correlation occurs when the
measured HRR is matching the model target.

1.5

x 10

Secondly, use the CCF between the measured target and

the other models. In the table (1) we just illustrate the
maximum value of the CCF (M) and CC of each targets
and the measured one.

0.5

-0.5

-1

The CC and CCF between the measured target and the

other three models is shown in the following table also we
represent the CCF result in figures (Fig 1, Fig 2, Fig3) Fig
1 the CCF between the 1st model and measured target and
the last figure (Fig 4) is the calculated Auto-Correlation
Function (ACF) of the first model to find close result.

-1.5

-2
50

CC

First model
Second model
Third model
Measure target

0.9748.
0.3101
0.1548
-

3.1016e+004
2.9636e+004
1.3061e+004
3.9969 e+004

150

200

250

300

350

400

Figure 3. The CCF between the 3rd model and measured

target

Table 1: The value of CC and M that calculated by

MATLAB
Target

100

x 10

-1

-2
50

4. CONCLUTION
In this paper, we have implemented an automated target
detection and recognition system that uses HRR profile
signatures for target models to detect and recognize
targets.

100

150

200

250

300

Figure 4. The ACF of the 1st model

575

350

400

APPROACH .
[4] S R Taghizadeh ,Digital Signal Processing, Part 3,
Discrete-Time Signals & Systems, Case Studies,
January 2000.
[5] Dr. Wesley Black, Statistical Procedures, Correlation
Coefficients,2006.
[6] Reem Altayeib Mohammed Abd Elrahman, Study
and Simulation of Automatic Target Recognition
Systems,A Thesis to hold a Degree of M.Sc of
Science in Electrical Engineering of Karary
University.

REFERENCES
[1] Moutaman Mirghani Daffalla, Target Recognition for
Low Resolution Surveillance Radar, Director at
Institute of Space Research and Aerospace(ISRA),
Sudan.
[2] Dale E. Nelson, Advanced Feature Selection
Methodology for Automatic Target Recognition,
2010.
[3] Dale E.,HIGH RANGE RESOLUTION RADAR
TARGET CLASSIFICATION: A ROUGH SET

576

CODE SYNCHRONIZATION FOR DIRECT SEQUENCE-CODE DIVISION

MULTIPLE ACCESS
AISHA SIR ELKHATEM ALI
Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Sudan University of Science and Technology, SUST, Khartoum, Republic of
Sudan, aishhaa.sir@gmail.com
MOUTAMAN MIRGHANI DAFFALLA
Institute of Space Research and Aerospace, ISRA, National Center for Research, NCR, Khartoum, Republic of Sudan,
mtnmir@gmail.com

Abstract: In direct sequence code division multiple access communication systems, a primary function of the receiver is
to despread and decode the received signal using the same code applied at the transmitter. That is accomplished by
locally generating a replica of the orthogonal code, which should be synchronised to the code that is superimposed on
the received waveform.
Generally, the synchronization process is accomplished in two steps or phases; code acquisition, which is a coarse
alignment process bringing the two sequences within one time-chip interval, and code tracking, which is a fine tuning
and synchronisation-maintaining process.
This paper investigates code tracking in direct sequence spread spectrum systems under conditions of different signalto-noise ratios, significant signal delay and phase offset. There are several methods used for tracking codes, such as
early late gate, Gardner and Muller and Muller. Each of those methods has advantages and disadvantages, regarding
its ability of handling signals at low signal-to-noise ratio, delay, phase and carrier frequency offsets. Computer
simulations have been done to compare those tracking methods in terms of the bit error rate, average delay time to code
tracking, for different values of the receivedsignal-to-noise ratio.
Keywords: direct sequence; synchonization; code acquisition; code tracking; binary phase shift keying.
Spread spectrum is accomplished before transmission
through the use of a spreading code that is independent of
the data sequence [1].

1. INTRODUCTION
Mobile communications are rapidly becoming more and
more necessary for everyday activities. With so many
users to accommodate, more efficient use of bandwidth is
a priority among cellular phone system operators. Equally
important is the security and reliability of those calls.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is remarkable
solution that has been offered to cover those two
requirements.

Spread spectrum communication needs to synchronize the

spreading waveforms in transmitting and receiving ends.
If the two waveforms are out of synchronization by a little
chip time, insufficient signal energy will reach the
receiver, and thus the performance of data demodulation
will be degraded. Synchronizing the Direct Sequence
Spread spectrum (DSSS) system includes a two-steps
procedure, code acquisition and code tracking. Although
code acquisition is an important problem, the
development of some techniques for accurate code
tracking plays an equally important role in supporting the
acquisition process, once the code has been acquired [2].

CDMA is a smart method for implementing a multiple

access communication system. Multiple access is a
technique where many subscribers or local stations can
share the use of the communication channel at the same
time, despite the fact they may originate from widely
different locations. The channel can be thought of as
merely a portion of the limited radio resource, which is
temporarily allocated for a specific purpose, such as some
phone call. Multiple access is definition of how the radio
spectrum is divided into channels, and how those
channels are allocated to all users of the system.

2. CODE SYNCHRONIZATION
In spread spectrum systems, the transmitted signal is
spread by a spreading code according to several particular
modulation schemes, such as Direct-Sequence (DS) and
Frequency Hopping (FH) modulation schemes. In both
cases, the receiver has to align its locally generated
spreading sequence to the corresponding received one, so
as to allow signal despreading and further detection. This

The basis of CDMA is the spread spectrum technology.

Spread Spectrum (SS) is a means of transmission, in
which the data sequence occupies a bandwidth in excess
of the minimum bandwidth that is necessary to send it.
577

operation is known as code synchronization.

B. Mueller and Muller Algorithm

Within the process of code synchronization, the received

signal is synchronized with the local Pseudo Noise (PN)
code generator. In the acquisition stage where codematched filter (correlator) is used, the peaks of the
correlator output are used for synchronization. After
acquisition achieved, code tracking performs and
maintains fine synchronization between the transmitter
and receiver.

In 1976, Mueller and Muller (1976:516-531) investigated

a class of fast-converging timing recovery methods for
synchronous digital data receivers. In Mueller and
Mullers (M&M), the symbol Timing Error Detector
(TED) provides hard decisions and soft decisions on
reliable timing information.
Requiring one sample per symbol, the error term is
computed using the following equation [4]

In military application, intentional interference is

dominant compared to unintentional interference.
Jamming caused by an enemy reduces the performance of
communication systems. In general, there are two types of
jamming which are wideband and narrowband jamming.
Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) could be used
to simulate wideband jamming. In this paper, the focus is
on code tracking algorithms that are used for DSSS
systems in the presence of AWGN.

en = (yn y n-1) - (yn y n-1)

(1)

where, yn is a sample from the current symbol and y n-1 is a

sample from the previous symbol.
Sensitive to carrier offsets; the carrier recovery process
has to be performed prior to the Mueller and Mueller
timing recovery process. Examples of the value for the
Mueller and Mueller error for the cases of different timing
offsets are shown in Fig.2 below.

3. CODE TRACKING ALGORITHMS

A. Early-Late Gate Algorithm
This algorithm exploits the symmetric shape of the output
given by the matched filter (MF). It requires at least three
samples per symbol, to efficiently generate the error
signal. The ideal sampling point for the output of a
matched filter is at T, which is the symbol period of the
symbol. This algorithm uses comparison of early samples
and late samples that are sampled over the output of a
matched filter with the ideal sampling point, and
generates an error signal. Early samples could be
supposed to be sampled at T-T, and late samples are
sampled at T+T, as it can be seen in the Fig. 1. Before
convergence of the timing recovery loop, both the early
and late samples might have different amplitudes, and this
difference could be used to identify the early and late
samples. After the timing recovery loop converges, the
correct sample used for later processing is clearly the
point which is right in the middle of early and late
samples, that is at T.

(a) Fast Timing

(b) Slow Timing

(c) Correct Timing

Figure 2. Conditions generating timing error[5]

C. Gardner Algorithm
The Gardner algorithm presents another practical
approach for timing recovery in synchronous digital
systems using phase modulations, such as Binary Phase
Shift Keying (BPSK) and Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
(QPSK). Two samples are needed for each symbol.
However, Gardners approach is not influenced by the
carrier recovery errors. On the other hand, it could be
used before carrier recovery, to facilitate the ease in
recovering the carrier of a signal. Error for the Gardner
algorithm is computed using the following equation [4]

Figure 1. Sampling in Early Late Gate Algorithm [3]

For a noisy signal, it is very difficult to identify the peak
of the signal, so the samples are present very often at
early and late positions. Even if the amplitude of both the
early and late samples is equal, their absolute values will
be smaller as compared to the absolute value of the peak
sample. Therefore, proper sampling time should be
calculated; this is eventually at the midpoint of T+T and
T-T.

en = (yn - yn-2) yn-1

578

(2)

where the spacing between yn and yn-2 is T seconds, and

the spacing between yn and yn-1 is T/2 seconds.

sub library, in of Signal Processing Blockset.

7) Phase/ Frequency Offset from RF impairment sub
library, in Communication Blockset.
8) AWGN Channel, from the channels, in
Communication Blockset.

6. SETTING PARAMETERS IN THE DSSS

MODEL

Timing is early

To set parameters in the convolutional code model, do the

following:
1) Double-click the random integer generator block and
make the following changes: Set M-ary number to 2.
Set sample time to 1/100.
2) Double-click the Walsh code generator block and
make the following changes to the default parameters
in the block's dialog: Set sample time to 1/400.
3) Raised cosine transmit filter make the changes: Set
Group delay to 4. Roll off factor (alpha) to 0.2.
4) AWGN Channel, in the Channels library. Set Mode
to Signal to noise ratio (SNR). Set SNR to 40, 30, 20
and 10.
5) Raised-Cosine receive filter: Set Group delay to 4.
Set Roll off factor to 0.2.
6) Early late gate timing recovery: Set sample per
symbol to 4.
7) Double-click the error rate calculation block and
make the following changes: Set receives delay to
2*4.

Timing is late

Figure 3. Sampling in Gardner Algorithm [5]

4. SYSTEM MODEL
The first step in modeling the system is building the
transceiver for the DSSS. The transceiver is modeled
using Matlab/Simulink. The model consists of a BPSK
transmitter, an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN)
channel, and a BPSK receiver.

7. SIMULATION RESULTS
Table 1. Early Late Gate Method Simulation Results
AWGN S/N Ratio
(dB)
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50

Figure 4. System Model of DSSS in Simulink

5. BUILDING THE DSSS MODEL

So as to build the simulation model in the Simulink
environment, drag the following blocks from the Simulink
Library Browser into the model window, and then
connect them as shown in the Fig. 4.
1) Random integer generator, from the data sources sub
library of communication sources library, in
Communication Blockset.
2) Baseband Binary Phase Shift Keying (BFSK)
Modulator and Demodulator, from Phase Modulation
(PM) in the Digital Baseband Modulation sub library
of the Modulation library, in Communication
Blockset.
3) Walsh code generator, from the sequence generators
sub library of communication sources library, in
Communication Blockset.
4) Product and Add, from the math operations sub
library of the Simulink library.
5) Raised Cosine Transmit Filter, from communication
filters sub library, in Communication Blockset.
6) Variable Fractional Delay from signal management

Bit Error Rate

(BER)
0.4257
0.277
0.1149
0.03547
0.0152
0.003378
zero
zero
zero
zero

Delay
Estimate
0.8682
0.3062
0.009275
3.83
3.744
3.706
3.685
3.674
3.668
3.664

Figure 5. The BER at different SNR for early late gate

methodunder the effect AWGN channels

579

Table 2. Muller-Muller Recovery Method Results

Bit Error Rate
Delay
AWGN S/N Ratio
Estimate
(dB)
(BER)
5
0.4324
0.07893
10
0.1774
3.717
15
0.08108
3.657
20
0.03716
3.666
25
zero
3.659
30
zero
3.662
35
zero
3.663
40
zero
3.663
45
zero
3.663
50
zero
3.664

CONCLUSION
A typical measure of the performance of a digital receiver
is its average Bit Error Probability (BEP), which is a
global measure of performance in the sense that it
incorporates the effects of all transmitter and receiver
stages. Those effects are such as synchronization,
modulation / demodulation, coding / decoding, spreading
/ despreading, channel distortion (like fading and additive
noise)
Alternatively, the simulationbased approach we have
talked about above is the Bit Error Ratio (BER) instead of
BEP, since these approaches are basically counting the
number of bit errors.
The main objective of this paper is to present and
compare the BER for different DSSS tracking methods in
the presence of white additive noise.
In the above results, the BER has been calculated for
direct sequence spread spectrum for different tracking
algorithms. It has been figured out that; the best method
to drive low error rate in case of low signal-to-noise ratio
channel is the Muller and Muller algorithm. It is
recommended that the timing recovery model for DSCDMA to be implemented in a DSP or an FPGA, so as to
compare the outcome with the simulation results obtained
above.

Figure 6. The relationship between SNR and BER for

Muller and Muller method under the effect AWGN channels
Table 3. Gardner timing recovery method Simulation
Results
AWGN S/N Ratio
Bit Error Rate
Delay
(dB)
(BER)
Estimate
5
0.4848
0.6701
10
0.3074
0.2714
15
0.1605
3.959
20
0.02872
3.816
25
0.001689
3.751
30
zero
3.716
35
zero
3.697
40
zero
3.687
45
zero
3.681
50
zero
3.678

REFERENCES
[1] R.Prasad,
CDMA
for
Wireless
Personal
Communications, Artech House Publishers, 1996.
[2] Fang-Biau Ueng, Jun-Da Chen, and Shang-Chun
Tsai, Adaptive DS-CDMA Receiver with Code
Tracking in Phase Unknown Environments, Student
Member, IEEE.
[3] John,G.Proakis, Digital Communications, Third
Edition,
McGRAW-HILL
INERNATIONAL
EDITIONS, Electrical Engineering Series, ISBN 007-113814-5.
[4] F.M.Gardner, A BPSK/QPSK Timing-Error Detector
for Sampled Receivers, IEEETransaction on
communications, Vol. Com-34, No. 5, May 1986.
[5] Louis Litwin, Matched Filtering and Timing
Recovery in Digital Receivers, www.rfdesign.com,
September 2001.

Figure 7. The relationship between SNR and BER for

Gardner method under the effect AWGN channels

580

TETRA SYSTEM PROPAGATION PREDICTION AND ITS COMPARASION

WITH MEASURED RESULTS
SIMA KEREEVI
University of Defence, Military Academy, Belgrade, Serbia, simakeresevic2@gmail.com
DANILO LAZOVI
University of Defence, Military Academy, Belgrade, Serbia, danilo.lazovic136@gmail.com
JOVAN BAJETI
University of Defence, Military Academy, Belgrade, Serbia, bajce05@yahoo.com

Abstract: This paper presents certain TETRA system parameter analysis and advantages of this radio communication
system within the area of public safety services exploitation. We conducted receiving signal measurement along the
high burdened road section from Belgrade to Lazarevac, monitoring the signal level originating from three surrounding
base stations. Conducted measurement scenario is simulated and analyzed in terms of propagation prediction using an
adequate software package. Results processing and analysis was done using the HTZ warfare software package. The
correlation between the measured values and the values obtained by propagation prediction is depicted in detail.
Keywords: TETRA, HTZ warfare, prediction, measure.
these software packages offer the opportunity for different
corrections to be made until the desired system is tested in
the laboratory. One such software that arose from the
need for accurate and precise planning is HTZ warfare
made by ATDI Company [1].

1. INTRODUCTION
For years, radio link represents a solution for flexible and
protected communication between users within units in
the field. Radio transmission allows instant
communication between two or more participants at the
same time. This feature allows immediate establishment
of communication, as well as the possibility of
participants to communicate in groups. This user
constellation enables security service radio using in
military, ambulance, firefighting units etc.

2. TETRA
The radio frequency spectrum is a limited natural resource
and its usage by all radio communication users worldwide
in the most effective and efficient manner is essential and
obligatory. Important event in this sense happened during
1995, when frequency range between 380 MHz and 400
MHz, which traditionally had being used by North
Atlantic Treaty (NATO) by that time, exclusively was
assigned for professional mobile radio systems (PMR)
usage designated for public services across Europe. This
has greatly facilitated the coordination of frequencies, so
that services all over Europe now can work on the same
frequencies in case of need, enabling active collaboration.
Technology synchronization was much more difficult task
that has been entrusted to Europe telecommunication
institute for standardization (ETSI).

However, communication needs of these services in last

twenty years are beyond the capabilities of a conventional
radio network, because of the fast and unpredictable
movement of people and goods between the countries as
well as increased application demand for a wider
broadband. In addition to having different communication
services in one country, there was a need for
communications between public services of two or more
countries. Especially, there is a need for interoperable and
standardized way of communication between units in the
field, as well as between different kinds of multinational
units and commands. As the result, the standardized
TETRA (Terrestrial Trunked Radio) system emerged.

ETSI has than developed a series of standard for PMR

(EN 300392) which is named Trans European or as he
later renamed Terrestrial Trunked Radio (TETRA) [2].

The requirement for a safe and precise radio signal

measurement has led to the development of various
software that enable designers to predict all the negative
impacts on radio propagation, prior to the
telecommunication system forming on certain areas. Also,

Goals that ETSI wanted to achieve by standard

developing were primarily:
defining PMR standards that will meet current and
581

future customer of professional radio across Europe

needs,

services possibility. Among them are:

Status messages;

creating the unification of scattered PMR markets in

one unique market that would harmonize the frequency
usage and to fulfill the requirements of European
governments regarding different services cooperation.

SDS short textual messages (similar to SMS messages

in mobile phone);

TETRA is the first system of new digital wireless technology

which provides both voice and data transmission. This
tranking system optimizes radio spectrum utilization and
reduces the usage cost of this resource. Essentially, TETRA
represents digital standard of professional radio systems, as
GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) represents
digital public cellular standard, and DECT (Digital Enhanced
Cordless Telephony) digital wireless standard. TETRA is an
opened standard for digital tranking systems mobile radio
links. OPENED means that it is standardized and so
without problems in one radio link one can use the
equipment from different manufacturers. TRANKING
system is the name for the special technique of assigning a
limited number of resources to a large number of users [3].

Basic technical TETRA system capabilities

TETRA standard for radiophone systems is developed for
the professional user needs who require the following
features:
group

situations,

with

HTZ WARFARE is a software dedicated to all kinds of

radio planning simulations. It is primarily used to
simulate, validate and analyses broadcast (FM, TV,
DVB), Point-to-Multipoint (LMDS, DECT), mobile
(GSM, Tetra) and Point-to-Point (LoS) networks. It
enables designing and optimization of military
communication networks in the frequency bands
beginning with several kHz up to 450 GHz. Unique
features
of
electronic
warfare
and
tactical
communications enable accurate simulation of the
battlefield during the process of advanced mission
planning. It contains a mapping database for the entire
world, including the layers of digital terrain models
(DTM), clutter (land covers) and topographic maps.
Electronic warfare module allows functions that
simulate jammers (including frequency hopping),
direction detectors, radar and eavesdropping devices.
These functions are fully standardized and integrated
with all the requirements of todays telecommunication
technologies (Trunking, PMR, TETRA, and WIFI).
Described utilities allow the users to safely perform
critical tasks.

calls,

Direct communication between terminals, without

traffic transport infrastructure;
Calls in emergency
microphone switch and

3. HTZ

Main HTZ warfare functions are:

Immediate establishment of a call (below one second);

Communication point-to-multipoint:
general calls ( voice broadcast);

Packet data switching and the channel switching (data

rate in TETRA standard is limited to approximately 12
kb/s). [4]

automatic

Spectrum management that allows automatic frequency

assigning and occupancy of the frequency spectrum
optimization. This module allows the reuse of frequencies
where possible, minimizing interference. It can be directly
integrated into the system transmitting range control,
license monitoring, electromagnetic compatibility
screening, international coordination planning, etc.

Individual and phone calls.

Standards defining TETRA system possess considerable
reliability of service delivery to the users, so it has
different modes in case of problems with infrastructure.
Among them are local tranking (independent
communication within a single base station) and direct
mode operation (communication without traffic transport
infrastructure).

Radio planning is the module that includes radio

network coverage analyzing, interference examination,
automatic frequency planning, spectrum allocation,
station management, network optimization, civil
technology, digital mapping and many other functions.

Security
One of the main advantages is that the TETRA system
support different levels of communication security. Basic
security features are:

During the design, it is possible to include many internet

servers within any of the project, and thus to enable a
large number of additional information required for
proper network simulation. Software package enables
moving trajectory simulation for any mobile device in
order to perform dynamic analysis. This includes land
vehicles, aircrafts and equipment for mobile jamming.
Paths can be entered directly to HTZ warfare, or
automatically entered in various vector formats based on
the GPS data, so that the measurement can be controlled
at every point of moving trajectory. HTZ warfare gives
detailed reports about dynamic analysis. Analysis of
results in HTZ warfare software can be showed in 2D or
3D. We used the 2D report at the end of our investigation,
like it was done in [5].

Authentication (mutual authentication between

individual mobile stations and infrastructure that those
stations are trying to connect to);
Encryption over radio- transmission between radio
station and base station ( Level 2-static keys and level
3-dinamic keys);
End-to-end encryption possibility ( E2E);
Ambiental listening and
Remote radio station disabling possibility (temporary
and permanent).
In addition, TETRA standard is offering the different
582

covering the area of 2826 km2 and which is presented on

Picture 2.

4. SIMULATION
Starting elements for the project development are 3D digital
terrain map (.geo file), topographical or geographical map in
digital format (.img file) and clutter file that involves the
information about the covers of the terrain (.sol file) [6]. In
our scenario simulation, as a recommendation that specifies
atmospheric signal propagation, we used ITU-ER P.1546.
This recommendation is designed for point to multipoint
prediction in a frequency range starting with 30 MHz, up to
3000 MHz and for distances ranging from 1 km to 1000 km.
For the deep analysis of TETRA system and its mobile units,
we exploited the defined parameters related to embedded
TETRA system. This system is defined in the framework of
the simulator and involves a specific range of radio system
frequencies from 380 MHz to 430 MHz. Defined radio
channel width was 25 kHz, transmitting antenna heights
were 24, 39 and 13 m, while the height of the receiver
antenna above the ground was defined with height of 1,5 m.
Table 1. Information about used stations
Power
Frequency
Frq. distance
Tx/Rx
Ch. bandwidth
Feed

Manual
1W
380-430
MHz

Transport
3W

Base
25 W
380-430 MHz
380-430 MHz
380-385 MHz

10 MHz

10 MHz

10 MHz

25 KHz
3,6V/1500
mAh

25 KHz

25 KHz

Picture 2. Geographical position of base stations

Parameters concerning the characteristics of the base and

mobile stations (frequency, output power, antenna gains),
as well as other parameters used in the simulation, were
defined specifically using the data for each equipment
uniquely. Basic system parameters used in the simulation
are given in the Table 1.
TETRA system used Sinclaire SC329 antenna, whose
vertical radiation diagram is presented on Picture 1.

Picture 1. Vertical radiation diagram in 3D and 2D

Picture 3. Section of the road and graphicly presented

level of the receiving signal

The traffic pattern considering the voice and data

communication through the system, as well as radio
channel capabilities were entered so that the analyzed
simulated system was in the manner of starting
prerequisites very close to real TETRA model.

Additional system weakening input was defined through

clutter category. Clutters are pre-calculated attenuation
categories for the particular geographic terrain features
(forests, mountains, low vegetation, etc.). Simulator used
the fetched data obtained from the GPS receiver
coordinate set obtained during the measurement and
thereby, path simulated in HTZ is absolutely identical
with path from experiment (Picture 3). The receiving

Simulation set of the conditions were set to replicate

experimental measurement scenario conducted in the field
in real time. Three BSs were placed at the real position
coordinates, covering circular area of 30 km and together
583

signal level was as the result analyzed, aiming the time

and location of points at which handover (switching from
one BS jurisdiction to another one) between BS occurs.
For the exact scenario simulation, it is very important to
set the conditions that were present during the
measurement, as much as possible. In addition to the
system parameters, impact on the prediction of the vehicle
speed and weather conditions was calculated, too.

The measurement was conducted along the main road in

which surrounding, during last few years, a lot of
buildings were built. By monitoring the signal level, we
were able to see when and at which geographical position
the handover occurs. Differences between level of the
measured signal and signal level prediction are presented
on Picture 5. The used simulation model included only
three dominant base stations, while the measuring
included signals from a few other BSs, which were not
taken into account in the simulation. Under these
conditions, the calculated Pearson correlation between
measured and simulated signal level was 0,915 which
indicate strong receiving variation similarity.

5. MEASUREMENTS
The measurement was performed along the section of the
Ibar highway from Vidikovac to Lazarevac, the greatly
traffic loaded road throughout the year. It was possible in
real time to screen the actual physical layer TETRA
system capabilities. Conducted measurement was realized
with Tektronix Spectrum Analyzer SA 2600, which was
programmed to measure the level of receiving signal
every 10 seconds, equidistantly. Spectrum analyzer was
performing measuring from the moving vehicle which
was travelling with the speed of 70 km/h, wherever it was
possible along the section of a road. The area which the
vehicle was traveling through is predominantly hilly,
covered with trees and low vegetation.

A considerable disagreement between measurements and

predicted values was influenced by unequal real speed of
the vehicle and the simulated speed. The velocity of the
simulated mobile station was 70 km/h, while on the other
hand, the real speed over ground of the receiver mounted
vehicle was adapted according the traffic and road
conditions.

Also, for measuring was used mobile station Motorola MTH

800 whose characteristics are given in Table 1. MTH 800
provided us with BS ID numbers, whose signal level was
measured during the movement. Tektronix Spectrum
Analyzer SA 2600 has integrated GPS receiver that was
every 1 second measuring position of the moving vehicle.
For analysis was used total of 1625 geographic points in
which the level of receiving signal was measured and
which are located along the selected section of the road.
The correlation of measured values with the values
obtained by propagation prediction, processing, analysis
and presentation of the results was done with the HTZ
warfare and SigmaPlot program package [7].

5. CONCLUSION

Picture 5. Difference between measured and predicted

values of receiving signal level

During the correlation between measured level of receiving

signal and signal level prediction, a considerable
disagreement was noticed, as expected (Picture 4).

REFERENCES
[1] D.Lazovi, S.Kereevi, J.Bajeti, B.Pavlovi:
Simulation and measurement of certain parameters of
the TETRA system radio component, ETRAN 2014.
[2] M.Vratonji:
TETRA-European
standard
in
professional radio communications-step towards
more efficient and better working public safety,
Magazine Telekomunikacije number 5
[3] .Kujavi, M.uperina, F.Magui: Development of
information system of radio communication with the
police - a digital radio communication system
TETRA, Zagreb, Croatia, 2011.
[4] M.Lazarevi: Organization system in the state union
of Serbia and Montenegro, Belgrade, Serbia, 2006.
[5] Available at www.atdi.com
[6] J.Bajeti, M.Petrovi, V.Sua: Temporary WiMAX
network for emergency use conditions, YUINFO 2012.
[7] D.Pijevevi, Z.Milievi, B.Jovi: Methodology of
modern radio communication systems testing, OTEH
2009.

Picture 4. Measured and predicted values of receiving

signal level
584

MULTIBEAM RECEIVING ANTENNA AT THE MISSILE LATERAL

STRUCTURE
ZORAN GOLUBII
Peripolis elektronika, Belgrade, Serbia, golubicic.zoran@gmail.com
SLOBODAN SIMI
Military Academy, Belgrade, Serbia, simasimic01@gmail.com
ALEKSA J. ZEJAK
RT-RK Computer based systems, Novi Sad, Serbia, aleksa.zejak@rt-rk.com
Abstract:In this paper linear array antenna mounted along the missile body is presented. Linear array consists of patch
type radiating elements. Antenna is able to operate at lower frequency (L or S band) and could be compatible with long
range acquisition radars. Dimensions of linear antenna array are not related with missile diameter and linear array
could be position at the missile with small diameter. Linear array, collinear with antenna body forms many
simultaneous beams, narrow in the planes collinear to missile and wide in the plane orthogonal to missile. Depending
of element phasing, radiation pattern could be formed in the form of different conical shapes with apex at the missile
longitudinal axes. It means that array simultaneously receive signals from almost full sphere. Array has maximum gain
at the plane orthogonal to missile and it can be decreased four dB at the cone angle of 70 degree.
Keywords: Multibeam, Linear array, FPGA, Multistatic Radar.
signals reflected from the targets in the wide angular
range and can help the missiles to find the target.

1. INTRODUCTION
Missile antenna is usually accommodated inside the
missile head. This antenna could be only receiving
antenna or transmitting and receiving antenna depending
of the guidance (semi-active or active) method. In the
both cases missile receiver receives the signals reflected
from the target and according received data guides missile
toward the target. Usually few missiles are lunched
simultaneously and all of them receive and process signal
independently. In order to increase the hit probability,
exchange of information between missiles and
measurement of distances between them could be useful.
For that purposes additional antennas at the missile body
should be positioned. These antennas can receive the

2. ANTENNA ARCHITECTURE
Antenna accommodated at the missile side and intended for
target detection could be designed as linear antenna array.
Low profile radiating elements should be applied. All of
them are connected to Rx (receiving) elements and
controlled by one processing circuit. All beams are formed
inside the FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) circuit.
Antenna architecture is presented at picure 1. Four antennas
could be placed at four missile side in order to receive
signals in full sphere. Position of additional antennas at
missile body is presented at picture2.

Picture 1: Architecture of multibeam phase array antenna

585

modification could be applied for operation band

spreading [1]. Model of the patch applied in the
simulation is presented at picture 3. As the starting point,
in-phase excitation is applied and obtained radiation
patterns are presented at the picture 4 (axes Y is axes of
missile body).
Antenna gain decreases slowly as the beam steer toward
the missile axes. At the angle of 230 gain is decreased
only 0.7dB. Radiation pattern is presented at picture 5.
Gain reduction of 3dB is obtained at beam position 600
inclined respectively to orthogonal axes of the missile.
Radiation pattern for that case is presented at picture 6.
2D radiation pattern in conical (constant ) cut is
presented at the picture 7.

Picture 2: Antenna position at the missile body

3. RADIATION PATTERN
Antenna is design as multibeam antenna in Rx mode.
Length of the antenna could be in order of few meters and
linear antenna array can achieve high gain at lower
frequencies (in surveillance radar bands). Simulation of
the antenna radiation pattern is performed at the mobile
frequency band because high power wideband transmitter
is available for the performance testing. Although patch
element is known as narrowband radiating element, some

Picture 3: Patch model applied in simulation

Picture 4: 3D and 2D radiation pattern with in- phase patch excitation

586

Picture 5: 3D and 2D radiation pattern in the case when beam is inclined 23 degree

Picture 6: 3D and 2D radiation pattern in the case when beam is inclined 60 degree
587

Picture 7: 2D radiation pattern in the cone of 60 degree

Picture 8: 3D and 2D radiation pattern of the antenna operating in the end-fire regimes
In the case that sufficient phase offsets between radiating
elements are applied antenna can start to operate in the
end-fire regimes. But in that case gain is decrease 8dB
and antenna operates as linearly polarized antenna. In the

case that four antennas are accommodated at the missile

body circular polarization could be obtained by the
orthogonal phase excitation.
588

In order to obtain high gain in end-fire mode, structure of

the radiating element should be modified. This could be
done by increased distance between patch and ground
plane. Useful bandwidth in that case is only few
megahertz. Radiation pattern is presented at picture 8.

established. For that purpose missile has to continuously

measure distance to the transmitter and to detect transmit
pulse. Knowing these values missile receiver can measure
sum of the distances between transmitter and target and
target and receiver. As a transmitter wideband ground base
radar could be applied. Knowing the distance between target
and ground base radar, system can measure the distance
between target and missile. Distances between missiles could
be measured directly by active responses to wideband PN
(pseudo noise) sequences.

Because end-fire configuration requires significant space

between missile surface (antenna patch) and antenna
ground this structure is not suitable for incorporation in
the real missile.

4. RX SUBSYSTEM

5. APPLICATION

Rx subsystem consists of analogue and digital part.

Analogue part is standard wideband RF receiver. High
dynamic range of low noise amplifier is important in
order to protect receiver function from jamming signals.

In order to exploit advantage of low frequency radar

(insensitivity to stealth technology, price and availability of
low frequency components, and to avoid low angular
resolution), multi-static radar architecture could be applied
for missile guidance process. Principle of multi-static radar is
based on triangulation process [3]. Target position accuracy
depends of the radar range resolution, not of the antenna
beam-width. Range between target and three reference points
is measured. As one or two reference positions, positions of
low frequency surveillance radars with the operational
ranges of few hundreds of kilometers (significantly far from
the anti-radar missile launcher) could be used. In order to
obtain accurate target position third (or second and third)
reference point should be position almost below (or over) the
target. Possible positions are presented at the next picture.

More complex part of the receiver is digital beam forming

part. Principles of digital beam former are presented at
[2]. Receiver will form 60 simultaneous beams with 20
angular distances between them. Main component of
digital beam forming part is FPGA circuit. Signals from
antenna analogue RF (radio frequency) parts are
digitalized by AD (analog to digital) converters and
samples are fed to FPGA. In order to provide high range
resolution with the moderate price elements, sample rate
up to 80Msample/s (12-bit resolution) could be applied.
Beams are formed multiplying all samples with 60
complex coefficients corresponding to 60 beams.
Maximum frequency of multiplication could be 400MHz.
It means that five beams could be formed by one complex
multiplayer i.e. 12 complex multiplayer per receiving
element should be employed. 24 elements required 288
complex multiplyers. Because one complex multiplier, for
multiplying 12 bit numbers, requires three 18-bit
multipliers required number of 18-bit multiplayers is 864
what is reliable number for medium power FPGA circuits.
After multiplication, I and Q components belonging to
one beam are summed and 60 complex samples
(corresponding to 60 beams) are obtained. 12 complex (I
and Q) streams are obtained, containing sequences of 5
samples corresponding to five beams.

Wideband radar (illuminator) transmitter should be

applied. Depending of transmitter power, length of PN
sequence could be selected. For that purpose high power
ground base radar with linear amplifier should be applied.
Radar employing TWT (Traveling Wave Tube),
Twystron, CFA (Crossed Field Amplifier) or Amplitrom
are good candidate for this application. High detection
range of these radars is obtained not only by high
transmitted power but also by the long transmitter pulse.
It increase energy reflected from target but decrease radar
range resolution. Range resolution can be increased
modulating transmitted pulse and spreading signal
bandwidth. Signals transmitted by radar are received by
reference missile receiver operating with low gain (omnidirectional) antenna. Active response is sent to radar for
distance measurement. Missile processor can synchronize
sampling clock with the radar pulse transmission. Signal
reflected from the target should be received by linear
antenna array and sum of distances between radar to
target and target to missile is known. Two reference
missiles measure distance between them synchronizing
PN sequences in radio signals. Low gain antenna could be
used for that purpose. Radio commanded missile can
apply the same principle to measure distances to the
reference antennas and radar. Knowing all distances
position of radio command guided missile and target are
known with the high spatial resolution. In the model,
signal bandwidth of 30MHz are applied i.e. range
resolution of 5m is obtained. Because reference system
(radar and two reference missiles) is not always
orthogonally positioned relative to the target and radio
command guided missile, real resolution could be
degraded up to 15m. System could be applied to guide
few missiles simultaneously.

12 streams are fed to 12 multichannel RAM(random access

memory)-based FIR(finite impulse response) filters. One
FIR filters operates as a compressor device for five beams.
Output samples correspond to radar range gates.
Samples from compressor are stored in external memory.
Required memory depends of range gate number and
signal integration time. Usually memory of hundred
megabits is enough. This memory could be realized as
static RAM memory. Static RAM require simple interface
for memory management and limited resources from
FPGA circuit are occupied.
Stored data could be read by the following FPGA processor
containing twelve 5-channel FFT (fast Fourier transformation) processors. Outputs from all processors are matrix
of data corresponding to range gates and Doppler frequencies. These data are processed by CFAR (Constant False
Alarm Rate) processor and possible targets are detected.
In order to measure distance between target and missile,
synchronism between transmitter and receiver has to be
589

Picture 9: Reference system for missile guidance based on multibeam antennas at reference missiles
Taking into account real values of radar and missile
receiver performances, possible range of missile operation
could be estimated. Typical value of S-band surveillance
radar detection range is 300km with antenna gain between
30dBi and 40dBi. Typical pulse duration is 1us. Antenna
at missile body has 10dBi to 20dBi gain i.e. 20dBi less
than radar. Assumption is that sensitivity of the missile
receiver is the same as the radar receiver (in reality it
should be better because missile receiver has no T/R
(transmit/receive) element, protectors, etc). According the
bistatic radar equation S/N (signal to noise) ratio at the
decision point could be present as

(S N ) =

2
PG
t t Gy

( 4 ) Rtx2 tg Rtg2 rx kTBF

2

6. CONCLUSION
Multibeam antenna positioned at missile body and
collinear with missile axes can receive signals in wide
spatial angle. Because antenna operates at low
frequencies, price of receiver is low and availability of
component is not limited. Power consumption is low
because it is only receiver antenna. Missiles equipped
with this antenna could be applied as reference point in
multistatic radar system. Calculation of target position is
based on triangulation method i.e. high spatial resolution
of radar could be obtain in spite of low frequency
operation.

(1)

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was partly supported by the Ministry of
Educationand Science of the Republic of Serbia under the
Project TR-32041,year 2014.

It can be compared with monostatic radar equation.

(S N ) =

2 2
PG

t
2 4

R
4
( ) kTBF

(2)

REFERENCES
[1] Girish Kumar, K.P.Ray, Broadband Microstrip
Antenna, Artech House, 2002.
[2] Golubicic,Z., Simic,S., Zejak,A.: Pedestrian Radar
with one dimensional electronic beam steering,
OTEH 2012, Belgrade, Serbia, 18-19 September
2012
[3] N.J.Willis, Bistatic Radar, London, Artech house,
October 1995.

It is clear that (S/N) ratio in bi-static receiver could be

maintain as in the monostatic only if the quadratic value
of distance and receiver antenna gain had constant ratio.
For example, if the receiver antenna gain is 20dB lower
than transmitter antenna gain, distance between receiver
and target has to be 1/10th part of distance between
transmitter and target. In the case that radar transmitter is
300km far from the target missile receiver can receive
reflected signal when it is 30km near the target.

590

AN FPGA BASED GENERIC PLATFORM FOR ETHERNET

COMMUNICATION PROCESSING UP TO 10G
SAA VUKOSAVLJEV
RT-RK Computer Based Systems LLC, Novi Sad, Sasa.Vukosavljev@rt-rk.com
BORIS RADIN
Faculty of Technical Sciences at University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Boris.Radin@rt-rk.com
VLADIMIR MARINKOVI
Faculty of Technical Sciences at University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Vladimir.Marinkovic@rt-rk.com

Abstract: Improvements in logic density and achievable clock frequencies for FPGAs have dramatically increased the
applicability in arena of high performance computer communication. Considering high-speed and popularity of
Ethernet communication, developing a reliable real-time Ethernet processing platform is of special value. In this paper,
an FPGA generic platform for Ethernet communication processing is presented. The concept is proposed after analysis
of temporal and functional requirements. It involves a generic architecture using programmable hardware design, soft
processors and modular software approach. As main result, high speed Ethernet platform is developed for real time
data processing on the link of 10 Mbit/s, 100 Mbit/s, 1 Gbit/s or 10 Gbit/s speed with low latency and minimal
throughput degradation. The presented approach offers a convenient/flexible platform for educational base and further
development focused on specific areas such as: link aggregation, network traffic profiling, packet filtering and secure
communication.
Keywords: FPGA, Ethernet, 10 GbE, soft processor, packet processing.
to 10 Gbit/s range with full access to physical
implementation of Ethernet standard and full control over
data being transferred.

1. INTRODUCTION
More than 30 years have passed since DEC, Intel and
Xerox announced their (DIX) standard for 10Mb/s
Ethernet systems. In the meantime Ethernet has become
the most widely used physical layer local area network
(LAN) technology. This success could be assigned to
wide computer-market acceptance, the ability to support
the majority of network protocols, and scalability.

The paper is structured as follows. Short related work is

given in Section 2. Problem definition and description of
the proposed approach is given in section 3. Section 4
describes an implementation of Ethernet processing
platform based on FPGA. The case study with short
overview of environment used for testing described
solution is given in Section 5. Test case, results with
resource utilization and closing conclusion are given in
Section 6 and 7 the conclusion is drawn.

From the beginning, Ethernet was well established through

IEEE 802.3 series of standards [1] which evolved along with
rapid technological development. These standards are part of
global IEEE 802 standard covering local area networks
(LAN) and metropolitan area networks (MAN) [2]. Part of
the IEEE 802 standard covers wireless networks too, but
most of the traffic still uses copper cables and optical fibers
as physical transmission medium according to IEEE 802.3.
Therefore importance of Ethernet is immeasurable and worth
every effort on the way down the ladders of OSI reference
model.

2. RELATED WORK AND MOTIVATION

Improvements in logic density and achievable clock
frequencies for FPGAs have dramatically increased the
applicability in arena of high performance computer
communication. Todays FPGA community like Open
cores [3], and computer networking community
continually grow regarding computer technology progress
and popularization like Stanford University NETFPGA
project, [4]. Also, the number of published papers at
conferences and journals are steadily increasing.

RT-RK Computer Based Systems has grown from

University of Novi Sad, Department of computer
technology and computer communications, and follows
it's almost 3 decades long tradition in delivering courses
in digital (logic) design. Therefore it was natural for
authors to approach the task using FPGA technology and
design a platform that provides connectivity in 10Mbit/s

NetFPGA platforms are designed for rapid prototyping of

computer network devices in the first place for education
591

purpose. FPGA based platforms are multiport and speed

oriented one for 1G and another for 10G. Furthermore,
other platforms have been used to implement some of the
functionality that is provided by the NetFPGA platform.
Similar to the NetFPGA, the RiceNIC utilized a Virtex2Pro FPGA to implement the function of a network
interface card [5]. Modules on the Field Programmable
Port Extender (FPX) platform have also been used in the
classroom to implement Internet routing functions [6] [7].

4. IMPLEMENTATION
This section includes HW, FPGA, and SW implementation details related to Ethernet processing platform.

4.1. Physical architecture

Board was designed around Xilinx Virtex-6
XC6VLX240T FPGA in 1759 BGA package. This device
provides sufficient pool of standard resources including:
logic, internal connectivity (routing), memory (distributed
and block RAM) and external connectivity. However, it
contains additional features with 4 embedded MAC units
being the most relevant for this application, picture 1.

Gigabit Ethernet applications which require line-rate

processing for all frame sizes require hardware
implementation [8]. Design is used for DAQ data
collection protocol on Large Hadron Collider in CERNs
accelerator complex.
Another packet inspection and processing system
implemented on an FPGA is described in [9, 10].
Presented system uses an FPGA as an accelerator which
analysis each packet passing through the FPGA and
determines a course of action for each packet, forward the
packet, drop the packet or pass the packet for inspection.
Taking in to account all mentioned above, FPGA based
Ethernet processing have become more and more
attractive for academia, science exploration, industry and
military application.

Picture 1. IEEE 802.3 vs OSI reference model

3. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

MAC (Media Access Controller) provides functions of

MAC sub-layer that acts as an interface between the
logical link control (LLC) sub-layer and the network's
physical layer. Its main tasks are frame delimiting and
recognition, addressing, transparent data transfer,
protection against errors, and control of access to the
physical transmission medium. Data is transmitted and
received in form of frames having predefined structure,
picture 2.

Considering high-speed and popularity of Ethernet

communication, developing a reliable real-time Ethernet
processing platform is of special value. The fundamental
guiding principles used in design process are:
A. Communication interface and data centric design
approach with maximal platform programmability
and reconfiguration. Processing platform has to
deliver different micro-architectures to different
domains, indeed to different applications.
B. Programmable Hardware - Gigabit Ethernet applications which require line-rate processing for all frame
sizes require hardware implementation. In the case of
high data rates, possible and natural solution is use of
Field
Programmable
Gate
Array
(FPGA)
architecture, like in [5 to 10] where authors described
implementations for different purposes. FPGA
provides a full parallelism and implementation of
complicated high speed operations.
C. Software co-design responsible for flexible and easy
data control flow, device configuration and system
management.
Embedded
processors
become
processing platform system assistants. In that
manner, processors are responding to events at their
interfaces or data to provide programmed algorithmic
support to the processing system.
D. Support
standard
interfaces
for
Ethernet
communication data flow: pair of optical/wire
interfaces up to 1 Gb and pair of optical 10 Gb.
Platform must be able for local and remote system
management.
E. Single board design and standalone solution.
Possibility for HW/SW extension.

Picture 2. IEEE 802.3 standard frame format

MACs embedded in Virtex-6, [11], devices support
transfer rates up to 1Gbit/s so 2 were allocated for copper
cable connection and remaining 2 for optical fiber
connection. In the first case FPGA implementation took
the form shown in picture 3 with MAC core enclosed in a
wrapper module with added FIFO memory and
input/output buffers (IOBs). External PHY device
(Marvel 88E1111) and RJ45 connector with integrated
magnetic were added to complete the interface.
592

Picture 6. 10Gbit/s optical interface

LogiCORE IP 10-Gigabit Ethernet MACs are IP soft-cores,
[12], designed by Xilinx and distributed as software (library).
Contrary to embedded 1G MACs which are custom-made
and hard-wired, these cores are synthesizable and use
distributed FPGA logic resources and flip-flops for
implementation. Wide data paths to user logic (FIFOs) were
required to lower operating frequency to an acceptable level.
In this case, 64 bits were used to achieve 156.25 MHz
(64*156.25 MHz = 10 GHz, picture 7), which is very
suitable for several reasons (FPGA, external QDRII
memories etc.).

Picture 3. 1 Gbit/s copper cable interface

Optical fiber connection was realized according to picture
4 with external SFP optical transceivers directly
connected to FPGA.

Communication between 10 G MAC and 10 G PHY uses

4 differential lanes in both directions as shown in picture
6. This interface is called XAUI and utilizes embedded
gigabit serializers in place of user logic block, picture 7.
Net throughput of 10Gbit/s is split in 4, but each
differential lane carries effectively 3.125 Gbit/s (2.5
Gbit/s data + 8 B/10 B encoding overhead). This
approach turned to be very effective interface is self
clocked, performs link initialization and synchronization,
packet delimiting, lane-to-lane deskewing and clock
compensation. Lanes can be easily routed across PCB
using 50 (100 diff.) lines providing at least 15" reach
on common FR4 boards.

Picture 4. 1 Gbit/s optical fiber interface

This type of connection is possible since embedded
Ethernet cores provide necessary physical coding sublayer (PCS) and physical media attachment (PMA)
functions, picture 1. In this case IOBs were replaced with
high-speed serial transceivers that are also embedded
within FPGA. Two differential lines were used for
interconnection - one for transmitted data (TXP/TXN)
and one for received data (RXP/RXN), with 1.25Gbit/s
data rate each (1 Gbit/s data + 8 B/10 B encoding
overhead).
Embedded MACs have very complex internal structure
with most of their functions accessible via dedicated flow
control interface, picture 5. This type of control was the
main reason for choosing FPGA as core component on
the board.

Picture 5. Embedded MAC functional block diagram

10Gbit/s optical interface requires 10G MAC and
corresponding PHY, picture 6. In this case Xilinx
LogiCORE IP 10-Gigabit Ethernet MAC was used,
together with external 10-Gigabit PHY chip AEL2005
and SFP+ optical transceiver. This configuration proved
very effective and uses minimum number of external
components and board wires.

Picture 7. Physical architecture of the board

593

10 G PHY AEL2005 acts as a bridge between XAUI

interface and SFI interface, picture 6. The later is
implemented over two differential lines having data
throughput of 10.3125 Gbit/s each (10 Gbps data + 64
B/66 B encoding overhead). It contains EDC (Electronic
Dispersion Compensation) circuitry in receive path and
TX preemphasis circuitry in transmit path in order to
compensate for signal loss and distortion, picture 8. On
physical level, SFI interface, [13], uses differential CML
(Current Mode Logic) drivers and receivers, and requires
carefully layed-out 50 differential lines.

devices with 2.5V 5V voltage range are acceptable.

Data bus is 64-bit, with addition of 16-bit address bus and
versatile control signal.
A simple front panel interface is included for indication
and simple control purposes. It connects several LEDs
and pushbuttons to FPGA.
The design of power supply unit is extremely important
for a system of this size and complexity. It consists of a
number of DC/DC modules with large number of
decoupling capacitor, several LDO regulators and 2
current measurement modules. Different voltage levels
are required, for instance, FPGA alone uses 5 voltage
levels (1.0V for core, 1.0V/1.2V for multigigabit serial
transceivers and 1.5V/2.5V for IO and auxiliary supply).
For the sake of component unification, it was decided to
use 5V input voltage, so for all power converters could be
used only one type of DC/DC converter module
LTM4616. This module contains 2 converters with output
current of 8A each. One module with converters running
in parallel was used to supply FPGA core at 1.0V/16A.
Four additional modules were used to generate 8
additional voltage levels.

Physical architecture of the board is shown on picture 7,

with Ethernet interfaces located right to FPGA. Several
part, however, require further explanations.
Two QDRII memories (CY7C1314KV18, 512k*36) are
used as external transmit/receive FIFOs and DPMs (Dual
Port Memories) for 10G. These synchronous pipelined
SRAMs employ independent read and write ports with
DDR (Double Data Rate) interface. Internal architecture
is two-word burst so each access is performed on 2
consecutive CLK edges (rising and falling) with two
words (2*36 bits) being transferred per single CLK cycle.
Address bus, too, operates on DDR principals with read
address being stored on rising edge and write address on
falling edge of CLK. With CLK frequency of 156.25
MHz, each QDRII memory can thus sustain full 10G data
transfer in both directions. Of course, both QDRII
memories are fully independent providing total
throughput of 40Gbit/s. This greatly extends internal
memory resources of FPGA.

For voltage supervision and control a dedicated 8-channel

Power System Manager LTC2978A was used. This
device is programmable over PMBus, a dedicated serial
interface, and is used to: sequence, trim, margin,
supervise, manage faults, provide telemetry and create
fault logs.
There are 2 current measurement circuits based on 1m
current sensing resistors and proprietary analog circuitry
with dual operational amplifier. These circuits provide I/V
conversion and level translation so that FPGA can
measure input board and its core current.

Additionally, a DDR3 SO-DIMM socket was mounted on

board in order to increase overall memory capacity.
Corresponding DDR3 memory controller was generated
by IP soft-core. Proper operation was verified with
Micron modules running with 400MHz clock rate.

Several voltage levels were generated using LDO

regulators in cases where low noise was essential (DDR3
termination and reference voltage) or load current was
rather low. Large number of SMD decoupling capacitors
was used, including 220uF polymer electrolytics and
multilayer ceramic capacitor (47uF/2.2uF/0.1uF/4n7).
Ceramic capacitors were used in ratio approx. 22:1 in
order to provide low impedance in wide frequency range.
Routing was performed manually on 12-layer FR4 board.
Signal integrity was verified by extensive simulation of
all critical nets.

Large Virtex-6 FPGA with its banks allocated to different

interfaces requires substantial number of CLK signals to
support proper operation. The most critical instances are:
125MHz Ethernet clock for 1G interfaces generated by
ICS843021 low phase noise PLL multiplier and
LVPECL driver,
156.25MHz Ethernet clock for 10G interfaces generated
by ultra low jitter crystal oscillator Si536 and
distributed by 2/8 LVPECL driver CDCLVP1208,
two auxiliary oscillators with adjustable frequency (20600 MHz) generated by ICS843001-21 LVPECL
frequency synthesizer, and
200MHz fixed frequency auxiliary oscillator generated
by SiT9102 LVPECL oscillator.

4.2. FPGA implementation

The FPGA high level block structure is given on the
Picture 8. Top level design includes communications,
processing and system units. In following sections will be
described structure and responsibilities of major units.

FPGA configuration can be done in two ways. A BPI

256Mbit FLASH device, can be used, or alternatively
platform FLASH from Xilinx. Provision for external
JTAG programmer is also provided.

A. Communication units
Send and receive packets via standard Ethernet interfaces
(RJ45, SFP and SFP+) are provided by communication
unit. The Ethernet communication MAC blocks consists
physical interface IF, 1Gb or 10Gb MAC-s, and TX/RX
FIFO module. Appropriate physical interface logic is
provided, which connects the physical interface (SGMII,
GMII, 1000 base) of the Ethernet MAC block to the I/O of
the FPGA. Communication core is MAC. For 1Gb is used

Two USB interfaces are located on board one for highspeed data transfer based on 8-bit USB to parallel FIFO,
and the the other based on USB to UART bridge.
A wide, 200-pin connector is provided for external
controller board connection. Due to low-voltage operation
of FPGA, appropriate voltage translators were mounted so
594

embedded Tri-mode MAC unit, and soft core is used for

10Gb. General MAC core information is described in
physical architecture section 4.1. Speed, duplex, flow
controls are major MAC parameters which can be
configured via host interface. MAC control unit is bridge
between processor and MAC Host interface. Transmit and
receive FIFO is built around a dual port block RAM. FIFO
components implement a Local Link user interface [14],
through which the frame data can be read and written.

packets from input communication side are delivered to

processing unit. Processed packets are forward to output
communication side. Same process is observed on TX
data path in opposite direction. Data path muxers, data
path memory, RX packet processor, and TX packet
assembler are some subunits of processing block. Packet
processing unit use pipelines technique which enables
higher throughput and minimal latency. To achieve
optimal performance of a pipeline, the amount of
combinatorial logic between registered stages has to be
balanced.

B. Processing units
Packet processing unit is fitted between input and output
communications blocks. If we look RX data path, raw

Picture 8. FPGA top level structure

C. System unit
Event and data control is done by system management
unit which contain processor and appropriate peripherals.
Core of system unit is MicroBlaze soft-processor that is
implemented using FPGA logic resources. It has a 32-bit
RISC architecture with an instruction set optimized for
embedded applications. For instruction and data memory
is reserved BRAM resources. Peripherals ecosystem is
made around processor. GPIO, I2C, DDR3 controller,
WDT and timer units, system monitor and proprietary
specific unit are some of used peripherals.

4.3. SW structure
Processing platform software framework has a modular
structure. The modules are clearly separated, by features
and responsibilities. Higher-levels relays on low-level
functions. SW framework was designed around Xilinx
MicroBlaze soft processor. Overview of the general
software structure is given on the picture 9.

Picture 9. Software architecture.

595

A. Device abstraction layer

For functional testing Wireshark network packet analyzer

and Colasoft packet builder is used, [15]. Test system
generates the data and captures the return data to analyze.
Two functional tests are performed. In first, DUT is
configured for transparent communication - between in
and out line ports for RJ45 and SFP interfaces. In second
test is performed source and destination address
swapping to present minimal packet processing. No error
occurs during long-time testing. For performance testing
we use transparent communication setup. Long term
burst communication and RFC2544 performance test
[16], is done with MTT Sunrise BERT meter, [17].
Performed tests have proved that in transparent
communication: throughput and line rate is without
noticeable degradations, latency is very low, no bit or
CRC error, no detected packet loss in observed period.

The DAL, lowest-basic level is the system software that

handles hardware devices like memory, processor
peripherals, and sensors. The system software makes
possible to initialize, configure, run the devices, and to
read their values. Every device is modeled with an
appropriate software object having adequate attributes and
methods.
B. System configuration and safety routines
Program loading, CPU and interrupts initialization is
finished by basic system configuration procedure. On the
other side responsibility of safety routines is to retain
system integrity. They are implemented at the next, higher
level. The safety routines stop and restart the system in
detected dangerous situations. They are implemented at
level close to hardware because of the response time. The
most critical situations, for example: application context
memory overwriting, uninitialized/incorrect device, and
temperature/voltage issues. The routines must react very
quickly with appropriate procedure otherwise the system
could freeze or fall down. The system monitor routines
are simple algorithms, relying on comparison with some
pre-calculated thresholds.

6. CONCLUSION
In this paper is described an approach of generic Ethernet
processing platform based on FPGA. Instead of building
custom platforms for each application we presented the
system and communication/processing architecture that is
general enough to cover most of the use cases and
configurations. The described concept allows easy system
extension with new processing modules, simple
configuration and implementation of advanced features.
Due its modular hardware/software structure, either high
or low-level algorithms/methods can be easily integrated
into existing framework. On the other side hardware can
be extended with new specific devices. Test case results
suggest that the proposed architecture satisfy functional
requirements, with low latency and minimal throughput
degradation.

C. Middle layer
Platform management is provided via separate
communication interface/port. For this purpose is used
some standard or proprietary made protocol stack. Some
duties of this level are: auto negotiation process, speed
and duplex setup, pause packet request, and loop mode.
Also, send and receive packet via processing
communication channel are included after established
link.

Looking ahead, there are three aspects of the platform we

would like to investigate further. First, we would like to
look for specific applications that can benefit from the
proposed FPGA based platform and cannot migrate to
traditional DSP or CPU computing solutions. These
include areas such as network encryption, trusted cloud
computing e.g. Second, there are advantages of migrating
from our current Ethernet processing platform based on
single FPGA device, to a more application flexible and
scalable one, where processing unit can be put in to
separate FPGA. Third, add HW/SW option for time and
phase synchronization via PTP protocol as defined in
standard 1588v2, [18]. Finally, the presented approach
offer convenient and flexible platform for further
development focused on specific areas. Also, platform
can be used for improvement and comparison of wide
variety of packet processing algorithms and specific
network managements.

D. Application
The
application
program
is
responsible
for
implementation of specific functions. Also, it acts as a top
management server, which accepts incoming connections
from local or remote control software via management
channel. Once a management connection is created the
application accepts commands and periodically sends the
status from/to the remote side. The commands sent to the
platform are related to the: FSM status and control (start,
pause and stop process), MAC configuration, SFP
transceivers and processing module configuration.

5. TEST CASE AND RESULTS

The design has been implemented on Xilinxs Virtex-6
VLX240 FPGA. Implementation summary:
Board dimension 16cm x 23cm, 12 layers PCB, 1800+
components, FPGA with 1759 balls

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

MicroBlaze soft processor and supporting peripheral

ecosystem use 30% of logic cells.

This work was partially supported by the Ministry of

Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia, Grant
32029, from year 2011.

70% of logic can be used for pipelined data processing

of data rated: up to 1Gbps, with 125 MHz clock at
packet processor block and up to 10Gbps, with 156.25
MHz clock at packet processor block

REFERENCES
[1] IEEE 802.3-2012 IEEE Standard for Ethernet
[2] IEEE 802-2014 IEEE Standard for Local and

At the moment of writing this paper 1Gb tests is ongoing.

Functional and part of performance testing is completed.
596

[3]
[4]
[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

Metropolitan Area Networks: Overview and

Architecture
http://opencores.org/
http://netfpga.org/
J.Shafer and S.Rixner, A Reconfigurable and
Programmable Gigabit Ethernet Network Interface
Card, Rice University, Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering, Houston, TX, Technical
Report: TREE0611, December, 2006.
J.W.Lockwood, Platform and Methodology for
Teaching Design of Hardware Modules in Internet
Routers and Firewalls, in Proc. Intl Conf.
Microelectronic System Education (MSE), Las
Vegas, NV, July 2001, pp. 56-57.
Build an Internet Router, Stanford University
Computer Science 344, May 2007. On-line as:
http://cs344.stanford.edu
Ciobotaru, M. et al,(2005), Versatile FPGA-based
Hardware
Platform
for
Gigabit
Ethernet
Applications

[9] Adam Covington, John Lockwood Glen Gibb, and

Nick McKeown. A packet generator on the netfpga
platform.
[10] Nicholas Weaver. The Shunt: An FPGA-based
accelerator for network intrusion prevention, pages
199-206. ACM Press, 2007
[11] Xilinx LogiCORE Virtex-6 FPGA Embedded TriMode Ethernet MAC
[12] Xilinx UG148 LogiCORE IP 10-Gigabit Ethernet
MAC
[13] SFF-8431 Specifications for Enhanced Small Form
Factor Pluggable Module SFP+ Revision 4.1, SFF
Committee, 2009.
[14] http://www.xilinx.com/support/documentation/applic
ation_notes/xapp691.pdf
[15] https://www.wireshark.org/,http://www.colasoft.com/
[16] https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2544.txt
[17] http://www.sunrisetelecom.com/
[18] http://www.nist.gov/el/isd/ieee/ieee1588.cfm

597

ONE SOLUTION OF REAL-TIME SPECTRUM SEGMENTATION IN HF

DIRECTION FINDER BASED ON TIME-FREQUENCY-SPACE ANALYSIS
UGLJEA DRAGII
RT-RK Computer Based Systems LLC, Novi Sad, ugljesa.dragisic@rt-rk.com
GORAN KRUNI
RT-RK Computer Based Systems LLC, Novi Sad, goran.krunic@rt-rk.com
NIKOLA TESLI
Faculty of Technical Sciences at University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Nikola.Teslic@rt-rk.com

Abstract: Beside human intelligence that follow graphic results of modern HF direction finder and decide about
emissions, emitters, communication channels and emitters network there is try to support that decisions using algorithm
that parse information from digital data. The goal is to make more efficient algorithm that catch, decide and measure
most of emissions, and less of parasite or fake emissions with list possible knowledge about signal characteristics.
Spectrum segmentation in one frame chooses emission segments with same azimuth indicated with signal level. Selected
segments are grouped to indicate existing emissions or added by rule to formed emissions. Rule that regulate adding
segments to emissions is ordered by emission type. Emissions by type that can be separated from spectrum are fixed
narrow band, burst, frequency hopping, frequency chirp and direct sequence signal spectrum emission. To measure
efficiency we used mathematical generated pseudorandom signal data with known signal characteristics and field
recordings of signal generators and emitters with known characteristics. Created algorithm could be used to detect
segments from HF direction finder, but results mostly depend on expert knowledge for setting parameters and removing
parasite emissions.
Keywords: Segmentation, HF direction finder, algorithm.

1. INTRODUCTION
Emissions in HF band are mostly tracked by human
operator. Emission is tracked on live graphs refreshed in
time. Data used for this graphs are digitalized and
computed input from antenna signal (receiver).
Digitalized data represents signal power, azimuth and
elevation assessment by slice of frequency in frequency
spectrum. Data received in one time slice is organized in
frame following header that describe, start and end
frequency, number of calculated spots and frames
timestamp.
Four type of graph is used: power to frequency, azimuth
to frequency, elevation to frequency and azimuth by color
in time. Graphs are shown in Picture [1]. Operator sets
level of power above white noise. Peak maximum in
power to frequency graph presents signal. Group of spots
in azimuth to frequency presents one emission.
There are two more graphs in Picture [1]. : Time to
azimuth and colored by azimuth in time (2D waterfall).
Waterfall graph can be used to track emission activity.
But acquisition data about it will require operator to
reenter that information. Number of hopping channels can
be counted. Burst period and percent of activity could not
be measured. Number of hops in second could not be
counted.

Picture 1: Graphic view

Digitalized data used to create graphs carry information
about direction assessment (azimuth), power and
elevation for all spots in specter. Data can be used to
automatic finding of segments and identifying emissions.
Automatic algorithm can select segments using power,
azimuth and memory about known segments. Algorithm
needs additional parameters that describes and determine
segments. Parameters set by operator.
598

2. SELECTING SEGMENTS
Segments are selected in one time frame. One segment
defines his central frequency, bandwidth, time stamp,
mean values of direction and elevation assessments and
signal power. Additional parameter of segment is quality.
Two types of segments are selected: segments above
noise level and segments under noise level. Noise level is
highest power value of signal noise. Segments selection is
divided in two faze:
selecting basic segments,
Merge basic segments in final segments.
Segments under noise level must be wider than 30 kHz.
Narrow band segments can merged in to wide segments
under noise level.
Parameters used to controlled segment selection are:
Segment specter difference
Maximal number of selected segments
Noise level
Azimuth gap
Azimuth value difference
Parameters are shown in Picture [2]. Maximum number of
selected segments is caution parameter. If number of
selected segments reaches this parameter we assume that
assessment in current frame is non usable for our
algorithm. Algorithm skips this segment. Segment specter
difference defines how close can be frequency of two
segments before they became one. Azimuth value
difference is maximal difference between two values of
assessment in one segment. Azimuth gap difference two
segments close by frequencies.

Picture 3: Segment selection diagram

Two segments will be merged in one segment if:
frequency difference between two segments is less than
segment spectral difference
difference of azimuths mean of two segments are less
than azimuth gap
Segment above noise level can be merged in to segment
under level. Additional merge loop, merge under level,
check if two segments with azimuths means difference is
less than azimuth value difference but segment specter
difference is higher than difference in central frequencies.
For each merged segment we calculate again quality of
segment.

Picture 2: Segmentation parameters

Selecting segments above level of noise we loop trough
data and find first frequency where power is above level
of noise. Collect spots until value in spot is under level of
noise or azimuth difference is higher than azimuth value
difference parameter. On collected spots we select
accumulation spot for direction and elevation and use it as
mean value. Segment quality is calculated as mean value
of difference azimuths values with power in spots from
segment mean value. This criterion is based on fact that
spot with stronger signal have better azimuth. Selecting
segments under level we find spot that azimuth is less
than azimuth difference and start collecting spots. When
spot azimuth difference from previous spot is higher than
azimuth difference we stop collecting spots. If bandwidth
for selected spots is less than 30 kHz we do not count
spots in segment. Selecting segments is described in
diagram shown on Picture [3].

3. TRACKING EMISSIONS
Emission is activity of one emitter. Attributes of emission
are central frequency, bandwidth, mean azimuth,
elevation mean, power mean, quality, start time stamp,
end time stamp, type of emission and emission activity
state. Start time stamp is time stamp of first frame in
which emission was detected. End time stamp is the time
stamp of last frame in which activity of emission has been
detected. Emission status can be: new, active, passive and
known. Types of emissions are: narrow band fixed
frequency, burst emissions, DSSS (direct-sequence spread
spectrum), frequency hopping and chirp emission.

599

Picture 4: Emission state tranzition

Emission tracking depends on parameters that are used to
control segment selection. Emissions tracking specific
parameters are:

observation time
burst to fixed and fixed to burst transition
number of chirp or hopping channels
chirp one direction channel changing parameter
azimuth difference for frequency hoping

Picture 5: Segments to emissions diagram

Observation period determine changing of stages for

emission. Emission is new after first observation period.
To get status new emission should have activity in last
and current observation period. If emission is updated
with segment in last observation period and in current
emission status is active. If emission is not updated in last
observation period status is passive (If emission is passive
we assume it listen on communication channel). Burst
parameters determine periodic behavior of emitting burst
emission together with observation period and from fixed
emission that change activity. Parameters are set to find
how periodic change is for given observation period.
Algorithm takes chirp emission as special case of hopping
emission, where frequency channels that follow hopping
frequency have direction. Mean number of changed
channels in one direction is set by parameter.

Segment can be pair only to one emission. Segment that

pair existing or new emission is removed from pool. This
order is used to avoid creating fixed emission from burst
or hopping emission that use one frequency channel more
than once in one observation period. Minimal number of
hopping channel that one emission has to use to be
determine as new emission is defined by parameter. To
avoid creating of new, non existing emissions selected
segments are compared and associated with known
emissions first. Remaining channels are added to
emissions that are set as emission new. If any remain
segment can be used to create new emission.
Collect segments to create hopping channels for hopping
emission also measure how many times hopping emission
change channel. Result of measure is mean number of
jumps for hopping. We do mean calculation for every
observation period, because some of channels are covered
with fixed emissions or because of bad quality channel is
lost. Number of hopping channels we count by measure
raster. Raster of hopping emission is minimal frequency
distance between two hopping channel. We count all
detectable channels and distance between first channel
and last channel is hopping emission hopping range.
Hopping range divided with raster gives number of
hopping channels. Hopping emission metric is shown on
Picture [6].

Updating or creating emissions are done with segments

from segment pool. Updating emissions with selected
segments is done for each frame and is shown on Picture
[5]. Selected segments are added with these operations in
this order:
adding segments to frequency hopping emissions
adding segments to fixed, burst and DSSS emissions
collecting multi channel segments that can form
hopping emission
creating new emission from segment that do not belong
to any existing emissions

600

5. RESULTS
Algorithm efficiency is measured in tree separated tests:
Mathematically generated pseudorandom signal with
known characteristic
field recordings of signal generators and emitters with
known characteristics
During testing with pseudorandom signal goal was to get
all signals generated with known characteristics without
parasite emissions. Generated signals were not pas trough
direction finding algorithm and have only pseudo During
testing with recordings we ignored fact, that algorithm has
found some in specter existing emissions and parasite
emissions.

Picture 6: Hopping emission metric

If there is not followed new segment in every frame we
assume that fixed emission is become passive or emission
is type burst. Time distance between two emitting start is
collected. If by parameter start of emitting is periodic we
declare emission to be burst. Dividing periodic time with
time of emitting gives percentage of emitting for burst
emission. Burst and fixed emission metric is shown on
Picture [7]

For generated tests, we created test, which finds specific

emission or shows ability of algorithm to handle specific
situations. Tests cases were:
One fixed frequency emission
One fixed frequency emission with narrow band
One burst emission
One burst emission with longer burst period
One HF emission
Two HF emissions
Two fixed frequency emissions with close bandwidths
Two fixed frequency emissions with close bandwidths
and one burst emission
Ten fixed frequency emissions
One DSSS emission

Picture 7: Burst and fixed emission metric

One chirp emission

DSSS emission can be created from segments under noise

level or segments above noise level. DSSS emission main
characteristic is wider than 30 kHz.

Two chirp emissions

For we use several recordings, divided in two groups by
creation:

Quality of segment is bounded by parameter segment

specter difference. If quality of segment is under
parameter segment specter difference emission algorithm
will not create or update emission.

Created with signal generator

Created with real emitters
We described test cases like:
Three fixed frequency signal emitters in on same
channel on 24.138 MHz

5. PARASITE EMISSIONS
Parasite or fake emissions are term we introduced to
described emissions that are product of algorithm, but
could not be find in specter. Parasite emissions are
product of:

Three fixed frequency signal emitters in on same

channel on 17.350 MHz
Three fixed frequency signal emitters in on same
channel on 13.300 MHz

Algorithm recognize white noise reaching noise level

as segment with low quality of azimuth detection
Algorithm divide existing segments in two segments
separated in specter over gap between two segments
Algorithm divide existing segments in two segments
separated in specter over two different azimuths in
segments
Algorithm divide existing continuing emission in two
emissions with in time over changing azimuth in time
Algorithm recognize few fixed frequency emissions
emitting as start of FH emission

Three HF signal emitters in on same channel on 24.138

MHz
Three HF signal emitters in on same channel on 17.350
MHz
Generated Chirp signal
Generated Burst signal
Generated DSSS signal
Frames for mathematically generated pseudorandom
signal were released on 10ms. And frames for recordings
were released in saved severity which was 60ms per
frame. As algorithm was not working more than 2 ms per
frame we were able to present results. For each test,

As HF frequency band is unstable and populated with

emissions result is large number of parasite emissions.
601

algorithm parameters were set to best detect known

emission. Results are present in tables:
Table 1: Table of results
Algorithm Detect
Parasite
Emissions
emissions
Mat. CF 16MHz FF BW 5kHz
1 FF em.
None
Gen. AZ 300
1 FF em. Mat. CF 16MHz FF BW
None
nerrow
Gen. 100Hz AZ 300
1 burst
Mat. CF 16MHz FF BW 5kHz
None
em.
Gen. AZ 75
1 burst
Mat. CF 16MHz BF BW 1kHz
None
em. l. p.
Gen. AZ 75
Mat. CF 24MHz HF BW 3kHz
1 HF em.
None
Gen. AZ 260 R 5kHz
CF 24MHz HF BW 1kHz
Mat. AZ 250 R 2kHz
2 HF em.
None
Gen. CF 22.5MHz HF BW
2kHz AZ 130 R 5kHz
CF 25MHz FF BW 1 kHz
2 FF em. Mat. AZ 300
None
cl.
Gen. CF 24.5MHz FF BW 2
kHz AZ 10
CF 16.25MHz FF BW
1kHz AZ 300
2 FF em.
Mat. CF 16.23MHz FF BW
1 burst
None
Gen. 1kHz AZ 10
em.
CF 16.33MHz BF BW
1kHz AZ 10
CF 6.02MHz FF BW
0.5kHz AZ 300
CF 7.02MHz FF BW
1kHz AZ 302
CF 5.52MHz FF BW
0.5kHz AZ 301
CF 8.02MHz FF BW
1kHz AZ 296
CF 4.02MHz FF BW
10 FF
Mat. 0.5kHz AZ 307
None
em.
Gen. CF 6.12MHz FF BW
1kHz AZ 299
CF 8.22MHz FF BW
0.5kHz AZ 396
CF 4.22MHz FF BW
1kHz AZ 307
CF 6.22MHz FF BW
0.5kHz AZ 299
CF 5.22MHz FF BW
1kHz AZ 300
1 DSSS
Mat. CF 25MHz DSSS BW
None
em.
Gen. 160kHz AZ 45
1 Chirp
Mat. CF 24.5MHz BW 1kHz
None
em.
Gen. AZ 245 R 2kHz
CF 24.5MHz CF BW
2 Chirp
Mat. 1kHz AZ 245 R 2kHz
None
em.
Gen. CF 22.7MHz CF BW
1kHz AZ 133 R 5kHz
CF 24.4MHz HF BW
3 FF em.
3kHz AZ 240
Recorded
Ignored
24MHz
CF 24.4MHz HF BW
3kHz AZ 180
Test Case

3 FF em.
Recorded
17MHz

Type

3 FF em.
Recorded
13MHz

3 HF em.
Recorded
24MHz

3 HF em.
Recorded
17MHz

1 Chirp

Recorded

1 Burst

Recorded

1 DSSS Recorded

CF 24.4MHz HF BW
3kHz AZ 320
CF 17.3MHz HF BW
3kHz AZ 240 R 4kHz
CF 17.3MHz HF BW
3kHz AZ 180
CF 17.3MHz HF BW
3kHz AZ 60 R
CF 13.3MHz HF BW
3kHz AZ 240
CF 13.3MHz HF BW
3kHz AZ 180
CF 13.3MHz HF BW
3kHz AZ 60
CF 24.4MHz HF BW
3kHz AZ 240 R 4kHz
CF 24.4MHz HF BW
3kHz AZ 180 R 4kHz
CF 24.4MHz HF BW
3kHz AZ 320 R 4kHz
CF 17.3MHz HF BW
3kHz AZ 240 R 4kHz
CF 17.3MHz HF BW
3kHz AZ 180 R 4kHz
CF 17.3MHz HF BW
3kHz AZ 60 R 4kHz
CF 13.3MHz CF BW
3kHz AZ 40 R 5kHz
CF 13.3MHz CF BW
3kHz AZ 210
CF 8MHz CF BW
300kHz AZ 210

Ignored

Ignored

Ignored

Ignored

Ignored
Ignored
Ignored

Beside central frequency marked as CF, type of emission

(eg. HF, FF), bandwidth marked as BW, azimuth marked
as AZ and raster marked as R in table 1, other parameters
were measured correctly. For burst emissions is measured
period of burst and percent of emitting. For HF emissions,
step and number of jumps in second are measured. These
results were not present in table 1.

6. CONCLUSION
Described algorithm finds emissions that are not
described. Basic rule for this type of specter searching is
that everything that has azimuth assessment and or have
signal power over noise can form emission. In setting of
problem algorithm finds and display many non existing
emissions on this basic rules. Non existing emissions
create difficulties for further use or saving information.
Big number of detected emission is fixed with emission
filtering. Emissions are filtered by human intelligence
(operator effort needed). Emission filtering did not fix
problem of calculation resource spilling on fake
emissions.
As HF frequency band is unstable and populated with
emissions result is large number of parasite emissions.
During measuring efficiency we put finding known
(emitted) signals over fact that algorithm has find large
number of other signals in specter with parasite
emissions. Large number of parasite signals is one that
hides results of algorithm or slows down algorithm.
602

Algorithm can be advanced by selecting and merging

segments in observation period instead in one frame.
Selected segments in observation period will be in form
of channels: fixed channels, burst channels, hopping
channels, chirp channels and non defined channels.
Channels determined in phase of selecting segments make
easier to mach to emissions and create less fake
emissions. Less fake emissions make whole process more
efficient. Some of parameters set for existing algorithm
can calculate by algorithm. Other can be reform in to
modal description of emission.

REFERENCES
[1] Ivan P. Pokrajac, Miljko Eri, Miroslav L. uki,
Authematical Emission Identification Frequency
Hoping, Telfor, Belgrade, 2003.
[2] Frank Raps, Karsten Fanghnel, Kuno Kkkmann,
Hans Christoph Zeidler, HF-Band Emitter Detection
and Segmentation Based on Image Processing,
MILCOM, Hamburg, 2001.
[3] Frank Raps, Kuno Kkkmann, Hans Christoph
Zeidler, Feature Extraction for HF-Band Emitter
Location, MILCOM, Los Angeles, 2002.

603

THE APPLICATION OF THE TWO-DIMENSIONAL MARKOV PROCESS

FOR VIDEO CONNECTIONS ANALYSIS
BOBAN Z. PAVLOVI
Military Academy, Belgrade, bobanpav@yahoo.com;
VLADIMIR SUA
Military AcademyBelgrade, vladimir.susha@gmail.com;
JOVAN BAJETI
Military Academy, Belgrade, bajce05@gmail.com;
KATARINA MILOVAC
Military Academy, Belgrade, milovac.katrina@gmail.com

Abstract: The paper analyzes the calculation of blocking probabilities for video connections in wired
telecommunication networks. We observed transmission through STS-3 link with 155.52 Mbps capacity. It is analyzed
two video connections with bandwidth demands 50 Mbps and 34 Mbps, respectively. The traffic process becomes a pure
birth and death process. The problem is graphically and analytically presented and solved in a form of the twodimensional Markov process. Since connections is established through limited link capacity, it can be formed a finite
number of connections. It is evidently that the birth and death process cannot be observed independently. Further
analysis is done through the determination of all allowable states for this two-dimensional process. Each state is
represented with corresponding probability which is obtained by solving the local balance equations for each node.
Based on the calculated state probabilities, it is possible to find a numerous of different system parameters, such as the
current link occupancy and average link occupancy. In further, we also defined the states that might cause blocking for
first or second connections, as well as blocking both connections simultaneously. Due to aforementioned states, it is
fully predictable to calculate the end-to-end blocking probabilities for observing video connections.
Keywords: video-connection, two-dimensional Markov chains, the probability of connection blocking, link occupancy.
observed service system, the probabilities of a link
establishment blocking for each flow requirement have
been determined, as well as the probabilities of a link
establishment blocking for both connection types.

1. INTRODUCTION
In the case of the analysis of many different applications
through the transmission medium of defined capacity,
determining of maximum number of connections is done
using the multidimensional Markov chains in a system
with heterogeneous flows without waiting. Dimension of
Markov chain depends on the number of observed
application services within the network.

2. DEFINING OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Analysis of traffic in packet telecommunication networks
enables modeling of the connection initiated by the user
in the observed system as a Poisson process of arrivals in
the system [3], [4].

This paper analyzes resolving the problem of determining

the maximum number of video connections over the link
of defined capacity in case of transferring two types of
connections. Two-dimensional Markov chains in a system
with two different flows, without waiting were used for
the analysis.

The assumption is that the STS-3 link capacity of which

is C=155.52 Mbps performs transmission of two types of
video connections - X and Y; X-type connection requires
CX=50 Mbps of bandwidth, while the Y-type connection
requires CY=34 Mbps. Intensities of demands coming for
X and Y are 1 and 2, respectively, and coming of the
demands for each connection can be described by already
mentioned Poisson process. Intensities of connection
termination for X-type and Y-type are n1 and m2,
respectively (n and m represent the number of either X-type
or Y-type connections), while 1 and 2 represent serving

The First Erlang formula for calculating the probability of

system blocking cannot be used because it assumes users
with homogeneous flow of demands [1], [2]. Stationary
probability of each possible state of the observed system,
pij, will be determined in this paper. The way of defining
the current occupation of link, as well as average link
occupancy will also be analyzed in this paper. As for the
604

intensities for X-type and Y-type connection, respectively. In

the telecommunication networks through a defined link
capacity, it is possible to establish only the number of
connections of certain type (either individual X-type or Ytype connections, or both simultaneous connection types) in
accordance with the available capacity.

Markov process state diagram of which is shown in

Picture 2. The observed system can be described by
means of 12 states and the corresponding intensities of
transitions between states. It is necessary to determine the
stationary probability of each of the 12 states with the
global balance equations. Diagram analysis shows that
number of the states is limited, and that there are no states
in which the required bandwidth is wider than the
capacity of the link. For example, the state (2, 2) does not
exist, because this state requires a bandwidth of 168
Mbps, which exceeds the available 155.52 Mbps.

In the analyzed case, it is possible to establish a maximum

of 3 X-type connections (nmax=3) or 4 Y-type connections
(mmax=4). If 3 X-type connections have already been
established, only 5.52 Mbps are available and it means
that none of Y-type connections can be established.
Also, if 4 Y-type connections have been established, only
19.52 Mbps are available and that is not sufficient for
establishing of any Y-type connection. A conclusion can
be made that it is not possible to separately consider the
processes of birth and death of demands for the X and
Y-type connections.
Each of the possible states of the system is described by
means of i and j indexes, where i is the number of
established X-type connections and j refers to the number of
Y-type connections. This structure is called a twodimensional Markov process, also known as twodimensional birth and death [5], [6]. Review of possible
states (i,j) of two-dimensional system is shown in Picture 1.

Picture 2. Two-dimensional Markov birth and death

process of the observed system
Taking the example of the state (i,j) which has all four
adjacent states as shown in Picture 3, a global balance
equation can be written in a general case:

( + + i +
( j + 1) p
1

Picture 1. Possible states (i, j) of the two-dimensional

system

i , j +1

max

, mmax )

1 pi 1, j 2 pi , j 1 = 0

(3)

i,j+1

In general case, the set of possible values of the state of

(i, j) must fulfill the following condition:

( i, j ) ( i + j ) max ( n

j 2 ) pi , j ( i + 1) 1 pi +1, j

(j+1)2
1

2
1

(1)

i,j

i-1,j

To define it more precisely, the current state of the

observed system (i j) can be determined according to the
following relation:

i1

i+1,j
(i+1)1
j2

i,j-1

C
C i m
( i, j ) = 0 i , 0 j
(2)
i m i0
j n j 0

Picture 3. Review of possible transitions

toward/backward the state (i,j)

3. ANALYSIS OF THE ISSUE OF

DETERMINING VIDEO CONNECTIONS
NUMBER

If we consider the condition that does not have all four

adjacent states, intensity of transition toward these states
and from these states are equal to zero.

Based on the defined link capacity and demands for

connection establishment, there is two-dimensional

Based on the above mentioned global balance equation,

the following local balance equations can be written:
605

1 pi , j = ( i + 1) 1 pi +1, j
2 pi , j = ( j + 1) 2 pi , j +1
i 1 pi , j = 1 pi 1, j

(4)

p12 = ( 1 / 1) p02

p30 = ( 1 / 3 ) p20

(7)

1 p00 = 1 p10

1 p10 = 2 1 p20

1 p01 = 1 p10

1 p11 = 2 1 p21

1 p02 = 1 p12

1 p20 = 31 p30

1 p03 = 1 p13
2 p00 = 2 p01

2 p11 = 2 2 p02

2 p10 = 2 p11

2 p02 = 3 2 p03

2 p20 = 2 p21

2 p12 = 3 2 p13

2 p01 = 2 2 p02

2 p03 = 4 2 p04

2
2

)
/ 2!) p
/ 3!) p

1
2

(
= (
= (
= (

01

00

)
/ 3!) p
/ 3!) p
/ 4!) p

p01 = ( 2 / 1!) p00

p12 = 2 / 2! p10

p11 = ( 2 / 1!) p10

p03

p21 = ( 2 / 1!) p20

p13

p02 = 2 / 2! p00
2

p04

3
2
3
2
4
2

(8)

00

10
00

The previous system of equations is composed of 15

equations, where the probability of four states (p11, p12,
p13 i p21) can be found in two different ways, and that is
why it is enough to solve a system of 11+1 equations. The
last equation is got from the above mentioned condition
that the sum of the probabilities of all the events must
equal one.

(5)

The set of all possible states in the observed example is

S={(0,0),(1,0),(2,0),(3,0),(0,1),(1,1),(2,1),(0,2),(1,2),(0,3),
(1,3),(0,4)}, i.e. it includes 12 states. To solve this
problem we need a total of 12 equations, which is
obtained in the previous analysis.
In case the analysis of the previous system equations is
continued, it can be noticed that all the probabilities
depend on the p00, meaning that we can write a general
expression for determining the probability that the system
can be in the state of (i,j) and pij:

The finally result is a system which comprises a set of

15+1 simple equations in total. In order to solve the
previous system of equations, the denouements for the
intensity of the offered traffic for both types of observed
connections 1 and 2, have been introduced as follows:

p30

p13 = ( 1 / 1!) p03

, 2 =

p21

p12 = ( 1 / 1!) p02

The sum of all the probabilities must be equal to 1,

apropos pi , j = 1 .

(
= (
= (

p20 = 1 / 2! p00

p11 = ( 1 / 1!) p01

In the resulting two-dimensional Markov birth and

death process, the local balance equations can be
presented as follows:

p21 = ( 1 / 2 ) p11

p10 = ( 1 / 1!) p00

4. SOLVING OF THE OBSERVED PROBLEM

1 =

p11 = ( 1 / 1) p01

Consecutive replacements of equations from the left to the

right finally result in the following system of equations:

Solving of these two equations enables defining of

stationary probabilities of adjacent states pi,j, pi+1,j, pi-1,j,
pi,j+1 i pi,j-1. In this way, instead of solving the system of
giant global balance equations, especially when complex
systems are considered, the solutions can be reached by
solving significantly smaller and simpler systems of local
equations. Of course, the equations of local balance can
be set only when they directly arise from global
equations. In this case, that precondition has been met.

p20 = ( 1 / 2 ) p10

p13 = ( 1 / 1) p03

j 2 pi , j = 2 pi , j 1

p10 = ( 1 / 1) p00

1 2
i

pij = p00

i! j!

(9)

In a closed system with a finite number of states, the sum

of all possible stationary probabilities of state is 1, i.e.
pij = 1 . Using the previous attitude, the probability

(6)

( i , j )S

p00 can be obtained based on:

Based on the previously introduced denouements, local

balance equations can be represented in the following
way:
p01 = ( 2 / 1) p00

p12 = ( 2 / 2 ) p11

p11 = ( 2 / 1) p10

p03 = ( 2 / 3 ) p02

p21 = ( 2 / 1) p20

p13 = ( 2 / 3 ) p12

p02 = ( 2 / 2 ) p01

p04 = ( 2 / 4 ) p03

1 2
i

=1
( i , j )S i ! j !

p00

(10)

Finally, the probability p00 can be calculated by:

p00 =

606

1
i
j
1 2

( i , j )S i ! j !

(11)

on the link. For example, the states (0,4) or (2,1) are the
blocking ones for both types of connections, because in
that state there is no free capacity of the link. Besides,
there is difference between the states which are the
blocking ones for the individual X-type or Y-type
connections. For example, state (1,2) is a blocking one for
X-type connections, but not for Y-type connection, so it is
possible to establish another Y-type connection.

At last, stationary probabilities of each and every of the

possible states, pij can be presented through:

1 2
i

pij =

i! j!

1 2
i

( i , j )S

(12)

i! j!

Probability of X-type connection blocking is obtained by

adding the probabilities for the states that are blocking
ones for this connection, so that BX={(0,4), (1,3), (1,2),
(2,1), (3,0)}.

Based on the obtained values of the state stationary

probabilities, it is possible to calculate several various
parameters of the system, depending on the research
problem.

For the Y-type connection, the set of possible states

leading to blocking of the connection, is given by
BY={(0,4), (1,3), (2,1), (3,0)}.

Assuming that the traffic intensity of users who require a

connection of X-type or Y-type connection are known and
that they present 1=0,6 and 2=0,5, the probabilities of all
possible events can be determined. The probabilities
values are shown in Table 1.

The intersection of the previous two sets of conditions

that leads to both types connection blocking, so it is
BX,Y={(0,4), (1,3), (2,1), (3,0)}.

Table 1. Values of the possible states probabilities of the

observed system
p(i,j)
i=0
i=1
i=2
i=3
p(*,j)
j=0
0.343
0.206
0.062
0.012
0.623
j=1
0.172
0.103
0.031
0.306
j=2
0.043
0.016
0.059
j=3
0.007
0.004
0.011
j=4
0.001
0.001
p(i,*)
0.566
0.329
0.093
0.012
1.000

On the basis of pre-determined states, specified

probabilities of connection blocking can be calculated.
Probability of blocking establishment
connection is PB ( X ) = pij = 0.064 .

At the other side, probability of blocking establishment of

Y-type connection is PB ( Y ) = pij = 0.048 .
( i , j )BY

Finally, we obtained the probability blocking

establishment of both types of connections as
PB ( X , Y ) = pij = 0.048 .
( i , j )B XY

(13)

5. CONCLUSION
Multi-dimensional Markov chains are a very powerful
tool in the analysis of various serving systems. Based on
knowledge about the characteristics of the traffic flow and
the number of demands, all possible states can be defined
very easily. Applying the information about already
known flow of demands, we can write local equations
whose solving leads to the probability of each possible
states. Starting from the found states probabilities, it is
possible to specify a large number of parameters that
describe the given system.

The average occupancy is obtained as a mathematical

expectation of function O (i,j) which is calculated as
follows:
E [ O ( i , j )] = O =

pij O ( i , j )

(14)

( i , j )S

In the observed analysis, based on the acquired state

probabilities and the defined demands in terms of
capacity, the average occupation of link can be
determined based on the following relation:

E [ O ( i, j )] = O =

X-type

( i , j )B X

In case determination of the average load of the

transmission link is demanded, the first to be observed
will be the current occupancy link O (Occupation) which
can be presented as two-dimensional function given by
the following equation:
O ( i , j ) = C X i + CY j [ Mbps ]

of

This paper presents the problem of two-dimensional

Markov chain with a relatively small number of possible
states. Based on the calculated probability of states and
starting from the current occupancy of the link, the
average occupation of the link has been calculated.
Besides, analysis of the states that cause blocking of
individual X-type and Y-type connections, as well as both
types of connections, has provided the probabilities of the
individual connections blocking as well as both
connections blocking within the service system. All the
obtained values present very important parameters that
must be taken into consideration when network engineers
perform dimensioning and analyzing performance of a
service system.

pij ( 50i + 34 j ) [ Mbps ] (15)

( i , j )S

Replacing of the obtained values from Table 1 results in

the value of the average occupation of the link of
O = 43.224 Mbps .
Besides the occupation, or average occupation of the link,
probability of connections blocking of X-type and Y-type
can also be determined and that probability suits the
probability for the system to be in a state in which there is
no possibility for establishing both types of connections
607

The presented paper is an introduction to a comprehensive

analysis that will be conducted in various
telecommunication systems and in a larger number of
services. The issue which will be observed in the
following paper is multidimensional service systems with
a large number of different states, analysis of which will
be carried out with appropriate software solutions.

[3]

[4]

REFERENCES

[5]

[1] Bakmaz,R.M., Bojkovi,Z.S.: Uticaj Erlangovih

istraivanja na razvoj Teorije telekomunikacionog
saobraaja, XV Telekomunikacioni forum, Beograd,
20-22. novembar 2007.
[2] Hayes,J.F., Babu,T.V.J.G.: Modeling and Analysis of

[6]

608

Telecommunications Networks, John Wiley & Sons,

New York, 2004.
Giambone,G.G.:
Queuing
Theory
and
Telecommunications: Networks and Applications,
Springer, New York, 2005.
Freeman,R.L.:
Reference
Manual
for
Telecommunication Engineering, 3rd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 2002.
ITUD, Handbook: Teletraffic Engineering, Study
Group 2, Question 16/2, Revised 2008.
Iversen,V.B.: Teletraffic Engineering and Network
Planning, Technical University of Denmark, Revised
May 20, 2010.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF WFQ MECHANISMS IN VOIP TRAFFIC

ANALYSIS
VLADIMIR SUA
Military Academy, University of Defence, Belgrade, vladimir.susha@gmail.com
BOBAN Z. PAVLOVI
Military Academy, University of Defence, Belgrade, bobanpav@yahoo.com
RADOVAN DRAGOVI
Military Academy, University of Defence, Belgrade, dragovicradovannn@gmail.com

Abstract: In order to provide a desirable end-to-end QoS in the IP telecommunication networks, it is necessary to
manage an appropriate QoS mechanism for achieving the optimal values of QoS parameters. This primarily refers to
QoS parameters which are monitored in real-time applications, such as packet delay, packet delay variation (jitter) and
packet loss. In our approach we analyze the Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ) mechanism. We apply the simulation
scenario based on a given telecommunication network through the OPNET Network Simulator. The simulation model
contains a network node with defined applications (Background and VoIP applications) and profiles (Background and
VoIP profiles) which are implemented to end users and appropriate network elements (routers). In this paper we
analyzed different WFQ implementations. We defined five simulation scenarios in total, with four different solutions for
Quality of Service configuration. The initial scenario comprises a model without a QoS mechanism. The other four
scenarios have different WFQ implementations according to ToS (Type of Service), transport protocol (TCP or UDP),
port value (for different applications) and finally according to the values of DSCP field in the IP header. By comparing
the obtained QoS parameter values for all simulation scenarios, the optimal solution for choosing an appropriate WFQ
implementation is given in conclusion.
Keywords: Weighted Fair Queuing, Quality of Service, Riverbed Modeler, Voice over IP.
types of WFQ. The analysis of QoS performance,
depending on the type applied is presented in the fifth
chapter. Finally, we summarize our discussion and
provide a conclusion on importance of the classification
depending on the WFQ mechanism applied.

1. INTRODUCTION
The use of real-time applications over the Internet, as
global computer network, is not possible without various
Quality of Service (QoS) mechanisms. To keep the QoS
performances inside the desirable boundaries the
applications use different tools implemented in network
nodes. The QoS mechanisms classification is as follows:
classification and marking, congestion avoidance,
congestion management, policing and shaping, signaling
and link efficiency mechanisms. Combining and
implementation of these mechanisms in the network
nodes is done depending on the specific needs of the
network [1]. The congestion management mechanisms
testing, with regards to Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ)
feature, is described in this work.

2. WEIGHTED FAIR QUEUING MECHANISM

FOR TRAFFIC SCHEDULING
Weighted Fair Queuing is the improvement of priority
queuing and custom queuing QoS mechanisms.
Priority queuing QoS mechanism forms 4 queues with
predefined priority (high, medium, normal and low).
Packets are classified according to the following criteria:
type of protocol, incoming interface, packet size, access
lists etc. Queues with higher priority are absolute priority
compared to lower-priority queues. Servicing is carried
out by the criteria of priority starting from the high
priority. Lower queues come on line when the higher ones
are fully serviced. If a lower priority starts being served,
and in the meantime the queue with higher priority is
filled, servicing returns to the queue with a higher
priority. The disadvantage of this mechanism is that the

Second chapter describes the features of this mechanism

and compares it to other congestion management
mechanisms. The simulation software used is Riverbed
academic Modeler 17.5, which is described in the third
chapter with regards to the configuration options of QoS.
The fourth chapter describes a simple network model
which applies, through various scenarios, software offered
609

queues with lower priority can transit into a state denial of

service because it cannot theoretically never been served.

these essentially differ concerning the phase of packet

discarding. Tail drop rejects all packages arriving after the
buffer is full, while RED randomly discards packets
before the buffer capacity is fully used. CBWFQ
mechanism enables forming of the strict priority queue
which is first served. This class is usually assigned to
real-time applications with low requirements for
bandwidth, e.g. VoIP applications. Strict priority queues
are the first to be served. After these the others come
according to descending weight values.

Custom queuing mechanism assigns bandwidth to 17

different queues. Each is assigned with a portion [%] of
the entire outgoing link bandwidth. It is possible to
specify queues from 1 to 16 where queue 0 is the default
one for the entire traffic which is not assigned to others
(1-16). Queues servicing is done in a round-robin fashion.
The classification of packets is performed similarly to
priority queuing mechanism. The lack of the custom
queuing mechanism is that the real-time applications do
not have a defined priority for servicing in terms of
minimizing the delay and delay variation, but according
to assigned bandwidth [2].

Recent studies [3] describe dynamic weight value changes

for each queue in relation to buffer occupancy. Routers
are provided with change values command by active
network management tool, depending on the state of the
network.

WFQ allows "fair" servicing for formed queues on static

weight values assigned. Variations of the mechanism are
as follows:

3. RIVERBED ACADEMIC MODELER AND

QOS FEATURES

Flow based WFQ (FBWFQ) and

WFQ mechanism tests were performed on a network

model implemented using Riverbed academic Modeler
17.5 simulation software. It is improved version of
OPNET IT Guru Academic 9.0 modeler. Software
upgrade, in relation to this research, refers to improved
interface configuration options - mechanisms for QoS.
OPNET IT Guru Modeler mechanisms were limited to
CBWFQ. Options for class based WFQ in the software
are as follows:

Class based WFQ (CBWFQ).

FBWFQ mechanism defines up to 256 dynamic queues.
The packet classification is defined by flow which is
described by source and destination IP address, source
and destination port, and protocol type used. Each
dynamic queue, depending on the IP header precedence
field, is assigned with appropriate weighting value that
defines the time patterns of each queue.
CBWFQ mechanism defines up to 64 queues, which can
be filled according to the criteria that the administrator
wants to define. That's the biggest advantage of this
mechanism. These criteria may include: access list,
incoming interface, DSCP field, the IP precedence field,
protocol type, etc. Each queue is assigned with
appropriate static weight value which determines the
duration of servicing for the specific queue. This
eliminates the lack of priority queuing mechanism - lower
priority applications` transition to denial of service
condition. The number of queues correlates with 64
different values of the DSCP field in the IP header. Edge
routers usually perform mechanisms (traffic classification,
traffic marking and queues forming) based on DSCP field
values although the input criteria may be various.
Tail-drop or
RED

No

Yes

Tail-drop or
RED

No

Strict
priority
queue

Hardware
queue

ToS (Type of Service) based, forming queues according

to ToS field of the IP header where we have the
possibility of forming up to eight (1-7 and 0 as the
default) queues with weight values defined,
Protocol based, forming queues according to the type of
network or transport layer protocol (e.g. IP, TCP, UDP,
RSVP, OSPF, etc.),
Port based, forming queues according to the type of
application or port number of the transport layer
(HTTP, Telnet, DNS, FTP, TFTP, etc.),
DSCP based, forming queues according to the values of
DSCP field in the IP header.
Each criterion considered must describe factors which
enable proper functioning of WFQ mechanism [4], [5]:
number of queues to be formed in a buffer,

Outgoing
Packets

classification and marking criterion used to define

queue filling ,

Class 1
queue

weight value which implicates time pattern for each

queue,

Yes

Incoming
Packets

Packet classifier
assigns packet to a
queue

Tail-drop or
RED

No
.
.
.
.

Yes

Tail-drop or
RED
Yes

No

Class 2
queue

CBWFQ
scheduler

the "depth" value of a queue, expressed in bytes or the

number of packets,

.
.
.
Class N
queue

queue behavior mechanism in the case of buffer

overload
(tail-drop
or
RED
mechanism
implementation),

Bit bucket
=
Packet
drop

Picture 1: CBWFQ mechanism

The buffer capacity of outgoing interfaces, expressed in

bytes or number of packets.

Picture 1 shows the way that CBWFQ is functioning.

Packets are being classified, marked and queued on router
interface. For the purpose of congestion avoidance taildrop or RED (Random Early Detection) mechanisms can
be applied. The choice depends on the administrator and

Through its` configuration the interface is assigned with

predefined QoS mechanism and additional options. One
of these is maximum link occupancy. It is used to reserve
a part of link bandwidth for service packets.
610

By defining the factors and configuring them on the

appropriate interface the traffic scheduling mechanism
(WFQ, in this paper) is applied on the network model.

implemented on two LANs with 30 workstations which

send simultaneous requests to the Background server with
three services implemented (HTTP, FTP and DB). The
second type of user includes VoIP calling party and VoIP
called party using a VoIP application. VoIP calling party
uses VoIP application and VoIP called party is a VoIP
server. During the simulation there is a permanent voice
channel opened between VoIP calling party and VoIP
called party.

4. NETWORK MODEL IN RIVERBED

ACADEMIC MODELER 17.5
An example of a network model used for the research is
shown in Picture 2.

Both groups generate traffic with fixed delay (10s) after

the simulation is started. Background users execute all
three applications simultaneously, and VoIP profiles
serially, simulating a continuous voice call until the end
of the simulation.
Links between users and the network elements are
10Mbps, and the link between the two routers is 1.544
Mbps T1 and represents a bottleneck.

Configuration of WFQ mechanisms

There are five scenarios with different WFQ mechanism
configurations:
Without_QoS: no traffic scheduling,
WFQ_ToS: WFQ by packet classification according to
ToS field of the IP header,
WFQ_Protocol: WFQ by protocol used,
WFQ_Port: WFQ by application used,
WFQ_DSCP: WFQ by packet classification according
DSCP headers field.

Picture 2: Network simulation model

The model was configured through definition of:
applications, user profiles, traffic scheduling mechanisms
and network elements (routers, servers, Background
LAN, VoIP calling party, VoIP called party).

WFQ_ToS scenario defines two groups of applications

with different ToS (IP header) field values assigned.
HTTP, FTP and DB applications are assigned with besteffort (0) and VoIP applications with Interactive Voice (6)
value. Packet classification on interfaces of the two
routers is performed according to this criterion.

Configuration of applications
Two groups with four applications (used by users) are
defined in this model. The first group consists of three
background applications tasked to fill the bottleneck link
between two routers up to 100% of the link occupancy.
In this way, without the use of traffic scheduling, voice
applications` performances are degraded. Above
mentioned, background applications are as follows: HTTP
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (file transfer protocol)
and DB (database) applications. They are configured in
high load regime in order to fill the critical link as much
as possible.

WFQ_Protocol scenario classifies packets according to

the protocol. All background applications use TCP, while
VoIP uses UDP transport protocol.
WFQ_Port scenario defines classification according to the
type of application. Each application (there are four of
these) is assigned with a different queue and a criterion.
WFQ_DSCP scenario classifies applications based on IP
header DSCP values. Background application is formed
as assured forwarding (AF) DSCP field with the values
for the HTTP: af11, FTP: af12 and DB: af13. This means
that all three applications belong to the same class but
with different probability of package rejection in the case
of buffer congestion. VoIP application is defined as an
explicit forwarding (EF) and its DSCP field value is ef.
Different variants of WFQ were applied to the bottleneck
link. In the first scenario (no QoS mechanism) voice
communication performance degradation is noticeable.
Performances (describing QoS for packet voice
transmission) of VoIP applications observed during the
simulation are standard: packet loss, end-to-end delay and
delay variation [6], [7]. The bottleneck link utilization is
observed through each scenario so the WFQ mechanism
applied can be evaluated.

VoIP application forms the second group. It uses G.711

compression algorithm. The algorithm performs rather
low compression but the delay in signal processing is also
small. This is a critical application and its QoS
performances are observed depending on the WFQ
mechanism applied.

Configuration of profiles
There are two types of users. Background users (the first
type), use three background applications (HTTP, FTP and
DB). These applications (using the high load regime)
need to fill the bottleneck link. This profile is
611

except the one without traffic scheduling (for better

visibility). The chart shows that the delay for the scenario
without traffic scheduling increases up to 5s which is
unacceptable. These delays are significantly reduced with
WFQ mechanism applied. However, there are differences
depending on the type of classification used. The best
result is achieved when WFQ_DSCP mechanism is
applied (the delay is around 3ms). With other WFQ
classification mechanisms delays are smaller than 200ms
which is acceptable for VoIP applications.

5. ANALYSIS OF SIMULATION RESULT

In the first scenario (no QoS mechanism) the aim was to
reach 100% utilization for bottleneck link in order to
degrade the VoIP applications performance. Link
utilization for all scenarios is shown in Picture 3.

Picture 6 shows two delay variation graphics. The first

graphic represents all scenarios and the second all
scenarios except the one without traffic scheduling (for
better visibility). Delay variation results are correlated
with end-to-end delay, which means that there are
differences depending on the traffic scheduling WFQ
mechanism applied.

Picture 3: Utilization bottleneck link for all scenarios

Since the traffic scheduling configuration is not applied in
the first scenario, the routers are using FIFO (First In First
Out) mechanism for sending packets on the link. This
mechanism does not assign priority to applications by
forming queues since there is only one queue. Each
packet that enters the router leaves through the outgoing
link according to the time of arrival. Since the model is
defined with high load regime for background
applications (HTTP, FTP, DB) and a large number of
background users simulated situation is that the
bottleneck link is 100% filled. Thus, we have created
necessary conditions for VoIP applications performance
degradation which are eliminated in subsequent scenarios
using different WFQ.

Picture 4: Packet loss for all scenarios

The comparative analysis of simulation results in graphics

from which we show those that illustrate the effect of
traffic scheduling on VoIP applications performances:
packet loss, end-to-end delay and delay variation [8], [9].
Picture 4 shows the total packet loss in all scenarios. This
loss is related to Background applications running on
TCP. As TCP based they are resending packets according
to their inbuilt mechanism. There are no losses in the first
(no QoS mechanism) and in the last (WFQ DSCP based
classification) scenario. Losses occur in other three
scenarios and these are caused by RED decongestion
mechanism. In all scenarios these losses do not effect the
VoIP application which whose performances were
observed.
Picture 5 shows two parallel graphics for VoIP
applications` end-to-end delay. The first graphic
represents all scenarios and the second all scenarios

Picture 5: End-to-end delay for all scenarios

612

REFERENCES
[1] Papastergiou, G., Georgiou1 C., Mamatas L.,
Tsaoussidis V., A delay-oriented prioritization policy
based on non-congestive queuing, International
journal of communication systems, Wiley online
library, 2011.
[2] Michalas A., Louta M., Fafali P., Karetsos G.,
Loumos V., Proportional delay differentiation
provision by bandwidth adaption of class-based
queue scheduling, International journal
of
communication systems, Wiley online library, 2004.
[3] Hussain S. A., An active scheduling paradigm for
open adaptive network environments, International
journal of communication systems, Wiley online
library, 2004.
[4] Mohammed A. H., Ali H. A., Mohammed J. H., The
affects of different queuing algorithms within the
router on QoS VoIP application usig OPNET,
International journal of computer network and
communications, 5(1), 2013.
[5] Tsolakou E., Nikolouzou E., Maniatis S., Venieris I.,
Definition and perfomance evaluation of network
services deploy over differentiated services network,
Journal of network and systems management, 12 (4),
2004.
[6] Aamir M., Zaidi M., Mansoor H., Performance
analysis of DiffServ based quality of service in a
multimedia wired network and VPN effect using
OPNET, International journal of computer science
issues, 9 (3), 2012.
[7] Asif M. H., El-Alfy M. E., Simulation-based
performance comparison of queueing disciplines for
differentiated services using OPNET, College of
computer science and engineering, 2014.
[8] Jeong-Soo H., Seong-Jin A., Jin-Wook C., Study of
delay patterns of weighted voice traffic of end-to-end
users on the VoIP network, International journal of
network management, 12 (5), 2002.
[9] Sabyasachi M., Khanna O. S., Fairness evaluation of
a DSCP based scheduling algorithm for a real-time
traffic
in
differentiated
services
network,
International journal of information and electronic
engineering, 3(4), 2013.

Picture 6: Delay variation for all scenarios

6. CONCLUSION
While simulating different WFQ mechanisms, the
changeable category was the classification type for active
applications. Queue forming, the manner of filling and the
time of servicing for each queue were influenced by:
queue forming criteria definition and static values
assignment. Every WFQ mechanism provided adequate
performances for the VoIP application.
There was no packet loss for VoIP application. The delay
in all scenarios with applied traffic scheduling mechanism
is less than 200ms which is acceptable (as it relates to
end-to-end delay, total delay). However there was a
significant difference in terms of performance of QoS
depending on the used packet classification mechanisms.
The best performance was given by the mechanism of
packet classification according to DSCP values in the IP
header.
Using this classification method allows the use of other
voice codecs that bring additional delay in signal
compression (e.g., G729, G.723, G.726, etc.), leaving
enough flexibility for other delays.

613

ANDROID APPLICATION FOR MOBILE PLATFORM LOCATION

TRACKING USING GPS
DEJAN GAVRILOVI
Serbian Armed Forces, Belgrade, gavra90@gmail.com
ALEKSANDAR VESELINOVI
Serbian Armed Forces, Belgrade, acikav90@gmail.com
IVAN TOT
Serbian Armed Forces, Belgrade, totivan@gmail.com
SAA STOJKOVI
Serbian Armed Forces, Belgrade, pudingicokolada@gmail.com
ALEKSANDAR VIDAKOVI
Serbian Armed Forces, Belgrade, aleksandar.v90@gmail.com

Abstract: Development of mobile communication technologies introduced a new dimension in geo-information systems.
Mobility is a feature which allows data collection and visualization easier and quicker. From the commander point of
view, having the location of his subordinate units is very important. Traditional maps can not fully satisfy users needs
since most of objects which have to be located are not static in space and time. In this paper a solution for Android
platform is presented which allows collection, storing and visualization of spatial data. Collection is done by using GPS
technical and visualization is done by using Google Maps service. The application runs in real time which is its main
advantage. Spatial data can be sent to target destination in a very short time.
Keywords: mobile, android, surveillance, user-oriented, simple.
better target tracking. User activates application on
targeted mobile device from desktop part of this project.
Targeted mobile device must be turned on and mobile
devices part of application must be installed. When
application is started, user can immediately see where
tracked device is and on every five seconds position is
being stored into database.

1. INTRODUCTION
In just a few years, Android has became one of the most
advanced operational system for mobile devices. Android
can function on many mobile platforms.
Since Google bought Android, the merging of many
Google services has begun. Now on every mobile device
that runs on Android, users can access Gmail, Google
Maps, Google drive etc. [1]

Challenges that this project had:

synchronize mobile devices with desktops part of
application,

It is well known fact that nowadays every mobile phone

posses GPS. Projects that include that technical aspect are
very useful, and can have a variety of usage in daily
life.[2]

targeted device must not notify user that tracking

service is being started,
simple data manipulation form,

This application gives users a very simple way for

tracking targeted mobile devices. With this application
user can also make history of tracking a particular mobile
device. All data that this application gathers is stored in
database and can be used for later usage.

user-oriented interface,
optimized and efficient database.
This application is still a prototype, but it can be used by
companies who have agents on field, so tracking them is
necessary. It can be also use if you want to track someone
with their knowledge. This application has one feature, a
boss is able to start application by sending a message to
user. User doesnt know that this app is started. There is

Application has two separate parts that work

simultaneously: first part is stored on mobile device, and
second part is desktop application that has database
backup and graphical interface with user-friendly map for
614

no any notification displayed on screen. So boss can thack

users. [6]

3. IMPLEMENTATION
User interface of this software was developed in that way
that any user who has essential computer knowledge can
use it. Whole application is user-oriented and there are not
many options. Main form has an interactive map for better
tracking. The second form is for data manipulating.
Geographical coordinates are stored into database and
they are connected with targets id or/and name. Also
there is login form which is presented on picture 4.

2. DESIGN
Based on all challenges that this project had, it was
concluded that best way for realization of this software is
to use Java programming language for desktop part of
application, Microsoft SQL database engine, and Java for
Android programming language for mobile devices part
of application.
Suggested software would use 3 groups of users. (picture 1.)

Picture 4. Login form

Interactive map is very easy to use. When process of
tracking is started, position of target is displayed on map.
Application tracks the location of device and on every
five seconds current position is saved into database. The
form with interactive map is displayed on picture 5.

Picture 1. UML use case

First group is administrator who can start tracking service
and can manipulate tracking data. The second group is all
other users of this software. In some cases this 2 groups of
users can be infect not aware that they are users. That
depends on nature of usage this software. Sef is a boss,
and sef is member of users group but with some privileges
that are mentioned in introduction.

At any moment user can see the history of tracking by

switching to data manipulation form. Manipulation form
is in fact a table that has location, coordinates of target,
name of the target, time and date of tracking data. Data
manipulation form is presented on picture 5.

Three different platforms were used in implementation of

this software. First, there is NetBeans that was used for
making desktop part of application. Second, there is
Microsoft Management Studio platform that was used for
database building and optimizing. Third and last is
Eclipse that was used for mobile part of application.
Whole application was developed in Windows 7
operational system. The logical scheme of database is
presented on picture 2.

Picture 5. Data manipulation form

Picture . Logical scheme of database

615

Tracking service is started by user and targeted user

doesnt know that he is being tracked. Application has a
silent start so theres no notification about starting a
tracking service. Application turns on GPS on mobile
device and 3G internet service or WiFi service also.
Targeted mobile device must be turned on and must have
a network signal. Tracking service is started by so called
silent signal which is in SMS form. As it was mentioned
earlier, target user doesnt know that tracking service is
started.

When web crawler is started, application parses data into

database and saves it. This process is automatic so user just
has to wait a few minutes. When data is collected, user then
can manipulate web crawlers from the same form. User can
delete, or even change selected web crawler. Web crawler
generator form is presented on picture 4.
The last form of this application is data manipulation
form. On this form user can access data that selected web
crawler gathered. This form is basic CRUD form, with
CREATE, READ, UPDATE, DELETE functions. One of
the search options on this form is word based search
engine. User can search data by letters or words. Picture 6
shows the data manipulation form.

4. CONCLUSION
The task for this project was to make software for
tracking mobile devices and tracking data manipulation.
Also that software must be efficient, reliable, optimized
and simple. This software is robust and user-friendly that
use techniques of tracking using many services that
mobile device provide. User can latter see the whole
history of tracking using relatively simple data
manipulating form. Because of its design which was
solved by using many patterns, this software can easily be
upgraded or modified. Future development of this
software can bring better interaction and better data
manipulation by adding map that shows history of
tracking.

REFERENCES
[1] Razvoj aplikacija za operativni sistem android,
skripta, 2009, Beograd
[2] Marjanica Ana: GPS kolektor prototip android
aplikacije, diplomski rad, 2011, Zagreb.
[3] Gavrilovi Dejan: Android aplikacija za praenje
lokacije mobilnog telefona korienjem GPS sistema,
diplomski rad, 2013, Beograd.
Picture 6. Data manipulation form

616

ADSORPTION-DESORPTION BASED RANDOM NUMBER GENERATOR

OLGA JAKI
IHTM Centre of Microelectronic Technologies, University of Belgrade, Serbia olga@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs,
DRAGAN TANASKOVI
IHTM Centre of Microelectronic Technologies, University of Belgrade, Serbia dragant@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs,
DANIJELA RANDJELOVI
IHTM Centre of Microelectronic Technologies, University of Belgrade, Serbia danijela@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs,
FILIP RADOVANOVI
IHTM Centre of Microelectronic Technologies, University of Belgrade, Serbia filip@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs,

Abstract: Data tracking and hacking is especially dangerous in modern defence forces where classified data
transmission must envolve cryptographic methods for secure and reliable data coding. The more unpredictable the
cipher is, the more reliable is the message. Hardware random number generator or true random number generator
(TRNG) is crucial part for every telecommunication system that involves secure and confidential electronic data
transfer (official state agencies, e-banking, military data networks) because it generates random numbers from a
physical process which provides statistically random noise signals, which are trully unpredictable contrary to pseudorandom number generators generated by various software algorithms. A typical hardware random noise generators
employs transducer to convert random physical process (thermal noise, photoelectric effect or other quantum
phenomena) to electrical signal, amplifiers and AD convertors. On the other hand, pseudo-random number generation
based on methods and algorithms may be examined by statistical tests for randomnes and proove if it is
cryptographically secure. We analyze the possibility to implement adsorption-based sensors noise for the creation of
allgorithm for pseudo-random number generaton and also the possibility of adsorption-based hardware random
generator.
Keywords: computer security, random number generator, noise, adsorption, desorption.
personal identification. According to Bruce Schneier, Key
management is the hardest part of cryptography and often
the Achilles heel of an otherwise secure system [2].

1. INTRODUCTION
The control of an access to a message that is being
transfered between different points or stored in a medium
prone to physical theft is an ancient challenge with ever
growing importance [1][3].

There are two classes of random number generators in use

today: pseudo-random number generators (PRNGs) and
true random number generators (TRNGs). PRNGs use
mathematical
algorithms
(completely
computergenerated) in order to produce a sequence of random
numbers, so with the same starting point (called seed)
they produce the same output and hence they are fully
deterministic (but still suitable for key generation in
stream cifer systems). On the other hand, TRNGs are
based on a completely stochastic unpredictable physical
process as a means to generate random numbers (like
atmospheric noise). Both, PRNGs and TRNGs experience
continous development and improvements. Some
attainments of PRNGs and TRNGs are listed below.
A. PRNG (deterministic random number generator)

In todays digital world security attacs are numerous,

either passive (unauthorized reading, traffic analysis,
electronic surveillance) or active (modification/deletion of
messages/files or denial of service). The quality of typical
security services, such as authentication, access control,
data confidentiality, data integrity, nonrepudiation, and
availability, strongly depends on different encryption
algorithms, digital signatures, and authentication
protocols that are used as security mechanisms designed
to detect/prevent attacs or recover data from a security
attack [3].
In every security domain (information security, computer
security, local network security or internet security),
random numbers are essential for many of these security
mechanisms, for instance for generation of secure keys
for coding through encifering and decifering, or for secure

built-in functions in software environments (rand() in

PHP or random() in MATLAB)
pseudo-random sequence based on Z-transform [4]

617

 pseudo-random bit generator based on lag time series

[5]
B. TRNG (physical random number generator) [6]

time, in a stable system (constant pressure, temperature),

the process reaches an equilibrium where adsorption and
desorption take place uninterruptedly but he surface
coverage remains constant: the number of adsorbed
particles per time unit equals the number of desorbed
particles per time unit. The stoichiometric equation for
this process is [16][18]

resistors' johnson noise

Zehner diode telegraph signal
lasers' output phase noise optical
q: spontaneous decay of radioactive nuclei

ka

Aa
A f + Ag

detection of photons behind a beamsplitter

kd

(1)

It sais that a particle in a gas phase (in case of an

adsorption on a gas-solid interface) Ag and a free
adsorption place on the solid surface Af reversibly form an
adsorbed particle Aa with an adsorption rate ka and
desorption rate kd.

The fact is that some physical processes, although being

truly stochastic, may not be suitable for truly random
number generation because of their noise spectrum which
is not entirely flat. The obtained bit sequence is then
colored, which means there are slightly more 0s than 1s or
vice versa, so there is a certain bias in the signal, which
has to be removed. So, even physical random number
generators have disadvantages, they may suffer from low
bit rate, non-zero bias, correlations along the bit sequence
and complex implementations.

Comings and leavings are stochastical events, but the

kinetics of the process can be treated in a deterministic
way at a macroscopic level. The deterministic equation
that corresponds to a stoichiometric one in (1) and
governs the monolayer adsorption in a closed system
(where the overal number of particles remains constant
over time) is [19]

There are numerous tests that have been developed to

verify the obtained sequence randomness for
cryptographic purposes. The first battery of statistical
tests for measuring the quality of a random number
generator that has been developed by George Marsaglia
(an american mathematician and computer scientist who
established the lattice structure of linear congruential
generators [7]) under name diehard battery of tests [8] is
no longer being maintained. Tests from the Statistical
Test Suite (STS) developed by the National Institute for
Standards and Technology (NIST) [9] became then the
state of the art in tests for randomness. Further
development has been done in that field in the context of
cluster analysis, online testing, tetsting of symetric
ciphers and hash functions [10] or real time statistics and
new test suits have been developed, like dieharder test
suite [11] but none of them is fully applicable for all
optical domain. New optical random signal generators or
tests for optical random /sequences are yet to be seen.

dN a
= ka ( N 0 N a )( M N a ) kd N a
dt

(2)

M is the number of adsorption sites on the solid surface,

Na is the instantaneous number of adsorbed particles,
M-Na is the instantaneous number of free adsorption sites
on the surface, N0 is the overall number of particles in the
system and N0-Na is the number of particles in a gas
phase.
The adsorption-process as a stochastic phenomena has
been studied. The analytical analysis of equilibrium
dynamics of fluctuations in adsorption-desorption process
is given in [20], [21]. The analytical analysis of kinetics
of fluctuations in adsorption-desorption process is given
in [22][24].
Here we propose the stochastic simulation algorithm
suitable for numerical interpretation of the time evolution
of the number of adsorbed particles Na. The algorithm
relies on the use of a built in random number generator
for simple distributions of chosen programming language.
The times between arrivals have an exponential
distribution with varying mean. The mean time between
arrivals equals the reciprocial of adsorption rate, i.e.
1/ka(N0-Na)( M-Na), according to (2). Likewise, the mean
time between departures equals the reciprocial of
adsorption rate, i.e. 1/kdNa.

Our intention here is to investigate the possibility to use

the adsorption-desorption process as a means for pseudo
random number generation or true random number
generation in electrical or optical domain.
In the text that follows, the stochastic nature of the
adsorption-desorption process will be adressed first. Then,
the algorithms for the generation of pseudo random
sequence will be proposed and tested. At the end, we
analyze an adsorption based optical random signal
generator.

The algorithm for the simulation of the process can be

summarized as follows:
1. Initialize Na to zero.
2. First transition is adsorption:

2. THE STOCHASTIC NATURE OF AN

ADSORPTION-DESORPTION PROCESS

generate t1 from exponential distribution with parameter

that equals the reciprocial of the initial adsorption rate:
1/kaN0M.

Adsorption-desorption process is a surface phenomena

[1215]. It takes place on a boundary between two
chemical phases (gas-solid, liquid-solid, gas-liquid).
Stochasically moving particles from one phase approach
the boundary surface, stay on the surface for a speciffic
residential time and leave the surface afterwards,
stochastically moving in the first phase and being able to
come to the boundary surface again after some time. In

set Na(t1) to 1.
3. If Na(ti)=0, adsorption is possible only, so:
generate a from exponential distribution with
parameter that equals the reciprocial of the
instantaneous adsorption rate: 1/kaN0M.
618

 set ti=ti-1+a

10
Na [molecules]

set Na(ti)= Na(ti-1)+1.

4. Otherwise, generate both times: a from exponential
distribution with parameter that equals the reciprocial
of the instantaneous adsorption rate: 1/ka(N0-Na)(
M-Na) and d from exponential distribution with
parameter that equals the reciprocial of the
instantaneous desorption rate: 1/kaNa. Then test which
transition is more likely to occure
If minimal free path time of all particles in a gas phase
is less than minimal residential time of all adsorbed
particles then set ti=ti-1+a and Na(ti)= Na(ti-1)+1

10

10

10

10

Otherwise set ti=ti-1+d and Na(ti)= Na(ti-1)-1

5. Return to step 3.

-10

10

-8

-6

10
t [s]

10

-4

10

-2

10

Figure 1: Time evolutions of the number of adsorbed

particles on the golden surface with 625 adsorption sites
in a system with overall 652222 initial gas particles,
adsorption rate constant being 8.18 10-27 1/moleculesec,
desorption rate constant being 1.182 1/sec: analytical
deterministic solution (black dashed line) and stochastic
simulation algorithm (blue zig-zag lines)

Na [molecules]

Figure 1 shows time evolutions of the number of adsorbed

particles according to analytical deterministic model (2)
and according to proposed stochastic simulation algorithm
for a hypothetical process with exemplary values for rate
constants, number of adsorption sites on the surface and
overall number of particles in the system. Rate constants
of adsorption-desorption process can be controlled by
system parameters (such as pressure, temperature...) and
they both vary in a broad span [25]. For instance, in case
of oxygene adsorption on gold, at room temperature,
under pressure of 50 kPa, in a reaction chamber of a 3
dm3, the adsorption rate constant is 8.18.10-27, and the
desorption rate constant is 118.21. With ease (by change
in pressure or temperature in technologically feasible
limits) the rate constants change of several orders of
magnitude can be obtained and the new response has new
kinetics and new equilibrium dynamics (new response
time and new stationary surface coverage.

330
310
290

270
100

Generally, every adsorption process has the same shape of

time evolution of the number of adsorbed particles,
regardless of the initial parameters (the proposed
algorithm can be adapted for any initial value, different
from zero, which is unlikely even in deep space, it usually
is some former stationary value). It is the shape of
exponential growth with distinguishable response time
and equilibrium value of stationary surface coverage. Far
from equilibrium (at the beginning of the process) the
fluctuations are the most visible, but they are omnipresent
in time and space.

120
t [ns]

140

160

Figure 2: The number of adsorbed particles during the

transition period (golden surface with 625 adsorption
sites, initially 652222 gas particles in a system, adsorption
rate constant 8.18 10-27/moleculesec, desorption rate
constant 1.182 1/sec): deterministic solution (black
dashed line) and stochastic simulation (blue zig-zag lines)

Na [molecules]

626

Figure 2 shows the deterministic solution for and

stochastic simulations of the number of adsorbed particles
during the transition period for the same system (surface
of gold, 625 adsorption sites, 652222 gas particles in a
gas phase at the beginning, adsorption rate constant 8.18
10-27 1/moleculesec, desorption rate constant 1.182 1/sec).
Further focusing on that part of the evolution curve would
clearly show that the adsorption is a descreete process that
exhibits very fast transitions. That is extreemly important
for physical realization and key management in many
cryptographic applications.

625
624
623
622
621
5.05

5.06

5.07

5.08

5.09

5.1

t [s]

Figure 3: The simulated number of adsorbed particles in

equilibrium (surface of gold, 625 adsorption sites, 652222
particles in a system, adsorption rate constant 8.18 10-27
1/moleculesec, desorption rate constant 1.182 1/sec): blue
zig-zag lines and adsorption limit (black dashed line)

Figure 3 shows simulated number of adsorbed particles in

equilibrium for that system with an important difference:
streight line does not represent the deterministic solution
but the adsorption limit - the maximal possible number of
adsorbed particles and that is the overall number of
adsorption centres on the surface.

Equilibrium fluctuations of the number of adsorbed

molecules are fluctuations around some stationary value
619

and that value can never reach M (the maximal number of

adsorption centres on the surface). In equilibrium, surface
is never fully occupied during monolayer adsorption, but
the fact is that equilibrium surface coverage can be
influenced by technological and environmental conditions
(surface area, pressure, temperature). That is important for
issues such as seting of the threshold level and debiasing
of a signal in practical applications.

by the TRNG (Figure 4) that can be used for simple visual

analysis evaluation test of bitmaps obtained by PRNGs.
Figure 5 shows their example for the importance of
specifying the complete environment where the PRNGs
have been tested: bitmap generated by Bo Allens code
based on PHPs rand(), written on Microsoft Windows
platform. Allens algorithm, the same code passsed tests
and did not show patterns in simple visual analysis in a
Linux environment or with the use of mt_rand() function
instead of rand().

Read-out signal from the surface where adsorption takes

place depends on the sensing mechanism. Adsorption
based sensing relies on various mechanisms. For instance,
adsorption induced mass fluctuations of micro resonators
cause frequency fluctuations and we have read-out in
electrical domain. On the other hand, adsorption based
sensors famous for their speed and sensitivity are
plasmonic sensors and they have optical read-out which
may be important for working in all optical domain.
The purpose of this work the investigation of the
possibility that the adsorption-desorption process may be
a good basis for pseudo random number generation or
true random number generation in electrical, but also in
optical domain. In the text that follows we sugest and
analyze different algorithms and solutions.

3. STOCHASTIC SIMULATION ALGORITHM

AND RANDOM NUMBER GENERATION
Figure 5: Bitmap generated by Bo Allens code based on
PHPs rand(), written on Microsoft Windows platform,
published open at http://www.random.org/analysis

There are many pseudo random number generators in a

digital world, they can be used as built-in functions,
incorporated in a programming language, or they can be
designed according to a custom designed algorithm. The
fact is that the quality of the generated random sequence
may vary, depending on the application: the quality
depends strongly on the combination of programming
language, operating system, and functions used in the
programming code.

The algorithms we proposed were implemented in

MATLAB R2012a environment, on Microsoft
Windows64 platform.
The first algorithm we propose for PRNG stream bit or
digit (cifers 0-9) generation. It is based on the algorithm
for the simulation of the adsorption-desorption process
from previous section, with following speciffics:
generation of time sequence is ommited,
random number of adsorbed molecules is transformed
into random bits by modulus after division with 2,
mod(,2) function,
mod(,10) was for transformation into random digits
for sample of m values exponentialy distributed around
mean value lambda the following expression is used
sample = -lambda* log(1-rand(sample_size,1))
final sequence of random numbers is then scaled into
bit image by using imagesc(,,) for the purpose of simple
visual analysis
The second algorithm we propose for PRNG generation is
based on a snapshot of the real time animation of a
process. It is organized as follows:
1. Initialize constants and parameters for surface
dimension and process simulation
2. calculate instantaneous adsorption and desorption rates
(ads and des)
3. If instantaneous number of adsorbed particles Na is
zero, adsorption should take place,
4. Otherwise,

Figure 4: Bitmap generated by the true random number

generator at http://www.random.org
Randomness and Integrity Services Ltd, organization that
runs free and paid online services based on true random
number generation (games, gambling, random number
based lists, strings, maps, web tools and education) at
http://www.random.org, published open bitmap generated
620

5.

6.

7.
8.
9.

a. if Na equals M, desorption should hapen

b. otherwise test
i. If minimal free path time of all particles in a
gas phase is less than minimal residential time
of all adsorbed particles then opt for adsorption
ii. otherwise opt for desorption
In case of adsorption, choose random row and colon
among all instantaneous free adsorption sites and set
pausing time to a number from exponential distribution
with reciprocial instantaneous adsorption rate as
parameter lambda
In case of desorption, choose random row and colon
among all instantaneous occupied adsorption sites and
set pausing time to a number from exponential
distribution with reciprocial instantaneous desorption
rate as parameter lambda
pause for that time and show the image of
instantaneous coverage on the surface
return to step 2
At any moment during that loop save bitmap image

Figure 7: Bitmap generated by digit stream PRNG

algorithm

4. RESULTS
The obtained bitmap images were first examined by
simple visual analysis and then by two different test suits.
The first test suite provided John Walker, founder of
Autodesk, Inc. and co-author of AutoCAD at Fourmilab
Switzerland page http://www.fourmilab.ch/random/. It
performs diehard test, NIST test and ENT test (which
besides other tests, measures entropy). The second test
suite named Java Random Test suite provided Zur
Aougav, under open source software licence at
http://jrandtest.sourceforge.net/. It includes general
statistical tests, NIST and DIEHARD tests.

Figure 8: Bitmap generated by the algorithm for PRNG

generation based on a snapshot of the real time animation
of an adsorption-desorption process
Stochastic simulation of the process and real time
animation indicate that future steps could be made in the
direction of developing the true hardware adsorption
based random number generator.

5. CONCLUSION
Adsorption-desorption process as a means for data
encryption has been analyzed. For the first time the
stochastic simulation of asdsorbtion-desorption process
has been done. The simulation is in accordance with
analytical expression for the mean number of adsorbed
particles in a monolayer on a homogeneous surface.
Three algorithms have been proposed for generation of
pseudo random numbers and tested in three different
ways: through simple visual analysis and two different
test suits (John Walkers and Zur Aougavs test suite) each
of which encorporates standard NIST test suite and
diehard tests among other statistical tests.

Figure 6: Bitmap generated by bit stream PRNG

algorithm
The bit stream PRNG algorithm did not pass any test
(Figure 6). The digit stream PRNG algorithm did not pass
simple visual test (Figure 7), but with modifications (after
filtration) it could pass some of tests in John Walkers and
Zur Aougavs test suits. The algorithm for PRNG
generation based on a snapshot of the real time animation
of an adsorption-desorption process proved superior
through all tests.

The investigation showed that the development of the true

hardware adsorption based random number generator
could be feasible and beneficial for optical data
treansmission and networking.

621

Kinetics, vol. 2. London: Imperial College Press,

1998.
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101, 2014.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work has been funded by Serbian Ministry of
Education, Science and Technological Development
within the framework of the project TR 32008.

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Kurtsiefer, and H. Weinfurter, High speed optical
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622

INTEGRATION OF SMART HOMES IN GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR

CONTROL AND MONITOR OVER INTERNET
DRAGAN RAKITA
Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, dragan.rakita@rt-rk.com
ITVAN PAP
Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, istvan.papp@rt-rk.com
MILIVOJ BOI
RT-RK.doo, Novi Sad, milivoj.bozic@rt-rk.com
SAA VUKOSAVLJEV
RT-RK.doo, Novi Sad, sasa.vukosavljev@rt-rk.com

Abstract: This paper describes the control and monitoring of smart homes via the Internet. Communication is
implemented according to TR-069 protocol that provides secure and efficient communication. Remote control increases
user comfort, reduces energy consumption and increases the security of the facility. Monitoring multiple smart homes
gives ability to compare relevant data, such as energy consumption and usage time of particular devices, giving user
tools for better understanding what is going on in his smart home. The way of using smart home devices is changing as
the user gets new control capabilities that previously did not have. New features provide user with access to data
wherever he is located. Data security is increased because the burden of security shifts from smart home to Cloud
server. The novelty described in this paper is the usage of TR-069 protocol in home automation, and integration of
different facilities in unified cloud platform.
Keywords: Smart Home, TR-069, Cloud.

1. INTRODUCTION

the burden of securing data is shifted from users to the

cloud server. The amount of data that can be stored is
much higher in the cloud server then in typical user hard
drive.

Smart Home represents integrated and optimized system

for centralized control of home appliances. Existence of
Internet network opens up possibilities for remote control
and monitoring of more than one smart home. The main
focus of this paper relates to showing the connection and
control of smart homes in order to increase the comfort,
energy efficiency and security in their homes.

The second chapter of this work introduces the concept of

a smart home along with devices that are currently
supported and network interfaces that control smart home.
The third chapter will detail network interface that
communicate with a cloud server following up with
example of their communication. After that we have
experimentally obtain data of system time response.

Benefits for the household provided by remote controlling

a variety of devices are many. A good use case is turning
on the boiler, heater or air conditioner before coming into
the home. Applications can be found in uploading usage
and behavioral data from motion sensors to cloud where
cloud can analyze the data and make rules for power
consumption optimizations [1] [2]. On the other hand, the
integration of smart homes in one global system gives the
ability to control the power distribution level, which
allows for timely responses and the possibility of
redistribution and energy savings.

2. THE SYSTEM
Smart home described in this paper consists of smart
devices and the central manager. Central manager have
different network interfaces that provides user with
different control possibilities of the smart home. The main
focus of this work is extending list of interfaces with
interface that connect smart home to a global cloud
system. Top level architecture can be seen in Figure 1. It
provides architectural block diagram with focus on
network interfaces.

Cloud server offers many benefits for smart home. The

user is given access to data regardless of location
wherever he is located. Data security is increased because
623

described in next chapter.

ACS

3. CPE NETWORK INTERFACE

CPE
Controller

Network interface implements CWMP communication

protocol. It is used to connect Home Manager with ACS
(eng. Auto-Configuration Server) cloud server. CWMP is
explained in technical report 069 (TR-069) [5]. Protocol
provides an efficient communication mechanism over
standardize and secure connection.

Central
manager

UPnP
network
interface

Smart
Device1

Smart
Device1

LANnetwork
interfacedesigned
forbrowsers
LANnetwork
interfacedesigned
forAndroid
application

Smart
Device2

TR069 spec defines client-server architecture where there is

one server and many clients. Server is web based. It is called
ACS. Client can be any device that implements protocol and
complies with defined data model. Clients are called CPE
(eng. Customer-premises equipment). ACS allows
configuration of CPE controller with its network portal. The
portal is used for the control of individual smart home,
grouping several of them and can be used for making usage
statistics. Any change in the parameters is stored in ACS and
user can see history of parameter changes. ACS supports
additional HTTPS communication with JSON messages that
allow user different way of controlling devices that are
present in the ACS [6]. STUN protocol [8], which is part of
TR-069, allows exchange of notification from ACS to CPE
controller.

Smart
Device3

SmartHome
Figure 1. Smart Home Overview
Smart devices that are integrated into the system
communicate via ZigBee wireless network with a central
manager. Devices that are supported in the smart home
are:
Smart Switches

CPE controller is the one who is connecting ACS with

central manager of the smart home. It implements
connection and data model management to ACS. Device
statistics such as power consumption are periodically
obtained by central manager and collected in the SQLite
database while the state of device parameters updates with
each change [7]. CPE has the ability to send data to the
server in two ways:

Smart outlet
Remote control
Motion sensors
Smart dimmers have the ability to switch lights on and off
and control the dimming level of the bulb. Smart outlets
can switch electric circle on and off using build in relay
and measure device consumption.

Immediately when change on device occurs.

System is centralized, where in the system center is Home

Manager application. Home Manager represents bridge
between ZigBee network that smart devices use and
wireless Wi-Fi or cable LAN network. It is used to
manage devices in the home using the ZigBee network.
Smart device can send event messages to the manager and
also process received message from the manager [4].

Periodically a fixed time intervals. Each CPE client can

have different connection frequency time that can be
configured from ACS server.
While CPE clients use TR069 interface to communicate
with ACS, users can access it in one of two ways using
web UI or mobile applications. Mobile applications use
secure HTTP interface of ACS server.

For expanding central manager control possibilities

several network interfaces are implemented:

Remote
controler

UPnP network interface

LAN interface designed for Mobile applications.

ZigBee

LAN interface designed for web browser.

ZigBee

Android HTTPS
application

CPE network interface used for communication with

global cloud system.

CWMP

Smart
dimmer

ACS

UPnP network interface can be used for control of smart

home but it is mainly used by Mobile application to
discover central manager on LAN. Interface designed for
Mobile application use TCP connection and allow user to
control smart devices. Interface designed for web browser
gives user bigger control of central manager including
configure and control of smart devices, other interfaces
and ZigBee network. The first two interfaces are
described by the authors in [4], whereas the CPE network
interface for connecting to the global cloud system is
contribution of this work. Details of implementation are

HTTPS

Smart
outlet

CWMP
ZigBee

ACSnetwork
portal

ZigBee

Motion
sensor

Figure 2. System overlook

624

Figure 2 shows communication channels between

different devices in system. CPE network interface and
smart devices shown in Figure 1 are all part of the smart
home.

needed, and forwards it to CPE controller. CPE controller

chooses what to do with obtained message, depending on
the settings for that parameter CPE controller can:
Immediately initiate a CWMP communication and send
the parameter.

Details about actual communication/message flow

between end device and User application will be given on
example shown on Figure 3. Example demonstrates
message flow in both directions, when messages are
initiated from client and end device

All settings related to CPE ACS communication can be

configured using web interface on ACS server. In this
example, CPE controller immediately initiates the CWMP
communications and the changes of parameter are sent to
the ACS. Android is periodically checking with ACS for
new changes on server with secure HTTP request. And
when change occurs Android application will, with next
HTTP request, get event.

Smart device

Turn
device On

Measured electrical consumption is sent periodically from

a smart outlet in a predefined time interval. Parameter that
the central manager receives is the mean value of
consumption over that interval. CPE is keeping each
reading of consumption and guarantee their placement on
the ACS server. When connection between CPE and ACS
is established energy consumption data is started to
transfer. With the energy consumption parameter CPE
controller is sending two additional parameters that
represent time slot, start and end time, in which energy
consumption is measured. When sending energy
consumption ACS server groups consumption values into
larger portions of data in order to reduce the volume of
data that is needed to be sent. The size of time period is
adjustable parameter in the ACS server that the user has
the right to control via a network portal. When
consumption is saved on the server, through the network
portal can be compared to the consumption of each outlet
in smart home during the period of the last few months.

HTTPS:
get parameter

Figure 3. Communication examples

The first example represents change of the parameter
from user Android applications. Android application via
HTTPS protocol request sends JSON message to the
ACS, in respond of HTTPS protocol ACS notify Android
application for successfully received parameter. An
example of a JSON message send by Android is shown in
Figure 4
{
"deviceIdStruct":
{
"manufacturer":"RT-RK",
"oui":"FC-FE-88",
"productClass":"RK-OBLO",
"serialNumber":"5784324"
},
"paths":["Device.EnergyManagementService.
LightControl.Dimmer.1.Mode"],
"values":["On"],
"username":"admin",
"messageType":64
}

4. EXPERIMENTALLY OBTAINED DATA

Figure 4. Example of JSON message

Figure 5 shows
measurements.

ACS initiates communication with the CPE controller

with use of STUN protocol. Parameters are passed to the
CPE controller who is within central manager via CWMP
protocol. In this example the communication of CWMP is
abstracted to reduce the complexity of the image. When
command/message is received on central manager it is
converted to smart home understandable format and sent
to end device over ZigBee network.

the

response

9
11
13

The experiment was conducted in the form of time

measurement of system response from the network portal
to smart sockets. The measurement was done with the
help of a microphone which on one end is recording
sound of click of computer mouse that causes action on
ACS network portal, and on the second end the sound of
electrical relay found in the smart outlet.

time

of

Time[s]

4
3
2
1

Second part of example demonstrates message flow

which is initiated from smart dimmer end device.
Message is sent over the ZigBee network to the central
manager. Central manager receives message from smart
dimmer device, executes appropriate local action if

Numberofmeasurements

Figure 5. System response time.

625

19

15
17

CPE Controller with

central manager

ACS

Discard message.

ACS
network portal

Detect changes but to wait for the periodic initiation of

CWMP protocol.

twenty

The mean value of the response is close to 2 seconds. The

response of the system depends on many factors, because
it uses a lot of different protocols (HTTPS, TR-069,
ZigBee) that introduce delay. Response time depends on
the structure of the network protocols over which it can
communicate because it can slow down communication.
Remote control feature added to smart home system is not
designed to have real time instructiveness but to ensure
message delivery in secure way. Therefore the response
of two seconds is satisfactory. To control smart home
where the actions of control can be momentarily seen user
can use other LAN network interfaces that provide a
significantly better time response.

going and can turn light on.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was partially financed by the Ministry of
Science and Technology of the Republic of Serbia,
project technological development TR-32029th.

REFERENCES
[1] Mrazovac,B.,
Bjelica,M.Z.,
Kukolj,D.,
Todorovic,B.M., Samardzija,D.: A human detection
method for residential smart energy systems based
on Zigbee RSSI changes, Consumer Electronics,
IEEE Transactions on , 58(3) (2012) 819-824.
[2] Kastelan,I., Katona,M., Miljkovic,G., Maruna,T.,
Vucelja,M.: Cloud enhanced smart home
technologies, Consumer Electronics (ICCE), 2012
IEEE International Conference on , (2012) 504-505
[3] Multilayer approach to cost-efficient home
automation, Bozic, Milivoj, Golan Giora, Mrazovac
Bojan, Papp Istvan, and Bjelica Milan Z. , 2014
IEEE International Conference on Consumer
Electronics China, 04/2014, Shenzen, China,
(2014)
[4] Jedno reene sprenog sistema za interaktivnu
kontrolu pametnig kua, Boi Milivoj, Bojan
Mrazovac, Itvan Pap, Mirko Vucelja, Milo
Jankovi, zbornik radova fakulteta tehnikih nauka,
broj 14/2012.
[5] TR-069 protokol - Amendment 4. Broadband Forum.
July,2011.-http://www.broadband-forum.org/technical /
download/TR-069_Amendment-4.pdf
[6] JSON JavaScript Object Notation http://www.json.org/
[7] SQLite baza podataka - https://sqlite.org/
[8] STUN protokol. http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5389

5. CONCLUSION
Through this work was presented the smart home
integration into the global system of control and
supervision over the internet. And introduce concepts and
interfaces that allow integration and communication with
cloud server. After that it was given some real life use
case scenarios, but the focus is placed on the
implementation of solutions. This work describes the
system and the communication that are used in the
system. The advantage of this solution is that it extends
the existing platform that uses the TR-069 protocol and
giving user safe and effective control of a smart home.
As proven in this paper TR069 is adequate protocol for
smart home integration into cloud. Adding new devices to
system would consist of an expanding of the
corresponding TR-069 data model to support the new
device. Using TR069 and smart outlet devices as
infrastructure work could be focused on building
automatic control based on prediction algorithms that can
find and identify predictive behavior and take action on.
Example of possible predictive behavior is when user
comes home and turns on air condition depending on
outside and inside temperature, or when, with help of
motion sensors, home can predict to what room is user

626

CLOUD COMPUTING
APPLICATION IN SERBIAS DEFENSE INDUSTRY
ALEKSANDAR STOJANOVI
Military Academy, Belgrade, aleksandarss@ptt.rs

Abstract: In modern business conditions characteristic for the world economic crisis and declining business activities
and investments, Cloud Computing has emerged as a concept offering new business opportunities. World experience
has shown that companies, instead of large investments in information-communication technologies, frequently direct
their budgets to basic activities increasing their value and contracting out their informatics support to other companies
(outsourcing). Cloud computing is a model through which Internet service providers deliver their informatics resources
to companies and charge their services in accordance with the time and size of use. This paper is aimed at pointing to
the opportunities of applying Cloud computing in the companies of Serbias defense industry in order to improve their
organizational structure and dynamize business processes without large investments in information-communication
technologies. This would result in considerable business cost reduction and quicker decision-making based on accurate
information. Management structures and management companies should establish a business strategy based on Cloud
computing and specify adequate business models under new conditions. As this refers to informatics support to public
sector companies (publicly-owned resources), external effects that could be achieved should be evaluated. Those are,
first of all, internetworking of public companies of Serbias defense industry with state, scientific and education
institutions and encouragement to further development of private sector companies.
Key words: Cloud Computing, Internet, information technologies, company, management.

dynamism both in company organization and in adjusting

the services offered to users.

1. INTRODUCTION
Modern market conditions force companies to be very
dynamic and require continuing adjustment to buyers
needs. Adequate informatics support is necessary in
business processes as well as a developed information
system and trained staff that include large investments in
information-communication technologies. Investments in
costly informatics equipment with an uncertain outcome
of implementation of the solutions offered and
impossibility to provide professional and trained staff
have imposed new business models based on Cloud
computing. Internet providers offer effective use of
informatics resources and services at reasonable prices,
tested and checked business solutions, unlimited access to
users and necessary data and services 24 hours a day,
seven days a week, 365 days a year.

New business tendencies urge one dilemma to

management structures and management of the companies
of Serbias defense industry. It is whether to invest in
information technologies (IT) equipment and staff
training or to contract out informatics support services of
the public/private sector and focus on the basic activity,
production or service provision in order to achieve
competitive advantage on the market. In view of the
ongoing recession and public pressure for less budgetary
resources paid to public companies, the other option
seems to be more attractive as it leads to more effective
company business and allows more rational use of
available public sector informatics resources.
The security issue is still one of the major challenges in
Cloud computing application. Cloud computing application
requires sophisticated protection methods and security risk
management. IT management and company management are
responsible for those and this purports good IT knowledge
by managers at all management levels. The intention of this
papers author is to offer an idea and some basic information
concerning management of companies of Serbias defense
industry and other public companies concerning possibilities
of Cloud computing application in the public sector. This
could contribute to cost reduction and increase in business
effectiveness.

Cloud computing allows companies to be dedicated to

their core businesses for offering quality products or
services to buyers. Secondary or accompanying
businesses like informatics support should be contracted
out to other companies providing those services
(outsourcing). Naturally, they would pay the acceptable
price for the services offered. Informatics services support
fall within highly-qualified jobs that require educated and
trained staff and modern information-communication
equipment. Those jobs demand constant training for new
technologies that change fast and thus require great
627

IBM Company studies concerning Cloud Computing

application effects, which have covered a large number of
users of their services in the period 2009-2012 (Picture 2),
illustrate that Cloud Computing causes a significant
decrease in capital investments in IT equipment and
development, reduction of operating costs, workforce and
energy, by an average of 83% annually. It also improves
user service, cuts waiting time, allows more effective use
of energy and boosts realization of innovative projects.

2. CLOUD COMPUTING CONCEPT

Emergence of the Cloud computing concept dates back to
2008. when changes occurred in the access of particularly
large internet providers that understood new reality and
offered to companies to contract out informatics recourses
in the cloud [1].
There are a number of definitions of Cloud computing in
literature depending on the point of view of its observance
and size. The strategic document of the European Union
Releasing Resources Cloud Computing in Europe
provides a simple explanation: Cloud Computing in
simplified terms can be understood as storage, processing
and use of data stored on remote computers and can be
assessed over the Internet [2]. Fosters definition is also
frequently used and he describes Cloud computing as A
large-scale distributed company paradigm that is driven
by economics of scale, in which a pool of abstracted,
virtualized, dynamically-scalable, managed computing
power, storage, platforms and services are delivered on
demand to external customers over the Internet [3].
Research carried out by the largest internet providers such
as Amazon, IBM and Google, show that Cloud computing
services are becoming increasingly attractive both from
economic and technical points of view and there is a trend
of continuing rise of their use that will keep on in the
future.

Picture 2: IBM Case Study [4]

2.1. Cloud Computing Arhcitecture and

Caracteristic
Cloud computing architecture can be divided in four
layers: a hardware layer (infrastructure), platform layer
and application layer (Picture 3).

Picture 1: Impact of Cloud Computing on Enterprise IT

Spending
Picture 1 shows graphs that estimate company investment
in the Cloud computing market of services and
infrastructure and one can notice that needs for buying
licenses, hardware and software have dropped.

Picture 3: Cloud Computing Architecture

Cloud computing architecture is modular and each layer is
coupled with layers above and below. Each layer operates
independently from each other. The hardware layer controls
cloud physical resources (servers, routers, energy and
cooling systems) as well as network traffic. It is usually
implemented in data centers that have a large number of
connected servers through switches and routers.

Trend extrapolation based on analyses of time series shows

that the factors influencing promotion of Cloud computing
will have been constantly rising from 2013. to 2020.
Practice by many companies worldwide has shown that
application of this new business model supported by
Cloud computing boost business opportunities through
innovations and also considerably reduces business costs
and investments in information-communication technologies.

The infrastructure layer covers computer resources and

data memory systems. A layer is formed after dividing
physical resources by using virtualization techniques.
628

The platform layer consists of operating systems and

application framework.

leases software from its data centre to the user

accessing the system via Internet and based on
subscription. Example: Google Document and Google
Calendar.

According to the US National Institute of Standards and

Technology, the Cloud model has five key characteristics,
three models for offering services and four
implementation models [5] (Picture 4).

Platform-as-a-Service (Paas )- provides application

development and platform where users themselves can
create applications that will start up and run on the
Web. Examples: Google AppEngine, Microsoft Azure
Services.
Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS) - refers the use of
infrastructure based on virtual or physical resources.
The user pays for the services that he really uses based
on consumption (pay-per-use) and time of use.
Example: IaaS is provided to Amazon through the cloud
Elastic Cloud (EC2).

2.3. Cloud models

Basic cloud models are:
public (external)
private (internal)
hybrid and
community
Public (external) clouds are a model where providers
offer their resources as publicly accessed. For service
providers, this is a special convenience as there is no
need for a star-up investment in infrastructure.
However, the public cloud often raises the issue of
security and control over data and network and in some
business models this could reduce effectiveness.
Examples: Amazon EC2, Google AppEngine,
Force.com, etc.

Picture 4. Cloud Definition Framework

On-demand self-service means that the user can
independently choose the time of access and computer
resources he wishes to start, duration of service and data
preservation storage. The user pays for resource rent
services according to the time of use and their size. The
service provider supplies infrastructure security and bears
responsibility and risks for its functioning.

Private (internal) cloud purports use of resources by

only one user allowing maximum control over data,
security, reliability and quality of services. In this case,
the company owns complete infrastructure and has
control over applications delivered in the private cloud.
The location of the private cloud is usually in the
company premises but it could also be at some separate
location.

Broadband network access A broadband network access

to programming services by using available platforms
(computers, cell phones, PDA devices).
Resource pooling Computer resources are connected by
the service provider through the model of different
physical and virtual resources. Computer resources mean
the network and its capacity, computer processors and
memory, virtual techniques that are dynamically allocated
and removed according to user requests.

The companies for which security and privacy of

information is very important and which wish to optimize
the resources within the company decide for this option
by developing a private cloud independently or they give
it to some other provider. Private clouds are a suitable
model in state institutions for confidential business and in
academic and scientific institutions for education or
research activities.

Rapid elasticity Cloud computing possibilities could be

rapidly and elastically started or lessened when not
demanded any more.
Measured service Cloud computing systems check and
optimize the use of resources by measuring and
influencing abilities of service abstraction) data storage,
active user orders, etc.)

Hybrid cloud is a combination of public and private

clouds. This combination attempts to bridge the
limitations of both models in order to achieve
optimization of security and privacy and to avoid
investment in information-communication equipment.
One part of infrastructure that is security sensitive
remains in the private cloud under control of the mother
company whereas the other part is in the hybrid cloud.

2.2. Cloud service delivery models

The Cloud computing delivery model SPI (Software
Platform Infrastructure) denotes the three largest service
groups that are offered through the cloud: Software-as-aService (SaaS), Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS) and
Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS).

Some companies find that it is more rational and effective

to use the public and private cloud at the same time.
When one company keeps confidential data that must not

Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) The service provider

629

be exposed to the possibility that an unauthorized person

has an access to them, the private cloud is then used.
Also, the company may have needs for complex
processing of a large amount of data such as various
research and estimates requiring many computer
resources. In such a case, if those are not confidential
data, it is more suitable to use the public cloud. This
would result in less spending on additional investments in
infrastructure.
When several organizations share the same cloud
structure, it is a community cloud. Infrastructure of the
community cloud supports special organizations having
joint needs, distinct security requests, etc. They can be
managed by organizations themselves or by another
Cloud computing service provider.
Picture 5. Functioning of the MilCloud System [7]

3. FOREIGN EXPERIENCE
The US Department of Defense MilCloud service [6] is
especially interesting from the point of view of
application in military industry. The US Department of
Defense (DOD), at the beginning of February 2014,
started up a new Cloud computing service MilCloud in
order to reduce IT expenses and offer services to its
military and civil users such as military industry
companies, scientific, education and other institutions.
MilCloud offers an integrated service package including
possibilities for users to configurate infrastructure
resources and manage applications on a self-service basis.

Cloud service includes and shares virtual computer

environment also known as Virtual Datacenter (VDC).
Users may configurate and manage their resources in
VDC alone, or those resources may be automatically
configurated with the use of the Orchestrator function that
simplifies and automatizes management of functions
relating to development, testing and migration of
configurations in VDC. Administrators can control the
share of resources and their availability to other MilCloud
users. The central MilCloud help desk provides support at
all levels.

The MilCloud system has been developed by the Defense

Information Systems Agency (DISA) that is responsible
for managing the military communication infrastructure.
DISA is also competent for Cloud service support,
standardization of IT security procedures. MilCloud
allows integration of various applications at the Center
Date Core (CDC). MilCloud is a foundation of the joint
information setting of the Core Data Center service and is
a basis for connecting all military service networks in a
unique share system for security information. MilCloud
infrastructure contains strict security protocols for the
protection of data in DOD, or in basic data centers.
MilCloud can also support DOD organizations, military
personnel and other users anywhere on earth, when they
access the system by using computers and other devices
(cell phones, etc.) with necessary authorizations.

Foreign experience shows that public-private ownership is

becoming more frequently accepted in the field of
military industry as the lack of budgetary resources
imposes other forms of joint capital in order to fund major
investment projects with private companies for the
realization of projects relating to implementation and
maintenance of the information system for SAPF [8]
(abbreviation
of
Standard-AnwendubgssoftwareProduktFamilien) military needs. The information system
is based on the SAP [9]. Enterprise resource planning
(ERP). HANA SAP is now already in use for the
realization of some military industry projects.

4. MODEL CLOUD COMPUTING IN

SERBIA'S DEFENSE INDUSTRY
Business activities in the companies of Serbias Defense
Industry are performed with a larger or smaller support by
IT that are mostly maintained by their own staff. There
are also contracts with public or private companies
offering support as requested by users. According to
adopted development strategies, considerable investments
have been planned for their information-communication
technologies. Companies in this field do not have
opportunities to easily and quickly adjust to changes as
they have a large number of employees, classic
organizational structure with some elements project teams
and incomplete software solutions in financing,
accounting, commercial transactions and logistics and less
in production, marketing, management of user relations,
controlling, management or business intelligence. The
other group of public companies with developed
information systems has a low level of IT equipment

Already in 2008, DISA allowed its users to start up

applications an access to Cloud Compuring platforms
titled Rapid Access Computing Environment (RACE),
Picture 5. After many years of security checks and tests,
the system proved to be stable and reliable so that over
time an increasing number of DOD organizations
transferred the duties that have not been particularly
sensitive to Cloud Computing structures.
Users may access the service via self-service web-based
tools, configurate infrastructure resources and manage the
started application without direct intervention by DISA
support staff.
All MilCloud products and services are connected with
the Department of Defense Information Network
(DODIN) information network and meet security
standards and protocols.
630

utilization (computer networks, servers, computers,

databases) ranging to 30%. This raises the issue of
effectiveness or cost effectiveness of such investments in
the public sector.

both in organizational and business aspects with military

industry, MTI, TOC, ANP, UoD and other. In order to
implement Cloud computing, it is necessary to provide
the following: Data center, resource management, identity
and security management and virtualization level. In some
cases there must be cooperation between separate clouds.

Companies of Serbias Defense Industry are organically

associated with state institutions, with organization
wholes of the Ministry of Defense (MOD) first of all:
Military Technical Institute (MTU), Aeronautical Plant
Moma Stanojlovic (ANP MOST), Technical Test Center
(TOC), Technical Overhauling Institution (TRZ),
University of Defense (UoD), an with other public and
private companies as suppliers or buyers of products and
services. The realization of specific projects allows their
mutual cooperation, cooperation with universities and
institutes such as The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Faculty of Technology and Faculty of Electrical
Engineering, Institute Mihajlo Pupin and other.

The Data center could be organized by the Ministry of

Defense that would be competent to manage Cloud
computing resources and security. During development of
the Data center, care must be taken of its quality in
accordance with specific demands for Cloud computing
implementation (scalability, flexibility, high availability,
security, etc.).
Also, resources of other public companies connected with
defense industry could be Internet worked.
For example, the public company Telekom Serbia has all
necessary resources and infrastructure that it could
commercially offer to military industry companies.

Market business conditions constantly impose adjustment

to the buyers needs and innovations in order to maintain
competitiveness at regional and world levels and modern
technology and highly trained staff are essential.

5. CONCLUSION
Application of the new business model based on Cloud
computing would result in organizational and
technological
advancement
both
of
company
accompanying and basic activities. It would open up new
opportunities for broad integration of scientific
institutions and expert knowledge in better quality of
products and services of Serbias Defense Industry.

Companies of Serbias Defense Industry must be

transformed and adjusted to the needs of ever demanding
markets by using previously developed comparative
advantages through the basic activity. By applying Cloud
computing business models, the companies of Serbias
Defense Industry may lease information-communication
resources from providers (outsourcing) and design a
dynamic organizational structure according to market
needs. This will release them from major capital
investments, education of specialized IT staff and
continued modernization of information support.
Companies may appoint network infrastructure, hardware
and software from service providers according to their
own needs and they will pay for this service under the
signed contract.

Management of the companies of Serbias defense

Industry, in cooperation with the Ministry of Defense and
other institutions, should hire competent staff to establish
business strategy and specify suitable business models in
new conditions in order to provide Cloud computing
integrated services. By setting up a Center for Information
Systems (CIS), which would be competent to manage and
control military network information resources, the
Ministry of Defense would create a basis for later
connections and internetworking of all individual data
centers managed by and made available to military and
other organization units of the Ministry. This would allow
more rapid introduction n of new technologies and
training of staff for more effective functioning of military
organizations above all.

Organizations
ZASTAVA

PRIVATECLOUD

EDI

PUBLIC
ENTERPRISE

Servers
Storage
Aplications
Service

COMMUNITYCLOUD

Integrisana
Ra.mrea

PRIVATE
SECTOR

MTI

TRZ

ANPMOST

CENTERIS

KRUSIK

UNIVERSITY
OF
DEFENSE

Cloud computing model implementation also means

support provision to all users that would later join Cloud
computing. CIS would also be responsible for security
protocols and procedures and their standardization. The
distinct security problem of the Cloud computing model
demands identification of of possible risks and
determination of risk management methodology, business
transfer strategy and application movement to Cloud
Computing.

TOC

MOD

Picture 6: Cloud Computing Model for Serbias Defense

Industry

Any option should be considered with great care and

reserve, both development of own information systems
and transfer to Cloud computing models as well as a
combined approach where one part of business that is not
security sensitive could be transferred to Cloud
computing. The confidential part could be protected when
it remains in a separate IS company.

In view of the importance of military industry and

connection with the Ministry of Defense, a pragmatic
solution could be the forming of a military industry
private cloud (Picture 6) with information resources
available to the companies of Serbias Defense Industry,
the Ministry of Defense organizations that are connected
631

[8] Peter-Michael Brandes, Lecture on the introduction

of an information system SASPF the Bundeswehr,
25.11.2008, Bon, Germany.
[9] SAP SE (Systems Applications Products in Data
Processing) is a european enterprise software to
manage business operations and customer relations.
SAP HANA, short for "High- Performance Analytic
Appliance" is an in-memory, column-oriented,
relational database management system developed
and marketed by SAP SE Internet Wikipedia,
28.07.2014.
[10] Ondrej,J,
Mladen,C.,
Milos,J.,
Jovan,K.,
Projektovanje organizacije, FON, Beograd, 2013.
[11] Mirjana P., Nebojsa J., Biljana B.M., Organizacija,
Ekonomski fakultet, Beograd,2013.
[12] Gregory M., Principles of Economics, VI, Harcourt
of College, Publishers, London, 2009.

REFERENCES
[1] The term "cloud" (eng. Cloud) is a metaphor for the
Internet, which is plotted as a cloud.
[2] http://pravoikt.org/racunarstvo-u-oblacima-cloudcomputing/ Internet [ 27.07.2014].
[3] I.Foster, Y.Zhau, R.Ioan, and S.Lu., Cloud
Computing and Grid Computing: 360-Degree
Compared, Grid Computing Environments W., 2008.
[4] http://www.slideshare.net/roger.smith/governmentapplications-of-cloud-computing [15.07.2014.]
[5] http://www.slideshare.net/roger.smith/governmentapplications-of-cloud-computing [27.07.2014]
[6] http://www.informationweek.com/government/cloudcomputing/defense-department-deploys-securecloud-service-/d/d-id/1127893 Internet [28.07.2014.]
[7] http://www.modelbenders.com/cloud.html
[30.07.2014.]

632

SECTION VII

MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGIES

CHAIRMAN
Vencislav Grabulov, PhD
Zijah Burzic, PhD
Ljubica Radovic, PhD
Maja Vitorovic-Todorovic, PhD

THE POSSIBILITY OF DECONTAMINATION OF HIGHLY TOXIC

CHEMICALS THICKENED FORMULATIONS
RADOVAN KARKALI
Military academy, Belgrade, Serbia, rkarkalic@yahoo.com
ELJKO SENI
Military technical institute, Belgrade, Serbia, senich_zeljko@yahoo.com
BRANKO KOVAEVI
CBRN Training Center, Krusevac, Serbia, kovach_09@yahoo.com
DALIBOR JOVANOVI
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, Serbia, jovcadach@hotmail.com

Abstract: The highly toxic thickened chemicals are specific formulations of highly toxic chemicals mixed with the
substances (usually acrylic resins) in order to increase their durability on contaminated surfaces. The role of thickener
is to reduce the volatility of the highly toxic chemicals. Although there are many formulations of thickened highly toxic
chemicals, the most common form of administration is to add an organic polymer, for example, copolymers of methyl-,
ethyl-, butyl methacrylate to highly toxic chemicals (S-mustard, soman, VX etc.). This type of high-molecular weight
polymer is used as a thickener composition with the highly toxic chemicals. Some of the thickened formulations of
highly toxic chemicals are: thickened lewisite thickened soman and thickened VX. This paper presents the results of
decontamination of thickened highly toxic chemicals by adsorption materials, alkaline solutions, chlorine-activated
materials and micro-emulsions.
Keywords: highly toxic chemicals, thickened agents, chemical decontamination.
equipment, ease of decontamination can be addressed at
the design stage through the use of a chemically resistant
surface finish etc. even the preventive measures and
shielding are not strictly aspects of decontamination, they
both help to minimize the effects of a CW attack and
reduce the requirement for subsequent decontamination.

1. INTRODUCTION
Chemical contamination is a specific phenomenon
originating as a goal or a consequence of use of chemical
weapons (CW). Besides direct danger to human life and
health, contamination of the environment urges the use of
protective equipment and restrains the use of
contaminated ground, objects, communications, food,
water, technical resources and equipment, which reduces
the normal human capabilities.

Chemical warfare (CW) involves using the toxic

properties of chemical substances as weapons. This type
of warfare is distinct from nuclear warfare and biological
warfare, which together make up NBC, the military
acronym for nuclear, biological, and chemical (warfare or
weapons), all of which are considered "weapons of mass
destruction" (WMDs) [2,3].

Decontamination, aimed at eliminating the hazard of

chemical warfare agents, is required on the battlefield as
well as in laboratories, pilot plants, and chemical agent
production, storage and destruction sites.

None of these fall under the term conventional weapons

which are primarily effective due to their destructive
potential Soman, or GD (systematic name: O-Pinacolyl
methylphosphono-fluoridate), is an extremely toxic
chemical substance. It is a nerve agent, interfering with
normal functioning of the mammalian nervous system by
inhibiting the cholinesterase enzyme. It is an inhibitor of
both acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase.

The purpose of decontamination is to rapidly and

effectively remove or render harmless any poisonous
substances with which persons or materiel may have been
contaminated. A high decontamination capacity is one of
the factors that can reduce the effect of an attack with CW
agents [1].
The need for decontamination should be minimized as far
as possible by taking measures to avoid contamination
and some system of early warning. Existing equipment
can be covered, for example, and in the case of new

As a chemical weapon, it is classified as a weapon of

mass destruction by the United Nations according to UN
Resolution 687. Its production is strictly controlled, and
635

stockpiling is outlawed by the Chemical Weapons

Convention of 1993 where it is classified as Schedule 1
substance. Soman was the third of the so-called G-series
nerve agents to be discovered along with GA (tabun), GB
(sarin) and GF (cyclosarin). It is a volatile, corrosive, and
colorless liquid with a faint odor when pure. More
commonly, it is a yellow to brown color and has a strong
odor described as similar to camphor. The LCt50 for
soman is 70 mgmin/m3 in humans. It is both more lethal
and more persistent than sarin or tabun, but less so than
cyclosarin [4,5].

weight polymer is used as a thickener composition with

the HTC.
This polymer fulfills several different functions:
determines the rheological properties of the mixture
dispersed by an explosion or airplane systems, in order to
obtain larger drops for object contamination. When the
drops of HTC formulation have larger dimensions, in the
same climatic conditions in the surrounding environment
they will more evaporate. In addition, according to the
high viscosity of these HTC formulations, they will better
stick to a solid surface. It will be difficult to remove them
properly and decontaminate the object. The organic nature
of the thickener makes it difficult to solubilize water
decontamination solutions [7,8].

GD can be thickened for use as a chemical spray using an

acryloid copolymer. It can also be deployed as a binary
chemical weapon; its precursor chemicals are
methylphosphonyl difluoride and a mixture of pinacolyl
alcohol and anamine.

Some of the representatives formulation of thickened

HTC are:

Formulation of highly thickened chemicals (HTC)

represents highly toxic substance mixed with substances
(mostly acrylics) in order to increase their stability
(persistence) of the contaminated surfaces.

irritant, 30-75 % organic solvent

derivative), a polymer thickener;

They do not quickly dissolve in biological fluids and

rapidly absorb by the tissues as well as other agents. Plain
VX (non-thickened type) is absorbed more slowly than
other nerve agents, but has greater stability in the wounds
of the injured. Thus, the presence of thickened HTC
wounds represents a special danger to the injured. The
presence of thickened nerve agents in wounds (eg,
sections of contaminated uniforms and protective
clothing, which have been in contact with the wound) is
much more difficult. Similarly, thickened mustard gas
leads to systemic toxicity of delayed wound healing and
heavy, even when it is removed and with part of the
affected tissue.

thickened lewisite (dynamic viscosity at 25 C: 0.03

Pas;

(fluororganic

92-93 % S-mustard, 2-3 % polymethylmethacrylate, 5

% pyridine, quinoline or picoline;

97 % of sarin, 3 % cellulose acetobutyrate;

VR 55, thickened soman (dynamic viscosity at 25 C:
0.175 Pas) and
thickened VX (dynamic viscosity at 25 C: 0.158 Pas).

2. NATURAL DECONTAMINATION OF
THICKENED HTC FORMULATIONS
Economic aspects, always present when regarding
technical issues, are often crucial for practical
decontamination solutions, because of high costs for their
mass use. Because of variety of contamination types and
forms, versatility of contamination carriers and
decontamination objects in diversity of conditions and
demands, decontamination is very complex scientifically
and technical issue and is both time-consuming and
demanding in terms of resources.

The first formulation of the thickened HTC were

develpoed in 1930th in Great Britain, when the oxygen
mustard gas (O-mustard) was added to sulphur mustard as
thickener for use in the form of an aerosol under
conditions of hot conditions. A mixture of 60 % Smustard gas and 40 % of O-mustard gas is substantially
more viscous and has a lower freezing temperature (about
-25 C) compared to the pure S-mustard gas (14 C) [6].

Nerve, mustard and some other CW agents or toxic

chemicals causing injury to the skin and tissue are easily
soluble in, and can penetrate many different types of
material, such as paint, plastics and rubber, all of which
renders decontamination appreciably more difficult. If
CW agents have penetrated sufficiently deep, then toxic
gases can be released from the material over substantial
periods. By adding substances, which increase the
viscosity of a CW agent, its persistence time and adhesive
ability can be increased. These thickened agents will thus
be more difficult to decontaminate with liquid
decontaminants since they adhere to the material and are
difficult to dissolve.

For example, sarin is characterized by high levels of

inhalation toxicity, but they are not sufficiently toxic
through the human skin. Regarding to this, efforts are
undertaken to this general toxicity parameter by adding
different substances to soman.
The first probes are comprised in the mixing soman with
polar solvents, which increase the permeability through the
the skin to soman. However, this effect is observed only at a
higher proportion in the total solvent mixture, which in turn
leads to the dilution process of the HTC in the system.
The most commonly application is based on correction of
the viscosity. The role of thickener is reducing the
volatility of the HTC. Although there are many
formulations of thickened HTC, the most common form
of administration is based on ading 5-10 % (m/m) of an
organic polymer, for example, copolymers of methyl-,
ethyl-, butyl methacrylate (K 125) to HTC (S-mustard,
soman, VX and others.). This type of high-molecular

Good respiratory and body protection (mission specific

protection) is also an essential prerequisite for
decontamination work.
Natural degradation (natural decontamination) of toxic
chemicals implies gradual perishing of chemical agents
from contaminated surfaces under influences of the
636

natural environment (time, weather, temperature, sunlight,

wind, water residues, etc).

3. APLICATION OF DECONTAMINANTS
FOR CHEMICAL DECON TAMINATION
OF THICKENED HTC FORMULATIONS

For the decontamination of thickened soman, which is

required in the red earth for three days in the summer time
conditions (air temperature of 22-36 C), unlike the
ordinary soman, whose resistance to the mentioned
conditions is about 20 hours.

Chemical
decontamination
(technical
chemical
decontamination) is a set of measures and activities being
performed in order to neutralize or remove toxic
chemicals from contaminated surfaces, thus reducing the
concentration level from dangerous to safe.

Evaporation of the thickened HTC formulation is carried out

in two stages. In the initial stage of the evaporation rate of
the thickened soman is no different from ordinary soman.
After formation of a thin polymer film on the surface of
dispersed droplets, the thickened soman began to decrease
the evaporation rate. The value of the diffusion coefficient,
which determines the rate of evaporation decreases over time
as there is an increase in the thickness of the polymer film.
Changing the speed of evaporation of thickened soman over
time is shown in Fig.1.

Preparedness for decontamination, aimed at eliminating

the hazard of chemical warfare agents and toxic
chemicals, is required on the battlefield as well as in
laboratories, chemical plants, chemical storage facilities,
during transport of toxic chemicals and on destruction
sites. The majority of research is focused on terrain
conditions (rapid removal of chemical agents from
vehicles, equipment, personnel, ground and facilities by
both chemical and physical methods, opposite to the
laboratory conditions) where speed and ease of
application of the decontamination measures are essential.
There are different possibilities and specifics for
decontamination. In planning of human and technical
resources for decontamination, basic factors are:
contaminant species, possible decon methods to be used,
decontamination level, which equipment and what
manpower to use in decontamination. On that basis
chemical decontamination is classified (divided)
according to:
- decontamination levels,
- human and technical resources,
- decontamination methods and
- decontamination subjects.
Many researchers evaluated this problem and found that
the effectiveness of decontamination when applying
powder with the adsorbent for the skin of animals,
contaminated by normal and thickened soman produced
the data that the degree of survival of animals is 90 % for
ordinary soman and 70 % for thickened type.

Fig 1: The relationship between the evaporation rate of

tnickened soman of time at a constant temperature and
humidity
Under the same conditions, due to the effect of the
previous dilution, the total rate of spontaneous hydrolysis
of the thickened soman is less, but the persistence is
higher than normal soman in aqueous solutions.
Dynamics of the dissolution and the spontaneous
hydrolysis of the thickened soman, at various
temperatures is shown in Fig.2.

Implemented studies have shown that the effectiveness of

decontamination of thickened HTC with an alkaline
aqueous solution when is added to solutions of cationic
surfactant is not satisfactory, while the non-aqueous
alkaline solutions is very efficient. The results verify the
effectiveness of decontamination of ferrous and nonferrous metal surfaces contaminated with thickenedthickened mustard gas or soman, using the non-aqueous
decontamination solution DS-2, as follows:
-

Fig 2: The kinetics of spontaneous decomposition and

hydrolysis of soman viscosity at different temperatures
637

decontamination of thickened S-mustard, with special

brush - neutralized 100 %, 98.7 %, 98 % and 88.2 %
of the initial density of contamination of the unpainted
metal, metal alkyd coating, metal coating and painted
material, respectively;
decontamination of the thickened S-mustard without
special brush - neutralized by 93.5 %, 87.3 %, 97 %
and 59 % of the initial density of contamination on the
unpainted metal, metal alkyd coating, metal colored
coating and tarpaulin material, respectively;
decontamination of thickened soman, with special
brush - neutralized 100 % of the unpainted metal,

metal-colored coating and 98.5 % of the metal alkyd

coating when exposed to contamination: between 0.25
and 1 h, respectively 99.99 %, 97.47 % and 95.11 %
of initial density of contamination on metal colored
coating, unpainted metal on metal alkyd primer,
respectively, when exposed to contamination between
2 and 12 h.

the participants and providing more favorable reaction

kinetics parameters (HTC solubility and additions to the
system, increasing the rate constant of the chemical
reaction, etc.).

5. DECONTAMINATION OF THICKENED
HTC FORMULATIONS BY
MICROEMULSIONS

4. DECONTAMINATION OF THICKENED
HTC FORMULATIONS BY CHLORINATED
DECONTAMINANTS WATER PORRIDGE

To ensure effective decontamination of thickened HTC

formulations, micro emulsion should include two main
components:

Many published results verify the effectiveness of

decontamination of ferrous and non-ferrous metal
surfaces contaminated with thickened- thickened mustard
gas or soman, using aqueous slurry STB (Supertropical
bleach), as follows:
-

an organic solvent, which is capable of dissolving the

polymer and the HTC, and the component,
chemically active substance, which is used as a
reactant for the actual neutralization of the HTC.

Good results in the application of micro emulsions to the

decontamination of thickened HTC formulations are
obtained in the decontamination tests of semi-S-mustard,
as a model substance for the S-mustard, in mixture with
10 % of polymeric thickener K125.

decontamination of thickened S-mustard by heated

solution and special brush - neutralized 100 % of the
unpainted metal, metal alkyd primer and painted metal
coating, or 95.9 % of the tilt of the initial density of
the material contamination;
decontamination of thickened S-mustard by heated
solution, without special brush - neutralized 90.7 %,
98.1 %, 99.4 % and 91.9 % of the initial density of
contamination on the unpainted metal, metal alkyd
coating, metal colored coating and tarpaulin material,
respectively;
decontamination of thickened S-mustard by unheated
solution special brush - neutralized 100 %, 98.9 %,
100 % and 95.8 % of the initial density of
contamination of the unpainted metal, metal alkyd
coating, metal colored PU coating and tarpaulin
material, respectively;
decontamination of thickened S-mustard by unheated
solution without special brush - neutralized by 99.4 %,
97.5 %, 99.4 % and 60.8 % of the initial density of
contamination on the unpainted metal, metal alkyd
coating, metal colored coating and tarpaulin material,
respectively;
decontamination of thickened S-mustard by warm
solution with special brush - neutralized by 99.64 %,
98.33 % and 99.98 % for unpainted metal, metal alkyd
primer and metal colored coating, the initial
contamination density, respectively;
decontamination of thickened S-mustard by unheated
solution with special brush - neutralized by 97.64 %,
95.75 % and 100 % of the unpainted metal, metal
alkyd primer and metal colored coating, the initial
density of contamination, respectively.

This micro emulsion was applied with the following

composition:
-

benzylchloride as the oil phase (diluted to 5.8 %

polymer K125, 15 %,
water, as well as suitable non-toxic solvent (the
chemically active component), 50 %,
cetilpyridiniumchloride as cationic surfactant,
N-butanol as a co-surfactant (providing a wide area of
the stability of the micro emulsion) and
MMPF as oxidant of semi-S-mustard.

Table 1. shows comparative results of the efficiency of

the micro emulsion in the decontamination of semi-Smustard, with and without thickeners K125.
Table 1. Comparative efficiency of semi-S-mustard
degradation without and in combination with thickeners
K125 micro emulsion.
Parameters of the
reaction system

HTC formulations
semi-S-mustard
S-mustard
with 10 % 125

The degree of
degraded HTC, %

97

84

Selectivity of
reaction:
sulfoxide/sulfone

97 : 3

87 : 13

Based on the obtained results it can be concluded that in

the case of formulations semi-S-mustard with polymeric
thickener efficiency of decontamination micro emulsion is
lower by about 10 % compared to pure semi-S-mustard
(without the addition of polymer), whereas the relative
contribution of the sulfoxide to the conversion products
decreased by about 10 %. This behavior is explained by
the competition between the oxidation of the resulting
thioether sulfoxide and transitions in the polymer, which
makes it less accessible to oxidation.

By comparing the obtained results it can be concluded

that the non-aqueous decontamination solution DS-2 is
very effective in the decontamination of thickened HTC
formulations as a result, because of the great potential of
the reaction.
To ensure the high efficiency for decontamination of
thickened HTC formulations by using aqueous solutions
of hypochlorite and mash same is necessary or heat or
brushing perform decontamination of contaminated areas
in order to intensify the mass transfer in the reaction of

The ratio of reaction products of sulfoxide/sulfone should

be as large as possible.
638

The present results demonstrate that the micro emulsions

are very suitable for the degradation of thickened HTC
formulations, which are thickened by the addition of the
polymer.

research findings may be applied to the safe destruction of

chemical weapons at all.

5. CONCLUSION

[1] Ellison, D. Hank (2007). Handbook of Chemical and

Biological Agents. New York: CRC Press. p. 47.
ISBN 0-8493-1434-8. Retrieved 2014-02-21.
[2] Lukey, Brian J.; Salem, Harry (2007). Chemical
Warfare
Agents:
Chemistry,
Pharmacology,
Toxicology, and Therapeutics, CRC Press, ISBN
9781420046618.
[3] Latt A., Riko-Latt I., Perez E., Krutikov V., Amada
B., y y
y y
yy , Ross.him.., 51 (6),
2007, s.36 - 43.
[4] Antonov N.,
y, . ,,Progress, Moskva, 1994.
[5] Military handbook: Chemical and biological
contamination avoidance and decontamination, MILHDBK-783 (EA), 15. october 1990, Department of
defense, USA.
[6] Weigang L., The charasteristics of thickened
chemical warfare agents - GD, VX and their
protection, Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. protection against
chemical warfare agents, Stockholm, 15-19. june
1986, pp.381-388.
[7] MSDS: Nerve Agent (VX)". Edgewood Chemical
Biological Center (ECBC), Department of the Army.
December 22, 2000, 25. october 2007.
[8] Daniel, Kelly et al.; Kopff, Laura A.; Patterson, Eric
V. (2008). "Computational studies on the solvolysis
of the chemical warfare agent VX". J. Phys. Org.
Chem.21 (4): 321328. doi:10.1002/poc.1333.

REFERENCES

This paper presents the results of decontamination of

thickened highly toxic chemicals by adsorption materials,
alkaline solutions, chlorine-activated materials and microemulsions.
Looking forward to the next century, the highest research
priority in reactive decontamination is to identify both
liquid and solid decontaminants which do not have
adverse effects on the environment. The biodegradable Nalkyl-2-pyrrolidinones are being considered as the major
organic components for new liquid.
In addition, preliminary data also indicate that the four
agents can be detoxified by a strong base (alkoxide) in Nethyl-2-pyrrolidinone in the same manner as DS-2. To
develop noncorrosive decontamination systems, the
search for catalysts (including enzymes) will continue. Of
particular interest are those catalysts that are pH
independent and those that can catalyze the oxidation of
the OR groups in the G agents as well. Compared to
liquid decontaminants, very little is known concerning the
interaction of agents with solid decontaminants. In order
to develop better solid decontamination materials, NMR
imaging and magic-angle spinning (MAS) techniques will
be applied to investigate the adsorption, site-exchange,
and reaction characteristics of agents on solid matrices.
Recently, advances in computational chemistry and
access to supercomputers have opened the possibilities of
predicting, modeling, and screening both liquid and solid
decontamination systems containing enzymes and other
types of catalysts. Finally, many of the decontamination

639

ENERGY SELF-SUFFICIENCY IN THE TIME OF CRISISON QUALITY OF

BIODIESEL PRODUCTION UNDER UNDEMANDING CONDITIONS
PAVLE HADI
Institute Gosa, Belgrade, Serbia, pavle.hadzic@institutgosa.rs
DRAGOSLAVA STOJILJKOVI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia
VLADIMIR JOVANOVI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia
NEBOJA MANI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia

Abstract: Armed forces, as well as agriculture and civil transport activities, are among the largest consumers of diesel
fuel. The period of economic uncertainty and political or military crisis, frequently create a situation of insecurity of
fuel supply. Consequently, energy self sufficiency of society makes significant part of national defense strategy. Partial
substitution of petrol fuels with biodiesel seems to be an adequate answer. The substitution could be accomplished by
production of biodiesel in small scale plants for immediate use. In this investigation, we report on quality of biodiesel
produced under simple and undemanding technological conditions, applicable for individual producers. Production of
biodiesel, starting from native or waste cooking oils, under simple reactor setting and basic reaction conditions, with
simple purification procedure, provided biodiesel of satisfactory physical and chemical characteristics. Those
characteristics were compared with requirements of acting European standard EN 14214.
Keywords: biodiesel technology, production, quality, fuel self-sufficiency.
simple technology for biodiesel production could be an
answer to growing awareness of consequences of import
fuel over dependency.

1. INTRODUCTION
The condition for development of independent national
strategy in both economy and national defense is energy
self-sufficiency. Republic of Serbia has adopted seven
technological development priorities for 2011-2015
periods; five of defined priorities explicitly target energy
and energy efficiency sectors [1]. Among major ways for
improving national self-sufficiency in energy sector are
biodiesel, biogas and ethanol production. Simple and
cheap technology for biogas production, its cleaning and
storage is not fully developed and need considerable
capital investment, while bioethanol production is more
energy consuming compared to biodiesel production.

For some time, our group investigated the possibility of

small scale biodiesel production under undemanding
technological conditions and small operating costs. We
see individual biodiesel production as a step toward
energy self-sufficiency in agriculture, and, consequently,
as a supplement to overall energy balance.
In European Union EN 14214 is acting standard of quality
relating to biodiesel properties. Compliance of biodiesel
properties with values given in the standard is significant
for diesel engine maintenance and optimum power output.
In this investigation, we report on our findings on quality
of biodiesel according to EN 14214 standard, if produced
from native vegetable oil under simple and undemanding
technological conditions and low operating costs.

Biodiesel is the only fuel that substitutes fossil petrol

without major mechanical modifications of diesel engine.
As to energy efficiency part of Serbian priorities,
production of biodiesel and its utilization in energy sector
is of highest significance. The production of biodiesel
showed itself favorable in energy balance and production

2. PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

of valuable by-products. Moreover, the Republic of

Serbia poses considerable capabilities in feedstock for
biodiesel production. Technology for its production and
utilization is well known and easy to implement. Existing

Catalytic
fat with
biodiesel
catalyst
640

transesterification of vegetable oils and animal

lower alcohols is predominant method of
production. There are two common types of
for this reaction: homogenous (usually

hydroxides of alkali metals dissolved in appropriate

solvent or alcohol used for transesterification), and
heterogeneous solids. As to the mode of process
implementation, batch and continuous processes obtained
wide acceptance. Continuous process is expected in future
to gain wider acceptance for its advantages connected
with higher production capacity. In this investigation, we
bound to batch process as more simple and appropriate
for small scale production.

minutes the reaction was considered complete and

reaction mixture was left for one hour for phase
separation. After the separation, glycerin was discharged
and raw biodiesel transferred to washing tank.
Simplest and widely accepted method for refining of
crude biodiesel is water washing. Water washing is quick
and effective purification step especially in removal of
alkaline catalyst, unreacted methanol and glycerin.
The purification step [5] was performed by washing crude
biodiesel for five times with tap water pre-heated to 50 C
(total 5x40 dm3). Biodiesel was left for final gravitational
water separation (4 days), sampled and analyzed for its
compliance with EN 14214 standard.

Batch type of biodiesel production from vegetable oil

seems favorable for individual producers for its
simplicity. Different types of batch reactors are described
in relevant literature [2-3]. The main claim in reactor
construction concept is physical separation of
transesterification process and biodiesel purification step.
Following these demands, we proposed and constructed
simple reactor unit [4], consisting of two identically
shaped reaction vessels, Figure 1.

4. RESULTS DISCUSSION
In our earlier investigation [6] we examined the
possibility of biodiesel production from waste vegetable
oil, as most cost effective method for biodiesel
preparation.
However, ester content of biodiesel
produced from waste cooking oil (89-92%) was below
value set by EN 14214 standard (96,5% min.).
There are methods for production of high quality
biodiesel from waste vegetable oil; yet these methods
include sophisticated purification steps (use of ion
exchange resins or distillation). For this reason,
production of biodiesel from waste oil, though
economically favorable, is not appropriate for operators
lacking formal education and experience in technology
operations. Production of biodiesel from native cold
pressed vegetable oils as raw material is easier in
purification of crude product, and should give better
compliance with high demands from EN 14214 standard.

(1- transesterification unit; 2 - purification unit; 3 circulation pump; 4 thermometer; 5 - electrical heating
unit; 6, 7- valves)
Figure 1: Batch reactor for biodiesel

Republic of Serbia is significant producer of cold pressed

sunflower and rapeseed vegetable oils. Both oils are
excellent raw materials for biodiesel production and we
propose simplified method for their transformation into
quality biodiesel.

Transesterification of vegetable oil was performed in

transesterification unit (1). Purification step (water
washing of crude product) was performed in another
vessel (2). The same circulation pump (3) is used for
reaction mixture stirring and washing operation by
appropriate tube connections.

From the practical standpoint, there are few factors

affecting biodiesel production: catalyst concentration,
molar ratio oil to alcohol, reaction temperature and
reaction time being most easy to control.
Alkali hydroxides are common and general catalyst in
biodiesel production. Catalyst concentration in majority
of references are set to 0,5-1% calculated w/w related to
raw oil [7]. Higher values of catalyst concentration are
used if free fatty acids are present in raw oil. In our
investigation we set catalyst concentration to 0,7% for
both sunflower and rapeseed oil.

3. EXPERIMENTAL
Commercial native cold pressed sunflower, rapeseed and
degummed rapeseed vegetable oil were used as raw
material as obtained from the manufacturer (Viktoriaoil,
Serbia). Other reagents used were methanol (anhydrous,
99+%, Centrohem Stara Pazova), sodium-hydroxide
analytical
grade
(Centrohem
Stara
Pazova).
Transesterification of starting oil to biodiesel was
performed with methanol at room temperature, using
sodium-hydroxide dissolved in methanol as catalyst: the
raw oil (100 kg) was transferred to the reactor and stirring
started. Reaction mixture was kept at room temperature
throughout the reaction. Defined amount of methanol (18
kg) pre-mixed with sodium-hydroxide (700 g, 0,7 weight
% to the oil) was added in single step during ten minutes
with mixing, and reaction was assumed to start. After 120

Transesterification reaction is reversible and molar ratio

of alcohol is very important for biodiesel yield [8].
Transesterification reaction requires 3 moles of alcohol to
one mole of oil, but as a rule alcohol component is always
used in excess. Increased amount of alcohol increase
conversion of oil triglycerides into methyl esters in short
time. In overwhelming majority of references, the molar
ratio of alcohol to oil is set to 6:1 and we followed these
recommendations.
641

Higher reaction temperatures increase the reaction rate

and shorten the reaction time. Yet, setting the reaction
temperature beyond optimal levels could decrease the
yield of biodiesel because of alcohol loss due to
evaporation. Transesterification reaction should be
conducted below the boiling point of alcohol; however
reaction temperatures from room temperature to alcohol
reflux temperature are described in literature [9].

Table 2: Test results for biodiesel properties

A- Biodiesel from sunflower oil
B- Biodiesel from rapeseed oil
C- Biodiesel from degummed rapeseed oil
Property

Density
886,7
kg/m3
Viscosity
4,53
40 C mm2/s
Flash
164
point C
Corrosion of
1a
Cu strip
3h/50 C
Acid number
0,11
mg KOH/g
Water
520
mg/kg
Sulfur content
0,6
mg/kg
Sulfate ash
<0,01
% (m/m)
Ester content
97,8
% (m/m)
Metals
1,5
I group mg/kg

Taking into account inconclusive data in literature about

optimal temperature of transesterification reaction, we
investigated biodiesel preparation from sunflower and
rapeseed oil at room temperature (222C).
It was observed that that increased reaction time increase
oil conversion to fatty acid methyl esters. The conversion
is slow at the beginning because of small miscibility of oil
and alcohol, and conversion increase after biodiesel
formed make alcohol and oil miscible. There are literature
data supported by theoretical and experimental findings
that maximum conversion is achieved in less than 90
minutes [9]. As for the reaction temperature, many
different values for reaction time are quoted in relevant
literature. As appropriate reaction time we set 120
minutes period and considered the reaction was
completed within that time.
The quality of obtained biodiesel was analyzed with test
methods defined by EN14214 standard, or equivalent
Serbian test methods (Table 1.).
Table 1: Test methods for biodiesel analysis
Test
Property
Method
Density
EN ISO
kg/m3
12185
Viscosity
SRPS EN
40C mm2s-1
ISO 3104
Flash
SRPS EN
point C
ISO 2719
Corrosion of Cu strip
SRPS EN
3h/50C
ISO 2160
Acid number
SRPS EN
mg KOH/g
14104
Water
SRPS EN
mg/kg
ISO 2160
Sulfur content
ASTM
mg/kg
D5453
Sulfate ash
ISO
% (m/m)
3987
Ester content
SRPS EN
% (m/m)
14103
Metals
SRPS EN
I group mg/kg
14538

5. CONCLUSION

Analytical data (test results) on quality of biodiesel

produced from native cold pressed sunflower, rapeseed
and degummed rapeseed oils are presented in Table 2.

REFERENCES

EN
14214

883,6

882,6

860-900

4,41

4,47

3,50-5,00

170

174

101 min

1a

1a

0,18

0,16

0,50 max

417

406

500 max

2,1

2,1

10,0 max

<0,01

<0,01

0,02 max

96,2

97,5

96,5 min

<1

<1

5,0 max

According to the obtained results for compliance of

biodiesel manufactured under proposed simple,
undemanding and low operative cost procedure, biodiesel
produced from sunflower, rapeseed and degummed
rapeseed oil satisfied EN14214 standard in most
requirements.
Republic of Serbia could satisfy considerable part of its
requirements for fossil petrol by substituting import fuel
with renewable fuel. Simplicity of proposed technology
and quality of obtained biodiesel make realistic the
concept of small scale production of biodiesel for
immediate use in agricultural farms. Small scale biodiesel
production seems as an opportunity for clearance of
Serbian energy balance and consequently a component of
general defense policy.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by Serbian Ministry of Science
and Technological Development grant EVB35042.

[1] Stojiljkovi, D., M. Komatina, M., Stefanovi, P.,

Kutlaa, ., uki, ., D. Satari, D., National
Background report on Energy for Republic of
Serbia, Serbian Ministry of Education and
Sciences, Belgrade, 2012.
[2] Luus, R., Okongwu, N. O., Towards practical
optimal control of batch reactors, Chem. Eng. J.,
75(1) (1999) 1-9.

As it could be seen from Table 2., all of obtained

analytical data are in conformity and within values set by
EN 14214 standard. These results strongly confirm basic
idea of biodiesel production under simple and low cost
procedure as a component of national strategy toward
energetic self-sufficiency concept.
642

component of national defense policy, 5th

International conference OTEH 2012, Proceedings
(2012) 601-604.
[9] Van Gerpen, J., Knothe, G., Biodiesel production,in
Knothe, G., van Gerpen, J., Krahl, J., (Eds.), The
Biodiesel Handbook, AOCS Press, Champaign,
Illinois, 2005, 34-68.
[10] Freedman, B., Butterfield, R. O., Pryde, E.
H.,Transesterification kinetics of soybean oil, J.
Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 63(1986) 13751380.
[11] Darnoko, M., Cheryan, M., Kinetics of Palm oil
Transesterification in Batch Reactor, J. Am. Oil
Chem. Soc., 77(2000) 1263-1267.

[3] Ferella, F., Mazziotti, G., De Michelis, I., Stamisci,

V., Veglio, F., Optimization of transesterification
reaction in biodiesel production, Fuel, 89(1) (2010)
36-42.
[4] Hadi, P., Radosavljevi, M., Stojiljkovi, D.,
Jovanovi, V., Mani, N., Pilot postrojenje za
konverziju otpadnog biljnog ulja u biodizel,
Energija, Ekonomija Ekologija, 3-4 (2010) 261-64.
[5] etinkaya, M., Karaosmanolu, F., Optimization of
[6] Base-Catalyzed Transesterification Reaction of Used
[7] Cooking Oil, Energy&Fuels 18 (2004) 1888- 1895.
[8] Hadi, P., Stojiljkovi, D., Mani, N., Jovanovi, V.,
Individual
biodiesel
production-significant

643

DETERMINING HYDRAULIC EXCAVATOR NATURAL FREQUENCIES

BY APPLYING DYNAMIC-MATHEMATICAL MODEL
OLGICA LAZAREVI
Military Academy, Belgrade, olgica.lazarevic@va.mod.gov.rs
VOJISLAV BATINI
Military Academy, Belgrade, vojislav.batinic@va.mod.gov.rs
ACA RANELOVI
Military Academy, Belgrade, aca.r.0860.ar@gmail.com

Abstract: Vibrations of machine systems are a natural phenomenon with for every machine as a consequence of the
dynamic state in which they work. Hydraulic excavator dynamic analysis is important in reducing the noise and
vibrations to minimum. Being familiar with natural frequencies and their corresponding oscillation forms provides an
important piece of information for the designers to be able to adjust the system and identify the parameters that are
critical for the system vibrations. It is necessary to make up a dynamic matrix for determining the vibrations. To resolve
this problem, we use the results of the system of differential equations numerical analysis. This paper offers determined
natural frequencies of wheel hydraulic excavators by applying mathematical dynamic model.
Key words: hydraulic excavator, dynamic-mathematical model, natural frequencies.
the earth. The change of digging resistance with the
buckets penetration depth, especially an abrupt resistance
change in transition from one soil type to another, also
affects excavator vibration excitation. Establishing an
adequate dynamic system model is a precondition for
examining the dynamics of the joints of excavator
construction elements.

1. INTRODUCTION
An excavator is one of the basic engineering machines in
all the worlds armies. It is used for digging and removing
earth when constructing canals, foundations and holes. It
is also used for loading earth into transport vehicles, for
transporting the excavated earth within short distances
and for many other purposes. Earth digging can be
performed both on the ground and under water.
Excavators for digging earth on the ground with cyclic
action are recognised as following: excavators with head
buckets, backhoe buckets, trawl buckets and claw
buckets. Dredgers are used for digging earth under water.
Excavators are designed with the buckets volume up to

2. DYNAMIC MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF

HYDRAULIC EXCAVATOR
When describing an excavator's dynamic stability [2], we
normally observe physical model of an excavator on
pneumatics (fig. 1).

0,25-100 m and its weight mass 10000-500000 kg and

above, with the undercarriage part either on pneumatics or
caterpillars. The caterpillar excavator speed is up to 56 km/h while the speed of pneumatic wheel excavators is
20 km/h on average [1]. A universal hydraulic excavator
has a lot of tools the number and variety of which are
increasing as the time goes by. These tools can easily be
replaced and they make it possible for excavators to
perform various additional actions, making them
universal machines for doing lot of jobs both in and
outside army forces.

Fig.1: The physical model of an excavator:

a - an undercarriage part, b - a revolving part,
c - an arrow, d - an arm e - a bucket

Vibration excitation is conditioned by periodical changes

of excavator loads with variable or constant digging
resistance together with the buckets impuls excitation
when performing unloading actions and on its way out of

For the physical model of excavators shown in figure 1

the dynamical model (fig. 2) assumes the following:
The dynamic model of excavator [3], [4], [5], [6] is an
644

2 Ek 2 = m2 vP2 + J 2 x2  2 + J 2 y2  2

(4)

2 Ek 3 = m3vS2 + J 3 x3  2

(5)

2 Ek 4 = m4 vR2 + J 4 x4  2

(6)

2 Ek 5 = m5 vK2 + J 5 x5  2

(7)

2Ek = m1v12 + J1x1 2 + J1y12 + m2vP2 +

+ J 2 x2  2 + J 2 y2 2 + m3vS2 + J3x3 2 + m4 vR2 +
+ J 4 x4  2 + m5vK2 + J5 x5  2

(8)

unconservative system with steady and ideal connections;

small system oscillations around the stable equilibrium
position are observed; the support backing of excavators
has elastic suspending properties; parts of kinematic
chain are rigid bodies; hydraulic actuators of the drive
mechanisms are elastic suspending elements.
Excavator movement is defined by generated coordinates
q:

[ q ] = [ zc ]

(1)

Whereby: zc is vertical movement of the center of the

undercarriage section mass; is the angle of revolving
around the for-and-aft main central inertia axis O1 x1 of
the undercarriage section; is the revolving angle
around the cross main central inertia axis O1 y1 of the
undercarriage section; is the revolving angle of the
manipulator arrow around the O3 y3 axis of the joint which
the revolving part is attached to; is the revolving angle
of the manipulator arm around the end of arrow joint axis
O4 y4 and as the revolving angle of the manipulator
bucket around the end of arm joint axis O5 y5 .

of inertia of the mass of some excavator parts for

longitudinal axis O j xk ; J1y1 is the main central axial
moment of the mass inertia of the undercarriage section
for the cross coordinate O1 y1 which intersects the center
of the mass O1 ; J 2 y2 is the main central axial moment of

the mass inertia of the revolving part for the cross

coordinate O2 y2 which intersects the center of the mass
O2 ;  ,  are angle speeds of the underacarriage section

Whereby: mi (i = 1, 2,3, 4,5) are masses of some

excavator parts; vi (i = 1, P, S , R, K ) are absolute speeds of
the mass centre of some excavator parts;
J jxk ( j , k = 1, 2,3, 4,5) are the main central axial moments

around its longitudinal O1 x1 and cross O1 y1 inertia axis;

 ,  ,  are angle speeds of the arrow, arm and bucket
around their longitudinal O3 y3 , O4 y4 and O5 y5 inertia
axis.

4. POTENTIAL SYSTEM ENERGY

The potential energy of the adopted dynamical excavator
model is:

2E p = c11 ( 11 + p11 ) + c12 ( 12 + p12 ) + c21 ( 21 + p21 )

2

+c22 ( 22 + p22 ) g
2

k (s + )

Fig 2: The dynamical model of hydraulic excavator

k + k (
2
s

3. KINETIC SYSTEM ENERGY

m ( z z ) + k
i

i =1
k s2 + k s
2
k s25
s +

0
i

+ k 2 +

(9)

( + )

Whereby: cij ( i, j = 1, 2 ) - reduced rigidity of the base and

Kinetic system energy equals the sum of kinetic energies

of the system elements:

support (prop) [ N/m ] ; ij ( i, j = 1, 2 ) - corresponding

(2)

static deformations; pij ( i, j = 1, 2 ) - reduced dynamic

Whereby: Ek1 is kinetic energy of the undercarriage

section; Ek 2 is kinetic energy of the platform; Ek 3 is
kinetic energy of the arrow; Ek 4 is kinetic energy of the
arm suspender and Ek 5 is kinetic energy of the bucket.
Individual energies are:

deformations of the base and support (prop); g Gravity

force; zi , zi0 - momentary and initial coordinates of the
position of the mass centre within excavator elements
system relative to the overall coordinate system; mi masses of certain parts within excavator elements system;
k , k , k - torsion spring rigidity equal to the rigidity

2 Ek1 = m1v12 + J1x1 2 + J1 y1 2

of the elastic hydraulic actuators of the drive mechanisms:

arrows, arms and buckets; s , s , s - static deflection of

Ek = Ek1 + Ek 2 + Ek 3 + Ek 4 + Ek 5

(3)
645

the torsion springs: arrows, arms and buckets; 0, 0, 0 positioning angles of the arrow, arm and the bucket in
static equilibrium position; k , k , k are rigidities of the

frequencies for the equation system (12), the dynamic

matrix U is formed, together with the characteristic
determinant with reference to the characteristic equation
of the system:

revolving around central axis Ox , Oz and Oy .

det( I U) = 0

5. SYSTEM MOVEMENT EQUATIONS

Whereby: U = A-1 B is dynamical system matrix with

A and B as inertia matrix and system rigidity matrix, I
is a unit matrix, = 12 i.e. is excavator natural

frequency.

LaGranges equations of the second kind have been used

for deriving differential equations of movement [7]:
d Ek Ek + E p = 0,
dt qr qr qr
qr = zC , , , , , , (r = 1, 2,3, 4,5, 6)

(10)

The hydraulic excavator observed is described by means

of nonlinear differential equation which means that,
during the dynamical process, the system dynamical
properties cannot be regarded as constant values. This
applies to both rigidity and damping coefficients and to
their matrices coefficients as well. In such cases
transformations into a set of independent equations based
on forms properties and the use of normal coordinates are
impossible. For this kind of system analysis, the
possibility of step by step numerical integration is used the system is considered to be linear for certain period of
time having all the characteristics it had at the beginning
of that period of time. This means that nonlinear analysis
is approximated by a series of analyses of completely
variable systems [8].

Equation (10) icludes expressions for kinetic and potential

energy (8) and (9) representing the system of six
nonlinear, homogeneous differential equations of the
second kind that can be resolved by using discrete
numerical methods, after transforming into metrical shape
 + C q + B q = D
A q

(11)

where the corresponding matrixes A, B, C, D are

functions of the generated coordinates and speeds the
dimensions of which are 6x6. MATLAB programme
packet enables resolving the derived system of nonlinear
differential equations.

Matrix U own values are zeros of the characteristic

polynomial, i.e. the roots of characteristic equation (13).
In order to get own values and their characteristic vectors,
we observe the BTH-600 excavator parameters in certain
points of time. This is necessary because the mass and
rigidity system matricies are dependent on generalised
coordinates and their speeds, and as such, they cannot be
used for deriving dynamic matrix systems. This procedure
provides matricies with rational values.

6. NATURAL FREQUENCIES
Vibration problems are closely related to the phenomenon
of resonance, where working forces enduce one or more
vibration forms. The vibration forms lying between the
frequency levels of working dynamic forces are always
potential to cause problems. It is possible to determine
system frequencies causing the phenomenon of resonance
by applying modal analysis. Modal analysis is a process
of determining all modal parameters: modal frequencies,
damping and forms.

Table 1 represents the state vector where t = 0.100 s in

iteration n = 19999 with small initial system actuation.

Natural frequencies and the corresponding vectors can be

worked out by means of free vibration system analysis
when homogeneous part of equation is observed (11):
 + B q = 0 ,
A q

able 1: State system vector

zC

z C

-0.0022 0.0913

(12)

Whereby the corresponding matrices A and B are the

functions of the generalized coordinates and speeds [2].
For the needs of mathematical free vibrations system
modelling and with the purpose of determining their
natural frequencies, it can be assumed that damping C
within the system is negligible. According to the well
known procedure related to determining natural
A =1.0e+004
1.0633 0.9423
0.9423 6.6536
-0.2444 -0.3062

-1.5645 -5.8923
-0.2090 -1.8336
0.0080 0.8307

(13)

-0.0010

-0.9068

-0.0013 0.0105

0.0049

-0.1762

-0.0903

-3.2058

0.0398

8.7507

Inertia matrix A and rigidity matrix B of the system at

the observed point of time are:

-0.2444
-0.3062
4.1787
0.4836
0.0661
-0.0009

-1.5645
-5.8923
0.4836
9.1443
1.3128
-0.3437

646

-0.2090
-1.8336
0.0661
1.3128
0.8656
-0.3928

0.0080
0.8307
-0.0009

-0.3437
-0.3928
0.4432

B =1.0e+008
0
0.6120
0
0
0
0.6000
0
1.6869 0.9890
0
0
0
0.6120 0.9890 2.4970
0
0
0

0
0
0.1169
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.0056
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.0038
By applying MATLAB programme packet function
[V , D] = eig (U ) it will be possible to work out the
diagonal matrix D containing own values on the main
diagonal and the full matrix V the columns of which are
-0.0953
0.2864
-0.0251
V =
0.1221
0.1041
-0.9394

the corresponding matrix U own vectors. Table 2

represents natural frequencies where t = 0.100 s and
iteration n = 19999 .

0.4093 -0.7842 -0.6811

0.3735 0.3289 -0.3346
-0.2040 0.1004 -0.4933
0.4516 0.1411 -0.4249
0.0477 0.1042 0.0104
0.6672 0.4858 -0.0159

0.0618
0.0526
0.0364
-0.5693
0.8171
0.0169

0.0060
0.0065
0.0039

-0.0621
-0.9980
0.0013

0
0
0
0
0
2.7015
0
1.2799
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.7060
0
0
0

D=1.0e+004 *
0
0
0.2499
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.0376
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.0021

able 2: Natural frequencies

Natural
Hz
frequencies
ZC
26.1591

For the state vector at the same system actuation with the
point of time t =0.172 s and iteration n=17199 natural
frequences were calculated as shown in table 4.

rad/s

164.36

18.0058

113.13

13.3732

84.02

7.9557

49.99

3.0879

19.40

0.7274

4.57

Table 4: Natural frequencies

Natural
Hz
frequences
ZC
0+16.5922i

By observing an excavator always in the same position,

the experiment proves system disorders via the excavator
arrow angle speed of  0 = 0.5 rad/s , while all other shifts
are close to zero. It also shows (Table 3) calculated
natural frequencies whith the point of time t = 0, 0562 s
and iteration 11250.
Table 3: Natural frequencies
Natural
Hz
frequencies
ZC
18.5619

89.91

7.7625

48.77

0+5.7662i

0+36.23i

2.6178

16.45

1.1571

7.27

16.6182

104.42

6.0923

38.28

2.8869

18.14

1.5298

9.61

0.2253

1.42

Table 5: Natural frequencies

Natural
Hz
frequencies
ZC
17.8290

116.63

14.3103

0+104.25i

Table 5 shows natural frequencie worked out on the basis

of iteration n =22999 and the point of time t =0.23s .

rad/s

rad/s

647

rad/s
112.02

9.9160

62.30

0+6.1707i

0+38.77i

2.7286

17.14

0.3918

2.46

0.0643

0.40

7. RESULT ANALYSIS

REFERENCES

On the basis of the results obtained at three different

points of time, it is obvious that there are natural
frequencies intervals to some degrees of movement
freedom. By analyzing the above described numerical
experiments, it is also obvious that free oscillations of
certain frequencies have been generated on some of the
movement freedoms generalized coordinates, making it
impossible for the system to calm down after certain
period of time of its actuation. We even managed to prove
that, with one particular actuation at one particular time
interval and iteration the system had the kind of free
oscillation to a degree of movement freedom as
determined while, on the other hand, at another iteration,
the free oscillation degree of movement freedom was
different. These facts denote that system dynamic is
unstable or is on the very edge of stability. The
phenomenon of free oscillation has been proved on
generalized coordinates zC , and .

[1] Plavi,M., Graevinske maine, Nauna knjiga,

Beograd, 1990.
[2] Lazarevi,O., Analiza dinamikog ponaanja
hidraulikih bagera, Doktorska disertacija, Vojna
akademija, Beograd, 2013.
[3] Vh,P.K., Skibniewski,M.J.: (1993). Dynamic
Model of Excavator. Journal of Aerospace
Engineering, 6(2), pp.148158.
[4] Frimpong,S., Hu,Y., Inyang,H.: (2008). Dynamic
Modeling of Hydraulic Shovel Excavators for
Geomaterials,
International
Journal
of
Geomechanics, Vol.8, No.1, pp.2029.
[5] Vh,P.K., Skibniewski,M.J.: (1993). Dynamic
Model of Excavator. Journal of Aerospace
Engineering, 6(2), pp.148158.
[6] Park,C., Lim,K. (2004). A.: Simulation Environment
for Excavator Dynamics, Virtual Product
Development Conference, Huntington Beach, CA:
MSC.Software Corporations.
[7] Li,Y., Hi,Q., Zhang,D.: (2006). Dynamic Analysis
and Simulation with Lagrange Equation on
Hydraulic Excavator. Machine Tool and Hydraulics,
vol. 10, p. 060.
[8] BriV., Dinamika konstrukcija, Graevinska
knjiga, Beograd, 1981.god.

8. CONCLUSION
The examined excavator construction proved not to have
been composed in the best way and to that end, it is
advisable to use the dynamic analysis for the purpose of
changing an excavators dynamic parameters (mass and
rigidity).

648

LASER CLEANING OF TEXTILE ARTIFACTS WITH CORRODED

METAL THREADS
SLAVICA RISTI
Institute Gosa, Belgrade, Serbia, slavica.ristic@institutgosa.rs
SUZANA POLI
Central Institute for conservation, Belgrade, Serbia, suzanapolicradovanovic@gmail.com
BOJANA RADOJKOVI
Institute Gosa, Belgrade, Serbia, bojana.radojkovic@institutgosa.rs

Abstract: This paper presents the results of the laser cleaning effects on textile samples with corroded metallic threads.
In many museum collections there are textile exhibits like uniforms, national costumes, flags and home textiles. The
uniforms, costumes and flags were made of canvas, rep, brocade, sometimes of silk, decorated with various techniques:
painted or embroidered with metallic threads. Corrosion of metal threads is one of the most common problems that
make the damage of the embroidered items. In the practices, application of conventional cleaning methods not giving
the expected results, and the implementation of laser technology was the next step for corrosion products cleaning. The
Nd:YAG and CO2 lasers were used to clean the corrosion of embroidered items from museum study collection. Effects
on the laser irradiated zones was investigated by optical and SEM microscopy and EDX analysis. Some parameters for
successfully and safely cleaning of metal threads corrosion without degrading the surrounding material were
determined.
Keywords: uniforms, textiles, corrosion, laser cleaning.
structural damage, modification of materials, corrosion
and agglomeration of pollutants and microorganisms on
the cultural heritage artifacts, stored in museum depot or
exhibited in galleries.

1. INTRODUCTION
The use of embroidery to decorate clothes is very old
technique. The earliest samples of handmade embroidery
are available from ancient times. Each country portrayed
its own distinctive style in designs based on its culture,
history and traditions [1-3].

Corrosion of metal threads is one of the most common

problems that make the damage of the embroidered items.
Surface of metal gradually become less shiny. It tarnish
during the time what is often manifested as a dull, gray or
black film or coating over metal [1-3, 5].Conservators
have to understand the way of materials cleaning and
methods which differently can affect materials. Also they
follow the principle for minimum intervention on the
artifacts. Chemical or electrolytic techniques can be used
for corrosion cleaning, but the immersion process may
damage the fibers and dissolve any dye. A lot of
techniques and methods in conservation are developing to
find more suitable and efficient ways to treat materials
with metal threads [1, 3, 5-7].

Embroidered clothing was considered a symbol of wealth

and social status. It was used mainly in the clothing of the
royalty and aristocracy, in church vestments and on
military uniforms and other regalia. Luxury threads for
this purpose were produced as combination of precious
metals and organic fibers. There are many types of metal
threads: metal strips, wires, strip wound around a silk
yarn and the others [2, 4].
Machine embroidery brought new varieties of yarn like
rayon apart from cotton and wool. Computers brought in
embroidery software with digitized patterns to finish the
texture and designs in the clothing. Even though
technology has made embroidery work easy, but there has
not been much change in the materials or techniques in
the history of embroidery.

Protection and preservation of cultural heritage are based

on the application of new technologies, methods and
materials in diagnostic and conservation process of
museum items [3, 6, 7].

National, ethnographic and military museums have reach

collections of uniforms, national costumes, flags, banners
and home textiles [4]. Environment influences induce

In recent years, laser has been considered to be a

promising cleaning technique for textile artwork
conservation due to the fact that laser is highly
649

controllable and can remove the surface contaminants

precisely and selectively [6-12]. Conservation of cultural
heritage requires elimination of existing and prevention of
future deterioration as efficiently as possible. Metallic
thread for embroidery on textiles is, basically, copper or
zinc, silver or gold plated, either alone or combined. The
thickness of the precious metal is some microns. Metal
tapes wrapped around a silk or cotton, are white or yellow
color. The substrate of embroidered items is very often
homemade cotton, flax, hemp, wool or mixed - colored
materials [13-15].
The historical artifacts exhibit a wide range of material
varieties, shapes, surface textures and production
techniques, applicability of any conservation method
should be carefully evaluated and tested for each type.
The study of the laser radiation impacts on the surface of
embodied items is significant in terms of lasers
application in diagnostic, cleaning, and other conservation
methods. The application of lasers in conservation has a
lot of advantages and disadvantages [6]. The most metals
absorb the light strongly at ultraviolet wavelengths,
relative to infrared. Therefore, laser irradiation might lead
to heating of the metal threads, which can be a problem
when artefacts are made of textile and metal [14-17].

Picture 1. Uniform from Military museum in Belgrade

with metal threads [4]

2. LASER -MATERIAL INTERACTION

The interaction of laser beams with materials is a complex
phenomenon that depends on many factors [9-11]. Laser
ablation is process, consisting of optical, photo thermal,
photo acoustic and photo mechanical phenomena, which
depend on the parameters of the laser beam and materials.
The energy density of the laser beam, the time of irradiation
or pulse length, the wavelength, and the energy distribution
within the beam are related to laser characteristics. The
reflection and absorption coefficients, surface shape,
homogeneity, temperature coefficient, melting point, and
boiling point are related to the material of the object.
Different parameters were analyzed to study laser effect
on cleaning. The laser beam fluence is very important.
High values may cause the metal to melt or lead to the
formation of craters and because of that it is very
important to use the proper fluence [8, 9]. The better
cleaning results may be obtained with a low fluence and
high repetition rates. Spraying the surface with water
before cleaning can optimize the cleaning process.
Absorption, reflection, refraction, transmission, and
scattering take place when the laser beam is incident on
the irradiated sample. The majority of the energy is
absorbed and this absorption depends on the wavelength
and spectral absorptivity characteristics of the material.

3. EXPERIMET
The tested, embroidered sample was taken from museum
study collection. The metal embroidery is made on velvet.
The metal threads are combination of metals tapes
(cupper silver plated) and organic fibers (cotton).
Dimensions of sample are 3 x 7 cm. The threads and
fabrics of sample are all in relatively good condition, the
corrosion process is on the beginning.
The experiment was carried out using a commercial Nd:
YAG laser, Thunder Art Laser, produced by Quanta
System. The laser impacts on the sample were performed
under normal atmospheric conditions. A laser operates in
Q-switch mode, with the three-wavelength, 1064 nm, 532
nm and 355 nm. Pulse duration is <8 ns. The frequency is
20 Hz, a beam diameter of 10 mm. The energy of the laser
beam can be as follows: for 1064 nm maximum energy is
1000 mJ for 532 nm and 550 mJ for the smallest
wavelength 200 mJ. It has movable, articulated arm,
through which the laser beam is directed with 7 mirrors
and can approach the sample at different angles and at
different distances. Some initial tests with the lasers were
needed to find the optimum energy density.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy
dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) were performed for
microstructural and micro chemical characterization. The
sample surface was monitored by optical USB
microscope, too. The SEM (JEOL JSM6610LV) was
connected with INCA350 energy-dispersion spectroscope
(EDX). Prior to the examination, the specimen surface
should not be sputtered with gold. The EDX is used for
analysis of the metal threads composition and for
determination the changes in the material composition of
the irradiated zones and ablated material.

The laser absorbed energy converted into heat. When the

surface sample temperature reaches the melting point,
material removal occurs by melting. When the surface
temperature further increases and reaches the vaporization
point of the material, material removal takes place by
evaporation instead of melting. The surface temperature is
variable during laser irradiation. It depends of variations
in thermal conductivity and specific heat, as a function of
temperature. The main processes are mathematically
described in open literature [9-11].
650

4. RESULTS AND DISCUTION

Cleaning by laser has shown different effects on the
surfaces of the tested samples. The Nd:YAG laser has
some difficulty in removing organic materials since they
absorb poorly at shorter wavelengths. The use of pulsed
near infrared and green Nd:YAG lasers for cleaning
corroded metals is limited by the risk of surface melting
and blackening due to thermal and photochemical
changes. This process is very sensitive and correct
operating parameters and care by the operator are
required.
This paper presents only the results related to the cleaning
of metallic threads. Special attention and analysis requires
laser effect on textile parts underlying metal treads or the
organic fibers inside threads. The main aim of laser
cleaning is to clean without any damage of the textile.

Picture 2 is the photo of whole tested sample, after laser

irradiation. Figure 3 is the photos of irradiated zones on
embroidered sample, recorded by optical, USB
microscope (x20 for 3a and x200 for 3b and 3c). Visual
inspection shows that the effects of laser corrosion
cleaning depend of laser wavelength, and energy. The
energy density, fluencies of the laser beam, the
wavelength, and the number of pulses applied on marked
zones are presented in Table 1.

c
Picture 3.: Zoomed images of zone number 5
In the some SEM images (4a, 5a and 8a) can be seen the
dark areas (the layers of dirt) that are not removed. EDS
spectra (Table 2.) confirm that their composition is
consist of Al, Ca, Na, Mg, S, K, P, Cl, O which are the
result of corrosion products and the impact of the
environment. Textile surface and metal threads are
contaminated with salts and other pollutant that comprise
these elements. The same elements are detected in the
untreated zones 0, 6, 8 and 10 (Table 1. and Table 2.)

Picture 2. The irradiated zones on embroidered sample

Figures 4-8, and Table 2. show SEM and EDX results for
laser cleaning of metal threads. The analysis of the tested
samples shows, that the applied laser fluencies caused
very efficient surface cleaning of corrosion products and
other depositions. The spectra were recorded in the
different points of areas irradiated with three wavelengths
(Table 1). There are no significant changes in cleaning
with increasing laser beam power (zones 1-3). All results
in Table 2. are given in weight%.

Table 1: Experimental conditions of laser irradiation

Zone
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Fluence
[mJ/cm2]
0
390
300
150
180
220
0
110
0
350
0

Wave length
[nm]
0
1064
1064
532
532
532
0
355
0
355
0

Time of
irradiation [s]
0
2
2
2
2
2
0
2
0
2
0

EDX spectra recorded in holes of metal tread surface,

show that the base metal of treads is copper with thin
layer of silver (figs. 6b and 7c). EDX spectra (Table 2.)
detect Zn only once and point out the fact that the base

a
651

material is not brass, but it is copper. The presence of

sulfur is also registered by these EDX spectra. It is known
that, silver combines with sulfur forms silver sulfide as
black layer. The silver can be returned to its former luster
by removing the silver sulfide coating from the surface.
The total cleaned effects may be obtained with longer
irradiation time, better then with high laser fluence.

a
b
Picture 5. SEM (a) and EDX spectrum of zone 1(b)

c
Picture 4. SEM (a) and EDX spectrums of zone 0 (b, c)
Different kinds of damage may be visually observed on
sample surface, after laser irradiation: darkening,
yellowing, burning, hole making. The results are strictly
dependent on the choice of severity of irradiation (energy
density) and its duration (number of pulses) (Fig. 2, zones
3,4 and 5). Fig 6a, recorded in the zone 3, cleaned with
wave lenght 532 nm, has the areas with more than 98 %
of Ag (spectar 2, Fig. 6c). It is the evidance that the best
results in the elimination of depositions are obtained by
using laser light with a wavelength 532 nm.

THE BETTER sulfur (S) CLEANING IS OBTAINED

WITH THE WAVELENGTH OF THE SECOND (532
NM) AND THIRD HARMONIC (355 NM). The best
laser wavelength for CL cleaning is 532 NM. OXIDES
ARE REMOVED WITH SECOND HARMONIC. ALL
registered SPECTRUMS IN ZONES CLEANED BY
355NM WAVELENGTH SHOW THE LOWEST
PERCENTAGE of oxygen.

c
Picture 6. SEM (a) and EDX spectrums of zone 3 (b, c)

652

d
Picture 8. SEM (a) and EDX spectrums of
zone 7 (b, c and d)
As a result, the near infrared laser radiation of 1064 nm
wavelength causes a large thermal effect both on the
silver and the cotton, while the ultraviolet radiation of
355 nm has a small thermal effect on the surfaces and the
radiation is more effective in removing the silver tarnish
successfully without damaging the underlying organic
material.

In the case of 1064 nm wavelength, the silver surface was

changed and shows various colours such as orange, red,
yellow and blue (Fig. 1, zones 1 and 2). This implies that
the composition of the surface based on silver sulphides
was changed by the laser-induced heat causing further
surface degradation by thermal oxidation. At 532 nm
wavelength, the change of colour go mostly to yellow
(Fig. 1, zones 4 and 5). At the outer zones (Fig. 1, zone 7
and zone 9), cleaned by laser with 355 nm, there is no
changes of color. This means that the thermal
contribution, or generation, at the use of UV irradiation of
355 nm is too small to change the surface color. The
similar results are presented in [14].

d
Picture 7. SEM (a) and EDX spectrums of
zone 5 (b, c and d)

5. CONCLUSION
The obtained experimental results can be considered as a
very important step of a study aiming at corrosion and dirt
removal without impinging the original textiles and metal
threads. Laser cleaning of metal threads is widely used,
for military uniforms and other regalia, but side effects
that modify the appearance of the materials, are not yet
eliminated. Our results confirm that, if lower laser fluence
for cleaning is applied, less damage occurs, but
sometimes the cleaning may completely modifies the

653

appearance of the material. In laser cleaning processes

must be included textile professionals and conservators,
since they may give precise guidelines for future tests in
optimization the cleaning parameters.

museum textile items, such as collections of uniforms,

national costumes, flags, banners and home textiles in
National, ethnographic and military museums. The further
tests have to be conducted to determine how reactive the
metal is after cleaning. If it does become more reactive, a
cleaning process may not be advisable. In such case, the
artifacts have to be placed in a very pure environment.

The results confirm that shorter wavelength provided

higher removal efficiency and lower threshold laser
fluence for the removal of the surface corrosion and dirt
layers. A shorter wavelength such as UV radiation (355
nm) is much more effective and efficient for cleaning the
silver threads since it does not provide any apparent
damages both on the cotton inside metal treads.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research was sponsored by the Ministry of Education,
Science and technological development of the Republic
Serbia, through projects number TR 34028, TR 34022.

Another important conclusion is related to the effect of

the laser impact on the long term conservation of the
Table 2: EDX ANALYSIS
Spectrum

Spectrum 3

57.58 6.73 0.42

Spectrum 1
Spectrum 3

3.35
0.48
30.67 1.66 0.45 0.43

Spectrum 1
Spectrum 2

8.10
24.04 1.88

Spectrum 1
Spectrum 2
Spectrum 1
Spectrum 2
Spectrum 3

Spectrum 1
Spectrum 3

Mg

Al

Si
0.31

S
Cl K
Ca
Fe
Zone 0
0.64 4.30 2. 08 4.37
Zone 1

Cu

Ag

1.26

22.31

1.86

94.31
60.57

2.13

89.41
64.15

0.62 2.70 1.64 1.26

Zone 2
0.36
0.32 1.32
Zone 3
11.51

12.33 1.53 0.46

4.25
0.38

Zn

8.29

13.92 74.57
1.55 98.04

0.41

Spectrum 1
Spectrum 2
Spectrum 1
Spectrum 3

Na

Zone 4
13.36
0.56 2.05
Zone 5
0.38
10.97
Zone 7

15.03 71.61
83.07
1.85 93.90
2.32 96.92
20.24 68.79

6.05
0.37
3.14
60.86 3.01 0.74 3.98 5.21 0.77 1.24 4.37 3.30 2.82 1.05 3.84
Zone 9
2.28
0.34
2.62
47.34 7.67 0.42 0.43 0.92
1.78 5.10 2.23 4.52

90.43
8.81
94.76
29.05

0.54

Beogradu, 2007.
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655

MODELING OF AXISYMMETRICFLOW IN ACTIVE CORE OF THE

PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR
MIRJANA PRVULOVI,
Institute Gosa, Belgrade, mirjanaprvulovic@gmail.com
MILAN PROKOLAB
Institute Gosa, Belgrade, milan.prokolab@institutgosa.rs
STEVAN BUDIMIR
Institute Gosa, Belgrade, stevan.budimir@institutgosa.rs
MARKO RISTI
Institute Gosa, Belgrade, marko.ristic@institutgosa.rs

Abstract:The aim of this paper is modeling of stationary axisymmetric flow of a viscous fluid with intense volumetric
heat generation. The mathematical model is based on the balance equations of mass, momentum and energy for
parabolic flow in the porous media. System of differential equations that represent mathematical model is solved
numerically, using the method of control volumes. Prediction of the spatial distribution of velocity and temperature of
the fluid is performed, for coolant conditions, in the active core of the pressurized water reactor (Westinghouse reactor,
nuclear power plant Krsko), at various inlet velocity profiles. Obtained results show that the heat conduction in the
radial direction is negligible in relation to the mechanisms of volumetric heat generation and convective heat transport,
for the axial flow with intense volume heat source.
Keywords: parabolic flow, numerical solution, volume heat source .

Flow distribution at the active core region is one of the

most important concerns in nuclear reactor designs. Since
it plays a significant role in the uniform heat removal of
the reactor core and is relevant for nuclear safety, cor inlet
and outlet flow distribution has received great attention
from researchers [1-9].

1. INTRODUCTION
Thermal-hydraulics has played a vital role since the 1950s
in the design, operation, performance and safety of
nuclear power plants. As our knowledge in thermalhydraulics progressed because of intense research and
development throughout the world, the design, operation
and performance of nuclear power reactors have
improved significantly[1].

The global core thermal hydraulic behavior must be

studied for three main reasons. The first one is to ensure
the core outlet temperature as uniform as possible,
although the radial profile of heat power is not uniform.
The second one is the knowledge of the inter-wrapper
flow behavior and the temperature field in this region,
which influence the thermo-mechanical stresses on the
wrapper tubes. The third one is when decay heat
exchangers immersed in the hot pool are operating at low
primary flow condition or even in natural circulation[1].

Around 350 Light Water Reactors (BWR and PWR) are

operating throughout the world. Many of them have been
upratedduring operating time. In USA alone, more than
6000 MW has been added by power uprates of existing
plants[1]. This has been achieved by combination of plant
and fuel modifications, and by application of bestestimate modeling and simulation capabilities.
Safety remains one of the most significant issues in the
development of nuclear power plant equipment.Since
severe accidents in nuclear reactors can have a large
influence on the world, international consensus is
significant for Safety Design Criteria.

The main goal of this investigation is modeling of coolant

flow in core ofpressurized -water nuclear reactor and
determining temperature and velocity distribution of
coolant by methods of computational fluid dynamics for
parabolic flow of a viscous fluid with intense volumetric
heat generation.

Development of innovative technologies for improvement

safety and design nuclear reactors will be one of the
future tasks.
656

 u T / x + vT / x =
= 1 / r / y ( r ( (/ c p ) T / y ) + Sh / c p

2. MATHEMATICAL MODEL
Within the core of a pressurized-water nuclear reactor
(PWR), water flow is used to cool the hot irradiated fuel
rods. There are tens of thousands of fuel rods in a PWR,
and computing the flow over all of them simultaneously is
not feasible on todays computers[3].

(3)

With the equation of state for incompressible fluid flow

(=const) mathematical model is complete.
The numerical procedure is proposed adjustment model and
the introduction of generalized differential equation (4):

Figure 1 shows one of new concept of reactor vessel

design. Steam generator is located in interior of reactor
vessel. Inside the reactor vessel is a large number of
different elements, such as the fuel rods, control rods, the
different measurement and control equipment, etc.

1
r ( + S
+ v
=
x
x r y
y

(4)

Where are:

There is a large degree of symmetry in the fuel assembly

which makes this geometrical simplification a reasonable
approximation. The coolant flow generally moves axially
on the outside of the fuel rods. These facts provide
substantial simplifications in modeling the coolant flow.

dp
dx

- pressure gradient

[kg/m3] - density,
u[m/s] - axial component of velocity,
v[m/s]

- component of velocity in the radial direction,

- generalized diffusion coefficient,

- internal source ,

Sh

- internal volumetric generation,

cp

- specific heatcapacity,

- general dependent variable.It may be the

velocity u, enthalpy, temperature, or other
quantity that describes similar equations.
Depending on the choice , must be adapted to
express for (and S.

Realistically rector core is approximated by cylindrical

adiabatic insulated duct, through which the coolant in the
presence of an internal heat source.
The coolant is water at pressure 15.41 MPa with an
average inlet temperature 287.5C (this parameters is
valid for Westinghouse reactor, nuclear power plant
Krsko).
Observation of the coolant flow in the reactor as flow
through porous media is encountered in literature [2].
Figure 1. Reactor vessel assembly of SMART

The effect of the presence of solid elements in the space

of the active core, in terms of generation resistance to
flow, is taken into account by introducing an effective
coefficient of viscosity, and its approximate value for the
geometry characteristic of the interior of the reactor core
is5010-5 Pas.

A mathematical model is based on the mass, momentum

and energy balance for the parabolic flow
conditions[10]in porous media around fuel-rods bundle,
and it is represented by the set of equations (1-3), for 2-D,
steady flow of a viscous fluid in presence heat source.
Continuity equation for axisymmetric flow has the
following form:
(( ur ) / x + (( vr ) / x = 0

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSION

The control volume method is applied [10] for the
numerical solution, in the case of a homogeneous reactor
core. To solve the mathematical model, our own software
is developed.

(1)

The equation of momentum for downstream direction is

represented by the following expression:
dp
u u + v u = 1 r ( u
x
x r y
y dx

Power density of internal sources in the reactor core is

unevenly distributed. Theoretical radial distribution of
power density and neutron flux describes by Bessel
function zero order first kind, which by shape is very
close to the cosine function.For this reason, in numerical

(2)

Energy balance is represented by the following equation:

657

simulation, the Bessel distribution replaced cosine

distribution.

Based on the obtained results,may be concluded, that the

heat conduction in the radial direction can be neglected
with respect to the mechanisms of convective transport
and volumetric heat generation.

Axial distribution of power density in the active core is

corresponding to theoretical cosine distribution.

Numerical experiments have shown that the geometry of

the control volume must be accurately determined, not
approximate, as proposed in the literature [10]. Otherwise,
it was observed that there is a discontinuity in the velocity
and especially temperature profiles, near the axis of
symmetry flow channel.

Average volumetric heat flux within the control volume,

is determined on the basis of thermal power reactors and
power density distribution in a homogeneous reactor
without a reflector.
Figure 2 shows the radial distribution of temperature of
the coolant, the uneven distribution of the flow at the
entrance of the reactor core.

Another problem during creating a computer program was

the emergence of temperature increase near the flow
channel boundary.

The local coolant temperature has a maximum in the

central part (axis of symmetry) of the active core and
decreases towards the periphery.

To solve this problem was introduced annular region near

the wall flow channel, with the value of the internal heat
source equal to zero.There are annular region in realistic
design of pressurized water reactor, without presence fuel
rods, allowing the introduction of these assumptions. This
one has a significant role in removal of heat.

4. CONCLUSION
A modeling and numerical computation of the thermal
and hydraulic parameters distribution for axisymmetric,
stationary, energy intensive flow is performed.
The results of numerical experiments show that the heat
conduction in the radial direction can be neglected with
respect to the mechanisms of convective transport and
volumetric heat generation, which leads to further
possibilities of simplifying the applied model.

Figure 2. Radial temperature distribution in active core

The radial temperature distribution is similar in shape
parabolic, which suggests that the mechanism of internal
heat generation and convective heat transport has a
dominant influence on the shape of temperature fields for
axial energy-intensive flow.

In comparison with realistic data, it can be concluded, that

the applied methodology can be useful in prediction of
average temperature of coolant in the reactor core.
In order to avoid unwanted distortion of the flow
parameters profiles, the exact prediction geometry of the
control volume is necessary.

Figure 3 shows the axial distribution of the local

temperature and the increase of average temperature of
coolant along reactor core.

The presented methodology can be used in the modeling

of axial flow with internal heat generation, for other
process equipment of cylindrical geometry.

The dashed line is represented the wall of active core.

Based on the numerical calculation, the outlet average
temperature of coolant is 324.4C. It corresponds to the
data of outlet average temperature of coolant in the
primary circuit of Krsko nuclear power plant.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is based on researches implemented in the
project of the Ministry of Education and Science,
Republic of Serbia-TR-34028.

REFERENCES
[1] Saha,P.,
Aksan,N.,
Andersen,J.,
Yan,J.,
Simoneau,J.P., Leung,L., Bertrand,F., Aoto,K.,
Kamide,H.: Issues and future direction of thermalhydraulics research and development in nuclear
power reactors, Nuclear Engineering and Design
264 (2013) 3 23.
[2] Youngmin Bae, Young In Kim, Cheon Tae Park:
CFD analysis of flow distribution at the core inlet of
SMART, Nuclear Engineering and Design 258 (2013)
19 25.
[3] Bakosi,J., Christon,M.A., Lowrie,R.B., Pritchett-

Figure 3. Axial temperature distribution in active core

Maximum value of the local temperature of the coolant,
were obtained in the central region of the reactor core.

658

Sheats,L.A.,
Nourgaliev,R.R.:
Large-eddy
simulations of turbulent flow for grid-to-rod fretting
in nuclear reactors, Nuclear Engineering and Design
262 (2013) 544 561.
[4] Deendarlianto Hhne,T., Lucas,D., Valle,C.,
Zabala,G.A.M.: CFD studies on the phenomena
around counter-current flow limitations of gas/liquid
two-phase flow in a model of a PWR hot leg, Nuclear
Engineering and Design241 (2011) 51385148.
[5] Wu,C.Y., Ferng,Y.M., Chieng,C.C., Kang,Z.C., CFD
analysis for full vessel upper plenum in Maanshan
Nuclear Power Plant, Nuclear Engineering and
Design253 (2012) 285 93.
[6] Jeong,J.H., Han,B.: Coolant flow field in a real
geometry of PWR downcomer and lower plenum,
Annals of Nuclear Energy 35 (2008) 610619.

[7] Chiang,J., Pei,B., Tsai,F.P.: Pressurized water

reactor
(PWR)
hot-leg
streamingPart
1:
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations,
241 (2011) 17681775.
[8] Conner,M.E., Baglietto,E., Elmahdi,A.M.: CFD
methodology and validation for single-phase flow in
PWR fuel assemblies, Nuclear Engineering and
Design, 240, (2010) 20882095,
[9] Delafontain,S., Ricciardi,G.: Fluctuating pressure
calculation induced by axial flow through mixing
grid, Nuclear Engineering and Design, 242, (2012)
233246.
[10] Patankar,S.V.: Parabolic Systems: Finite-Diference
Method I, Hadbook of Numerical Heat transfer, John
Wiley & Sons,1988, pp.89-115.

659

CALCULATION OF TECHNICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

IN THE PLANT FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT
STEVAN BUDIMIR
Institute Gosa, Belgrade, stevan.budimir@institutgosa.rs
MILAN PROKOLAB
Institute Gosa, Belgrade, milan.prokolab@institutgosa.rs
ZLATAN MILUTINOVI
Institute Gosa, Belgrade, zlatan.milutinovic@institutgosa.rs

Abstract: The subject of the research is a calculation of the most important technical and technological parameters of
the wastewater treatment plant, using active sludge process. Material balance is performed for the capacity of 150 000
population equivalent, as well as calculations of equipment for mechanical and biological treatment of wastewater to
achieve the required quality. It also made the sizing of the required elements, which set the basis for the realization of
the conceptual design of plants for waste water treatment plant of a specified capacity. Based on the analysis of the
obtained results, it can be concluded, that it is possible to achieve the required water quality and that the results
contain all the information necessary to perform the preliminary design of the plant.
Keywords: wastewater treatment, active sludge, material balance.
Based on the obtained results, it can be seen, that it is
possible to achieve the required water quality and that the
results contain necessary information to perform the
preliminary design of the plant successfully.

1. INTRODUCTION
The aim of this work is to give picture how the main
technological and technical parameters in one wastewater
treatment plant with a capacity of 150 000 PE have been
calculated.
In the last time a man directly or indirectly affects the
environment by waste liquid, solid or gaseous origin. The
development of human society, the increase in industrial
production and urban development have become a very
important problem in pollution, especially in pollution by
wastewater.Thus, partially polluted natural ecosystems are
no longer capable of self-purification in order to establish the
equilibrium in nature. In order to successfully perform
purification of the wastewater, it is necessary to know the
amount, type and quality, methods of purification, as well as
conditions of environment (water receiver).
Significantly, traditional design rules used by engineers
are frequently too limited in the case of modern
configurations, because the number of degrees-of freedom
demanded is steadily increasing. The expectation of
having to simultaneously satisfy a variety of objectives
(such as effluent requirements, safety, investment costs,
operational costs, etc.) also increases the complexity of
the problem, such that the selection of the most
appropriate plant design becomes a very difficult task,
even for experienced designers [7].

2. TECHNICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL

PARAMETERS OF THE WASTEWATER
TREATMENT PLANT
Comparing our situation with the situation in other
European countries, it is clear that we are at the bottom of
the ladder in terms of municipal infrastructure utility. In
most European cities, more than 95% of the population is
connected to the sewer system, while in Belgrade, that
number is about 85%. In Vojvodina, the sewage network
is connected to about 49%, while the rest of Serbia is
about 37% [10].There are 405 treatment facilities in the
European Union (EU) and another 43 plants are planned
to be built in the coming years [9].
While there is no single definition of the waste water, one
of the most known is that it is water that has changed the
composition compared to the original compositions due to
pollutant, whose presence causes a change in the physical,
chemical, biological or bacteriological water conditions to
the extent that it may limit or prevent its use [11].

660

Picture 1. Disposition of equipment in the wastewater treatment plant

volume. From dividing building wastewater is divided
into three identical flows going into the three primary
sedimentation tanks. Each primary sedimentation tank
receives about 2300 m3/h of the wastewater. The role of
the primary sedimentation tank is to accept the
wastewater and to perform primary sedimentation of the
particles. The most used technology for liquid/solids
separation is the settling process. Due to the phenomena
of gravity, the particles settle down and finally two
streams are produced: a particle clarified stream and a
particle concentrated stream. The settlers are generally
classified into primary and secondary settlers. The
primary settling is applied directly to the raw wastewater
and produces a carbon-rich primary sludge, while the
secondary settling process is applied to separate the
biomass produced in the activated sludge reactors from
the water[4].

2.1. Description of the plant

The aim of this study is to provide the basis for the
conceptual design of plant, with the capacity of 150 000
PE (population equivalent) for wastewater treatment using
complex aerobic process. When it comes to the urban
wastewater treatment, in small and medium-sized plants,
inlet raw water is usually treated with extended aeration
process and with sufficient intake of wastewater to
ensure the gradual stabilization of sludge (BOD = 0.35
(BOD) and (COD)
kg/m3 per day). Designations
represent biological oxygen demand and chemical oxygen
demand respectively, whose concentrations are
representing their organic content.
The amount of the municipal wastewater entering the
plant is about 72 000 m3/day. The plant is designed so that
coarse grid is situated in the reception area of a plant.
After coarse grid, there are three screw conveyorsand
after them three fine grids are placed in the plant (Picture
1). The function of the fine grid is to remove particles of
greater density and that these particles do not burden the
further purification process. After the fine grid, flow of
wastewater is distributed to sand pool, through sand pool
2300 m3/h of wastewater is passing. Function of sand pool
is to remove sand particles by sedimentation and thus
purified wastewater is moving towards the dividing
building where wastewater is collected to one pool in
order to achieve mixing and equalization of
characteristics in wastewater throughout the whole

From the two primary sedimentation tanks wastewater

flows to the anoxic pool, aerobic pool, and from the third
primary sedimentation tank wastewater flows to the
sludge thickener (Picture 1). From anaerobic and anoxic
pool water line goes into dividing building where it sums.
From the dividing building wastewater (treated water)
goes to the aeration pool, where the wastewater flow is
6900 m3/h.
Anaerobic part of the pool is constructed as a piston flow
reactor. Each of the parts of the reactor in side the
anaerobic pool is equipped with a submerged mixer,
661

which assures homogenization of the contents inside each

of the volume and especially performs homogenization of
the input water stream in the first inlet reactor section and
sludge from the anoxic tank. In order to preserve anoxic
conditions in the anaerobic, reactor is low covered with
prefabricated elements, and the air from the anaerobic
part of the pool are forcibly transported by fans to the lava
filters where it is treated.

produce a final water effluent. A mix of biological and

chemical sludge is discharged from the aeration pools and
flows through using the gravity separation which is placed
in the water sedimentation tanks. The water is inserted
into them through the central tube, where separation is
performed based on the difference in a particle density.
They are mixers which do not allow the sludge to be
precipitated, as well as from stopping of plant. The
relevant technological parameters for defining the quality
of purified water are shown in Table 1.

Aerobic pool has a function to process wastewater using

aerobic process and it is constructed as a circulating
biological pool. Oxidation of organic substances, the
simultaneous nitrification and denitrification as well as
the biological dephosphorization have been performed in
the aeration tanks.

Table 1. Major technological parameters of the

purification in the wastewater treatment plant
Conc. of waste
Types of waste water entering
material
the plant
(mg/l)

Aeration pool has the role of the blowing oxygen and

thereby performs oxidation of the wastewater. This
existing pool serves as an additional volume for the
nitrification process at low temperatures during winter
period. In order to prevent release of phosphorus from
microorganism cells which is occurring in anaerobic
conditions, the amount of dissolved oxygen in the pool
must be strictly controlled. The aeration pool is
dimensioned similarly as the anaerobic swimming pool.
In the large-scale waste water treatments, biochemical
treatment is commonly utilized. In urban and densely
populated areas, more compact and high-performance
water treatment plants are required. In developing
countries, the lower cost and easy maintenance are more
important. To promote the aerobic biochemical reaction,
the oxygen supply rate into microorganisms has to be fast
because of oxygen feed limitation; therefore, a highly
efficient oxygen supplier and more useful aerobic waste
water treatment system are expected [8]. Activated sludge
processes are usually operated in the aerated tank reactors
and channels. A part of the mixing is ensured by
mechanical work (impellers) and the other part by
aerators. The thickener before the digester reactor ensures
that the mix of secondary and primary sludge is
sufficiently concentrated in all the cases [4].

Conc. of
waste water
at the outlet
plant
(mg/l)

Removal
efficiency of
waste in the
facility
(%)

BOD loading

250

20

92

COD loading

500

125

75

Nitrogen

45

10

77

Phosphorus

85

Suspended
solids

290

30

89

2.2. Calculation of equipment

At the entrance of the wastewater treatment plant, coarse
grid with manual cleaning is placed, whose illuminated
aperture is 50 mm. Sizing of the coarse grid is based on
the flow of incoming wastewater from 72 000 m3/day.
Wastewater after coarse grid is transported to the plant by
screw conveyors. Number of the screw conveyors is three,
screw convey or diameter is 1800 mm. Nominal flow rate
through each of the fine grids is 2300 m3/h, while the
maximum flow rate through each of the fine grids
amounts to 3450 m3/h
Based on the adopted surface pressure and maximum flow
through the sand pool (defined by normal inlet capacity of
pumping station), dimensioning of sand pool is obtained
from the equation:

The processes taking place in a biological wastewater

treatment plant are numerous and complex, especially
when biological removal of nitrogen, phosphorus and
organic matter is implemented [2]. The removal of
nitrogen as well as organic matter from this wastewater is
particularly important, because ammonia is toxic to fish
or aquatic microorganisms, and is oxygen-consuming
compounds which deplete the dissolved oxygen (DO) in
the stream. The removal of nitrogen can be achieved
economically in a biological treatment system [6].

Ap =

QP
Fmax

(1)

where the APis surface of sand pool, QP is flow of

wastewater through sand pool, Fmax is surface loading of
sand pool. Depth of sand pool is calculated based on the
remaining time of wastewater in sand pool. Surface of
sand pool is 200 m2, water depth in the sand pool is 0.9 m
and retention time of wastewater in sand pool is 90 s.

From dividing building water line is split into two

streams, and it goes to the secondary sedimentation tank
(flow 2300 m3/h) with a role of additional particle
sedimentation. From the two secondary sedimentation
tanks wastewater goes to digestion, mechanical sludge
thickeners, aerobic pool and from them finally comes the
final effluent (Picture 1). From dividing building behind
the aeration pool one part of the wastewater goes to the
other three secondary sedimentation tank, from which
comes the final effluent.The secondary sedimentation
tanks have a function to sediment the particles, and they

The function of dividing building is to collect and forward

the waste water from sand pool to primary sedimentation
tanks. Dimensioning of dividing building is performed
according to wastewater flow of 6900 m3/h.
Primary sedimentation tanks are basically circular in
shape, and each of them is equipped with a floor scraper
mounted to the rotating scraper bridge, and with surface
remover of the floating substances.
662

Dimensioning of the primary sedimentation tanks has

been done using the following formula:

Apst

Q pst
=
Fmax

REFERENCES
[1] Ling Shao, G.Q. Chen, T. Hayat, A. Alsaedi: Systems
ecological accounting for wastewater treatment
engineering: Method, indicator and application,
Elsevier, Ecological Indicators Amsterdam, 2014.
[2] K.M.Pedersen*, M.Kiimmel and H.Slaeberg:
Monitoring and control of biological removal of
phosphorus and nitrogen by flow-injection analysers
in a municipal pilot-scale waste-water treatment
plant, Elsevier, Analytica Chimica Acta, Amsterdam,
1990.
[3] Burak Demirel, Orhan Yenigun*, Turgut,T.Onay:
Anaerobic treatment of dairy wastewaters: a review,
Elsevier, Process Biochemistry, Amsterdam, 2004.
[4] N.Descoins, S.Deleris, R.Lestienne, E.Trouv,
F.Marchal: Energy efficiency in waste water
treatments plants: Optimization of activated sludge
process coupled with anaerobic digestion, Elsevier,
Energy, Amsterdam, 2011.

(2)

where the Apst is surface of primary sedimentation tank,

Qpst is flow of wastewater through sedimentation tank,
Fmax is surface loading of sedimentation tank. Depth of
the primary sedimentation tank is calculated based on the
remaining time of wastewater in the tank. Dimensions of
the primary sedimentation tanks: diameter is 32,2 m and
water depth is 2.5 m.
Dimensioning of the required volume of anaerobic tank
has been done using the following formula:
Van = Qsr tan

(3)

where the Van is volume of anaerobic tank, tan is retention

time of wastewater in anaerobic tank, Qsr is wastewater
flow through anaerobic tank. Dimensions of anaerobic
tank are: water depth is 6m, tank size is 22x11.7m.

[5] Agnieszka Tuszynska, Katarzyna Kolecka,

Bernard Quant: The influence of phosphorus
fractions in bottom sediments on phosphate removal
in semi-natural systems as the 3rd stage of biological
Elsevier,
Ecological
wastewater
treatment,
Engineering, Amsterdam, 2012.
[6] Jin-Young An, Joong-Chun Kwon, Deog-Won Ahn,
Dong-Hoon Shin,Hang-Sik Shin, Byung-Woo Kim:
Efficient nitrogen removal in a pilot system based on
upflow multi-layer bioreactor for treatment of strong
nitrogenous swine wastewater, Elsevier, Process
Biochemistry, Amsterdam, 2007.
[7] A.Rivas, I.Irizar, E.Ayesa: Model based optimisation
of Wastewater Treatment Plants design, Elsevire,
Environmental Modelling & Software,Amsterdam,
2007.

Dimensioning of the required volume of anoxic tank is

done using the following formula:
Vax = Qsr tax

(4)

where the Vax is volume of anoxic tank, tax is retention

time of wastewater in anoxic tank, Qsr is wastewater flow
through anoxic tank. Dimensions of anoxic tank are:
water depth is 6m, tank size is 45.7 x11.7m.
Dimensioning of the secondary sedimentation tanks has
been done like primary sedimentation tanks. Dimensions
of the secondary sedimentation tanks: diameter is 43 m,
water depth is 2.5 m.

3. CONCLUSION

Koichi Terasaka, Ai Hirabayashi, Takanori

Nishino, Satoko Fujioka, Daisuke Kobayashi:
Development of micro bubble aerator for waste
water treatment using aerobic activated sludge,
Elsevier, Chemical Engineering Science,Amsterdam,
2011.
[9] Dominik Saner, Yann B. Blumer, Daniel J. Lang,
Annette Koehler: Scenarios for the implementation
of EU waste legislation at national level and their
consequences for emissions from municipal waste
incineration, Elsevier,Resources, Conservation and
Recycling,Amsterdam 2011.
[10] Stevan Budimir: Idejno reenje postrojenja
kapaciteta 150 000 ES za preiavanje komunalnih
otpadnih voda kompleksnim aerobnim postupkom,
Diplomski rad, Beograd, 2009.
[11] C.C.Lee, Shun Dan Lin: Handbook of environmental
engineering calculations, second edition.
[8]

Based on the results of the calculations it can be

concluded that:
To achieve the required quality of wastewater according to
the Euro norms, for a nominal capacity of 150 000 PE, it is
needed that the wastewater treatment plant contains a fine
grid, sand pool, sedimentation tank, anaerobic and aerobic
pool. After going through all components of plant,
technological parameters of the wastewater quality are in
the limits of the Euro norms. The last water framework
directive (RDW 2000/60/WE) enforces the obligation to
ensure a good quality of surface waters until the year
2015. The new regulations introduce lower concentrations
of nutrients and suspended solids in the treated wastewater
[5].
Based on methodology shown in this work, it is possible
to carry out similar calculations for the different
capacities of the wastewater treatment plant. The present
treatment of municipal water before returning to the
environment ensures achieving reductions of waste
emissions and conservation of water resources.

663

MODELING OF SPRAY DEPOSITION PROCESS FOR SUBSTRATE OF

AXISYMMETRIC GEOMETRY
MILAN PROKOLAB
Institute Gosa, Belgrade, milan.prokolab@institutgosa.rs
MIRJANA PRVULOVI,
Institute Gosa, Belgrade, mirjanaprvulovic@gmail.com
MARKO RISTI
Institute Gosa, Belgrade, marko.ristic@institutgosa.rs

Abstract: Modeling of the spray process for axisymmetric rotating substrate in a nitrogen atmosphere has been
performed. Mathematical model of the spray deposition process is solved numerically by Runge Kutta method. The
numerical computer simulation is developed in order to define process parameters and obtain deposits with exactly
determined geometry and controlled level of porosity. The influence of the relevant process parameters on the porosity
of the obtained deposit has been analyzed. Numerical experiments show that the main condition for growth of good
quality spray deposit is a balance of both the solidification rate of the semi-solid/semi liquid surface layer and the spray
deposition rate.
Keywords: spray deposition process, numerical simulation, rotating substrate.

1. INTRODUCTION

To reduce the experiment costs and the research period,

numerical simulation has been proven to be an effective
way to optimize the process parameters and give guidance
for design of spray process equipment [5, 11, 12, 13].

Spray deposition technology, firstly developed by Singer

at the University of Swansea in the 1970s, has been
widely used to produce tube, billet, plate, ring, etc.
preforms and near net-shape products with fine-grained,
which are beyond the reach of conventional casting
technologies [1].

The aim of this investigation is modeling of the spraydeposition process for axisymmetric geometry of base
material. Numerical simulation software has also been
developed to achieve possibilities of adjusting both
different materials and variation of the corresponding
process parameters. Using of this numerical simulation,
selection of optimal parameters for spray deposition
process is much easier and, thus, impact on reducing of
the porosity of the obtained deposits.

The spray deposition process is the combination of a rapid

solidification of the disintegrated droplets after
atomization and a subsequent slower cooling of the bulk
material after deposition. The resulting material properties
are critically controlled by a number of process
parameters, such as the superheat of the melt, the gas
pressure, the ratio of the flow rate of the molten material
and the atomization gas or the flight distance of the
disintegrated droplets. By optimization of the relevant
process parameters, the spray deposition process becomes
suitable to produce homogenous, segregation-free
materials with fine grain structures, increased solubility of
alloying elements and small sized precipitates [2]. The
details of the spray deposition process and properties of
used material can be found in ref. [1-13].

2. MATHEMATICAL MODEL
Modeling has become an important tool to improve
understanding. Computational fluid dynamics modeling
has been used to describe the events occurred during the
in-flight stage, but the deposition stage requires a
different approach. Impact of the spray on the deposit is
expected to give rapid thermal and structural
equilibration, with intimate contact between solid and
liquid. [11].

Some authors pointed out an undesirable increase of

porosity in characteristic regions of the deposit [3, 4, 11],
which can be explained by the disturbance of the ratio
between the deposition rate and deposit surface cooling
rate, during the deposition process.

The basic stages of the process are: gas atomization of

molten alloy and deposition of spray particles onto the
substrate [3,] (Fig.1).

664

Temperature profile of particle is obtained by numerical

solving of Eqs. (3)-(5):

mCd T = h A (Td Tg ) + A (Td4 Tg4 )

(3)

where are: Td (K) temperature of the particle, Tg (K)

temperature of the gas stream, T(K) temperature
change of the particle, Cd (Jkg-1K-1) specific heat of the
particle, h(Wm-2K-1) heat transfer coefficient,
Stefan-Boltzmann constant and emissivity.
The first term at the right side in Eq. (3) refers to
convection described by the heat transfer coefficient, h,
and the second term refers to radiation. Temperaturevelocity profiles are calculated for particles of diameters d
= 10, 20, ..., 250m, the range of distances D = 0 - 2000
mm. The time step in all calculations is 1.3 s.

Deposition rate
The deposition rate is determined by the normal Gaussian
distribution:
Vy = V0 e R

Figure 1. Schematic presentation of the spray deposition

process

Deposition rate at spray axis, V0, is the function of a melt

flow, distance and spray cone angle. The radial
distribution coefficient depends on distance and cone
angle. Deposit growth on the rotating substrate is
numerically calculated with time step of 50ms. Rotation
period of substrate is 1 second. To accomplish the
necessary deposition rate, the substrate axis of rotation is
placed at the certain distance from the spray axis, DC.

Atomization and the temperature-velocity profile

of spray particles

Deposit cooling conditions

The solid phase content, g, in the spray before compacting
must be in the range g = 0.7 to 0.9 [3, 8]. It can be
considered that a thin layer of semi-solid/semi-liquid
material exists on the spray-deposit surface. It is also
assumed that below this layer the material is in a solid
phase.

The velocity profile of the particles is defined by

dependence of gas velocity at particular distance from the
atomizing nozzle and it can be described by an empirical
relation for the particular nozzle (1) [8]:
2

(1)

Spray deposit surface cooling is characterized by the

solidification rate [9] which is given by:

where are: Vg(m/s) gas velocity, Vg 0 (m/s) initial gas

Vfs =

velocity, D0(m) characteristic distance for gas velocity

decrease, D (m) distance from nozzle. These quantities
are functions of atomization and nozzle parameters.

h Tc

(1 g ) Hfs m

(5)

where are: Vfs(m/s) solidification rate, T temperature

difference between spray and gas,

The velocity profile of particles in the gas stream, defined

by (1), is obtained from the next differential equation,
which is involved numerically [4]:
m dVd = Cdrag g Vr2 A + mg
2
dt

(4)

where are: Vy (m/s) deposition rate, V0 (m/s)

deposition rate at spray axis, radial distribution
coefficient and R distance from the spray axis.

The computer program is based on three physicomathematical algorithms: (a) temperature-velocity profile
of particles after gas atomization of molten alloy,
(b) deposition rate in the spray cross-section area, and (c)
spray deposit cooling conditions. On the basis of initial
physical assumptions, algorithms are developed in a
sufficiently dense numerical solving pattern, to provide
enough accuracy of the calculation.

Vg = Vg 0 1 D
D0

Tc = Tsp - Tg, Tg gas temperature, Tsp average spray

temperature, m is density of solid phase and Hfs latent
fusion heat of the material.

(2)

Incoming data

where are: - m(kg) mass of the particle, Vd (m/s)

velocity of particle, Vr=Vg-Vd velocity of the particle
relative to the velocity of the gas, g(kg/m3) gas density,
A(m2) cross-section area of the particle and Cdrag drag
coefficient.

Selected material for the numerical simulation is the

aluminum alloy Al1.0Si0.6Mg0.6Mn, while chosen gas is
nitrogen. A necessary process parameters and material
constants, for solving previously defined problem, are
665

specified in Tables 1and 2.

thickness of deposits is greatest near the centre of rotation

and decreases towards the periphery. Larger thickness of
the deposite non-uniformity is more pronounced. Thinner
deposits had almost uniform thickness.

Table 1. Parameters of nitrogen

Gas parameters
pressure
initial velocity
dynamic viscosity
specific heat
density
thermal conductivity

p
Vg0

g
cg

g
kg

1,2 MPa
600 m/s
1,710-5 kg/ms
1040 J/kgK
1,25 kg/m3
0,024 W/mK

The adopted parameters of the apparatus in the calculation

are:
- spray cone angle is 15 ,
- characteristic distance for gas velocity decrease
D0=5m.
Table 2. Parameters of Al1.0Si0.6Mg0.6Mn
Figure 2. Deposit growth for D=400mm

Alloys parameters
Melt stream diameter
Melt flow rate
Melt superheat
Melt density
Solidus temperature
Liquidus temperature
Fusion heat
dynamic viscosity
thermal conductivity
specific heat of alloy

D1
Im
TSH

m
Ts
T1
Qm

d
kd
cd

Figure 3 represent distribution of Vy/Vfs ratio across the

deposit. The numbers in oblique brackets on Fig.3,
represent Vy/Vfs ratio. In the central area of deposit this
parameter has a maximum, (Vy/Vfs =1). Deposit height has
a maximum in the same area, and minimum porosity can
be expected in this case.

0,005 m
0,03 kg/s
715 C
2550 kg/m3
555 C
650 C
396 kJ/kg
0,0042 kg/ms
213 W/mK
886 J/kgK

Granulometric distribution of alloy particles represents

the input data for numerical simulation and is determined
on the basis of the atomization parameters and
experimental work given by Tomic [10].

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Mathematical model of the spray deposition process
constitutes a system of equations (1)-(5), which is solved
numerically by Runge Kutta method. The numerical
computer simulation is developed in order to define
process parameters and to obtain deposits with exactly
determined geometry and controlled level of porosity.
Some relevant process parameters for the spray deposition
process and controlling of the grain size, as the type of
gas, and nozzle parameters, are constant parameters in
this work, while some are variable, like the type of used
metal powder, distance between nozzle, and substrate
surface and its type.

Figure3. Predicted variation of Vy/Vfs ratio across the

deposite
Important condition for growth of good quality spray
deposit is that the solidification rate of the semisolid/semi liquid surface layer is equal to the spray
deposition rate. Disruptions of this condition may cause
both porosity and undesirable microstructure of the final
deposit.

4. CONCLUSION

After the selection of material and corresponding process

parameters, this software enables graphic presentation of
deposit growth onto the rotating substrate and deposition
conditions.

In this work modeling of spray deposition process of

materials with complex chemical composition onto
rotating substrate has been performed. Solving the
mathematical model is done numerically and own
software was developed.

Substrate distance for spray compacting is chosen in such

a manner that the content of solid phase of the spray is
provided to be g = 0.8 [3, 4].

The results of numerical simulations show that:

Good quality spray deposit can be expected, especially
in the central deposition area (between substrate

A presentation of deposit growth for t = 1200s and

substrate diameter Dsb =150mm is given in Fig. 2. The
666

rotation axis to Rsb/2), if solidification rate of surface

layer equal spray deposition rate.

Ping, He You-duo, Spray Deposition Behavior and

Numerical Simulation of Growth of tubular perform
in Spray Forming Process, Journal of Iron and Steel
research, International, 2012,19 (2): 28-35.
[6] Sharma, M.M., Amateaub, M.F., Edenc, T.J., Aging
response of AlZnMgCu spray formed alloys and
their metal matrix composites, Materials Science
and Engineering: A, Volume 424, Issues 12, 25
May 2006, p.p. 8796
[7] Garbero,M., Vanni, M., Fritsching, U.,Gas/surface
heat transfer in spray deposition processes,
International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow,
Volume 27, Issue 1, February 2006, p.p.105-122
[8] Lavernia,E.J., Guttierez,E.M., Szekely, J.and
Grant,N.J., in "Progress in Powder Metallurgy", Vol.
43,(Proc. Conf.) Dallas,Texas, USA (1987) 683.
[9] Becker,M., in "Heat Transfer: A Modern Approach"
(Plenum Press) New York (1986) 131.
[10] Tomic, P., Milanovic,Z., Kursumovic, A., An
Investigation of the Nozzle Geometry and Gas
Velocity Influence on Aluminum Powder Size
Distribution, Fizika, Vol.21, Supplement 1, Zagreb,
(1989) 411.
[11] Tinoco, J., Widell , B., Fredriksson,H., Metal spray
deposition of cylindrical preforms, Materials
Science and Engineering A 413414 (2005) 5665
[12] Doubenskaia ,M., Novichenko, D., Sova, A.,
Pervoushin, D., Particle-in-flight monitoring in
thermal spray processes, Surface & Coatings
Technology 205 (2010) 10921095
[13] Yua, H., Wang,M., Jia, Y., Xiao,Z., Chena, C.,
Lei,Q., Li, Z., Chena, W., Zhang, H., Wang,Y.,
Cai,C., High strength and large ductility in spraydeposited AlZnMgCu alloys, Journal of Alloys
and Compounds 601 (2014) 120125

With increasing distance from the deposit axis, the ratio

Vy/Vfs decreases, causing increase in porosity.
Results of the numerical simulation can be useful to
improve understanding of the spray deposition process
and selection of the optimal spray deposition process
parameters.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is based on researches implemented in the
project of Ministry of Education, Science and
Technological Development of Republic of Serbia-TR34028.

REFERENCES
[1] Zhan, M., Chen, Z., Yan, H., Xia,W., Deformation
behaviors of porous 4032 Al alloy preform prepared
by spray deposition during hot rolling, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 182 (2007) 174
180
[2] Jordan, N., Schrder, R., Harig, H., Kienzler, R.,
Influences of the spray deposition process on the
properties of copper and copper alloys, Materials
Science and Engineering: A, Volume 326, Issue
1, 2002, p.p 51-62
[3] Mathur, P., Apelian, D., Lawley, A., Analysis of the
spray deposition process, Acta Metallurgica,
Volume 37, Issue 2, 1989, p.p.429-443.
[4] Mathur, P., Annavarapu, S., Apelian, D., Lawley, A.,
Spray casting: an integral model for process
understanding and control, Materials Science and
Engineering: A, Volume 142, Issue 2, 30 August
1991, p.p. 261-276
[5] Xiang Jin-zong, Zhang Yiu, Fan Wen-jin, Wang

667

SYNTHESIS OF THE ADSORBENT BASED ON PEGYLATED CELLULOSE

FOR THE REMOVAL OF Pb(II) AND Cd(II) IONS FROM WATER
ZLATE VELIKOVI
University of Defense, Military Academy, Belgrade, zlatevel@yahoo.com
BOBAN ALEKSI
University of Defense, Military Academy, Belgrade, bobisa90_@hotmail.com
ZORAN BAJI
University of Defense, Military Academy, Belgrade, zbajic@sezampro.rs

Abstract: Cellulose fibers, functionalized with 6-amino polyethylene glycol (PEG) through chemical modification of
cellulose hydroxyl groups using ethyl-3-chlorine-3-oxypropanole, was prepared and used as a new adsorbent for the
adsorption and removal of cadmium and lead ions from water. Obtained material was fully characterized using FTIR
and BET techniques, zeta potential and point of zero charge were determined. Ions concentrations in water solution
were measured with ICP-MS instrument. The best conditions for the removal of Pb(II) and Cd(II) ions from the solution
was examined in the batch system by varying: pH value, time of adsorption and system temperature. Acquired kinetic
parameters have shown good agreement with the pseudo second kinetic model. Freundlich and Langmuir adsorption
models were used in order to investigate the adsorption behavior of the new adsorbent. The experimental data were
suitably fitted with Freundlich model. Thermodynamic parameters for the adsorption of Pb(II) and Cd(II) ions on PEGCellulose adsorbent have shown that the adsorption is spontaneous and endothermic. Maximum achieved adsorption
capacity, according to Langmuir model, was 14.34 mg g-1 for Cd2+ and 21.93 mg g-1 for Pb2+ which consequently
displays the possible application of this adsorbent for the removal of Pb(II) and Cd(II) ions from water.
Keywords: Adsorbent; Cadmium; Lead; Adsorption isotherms.

1. INRODUCTION
Cadmium and lead are classified among the most common
toxic elements and the main causes of environmental
problems. They can cause serious health problems after they
enter the food chain via the drinking water or irrigation of
crops that are used for nutrition, blocking basic functional
groups, replacing other metal ions, or by modifying the
conformation of the biological active molecules [1]. Because
of their unchanging nature these metals as pollutants that
occur primarily as a result of industrial activities are a major
problem. As recommended by the World Health
Organization, the maximum permissible concentration of
cadmium and lead in drinking water is 0.005 mg dm-3 and
0.015 mg dm-3, respectively.
In this study, a new adsorbent is synthesized by surface
modification of cellulose using a 6-amino-polyethylene
glycol (6 arm NH2-PEG), and examined the possibility of
application of this new material, as an adsorbent for the
removal of Cd2+ and Pb2+ ions from aqueous solution.
Cellulose as the most abundant renewable biopolymer in
nature is a very promising raw material and available at

668

low cost for the preparation of various functional

materials. Due to the high content of hydroxyl groups,
cellulose is considered to be an excellent material for
surface modification. Among the methods of chemical
modification, graft copolymerization offers attractive and
varied techniques functionalization of cellulose to
improve the adsorption capacity of cellulose [2]. For this
purpose, we used 3-ethyl-3-chloro-oxipropanoate which
has multiple reactive functional groups and a chlorine
atom, as well as for the introduction of precursor 6 arm
NH2-PEG. After esterification of the cellulose and the
grafting of PEG, the obtained adsorbent is rich in
branched amino functional groups, capable of adsorbing
cations in aqueous solution.
The objective of this study is to obtain a new adsorbent for
the removal of Cd2+ and Pb2+ ions from the water and to
compare the performance of PEG-cellulose as adsorbent, as
compared to other adsorbents. To achieve this objective, the
modified cellulose is characterized by the FTIR and the BET
techniques, and the influence of the experimental conditions,
such as pH, concentration and temperature, on the adsorption
process. Thermodynamics and kinetics of adsorption were
studied, too.

One way to improve the adsorption characteristics is

chemical functionalization. It involves the creation of
chemical, covalent or non-covalent bond between the
cellulose fibers and materials that is interesting to us, and
which may have the potential adsorption affinity for
adsorbate. Because of the reactivity of the amino group
with polymers, biological systems and with metals
cellulose is functionalized with 6-amino-polyethylene
glycol.

2. EXPERIMENT
During the experimental part of this survey a great
number of chemicals and reagents are used. Bearing in
mind that the properties of the adsorbent, the
reproducibility of the synthesis and adsorption results
largely depend on the purity of the reagents, high purity
chemicals were used:
Commercially purchased cotton 99.5%.
Pyridine (Sigma-Aldrich, PA), was used in the
procedure of cellulose esterification.

Modification of the cellulose fiber is carried out in two

steps:

ethyl-3-chloro-3-oxipropanol (Sigma Aldrich, PA), was

used in the procedure of cellulose esterification.

The esterification of cellulose fibers and

Amino functionalization of esterified cellulose fibers.

H2SO4 concentrated sulfuric acid (Sigma-Aldrich, PA),

was used for the oxidation of cellulose fibers,

In the first step, as shown in Figure 1a, the cellulose fibers

are modified by using ethyl 3-chloro-3-yloxy-propanoate
by the following procedure:

concentrated nitric acid HNO3 (Fluka, ultrapure), was

used for the oxidation of cellulose fibers, for the
preparation of a solution for adjusting the pH of the
digestion and adsorbents in the process of determining
the content of the present elements,

In a 250 ml flask, which is located in an ice bath, in 150

ml of THF was placed 2 g of the cotton and 4.6 ml of
ethyl 3-chloro-3-yloxy-propanoate was slowly added and
magnetically stirred for 15 minutes. With continued
magnetic stirring drop wise 3.2 ml of pyridine is slowly
added, and the reaction mixture is kept for 3 hours at a
controlled temperature (ice bath), and after that stirring
was continued for 3 hours at room temperature. The
obtained esterified cellulose fibers (Es-cellulose) are
washed with 100 ml THF and 100 ml of methanol and
dried in a vacuum at a temperature at 60C for 6 hours.
In the second step of the modification esterified cellulosic
fibers (Es-cellulose) are amino functionalized using two
different amines, ethylene diamine liquid and a solid, 6amino PEG:

6-amino-polyethylene-glycol - "six-pointed" PEG-NH2,

(SunBio, Korea, and y / M 15,000 g mol-1) was used
for functionalization of esterified cellulose fiber.
anhydrous tetrahydrofuran - THF (Baker, PA), used for
rinsing after the functionalization of cellulose fibers,
dichloromethane - DHM, (Baker, PA), used for
dissolving the PEG in the functionalization procedure,
sodium hydroxide - NaOH (Sigma Aldrich, PA), was
used for preparing a solution for adjusting the pH value
of the solution of cadmium and lead in the process of
modification of cellulose fibers,

In a 250 ml flask 0.8 g of 6-amino PEG is dissolved in

100 ml of DHM and 0.8 g of the previously esterified
cotton is added to the apparatus in a dry atmosphere. The
mixture was treated ultrasonically for 10 minutes in order
to improve the reactant contact, and continued with
magnetic stirring at room temperature for 4 hours, after
which the mixture was heated with stirring in an oil bath
at 70C for 5 hours. PEG functionalized cellulose fibers
(Fig. 1b) are filtered in vacuum and washed with 100 ml
THF and 100 ml of methanol and dried in vacuum at the
temperature at 60C for 6 hours.

Deionized water (DI) (a resistance of 18 M cm) was

used for preparation of samples and the rinsing solution.

2.1. Adsorbent synthesis

Despite the fact that the cellulose has a good potential as
an adsorbent due to its characteristic structure and surface
chemical properties, because of the low reactivity and
poor adsorption characteristics wood pulp fibers need to
be modified in some way to make their use widespread.

Fig.1. Scheme of cellulose functionalization via two steps, step 1- esterification of cellulose, step 2-functionalization
with PEG (a) and structure of 6 amino PEG (b)
669

valence (C-O) stretching vibration (amide I band).

Furthermore, the most intense band at 1107 cm-1,
corresponds to the N-H plane and C-N stretching
vibrations originating from the amino group of PEG. A
bar at 3300-3600 cm-1 originates from the stretching
vibration of OH groups. A bar at 800 cm-1 NH2 refers to
the deformation outside the plane of the vibration. The
strips 2907 and 2789 cm-1 present different C-H
stretching vibrations of methylene groups, while the C-N
stretching vibration appears at 1040 cm-1. FTIR results
confirmed that the amino PEG is covalently bound to the
cellulose.

2.2. Methods of material characterization

PEG-cellulose adsorbent is characterized by using FTIR,
and the BET techniques, and the zeta potential was also
determined.
Specific surface area, specific pore volume and pore
diameter were determined by BET nitrogen adsorption /
desorption at 77.4K, using a gas sorption analyzer
Micromeritics ASAP 2020MP v 1.05 H.
IR spectra of the Fourier Transform - (FTIR) spectra were
recorded in transmission mode between 400 and 4000 cm1,
at a resolution of 4 cm-1 using a Bomem spectrometer
(Brown & Hartmann).
Zeta potential analyzer (Zetasizer 2000, Malvern, UK)
was used for determining the zeta potential of adsorbents.
The pH value of the point of zero charge (pHpzc) the
samples were determined by "drift" method [3].

2.3. Conditions and procedure for adsorption

lead and cadmium on the aminofunctionalized wood pulp fibers
Adsorption experiments were carried out in batch
conditions, with the initial concentration of Cd2+ and Pb2+
solutions (C0 = 1, 5 and 10 mg / l). In order to investigate
the effects of pH on the adsorption of Cd2+ and Pb2+ ions,
the initial pH value of the solution was varied between 3.0
and 10.0. Thermodynamic adsorption experiments were
performed at 25, 35 and 45C. The effect of contact time
on the adsorption of ions Cd2+ and Pb2+ was monitored
over a period of 5-90 minutes. The amount of adsorbed
ions is calculated from the difference between the initial
and the equilibrium concentration.

Fig.2. FTIR spectra of adsorbent PEG-Cellulose before

(c) and after treatment with Pb(II) (b) and Cd(II) solutions
(a), [C0=5 mg dm-3, m/V=1 mg ml-1, pH=6 for Pb and
pH=8 for Cd]
The adsorption capabilities of surface functional groups
on the PEG-cellulose adsorbent, as potential sites for the
binding of divalent cation-dependent primarily on the pH
of a solution of [4].

The results were analyzed using the normalized standard

deviation q (%), which is calculated by the following
equation:
q (%) =

[(qexp qcal )

N 1

qexp ]

Divalent cations that can form complexes with the amino

and carboxyl groups, a favorable interactions can be
expected at a pH greater than 6 (pKa 3-6), wherein they
are in the ionized form, which can play an important role
in the binding of divalent cations. The structure of the
bands in the spectra of the PEG-cellulose treated with
cadmium and lead are similar, following adsorption of the
cations in a change of intensity of the peaks, the peaks
and shift the appearance of new bands which indicate the
sorption of ions Cd (II) and Pb (II) in the adsorbent.

100

(1)

where qexp and qcal are the experimental and the

calculated amount of Cd2+ and Pb2+ ions adsorbed on
PEG-Cellulose, N is the number of data used in the
analysis. All experiments were repeated three times, and
only their mean values are given. The maximum deviation
is <3% (experimental error). All calculated standard
errors
for
isotherm
parameters,
kinetic
and
thermodynamic parameters were determined using
commercial software (Microcal Origin 8.0) in the linear
regression program.

The physical properties of PEG-cellulose are presented in

Table 1. Specific surface area, pore volume and mean
pore diameter are determined on the adsorption /
desorption isotherms in nitrogen stream.

Concentration of Cd2+ and Pb2+ ions were measured using

the Agilent 7500C ICP-MS system (Agilent
Technologies, Inc.).

Adsorbent

Table 1. Physical properties of PEG-Cellulose

Specific
surface
area
(m2/g)

PEGcellulose

67,84

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

FTIR spectra of the PEG-cellulose, PEG-Cellulose/Cd (II)
and PEG-Cellulose/Pb(II) are shown in Figure 2 Analysis
of the PEG-FTIR spectra showed the presence of
cellulose intense peak at 1670 cm-1 corresponding to

670

Zeta
Pore Mean pore
volume diameter pHPZC potential
(mV)
(cm3/g)
(nm)
0,638

18,1

6,14

-27,4
(pH 6,72)

Amino groups of the PEG-cellulose show basic character

and a pHpzc (6.14) is higher than that of pure cellulose
according to the results in the literature. From the
viewpoint of electrostatic interaction, sorption of Cd2+ and
Pb2+ in the PEG-cellulose was favored at higher pH
values f pHpzc, because then the surface PEG cellulose
becomes negatively charged. This was confirmed by
measuring the zeta potential at a pH greater than pHpzc,
and all samples showed negative values (Table 1).
2+

(equation (2)). A good agreement between the values of

qe (Table 2) with the results of experimental work was
achieved. Separation of variables in the differential
equation, pseudo-second-order and integration gives:
t = 1 + 1t
qt K ' qe2 qe

(2)

where qe i qt the amount of adsorbed metal ions (mg/g) in

the equilibrium period t. K' (g/(mg min)) is the adsorption
constant of pseudo-second-order.

2+

Adsorption of Cd and Pb ions of the PEG-cellulose

was tested at pH values between 3 and 10 (Figure 3).
Adsorption of Cd2+ and Pb2+ ions at a PEG-cellulose is
highly dependent on the pH value of the solution which
influences the surface charge of cellulose functionalized
surface, degree of ionization, the content of metal species
in the aqueous solutions and the surface properties of the
PEG-Cellulose.

Considering the value of the constant K' it may be

concluded that the faster adsorption is in the case of Cd2+
than the Pb2+. A better correlation with the pseudosecond-order kinetic model is a common for the removal
of metal ions using this type of material [4], indicating
that the concentration of the adsorbate (Pb and Cd) and
the adsorbent (PEG-cellulose) are involved in the rate
determining step of the adsorption process [4].

Fig.3. Influence of pH on adsorption of Cd2+ i Pb2+ ions

on PEG-cellulose C[Cd2+]0 = 5,12 mg/l, C[Pb2+]0 =4,82
mg/l, m/V = 100 mg/l, T = 25 C

Fig.4. Time dependence of adsorption process Cd2+ and

Pb2+ on PEG-cellulose (C[Cd2+]0 = 5,12 mg/l, pH 8, C[Pb2+]0
= 4,82 mg/l, m/V = 100 mg/l, pH 6, T = 25 C).

It can be seen that the PEG-Cellulose shows the best

adsorption capacity for cadmium at pH 8-9, and 6-7 for
lead. Adsorption at pH values less than 4, is negligible
due to the low dissociation constant of the carboxyl group
and the competition between H+ and Cd2+ and Pb2+ ions
on the same place on the sorbent [4]. Amino groups of the
PEG-cellulose, having a pKa value of greater than 7 and
pHpzc 6.14; contribute most to the sorption of Cd2 + and
Pb2 + ions. The decrease of the adsorption capacity for
the PEG-cellulose at a pH greater than 9 for Cd2+ and less
than 8 for the Pb2+, coincides with a decrease in
concentration of 2+ ions and increase in the concentration
of ionic species which have a lower affinity for the amino
groups.

Table 2. Parameters of pseudo-second kinetic model for

Cd2+ i Pb2+ ions adsorption on PEG cellulose.
Adsorbate qe (mg/g) K' (g/(mg min)) q (%) r
Cd
22,32 0,21 0,0317 0,0013 2,16 0,996
Pb
21,23 0,18 0,0319 0,0011 1,98 0,997
The equilibrium adsorption data for Cd2+ and Pb2+ were
correlated to Langmuir model (equation (3)) and
Freundlich (equation (4)) isotherms [5].

q=

Removal of Cd2+ and Pb2+ ions in the aqueous solution,

using PEG-Cellulose in the function of the contact time is
shown in Figure 4. The adsorption of the PEG-Cellulose
shows a rapid rise with an increase of contact time, and 90
minutes is enough to achieve adsorption equilibrium.

bqmax C or C
1
C
=
+
1 + bC
q bqmax qmax

(3)

where C is the equilibrium concentration of the metal ions

remaining in the solution (mol/l); q the amount of metal
ions adsorbed per unit mass of material (mol/g); qmax and
b are Langmuir constants related to the adsorption
capacity and adsorption energy. The maximum adsorption
capacity, qmax, is the amount of adsorbate, such that the
entire surface is covered with a monolayer adsorbent
(mol/g), and b (l/mol) is a constant which is related to the
heat of adsorption.

To investigate the kinetics pseudo-first and pseudosecond order kinetic models of adsorption were used in
this study [4]. According to the regression coefficients (r),
q values and calculated standard error parameters for
both models, the experimentally obtained kinetic data are
better described by equations of pseudo-second-order

q = k f C n or log q = log k f + n log C

671

(4)

Constant kf (mol ln L n/g) represents the capacity of the

sorption equilibrium when the concentration of metal ions
is equal to 1, where n is the degree of dependence of the
adsorption equilibrium concentration.

noticed that r values are greater for Freundlich model, and

that the value of q, and calculated standard error for
parameers are less than the Langmuir model , indicating
that the Freundlich model accurately describes the
adsorption of Cd2+ and Pb2+ on PEG-cellulose. For the
tested sample PEG-cellulose, qmax and b values increase
with increasing temperature, so that it can be concluded
that the adsorption capacity of Cd2+ and Pb2+ greater at
higher temperatures, while the standard errors of these
parameters remained almost identical. These results
suggest that the functionalized cellulose fibers may be
used for the removal of Cd2+ and Pb2+ ions from
industrial waste waters and other. Gibbs free energy
(G0), enthalpy (H0) and entropy (S0) were calculated
using the Van't Hoff thermodynamic equations [5]:

Adsorption isotherms for Cd2+ and Pb2+ ions, on PEGCellulose, at 25, 35 i 45C, are shown on figures 5 and 6
respectively.

G 0 = RT ln(b)

(5)

0
0
ln(b) = S H
( RT )
R

(6)

where T is the absolute temperature in K, R is the

universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol K). Langmuir
adsorption constant b is calculated from the isothermal
experiments (table 3 and 4).

Fig.5. Adsorption isotherms Cd2+ ions on PEG-Cellulose

at 25, 35i 45C. Lines: Freundlich model. (m/V = 100
mg/l, pH 8)

The calculated thermodynamic values table 5) provides

some information on the mechanism of adsorption of the
amino-functionalized cellulose fibers.
Negative values obtained for the G0 (table 5), show that
the adsorption of Cd2+ PEG-cellulose is spontaneous
process. It is observed that the values of G0 decrease
with increasing temperature, indicating that the process is
much more efficient at higher temperatures. Generally, on
the basis of changes in free energy, we can determine the
adsorption mechanism, so for the physisorption value is
between -20 and 0 kJ/mol, with physisorption and
chemisorption from -20 to -80 kJ/mol, and in the case of
chemisorption in the range of -80 to -400 kJ/mol [4]. The
values obtained for G0 indicate that the interaction
between the Cd2+ and PEG-cellulose, as well as the
interaction between PEG-Cellulose and Pb2+, is the result
of the contribution of physisorption and chemisorption
process. The obtained values for the positive H0 indicate
that adsorption of Cd2+ on PEG-cellulose is endothermic
process. Positive values of entropy change (S0) indicate
increasing disorganization at the interface solid-liquid, ie.
Fibers from PEG-solution and Cd2+ and Pb2+ solution,
during the sorption process [4].

Fig.6. Adsorption isotherms Pb2+ ions on PEG-Cellulose

at 25, 35i 45C. Lines: Freundlich model. (m/V = 100
mg/l, pH 6)
Langmuir and Freundlich parameters were obtained by
fitting the data using the equilibrium adsorption isotherm
model, and are presented in Tables 3 and 4. It can be

Table 3. Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm parameters for Cd2+ ions adsorption on PEG-Cellulose

Langmuir parameters
T
(C)

qmax
(mg/g)

b
(l/mol)

q
(%)

25
35
45

13,86
14,16
14,34

95,6867
104,1288
109,8794

1,7
2,3
2,7

0,93152
0,94674
0,95527

672

Freundlich parameters
kf
q
r
n
(mol1n
(%)
Ln/g)
7,445387 0,43803 1,6 0,99352
7,720196 0,43794 2,1 0,99374
7,860073 0,43725 2.2 0,99321

Table 4: Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm parameters for Pb2+ ions adsorption on PEG-Cellulose

Langmuir parameters
T
(C)

qmax
(mg/g)

b
(l/mol)

q
(%)

25
35
45

20,651
21,631
21,933

42,7417
46,2515
48,6417

2,3
1,6
2,1

0,93152
0,94674
0,95527

Freundlich parameters
kf
q
(mol1n
n
r
(%)
n
L /g)
9,537777 0,42365 1,3 0,95972
10,16411 0,43221 1,6 0,96093
10,48677 0,43384 1,8 0,96262
Adsorption of both lead and cadmium in the investigated
adsorbent PEG-cellulose is complex and probably
involves physisorption and chemisorption mechanism.
Metal ion adsorption capacity and affinity of the PEGCellulose groups depends on the surface, the pH and
temperature, rather than by the specific surface area, pore
volume and diameter.

Table 5. Thermodynamic parameters for adsorption of

Cd2+ and Pb2+ ions on PEG-cellulose.
Thermodynamic parameters
S0
0
H0
G
T (C)
r
(J/mol
(kJ/mol) (kJ/mol)
K)
Cd2+
25
38,72
1,27
136,43 0,94727
35
40,10
45
41,45
Pb2+
25
41,39
4,94
158,09 0,98845
35
43,00
45
44,55

REFERENCES
[1] Baji,Z.J.,
Djoki,V.R.,
Velikovi,Z.S.,
Vuruna,M.M.,
Risti,M..,
Issa,N.B.,
Marinkovi,A.D.:
Equilibrium,
kinetic
and
thermodynamic studies on removal of Cd(II), Pb(II)
and As(V) from wastewater using Carp (Cyprinus
Carpio) scales, Digest Journal of Nanomaterials and
Biostructures, 8(4), (2013) 1581 1590
[2] Yu,X., Tong,S., Ge,M., Wu,L., Zuo,J., Cao,C.,
Song,W.: Synthesis and characterization of multiamino-functionalized
cellulose
for
arsenic
adsorption, Carbohydrate Polymers 92 (2013) 380
387
[3] Gao,Z., Bandosz,T.J., Zhao,Z., Han,M., Qiu,J.:
Investigation of factors affecting adsorption of
transition metals on oxidized carbon nanotubes, J.
Hazard. Mater. 167 (2009) 357365
[4] Vukovi,G.D.,
Marinkovi,A.D.,
oli,M.,
Risti,M..,
Aleksi,R.,
Peri-Gruji,A.A.,
Uskokovi,P.S.: Removal of cadmium from aqueous
solutions
by
oxidized
andethylenediaminefunctionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes,
Chem. Eng. J. 173 (3) (2011) 855-865.
[5] Velikovi,Z.S., Vukovi,G.D., Marinkovi,A.D.,
Moldovan,M.S., Peri-Gruji,A.A., Uskokovi,P.S.,
Risti,M..: Adsorption of arsenate on iron(III)
oxide coated ethylenediamine functionalized
multiwall carbon nanotubes, Chem. Eng. J. 181-182
(2012) 174-181

5. CONCLUSION
Adsorption properties of cellulose are significantly
improved by functionalization using the 6-aminopolyethylene glycol. The achieved maximum adsorbent
capacity of the Langmuir adsorption model is 14.34 mg g1
for Cd2+ and 21.93 mg g-1 for the Pb2+ ions suggest the
possibility of this adsorbent for the removal of these
contaminants from the water. Also confirmed
endothermic adsorption reactions of lead and cadmium
ions in the PEG-cellulose, indicates that the adsorption
capacity increases with increasing temperature. This gives
the possibility that the PEG-cellulose can be used for the
removal of heavy metals from industrial waste water at
elevated temperatures, as well as for the preconcentration
of heavy metals in analytical chemistry and
environmental protection.
Kinetic data of adsorption on the tested PEG-cellulose for
both adsorbents are well described using the pseudo
second-order kinetic model suggesting that the limiting
factor in the process of adsorption is chemisorption, not
diffusion.

673

CHARACTERIZATION OF PDMS MEMBRANES FABRICATED BY BULKMICROMACHINING ON SILICON WAFERS

VESNA JOVI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, vjovic@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
ZORAN INOVI
Austrian Center for Medical Innovation and Technology, Wiener Neustadt, Austria, zoran.djinovic@acmit.at
FILIP RADOVANOVI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, filip@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
MARKO STAREVI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, mstarcevic@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
JELENA LAMOVEC
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, jejal@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
MILE SMILJANI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, smilce@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
ARKO LAZI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, zlazic@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: In this paper we proposed microfabrication scheme for PDMS (Polydimethylsiloxane) thin membrane
fabrication on Si micromachined cavities with square cross section. PDMS network samples for this research were
synthesized with the same composition, which are Sylgard 184 (Dow Corning, USA) silicone elastomer base and
silicone elastomer curing agent, volume ratio 10:1. Mechanical testing of PDMS elastic properties and bond strength
between membranes and oxidized Si wafers, were investigated applying pressurized bulge testing In this paper
experimentally determined dependence of the PDMS membrane deflection on pressure load for different membrane
thicknesses and sizes of square cavities in Si wafers are given. Also, the influence of different types of Si wafer
structuring by anisotropic wet chemical etching on membrane bonding strength were considered.
Keywords: Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), bulk silicon micromachining, silicone elastomer membrane, bulging test,
bonding strength
dependant on temperature and on the amount of
crosslinking. This characteristic prevents it application in
pressure sensors to precise measurements of static gas
pressure and can be used only for gas pressure
monitoring.

1. INTRODUCTION
Silicone based materials have been widely used in
coatings, sealants and adhesives for different technological fields and industrial applications [1]. Cross-linked
Poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) in particular, is well
known for its biocompatibility, good resistance to relatively high temperature, UV light irradiation and chemical
attack with highly polar solutions. It is known as a
polymer that swells in non-polar solvents [2,3]. It is optically transparent to wavelengths down to near 256 nm.

Also, it is hyperelastic polymer [6,7] and can withstand

very big distortions without deteriorating and has been
extensively used in the field of different microfluidic and
micro electro mechanical (MEM) systems. Microfluidic
lab on a chip (LoC) device typically encompasses
components for fluid flow as channels, valves and micro
pumps with PDMS as applied material [8]. Different
types of sensors and actuators [9,10] have integrated parts
which have been made from this polymer.

PDMS is non porous to the liquids but still causes the

infiltration phenomenon for gas molecules due to its
intrinsic porous nanostructure [4]. The permeability of
PDMS with N2 is 3.1 cm3(STP)cm/(cm2scmHg) while
with O2 is even higher [5]. Gas permeability to PDMS is

In spite of these advantages, the strong hydrophobicity of

PDMS surface for some applications seeks activation step
674

for cleaning or oxidization of PDMS surfaces to render

surface hydrophilic and make it suitable for different
types of bonding [11].
It is not photo-definable (i. e. not a photoresist) and its
patterning for application in MEM devices is typically
done using soft lithography [12], different transfer
processes accompanying with bonding and debonding
PDME film [13] with intermediate films and using
different substrates. Integrating and bonding PDMS
components to complete systems remains a challenge.
Although fabricating for e.g. PDMS membrane is simple,
integrating and bonding it to complete system remains a
challenge.
It seems that every application of PDMS film needs some
knowledge of know how having in mind experimental
equipment.

(a)

(f)

(b)

(g)

(c)

(h)

(i)

(d)

Si wafer
thermally grown SiO2

In this paper, a general method for realizing thin film

PDMS covering Si cavity with precise feature
dimensions,
together
with
PDMS
membrane
characterization by bulging test is presented.

PDMS

(e)

Picture 1: Fabrication sequence of cavity coated with

PDMS membrane. Structure is fabricated by bulk
micromachining on {100} oriented Si wafers with cavity
edges oriented in 110 direction.

2. EXPERIMENTAL
N-type {100} oriented Si wafers, 400 25 m thick, both
sides mirror polished, with the resistivity 5-3 cm have
been used for fabrication of proposed structure. Process
flow diagram is schematically shown on Picture 1. The
first step is Si oxidation since SiO2 is used as masking
material during further wet etching. Thick SiO2 (at least
1.4 m) has been thermally grown at 1100 oC in
atmosphere of water saturated oxygen (a). Oxide from the
top side has been lithographically patterned using double
side alignment (b). There are three types of patterning.
Some elements are flat and some have grooves with or
without applied convex corner compensation (CCC) [14].
Fabrication scheme is shown for elements with grooves.
Meaning of the grooves is to enlarge contact surface
between PDMS membrane and substrate. All orientation
alignments of grooves and cavities have been done toward
primary flat direction 110 0.5 oC.

Next step (e) is opening cavity windows in masking

material from the bottom side using photolithography and
two side alignments. Such prepared wafer was coated
with PDMS thin film (f).
Resulting PDMS thickness, d [ m]

60,0

50,0

40,0

30,0

20,0
2

d = 4E-06 - 0,0327 + 79,9

2

10,0

R =1

0,0
0

In the step (c) grooves are anisotropic wet etched in 30 wt. %

KOH at 80 oC through the SiO2 mask to the depth of 30 m.
Anisotropic wet etching was carried out in thermostated
Pyrex vessel containing about 0.8 dm3 solution allowing the
temperature stabilization within 0.5 oC. The vessel is
sealed with a screw on lid which included a tape water
cooled condenser, to minimize evaporation during etching.
During etching, the solution is electromagnetically stirred
with 300 rpm and the Si wafers were held vertically inside
the solution in wafer holder which protects the wafers back
side and the edge from the etchant solution. After etching
completion, the SiO2 have been removed in buffered oxide
solution (BOE, 7 vol. (34.8 wt. % NH4F):1 vol (6.4 wt.
%HF). During oxide removing wafers back was protected in
wafer holder (c).
Wafer with etched grooves were additionally thermally
oxidized for a short time till SiO2 thickness of 0.12 m have
been reached (d). This thin oxide from the side of PDMS
membrane is necessary because PDMS has better adhesion
on oxidized silicon surface than on the bare one [11].

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

Spin-coating speed, [rpm]

Picture 2: Dependence of the PDMS layer thickness as a

function of spin speed for a rotation time 60 s (5 s 500
rpm + 55 rpm).
Before applying PDMS, the SiO2 surface was treated with
primer to prepare silylated surface and improve bond
strength between this dissimilar materials (PDMS / SiO2
on Si wafer) [15]. A 95% ethanol-5% water solution is
adjusted with few drops of acetic acid to pH 4.5-5.5 with
acetic. Then silane (ATMS allyltrimethoxysilane) has
been added with stirring to yield a 2% final concentration.
For silanol formation five additional minutes must be
waiting before dipping wafer into solution, agitated and
removed after 2 minutes. After rinsing in ethanol primer
layer have been cured for 10 minutes at 100 oC at air.
The PDMS that have been used for film preparation
consisted of a base (component A) and a curing agent
(component B). named Sylgard 184 from Dow Corning.
Components have been mixed in a 10 (A):1 (B)

675

(weight:weight) ratio and steered. Homogeneous mixture

was placed in vacuum desicator for degassing for at least
30 minutes. Prepared liquid is free of gas bubbles and
with high viscosity. PDMS thin film coating has been
realized on spin coater. For such prepared uncrosslinked
polymer the final thickness of a PDMS membrane mainly
depends of spin speed and spinning duration. On Picture
2. experimentally obtained dependence between resulting
PDMS thickness and spin-coating speed is shown.
Thicknesses are measured after polymerization of PDMS
at 100 oC during 60 minutes at air.

(a)

(b)

To remove thin layer of thermally grpwn SiO2 from the

bottom of cavity, wafer is ultrasonicaly chemicaly etched
in BOE solution, step (i) on Picture 1. During etching
wafer is in holder to protect PDMS film on the top of Si
wafer. On Picture 3.(c) is shown microscopic photograph
of the realized PDMS membrane closing cavity on Si
wafer. On Picture 4. is shown microscopic photograph of
PDMS membrane taken from the top of processed Si
wafer.
Last step in fabrication scheme is separation on single
dies. This is done by dicing silicon wafer using
Tempress GS, dicing saw, model 602M with Disco
diamond blades. Dicing direction is compatible with 110
direction on {100} Si wafer. Depth of cut is one third of
wafer thickness so that single dies have been made by
wafer cleveage along cuts. Cutting is performed from the
wafer side with PDMS film. During cutting surface of
PDMS have been covered with sellotape which serves as
protecting film. Sellotape can be easily removed from the
non-sticking film of PDMS leaving clean surface of
membrane.

(c)

Picture 3. Photographs from microscope showing the

bottom of processed cavities on PDMS coated Si wafer.
(a) PDMS membrane covered with 0.12 m thin
thermally grown SiO2. (b) PDMS membrane covered with
thin thermally grown SiO2 film and so thin, that is
transparent, layer of Si from wafer where cavity is not
completely etched. (c) PDMS membrane where SiO2 is
completely removed.

4
2

After preparation of PDMS film on top of Si wafer,

cavities have been defined by anisotropic wet etching
from the bottom (h). During etching PDMS film was
protected in wafer holder. Si wafer is relatively thick, so
first step of etching have been performed in 25 wt. %
TMAH solution at 80 OC, and final step in the KOH water
solution according to previously described way. Reasons
for such selection of etching solutions, is high difference
in etching rates of masking material in these two solutions
[14].

(a)

1.2 mbar

2.7 mbar

3.6 mbar

4.8 mbar

(b)
Picture 5.: Schematic representation of an experimental
set up to perform bulge test

(a)

(b)

(a) 1 is Si chip with PDMS membrane mounted on brass

carrier, 2 is optical microscope in reflected light with
measuring capabilities of lateral lengths, 3 is APC
(automatic pressure calibrator) 600 Mensor and 4 is
nitrogen supply from pressurized N2 cylinder. (b)
Photographs taken from microscope during bulge test of
PDMS membrane under different pressures. Cavity
dimensions on flat Si plane on which PDMS membrane
adheres are 400 x 400 m2.

(c)

Picture 4. PDMS membrane on Si cavity:

(a) Si surface is flat, (b) Si surface is corrugated with
square grooves, (c) same as previous but with applyng
CCC to obtain convex corners.
Since both PDMS and SiO2 are clear, moment when all
Si is etched away is not so hard to notice. Thermally
grown SiO2 has high internal stress [16] and since PDMS
is a rubber elastic polymer, this composite membrane
becomes deformed as can be seen on Picture 3. During
wet anisotropic etching in cavities centers of exposed
areas etch with a seemingly lower speed compared with
the borders of the areas. This is called notching effect or
pillowing [18] and it is seen on Picture 3 (b) for silicon
etching.

Single dies have been mounted by epoxy paste on brass

holder which can be connecting to the nitrogen gas
instalation for performing bulge test [17].
The experimental setup that was used to perform bulge
testing of PDMS membranes is schematicaly shown in
Picture 3. (a). 1 on this picture is sample under testing
placed on a special stage connected with gas line, 2 is
microscope working in reflected light and it was used to
676

measure the precise deflection of the PDMS membrane

deformation, 3 is Automated Pressure Calibrator - APC
600, MENSOR used to set predefined pressure value and
to keep it on a set value during the measurements, 4 is
nitrogen gas source (high pressure cylinder).

Within the range of deflections tested, higher deflections

were observed for larger membranes under same applied
pressure. During pressurizing at high enough pressures
the membrane starts to peel of from the substrate. Since
the PDMS membranes are extremely flexible and can
withstand very high relative strains, improvement of
adhesion between PDMS and SiO2 coated Si wafer is
necessary if we want to apply this kind of membranes at
higher pressures. Membranes can be reproducibly loaded
and unloaded without showing any hysteresis.

In Picture 3. (b) photographs from the microscope of what

is seen during pressurizing PDMS membrane are given.
Values of corresponding pressures are given for each
deformed membrane.

In Picture 8. are shown PDMS square membranes after

their adhesion with substrates are destroyed under the
influence of high applied pressure.

3. RESULTS AND DISSCUSION

The material properties can be obtained from analyzing
the load deflection relation in a pressure bulge
experiment. Its a classical mechanics problem to solve
this relation for a thin membrane (deflection is larger than
the thickness) under uniform pressure. The analytical
solution for the deflection problem of a square
membranewith an edge length 2a is as follows [19]:

P = C1

wd
w 2 f ( ) E

+
C

(
),
2
o
a2
a 2 (1 )

(a)

(1)

Schematic of a square PDMS membrane realized in this

work is shown on Picture 6.
P

(c)

Picture 8. Photographs from microscope (first is under

two times smaller magnification) of 400 x 400 m2
PDMS membranes 50 m thick, after they lost adhesion
with substrate under the applied pressure.
(a) membrane on the flat Si substrate which is partially
blow up,
(b) more common case where membrane lost it adhesion
around cavity perimeter,
(c) same as in (b), but membrane peeling is stopped on
substrate corrugations.

where P is the uniform pressure applied to the membrane,

d is PDMS membrane thickness, w is the maximum
deflection measured at the center of the membrane, o
membranes residual stress, E its Youngs modulus, and
its Poissons ratio [19, 20]. The geometrical coefficients
C1, C2 and f() for square membranes are 13.6, 1.61 and
(1.446-0.427) respectively [19].

(b)

In Picture 9. Dependence of the maximum deflection (w)

of PDMS membranes (dimensions 400 x 400 m2, flat
substrate) with thicknesses of 50, 31 and 17 m, caused
by applied pressure (P) is shown. It can be seen that
below the pressure of 1,5 bar, thicker membranes have
smaller deflections. Above this pressure opposite is truth
according with experimental results.

2a

Picture 6.: Schematic diagram of the membrane with a

uniform pressure applied to one side.

6.00

Representative load-deflection experimental data are plotted

in Picture 7. The membrane thickness was 50 m and three
different sizes of square membranes, namely 400 x 400 m2,
300 x 300 m2 and 200 x 200 m2 were tested.

5.00

4.00

d =50 micrometre

P, bar

d =31 micrometre
3.00

d =17 micrometre

2.00

400 m x 400 m
flat

1.00

0.00
0

50

100

w, m

150

200

Picture 9. Load-deflection curves for square PDMS

membranes (400 x 400 m2) with different thicknesses

To explain obtained resistance to deformation of PDMS

membranes as a function of thickness, dependence of
mechanical properties of PDMS (e.g. Youngs modulus)
and internal stress in the membrane must be considered
[22,23]. Mechanical properties are strongly dependant on

Picture 7. Load-deflection curves for square membranes

with 50 m PDMS thickness and with different sizes
indicated on the diagram
677

curing time 10 min. The fabrication process is based on

applying bulk silicon wet etching for cavities fabrication
and spining uncured material to obtain PDMS membrane.
Cavities are oriented on 110 direction on {100} oriented
Si wafers.

the status of cross-linked networks in polymer chains of

PDMS. Fabrication method, especially coating substrate
with PDMS membrane material on spin-coater with grate
angular velocity produce greater shear stress in material
which is not cross-linked and more pronounced to
deformation, stretching and breaking of polymer chains.

Membranes on three types of silicon wafer surfaces are

investigated: membranes on flat surfaces and membranes
on two types corrugated surfaces (with and without
convex corners compensations).

Since PDMS is very sticky and viscous, extensive

mechanical work must be applied during membrane
fabrication and achieving desired cross-linked networks
and the resulting PDMS structure which enhance desired
properties.
5.00

Testing of membrane mechanical

performed by bulge testing.

properties

are

Experimental results for load deflection dependances

for square membranes of different sizes and thicknesses
are given. Also, bonding strenght and deflection
properties of membranes fabricated on flat and corrugated
silicon surfaces are compared.

400x400 - flat
400x400 - with CCC

4.00
400x400 - without CCC

P, bar

3.00

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2.00

d = 50 m

This work was funded by Republic of Serbia Ministry

of Education, Science and Technological Development
through the project TR 32008 named: Micro and
Nanosystems for Power Engineering, Process Industry
and Environmental Protection MiNaSyS and by
Integrated Microsystems Austria GmbH Austrian
Center for Medical Inovation and Technology from
Wiener Neustadt, sterreich, through the resercha and
development project named Phase Change Actuator
(PCA) for Steering Catheter.

1.00

0.00
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

w, m

Picture 10. Experimental results on the measured

maximum deflection (w) as a function of applied pressure
(P) for square membrane with 400 x 400 m2 dimensions
and 50 m PDMS thickness for membranes fabricated on
flat Si substrate, and Si substrates with purposely made
corrugations with or without convex corners
compensations

REFERENCES
[1] Moretto, H., Schulze M., Wagner G., Silicones in
Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,
Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2005.
[2] Ortiz, G. C., "The study Of polydimethylsiloxane
(PDMS) thin-film surface roughness properties and
its resistance in elevated temperature and UV light
resistant applications", Proceedings of The National
Conference On Undergraduate Research (NCUR),
Ithaca College, New York, March 31-April 2, 2011.
[3] Lee, J. N., Park, C., Whitesides, G. M., "Solvent
Compatibility of Poly(dimethylsiloxane)-Based
Microfluidic Devices", Anal. Chem., 75 (2003)
6544-6554.
[4] Yang, L-Y., "On gas permeation in PDMS", J.
Micromech. Microeng. 20 (2010) 115033 (7pp).
[5] Boscainia, E., Alexanderb, M. L., Prazellerb, P.,.
Mrk, T. D., "Investigation of fundamental physical
properties of a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)
membrane using a proton transfer reaction mass
spectrometer (PTRMS)", Int. J. of Mass Spec., 239,
(2004) 179186.
[6] Schneider, F., Fellner, T., Wilde, J., Wallrabe, U.,
"Mechanical properties of silicones for MEMS", J.
Micromech. Microeng., 18 (2008) 065008 (9pp).
[7] Lttersy, J. C., Olthuis, W., P H Veltink, P. H.,
Bergveld, P., "The mechanical properties of the
rubber elastic polymerpolydimethylsiloxane for
sensor applications", J. Micromech. Microeng., 7

Diagram with experimental results on Picture 10.

compares load - deflection properties of square PDMS
membranes (400 x 400 m2), with the same membrane
thickness, fabricated on the flat substrate and two types
corrugated substrates, with and without CCCs. It should
be noticed that below approximately 2 bar, membranes on
all kinds of surfaces have the same deflection. Above this
pressure it is clearly apparent that membranes on
corrugated substrates exhibited larger deflections. To
explain this, we need further studies on investigation of
internal stress influence on membrane mechanical
properties. Also we must consider in our further studies
the mode of loosing adhesion of pressurized membranes.
It seems that there are micro leeks along the bonded
surfaces of PDMS and oxidized silicon wafers. In [24]
authors reported the average bond strength for PDMS
(mixing ratio 10:1, cured at room temperature for 48
hours, thickness 30 m) on Si with thermally grown SiO2
of 2,4 bar.

4. CONCLUSION
In this paper microfabrication of square PDMS
(Polydimethylsiloxane) membranes with different
thicknesses have been presented. PDMS is fabricated
from Sylgard 184 (Dow Corning, USA) silicone
elastomer base and silicone elastomer curing agent,
volume ratio 10:1. Curring temperature was 100 oC, and
678

hydrophilicity and silane surface modification

[16] Yen, J-Y., Hwu, J-G., "Enhancement of silicon
oxidation rate due to tensile mechanical stress",
Applied Physics Letters, 76(14) (2000) 1834-1835.
[17] Small, M. K., Nix, W. D., "Analysis of the accuracy
of the bulge test in determining the mechanical
properties of thin films", J. Mater. Res., 7(6) (1992)
1553-1563.
[18] Madou, M., Fundamentals of microfabrication, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1997.
[19] Schomburg, W., K., Introduction to microsystem
design, Springer, 2011.
[20] Thangawng A., L., Rouff R., S., Swartz M., A.,
Glucksberg M., R., "An ultra-thin PDMS mambrane
as a bio/micro-nano interface: fabrication and
characterization", Biomed Microdevices, 9 (2007)
587-595.
[21] Klein, E., Mathematical Methods in Theoretical
Economics, Academic Press, New York, 1973.
[22] Liu, M., Sun, J., Sun, Y., Bock, C., Chen, Q.,
"Thickness-dependent mechanical properties of
polydimethylsiloxane membranes", J. Micromech.
Microeng., 19 (2009)035028 (4pp).
[23] Ltters, J., C., Olthuis, W., Bergveld, P., "The
mechanical properties of the rubber elastic polymer
polydimethylsiloxane for sensor applications", J.
Micromech. Microeng., 7 (1997), 145-147.
[24] Gajasinghe, R., W., R., L., Senveli, S., Rawel, S.,
Williams, A., Zheng, A., Datar, R., H., Cote, R., J.,
Tigli O., Experimental study of PDMS bonding to
various substrates for monolithic microfluidic
applications, J. Micromech. Microeng., 24 (2014)
075010 (11 pp).

(1997) 145147.
[8] Eddings, M. A., Gale, B. K., "A PDMS-based gas
permeation pump for on-chip fluid handling in
microfluidic devices", J. Micromech. Microeng. 16
(2006) 23962402.
[9] Kudo, H., Sawada, T., Kazawa, E., Yoshida, H.,
Iwasaki, Y., Mitsubayashi, K., "A flexible and
wearable glucose sensor based on functional
polymers with Soft-MEMS techniques", Biosensors
and Bioelectronics 22 (2006) 558562.
[10] Rodrguez G. A. A., Rossi, C., Zhang, K., "Multiphysics system modeling of a pneumatic micro
actuator", Sensors and Actuators A, 141 (2008) 489498.
[11] Gajasinghe, R. W. R. L., Senveli, S. U., Rawal, S.,
Williams, A., Zheng, A., Datar, R. H., R J Cote, R. J.,
Tiglil, O., "Experimental study of PDMS bondingto
various substrates for monolithicmicrofluidic
applications", J. Micromech. Microeng., 24 (2014)
075010 (11pp)
[12] Kim, P., Kwon, K. W., Park, M. C., Lee, S. H., Kim,
S. M., Suh, K. Y., "Soft Lithography for
Microfluidics: a Review", Biochip Journal, 2(1)
(2008), 1-11.
[13] Thangawng A. L., Ruoff R. S., Swartz M. A.,
Glucksberg M. R., "An ultra-thin PDMS membrane
as a bio/micro-nano interface: fabrication and
characterization", Biomed. Microdevices, 9(2007)
587-595.
[14] Jovi, V., Lamovec, J., Mladenovi I., Smiljani M.
M., Popovi, B., "Prevention of convex corner
undercutting
in
fabrication
of
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microcantilevers bz wet anisotropic etchnig", Proc.
29th International Conference on Microelectronics
Belgrade, Serbia, 12-14 May (2014) 163-166.
[15] http://www.gelest.com, Gelest - Hydrophobicity,

679

EFFECT OF SUBSTRATE TYPE ON MICROHARDNESS OF

MULTILAYER THIN FILM COMPOSITE SYSTEM
JELENA LAMOVEC
IChTM-Department of Microelectronic Technologies and Single Crystals, University of Belgrade,
jejal@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
VESNA JOVI
IChTM-Department of Microelectronic Technologies and Single Crystals, University of Belgrade
vjovic@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
IVANA MLADENOVI
IChTM-Department of Microelectronic Technologies and Single Crystals, University of Belgrade,
ivana@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
BOGDAN POPOVI
IChTM-Department of Microelectronic Technologies and Single Crystals, University of Belgrade,
bpopovic@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
VESNA RADOJEVI
Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, vesnar@tmf.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: Thin metallic multilayer films consisting of nanometer layer thickness deposited on different substrates have
shown promising mechanical, electrical and magnetical properties, especially for applications in fabrication of
microelectromechanical (MEMS) structures and wear-resistant applications.
Electrodeposition of Ni/Cu multilayer films on substrates of (111)-oriented single crystal Si and 100m-thick
electrodeposited Ni film was carried out using dual-bath technique (DBT). The current density values was maintained
at 10 mAcm-2 and projected thickness of deposit was 5m. Vickers microhardness of Ni/Cu thin multilayer films was
investigated. The substrate starts to contribute the measured hardness at penetration depths of the order of 0.07 - 0.20
times the film thickness. The measured composite hardness is a complex value that depends on the microstructure
and the hardness of the film and the substrate and their relative differences.
Ni/Cu films on (111)-oriented Si wafer and 100m-thick electrodeposited Ni film as the substrates can be thought as
soft film on hard substrate composite systems. Chicot-Lesage model based on the model for reinforced composites
can be applied to experimental data for all specimen and the film hardness was calculated for each indentation
diagonal. The values obtained for the film hardness HF are not constant for all types of these composite systems, but
influenced by the applied load.
Keywords: Composite metallic multilayer films, Vickers microhardness, Composite hardness models.
technologically interesting
system, because of the
simplicity with which coherent multilayers of Ni/Cu can
be fabricated and the fact that both, Ni and Cu have a fcc
structure with lattice mismatch only 2.5%.

1. INTRODUCTION
The metallic monolayer or multilayer thin film structures
are in wide use in fabrication of different microelectronic
and micromechanical devices. Thin film and substrate
constitute a composite system which properties depend on
material parameters of the film and of the substrate and of
the composite parameters such as the residual stress and
adhesion [1,2,3].

Electrodeposition technology (ED) is fully compatible

with microsystem technologies (MEMS). This technology
has several advantages compares to available deposition
technologies: it is a low-temperature deposition
technology with easy control of high deposition rate, film
thickness and residual stresses and easy control of
chemical composition and microstructure od the films.
Electrodeposition is an inexpensive and versatile method
and with optimized process parameters it is possible to

Thin Ni/Cu multilayer films have attracted great interest

owing to their high mechanical strength, high wear and
corrosion resistance and giant magnetoresistance
behavior. Multilayer film of Ni/Cu sublayers is a
680

produce dense fine-grained films of many different metals

and alloys [4].

H C = (1 f ) / 1 / H S + f 1 1 +
HF HS

+ f ( H S + f ( H F H S ))

The Vickers indentation hardness test is commonly used

as a guide of a material deformation resist ability,
especially for the evaluation of mechanical properties of
thin films. Calculation of the absolute hardness of thin
films in composite systems is difficult because the
substrate participates in measured hardness value. The
measured hardness values vary continuously with the
indentation depth, the film thickness and the hardness of
the film and of the substrate. The composite hardness
model of Chicot- Lesage (C-L) was chosen and applied to
experimental data in order to analyse the influence of the
substrate for different composite systems.

Hardness of the film HF, is the positive root of the

equation:
A H F2 + B H F + C = 0, with
A = f 2 ( f 1)
B = ( 2 f 3 + 2 f 2 1) H S + (1 f ) H C

The value of composite Meyers index m is calculated by a

linear regression performed on all experimental points
obtained for a given film-substrate couple and deduced
from the relation:
ln d = m ln P + b

3. EXPERIMENTAL
Two different substrates were prepared for the experiments:
single-crystal Si(111)-oriented wafers and 100-m thick
nanocrystalline films of electrodeposited Ni.
The plating base for the Si wafers were sputtered layers of
100 Cr as the adhesion film and 800 Ti as the
nucleation film. Electrochemical deposition (ED) was
performed in the DC galvanostatic regime. Nickel was
electrodeposited from a sulphamate bath consisting of 300
g/l Ni(NH2SO3)24H2O, 30 g/l NiCl26H2O, 30 g/l H3BO3,
1 g/l sacharine and copper layers were electrodeposited
from a sulfate bath consisting of 240 g/l CuSO4 5H2O, 60
g/l H2SO4 and 40 mg/l thiourea. The process temperature
were maintained at 40C for the sulfate and 50C for the
sulphamate bath.

2. COMPOSITE HARDNESS MODEL

For the analysis of experimental hardness results, the
model of Chicot-Lesage (C-L) was chosen [5,6]. The
model uses data obtained from standard measurements,
thickness of the film and apparent hardness. This model is
constructed on the analogy between the variation of the
Young's modulus of reinforced composites in function of
the volume fraction of particles, and the variation of the
composite hardness between the hardness of the substrate
and that of the film.

The current density values were maintained at 10 mA/cm2

for the electrodeposition of thin Ni/Cu films and 50
mA/cm2 for the thick films of Ni. According to the plating
surface, projected thickness of deposits was determined.
The mechanical properties of the films were characterized
using
Vickers
microhardness
tester
Leitz
Kleinharteprufer DURIMET I with load range from
1.96N down to 0.049N. Three indentations were made at
each indentation load from which the average composite
hardness could be calculated. Experimental data were
fitted with GnuPlot v.4.0.

Hardness value calculated from an indentation test is

load-dependent. Meyer's law is used to express the
variation of the indent size in function of applied load.
Chicot and Lesage proposed a hardness model with a
similar relation as is Meyer's:
(1)

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Factor n* represents the variational part of the hardness

number with load and is given with the following
expresion:

() ()

f t = t
d
d

= f

where m = 1*
n

(5)

Now it is possible to calculate the hardness of the film

with known value of m.

In the Section 2, theoretical composite hardness model of

Chicot-Lesage (C-L) is given with important model
parameters. Section 3 gives informations about
experimental details, such as chosen materials for films
and substrates, deposition techniques and hardness
measurement technique. In the Section 4, results and
discussion on composite and film hardness measurements
for two different composite systems of the same type
(soft film on hard substrate are given. Short analysis
and conclusion are given in the Section 5.

(4)

C = f H C H S + f 2 ( f 1) H S2

Change of the composite and film hardness with applied

loads dependes on the composite structure (especially of
the substrate type). Composite Meyers index m
(composite work hardening exponent) characterizes the
way in which the composite hardness varies with load and
(t/d)m is a parameter that can express the difference in
tendency of the composite hardness with the indentation
load (t is film thickness, d is indent diagonal and m is
work hardening exponent) [5,6].

P = a* d n

(3)

Absolute hardness of the substrates

Indentations were performed with Vickers diamond
pyramidal indenter both on uncoated substrates and on
different composite systems. Model of Li and Bradt
(Proportional specimen resistance model-PSR) is suitable
for analyzing the variation of substrate microhardness
with the load [7]:

(2)

Composite hardness HC, can be expressed through next

equation:
681

P = a1 d + ( Pc / d 02 ) d 2

(6)

Value of PC is the critical applied load above which

microhardness becomes load independent and d0 is the
corresponding diagonal length of the indent. A plot of P/d
against d will give a straight line, the slope of which gives
the value for the calculation of load independent
microhardness.
The average values of the indent diagonal d (in m), were
calculated from several independent measurements on
every specimen for different applied loads P (in N). The
absolute substrate hardness and composite hardness
values, H (in GPa), were calculated using the formula:
H = 0.01854 P d 2

(7)

where 0.01854 is a constant, geometrical factor for the

Vickers pyramid.
On Figure 1, P/d values are plotted against d for two
tested substrates: single-crystal Si(111)-oriented and 100m thick Ni film electrodeposited with 50mA/cm2 current
density. Substrate hardness HS is calculated as 8.71 GPa
for Si(111)-oriented single crystal wafer and 5.38 GPa for
thick ED Ni film as the substrate.

Figure 2. Change in composite hardness with relative

indentation depth for different composite systems. Total
film thickness of the film is 5 m, sublayer thickness is
100 nm and current density value was 10 mA/cm2
The microstructure of the substrate plays key role for the
composite hardness response. Because of the work
hardening of the ED Ni substrate and according to Chicot
Lesage (C-L) model, the system ED Ni/Cu on ED Ni
substrate has the highest values of composite and film
hardness of all the analysed systems and has the most
expressive composite character.

Composite hardness and film hardness

Two composite systems that have been investigated
belong to the soft film on hard substrate composite
system type. Our intention was to analyse the composite
hardness response of above-mentioned systems, according
to different substrate type and different structure of
metallic multilayer films.

Increasing the sublayer thickness ratio in the Ni/Cu film

from 1:1 to 1.4, leads to increase of the composite and
film hardness of the composite systems [9]. The influence
of change of the sublayer thickness ratio on composite
and film hardness (calculated according to C-L model) for
different composite systems is shown on Figure 3.

Change of the composite hardness Hc with relative

indentation depth, h/t ( h is indentation depth and t is total
thickness of the film) is shown on the Figure 2.
For shallow indentation depth, when relative indentation
depth is h/t 0.1, the response is of the film only, and for
the large indentation depths (h/t )1, the response is of
the substrate mostly. The composite hardness region is
region for the values of relative indentation depths
between 0.1 and 1 [8].

Figure 3. Change in composite and film hardness with

relative indentation depth for different composite systems.
Total film thickness of the film is 5 m, and the sublayer
thickness ratio Ni:Cu is 1:1 and 1:4
The difference in tendency of the composite hardness Hc
with load can be expressed through (t/d)m parameter.
When the composite hardness tends to that of the film (for
the low load values), parameter (t/d)m is almost
independent of the substrate type. With increasing load,

Figure 1. PSR plot of applied load (in N) through indent

diagonal (in m), P/d, versus indent diagonal, d, for
Si(111)-oriented single crystal wafer and thick ED Ni
films as examples of the hard substrates
682

The composite Meyer index, m, and parameter (t/d)m

deserves more attention in analysis of the composite
system hardness, because with increasing the load, the
influence of the substrate become dominant and this
parameter depends mostly on the type of the substrate.

influence of the substrate becomes dominant and

parameter (t/d)m depends mostly on the substrate type. It
is shown on Figure 4.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was funded by republic of Serbia Ministry of
education, Science and Technological Development
through the project TR 32008 named: Micro and
Nanosystems for Power Engineering, Process Industry
and Environmental Protection MiNaSyS.

REFERENCES
[1] S. Arai, T. Hasegava, N. Kaneko, Fabrication of
three-dimensional Cu/Ni multilayered microstructure
by wet process, Electrochim. Acta, 49 (2004) 945950.
[2] C. Serre, N. Yaakoubi, A. Perez-Rodriguez, J. R.
Morante, J. Esteve, J. Montserrat, Electrochemical
deposition of Cu and Ni/Cu multilayers in Si
Microsystem Technologies, Sensors and Actuators
A, 2005, vol. 123-124, pp. 633-639.
[3] Datta, M., Landolt, D., "Fundamental aspects and
applications of electrochemical microfabrication",
Electrochimica Acta, 45 (2000) 2535.
[4] W.Ruythooren, K. Attenborough, S.Beerten,
P.Merken,
J.Fransaer,
E.Beyne,
C.V.Hoof,
J.D.Boeck, J.P.Celis, "Electrodeposition for the
synthesis of microsystems" ,J. Micromech.
Microeng. 10 (2000) 101-107.
[5] D.Chicot, J. Lesage, "Absolute hardness of films and
coatings", Thin Solid Films 254 (1995) 123-130
[6] J. Lesage, D.Chicot et al., "A model for hardness
determination of thin coatings from standard microindentation tests", Surf.& Coat.Technol. 200 (2005)
886-889
[7] H.Li, R.C. Bradt, "The microhardness indentation
load/size effect in rutile and cassiterite single
crystals", J. Mater. Sci., 28 (1993) 917.
[8] J. Lamovec, V. Jovi, D. Randjelovi, R. Aleksi, V.
Radojevi, Analysis of the composite and film
hardness of electrodeposited nickel coatings on
different substrates, Thin Solid Films, 516 (2008)
8646.
[9] J. Lamovec, V. Jovi, M. Vorkapi, B. Popovi, V.
Radojevi, R. Aleksi, Microhardness analysis of
thin metallic multilayer composite films on copper
substrates, Journal of Mining and Metallurgy,
Section B Metallurgy 47 (1) B, 5361, 2011.

Figure 4. Comparison of the parameter (t/d)m with

relative indentation depth, h/t, for 5-m thick ED Ni/Cu
multilayer films on single crystal Si(111)-oriented wafer
and 100-m thick ED Ni film as the substrates
The composite system of ED Ni/Cu on thick ED Ni film
as the substrate is more sensitive on composite parameter
(t/d)m change than the system of ED Ni/Cu on Si(111)
substrate especially in the substrate-dominant region.
Different deformation response of the substrates, which is
for the brittle Si substrate probably crack formation and
for polycrystalline ED Ni substrate work hardening is
responsible for such composite hardness response.

5. CONCLUSION
Analysis of the composite hardness of different composite
systems of the same type (soft film on hard substrate)
was performed. Metallic multilayer films of Ni and Cu
were electrodeposited on different substrates: brittle
Si(111) wafers and thick film of polycrystalline
electrodeposited Ni. Vickers microhardness testing was
done with different applied load and composite hardness
values were obtained.
The tendency of the composite hardness Hc, depends on
the type of the composite system, i.e. the differences in
the mechanical properties of the film and of the substrate:
microstructure and hardness of the substrate,
structure/microstructure and hardness of the film, and
their relative differences.
Composite hardness model of Chicot-Lesage (C-L) was
chosen and applied to experimental data in order to get
the film hardness values. Layer thickness, layer thickness
ratio but also the microstructure of the substrate (single
crystal or polycrystalline substrate material) are important
parameters for tailoring the mechanical properties of
the composite systems.

683

RESEARCH AND TESTING OF NOVEL SOLID-LIQUID PHASE CHANGE

COMPOUNDS FOR THE MILITARY MICROCLIMATE COOLING
SYSTEMS
DALIBOR JOVANOVI,
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, Serbia, jovcadach@hotmail.com
PREDRAG STOJISAVLJEVI,
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, Serbia, pstojis@yahoo.com
LJUBIA TOMI,
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, Serbia, ljubisa.tomic@gmail.com
RADOVAN KARKALI,
Military Academy, Belgrade, Serbia, rkarkalic@yahoo.com
ALEKSANDAR NIKOLI,
Faculty of Chemistry, Belgrade, Serbia, asn@chem.bg.ac.rs
VESELIN MASLAK,
Faculty of Chemistry, Belgrade, Serbia, vmaslak@chem.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: Phase Change Materials (PCM) absorb energy during the heating process and release energy to the
environment in the phase change range during a reverse cooling proces. Personal body cooling is one of the several
potentialy areas in which the phase change method of heat storage can be aplied. This paper presents results from the
joint research activities conducted in the Technical Testing Centre and Faculty of chemistry in Belgrade related to
chemical analysys of two commercially available PCM: n-hexadecane and inorganic salts mixture. Functionality of the
chemicals was tested in the Military Medical Academy where both PCM compounds integrated in different types of
cooling garments (InORG, OrgT and OrgO). Experiments comprised testing of the cooling garment efficiency on
soldiers physiological performance during exertional heat stress in hot environment. Physiological strain was
determined by body core temperature (Tty) and mean skin temperature (Tsk). Study results indicate direct influence of
the used PCM type physical and thermodynamic properties (melting temperature and latent heat of fusion) on the
personal cooling system functionality and cooling intensity.
Key words: phase change, heat, temperature, cooling, physiology, hexadecane, hydrated salts.

1. INTRODUCTION

phase change material in enclosures one of the most

active fields in heat transfer research today [2].

Phase change materials possess the ability to change their

state with a certain temperature range. These materials
absorb energy during the heating process as phase change
takes place, otherwise this energy can be transferred to the
environment in the phase change range during a reverse
cooling process [1]. The insulation effect reached by the
PCM is dependent on temperature and time; it takes place
only during the phase change (in the temperature range of
the phase change) and terminates when the phase change
in all of the PCMs would complete. Since, this type of
thermal insulation is temporary; therefore, it can be
referred to as dynamic thermal insulation. Numerous
engineering applications has made the topic of melting of

During the complete melting process, the temperature of

the PCM as well as its surrounding area remains nearly
constant. The same is true for the crystallisation process;
during the entire crystallisation process the temperature of
the PCM does not change significantly either. Phase
change process of PCM from solid to liquid and vice
versa is schematically shown in Fig.1.
The large heat transfer during the melting process as well
as the crystallization process without significant
temperature change makes PCM interesting as a source of
heat storage material in practical applications. When
temperature increases, the PCM microcapsules absorbed
684

 melting point between 15 C and 35 C;

heat and storing this energy in the liquefied phase change

materials. When the temperature falls, the PCM
microcapsules release this stored heat energy and
consequently PCM solidify [3]. For substances that are
solid, conduction is the predominate mode of heat
transfer. For liquids, convection heat transfer
predominates, and for vapors convection and radiation are
the primary mode of heat transfer. When the melting
temperature of a PCM is reached during heating process,
the phase change from the solid to the liquid occurs.
Typical differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) heating
thermogram for PCM melting is schematically shown in
Fig.2.

large heat of fusion;

little temperature difference between the melting point
and the solidification point;
harmless to the environment;
low toxicity;
non-flammable;
stability for repetition of melting and solidification;
large thermal conductivity, for effective heat transfer;
ease of availability and low price.
A wide spectrum of phase change material is available
with different heat storage capacity and phase change
temperature. For the needs of our study investigation, we
analyzed two types of commercially available PCM: nhexadecane (PCM-TCV) and hydrated inorganic salts
(PCM-28).

2. METHODS
For the analysis of the organic PCM-TCV were used IR
spectroscopy, NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry.
Chemical analysis of the inorganic PCM-28 was done in
two phases. The first testing phase involved anion
analysis by chromatographic methods. The PCM sample
in quantity of 0.25 g is dissolved in 250 ml of deionizeddistilled water. Thus prepared solution was diluted 100
times, and analyzed chromatographically. In the second
phase, the content of cations was examined, using the ICP
method. The material was prepared by the standard
procedure for the cations determination on Thermo
Scientific ICP device.

Figure 1. Phase change process

Tp
PhaseChange
temperature

TistartingpointofPCMmelting
TppeakpointofPCMmelting
TeendpointofPCMmelting

Latentheatoffusion
(H)totalenthalpy

Heatof
fusion

The PCMs efficiency was tested through physiological

examinations after samples installation in three cooling
systems: cooling vests InORG (with integrated PCM-28
elements), cooling vest OrgT (with PCM-TCV cooling
packs) and underwear OrgO, where PCM through
microencapsulation incorporated into the textile material.

Te

Ti

Temperature

Figure 2. DSC heating thermogram of the PCM

Ten male soldiers were voluntarily subjected to exertional

heat stress tests (EHST) consisted of walking on treadmill
(5.5 km/h) in hot conditions (40 C) in climatic chamber,
wearing chemical protective suits [7]. One test was
performed without any additional cooling solution
(NoCOOL), and three tests were performed while using
cooling systems InORG, OrgT and OrgO. Physiological
strain was determined by mean skin temperature (Tsk)
and body core temperature, measured as tympanic
temperature (Tty).

During this phase change, the PCM absorbs large

quantities of latent heat from the surrounding area. PCM
may repeatedly converted between solid and liquid phases
to utilize their latent heat of fusion to absorb, store and
release heat or cold during such phase conversions.
Phase change materials are able theoretically to change
state at nearly constant temperature and therefore to store
large quantity of energy [4]. Using the thermal energy
storage (TES) of phase change material (PCM) which has
a melting point from 15 to 35 C is one of the most
effective ideas for effective utilization of this kind of
materials in the field of personal body cooling.

The procedures performed in the present study

corresponded to the standards or thermal strain evaluation
by physiological measurements [8,9]. Skin temperatures
were measured continuously using contact probes with
transducers TSD202E and TSD202F (precision 0.2 C,
range 0 - 60 C, response time 0.9 s; BIOPAC Systems
Inc. USA). The thermistors were set at 4 locations (neck,
fight scapula, left hand, and right shin). Mean skin
temperatures (Tsk) were calculated every 5 minutes from
values obtained and weighted. Core (tympanic)
temperatures (Tty) were continuously measured using

In addition to water, more than 500 natural and synthetic

PCMs are known [5]. These materials differ from one
another in their phase change temperature ranges and their
heat storage capacities.
The required properties for a PCM for a high efficiency
cooling system with thermal energy system (TES) for
specific application [6] are as follow:
685

contact probe TSD202A (precision 0.1C, range 20 - 50

C, response time 0.6 s) with transducer introduced into
the auditory canal and placed toward the eardrum [10,11].
Data are presented as mean SD. The significance of
differences between parameters obtained during EHSTs was
tested by Students t-test, with significance level p < 0.05.

3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
3.1. Chemical analysis of the PCM samples
3.1.1. Inorganic PCM
During the anion analysis using chromatographic method,
the presence of the fluorides, chlorides and sulfates was
confirmed. Also their quantity in the sample was
determined by using a standard solution of the anion. The
chromatogram with basic information is shown on Fig. 3.

Figure 4. GC chromatogram of the PCM-TCV

3.2. Laboratory testing in climate chamber

3.2.1. Body core temperature
Changes in test subjects tympanic temperature (Tty),
while performing EHST in chemical protective suit, with
body cooling (InORG, OrgT, OrgO) and without it
(NoCOOL), are shown in Fig.5.

Figure 3. Chromatogram of the PCM-28 sample

Cation analysis has proven the presence of Na!, K! and
Ca2! ions. Based on these data, it was assumed that the
material in PCM-28 elements consists of a salts mixture
CaCl2, KF, Na2SO4 and K2SO4 on the matrix of the Nametasilicate.

Figure 5. The mean tympanic temperature during EHSTs

3.1.2. Organic PCM

The increase of tympanic temperature in all test subjects and

total growth (Tty), in the cases without cooling and with
body cooling systems, are shown graphically in Fig.6.

A detailed chemical analysis showed that the sample

PCM-TCV is insoluble in water, while is soluble in
organic solvents: hexane, chloroform, methylene chloride,
acetone as well as ethanol. Based on IR spectroscopy can
be concluded that the unidentified material is organic,
which has the characteristic absorption bands of
hydrocarbons (2957.8, 2924.1, and 2854.0 cm-1). The
material was then analyzed by NMR spectroscopy. The
results confirmed it was a mixture of saturated
hydrocarbons, as in the 1H NMR spectrum only two
group of signals were detected on movement: 1 H NMR
(CDCl3, 200 MHz): = 1.5 to 1.1 m; 0.95 t.
Material analysis by mass spectrometry determined the
composition of an unknown compound. GC-MS analysis
was performed on an Agilent 7890 GC apparatus
conected with MS Agilent 5975C. For the recording H5MS column was used, 30 m x 0.25 mm, carrier gas He,
flow rate 1.5 cm3/min; FID detector. The column is heated
in the range of 80 to 310 C. It can be concluded that the
basic ingredients of a mixture is n-hexadecane (Fig. 4).
686

In NoCOOL, InORG and OrgT groups changes in

temperature values over time are characterized by similar
dynamics: rapid growth in the first 15 and last 10 minutes,
a little slower in the middle part of the EHST. In the
OrgO group was noted better temperature stability,
without any significant changes in growth speed during
the EHST. In the 45th min of the test, compared to the
NoCOOL option, significantly lower values of the
tympanic temperature (p < 0.05) were observed in the
groups InORG, OrgT and OrgO (0.67 0.12 C, 0.87
0.16 C, 0.74 0.08 C).
The largest total temperature increase of 1.67 0.15 C
was recorded in NoCOOL group, lower values in other
groups (1.15 0.15 C - InORG, 0.95 0.13 C OrgT;
p < 0.05), while the statistically most significant differences
(p < 0.01) was in OrgO group (0.84 0.05 C) [7].

groups NoCOOL, InORG and OrgT. Group OrgT had

lower values of Tsk during the entire EHST (mean 34.68
0.41 C), as well as the minimum increase of
temperature for 45 min (1.27 C) [7].

4. DISCUSSION
In our experimental conditions (40 C), paraffin mixture of
n-hexadecane used as an active PCM, showed significant
stability during the most of exercises, despite high ambient
temperatures. Rapid activation caused by the adequate
melting point of 18.3 C, while a relatively long and stable
cooling effect is a consequence of the high latent heat of
fusion (237.1 kJ/kg). In the manufacturer's declaration
specified that vest retains thermoregulatory performance as
long as material in the cooling packs is more than 10 % in
the solid phase. This was confirmed in our study, since after
45 minutes of the EHST inside the cooling packs was still 20
- 30 % of PCM mixture in the solid phase. Can be assumed
with great certainty that the mentioned cooling system, at
specified experimental conditions, will keep the cooling
ability for additional 5 to 10 minutes.
The influence of the PCM type on the cooling
effectivness was proved by the results in the experimental
group InORG, where PCM hydrated salts with activation
point of 28 C were used. The choice of inorganic crystal
salts instead of paraffin in this case had a direct influence
on a cooing vest lower efficiency, observed through Tty
and Tsk parametres. Higher activation point (which is
practically equal to the compound melting point) of the
hydrated salts compared to organic n-hexadecane, caused
the later activation of the cooling effects, as shown by the
measured values of Tty and Tsk during exercise. In this
case, thermal conductivity of the used PCM had
secondary importance to the cooling system efficiency.
Therefore cooling vest in InORG group showed inferior
thermoregulatory properties compared to the OrgT group,
althought hidrated salts have thermal conductivity nearly
twice higher than organic hydrocarbon n-hexadecane [7].

Figure 6. The increase of Tty during EHST in all test

subjects and total growth (Tty)
3.2.2. Skin temperature
Graphical reviews of mean skin temperature (Tsk) values
during EHST are displayed in Fig. 7 [7].

Many other studies also confirmed that cooling efficiency

depends on the selected type of PCM and its thermal
properties. Our results are consistent with the study of Sai
Cheong Fok and coworkers [12] who carried out the
investigation of organic PCM to cool a motorcycle
helmet. They used paraffin n-octadecane, compound very
similar to organic PCM in our study (belongs to the same
group of alkane-saturated acyclic hydrocarbons). Paper
presents the experimental investigations on the influence
of the simulated solar radiation, wind speed, and heat
generation rate on the cooling system. The results show
that helmet cooled with the phase change material provide
prolonged thermal comfort period compared to a normal
helmet. Their findings also indicate that the heat
generation from the head is the predominant factor
affecting the PCMs melting time.

Figure 7. The mean skin temperature during EHSTs

In all cases, during the first part of the EHST (up to 15th
min), mean skin temperature rapidly increased until
sweating occurred, then slowed towards the end of test.
In the group InORG, where PCM PhaseCore elements were
used, after increasing the temperature in the first 10 minutes
of 1.73 C there was stagnation, and in the next 35 minutes
was recorded increase in Tsk of only 0.4 C. This can be
explained by a slower activation of the PhaseCore elements
embedded in the vest. Phase change of the PCM chemical
compounds from a solid to the liquid state started after 10
min, when the vest become active [7].

5. CONCLUSION
Based on this study results, can be concluded that usage
of the PCM with high latent heat of fusion (from 200 to
250 kJ/kg) and a melting point of 18 to 20 C (much
lower than the average human body temperature) results

Minimum oscillation in Tsk changes was recorded in the

group OrgO, which is characterized by a significantly
lower (p < 0.05) increase of temperature from the start to
the end of the EHST (1.43 0.22 C), compared to
687

in a very efficient cooling in a shorter time. For a

relatively lower but longer intensity of cooling is
necessary to use PCM whose melting point is around the
average human body temperature (35 - 38 C).

materials handbook, Marshal Space Flight Center,

1971.
[4] Biswas,R.: Thermal storage using sodium sulfate
decahydrate and water, Solar Energy, 1977; 99:99
100.
[5] Charlsson,B., Stymme,H., Wattermark,G.: An
incongruent heat of fusion system CaCl2_6H2O
made congruent through modification of chemical
composition of the system, Solar Energy 1979;
23:33350.
[6] Alexiades,V., Solomon Alan D.: Mathematical
modeling of melting and freezing process,
Washington,
DC:
Hemisphere
Publishing
Corporation; 1992
[7] Jovanovic,D.: Examination of means for improving
physiological suitability under highly toxic
contamination and high ambient temperatures,
dissertation, University of Defense, Belgrade, Serbia,
2013.
[8] ISO 9886: Ergonomics evaluation of thermal strain
by psychological measurements, 2008.
[9] ISO 12894 (E): Ergonomics of the thermal
environment Medical supervision of individuals
exposed to extreme hot or cold environment, 2008.
[10] MP System hardware guide, Biopac Systems Inc.,
http://www.biopac.com.
[11] AcqKnowledge 4 Software Guide, Biopac Systems
Inc., http://www.biopac.com
[12] Fok,S.C.,
Tan,F.L.,
Sua,C.C.:
Experimental
Investigations on the Cooling of a Motorcycle
Helmet with Phase Change Material, Thermal
Science, 201; 3:807- 816.

On the other hand, our study confirmed opinions from

other studies that application of PCM with a higher
melting point (30 C) ensures stable and permanent
cooling for a longer period of time.
Based on physiological parameters measured during
EHSTs with two PCM cooling vests (groups InORG and
OrgT), it can be concluded that a decisive influence on
the thermoregulation efficiency have melting point and
latent heat of fusion of the used compounds. Due to the
lower melting point of n-hexadecane (18 C), in the group
OrgT was recorded very effective cooling in the first half
of the testing period (15 min), while to the end of EHST
cooling intensity is weakened.
Based on our study research, it is possible to develop own
phase-change material with appropriate thermal, physical
and chemical properties, that will be suitable for use
under the nuclear-biological-chemical protective suits,
combat vests or uniforms, in different missions and under
extreme temperature conditions.

REFERENCES
[1] Pillai,K.K., Brinkwarth,B.J.: The storage of low
grade thermal energy using phase change materials,
Appl Energy, 1976; 2:20516.
[2] Abhat,A.: Low temperature latent heat thermal
energy storage, Thermal energy storage, Dordrect,
Holland: D. Reidel Publication Co.; 1981.
[3] Hale,D.V., Hoover,M.J., ONeill,M.J.: Phase change

688

EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF FRACTURE MECHANICS

PARAMETERS IN ELASTIC-PLASTIC CONDITIONS
BAHRUDIN HRNJICA
Faculty of Technical Engineering Biha, University in Biha, bhrnjica@outlook.com
FADIL ISLAMOVI
Faculty of Technical Engineering Biha, University in Biha, f.islam@bih.net.ba
DENANA GAO
Faculty of Technical Engineering Biha, University in Biha, dzgaco@bih.net.ba
MERSIDA MANJGO
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University in Mostar, mersida.manjgo@unmo.ba
SRA PERKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Beograd, srdja.perkovic@vti.vs.rs

Abstract: The paper describes the procedure and method of experimental determination of fracture mechanics
parameters in the condition of elastic-plastic fracture mechanics, EPFM, by testingSingle-edge notched bend, SENB
specimen components of structural steel welded joint. A program was developed to determine the corrective value of the
crack length (adjusted crack length) in the C# programming language. The results of experimental studies are
presented in the form of J-R curves, and certain critical values of J integral JIc are determined.
Keywords: fracture mechanics, J integral, J-R curve, initial crack, SENB specimen.

manner, we see that the stress increases exponentially

when approaching the crack tip. We can easily observe
that the crack tip becomes singular stress point. In other
words, the stress size at the crack tip tends to infinity. As
there is no material that can withstand infinite stress size,
the crack tip is plasticized, and the size of the plastic zone
largely depends upon the mechanical properties of the
material [1].

1. INTRODUCTION
When stress, whose values exceed the yield stress limit of
the material,occurin the vicinity of the crack, we often
have a situation without plastic strainbut rather crack
growth and formation of new discontinuities. Because of
these phenomenon characteristic to structural materials, it
is important to note the presence of cracks in the
structure, and thus the behavior of the material in the area
around the crack. Hypothetically, if we were able to
detect the critical cracks in the structure, it would be
possible to avoid failures and disasters. As this is not
possible in most cases, i.e. it is practically impossible to
detect all cracks in the structure, the basic thesis that the
fracture mechanics begins with is that such cracks already
existed in the material, and it is necessary to define the
values which will accurately describe the behavior of the
material in vicinity of the crack.

Research conducted in the last 50 years for the most part

had intention to confirm the basic concepts of fracture
mechanics, i.e. to use theoretical knowledge when
designing structures to have more enhanced resistance to
crack growth. The development of fracture mechanics
was based on theoretical-experimental principles, because
negative experience on ships and airplanes in the middle
of the last century, for the most part as a consequence
had a lack of knowledge of crack growth in the structures.
Prior to 1960, fracture mechanics principles were applied
only on materials that are se deformedaccording to Hook
Law, and since 1948 small plastic corrections were
conducted around the crack tip, withEPFM principles still
being used. After 1960, non-linear materials were also
examined, which led to the use of EPFM, in addition to
existing theory [2].

Defining stress condition around the crack tip is a

complex process because the stress as physical size is not
defined in terms of geometric crack sizes. It is therefore
necessary to define a new size that will, in addition to the
static sizes of stress and strain in the material, also contain
geometric characteristics of crack in its function.When the
stress size around the crack tip is analyzed in classical
689

2. LINEAR - ELASTIC FRACTURE

MECHANICS
The crack in the body can be loaded so that there are three
ways of its opening. Mechanical properties at such body
can be described with stress intensity factor K which
varies depending on the mentioned methods the crack
opening, i.e.by defining the stress intensity factor K l ,
K ll , K lll . Figure 1 shows the three basic models of crack
opening, i.e., splitting, sliding and shear, respectively.

crack length,

specimen width,

specimen height,

p0 z

yield stress

The common practice is that the width and size of the

crack is expressed by one size b = (W a ) . If the
condition is fulfilled (2), it provides the flat state of strain
and fracture toughness becomes fundamental fracture
mechanics parameter.

3. ELASTIC PLASTIC FRACTURE

MECHANICS
In case when the requirement of LEFM application is not
fulfilled, or if the plastic zone around the crack tip is
insignificant, the obtained fracture toughness parameter
K lc is not adequate to define the boundary of stable crack
growth, and therefore it is necessary to conduct further
analysis, and to include non-linear material behavior.
High value of fracture toughness and low boundary of the
yield strength is characteristic to material that is necessary
to treat with EPFM.Such materials are often used in the
manufacturing of pressure vessels. In case of EPFM
primary parameters are J integral and crack tip opening
displacement (CTOD). The critical values of these
parameters present the value of fracture toughness, even
for relatively large plastic zone around the crack tip.
There are limitations to the size of the plastic zone in
EPFM applications, but they are significantly less
restrictive in relation to the LEFM [3].

Figure 1: Crack growth models

The fundamental concept of Linear-elastic fracture
mechanic (LEFM) lies in the fact that the stress field
around the crack tip can be described by one parameter
K l , which represents stress intensity factor whose unit is
N m . This parameter is directly related to the stress
intensity or the size of the crack a . It can be observed as
a basic unit of fracture mechanics, by analogy with the
stress unit in resistance of the material [3].

The stress intensity factor Kl , can be functionally related

to stress , and the crack size a , for different forms and
crack opening position on the plate, according to Figure 1.
In general, stress intensity factor expressions for plate
loaded with tension can be presented with the expression
for all three types of crack opening:

K l , K ll , K lll = Y a

3.1. J Integral

(1)

Analogously, as in the case of LEFM, it is possible to

define the non-linear strain energy J that is released
during flat plate load. In the same manner, as in the case
of strain energy G in LEFM, non-linear strain energy J
can be used as a fracture criterion, so that for a given
material at a critical value J c unstable crack growth
occurs.

where stands that: Y dimensionless number that

depends on the geometry of the crack opening
displacement shown in Figure 1.
When we consider critical values of these sizes, then the
stress intensity factor exceeds the fracture toughness, K lc
and represents that stress value at which unstable crack
growth begins, and crack length reaches its critical size
ac . It is possible to determine the values of fracture
toughness K lc , for different types of materials, which are
loaded with alternating load, with a certain plate
thickness, and the specific operating temperatures.
Application of LEFM is limited to a relatively small area
of plastic around the crack tip. ASTM standard defines a
simple condition of LEFM application that relates to
experimental testing. The condition of application refers
to the sizes of the specimen examining the fracture
toughness K lc [4]:
K
a, B, (W a ) 2,5 l
p0 z

(2)
Figure 2: 2D cracked body with contour G in
counterclockwise direction

where stands that:

690

Prior to the determination of fracture toughness, the initial

fatigue crack in three-point bending with alternating load
is formed for each specimen. The size of the crack makes
the total length of machine etched notch and initially
formed fatigue crack (Figure 3), whereas its standard size
is recommended in the ratio of 0.45-0.70 W. The initial
formation of the crack should be strictly controlled,
because it directly affects the fracture toughness [7]. Load
which affects the specimenis also determined by the
standard, and it is recommended to be placed in interval 1 to 0.1 maximum load.

Integral equation proposed by James R. Rice (1968) can

calculate the strain energy of the body that contains the
crack. This integral, named after the scientist who first
defined it, is known as the J integral. J Integral can
also predict when the unstable crack growth will occur
[5].
For each homogeneous and isotropic body that shows the
nonlinearity of its elastic properties in the balanced state,
it is possible to determine the definite integral J , defined
by a closed line whose value is equal to zero. In other
words, it is possible to define the contour integral, which
does not depend on the closed line path, and its value is
always equal to zero.
If the crack exists in the body, and based on the previous
discussion, it is possible to define a closed line in the case
of crack. If the starting point of a closed contour begins at
the bottom of the crack and ends at the upper surface of
the crack (Fig. 2) we can determine:
J=

ui

Wdy T x dS
i

(3)

Figure3: Single-edge notched bend (SENB) specimen

According to ASTM 1820 [4], the maximum load of the

specimen during the formation of the initial fatigue crack
is given in the expression:

The above expression (3) is the general form of Rice J

integral, and provides a starting point for the
determination of fracture mechanics parameters in elasticplastic conditions.

F=

4. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

0.5Bb02 Y
S

(4)

It stands that: B specimen thickness,

Experimental determination of fracture mechanics

parameters consists of a set of experimental methods for
determining fracture toughness K lc , by applying the
principles of LEFM to real structures. Structures with
these properties are built from high strength materials that
are not in mass use due to the high cost. On the other
hand, construction materials that are massively used are
not suitable for the application of LEFM primarily
because of their mechanical properties, so we use the
EPFM. In such conditions, the fracture toughness can be
calculated using one or more parameters such as: J
contour integral, or the crack tip opening displacement .

b0 remaining length of the ligament,

Y effective yield strength,

S distance between supports.

After the formation of the initial crack it is possible to

conduct a main test for the determination of fracture
mechanics parameters. The main test was conducted using
single specimen partial unloading testing, i.e., single
specimen compliance method. The whole process of this
method is defined by the standard ASTM 1820 [4]. The
aim of this method is to register the size of the crack
growth, a, which occurs during the test, over the size of
the crack tip opening displacement which is registered by
the special COD extensometer installed in the specimen.
The load is introduced so that the maximum value is
reached after no more than 10 minutes, whereas
unloading should not be higher than half the current
load.The load is introduced with occasional unloading to
the moment of large plastic strain or fracture of the
specimen. Termination of the experiment can be achieved
when leavingmeasurement range of the extensometer, or
until it reaches a sufficient number of cycles for the
construction of J-R curve. In cases where the specimen is
not broken after the experiment, it is broken with forcein
order to continue the process of measuring the crack
length. Upon the completion of the test the position of the
crack caused by bending of the specimen is
marked.Marking the position of the crack on the specimen
is conducted by fatigue or thermal treatment. After
marking, the specimenis broken in order to calculate the
initial a0 , or final crack length a f . The experimental

These parameters ( J lc , lc ) are suitable for the analysis in

EPFMwhich makes them very important in the
calculation of the structural safety. Experimental methods
used to determine these parameters are defined by the
American ASTM, British BS and ISO standards. There
are several standards [6, 7, 8] which determine procedures
for the experimental determination of fracture mechanics
parameters, primarily fracture toughness at plane strain
K lc , critical J integral J lc , and critical crack tip opening
displacement lc
(CTOD). The aforementioned
standards, among other, prescribe the form and
dimensions of the specimens that are used to determine
these parameters. For the experimental determination of
fracture mechanics parameters SENB specimens were
used. Standard geometry of SENB specimens has a
rectangular cross-section, with cross-section size Bx2B,
where: W = 2B, B - specimen thickness, W specimen
width. An example of one such specimen is given in
Figure 3.
691

results, which are collected in order to determine the

fracture mechanics parameters, are obtained in the form
of load - crack tip opening ( F v ) ,or yield curve. Based

three of the aforementioned 8 points must be in the

interval 0.4 J Q J Q . The correlation coefficient for the

on the yield curve it is possible to determine the stress

intensity factor for each cycle, given in the expression:

greater than 0.96, and the difference between a0 and

less than 0.01W. Based on these limitations we can obtain
successive growth ai from the expression:

Pi S ai
Ki =
f
BBN W 2 W

purpose of calculating the coefficients B and C should be

(5)

ai = ai a0 q

The values of J i are obtained through the expression (7),

with the rectified value of the crack length. Once you
have determined the value of J integral and crack growth
for each cycle, they can be applied in the diagram J a .
After all values are entered in accordance with the
procedure of the J-Rstructure it is possible to determine
the critical J integral J lc .

Obtained values of the stress intensity factor have shown

that in our case the requirement for the specimen
thickness was not fulfilled:
K
B 2.5 i
p 0,2

(9)

(6)

Since the thickness of the tube (6) is inadequate, meaning

that the plastic zone around the crack tip is significantly
large, it is therefore necessary to apply the principles of
EPFM. In this case it is necessary to proceed with the
calculation and determine the parameters of EPFM, and J
integral
for
each
unloading
cycle.
Several
standardsprescribe procedures for determining the J
integral [4, 9, 10] of which the ASTM E1820-01 [4]
defines the procedures and guidelines for the calculation
of fracture mechanics parameters such as K, J, .

4.1. The Research results

According to the described procedure of the experimental
determination of fracture mechanics parameters, and
experimental determination of fracture toughness in plane
strain, the results are given in the diagram in the yield
curve (Unloading Compliance Toughness Test) and J-R
curve with which critical value of J lc is determined [1].

Based on the calculated values of the stress intensity

factor of each cycle it is possible to reach values of J
integral for each cycle through the expression:
J = J el + J pl

(7)

where J el and J pl present elastic, i.e. plastic component

of J integrala.
J R Structure begins by applying the maximum values
of J integral J max and crack growth amax . Cycles of
failure are measured in equal values of crack length
growth of 0.005W.

Figure4: Unloading compliance toughness test record

For methods with alternate failure, it is possible that the

calculated crack length is less than the initial value, so it
is necessary to make an adjustment (rectification) of the
crack length in order to obtain a realistic J R curve.
The process of rectification of the crack length applies to
all cycles until reaching the maximum load. By using
such a defined set of data from J i and ai , a0 q is
calculated using the following expression [4]:
a = a0 q + 1 J + BJ 2 + CJ 2
2 Y

(8)

Unknown sizes a0q , B and C in the expression are

calculated by the least square method, and the expression
(8) is transformed into the matrix equation. The paper
implemented algorithm for calculating rectified crack size
a0q in the C # programming language [1].

Figure5: Calculated J-R curve with critical value of J lc

Figure 4 shows the obtained yield curve at which 12

alternating cycles of loading and unloading were
conducted. Previously described procedure for

In accordance with the prescribed procedure, at least 8

points are necessary to define the values a0q . At least
692

and Application Third Edition, Taylor & Francis,

New York, 2005.
[3] Barsom, J. M., Rolfe S. T., Fracture and Fatigue
Control in Structures: Applications of Fracture
Mechanics,
ASTM
International,
West
Conshohocken, 1999.
[4] ASTM E 1820: Standard Test Method for
Measurement of Fracture Toughness (American
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
1990.
[5] Rice, J. R., A Path Independent Integral and the
Approximate Analysis of Strain Concentration by
Notches and Cracks, Journal of Applied Mechanics,
vol 35, 1968.
[6] ASTM E 399-90: Standard Test Method for Plane
Strain Fracture Toughness of Metallic Materials,
American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia 1990.
[7] BS 7448-1997: Fracture Mechanics Test, Part I:
Method for Determination of KIc, Critical CTOD
and Critical J Values of Metallic Materials, British
Standard Institution, London 1997.
[8] ISO 12737: Metallic Materials Determination of
Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness, International
Organization for Standardization, Geneva 1996.
[9] BS 7448-1997: Fracture Mechanics Test, Part I:
Method for Determination of KIc, Critical CTOD
and Critical J Values of Metallic Materials (British
Standard Institution),London 1997.
[10] ISO 12135: Metallic Materials Unified Method of
Test for the Determination of Quasistatic Fracture
Toughness,
International
Organization
for
Standardization, Geneva 1996.

determining parameters for the J-R structure was

conducted for 12 cycles of unloading.
The critical value of J integral was determined by J-R
structurecurve [1]. The value of the critical J integral is
J lc = 201 kJ2 for the tested steel mark S 355 J2 per
m
European standard EN.Specimen sizes used for this
experiment are: S = 80 mm, W = 20 mm, a0 = 10 mm.

5. CONCLUSION
This paper presents experimental research regarding
theexperimental determination of fracture mechanics
parameters in elastic-plastic conditions. The experimental
part describes the procedure for obtaining J-R curve and
the critical value of J integral J lc . Fracture mechanics
parameters result in a functional relationship of structure
stress state with its geometric properties, and the crack
size. The formation of cracks and its initial stable growth
still does not endanger the structure, if proper analysis is
conducted and the parameters of fracture mechanicsare
determined. The problem occurs when the crack state in
the structure changes and when the crack turns from
stable to unstable growth at which fracture occurs. The
determination of critical values of the stress intensity
factor parameters KIc and/or J integral defines the
boundary and prescribes the conditions for the safe
exploitation of the structure.

REFERENCES
[1] Hrnjica, B., Numerical-evolutionary approach to
determining fracture mechanics parameters of the
pressure vessels, Doctoral dissertation, University
in Biha,2014.
[2] Anderson, T.L., Fracture Mechanics Fundamentals

693

SIGNIFICANCE OF CRACKS IN THE INTEGRITY ASSESSMENT

WELDED JOINT OF STEELS FOR ELEVATED TEMPERATURE
MERI BURZI
IC, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University, Belgrade, mburzic@mas.bg.ac.rs
RADICA PROKI- CVETKOVI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University, Belgrade, rprokic@mas.bg.ac.rs
OLIVERA POPOVI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University, Belgrade, opopovic@mas.bg.ac.rs
URO LUKI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University, Belgrade, ulukic@mas.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: For better understanding of the phenomenon of crack initiation and propagation in welded joints of A-387
Gr. 11 steel designed for high-temperature and high-pressure application, it is necessary to determine the effect of
heterogeneity of microstructural and mechanical properties on fracture toughness and fatigue crack initiation and
propagation. Based on the tests conducted with pre-cracked CT and Charpy size specimens, the effect of heterogeneity
of microstructural and mechanical properties of welded joints on fracture toughness and fatigue-crack growth
parameters was determined.
Keywords: Alloyed steel A-387 Gr. 11 Class 1, Welded joint, Fracture toughness, Paris law, Fatigue crack growth rate.
factors such as residual stresses after welding. However,
these fundamental difficulties do not make experimental
determination of fracture mechanics, KIc, impossible
under plane strain conditions, either in certain critical
regions of a welded joint or a welded joint as a whole, but
they do make interpretation of the measured values
difficult. Therefore, great interest in application of
investigations of fracture mechanics in case of welded
joints is natural [3,4].

1. INTRODUCTION
Behaviour of alloyed steel A-387 Gr. 11 Class 1, designed
for manufacture of pressure vessels operating at high
temperature and exposed to high pressure, is highly
dependant on the properties of critical regions of weldedjoint, heat-affected-zone (HAZ) and weld metal (WM),
primarily due to their high sensitivity to brittle fracture.
Heat affected zone (HAZ) and weld metal (WM) are
potential locations of crack initiation, i.e. the locations
where local brittle zones may form to whom crack
initiation is ascribed [1].

For better understanding of the cause and mechanism of

crack initiation and growth in welded joints of steel
designed for operation at elevated temperatures and under
high pressures, it is necessary to establish the effect of
heterogeneity of the structure and mechanical properties
of a welded joint on crack initiation and growth and to
quantify the parameters affecting the local strain
behaviour and crack growth. The aim of this experiment
is to study the effect of heterogeneity of microstructure
and mechanical properties on fracture toughness, KIc, and
fatigue crack growth parameters da/dN and Kth of A387 Gr. 11 Class 1 steel welded joint constituents at room
temperature and at 540C [5].

Welding technology specification of steel A-387 Gr. 11

Class 1 plates, 96mm thick, is defined according to
standard EN 288-3 [2]. However, this standard requires
neither testing of operating temperature (540C) nor
testing of in-service behaviour of basic metal and welded
joint at room and operating temperatures.
The problem of determination of fracture toughness, KIc,
is treated as a problem of principle, as fracture mechanics
assumes homogeneous material not only near the crack tip
but at some distance from it as well, in order to make
theoretical assumptions and meanings of fracture
toughness as a property measured using some of the
methods of fracture mechanics still valid. Welded joint, as
an integral part of a structure, has inhomogeneous
microstructure and mechanical properties, very often
geometry too, and stress field as well, affected by various

2. MATERIAL
For assessment of the effect of operating temperature on
fracture toughness, KIc, and fatigue-crack growth
parameters of A-387 Gr. 11 Class 1 steel, sample of 350 x
694

500 x 96mm with double U weld metal in the centre were

available.The spesimens for qualification of the welded
joint, WM and HAZ were machined from a welded
sample plate. [6]. The chemical composition and
mechanical properties of A-387 Gr. 11 Class 1 steel are
shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.

Part 1 standard [7]. Three-point bend (TPB) specimens

were used for testing at room temperature. Due to specific
design of the chamber, CT specimens were used for
testing at operating temperature of 540C. Three types of
specimens were made, depending on the notch location:

Table 1. Chemical composition of tested material

2nd the specimen with a notch in weld metal (WM)

C
0.15

Chemical composition, mass %

Si
Mn
P
S
Cr
0.29
0.54 0.022 0.011 0.93

1st the specimen with a notch in basic metal (BM)

3rd the specimen with a notch in heat-affected zone
(HAZ)

Mo
0.47

The experiments were conducted using the singlespecimen method with successive partial unloading, i.e.
the method of single-specimen relaxation. The aim of
relaxation with unloading was to register the value of
crack propagation, a, occurring during testing.

Table 2. Mechanical properties of tested material [6]

Tensile
Elongatio
Impact
Yield stress
strength,
n A, %
energy, J
Rp0,2, MPa
Rm, MPa
325
495
35
165

Based on the data collected from tearing machine and

COD indicator, the diagrams force, F crack mouth
opening displacement (CMOD), , were plotted that are
the foundation for plotting the diagram J a, where
regressive line is plotted according to ASTM 1152-02 [8].
Critical J-integral, JIc, is obtained from the regressive line
obtained. The typical appearance of the diagrams F
and J a for the specimen with a notch in basic metal
(BM) is given in for room temperature Fig.1, and Fig.2
for operating temperature. From the very appearance of
the diagrams, the effect of structural heterogeneity on
toughness of parent metal and welded-joint components is
obvious [9].

The plates were welded by two procedures [6]:

root passes by metal manual arc welding (MMA) with
coated electrode LINCOLN Sl 19G (AWS: E8018-B2),
filler metal passes by submerged arc welding (SAW)
with wire LINCOLN LNS 150 and flux LINCOLN
P230.
Chemical composition of coated electrode LINCOLN Sl
19G and wire LINCOLN LNS 150 according to
certificates is given in Tab. 3. Main mechanical properties
according to certificates are given in Tab. 4.

The value of critical stress-intensity factor or plane-strain

fracture toughness, KIc, can be computed when the values
of critical JIc integral are known, using the dependences

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Fracture toughness, KIc.

K Ic =

The effect of heterogeneity of structure and mechanical

properties of a welded joint reflects in location of a
fatigue-crack tip in the first place, and in properties of the
region where fracture develops. Testing of plane-strain
fracture toughness of the specimens taken from the
welded plate made of steel A-387 Gr. 11 Class 1 was
conducted. The aim was to determine critical stressintensity factor, KIc, i.e. to estimate the behaviour of basic
metal (BM) and components of the welded joint, weld
metal (WM) and heat-affected zone (HAZ) in presence of
a crack-type defect as the most jeopardizing defect in
structural materials, especially in welded joints. The tests
were conducted using the three-point bend (TPB) and CT
specimens, geometry of which is defined by the BS 7448-

J Ic E
1 2

(1)

Computed values of plane-strain fracture toughness, KIc,

are given in Tab. 5 for the specimens with notches in BM,
WM and HAZ.
One can observe that structural and mechanical
heterogeneities of a welded joint significantly affect its
resistance to crack propagation, both in elastic and in
plastic regions. Therefore, to issue test conditions of
fracture mechanics, it is necessary to define not only the
test procedure and location of a fatigue crack but the
method of interpretation and meaning of the results as
well [9].

Table 3. Chemical composition of filler metal [6]

Filler metal
LINCOLN Sl 19G
LINCOLN LNS 150

C
0.08
0.11

Table 4. Mechanical properties of filler metal [6]

Filler metal
Yield stress
Rp0,2, MPa
LINCOLN Sl 19G
505
LINCOLN LNS 150
490

Si
0.045
0.18

Chemical composition, mass %

Mn
P
S
0.35
0.025
0.025
0.37
0.020
0.020

Tensile strength,
Rm, MPa
640
610

695

Elongation, A,
%
23
26

Cr
1.10
1.04

Mo
0.50
0.47

Impact energy, J
> 95
> 100

300

35

BM - 1s

BM - 1s

J, kJ/m

Force, F, N

40
o

T = 20 C

30

JIc = 77,8 kJ/m

250
200

25

150

20
15

100

JIc

10

50
5

0
0

12

16

20

, mm

12

16

20

a, mm

Figure 1. Diagrams F and J a for the specimen with a notch in BM for room temperature [9]
2

300

BM - 1p
35

J , kJ/m

Force, F, N

40
o

T = 540 C

30

BM - 1p
2

JIc = 53,9 kJ/m

250
200

25

150

20
15

100

10

JIc

50
5

0
0

12

16

20

12

16

a, mm

, mm

Figure 2. Diagrams F and J a for the specimen with a notch in BM for operating temperature [9]
Table 5. Results of testing the critical J-integral, JIc, and the critical stress intensity factor, KIc [9]
Sample
mark
BM-1s
BM-2s
BM-3s
WM-1s
WM -2s
WM -3s
HAZ-1s
HAZ -2s
HAZ -3s
BM-1p
BM-2p
BM-3p
WM -1p
WM -2p
WM -3p
HAZ -1p
HAZ -2p
HAZ -3p

Testing
temperature, C
20

20

20

540

540

540

Critical J-integral
JIc, kJ/m2
77,8
80,5
73,2
82,2
93,7
97,2
65,1
80,2
78,3
53,9
49,7
55,1
62,2
60,3
55,6
48,7
53,9
50,7

696

Critical stress intensity

factor, KIc, MPa m1/2
132,4
134,7
128,4
136,1
145,3
148,0
121,1
134,4
132,8
90,2
87,4
92,1
97,8
96,3
92,5
86,6
91,1
88,3

Critical crack
length, ac, mm
52,8
54,7
49,7
55,8
63,6
66,0
44,2
54,5
53,2
46,1
43,4
48,1
54,3
52,6
48,5
42,5
47,0
44,2

20

The character of the curves varies depending on the

location of a notch, i.e. on the point reached by a fatigue
crack and test temperature. By analysing the curves
obtained, one can observe identical dependence of the
character of individual curves in each group, where the
difference between the specimens lies exclusively in the
value of maximum force, Fmax, which is directly
dependent on the length of a fatigue crack, a, and test
temperature [6].

fatigue threshold is achieved. The structure can be used

before growing crack reaches critical value, based on
performed structural integrity analysis. Substantial data
for the decision about extended service of cracked
component is crack growth rate and its dependence on
acting load. Standard ASTM E647 [7] defines testing of
pre-cracked specimen for fatigue crack growth rate
measurement da/dN, and calculation of stress intensity
factor range, K. Two basic requirements in standard
ASTM E647 are crack growth rate above 10-8 m/cycle to
avoid threshold Kth regime, and testing with constant
amplitude loading.

Heterogeneity of mechanical properties of a welded joint,

i.e. the welded-joint components, is obvious from the
obtained value of plane-strain fracture toughness, KIc,
determined indirectly through critical JIc integral. The
specimens with a notch in WM have the largest measured
value of KIc. Average KIc values of 143MPa m1/2 that
were obtained are within the limits of the values in
literature for this group of general structural steels [5].
Somewhat lower KIc values were obtained for the
specimens with a notch in BM, (mean value of KIc was
132MPa m1/2 ). However, in this particular case the
differences are relatively small, ranging from 10 to
15MPa m1/2 in terms of minimum and maximum value.
The lowest values are that for HAZ, which anyway a
critical spot in a welded joint is [9].

Standard Charpy size specimens, pre-cracked in different

welded joint regions, were tested under variable loading
for determination of stress-intensity factor range at fatigue
threshold, Kth, and fatigue crack growth rate da/dN.
Testing was performed in load control, by three-points
bending
on
high-frequency
resonant
pulsator
CRACKTRONIC, Fig. 3. This FRACTOMAT device is
based on electrical potential measurement, connected with
corresponding instruments. For monitoring of crack
growth, foil crack gauges RUMUL RMF A-5, 5 mm long,
were cemented on the machined specimens, applying the
same procedure as for classical strain gauges. During
crack propagation, gauge foil breaks following the
fatigue-crack tip. In that way, resistance of the gauge foil
varies linearly with crack length variation.

However, much more important is the effect of

temperature on the values of fracture toughness, KIc. At
operating temperature, average reduction of fracture
toughness is 35-45%, depending on location of a fatiguecrack tip (BM, WM or HAZ).Tendency to brittle fracture
at operating temperature is much more prominent, which
requires more frequent NDT control.

Both fatigue-crack growth parameters at operating

temperature of 540C and fracture toughness were
determined on CT specimens, whose geometry is defined
by BS 7448 Part 1.

These differences do not necessarily affect significantly

the structures exposed to static loading in service.
However, under conditions where the structural
components are permanently exposed to variable loading,
the variations in the KIc values are very important, as the
critical crack length, ac, i.e. resistance to crack
propagation, directly depends on the KIc value. By
applying the fundamental formula of fracture mechanics
K Ic = ac

(2)

and introducing the value of allowable stress doz = ,

assuming that the shape factor equals to one, approximate
values of critical crack length, acr, can be computed.
Having in mind that the thickness of BM and welded joint
is 96 mm, in our opinion, in spite of increasing tendency
to brittle fracture at operating temperatures, the values
obtained for critical crack length, ac, are significant data
for prevention of possible undesirable consequences
through prompt detection. Therefore, in order to ensure
detection of the cracks before they reach critical length,
proper procedures of non-destructive testing should be
applied.

Figure 3. View of specimen with cemented-foil crack

gauge-foil with variable loading bending scheme
The dependence fatigue-crack growth rate per cycle,
da/dN, vs. stress-intensity factor range, K, is determined
by the coefficient C and exponent m in the equation of
Paris [11]. This relation can be calculated and drawn in a
form log da/dN - log (K), based on the results of tests
conducted at room and operating temperature (540C).
Obtained relations are presented in Fig. 4 for the
specimens pre-cracked in base metal (BM); weld metal
(WM) and heat-affected-zone (HAZ) [9].

3.2. Application of fracture mechanics in study of

fatigue
Fatigue crack will initiate and propagate from severe
stress raisers under variable loading after determined
cycle number if the stress-intensity factor range, Kth, for
697

Obtained values of coefficient C and exponent m in the

equation of Paris are given in Tab. 6, together with the
values of stress-intensity factor range, Kth, at fatigue
threshold. The results presented in Tab. 6 clearly show

that crack-tip position and testing temperature determine

threshold stress-intensity factor range Kth and fatiguecrack growth behaviour [9].

10

10
o

T = 20 C
BM
WM
HAZ

10

10

10

da/dN, nm/cycle

10

da/dN, nm/cycle

T = 540 C
BM
WM
HAZ

10

10

10

10

-1

10

-1

-2

10

10

-2

10

-3

-3

10

10
0

10

10

10

10

1/2

10

10
1/2

K, MPa m

K, MPa m

Figure 4. Fatigue-crack growth rate per cycle, da/dN, vs. stress-intensity factor range, K, specimens pre cracked in
BM, WM, and HAZ tested at room temperature (left) and at 540C (right) [9]
Table 6. Parameters of Paris equations [9]

Specimen
designation
BM1s
WM1s
HAZ1s
BM1p
WM1p
HAZ1p

Test
temperature, C
20

540

Stress-intensity factor range at

fatigue threshold,
Kth, MPa m1/2
6.8
6.8
6.7
5.9
6.2
6.1

For comparison, the value of the stress-intensity factor range

K = 10MPam is located in the portion of the curve where
Paris law applies, as shown in Fig.4. Corresponding crackgrowth rates at room temperature ranged from 1.2410-09
nm/cycle for base metal to 2.5610-09 nm/cycle for weld
metal and 3.1210-09 nm/cycle in HAZ, indicating that HAZ
is critical constituent in welded joint. At 540C, crackgrowth rates are significantly higher when compared to room
temperature (3.7410-09; 4.5110-09; 5.00 10-9 for base metal,
weld metal and HAZ, respectively), but with smaller
differences in constituents that can be explained by better
ductility at elevated temperature. Again, HAZ is most critical
constituent in welded joint [9].

2.98 10-13
3.88 10-13
3.05 10-13

3.62
3.82
4.01

Crack-growth rate
da/dN, nm/cycle
at K = 10MPa m1/2
1.24 10-09
2.56 10-09
3.12 10-09

3.11 10-13
3.27 10-13
3.38 10-12

4.08
4.14
3.17

3.74 10-09
4.51 10-09
5.00 10-09

Coefficient Exponent
C
m

In spite of significant differences in fatigue-crack growth

rates, obtained values are still low and acceptable. That
means that tested steel and its welded joint exhibited
acceptable level of fatigue-crack growth resistance and
can be successfully applied for variable loading in case of
detected crack-like defects, primarily for low-cycle
fatigue.
The behaviour of welded joint as whole, as well as of
their individual constituents, can be connected with the
variation of the slope of valid portion of Paris curve. In
general, materials with lower fatigue-crack growth are
characterized by lower slope on the diagram da/dN vs.
K. Lower crack propagation is confirmed on specimens
698

from base metal and from weld metal, requiring higher

stress-intensity factor range for the same crack growth
rate. Maximum fatigue-crack growth rate can be expected
at the level of stress-intensity factor approaching to planestrain fracture toughness - the condition for brittle fracture
[12].

REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]

4. CONCLUSIONS
Following conclusions can be derived:

[4]

Structural and mechanical heterogeneities of a welded

joint significantly affect the resistance to crack
propagation, both in elastic and in plastic region. The
heterogeneity of the mechanical properties of the welded
joints, i.e. welded-joint components, is obvious from the
values obtained for plane-strain fracture toughness, KIc,
determined indirectly through the critical JIc integral.

[5]

[6]

Decisive effect on stress-intensity factor range K and

fatigue-crack growth parameters can be attributed to the
location of machined notch and following initial crack, as
well as to testing temperature.

[7]

The highest resistance to crack propagation, expressed

by minimum fatigue-crack growth rate, exhibited the
specimens pre-cracked in basic metal, and maximum
fatigue crack-growth rate was found in the specimens
pre-cracked in heat-affected-zone. This is directly
connected with the effect of microstructural
heterogeneity of welded-joint constituents on fatiguecrack growth rate da/dN.

[8]
[9]
[10]

The behaviour of pre-cracked specimens taken from

different welded joint constituents (basic metal, weld
metal, heat-affected-zone), tested at operating temperature
(540C) and under variable loading, regarding fatigue
threshold and fatigue crack growth parameters, exhibited
two to four-fold higher crack-growth rate when compared
to room temperature, which can be explained by reduced
properties at elevated temperature.

[11]
[12]

699

Z. Burzi, S. Sedmak, M. Manjgo, The application

of fracture mechanics in welded joint properties
assessment, RIM 2001, Biha, (2001), p 451-460.
EN 288-3, Quality assurance in welding, Belgrade,
(1996).
A. Sedmak, "Primena mehanike loma na integritet
konstrukcije", Monografija, Mainski fakultet,
Beograd, 2003.
S. Sedmak, A. Sedmak, Integrity of Penstcok of
Hydroelectric Powerplant, Structural Integrity and
Life, Vol.5, No2, 2005, pp. 59-70.
E.O. Argoub, A. Sedmak, M.A. Esasamei,
Structural Integrity Assessment of Welded Plate
with a Crack, Structural Integrity and Life, Vol.4,
No1, 2004, pp. 39-46.
M. Burzi, Z. Burzi, J. Kurai, The prediction of
residual life of reactors in RNP, CertLab Panevo,
(2006).
BS 7448., "Fracture mechanics toughness tests.
Part 1. Method for determination of KIc critical
CTOD and critical J values of metallic materials",
BSI, 1991.
ASTM E1152-02, "Standard Test Method for
Determining J-R Curve" Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Vol. 04.01. p. 724, 2002.
M. Burzi, PhD Thesis, University of Novi Sad,
Department of Technical Faculty, Serbia, 2007.
ASTM E647, Standard Test Method for ConstantLoad-Amplitude Fatigue Crack Growth Rates
Above 10-8 m/cycle, Annual Book of ASTM
Standards (1995), Vol. 03. 01, p 714.
P.C. Paris, and F. Erdogan A Critical Analysis of
Crack Propagation Laws, Trans. ASME, Journal
Basic Eng., Vol. 85, No. 4, p. 528.
M. Burzi, Z. Burzi, J. Kurai, D. Gao, Fatigue
Behaviour of Alloyed Steel for High Temperature,
First Serbian (26th YU) Congress on Theoretical
and Applied Mechanics, Kopaonik, Serbia, (2007),
p 1085-1090.

THE IMPACT OF THE TYPE AND MODE OF GLASS FIBERS STACKING

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
MIRZET BEGANOVI
Regeneracija, Ltd., Velika Kladua , mirzet.beganovic@regeneracija.ba
SRA PERKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Beograd, srdja.perkovic@vti.vs.rs
FADIL ISLAMOVI
Faculty of Technical engineering Biha, University in Biha, f.islam@bih.net.ba
BURZI ZIJAH
Military Technical Institute, Beograd, zijah.burzic@vti.vs.rs
DENANA GAO
Faculty of Technical engineering Biha, University in Biha, dzgaco@bih.net.ba

Abstract: The paper presents the impact of the type and mode of stacking glass fibers on the mechanical properties of
structural composite materials. The aim of this paper is to describe the dependence of the mechanical properties of
composite materials from the standpoint of the use of glass reinforcement and the orientation of the fibers in the
composite. Short and long glass fibers were used, as well as three types of stacking glass reinforcement. Detailed
mechanical testing should point out that, with the appropriate type and orientation of the glass fibers, composite
products for different loads can be successfully selected.
Keywords: composite materials, short fibers, long fibers, stacking glass fibers, mechanical properties.
To create mat with stacking 0/90 and 45 we used long
glass fibers-E glass (roving). Basic properties of used
roving are given in Table 2.

1. INTRODUCTION
Practical application of new construction materials should
be preceded by a detailed study of their mechanical and
exploitation properties, so that the safety of construction
parts, and thus the structure as a whole, is fully ensured at
the level of already achieved safety, or even improved [1].

Table 1 Tensile properties of mat with short fibers

Property
Method
Value
ISO3268/
Tensile strength, MPa
108
DIN 53455
ISO3268/
Strain, %
1,8
DIN 53455
ISO3268/
Tensile modulus of
7800
elasticity, MPa
DIN 53455

Static mechanical characteristics serve as the initial data

on the applicability of composite materials based on glass
fibers as reinforcements and polymer resin as matrix. This
primarily refers to the tensile properties and
characteristics to the pressure.

2. MATERIAL
For construction of composite glass fibers polyester
resin, we used polyester resin as matrix and the long and
short glass fibers as reinforcement [2]. The composite
short glass fibers - polyester resin was prepared by
dispersed short glass fiber (E-glass) in polyester resin, socalled mat fabric. Nominal weight of the composite - mat
was 450 g/m2. This mat presents a great reinforcement of
unsaturated polyester resins for manual lamination.
Tensile properties of used mat fabric are given in Table 1,
whereas the layout of used mat is given in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Short glass fibers-mat

700

Table 4 Properties of resin in delivery form [3]

Table 2 Mechanical properties of direct roving [3]

Properties
Value
Resin
Tensile strength, MPa
2345
Polyester
79794
Polyester
Tensile modulus of
elasticity, MPa
Shear strength
63
EP

Acid number
Brookfield RVT/25C
sp.2/5rpm
sp.2/50rpm
Appearance
Ind. thix
Styrene content
Stability /250C

The layout of used roving is given in Figure 2.

mg KOH/g

19-25

mPas

1300-1700
450-600
Blue-greenish
2-3
40-45
3

%
months

Table 5 Mechanical properties of hardened resin [3]

Properties
Value
Bending strength, MPa
50
Tensile modulus of elasticity, MPa
3800
Strain, %
1,5
Hardness
42
Volume contraction, %
8,3
The influence of type and method of stacking glass fibers
on the mechanical properties of structural composite
material was conducted for three types of composite
materials:
short fibers mark A (mat - 450 g/m2),
directed fibers mark B (0 and 90 - 600 g/m2), and

Figure 2 Direct roving

directed fibers mark C ( 45 - 600 g/m2).

The fabric is made of direct roving type 1200 tex, with

stacking 0/90 and 45, with nominal weight of 600
g/m2. Technical data of the used fabric is given in
Table 3, whereas the layout of used fabric is given in
Figure 3.

3. TENSILE TESTING
Tensile testing of specimens was conducted according to
standard ASTM D 3039-03 [4] on specimens whose
geometry is given in Figures 4 to 6.

Table 3 Technical data of roving fabric

Thread
1200 5% tex E- glass
Weft
1200 5% tex E- glass
Final material
600 g/m2 5%

Figure 4 Specimen type A-1

Figure 3 Direct roving knitted in roving fabric

For matrix we selected polyester orthophthalic resin
CHROMOPLAST GP 2000/9W which presents [3]:
Unsaturated polyester resin based on orthophthalic

Figure 5 Specimen type B-1

Medium reactive with good water resistance.

It is primarily intended for making vessels and general
application with spraying or manual application
procedure.
The basic characteristics of the resin in the delivery form
are given in Table 4, whereas the mechanical properties
are in Table 5.

Figure 6 Specimen type C-1

701

0
2
3
0
8
2

Tensile testing was conducted on servo-hydraulic testing

machine, Fig. 7, using hydraulic jaws.

B-1-6

0
4
2
0
0
2
0
6
1

a
P
M
,
s
s
e
r
t
S

0
2
1
0
8
0
4
0
0
.
3

5
.
2

0
.
2

r
t
S

,
5 n
.
i
1
a

0
.
1

5
.
0

0
.
0

Figure 7 Testing equipment

Figure 9 Stress-strain diagram of the specimen B-1-6

P
Rm1 = max 1
bd

0
0
1

Tensile strength Rm1 of composite is calculated according

to the equation [4]:

C-1-6

(1)
0
8

(2)

%
,

r
t
S

3 n
i
a

wherein the ratio P1/1 was determined by linear

regression method of the rectilinear parts of stress-strain
curves.

Figure 10 Stress-strain diagram of the specimen C-1-6

Figures 8 to 10 show typical stress-strain diagrams

obtained by testing specimens from groups A1, B1 and
C1. Summary results are given in Tables 6 to 8. As can be
noticed, best mechanical properties are of specimen type
B-1 which was expected, since the structure of the
reinforcement is directed (0 and 90) so that the load is
carried in the direction of the fibers, i.e. in the 0
direction.
0
0
2

Table 6 Results of testing specimen group A-1

Tensile
Modulus of
Specimen
Strain
strength
elasticity
mark
[%]
[MPa]
[MPa]
A-1-6
2,0
139,5
6558,1
A-1-7
2,2
139,2
6210,9
A-1-8
2,0
150,9
6548,9
A-1-9
2,0
134,9
6167,2
A-1-10
1,8
133,9
5948,3
Mean value
2,0
139,6
6286,68

A-1-6
0
6
1

Table 7 Results of testing specimen group B-1

Tensile
Modulus of
Specimen
Strain
strength
elasticity
mark
[%]
[MPa]
[MPa]
B-1-6
1,9
299,0
16797
B-1-7
2,1
310,8
17236
B-1-8
1,9
333,2
17688
B-1-9
1,7
309,9
16645
B-1-10
1,7
296,1
16812
Mean value
1,8
309,8
17035,6

0
2
1
0
8

a
P
M
,
s
s
e
r
t
S

R P1
1
=
=
1 b d

E1 =

0
2

Modulus of elasticity E1 of composite specimens was

calculated with the following expression [4]:

0
4

a
P
M
,
s
s
e
r
t
S

0
6

wherein stands:
- tensile strength, MPa;
Rm1
- maximum testing force, kN;
Pmax1
b
- specimen width, mm; and
d
- specimen thickness, mm.

0
4
0
0
.
3

5
.
2

0
.
2

r
t
S

,
5 n
.
i
1
a

0
.
1

5
.
0

0
.
0

Figure 8 Stress-strain diagram of the specimen A-1-6

702

Table 8 Results of testing specimen group C-1

Specimen
mark

Strain
[%]

C-1-6
C-1-7
C-1-8
C-1-9
C-1-10
Mean value

5,3
5,6
3,5
5,1
3,9
4,6

Tensile
strength
[MPa]
67,7
67,3
68,1
60,3
66,8
66,0

Strength modulus of elasticity, E1c of composite specimens

was calculated with the following expression [5]:

Modulus of
elasticity
[MPa]
7457,1
6682,5
8493,9
6616,7
7737,7
7397,5

E1c =

Rc Pc1
1
=
=
c
c b d

(4)

wherein the ratio P/c was determined by linear regression

method of the rectilinear parts of stress-strain curves.

0
8
1

Figures 14 to 16 show typical stress-strain diagrams

obtained by testing specimens from groups A2, B2 and
C2. Summary results are given in Tables 9 to 11.

4. PRESSURE TESTING

A - 2 - 19
0
5
1

Pressure testing was conducted according to Standard ASTM

D3410 [5] on specimens whose geometry is given in Figures
11 to 13. The testing was also conducted on servo-hydraulic
testing machine, Figure 7, using hydraulic jaws.

0
2
1
0
9
0
6

a
P
M
,
s
s
e
r
t
S

0
3
0
0
.
2

6
.
1

2
.
1

8
.
0

4
.
0

0
.
0

%
,
n
i
a
r
t
S

Figure 14 Stress-strain diagram of the specimen A-2-19

0
8
1

Figure 11 Specimen type A-2

B - 2 - 19
0
5
1
0
2
1
0
9
0
6

a
P
M
,
s
s
e
r
t
S

0
3

Figure 12. Specimen type B-2

0
0
.
2

6
.
1

2
.
1

8
.
0

4
.
0

0
.
0

%
,
n
i
a
r
t
S

Figure 15 Stress- strain diagram of the specimen B-2-19

0
6

C - 2 - 15
0
5
0
4

(3)

0
1

P
Rc1 = max c1
bd

0
2

Pressure strength, Rc1 of composites is calculated

according to the equation [5]:

0
3

a
P
M
,
s
s
e
r
t
S

Figure 13 Specimen type C-2

Wherein stands:
- compression strength, MPa;
Rc1
- maximum force, kN;
Pmaxc1
b
- specimen width, mm; and
d
- specimen thickness, mm.

0
.
2

6
.
1

2
.
1

8
.
0

4
.
0

0
.
0

%
,
n
i
a
r
t
S

Figure 16 Stress- strain diagram of the specimen C-2-15

703

Table 9 Results of testing specimen group A-2

Strength
Compressive
modulus of
Specimen
Strain
strength
mark
[mm]
elasticity
[MPa]
[MPa]
A-2-15
1,07
80,95
7765,5
A-2-16
0,83
84,56
10141,3
A-2-17
1,25
81,15
10920,4
A-2-18
0,98
83,10
8401,2
A-2-19
1,06
117,55
11082,5
Mean value
1,038
89,462
9662,18

5. CONCLUSION

Table 10 Results of testing specimen group B-2

Strength
Compressive
Specimen
Strain
modulus of
strength
mark
[mm]
elasticity
[MPa]
[MPa]
B-2-15
0,61
132,24
21563,9
B-2-16
0,76
142,67
18691,8
B-2-17
0,67
139,10
21632,0
B-2-18
0,71
146,02
20289,7
B-2-19
0,75
157,78
20859,6
Mean value
0,7
143,562
20607,4

In addition, due to the interference of fibers and different

stress distribution along the axis of the fibers, the fibers
are not loaded equally. The result is a different time of
fiber cracking, i.e. some fibers are cracking at lower loads
and some at higher loads. Fibers which crack early cause
a disruption in the fracture area, i.e. local shear stress
occurs along the cracked fibers. These are usually fibers
that are directly connected to the fibers with opposite
direction (orientation 90).

The results of determining the tensile and compression

properties of the composites indicate that depending on
the type of composite reinforcement and direction of
stacking glass fiber designers could define different
mechanical properties of the final composite, depending
on the needs of the projected product.
Slight scattering of individual results can be explained
with the selected technology of testing material
development (manual procedure).

REFERENCES
[1] Product information, M705, Chopped Strand Mat for
Hand Lay-up, 06-2008.
[2] Chromoplast GP2000/9W, SB - 06 / 07.
[3] Product features, Direct Rowing, 2010.
[4] ASTM D3039/D 3039M-00, Standard Test Method
for Tensile Properties of Polymer Matrix Composite
Materials, 2002.
[5] ASTM D 3410/D 3410-03, Standard Test Method for
Compressive Properties of Polymer Matrix
Composite Materials with Unsupported Gage
Section by Shear Loading, 2003.

Table 11 Results of testing specimen group C-2

Strength
Compressive
Specimen
Strain
modulus of
strength
mark
[mm]
elasticity
[MPa]
[MPa]
C-2-13
0,80
61,32
7619,7
C-2-14
0,83
58,19
7000,7
C-2-15
0,81
55,60
6855,2
C-2-16
0,83
64,83
7742,2
C-2-17
0,91
59,39
6516,1
Mean value
0,836
59,866
7146,78

704

QUANTITATIVE TESTING OF THE DEFECTS IN ALUMINUM PLATES

USING PULSED THERMOGRAPHY
LJUBIA TOMI
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, ljubisa.tomic@gmail.com
VESNA DAMNJANOVI
Faculty of Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade, damnjanovic@rgf.bg.ac.rs
GORAN DIKI
Military Academy, University of Defence in Belgrade, goran.dikic@mod.gov.rs
BOJAN MILANOVI
Military Academy, University of Defence in Belgrade, bojan.milanovic@va.mod.gov.rs
BOBAN BONDULI
Military Academy, University of Defence in Belgrade, bondzulici@yahoo.com

Abstract: This paper presents the results of nondestructive aluminum test samples testing using active pulse infrared
thermography technique. Test samples, contain inside grooves of different widths at different depths, as testing defects.
Subsurface defects detection and analysis were performed by comparing experimental results to results of simulation.
Keywords: Non-destructive testing, pulsed thermography, thermal camera, thermal image, numerical simulation

1. INTRODUCTION

monitoring of the vital parameters of the system activities,

by recording surface temperature changes of critical parts.

Because of widespread area of application, since its

beginning, in 1961, large attention was given to pulsed
thermography [1,2].

Development of IR thermography is accelerated by

continuous improvement of the characteristics of IR
cameras, especially with improvements of obtaining
better temperature resolution and higher speeds to
generate IR images (thermograms). Modern thermal
imaging cameras are fast infrared detectors capable to
capture real-time dynamic temperature fluctuations that
are common in pulsed defectoscopy. Until a few years
ago, infrared cameras were mainly used for quality
inspection applications involving observation of thermal
distribution in a stationary mode for applications with the
simplified one-dimensional model of heat flow. The use
of quantitative thermal method in conjunction with the
progress of image processing opens the increasing
opportunities for contactless inspection in the industry.

Today, active pulsed thermography is used as

nondestructive technique for testing and evaluation of
defects in material (NDT&E Nondestructive Testing
and Evaluation). This technique uses external energy
source, which provides temperature difference between
non-defect area and area above defects. Temperature
difference is later used for quantitative thermal scanning
of surface [3-5]. Active pulsed thermography NDT&E is
widely used in military and transportation industry for
material testing [6]. In construction industry, up to few
years ago, infrared thermography (IRT) has been used as
passive method for examination of building thermal
isolation quality [7]. ASTM standard published in 1988,
defines passive infrared thermography as standard method
[8,9] for determination of boat deck joint disintegration.
Further, active approach, of infrared thermography, by
using energy of the Sun, as a natural heat source, is
widely used for bridge and asphalt inspection [3].

Pulsed, non-destructive testing methods may be used to

check the quality of building materials by detection of
subsurface inhomogeneity (testing of defects in materials,
for example aluminum, which is a common component of
profiles used for window) and determination of their
geometrical parameters [6,7,10-12,13].

Because of contactless measurement nature, infrared

thermography is almost inevitable in a system monitoring
equipment in the production process, with risky working
conditions. Thermography is useful there for on-line

Results presented in this paper were obtained by warming

the surface of the aluminum test plate (TP) and recording
temperature response. Pulse-heating was provided by
705

light beam, which had caused unsteady heat distribution

in the examined material. Since the heat diffusion process,
depends on the physical characteristics of the material
such as thermal conductivity, specific heat, and the
capacitance density, the heat was evenly spread only in a
homogenous areas. When there is inhomogeneity in the
structure of the material, the heat flow will either slow
down or speed up. By monitoring the temperature
distribution on the surface of TP in time, thermal imaging
camera will detect subsurface defects (provided that the
temperature difference is above the threshold of its
sensitivity). In this paper results obtained by originally
developed numerical code are also presented.

Picture 2: The position of thermal imaging camera FLIR

SC620 in measuring the surface temperature of the test
plate
Thermal imaging camera was positioned in front of the
aluminum test plate. Picture 2 shows the thermal camera
and thermal image on its display (thermogram TP). For
optimal sharpness IR image of TP, manually zooming
was first performed and setting of the following recording
parameters: ambient temperature, emissivity, distance,
humidity, etc.

2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Apparatus for measurement of pulse thermography
contains heat source for heating, a thermal imaging
camera and a computer that registers digital data in real
time. Unit of heat sources comprises of two photographic
flashes (BOWENS BW-3955 Gemini R&Pro). The
heating process is usually carried out by positioning
dynamic photographic flash at a distance approximately
equal to 28cm, to allow the best homogeneous heating of
the surface. Computer-controlled synchronization allows
simultaneous triggering of two pulsed light sources flashes. The optimal position of photographic flash is
when it lie at an angle of 45 with respect to the normal of
the surface which is heated. Their vertically movement
was also available.

Important parameters in the collection of the image base,

made by thermal imaging camera are: temperature,
emissivity and reflectivity of the object, the atmospheric
temperature, relative humidity and the distance of the
object from the thermal imaging camera.
Measurements, the results which are presented in this
paper, were performed at short distances, approximately
50cm, so that the distance as a parameter does not have a
large impact. Temperature and emissivity of the object
were estimated by thermal imaging camera.
Typical defects in construction materials, which are made
of aluminum plates, are cavities cracks and serials of
cracks. In order to study these defects, test samples
(aluminum panels) were specifically designed, with
dimensions 50mm 30mm 2mm containing a series of
grooves that contain cavities of different sizes (15mm
4mm 0.5mm, 15mm 4mm 1.0mm and 15mm
4mm 1.5mm), as shown in picture 1. Series of
measurements were provided with these TP-containing
grooves of different depth and width.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

To minimize reflections, the surface of aluminum plate
was anodized with black matte paint. After the
anodization, dimensions of the defect were measured with
micrometer IP40 ORION which has accuracy of
0.001mm and with nonius KERN which has accuracy of
0.01mm.

Picture 1: Sketch of aluminum test plate with central red

line that is perpendicular to the grooves along which the
temperature values were read from the thermogram
The process of the surface cooling was recorded by a
thermal imaging camera that detects infrared radiation
emitted by surface of aluminum test plate. To form a base
of thermal images, "FLIR SC620" camera is used, which
contains an uncooled micro bolometer detector and
standard optics 2418 and is designed to work in the
wavelength range of 7.5m - 13m. The camera has a
focal matrix in the focal plane of 640480 semiconductor
detectors (VOx). Each detector measures intensity of the
infrared radiation. These values can be represented on the
screen as thermal images, coded in gray or color scales,
and can be converted to temperature values using the
appropriate table.

Defect dimensions are listed in table 1, respectively: the

nominal and measured width w and wm; nominal and
measured thickness of aluminum panels D and Dm;
nominal and measured defect depth d and dm. The results
of measuring the maximum temperature difference Tmax,
and the time of clear visible defect tTmax after 26.92ms
are shown in table 1 and table 2.
For comparison, in table 2 are listed values of the
maximum temperature difference for the nominal and
measured depth of the defect with constant value of the
defect width w = 4mm.
706

Table 1: Maximum temperature difference and time of

clearly visible defects of different widths
TP
w
wm
Dm
Tmax
tTmax
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(C)
(ms)
13
4
3.962
1.953
0.735
10.86
14
3
2.939
1.952
0.589
7.756
15
2.5
2.471
1.949
0.519
6.755
16
2
1.952
1.949
0.437
5.755
17
1.5
1.446
1.957
0.338
4.754
18
1
0.978
1.967
0.095
2.952

homogeneous). Selected curves of temperature change for

the area 5 above defects, and defect-free area 9, were
compared and their difference is shown (red line in
picture 4).
During measurement, thermal images are transmitted to
the computer with maximum frequency of 120Hz and
with 14 bits of memory for each pixel. After recording
into the computer, by using special programs, thermal
images can be used for subsequent data analysis in real
time.

Table 2: Maximum temperature difference and time of

clearly visible defects of different depths
TP
d
dm
Tmax
tTmax
(mm)
(mm)
(C)
(ms)
0.443
1.12
1.445

0.735
0.174
0.083

26.92
32.18
34.58

1,5

0,4

1,0
0,2
0,5

The values of both depths do not correspond to any

particular defect. The real depth dm is the mean value
determined by measuring the depth of defects (test plates
from table 2, six defects). During the process of making
the grooves of rectangular shape, there was a deviation of
real and nominal depth values. Variation of depth of the
defects is a potential source of noise in the thermogram
and uneven maximum temperature profile along the
center line shown in picture 1. Detection of defects in
aluminum plates with a thickness of Dm = 1.949mm to Dm
= 1.967mm is the most successfully made for the
shallowest defect width wm = 1.952mm.

0,0

0,6

Between two defects

Temperature difference

Temperature difference T ( C)

0.5
1.0
1.5

Above defect

2,0
Temperature T (oC)

13
7
1

2,5

0,0
0,0

33,3

66,6

100,0

133,3

166,6

199,9

Time t (ms)

Picture 4: Temperature as a function of time for selected

areas 5 and 9 (picture 3) and their difference curve with a
maximum temperature difference
Picture 5 represents the thermogram of the 70th frame,
selected from a series of measurements in a recorded
sequence NEW0014.SEQ. Thermogram shown in picture
5 is taken at 16.66ms from the start of heating. Picture 5
shows defects 4 mm and 6 mm width at the same depth.

Picture 3 represents the thermogram of 33rd frame,

selected from a series of measurements in a recorded
sequence NEW0073.SEQ. Total duration of the sequences
before and after the heating of a light pulse is 1474.41ms.
Thermogram shown in picture 3 is taken at 24.99ms from
the start of heating. Shallow defects that are visible on the
thermogram (picture 3) after a short time after cooling by
the internal diffusion have well visible outlines.

Picture 5: Thermogram recorded 16.66ms after warming

by light pulses
Temperature difference between and above the defect is
described by equation:

T (t ) = Td (t ) Tsa (t ),

Picture 3: Thermogram recorded 24.99ms after warming

by light pulses

(1)

where: Td(t) is temperature above defect and Tsa(t) is

temperature between two defects above homogeneous
material of the plate.

The experiment showed that for TP with deeper defects,

takes much longer time for the appearance of clear
contours.

4. SIMULATION

The main approach to the analysis of taken thermograms,

is to monitor the surface temperature as the function of
the cooling time (picture 4) for selected areas (defects 1,
2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, which are non-homogeneous and the
defects in between 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 which are

Simulation was performed with finite difference method

code, which is suitable for rectangular geometry of TP.
Numerical calculations based on the finite difference time
domain (FDTD) have been implemented for better
707

interpretation of the experimental data obtained by pulsed

thermography technique for determining the depth of the
defect (the so-called inverse problem solving).

parameters have to be known because their impact cannot

be easily calculated.
The main impact of the change in the maximum value of
the temperature difference Tmax and the time achieving it
tTmax has a warm-up time and the depth of the defect. As
the start up time is not known, time of start frame should
be determined first.

Numerical code was developed in the MATLAB

R2008a for solving the problem of heat conduction in the
sample with intentionally generated defects in the form of
a periodic structure of rectangular grooves. Due to the
symmetry of the periodic structure, and the defective and
non-defective area, one cell model is used with a defect in
the center. The geometry of the cell model is shown in
picture 4 of the paper [6].

Temperature difference (K)

0.8

Numerical simulation of the pulse heating of the sample

surface was exponential shape. The light pulses of the
exponential shape in time and the calculation of the heat
flow within the sample is described in [2, 3, 8]. Surface
losses are not taken into account during the whole process
of internal cooling by diffusion. The result of the
simulation is a series of data, which contains the
temperature distribution of the surface nodes at a given
point in time (for heating and cooling).

0.6

w = 4 mm
w = 2.8 mm
w = 2.4 mm
w = 2 mm
w = 1.6 mm
w = 0.8 mm

0.4

0.2

0
0

tmax = 26.92 (ms)

10
Time (ms)

15

20

Picture 7: Simulated temperature differences for different

widths of the defect. Start of the light pulse was to = 0ms.
Widths of the defect correspond to the measured widths
of the grooves in the aluminum plate. The nominal depth
of the defect is a constant d = 0.5mm

0.6
Defect depth = 0.443 mm
Defect depth = 1.120 mm
Defect depth = 1.445 mm

0.4

0.8
Maximum value of temperature
o
difference T max ( C)

Temperature difference (K)

0.8

tmax = 10.86 (ms)

0.2

0
0

25

50

75
Time (ms)

100

125

150

Picture 6: Simulated temperature differences for different

depths of the defect. Light pulses fleshes upon to = 16ms
from the beginning of the process. Depths of defects
correspond to the measured depths of the grooves in the
aluminum plate. The nominal width of the defect is
constant w = 4mm

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

Defect depth d (mm)

Picture 8: Thermogram recorded 24.99 [ms] after

warming by light the maximum temperature difference
Tmax as a function of the depth of the defect in the
aluminum plate. The nominal width of the defect is
constant w = 4mm

For comparison of experimental results and numerical

simulation results obtained in the same period of time and
for the same heating conditions, the depth of the defect
was varied from 0.25mm to 1.75mm. Picture 6 shows the
temperature difference curve obtained by numerical
simulation of the depth of the defect (table 2), for the
same conditions of light pulse heating.

Another factor that significantly affects the temperature

difference, which makes it difficult to compare the
simulated and measured values, is the fact that the start of
a light warm-up and start frame used thermal imaging
camera commercial type are not synchronized, which
creates additional difficulties. That is why we made the fit
and the experimental points and numerical curves of
temperature differences. By using criterion minimum
value of the difference of squares, we calculated the
optimal values of displacement along the timeline and
reinforcements along the axis of maximum values of
temperature difference. Thus, obtained theoretical curve
enables the definition of the conditions for obtaining the
maximum value of the temperature difference as a

By varying ambient temperature and measurement

parameters (depth and width of the defect), we
determined the impact of individual parameters on the
measurement results. Our aim was to determine the
maximum value of temperature difference Tmax
depending on the time achieving it tTmax as a function of
changes in the width and depth of the defect. Variation in
ambient temperature has no influence on the change of
Tmax and tTmax. The amount of heat to be transferred by
the light pulse has influence on Tmax linear change, but
does not change tTmax. Surface losses and material
708

function of depth of the defect in the same conditions.

& Sons, New York, USA, 2001.

[2] Tomi,Lj.,
Elazar,J.,
Milanovi,B.:
Maximal
Temperature Difference determination in Pulse
Infrared Thermography by Fitting Experimental
Results with Numerical Simulation Curve, Proc.
Book of Abstr., III Conference, Photonica2011,
Belgrade, Serbia, 6-7 October, (2011) pp. 66.
[3] Tomi,D.Lj.: Nondestructive evaluation of the
thermophysics properties materials by IR
thermography, Ph.D. dissertation, School of
Electrical Engineering, University of Belgrade,
Belgrade, Serbia, 2012.
[4] Tomi,Lj., Elazar,J., Damnjanovi,V., Milanovi,B.:
Defect detection in Aluminum using Pulse
Thermography for a sample width Periodic
Structure, Proc. Book of Abstr., 3rd ICOM, Belgrade,
Serbia, 3-6 September, (2012) pp. 262.
[5] Tomi,Lj., Elazar,J., Milanovi,B.: The influence of
subsurface defects in material on differencies in
numerical and experimental detection results,
applying pulse thermography, Proc. Abstr. 3rd
Conference MediNano 3, Belgrade, Serbia, 18-19
October, (2010) pp. 77.
[6] Tomi,Lj., Elazar,J., Milanovi,B.: Temperature field
numerical simulation in pulse radiometric
defectoscopy, Proc. 54th ETRAN Conference, Donji
Milanovac, Serbia, 7-10 June, (2010) pp. MO1.5-14.
[7] Maierhofer,Ch.,
Brink,A.,
Rlling,M.,
Wiggenhauser,H.: Transient thermography for
structural investigation of concrete and composites
in the near surface region, Infrared Physics and
Technology, vol. 43, (2002) pp. 271-278.
[8] Darabi,A.: Detection and Estimation of Defect Depth
in Infrared Thermography Using Artificial Networks
and Fuzzy Logic, Ph.D. dissertation, Universit
Laval, Qubec, Canada, 2000.
[9] Standard Test Method for Detecting Delamination in
Bridge Decks Using Infrared Thermography, ASTM
standard, D4788-88, 1997.
[10] Lopez,F.,
Ibarra-Castanedo,C.,
Maldague,X.,
Niculau,VdeP.: Analysis of signal processing
techniques in Pulsed Thermography, Proc. of SPIE,
Vol.8705 87050-1W (2013) 1-10.
[11] Sharath,D., Menaka,M., Venkatraman,B.: Effect of
defect size on defect depth quantification in pulsed
thermography,
Measurement
Science
and
Technology, 24 (2013) 125205 7pp.
[12] Gleiter,A., Spiessberger,C., Busse,G.: Decay time
analysis in pulse thermography, The European
Physical Journal Special Topics, 153 (2008) 377381.
[13] Tomi,Lj., Livada,B., Senani,M.: Primena
impulsne
video-termografije
za
detekciju
potpovrinskih defekata u aluminijumu, Proc. 45th
ETRAN
Conference,
Bukovika
Banja,
Arandjelovac, Serbia, 4-7 June

In analogy with the example of variation of the depth of

the defect, same procedure is performed for a second
series of measurements, but this time by varying the width
of the defect, and those results are shown in picture 7.
Results of measuring the width of the grooves wm for this
analysis are shown in table 1.
Picture 8 shows the dependence curve of maximum
temperature difference Tmax on the depth of the defect
obtained by the inverse procedure under the same
experimental conditions by using numerical simulation.
The values of the depth of the defect obtained by
measuring the dm depth of the groove in the TP were used
to calculate the maximum temperature difference listed in
table 2.
For deeper defects maximum value of the temperature
difference Tmax decreases by an exponential law below
the temperature sensitivity of the method applied.

5. CONCLUSIONS
Active pulse infrared thermography can be successfully
used for nondestructive testing of materials and
construction engineering. Locating defects in aluminum
with dimensions up to 1.5mm were performed
successively. Research suggests that pulsed thermography
method can be successfully used for the detection of
subsurface defects in the aluminum plate to a depth which
is approximately equal to a quarter of its thickness,
provided that the width of the defect is greater than or
equal to its thickness.
In addition to being non-destructive and contactless, the
method is fast and efficient because it gives a direct
surface image. It is suitable because it can carry out a
quantitative analysis of the experimental data.
In order to determine the influences of material
parameters and determine the actual depth of the defects,
numerical simulation and the comparison of simulation
results with experimental data (inverse problem) are
necessary.
The method may also be applied for detecting
delamination of the surface layers (for example: to the
mortar and the concrete wall, a carbon fiber, a laminate of
the concrete), as well as for locating the increased
moisture in the surface areas.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We express our full appreciation to associate professor
Ph.D. Slobodan Petrievi from Faculty of Electrical
Engineering in Belgrade for useful suggestions in
synchronization of light pulses.

REFERENCES
[1] Maldague,X.P.V.: Theory and Practice of Infrared
Technology for Nondestructive Testing, John Wiley

709

DEPENDENCE OF RADIONUCLIDE IN SOIL SAMPLES IN THE CITY

AREA BELGRADE
NATAA PAJI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, natasa.pajic@eunet.rs
TATJANA MARKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, tanjin.mejl@gmail.com

Abstract: The paper presents the results of monitoring radioactivity of soil samples in the territory Belgrade. The
dependence of the concentration activity of 238U, 235U, 232Th, and 137Cs on 40K concentration activity in soil samples is
presented in this paper. According to the more than 30 measured samples it can be concluded that linear dependence
between natural isotopes was observed.
Keywords: radionuclide, soil, linear dependence, monitoring, concentration.
program (Gammavision 6.1), and the environmental
gamma background at the laboratory site has been
determined with an empty Marinelli beaker under
identical measurement conditions.

1. INTRODUCTION
The natural radioactivity is an integral part of the
environment, air, food and other living organisms.
Exposure to natural radiation is therefore constant and
inevitable feature of life on Earth. Types and levels of
exposure are determined by radiation originating. [3]

It has been later subtracted from the measured gamma-ray

spectra of each sample. After 40 days, the gamma
spectral analysis of all the soil samples was carried out.

The main objective of this monitoring is to provide data

on the of radioactivity of the urban environment of
Belgrade, as well as impact of of environmental
pollutants.

Gamma spectrometric analysis of samples were

performed using standard methods ISO 185892,3,4 After
determining the particle size distribution (size of
granules), screening was performed on standard
sieves. Aggregate was a grained grinding mills in the
standard grain size of 0.8 mm, homogenized, placed in a
Marinelli container of 1000 ml and sealed in order to
establish equilibrium of radioactivity between members of
the series. When the equilibrium is established, activities
of radionuclides from the serias are the same which
means that the concentration of individual radionuclides
can be determined by measuring the activity of any
member of the seria.

In all samples of soil, irrespective of the origin can be

detected with a specific activity that is associated with a
natural and artificial radionuclide. Total activity comes
from natural radionuclide and their participation in a
series of long-lived isotopes 238U, 235U and 232Th. [3]
The appearance of radioactivity in the earth's crust
caused by the deposition of solid particles. [4]

2. SAMPLES AND METHOD

The mentioned radionuclide identification methods are

compliant with the international ISO and ASTM
standards and the recommendations of the International
Atomic Energy Agency, the International Commission on
Radiological Protection.

Natural radioactivity of the environment is associated

with external exposure due to gamma radiation and
depends on the geological conditions.[4]
Radionuclide cesium and strontium are due to land in
dissolved form. After of contamination the earth's crust, it
was found that the total participation of 90 Sr in the soil
layer thickness of 0-5 cm is 93% (average 85%), a thick
layer of 5-10 cmis 12%, and 10-25 cm, 3%.

These data indicate that strontium quickly binds in the

surface layers of soil.

3. SAMPLE PREPARATION

The samples of natural radionuclides from uranium and

thorium series and potassium 40 K were analysed with
gamma spectrometric methode.

If the area formed by mixing the various inorganic and

organic components, and their composition varies from
location to location, it is expected that the radioisotope
detected a wide range of sizes.[5]

The offline analysis of each measured gamma-ray

spectrum has been carried out by a dedicated software
710

Arable land is created by mixing the products of

mechanical disintegration of rocks with organic
components. The activities of some natural radioactive
elements in rocks, are well known and move in a rather
wide range of sizes, from basalt to syenite, as it can be
seen in Table 1.

55
50

U-238 [Bq/kg]

45

Different categories of land in the city of Belgrade and

their inorganic components mainly contain silicates
because they surfaced from the granite rocks.

40
35
30
25
20

Table 1: Activity contrencation of radionuclides in rocks

238

stone
basalt
syenite
granite

U
Bq/kg
5.3
102.0
59.7

232

Th
Bq/kg
6.5
69.2
87.5

15

40

K
Bq/kg
210
1400
1290

300

400

500

600

700

800

K-40 [Bq/kg]

Picture1: The dependence of the activity concentration

of 238U from 40K
70

4. ACTIVITY MEASUREMENTS
60

Th-23 2 [Bq/k g]

The activity measurment of radionuclides in the samples

was evaluated using semiconductor high resolution HPGe
detector, manufactured by "AMETEK-ORTEC," which
has the power decomposition resolution (FWHM) of 1.78
keV to 1332 keV and relative efficiency of 59.2%. The
detector is placed in lead protective cylinder with wall
thickness of 12 cm. The inner wall is lined with lead
protection of the copper layer thickness of 5 mm. A layer
of copper lowers the intensity of 46 keV line, which
comes from lead-based care, as well as the intensity of
fluorescent X rays of lead. The characteristic time of
measurement each sample was 100 000 s. Calibration of
the detector was performed using radioactive standards
Marinelli vessel of 1000 ml, type MBSS 2, from
Inspectorate for ionizing radiation Czech metrological
institute, whose silicone matrix resin in the presence of
radionuclides: 241Am, 109Cd, 57Co, 139Ce, 133b, 113Sn, 85Sr ,
137
Cs, 88Y, 54Mn. Analysis of spectra were performed on
the basis of present gamma lines using Gamma Vision
software package.

50

40

30

20
300

400

500

600

700

800

K-40 [Bq/kg]

Picture 2: The dependence of the activity concentration

of 232Th from 40K

20

Cs-137 [Bqkg]

15

The natural radioactivity of each sample was measured

using gamma-ray spectrometry. The gamma-energy lines
of 351.9, 609.3, 1120.3, and 1764.5 keV were used to
represent the 238U(226Ra) series, whereas 338.4, 583.1,
and 911.2 keV were used to represent the 232Th series.
Both 40K and the man-made 137Cs were investigated by
their gamma lines, 1460.8 and 661.6 keV, respectively.
[6]

10

300

400

500

600

700

800

K-40 [Bqkg]

Picture 3: The dependence of the activity concentration

of 137Cs from 40K

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Activity concentration of 235U in the measured samples
was an order of magnitude lower than the activity
concentration of 238U and 232Th so that its presence in
the soil is not specifically analyzed.

6. CONCLUSION
Measured activities conclude the growth activity of
232Th with increasing activity 40K.
Lower concentrations of radionuclides above mentioned
can be seen that there is a linear relationship, and it is
very similar to granite forms.
For lower values of activity concentration of these
isotopes can be noticed significant dispersion.
711

A similar relationship exists between the activity

concentration of 238U and 40K, only in this case dispersion
of the measured values significantly more pronounced.

REFERENCES
[1] Slivka J., onki Lj., Veskovi M., Krmar M.,
[2] BikitI.: Radioaktivnost ivotne sredine u Vojvodini,
Interna publikacija PMF Novi Sad, (1991)
[3] Zastawny, A., Kwasniewicz, E., Rabsztyn, B.,
Measurement of the 232Th, 238Uand 40K concentration
in some samples of ashes from power stations in
Poland, Nukleonika 24, 535
[4] Milovski A.V, Minerology and Petrography, Mir
Publishers, Moscow (1982))
[5] UNSCEAR (2000) Sources, effects and risks of
ionizing radiation United Nations Scientific
Committee on Effects of Atomic Report, United
Nations
[6] Foure G.: Principles of isotope geology, John Wiley
and Sons, New York, (1987
[7] Bikit I., Slivka J., Krmar M., onki Lj., Veskovi
M., uri ., iki N.: 3rd International Symposium
Regional Research, Contributed papers 143, (1998)

Obtained values are concordant with the published values

characteristic for the City of Belgrade and the surrounding
area. Measured radionuclide values are acceptable from
standpoint of radiation load of population.
Measured activities in all samples are consistent with
monitoring programs and regulations which are being
implemented in our country.
Knowing the concentration of radioactive particles in the
soil, whether natural or artificial origin according to
technological development, is essential to estimatte the
population exposure to radioactivity. The biggest
contribution to the collective doses of the world's
population are from natural radionuclides, and also the
radionuclides present in the soil can be used as a tracer for
studying tansport radionuclides through the environment.

712

APPLICATION OF THE RESRAD FAMILY CODES FOR HUMAN AND

ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS EVALUATION
TATJANA MARKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, tanjin.mejl@gmail.com
NATAA PAJI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, natasa.pajic@eunet.rs

Abstract: This paper presents the application of computer codes in evaluating doses and related risks to human health
and ecological systems resulting from radioactive contamination. These codes include the modeling of contaminants
transport in the environment with corresponding human exposure pathways. All significant exposure pathways for the
population group are considered in estimating the individual dose and risks from residual radioactive material in the
environment.
Keywords: radioactivity, doses, contaminant, exposure, environment.
and for uranium it is about 15 days. The aerosol from sites
contaminated with DU can potentially contaminate wide
areas around the impact sites, leading to possible
inhalation by humans[4].

1. INTRODUCTION
The RESRAD (acronym from RESidual RADioactivity)
model and computer code were developed by Argonne
National Laboratory as a multifunctional tool to assist in
developing cleanup criteria and estimating the dose and
risk associated with residual radioactive material [1[1].

2. THE RESRAD MODEL

The RESRAD considers all the critical pathways for
significant exposure of population group in assessing the
dose and risk associated with residual radioactive
material. These pathways include: external exposure from
contaminated soil, internal exposure from inhalation of
dust and radon, ingestion of contaminated plant, meat,
milk, fish, soil and contaminated water.

The code is a member of family which includes computer

codes for more specific evaluations of environmental
pollutants. For example, RESRAD-CHEM performs
environmental transport and risk analyses of hazardous
chemicals, RESRAD-BASELINE calculates doses and
risks from radionuclide and chemical concentrations
measured in environmental media, RESRAD-BUILD
calculates doses to persons inside structures from
radioactive materials etc. The RESRAD code is very
useful tool because of its adaptability to specific exposure
situations [2].

Radiation dose is defined as the effective dose equivalent

(EDE) from external radiation exposure and the
committed effective dose equivalent (CEDE) from
internal radiation. The total effective dose equivalent
(TEDE) is the sum of the external radiation EDE and the
internal radiation CEDE. The dose limit used as a basis in
developing cleanup criteria depends on the requirements
of the regulation and selection of the land use scenario.

This study was carried out to assess the radiological risk

related to hypothetic inhabitants who live on sites
contaminated by depleted uranium. Depleted uranium
(DU) is uranium with a lower content of the fissile isotope
U-235 than natural uranium. (Natural uranium is about
0.72% U-235the fissile isotope, and the DU used in
munitions contain less than 0.3% U-235). DU has very
high density of 19.1 g/cm3 (1.7 times that of lead) [3]3].

The basic criterion for releasing a site for use without

radiological restrictions is the dose limit:
HE (t) HEL , tr t th

The use of DU in munitions leads to potential long-term

health effects. Due its toxicity, the kidney, brain, liver,
heart, and other systems normal functioning can be
affected by uranium exposure. DU has a long radioactive
half-life (700 million years) and it is weakly radioactive
with an activity of around 40 kBq/g. The biological halflife is the average time which takes for the human body to
eliminate half the amount of radionuclides in the body

(1)

where
HE (t) is average annual TEDE received by a member of
the critical population group at time t,
HEL is basic dose limit (0.25 mSv/year),
tr is time at which the site is released for use following the
1 year or realize time,
713

th is time horizon (default value is 1000 year).

In the suburban resident scenario it is assumed that

municipal water is used for drinking but not for irrigation
purposes. A member of critical group eats plants growth
at contaminated area and meat from the live stock from a
nearby farm. Livestock fodder is produced on-site and all
irrigation for plants and drinking water for animals are
pumped from the aquifer that contains small amounts of
DU.

The time of origin or time 0 is the time at which a

radiological survey is performed. The value of 0.25
mSv/year is used by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC) as the general limit for soil cleanup or site
decontamination. The annual radiation dose which
receives a general public member from residual
radioactive material also should not exceed the dose
constraint of 0.25 mSv/year.

The farming scenario is similar to suburban resident

scenario, except that it includes the use of well water from
the contaminated area as the drinking water.
Concentration in water well is assumed as 0.04 Bq/g.

The pathway analysis for deriving soil concentration

guidelines from a dose limit includes:

(2) environmental transport analysis addresses the

problems of identifying environmental pathways by
which radionuclides can migrate from the source to a
human exposure location and determining the migration
rate along these pathways.
(3) dose or exposure analysis addresses the problem of
the derivation of dose conversion factors (DCFs) for the
radiation dose that will be incurred by exposure to
ionizing radiation.
(4) scenario analysis addresses patterns of human activity
referred to exposure.

3. THE RESRAD SCENARIOS

All three scenarios data for radiation doses from all

sources are shown in the Table 1. Annual dose is based on
CEDE and is shown for each year of the simulation.
Table 1: Total doses to humans
Dose for
Dose for suburban
Dose for farmer
recreationist
resident
(mSv))10-1
(mSv)10-3
(mSv)10-2
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
concentr. concentr. concentr. concentr. concentr. concent.
DU
DU
DU
DU
DU
DU
0
3.6
16
1.40
6.43
1.63
6.6
1
3.5
15
1.44
6.27
2.33
11.5
3
3.3
14
1.37
5.94
5.46
27.1
10
2
12
1.14
4.94
0.9
49
30
1.6
7
0.66
2
11.001
54
50
0.9
4
0. 3
1.63
11.01
54.9
100
0.2
0.7
0.07
0. 32
11
55.1
300 0.056
0. 2
0.05
0. 21 0.0096 0.005
500 0.06
0. 2
0.05
0. 22
0.01
0.005
1000 0.063
0. 2
0.06
0. 23
0.01
0.006
Year

(1) source analysis which addresses the problem of

deriving the source terms that determine the rate at which
residual radioactivity is released into the environment.
This rate is determined by the geometry of the
contaminated zone, the concentrations of the
radionuclides, d decay rates of the radionuclides and the
removal rate by erosion and leaching.

As expected, the total dose to humans under farming

scenario is significantly higher than in other scenarios.
The annual doses from all pathways exceed 1 mSv
between year 10 and year 100. Farming scenario
generates the highest human health risks, because of the
highest ingestion and exposure to contaminated soils,
food, and water and the recreationist scenario generates
the lowest risk because of minimal ingestion and
exposure.

Exposure scenarios are patterns of human activity that can

be affected by the release of radioactivity and the amount
of exposure received at the contaminated zone. This study
represents three variants of scenarios: suburban resident,
farmer and recreationist.
The contaminated area of 1 10-6 m2 was selected as a site
of impact. These three scenarios simulate potential future
use of the contaminated area and its effects on humans.
The input data, regarding characteristics area of interest,
were used from environmental report from Jefferson
Proving Ground, Indiana. The RESRAD model assumes
that the values of soil and water concentrations DU are
uniform across the area of contamination. DU
concentration in soil used in the code is assumed to be
0,08 Bq/g (low concentration) and 1,3 Bq/g (high
concentration)[5].

Total doses to humans from all sources are shown in

Figures 1 and 2. As shown in the Figure 2, the doses to
the farmer increase during the first hundred years, and
after that they decrease.

In the recreationist scenario contaminated site is

populated by temporary visitors like hikers, fishermen,
joggers or hunters, who spend there the maximum of 4
weeks per year. For this scenario a fewer exposure
pathways are taken into calculation. They eat food from
uncontaminated sites and use municipal water
(uncontaminated) for drink. Also, it is assumed that
recreationists sometimes eat meat (fish, deer, wild boar,
rabbit) from contaminated area and their inhalation rate is
higher than a resident farmer rate.

Figure 1: Total doses from low concentration DU

714

10
30
50
100
300
500
1000

2.6
1.5
0.85
0.16
0.02
0.02
0.02

12
7
4
0.8
0.01
0.01
0.01

1.1
0.6
0.4
0.06
0.02
0.02
0.17

19.2
20.7
20.7
20.8
0.001
0.002
0.002

33.3
37
37
37.2
0.02
0.02
0.03

165.9
184.3
185
185
0.01
0.01
0.01

Figure 3 illustrates the change in risk over 1000 years for

low concentration DU in soil. It is similar for high
concentration DU.

Figure 2: Total doses contributions from high

concentration DU

4. RISK CALCULATION
For the inhalation and ingestion pathways, the cancer
risks at a certain time point are calculated as the products
of intake rates, risk coefficients, and exposure duration.
Equation 2 is used to calculate the cancer risks as follows:
CR =

N
i =1

ETF j , p ( t ) SFi , j ( t ) Si ( 0 ) BRFi , j

(2)

RC j , p ED

Figure 3: Cancer risks vary in time

Farming scenario simulation shows annual detriments in
the 10-5 range at maximum soil and water concentrations.
These results suggest the importance of using accurate
soil and water concentrations and reasonable dust
loadings in order to provide better upper bounds on the
soil and water concentrations. The value USD in the
simulations was the value 2 10-4 g/m3.

where:
ETFj,p is environmental transport factor for radionuclide
j at time t (g/year) for pathway p, SFij(t) is source factor;
i,j are index of radionuclide (i for the initially existent
radionuclide and j for the radionuclides in the decay chain
of radionuclide i);

Slight increases in DU ingestion mainly through the

inhalation are the consequence of increased time on the
site. Large increases in doses to humans occurred when:
1) residents consumed meat and vegetables produced on
site; and 2) residents used water from contaminated well
for drinking. Doses to humans and related cancer risks
increased significantly also in the suburban scenario,
when livestock consumed contaminated water and food.
In these two scenarios the intensive use of the area of
interest is not recommended [6].

Si (0) is initial soil concentration of radionuclide i at time

0;
BRFij is a branching factor that is the fraction of the total
decay of radionuclide that results in the ingrowth of
radionuclide j;
RCj,p is risk coefficient for radiation pathway exposure p
(risk/year)/(Bq/g); and
ED = exposure duration (approximately 30 year).

5. CONCLUSION

Table 2 shows the estimated cancer risk calculated from

the corresponding doses. Exposed individual is the site
user or site resident. Corresponding to doses, cancer risk
to individuals under farming scenario is significantly
higher than under recreationist scenarios.

In this paper the RESRAD model is used in order to

assess doses for humans and corresponding risks from
depleted uranium. This model suggests that the doses to
humans from DU are small except in the case of its
extremely high concentrations in soils and water. Finally,
the concentration of dust in the air and, therefore, the
amount of airborne DU, play an important role on the area
where humans live or use the land as a farm. Contribution
from DU in drinking water dominates to total dose when
the exposure limits were exceeded. Doses to humans
estimated from the RESRAD model indicate that the
1mSv/year exposure limit is exceeded only when the
contaminated area is farmed and all drinking water is
obtained from the well on site [7].

YEAR

Table 2: Cancer risk

0
1
3

Recreationist
10-6
Low
conc.
DU
3.4
3.4
3.2

High
conc.
DU
16
16
15

Suburban
resident
10-5
Low
High
conc. conc.
DU
DU
1.4
6.4
1.3
9.3
1.3
13.4

Farmer
10-5
Low
conc.
DU
1.4
8.5
18.8

High
conc.
DU
6.4
41.9
93.2
715

Removal of DU fragments on the surface of soils in the

contaminated area would reduce the total amount of DU
available for transport through the various environmental
pathways. It is recommended to apply a risk-based
approach to specific remediation activities, in order to
reduce risk due to a particular scenario of land-use before
it is implemented.

[3] Yu, C., Data Collection Handbook to Support

Modeling the Impacts of Radioactive Material in
Soil, Argonne National Laboratory, 1993.
[4] National Radiological Protection Board, Radiation
Protection Bulletin No. 167, P.13-16 (July 1995)
[5] Ebinger M., Hansen W., "Depleted uranium human
health risk assessment", Project Report Los Alamos,
(1994) 94-182.
[6] US DOE, Potential Uses for Depleted Uranium
Oxide, USNRC, 2009.
[7] Ebinger M., Hansen W., "Depleted uranium risk
assessment for JPG using data from environmental
monitoring and site characterization,
Project
Report Los Alamos, (1996) 96-382.

REFERENCES
[1] Yu, C., Development of Probabilistic RESRAD 6.0
and RESRAD-BUILD 3.0 Computer Codes,
Argonne National Laboratory, 2000.
[2] Le Poire, D., et al., 2000, Probabilistic Modules for
the RESRAD and RESRAD-BUILD Computer
Codes, Argonne National Laboratory, 2000.

716

ADVANCED PREPREG BALLISTIC COMPOSITES FOR MILITARY

HELMETS
DIMKO DIMESKI
Faculty of Technology, University Goce Delev, tip, Macedonia, dimko.dimeski@ugd.edu.mk
VINETA SREBRENKOSKA
Faculty of Technology, University GoceDelev, tip, Macedonia, vineta.srebrenkoska@ugd.edu.mk

Abstract: With the advancement of ballistic materials and technologies, the ballistic prepregs are becoming an
essential construction technique for getting the maximum performance out of the high performance fibers. The ballistic
prepregs help to maximize the engagement between fibers and high speed projectiles penetrating the ballistic material,
thus reducing the amount of ballistic material required to defeat the projectiles. The backbone of lightweight ballistic
materials is high performance ballistic fiber. However, the ballistic fibers alone cannot engage a high speed projectile
because the projectile can push fibers aside without breaking a single filament in the fiber bundle. To overcome this
limitation, the fibers are converted into either a woven fabric or a non-woven material such as a cross-plied
unidirectional material. These ballistic materials have fibers in at least two directions which forces the projectile to
engage with the fibers by keeping them in place with either thermosetting or thermoplastic polymeric matrix. However,
for rigid armor, these prepregs are molded into helmets by utilizing proper molds and molding conditions. In the
current paper we highlight the important factors that affect the combat helmet performance such as: fabrication
methods, mechanism of ballistic energy absorption, ergonomic aspects of ballistic helmet design and materials systems.
Special emphasis is given to thermoset and thermoplastic ballistic composites. Wherever appropriate, in the context of
the topic, we refer to our experience in working on the development and serial production of the first ballistic helmet for
former JNA (Yugoslav Peoples Army)
Keywords: prepreg, fibers, helmets, ballistic composites.

1. INTRODUCTION

2. PREPREGS

In the past two decades, ubiquitous armed conflicts have

spurred tremendous growth in armour materials and
designs. Those who watch the armour market expect
demand to continue. For example, a 2009 study by the
military armour research specialists predicts that $6
billion (USD) in military body armour will be procured
by the U.S. military between 2009 and 2015 [1].

Composite ballistic helmets and other ballistic items are

mainly, now days, produced from prepregs. Prepregs are
composite materials in which a reinforcement fiber is preimpregnated (prepreg is short from PRE-impregnated)
with a thermoplastic or thermoset resin matrix in a certain
ratio. Prepregs have unique properties as they are cured
under high temperatures and pressures.

Composites now play a huge role in this market, having

steadily displaced traditional materials since the early
1980s. For military helmets, in particular, lightweight
composite designs reinforced with aramid, ultrahigh
molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) and other
fiber types, often in hybrid combinations, have long since
replaced the steel pot helmets of World War II and the
post-war era. The current trend is toward thermoplastic
helmets, and such designs are presently under evaluation
by the leading armies of the world for the development of
advanced combat helmet [1]. Because the future helmet is
envisioned as a sophisticated piece of equipment that will
integrate more electronics and sensing systems, there will
be a need of a helmet that is lighter than existing
thermoset models offering more protection.

Generally, the resin matrix in prepregs is partially cured

for ease of handling and is stored in a cool place to
prevent complete cross linking. This B-stage prepreg will
need to be heated in an autoclave, hot press or oven
during manufacture of composite materials to achieve full
cross linking.
Prepregs for ballistic applications come in two basic
forms: unidirectional tape is a band of fibers impregnated
with resin with all the fibers oriented in one direction, and
fabric prepregs which are woven fabrics that are
impregnated with resin by either a hot melt or solution
coating process. Depending on the fiber and the
application, prepreg resin content varies but typically, for
ballistic application, is kept under 20 % by weight.
717

Prepregs provide better mechanical performance over a

wide temperature range than wet lay-ups, that is, dry
fabric with manually-applied resin. Because the resin is
applied to the reinforcements in exact precise quantities in
a uniform way, an optimum fiber/resin ration is attained.
Prepreg offers consistent mechanical properties in the
composite, and lessens the health and safety risks
associated with handling liquid resin.

lightweight, hand-held, 64 mm, rocket launcher Zolja

(both joint projects of 11 Oktomvri, Prilep and MTI
Military Technical Institute from Belgrade). Picture 2
shows a sheet of woven glass roving/modified phenolic
resin used in T-72.

The most common reinforcements used for ballistic

prepreg are glass, aramid, UHMWPE and nylon fibers.
Resins used in prepregs vary from low-temperature cure
thermosets to high-temperature cure thermoplastics. The
most common thermoset resins in ballistic composites are
modified phenolics, epoxies and polyesters, while the
most common thermoplastic resins are polypropylene
(PP), polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), bis-maleimids (BMI)
and polyurethanes. Both types of resins offer good impact
resistance and vibration damping characteristics.

Picture 2. Woven glass roving/modified

phenolic resin prepreg

Prepregs are produced using two main processes: hot melt

process and solvent dip process.

Hot melt process is a newer process and tends to replace

solvent dip process because of the environmental issues
related to the later. At the hot melt machine the fabric or
unidirectional fibers are laid on a carrier silicon paper or
polyethylene (PE) film containing a controlled amount of
resin. Another roll of carrier paper or PE film is
positioned above the fibers. The fibers, sandwiched
between the papers, are pulled along the tape line with
pull rolls as pressure is applied from sets of heated
compaction rolls metered to the prepreg thickness. The
compaction ensures that the fibers are evenly spread apart
and wet out. Again, as with the solvent dip process, care
is taken not to cure the material. A very simplified
schematic of this process is shown in Picture 3.

Solvent dip process was the first form of prepregging. In

this process, the fiber is threaded over metal bars for
controlled tension, and run through a solvated resin bath.
Solvated means that alcohol, acetone or some other
solvent has been added to the resin to lower its viscosity
and assure good fiber wet out. The impregnated fabric
continues through a metered set of rollers to remove
excess resin. From there, it is conveyed through a
horizontal or, more commonly, vertical heating chamber,
referred as tower, which has bars at top and bottom to
loop the fabric, as shown in Picture 1.

Picture 3. Simplified schematic of hot melt process

Once through the heated compaction area, the sandwich
typically passes through cooling rolls before the carrier
paper is removed. Trimming both sides of the prepreg to
exact width is done just before rewinding.

Picture 1. Schematic of solvent dip process

Temperature and roller speed control how quickly the
solvents are driven off in the heating chamber, and care is
taken to assure that complete curing of the resin does not
occur. Once the prepreg is free of most solvent (for
military applications less than 1 %) it is cooled and rolled
into a core. Thermoset prepreg at this B-stage point is
pliable with good tack.

3. BALLISTIC COMBAT HELMET

The basic function of a combat helmet is to provide
protection against fragments (shrapnel) of explosive
devices and bullets. The ballistic performance of a helmet
can be measured using the ballistic limit velocity, V50.
The ballistic limit velocity is defined in NATO standard
STANAG 2920. It presents 50% probability of
penetration i.e. of non-penetration of the projectile into
the test specimen (helmet) and is a statistical measure
developed by the US military.

By the way, this process was used in the development of

the ballistic prepreg/composites for T-72 tank body
protection. Also, such process was used for the
development of glass fabric/epoxy prepreg for the
production of front and rear (container) pipes for the
718

When a bullet strikes a helmet a cone is formed on the

back face of the helmet [2]. The depth of this back-face
signature (a conical bulge) is required not to exceed a
critical value (~ 43 mm). If the depth exceeds this value,
the helmet shell can strike the scull, resulting in behind
armor blunt trauma.

pieces like guns, surrounding vegetation, field telephones

or gas masks.
- Cost and user acceptance
Any helmet that is far too costly to implement will not be
fielded. Other factors to consider are availability and cost
of materials and ease of fabrication. A helmet that can be
produced in large volumes at a reasonable cost has a
better chance of being accepted. Acceptance of the user
depends on the actual fit of the helmet, comfort level and
benefits in actual combats. Engagement of the end users
in the development process as frequently as possible will
increase acceptance possibility.

How severe the back face signature can be is shown on

Picture 4, taken during the development of the JNA
ballistic helmet (the test is done on a flat panel).

- Helmet size and fit

Advanced helmets are designed to provide much more
than just ballistic protection. If the fit of the helmet were
not comfortable, the helmet user would be reluctant to
wear it. The fit of the protective head gear thus affects the
performance of the soldier. It is found that the optimal
standoff distance (gap between the head and the helmet)
to be 12.5 mm. Proper helmet size, fit and stability are
critical to personnel safety. If the helmet sits low on the
head, it interferes with the line of vision. If the helmet sits
too high, the risk of injures increases. If it is too tight or
too loose, the helmet can be constant bother.

Picture 4. Back face signature of a ballistic composite

There are several major properties to measure the
performance of ballistic helmets [3].
- Weight

4. FABRICATION METHODS

An infantry soldier carries all his equipment. The duties

of such a soldier are physically demanding, and any
addition to the weight carried generates considerable
impairment to his endurance. Therefore, the weight is one
of the primary considerations in designing any new
helmet system.

Generally, helmets are produced by stacking together

multiple numbers of prepregsheets which a compression
molded in a close matched tool. The number of sheets
(the thickness of the helmet) depends of the required level
of protection and on the area weight (thickness) of the
sheets. Thermosetting prepregs are based on bidirectional
woven fabrics which are delivered in rolled form. The
first step in helmet fabrication is cutting the blanks from
the roll. For the replacement of the steel helmet of former
JNA with composite one, in the initial development
phase, darted blanks were used. Darted blank is a single
ply of precut prepreg with material removed within the
part area, as shown in Picture 5.

- Ballistic performance
The ballistic performance of a composite helmet depends
on the material used, helmet thickness i.e. the area weight
of the composite, and fabrication method. A compromise
often has to be made between weight allowed and the
ballistic protection requirements.
- Location of center of mass
The ideal location of any weight on the head is on the
straight line connecting the center of mass (CM) of the
head and the CM of the body. Any shift in the weight
balance on the head from the natural CM of the head will
result in straining and fatigue of neck muscles. It will also
hinder the body balance during other movements like
running, crouching, jogging, or walking, because of
muscles accommodation required.
- Maintenance of head movement
An infantry soldier must be able to scan his surroundings
for any sign of threats or targets. This implies that there
should be not impairment of the head/neck movement. In
addition, vision and hearing should be maintained.
Particular care should be taken of any attachments on the
helmet. Any new attachments should enhance the vision
and hearing of a soldier rather than impairing it. It is
necessary to test the new helmet in field settings before
implementing it. There is possibility that loose hanging
wires or cables may entangle with other items/equipment

Picture 5. Darted blank

During molding, darts would close up so that their edges
nearly join together. To avoid having the darts align with
the part, the dart is offset (the blank is rotated) ply to ply
within the stack. This prevents wrinkling and folding of
the material in the helmet shell. 2D blanks are preformed
into a 3D shape before loading on the male part of a close
719

matched die, shown in Picture 6. Retention of the blanks

position in relation to each other during preforming is a
key process step.

until they encounter an obstacle like a fabric edge or a

fiber cross-over point. The waves are reflected at the
obstacles and collide with the onward traveling waves.
The kinetic energy carried by these stress waves is
dissipated through a number of mechanisms, including
cone formation on the helmet back face, deformation of
secondary yarns, primary yarns breakage, inter-yarn
friction and friction between projectile and the fabric [4].
Shear plugging has also been observed as one energy
dissipation mechanism. As the strain within a fiber
exceeds a critical value the fiber fails. Each successive
fabric layer absorbs the un-dissipated energy until the
projectile is defeated. Failure of all fabric layers results in
complete perforation. If the projectile velocity becomes
zero before complete penetration, then the projectile has
been successfully defeated.

Picture 6. Closed match die

The curing of the thermosetting resin takes place at 140
C 160 oC under pressure, usually 4 MPa 8 MPa,
within 75 minutes 90 minutes, into a down-acting press.

The main difference between thermoplastic and

thermosetting composites for ballistic protection is that
thermosetting use fabric as reinforcement while
advanced thermoplastic use unidirectional (UD) fibers
cross plied at 0o/90o, as shown in Picture 8a, Picture 8b
shows cross-section of UD prepreg.

Fully thermoplastic composites (both, the resin and the

fibers are thermoplastic) use the, so called, deep draw
process. First, the stack of plies is molded into a flat
panel. Prior to molding the panel is preheated into an
infra-red oven to make it softer and more flexible; then,
the panel is molded in a close matched die mounted into a
down-acting press and shaped into a helmet shell, as
shown in Picture 7.

Unlike thermoset-based composites, which undergo timeconsuming chemical cross-linking during processing,
thermoplastic-based composites are typically processed
using only heat and pressure.

(a)

Picture 7. Deep-draw process

The next step, for the both processes is trimming of the
helmet shell. High-performance fibers (aramids,
UHMWPE) are very tough to cut using traditional steel or
carbide tools. Therefore, in the development of JNA
composite helmet water-jet was used to trim the shell.

(b)
Picture 8. Construction of unidirectional prepreg, a)
alignment of fibers, b) cross-section
Thermoplastic advanced composites also offer potential
benefits of reduced cycle time and in-plant air quality for
manufacture. The storage of the prepreg can be at room
temperature with, practically, no limited shelf-life.

5. THERMOPLASTIC VS. THERMOSETBASED COMPOSITES FOR HELMETS

Polymer matrix composites (PMCs) consist of a polymer
resin reinforced with fibers and are highly anisotropic
materials. PMCs respond to ballistic impact in ways that
depend on their particular structure and thus are different
from other protective materials.

The main draw-back of thermoplastic based composites is

the much lower stiffness than those based on
thermosetting matrix.
Picture 9 shows thermoplastic based helmet shell, from
the early development of JNA helmet, subjected to drop
weight impact test. As can be seen, the composite lacks
stiffness and deflects tremendously. This problem can be
overcome by using hybridized helmet shell. It is achieved

When a woven fabric is impacted by a projectile,

transverse and longitudinal waves are generated. These
longitudinal and transverse waves travel along the yarn
720

by adding several layers of thermosetting resin based

prepreg or by incorporating small quantity of stiffer
fibers, like carbon, for structural integrity. In the second
stage of development of JNA helmet, hybridized shell
was
developed
incorporating
ballistic
nylon
fibers/thermoset
resin
and
UHMWEPE
fibers/thermoplastic resin. The latest generation of
advanced ballistic helmets e.g. US Army ECH (Enhanced
Ballistic Helmet) are fully hybridized with outer shell
based on carbon fibers (for stiffness) and inner shell based
on aramid (Kevlar) fibers for ballistic protection [5].

properties and environmentally cleaner fabrication.

REFERENCES
[1] Black, S., Future combat helmet: Promising
prototype, High-Performance Composites, online
magazine, November 2010
[2] Heath, J., From art to science: A prepreg
overview, High-Performance Composites, online
magazine, May/June 2000, 32-36
[3] Kulkarni, S.G et al, Ballistic helmets their design,
materials, and performance against traumatic brain
injury, Composite Structures, 101(2013) 313-331
[4] Campbell, D.T., Cramer, D.R, Hybrid Thermoplastic
Composite Ballistic Helmet, SAMPE 2008, - Long
Beach, CA May 18 22, 2008.
[5] Bhatnagar, A., Editor, Lightweight Ballistic
Composites, Woodhead Publishing Company,
Cambridge, 2006.
[6] Navarro, C., Simplified Modeling of the Ballistic
Behaviour of Fabrics and Fiber-Reinforced
Polymeric Matrix Composites, Key Engineering
Materials 141, pp.383-399, 1998.
[7] Jacobs, M., Dingenen, J., Ballistic protection
mechanism in personal armour, Journal of
Materials Science, 36, p.3137-3142, 2001
[8] Anctil, B., Koewn, M., Performance evaluation of
ballistic helmet technologies, Personal Armor
Symposium, Leeds, 2006
[9] Zee, R., Hsieh, C,. Energy loss partitioning during
ballistic impact of polymer composites, Polymer
Composites 14, pp. 265-271, 1993
[10] Phoneix, S., Porwal, K., A new membrane model
for ballistic impact response and V50 performance
of multi-ply fibrous system, Int. Journal of Solids
& Structure, 40, pp. 6723-6765, 2003
[11] Walker, J.D., Ballistic Limit of Fabrics with
Resin, 19th Int. Symposium on Ballistics, pp.14091414, Switzerland, 2001.
[12] Maldague, M., Evaluation of some methods in order
to determine V50, Pass2008 Proceedings, 2008.
[13] Zavattieri, D., Dwivedi, K., Energy dissipation in
ballistic penetrating of fiber composites,
http://clifton.mech.nwu.edu/~espinosa/GRP_Penetra
tion.html, 2002
[14] Samara, Z.A., Harel, H., Marom, G., Yavin, B.,
Polyethylene/polyethylene composite materials for
ballistic protection, SAMPE Journal 33, pp.72-75,
1997.
[15] Srirao, P., Ballistic impact behavior of woven
fabric composites, Dual degree first report,
Department of aerospace engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology, Bombay, 2002
[16] Ratner, S., Weinberg, A., Marom, G., Morphology
and mechanical properties of cross linked PE/PE
composites materials, Polymer Composites, Vol.24,
No.3 pp.422-427, 2003

Picture 9. Thermoplastic-based helmet shell after

drop weight test
For high volume productions thermoplastic composites
are beneficial since greater automation in the fabrication
process is possible.
Contrary to the thermoplastic, thermoset resins are much
stiffer which is of great advantage for ballistic protection.
Drawback of thermosetting prepregs is their storage,
which must be in freezing condition and their limited
shelf-life.
Their fabrication process is not entirely friendly for the
environment and thats why, slowly but steadily,
thermoplastics are taking ground tending to replace it
entirely in the future.

5. CONCLUSIONS
Advanced composites are rapidly growing field of
advanced materials. Comprising reinforced fibers in a
matrix of thermoplastic resin, these materials offer high
specific strength and stiffness, much low density than the
traditional (metals, alloys, ceramic) ballistic materials.
High performance fibers, aramids and UHMWPE, are the
main contributors to the structural and ballistic properties
of these materials.
The future development of these materials is based on
thermoplastic matrices because of their outstanding
721

RELEASE CHARACTERISTICS OF ALGINATE

AND ALGINATE/CHITOSAN BEADS
JOVANA M. ILI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade, Serbia, jilic@tmf.bg.ac.rs
JASNA T. STAJI-TROI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade, Serbia
MIRKO Z. STIJEPOVI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade, Serbia
DRAGUTIN M. NEDELJKOVI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade, Serbia
BRANKO M. BUGARSKI
Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade, Serbia
ALEKSANDAR S. GRUJI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade, Serbia

Abstract: There is a variety of natural polymeric systems that have been investigated for the controlled release of dye
tracers. Alginate, a naturally occurring biopolymer extracted from brown algae, has several unique properties that
have enabled it to be used as a matrix for the entrapment and/or delivery of a wide variety of biologically active agents.
The aim of this work is to monitor release kinetics of tracers from microbeads. Alginate microbeads were obtained by
electrostatic droplet method. Three dye tracers with different molecular weight (acridine orange, blue dextran,
methylene blue) encapsulated in resulting alginate microbeads are released by diffusion of tracer through the pores of
the polymer network. Based on these measurements the layoff curves should give an answer on the impact of the
molecular size of the used tracers on the diffusion rate from microbeads. In order to achieve the slow release of tracers
alginate microbeads were coated with chitosan. Chitosan has an impact on reducing the porosity of gel, which further
led to lower release of tracers from microbeads. Comparative analysis of the obtained layoff curves illustrates the
influence of the microbeads preparation process on diffusion rate of tracers.
Keywords: Hydrogels, Microbeads, Alginate, Tracers, Diffusion.
protective shell of encapsulates are biodegradable and
able to form barrier between internal phase and its
environment [3,4].

1. INTRODUCTION
Hydrogels represent three-dimensional polymeric
networks with the ability to absorb significant amounts of
water or other fluids, bioactive molecules and ions,
without changing the matrix form and mechanical
properties. The development of natural polymeric
biomaterials is of great interest to engineering, because
they are already found in the widespread biomedical and
pharmaceutical applications as medical devices and
controlled drugs delivery systems [1,2].

Alginate is a naturally occurring biopolymer obtained

from brown algae with several unique properties
necessary for the purpose of entrapment and/or delivery
of a wide variety of biologically active agents. Linear
heteropolysaccaride is composed of chains of 1,4 linked,
- D - mannuronic acid (M) and - L - guluronic acid
(G) residues [5,6].
Alginates exhibit high affinity for the cations. However, it
is easily gelled by addition of cross-linking agent, Ca2+.
Gelation of alginate can be carried out under very mild
conditions using non-toxic reagents. The gelation and
cross-linking occur due to the stacking of guluronic acid
blocks of alginate chains with the formation of the egg-

After encapsulation, the stability of bioactive compounds

is increased, while the toxicity is reduced which can be
used for the controlled release. Among all materials, the
most widely used for encapsulation are natural polymers,
alginate and chitosan. These materials used for design
722

box junction. As a result, Ca-alginate gels are physically

cross-linked systems with mechanical properties
dependent on the alginate and cross-linking agent
concentration. There are studies that explain the great
influence of cation on the gel properties, such as:
porosity,
swelling,
stability,
gel
strength,
biocompatibility, and biodegradability [7,8]. Diffusion
characteristics of alginate beads and pore size distribution
of gel are very important when the alginate is used for
encapsulation of active components. These properties
have influence on the kinetics of release and retention of
active components, as well as diffusion rate of the
molecules from environment through the gel matrix. The
molecules moving through a polymer swollen mass
induces entries or releases of fluid molecules or active
substances into/from gel matrix [9]. This phenomenon is
called the diffusion of fluid molecules or an active
substance solution in / out of the hydrogel and is strongly
controlled by the mass transfer at the boundary phase of
the polymer and the surrounding environment. Mass
transfer can be expressed as a change of chemical
potentials due to random motion of molecules. The
diffusion rate depends on the concentration and degree of
polymer swollen mass. On a macroscopic scale, the
diffusion of drug through the gel matrix can be described
by diffusion Fick's law. For the mathematical
representation of diffusion process in one direction can be
used diffusion Fick's laws (equation (1)):
ji = D

dci
dx

processes: the process of diffusion due to concentration

gradient, and the process of the relaxation of the polymer
chains [9]. The transportation of fluids in polymer
network also depends on the molecular size of the fluid.
The molecules with small molecular weights pass and
enter into the matrix more easily than molecules with high
molecular weights.
There is a possibility to use a polycationic polymer that
forms a membrane around the bead surface for the
microcapsules coating. Chitosan is a polycationic
polysaccharide derived from chitin. Linear polysaccharide
[(1 4)-2 amino-2-deoxy--D-glucan] is a water soluble
cationic polysaccharide capable to form a membrane on
polyanionic alginate beads due to charge interactions, and
by displacing calcium and forming chitosan alginate
crosslinks [10, 11].
The effects of the molecular weight on the diffusion rate
through the matrix for three different dye tracers are
analyzed and discussed.

2. EXPERIMENTAL
(Protanal LF 20/40) low-viscosity alginic acid sodium
salt(FMC Biopolymer, Norway; 60000 kDa), calcium
chloride dehydrate (Sigma-Aldrich, Greece), chitosan
(Acros Organics, Belgium; MW 100000-300000kDa), L ascorbic acid (Centrohem, Serbia), acridine orange
(Serva; Mw=265,35 g/mol), blue dextran (Sigma
Chemical Co, USA; Mw=2 106 g/mol), 1, 9 dimethyl
methylene blue (Sigma Chemical Co, USA; Mw=347.91
g/mol) are used as starting materials.

(1)

Equation (2) represents the diffusion Fick's second law.

The diffusion refers to the unsteady state when the release
rate is dependent on time:
ci ci
=
D
t x x

Alginate solutions (1.5 % (w/v)) are prepared by

dissolving 0.75 g sodium alginate powder in 50 ml
distilled water on a magnetic stirrer. The alginate is
dissolved at room temperature for 24 hours on constant
magnetic stirring, and used for the experiments.
Alginate-chitosan solution was prepared by dissolving 0.8
g ascorbic acid in 40 ml distilled water. In obtained
solution 0.2 g chitosan was added. After 24 hours calcium
chloride is added to the solution.

(2)

The previous equations imply certain assumptions.

According to the Fick's law of diffusion coefficient has
constant value for applied system and is independent on
concentration. The ji is flux derived from the average
mass rate. The equations result contains the initial and
boundary conditions, and fit the description of the
experimental conditions. The result of the Fick's second
law, given by Crank, is valid for samples with small
thickness (l) and specific geometry:
Mt
= 1 82
M

n =0

Calcium chloride dihydrate (2% (w/v) solution) and all

dye tracers (acridine orange, blue dextran and 1, 9
dimethyl methylene blue) are dissolved in ultrapure water
with final concentration of 1, 1, and 0.4 mg/ml,
respectively.
Spherical droplets are prepared by electrostatic extrusion
using a syringe pump Razel, Scientific Instruments,
Stamford, CT, USA. Electrode geometry with the
positively charged needle and a grounded hardening
solution is applied. The potential difference is 6.4 kV,
controlled by a high voltage DC unit (Model 30R, Bertan
Associates, Inc., New York, USA). The distance between
the needle tip (23 gauges) and the hardening solution is
2.3 cm while the flow rate of polymer solution is constant.
The particles are allowed in calcium chloride solution for
1 hour, and separated by filtration [12].

D(2n + 1) 2 2 t
1
exp

(3)
(2n + 1) 2
4l 2

When t 0, equation (3) simplifies to equation (4), and

the diffusion coefficient of fluid (D) can be calculated as
[10, 11]:
1/ 2

Mt
= 4 Dt2
M
l

(4)

Previous analysis refers to the systems where the Fick's

law of diffusion is applied. Transport of fluids or small
molecules in a polymer network, or out of it, often does
not follow this model, and it is controlled by two

Diffusion process into microbeads through gel matrix

(alginate and chitosan coated alginate) is monitored.
Microparticles immersed into beaker with 30 ml tracer
723

solution under continuous stirring. The samples are tested

using UV spectrophotometer UV/VIS Scanning
Models/UV-3100(PC), China.

20
18
16

Three different tracers are taken in order to achieve the

effects of molecular weight of encapsulated materials on
their release. The in vitro release studies were performed
in distilled water. Accurately weighed amounts of colored
beads were placed in beaker containing 30 ml of the
release medium under shaking on magnetic stirrer. The 2
ml volume of surrounding medium samples is picked over
and measured using UV spectrophotometer, and returned
back into release medium. The tracer concentration in the
solution is examined by UV spectroscopy on 400, 610,
665 nm for acridine orange, blue dextran and 1,9 dimethyl
methylene blue, respectively.

C(mg/ml)

14
12
10
8

Acridine orange
Methylene blue
Blue dextran

6
4
2
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

t (min)

The mass of particles was considered mp=5,474 g. Initial

volume of distilled water for tracer releasing, V0=30 ml,
is performed, and picked over volume for each sample is
V1=2 ml. Based on the previously determined standard
curves, concentrations of tracers are calculated as follows:
C=A/0.395 for acridine orange; C=A/0.800 for blue
dextran; and C=A/2.149 for methylene blue. Obtained
tracer concentrations are used to calculate the released
tracers mass from microbeads.

Figure 2. Diffusion profile for three different tracers

(acridine orange, methylene blue, blue dextran) into
chitosan coated alginate microbeads

Release kinetic
Process of release, as well as the effects of a molecular
weight and process of microbeads preparation on the
diffusion rate are analyzed. In order to understand the
release kinetic of the tracers release mechanisms, a
fractional release of tracers at specific time is calculated.
The results of fractional release are illustrated in all
presented Figures (from Figure 3 to 7). Figure 3 shows
release process of acridine orange and methylene blue

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Tracers loading of the beads
The diffusion process for three different dye tracers into
different particles are presented in Figure 1 and 2. For all
increasing molecular weights of tracer, significant
decreasing of diffusion rate is achieved.

Cumulative tracer release (%)

0.35

Blue dextran molecule is very large for diffusion through

the pores of the gel matrix [13]. However, in release
studies this tracer is not used.
Chitosan is commonly known as a good reducer of the
permeability of alginate beads. The microparticles with
different formulations show different encapsulation
efficiencies. The beads treated with chitosan have
increased diffusion rate.
20

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

Acridine orange
Methylene blue

0.10

0.05

18

0
16

C(mg/ml)

12

6
4
2
0
40

60

80

100

80

100

120

from alginate beads. Release of acridine orange occurred

easily because this tracer had less molecular weight then
methylene blue. The process of release is completely
achieved in 20 min. Diffusion of tracers from chitosan
coated alginate beads is presented in Figure 4 and shows
slower release in case of alginate microbeads. The effect
of the molecular weights on the diffusion rate is similar as
aforementioned.

20

60

Figure 3. Cumulative release of acridine orange and

methylene blue from alginate microbeads

10

40

Time (min)

Acridine orange
Methylene blue
Blue dextran

14

20

120

t (min)

Comparison release of acridine orange and methylene

blue from two different beads is presented in Figures 5
and 6. In this case, the diffusion process from chitosan

Figure 1. Diffusion profile for three different tracers

(acridine orange, methylene blue, blue dextran) into
alginate microbeads
724

coated alginate particles is longer for a few minutes. The

main reason for this phenomenon is chitosan coating
around the alginate, which is responsible for the reduced
permeability.

14

Cumulative tracer release (%)

13

0.50

Cumulative tracer release (%)

0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20

Acridine orange
Methylene blue

0.15

12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

0.10

0.05
10

20

30

40

50

10

12

Figure 7. Release profile of tracers from different

microbeads

60

Time (min)

Figure 4. Cumulative release of acridine orange and

methylene blue from chitosan coated alginate microbeads

The diffusion through the gel matrix is also examined and

presented in Figure 7.

0.50

At the beginning, all the curves have linearly positioned

points, and later become a steady state. Analyzing the
linear part of curves it is not possible to determine the
type of diffusion.

0.45
0.40
0.35

4. CONCLUSION

0.30

The aim of this study is to monitor the release kinetics of

tracers from microparticles. The results of experiments
show that the release is only possible in the case of small
molecules, with molecular weight smaller than weight of
blue dextran. In the case of alginate microparticles tracer
release out of the microparticles in the first 20 minutes,
while for the chitosan coated alginate microparticles
release time is slightly longer. A concentration gradient
between microparticles (inside) and the surrounding
medium is determinated. It is confirmed that
concentration gradient is driving force for mass transfer.
The result obtained for microparticles with chitosan was
expected, because microparticles with chitosan have
protective membrane. Chitosan reduces the porosity of
alginate microparticles which leads to extending the
release time for a few minutes. Comparative analysis of
the obtained layoff curves illustrates the influence of the
microbeads preparation process on diffusion rate of
tracers, as well as the size of the molecules transported
from the carrier matrix.
Regarding the release profile of tracers from different
microbeads the type of diffusion cannot be precisely
determinated, but it can be avoided using smaller
intervals.

0.25

Chitosan coated alginate microbeads

Alginate microbeads

0.20
0.15
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Time (min)

Figure 5. Cumulative release of acridine orange from two

different microbeads (alginate and chitosan coated alginate)
0.080
0.075

Cumulative tracer release (%)

Time 1/2
0

Cumulative tracer release (%)

Alginate microbeads with acridine orange

Chitosan coated alginate microbeads with acridine orange
Alginate microbeads with methylene blue
Chitosan coated alginate microbeads with methylene blue

0.070
0.065
0.060
0.055
0.050
0.045
0.040
0.035
0.030
0.025

Chitosan coated alginate mcrobeads

Alginate microbeads

0.020
0.015
0

20

40

60

80

100

Some of the wide spectra of polymers as alginate

additions, enabling to achieve more efficient drug release,
could be used in the future research activities.
Nomenclature
A
Absorbance
Ce
Equilibrium concentration
Cp
Concentration into particle

120

Time (min)

Figure 6. Cumulative release of methylene blue from two

different microbeads (alginate and chitosan coated alginate)
725

Ct
D
ji
l
mp
Mt
M
t
V0
V1

immobilization in alginate: rheological and

electrostatic extrusion studies, Journal of Chemical
Technology and Biotechnology 81:505510 (2006)
[6] Manojlovi,V.,
onlagi,J.,
Obradovi,B.,
Nedovi,V., Bugraski,B.: Effects of cell addition on
immobilization by electrostatic droplet generation,
Chemical Industry and Chemical Engineering
Quarterly 1(2) 79-84 (2005)
[7] Nedovi,V., Manojlovi,V., Pruesse,U., Bugarski,B.,
onlagi,J., Vorlop,K.: Optimization of the
electrostatic droplet generation process for
controlled microbead production single nozzle
system,
Chemical
Industry
and
Chemical
Engineering Quarterly 12(1) 53-57 (2006)
[8] Cui-Yun Yua, Bo-Cheng Yin, Wei Zhang, Si-Xue
Cheng, Xian-Zheng Zhang, Ren-Xi Zhuo: Composite
microparticle drug delivery systems based on
chitosan, alginate and pectin with improved pHsensitive drug release property, Colloids and
Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 68 (2009) 245249
[9] Pjanovi,R.: Mass transfer of an active component
in/out heterogeneous systems with microbeads, PhD
Dissertation, Belgrade 2010
[10] DeGroot,A., Neufeld,R.: Encapsulation of urease in
alginate beads and protection from -chymotrypsin
with chitosan membranes, Enzyme and Microbial
Technology 29 (2001) 321327
[11] Manojlovi,V., Raji,N., onlagi,J., Obradovi,B.,
Nedovi,V.,
Bugarski,B.:
Application
of
Electrostatic Extrusion Flavour Encapsulation and
Controlled Release, Sensors 2008, 8, 1488-1496
[12] Pasparakis,G., Bouropoulos,N.: Swelling studies and
in vitro release of verapamil from calcium alginate
and calcium alginatechitosan beads, International
Journal of Pharmaceutics 323 (2006) 3442
[13] Kim,C.-K. and Lee,E.-J.: The controlled release of
blue dextran from alginate beads, International
Journal of Pharmaceutics, 79 (1992) 11-19

Tracer concentration
Diffusion coefficient
Mass flux
Length characteristic
Mass of particles
Mass of absorbed fluid by the gel at time t
Mass of the fluid at equilibrium
Time
Initial volume of release medium
Picked over volume for each simples
Density

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work is supported by Ministry of Education, Science
and Technological Development of the Republic of
Serbia, under the projects TR 37001 and TR 34011.

REFERENCES
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Hemijska Industrija 65 (6) 675685 (2011)
[2] Babi,M., Jovaevi,J., Filipovi,J., Tomi,S.:
Diffusion of drugs in hydrogels based on
(meth)acrylates,
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glycol)
(meth)acrylates and itaconic acid, Hemijska
industrija 66 (6) 823829 (2012)
[3] Nedovi,V., Kaluevi,A., Manojlovi,V., Levi,S.,
Bugarski,B.: An overview of encapsulation
technologies for food applications, Procedia Food
Science 1 (2011) 1806 1815
[4] Huguet,M., Dellacherie,E.: Calcium Alginate Beads
Coated with Chitosan: Effect of the Structure of
Encapsulated Materials on Their Release, Process
Biochemist, Vol. 31, No. 8, pp. 745-751,1996
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Nedovi,V., Bugarski,B.: Investigations of cell

726

EXPLORING AN INTERACTIONS BETWEEN 4-ARYL-4-OXO-2-(NARYL)BUTANAMIDES AND ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE BY DOCKING

CALCULATIONS AND MOLECULAR DYNAMICS SIMULATION
MAJA VITOROVI-TODOROVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, mvitod@chem.bg.ac.rs
SONJA BAUK
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, sbauk@gmail.com

Abstract: Recently, we synthesized congeneric set of thirty-eight 4-aryl-4-oxo-2-(N-aryl/cycloalkyl)butanamides and

evaluated their acetyl- and butyrylcholinesterase inhibitory activity. To explore possible ligand-AChE interactions, both
enantiomers of the seven most active compounds were docked into the AChE active site. Docking studies provided valuable
insight into possible interactions between the examined derivatives and AChE active site residues. Exhaustive analysis of the
docking poses revealed that R and S enantiomers of 2,4-diisopropylsubstituted compounds 4 and 5, were docked very
similarly inside AChE active site. There are two possible orientations of the ligands within the AChE active site gorge. In the
best ranked poses, the aroyl moiety is directed toward the bottom of the gorge, while in the most populated poses is directed
toward the entrance of the gorge. Enatiomers of tetralinyl-substituted compounds 6 and 7, were docked with opposite
orientations inside AChE active site, but best ranked and the most populated pose were very similar. However, majority of
the derivatives, in both orientations showed hydrogen bonding with Tyr 124 residue. According to the 5 ns MD simulation,
for compound 5, the most persistent, and therefore probably the most important interaction between the most active
compound and AChE active site residues involve hydrogen bond between Tyr 124 -OH group and the amido -NH- moiety of
the ligand.
Keywords: 4-Aryl-4-oxo-2-aminylbutyramides; Anticholinesterase activity; Docking study; Molecular dynamics.
interact with the substrate acyl group. They form the clamps
around methyl group, and decrease its degrees of freedom [10];
(5) peripheral anionic site (PAS) [11-13], comprises residues
which are located at the rim of the active site gorge, Tyr 72,
Tyr 124, Trp 286 and Asp 74. Possible binding sites for the
reversible inhibitors comprise both AS and PAS. The so-called
dimeric (dual) inhibitors bind simultaneously to both of these
sites. In BChE active site, six out of fourteen aromatic amino
acid residues in AChE (Tyr 72, Tyr 124, Trp 286, Phe 295, Phe
297 and Tyr 337) are replaced by aliphatic ones (Asn 68, Gln
119, Ala 277, Leu 286, Val 288, and Ala 328). This causes 200
3 larger active site gorge of BChE, comparing to that of
AChE. Therefore, BChE is capable to hydrolyze wide variety
of esters [14].
Recently, we reported congeneric series of thirty-eight 4aryl-4-oxo-2-aminylbutanamides, with variation of
substitutents on the aroyl phenyl ring, and phenylamido
moiety [15]. Twelve compounds, mostly piperidino and
imidazolo derivatives, inhibited AChE in low micromolar
range, and were inactive toward BChE. The nature of
cycloalkylamino moiety governed the AChE/BChE
selectivity of the compounds. The most active AChE
inhibitor, compound 4, exhibited mixed type reversible
inhibition, indicating its binding to free enzyme and
enzyme-substrate complex.

1. INTRODUCTION
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is a carboxylesterase which
terminates cholinergic neuro-transmission, by hydrolyzing
neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) in a synaptic cleft.
Among other applications, reversible AChE inhibition is
implicated in a pretreatment against nerve agents
intoxications [1,2].
AChE contains 20 deep and narrow gorge, in which five
regions that are involved in the substrate, irreversible and
reversible inhibitor binding, can be distinguished (human and
electric eel AChE numbering): (1) catalytic triad residues: Ser
203, His 447, and Glu 334, [3] at the bottom of the gorge,
which directly participate in catalytic cycle, by charge relay
mechanism, as in other serine esterases; (2) oxyanion hole is an
arrangement of hydrogen bond donors which stabilize the
transient tetrahedral enzyme-substrate complex by
accommodation of negatively charged carbonyl oxygen. This
region inside the active center is formed by backbone -NHgroups of amino acid residues Gly 121, Gly 122 and Ala 204
[4,5]; (3) the anionic site(AS), where Trp 86 is situated. This
residue is conserved in all cholinesterases and it is involved in
orientation and stabilization of trimethylammonium group of
AChE, by forming cation- interactions [6-9]; (4) acyl pocket
comprises two phenylalanine residues, 295 and 297, which
727

In the present communication, we analysed and presented

docking results for the compounds 1-7 with more detail.

Table 1. Anti-AChE activity and the structure of the

compounds 1-7.

2. METHODS
Docking experiments for compounds 1-7 were performed on
the Mus musculus AChE structure, refined at 2.05
resolution (PDB entry 2HA2). Truncated residues were
properly completed by means of Swiss PDB Viewer [16].
Hydrogen atoms were added to the protein aminoacid
residues, non-polar hydrogens were merged, and Gesteiger
charges were ascribed using AutoDock Tools [17]. The
lowest energy conformations of the compounds were
generated using OMEGA software [18]. Both enantiomers
of the each compound were docked into mAChE active site
gorge, using AutoDock 4.0.1 package [19]. Docking was
carried out by using hybrid Lamarckian genetic algorithm;
50 runs were performed with an initial population of 250
randomly placed individuals and maximum number of
2.5x106 energy evaluations. Resulting docked poses within
RMSD of 0.5 were clustered together. All other
parameters were maintained at their default settings.

Com.
AChE
R1
R2
R3
No
IC50SEM (M)
4-i-Pr
3,5-di-OMe imidazole 4.49 0.18
1
4-i-Pr
4-i-Pr
imidazole 2.33 0.40
2
2,4-di-i-Pr 3,5-di-OMe imidazole 3.30 0.35
3
2,4-di-i-Pr
4-i-Pr
piperidine 1.96 0.22
4
2,4-di-i-Pr
4-i-Pr
imidazole 2.05 0.06
5
-tetralinyl 3,5-di-OMe imidazole 3.23 0.15
6
-tetralinyl
4-i-Pr
imidazole 2.36 0.20
7

It should be stated that in both types of docking poses (best

ranked pose and the most populated one), for all compounds
shown in the Table 1, the hydrogen bond between amide NH- group of the compounds and -OH group of Tyr 124
side chain is formed. Also, in significant number of poses, a
hydrogen bond between Phe 295 backbone -NH- group and
different moieties of ligands (phenylamido -OCH3 group,
N3 nitrogen of imidazole ring, or aroyl carbonyl group) is
formed. The residues which form hydrophobic interactions
with docked compounds, in majority of poses, are His 447,
Tyr 341, Phe 295, Phe 297 and Phe 338.

For the molecular dynamics simulations, the most populated

docking pose of the (S)-enantiomer of compound 5,
retrieved by AutoDock, was used. The system was
neutralized in VegaZZ [20] by addition of explicit sodium
counterions, and afterward embedded in a cluster that
surrounds the protein with a layer of 75 water molecules.
For molecular dynamics simulations, NAMD 2.9 [21] was
used, with CHARMm22 force field and Gasteiger's atomic
charges. The system was minimized in 30,000 steps (30 ps)
by conjugate gradient algorithm and, afterwards, heated to
300 K during 10,000 steps (10ps). The 5 ns of
unconstrained, productive, molecular dynamics simulations
was performed, at 30010K (Langevin's algorithm), using
periodic boundary conditions. Electrostatics was treated by
a Particle Mesh Ewald algorithm. Cut-offs were set to 12
for vdW interactions, with a switch starting at 8 , and pair
list distance set to 13.5 . Trajectory frames were collected
each ps to yield 5000 frames per trajectory. All simulations
were performed on the multi-node Linux based cluster [22]
equipped with the dual Intel Xeon X5560 @ 2.8GHz
processors. Results were analyzed in VegaZZ as GUI, in
Windows environment.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

To explore possible ligand-AChE interactions, seven
compounds with IC50 values below 5 M were docked into
the AChE active site. The structures of the compounds,
along with their IC50 values are given in Table 1.
Both enantiomers of the each compound were docked in
mAChE (Mus musculus, PDB entry 2HA2), using the latest
version of AutoDock 4 package [19]. Fifty binding poses
were generated in each docking calculation. As the scoring
functions used for prioritization of the obtained poses are
still mostly inaccurate [23], we decided to analyse the most
favorable binding pose (according to the estimated free
energy of binding, G) along with the best pose, belonging
to the most populated cluster, by LigPLot program [24].

Figure 1. (a) The best ranked /most populated pose for

(S)- 1. (b) The best ranked (blue) and the most populated
pose (red) for (R)- 1.
The docking poses for both enantiomers of the compound 1
are presented in the Figure 1. For S enantiomer (Figure 1a)
728

the best ranked pose (according to the estimated free energy

of binding, G) also belonged to the most populated cluster.
The 3,5-dimethoxy substituted phenylamido ring is
accommodated in AS, interacting with side chain of Tyr
337. Aroyl ring is pointed toward the entrance of the gorge,
interacting with Trp 286. Aroyl keto moiety forms hydrogen
bond with the backbone NH- group of Phe 295 and
imidazole ring is pointed toward Tyr 124 residue. The
general orientation of the R enantiomer of the compound 1
is similar (Figure 3b), with phenylamido ring pointed
toward the bottom of the gorge and aroyl phenyl ring
pointed toward the entrance of the gorge. However, the best
ranked and the most populated pose differ mainly in terms
of orientations of imidazole and phenylamido rings.
Phenylamido ring of the best ranked pose form stacking
interaction with indole ring of Trp 86, while in the most
populated pose, the ring is pointed mainly toward Tyr 337.
This pose closely resembles to the one found for the S
enantiomer of the compound. In the best ranked pose,
imdazole ring is pointed toward Ser 203 (the catalytic triad
residue) while in the most populated pose it forms close
contacts with Tyr 124.

of both compounds are oriented within the AChE active site

gorge in the similar fashion. The aroyl moieties are oriented
toward the bottom of the gorge, interacting with Trp 86 and
Tyr 337 residues. Amido -NH- groups of the compounds
form hydrogen bond with the side chain -OH group of Tyr
124. Phenylamido rings of both compounds are directed
toward the entrance of the gorge (PAS) and interact with
side chains of Trp 286, Phe 295 and Phe 297. The piperidine
ring of compound 4 and the imidazole ring of compound 5
are found in the close proximity of catalytic triad residues,
His 447 and Ser 203. Nitrogen N3 of the imidazole ring of
both enantiomers of compound 5 forms hydrogen bond with
side chain oxygen of Ser 203. Aroyl phenyl ring and the
corresponding cycloalkylamino groups are also found in the
vicinity of oxyanion hole residues, Gly 121 and Gly 122.

Docking poses of the both enantiomers of compound 2 are

shown in Fig.2. Cluster which comprised the best ranked
pose (according to the estimated G of binding) was also
the most populated one. Both enantiomers were docked
almost identically into the AChE active site gorge, and
established the same type of interactions with amino acid
side chains of the enzyme (see Table 2.). The estimated free
energies of binding for the both enantiomers appeared very
similar, 11.15 and 11.11 kcal/mol, for S and R,
respectively. Phenylamide rings of both enantiomers are
directed toward the bottom of the AChE active site gorge,
and form hydrophobic interactions with aromatic side chains
of Phe 338, Tyr 337 and Trp 86. The aroyl phenyl rings of
the both R and S enantiomers are directed toward the
entrance of the gorge, and interact with Tyr 72, Asp 74 and
Trp 286 (residues that belong to PAS). Oxygen of the aroyl
carbonyl group forms hydrogen bond with the backbone NH- group of Phe 295.

Figure 3. Compounds 4 and 5 docked into the AChE

active site. (a) best ranked pose for 4; (b) best ranked pose
for 5; (c) the most populated pose for 4; (d) most
populated pose for 5.
In the Figure 3c and 3d the best docking poses, that belong
to the most populated cluster, for the compounds 4 and 5 are
shown. The orientation of the ligands is reversed, comparing
to the energetically favored poses (Fig 1a and 1b). Aroyl
moieties of the ligands are accommodated at the entrance of
the gorge (PAS), interacting with aromatic side chains of
Trp 286 and Tyr 72. Phenylamido rings of the both
compounds are directed toward the bottom of the AChE
active site gorge and interact with the side chains of Tyr
337, Phe 338 and Trp 86 residues. The hydrogen bond
between amido -NH- group and the side chain -OH of Tyr
124 is retained. The important difference between
energetically favorable and the most populated docking
poses for compounds 4 and 5 lies in the fact that ligands are
found closer to the entrance of the gorge in the poses which
belong to the most populated cluster. The upper part of the
AChE active site gorge is wider, and can easily
accommodate voluminous diisopropyl-substituted aroyl
groups of 4 and 5, in a variety of slightly different, but
essentially similar conformations. Most probably because of
this, the search algorithm was able to find more similar
poses belonging to the same cluster. One important
consequence of this is that cycloalkyl amino moieties of 4
and 5 are found near acyl pocket residues Phe 295 and Phe

Figure 2. The best ranked /most populated pose for 2.

In the Figure 3a and 3b the docking solutions, best ranked
by the estimated free energy of binding (G), for the
compounds 4 and 5, are shown. The S enantiomers are
colored cyan and the R are colored red. Both enantiomers
729

297, instead near catalytic triad residues His 447 and Ser
203, as observed in the best ranked docking pose; therefore,
in the most populated pose of 5, N3 nitrogen of the
imidazole ring forms hydrogen bond with backbone -NHgroup of Phe 295. However, in both classes of poses, the
hydrogen bond between amido -NH- group and side chain OH group of Tyr 124 existed. For the compound 3, we
found reversed situation, in the best ranked poses,
phenylamido moiety is found at the bottom of the gorge,
while in the most populated poses the aroyl moiety is
situated there (results not shown).

As in case of compound 1, the best docked pose and the

most populated one are equal for (R)-6 and (S)-7 (Figure 4b
and 4c). For this enantiomers, the docked poses in most
instances resemble the ones observed for compounds 1 and
2, phenylamido moiety pointed toward the bottom of the
AChE active site gorge and the imidazole ring found in
close contact with Tyr 124. Oppositely, for (S)-6 and (R)-7,
two types of poses are mutually very different, with the
most populated pose unusually bent in such a way that
imidazole ring is pointed near the PAS of the enzyme. In the
best ranked pose, tetralinyl group form hydrophobic
interactions with Trp 86, phenylamido rins are found near
PAS and imidazole ring is found near catalytic Ser 203 and
forms hydrogen bond with its OH group.

In every analysed pose for the two aroyl 4-iPr substitted

compounds the phenylamide ring is found at the bottom of
the AChE active site gorge. Therefore, introduction of
voluminous 3,5-dimethoxy substituents on the phenylamido
ring, as in 1, does not change the overall orientations of R
and S enantiomers of the compounds (i.e. both enantiomers
have similar orientations inside AChE active site gorge), but
orientations of the phenylamido and imidazole ring are
slightly changed in respect to binding to different sub-sites
(hydrophobic pockets), for different enantiomers
considering the different types of docking poses. Also,
when we take into consideration the general type of binding
for 4-iPr and 2,4-di-Pr substituted compounds, it can be
observed that, when there are no voluminous 2,4diisopropyl groups at aroyl moiety, which can establish
important hydrophobic contact with the amino acid residues
in the active site of AChE, and give rise to the energetically
most favored (but poorly populated) docking poses (as in
case of compounds 4 and 5), the most populated pose
becomes also the energetically favored one, with
phenylamido moiety directed toward bottom of the gorge,
and aroyl phenyl ring directed toward the entrance of the
gorge, as in case of compound 2.

Protein flexibility was not accounted in our docking study.

The knowledge of the interactions between enzyme and
ligands over time may provide additional information about
most persistent interactions and the stability of the proteinligand complexes. We performed the unconstrained, 5 ns
molecular dynamics simulation, starting from the most
populated docking pose of the S enantiomer of compound 5.
The most important distances between AChE active site
residues and the ligand during simulation are shown in
Figure 5. During the simulation ligand moves toward the
entrance of the gorge, as can be seen by a gradual increase
of the distance between the centroid defined on the indole
ring of Trp 86 and the phenylamide ring of compound 5 (4
to ~ 12 , Fig. 5a). Inspite of this, a stable distance is
observed between aroyl ring of 5 and Trp 286 side chain. A
major fluctuation in the distance between centroids defined
on Trp 286 indole ring and aroyl phenyl moiety is observed
during first ns of the simulation (from 4.5 to almost 11 ,
Fig 5b, blue squares). After this time, this fluctuation of
distance appeared stable, with an average value of 7.5 .
We monitored the distance between methyl group of orthoi-Pr moiety and centroid defined on the indole ring of Trp
286. The profile of this distance (Figure 5b, violet dots) is
similar to aroyl-Trp 286 distance, and suggest a stable CH
interaction with an average distance of 4 .

The docking solutions for both enantiomers of tetralinylsubstituted compounds 6 and 7 are shown in the Figure 4.

Docking calculation suggested a hydrogen bond formation

between backbone NH group of Phe 295 and the nitrogen
N3 of the imidazole ring of compound 5. We monitored this
distance during simulation (Fig. 5c). This hydrogen bond
appeared persistant only at the very beginning of the
simulation, in the first 500 ps. From 1 ns to 4 ns of the
simulation, the distance gradually increases. After 4 ns, the
hydrogen bond between these two groups is formed again,
and remains stable to the end of the simulation. The distance
between the side chain OH oxygen atom of Tyr 124 and
the amide -NH- is shown in Fig 5d. This H-bond remains
stable throughout the simulation. Increase in the distance
appeared around the beginning of the 3rd ns of the
simulation. After that, the hydrogen bond is formed again
and remains stable, with overall occupancy of 72.52 %.
According to the results of this MD simulation, the most
persistant, and therefore probably the most important,
interactions between compound 5 and the AChE active site
involve the hydrogen bond between Try 124 -OH group and
amido NH moiety of the ligand, and the CH
interaction between methyl group of ortho-i-Pr moiety and
Trp 286. Since the ligand moves slighty toward the entrance
of the gorge, and therefore lose interactions with Trp 86

Figure 4. (a) The best ranked (blue) and the most

populated pose (red) for (S)- 6, (b) The best ranked /most
populated pose for (S)- 6, (c) The best ranked /most
populated pose for (S)- 7(d) The best ranked (blue) and
the most populated pose (red) for (R)- 7.
730

residue, we suppose that additional, more voluminous

substituents in para-position of phenylamido moiety will
increase inhibition potency of compounds.

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Figure 5. The most important distances between AChE

residues and compound 5 moieties, derived from 5 ns
unconstrained MD: (a) distance between centroids of
phenylamide ring of 5 and Trp 82 side chain; (b) Blue
squares-distance between centroids of aroyl ring and Trp
286 indole ring; violet dots distance between centroid of
Trp 286 indole ring and Me-group of ortho-i-Pr moiety;
(c) Distance between backobone -NH- of Phe 295 and
N3 nitrogen atom of the imidazole ring of 5; (d) distance
between side chain -OH group oxygen of Tyr 124 and
nitrogen atom of amido -NH- group.

4. CONCLUSION
Docking studies provided valuable insight into possible
interactions between the examined compounds (1-7) and
AChE active site residues. For the 4-iPr substituted
compounds (1 and 2) all docking poses suggested that
phenylamide rings are situated at the bottom of the gorge
with two different orientations for the different types of
poses. For 2,4-di-iPr substituted compounds (3, 4 and 5)
there are two possible orientations of the ligands within the
AChE active site gorge. In one orientation, the aroyl moiety
is directed toward the bottom of the gorge, while in the
other is directed toward the entrance of the gorge. Majority
of the derivatives, in both orientations showed hydrogen
bonding with Tyr 124 residue. According to the 5 ns MD
simulation, the most persistent, and therefore probably the
most important interaction between the most active
compound and AChE active site residues involve hydrogen
bond between Tyr 124 -OH group and the amido -NHmoiety of the ligand. The work presented in this study is
important for better understanding of interactions between
4-aryl-4-oxo-2-aminylbutanamides and AChE active site
amino acid residues, and will possibly lead to design of the
compounds with higher inhibition potency toward AChE.

REFERENCES
[1] G.A.Petroianiu, K.Arafat, A.Schmitt, M.Y.Hassan, J.
Appl. Tox. 25 (2005) 60-67.
[2] Y.Meshulam, G.Cohen, S.Chapman, D.Alhalai,
A.Levy, J. Appl. Tox. 21 (2001) S75-78.
731

ENZYME-BASED TECHNOLOGIES IN DETECTION,

DECONTAMINATION AND PROTECTION FROM TOXIC
ORGANOPHOSPHATE COMPOUNDS
SONJA BAUK
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, bauk.sonja@gmail.com
MAJA VITOROVI-TODOROVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, mvitod@chem.bg.ac.rs
ANTON RADOJKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, radojkovicanton@gmail.com
ELJKO SENI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, zsenic1@gmail.com
DUAN RAJI
Innovation Centre, Faculty of Technology, University of Belgrade, rajic.dusan1@gmail.com

Abstract: Wide application and extreme toxicity of organophosphate compounds cause an increased risk of
environmental contamination which may arise as a result of controlled activities, accidental release or terroristic
actions. The most important elements in such emergency situation are fast and reliable contaminant detection, followed
by immediate and efficient decontamination, as well as application of adequate physical and medical protection.
Biotechnology offers some very attractive solutions in all of these areas of an emergency response. Application of
enzymes is especially suitable, because of certain advantages which they possess over the other methods. In this paper,
a broad spectrum of enzymes, which found their application in different biodetection techniques or as a part of
decontamination, detoxification and protective strategy are discussed, as well as different methods that have been used
for developing enzyme-based biomaterials able to mitigate the life-threatening effects of toxic organophosphates.
Keywords: Organophosphates, enzymes, detection, decontamination, protection.
overstimulation of acetylcholine receptors causes
convulsion, paralysis and finally death for insects and
mammals. [1][2]

1. ORGANOPHOSPHATES: APPLICATIONS
AND CONSEQUENCES
Organophosphates (OPs) are a group of highly toxic
chemicals commonly used for agricultural, industrial,
household and medical purposes, but also as nerve agents
with dominant position in chemical warfare. All OPs are
derivatives of phosphoric, phosphonic or phosphinic acid
and have similar chemical structures with general formula
presented in Figure 1. They also share the same mode of
toxic action which is based on the inhibition of
acetylcholinesterase, the enzyme responsible for the
degradation of the acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter in the
brain, skeletal and muscular systems. After the
transmission of the nerve impulse, acetylcholine is
hydrolyzed to choline and acetyl-CoA by catalytic action
of acetylcholinesterase, which terminates his receptorstimulating activity. OPs practically irreversibly inactivate
enzyme by covalently binding to its active site, thus
preventing acetylcholine breakdown. The resulting

Figure 1: General formula of OPs and major degradation

pathway (R1, R2: alkyl or aryl group; X (leaving group):
halogen, aliphatic, aromatic or heterocyclic group)
The degree of toxicity varies considerably among
different OPs. Phosphorothioates usually show no or little
anticholinesterase activity, but they undergo several
metabolic
biotransformations
before
reaching
acetylcholinesterase. The most representative of them is
oxidative desulfuration of the thiophosphate group,
converting the thiophosphoryl bond to a phosphoryl. The
732

resulting oxidized forms are extremely toxic

anticholinesterase compounds [1]. The most toxic OPs
known are the lethal nerve agents, tabun, sarin, soman and
VX (Figure 2), which are considered to be among the
deadliest chemical warfare agents (CWAs) to date [3].
Their extremely high toxicity is three to four orders of
magnitude greater than most of the chemically similar OP
pesticides. The LD50 levels of some OPs are presented in
Table 1 and compared to botulinum toxin, which is one
of the most toxic substances known to man [4].

2. ENZYMES WITH DEGRADATIVE

CAPABILITIES
There are a number of enzymes with degradative
capabilities toward a wide range of OPs and they have
been isolated from a variety of sources, including
microorganisms, insects, plants, mammals, birds and
squid [5]. OP-degrading enzymes can detoxify OPs by
hydrolyzing the phosphoester bond or by degrading their
alkyl/aryl chains through oxidation, which lead to less
toxic compounds [6][7].

Table 1: Toxicity of selected OP pesticides, nerve agents

and botulinum toxin

Hydrolytic enzymes
Organophosphate

LD50 (mg kg-1)

Diazinon
Coumaphos
Methyl parathion
Parathion
Fensulfothion
Paraoxon
DFP
Sarin
Soman
Tabun
VX
Botulinum toxin

80-300
16-41
3-30
2-10
5-10
0.5
0.3
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.001
0.000001

The hydrolysis of OPs is the principal reaction involved

in detoxification of these compounds, since it leads to a
reduction of their mammalian toxicity by several orders of
magnitude (Figure 1) [2]. The interest in enzymatic
hydrolysis of OPs appeared shortly after development of
highly toxic phosphofluoridates [8][9]. The first enzyme
capable of catalytically hydrolyzing OPs was observed by
Mazur in 1946, who reported the hydrolysis of DFP by
enzymes found in the tissues of humans and rabbits. Since
that time, a number of OP-hydrolyzing enzymes have
been found in many bacteria and eukaryotic organisms.
Considerable research has focused on their isolation and
the cloning and sequencing of the genes that code for
them [5]. According to the nomenclature adopted in 1992,
all OP-hydrolyzing enzymes are classified under the
general category of Phosphoric Triester Hydrolase (EC
3.1.8) and divided into two subgroups. The first is the
aryldialkylphosphatases (EC 3.1.8.1), also referred to as
organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH), paraoxonase and
phosphotriesterase (PTE). These enzymes prefer the
substrates paraoxon and P-esters and they are involved in
P-O, P-S and P-N bond cleavage. The second is
diisopropylfluorophosphatases (DFPase, EC 3.1.8.2), also
called organophosphorus acid anhydrolase (OPAA),
which are the most active against OP compounds with PF and P-CN bonds [4][9][10]. However, some of OPhydrolyzing enzymes could be placed in either category.

Most of OPs have come into the environment through the

application in the form of pesticides, since they are
components of more than 100 pesticide formulations and
account for 38 % of total pesticide used globally [2][3].
This type of pollutants is found in samples of soil,
groundwater and wastewater streams. More dangerous
source of potential OPs contamination comes from
chemical warfare agents, since the estimated value of
their worldwide stored amounts is about 200000 tons [2].

The OPH, originally called parathion hydrolase, is an

enzyme found in a number of bacterial isolates. The
enzyme was initially isolated from Flavobacterium sp.
strain ATCC 27551 identified in Philippine rice paddy
that was treated with the pesticide diazinon and also in the
soil bacterium Pseudomonas diminuta due to its ability to
hydrolyze parathion [11][12]. The opd (organophosphate
degrading) gene encoding the enzyme was located in
extrachromosomal plasmids in both cases, and the gene
sequence was also identical [13]. The gene for this
enzyme has been cloned, sequenced and expressed in a
number of prokaryotic and eukaryotic host organisms.
The three-dimensional crystal structure of OPH has also
been determined. The native enzyme is a homodimer with
a molecular weight of 72 kDa and contains two Zn2+ ions
per monomer subunit. OPH has a broad pH profile with
optimum activity between pH 8 and 10 and a temperature
optimum of ~50C. The purified enzyme is capable of
hydrolyzing paraoxon at a rate that approaches the
diffusion-controlled limit and also possesses the ability to
hydrolyze a wide variety of OPs, including the nerve

Figure 2: OPs nerve agents

The most important elements in an emergency situation
such as contamination by toxic OPs are fast and reliable
contaminant detection followed by immediate and
efficient decontamination, as well as application of
adequate physical and medical protection of personnel.
Biotechnology approach offers some very attractive
solutions in all of these areas of an emergency response.
Enzymes that hydrolyze or oxidize OPs are of potential
interest for detection, decontamination, protection and
treatment of OP poisoning, as well as those that
specifically react with OPs, lacking the ability to perform
their degradation and acting as a stoichiometric
bioscavengers.

733

agents [14]. The Co2+ substituted enzyme has greater

activity on nerve agents and substrates with P-F and P-S
bonds (Table 2). OPH is the only well characterized
enzyme with catalytic activity against V-agents. The Vagent activity is several orders of magnitude slower than
with paraoxon, but it is still significant and has been
improved through site-directed mutagenesis.

degrading enzyme with known natural function, since it

has been identified as a proline dipeptidase. OPAA has
ability to hydrolyze the P-F bonds of DFP, sarin and
soman, but has slow P-O or P-CN, and no P-S hydrolytic
activity (Table 3).
Table 3: Comparison of enzymatic activities of
Alteromonas OPAAs [9]

Table 2: Comparison of hydrolytic constants for OPH for

several selected substrates [9]
OP
Paraoxon
Parathion
DFP
Sarin
Soman
Demeton-S
VX
Acephate

Bond
type

kcat (s-1)

Km
(mmolL-1)

P-O
P-O
P-F
P-F
P-F
P-S
P-S
P-S

3170
630
465
56
5
1.25
0.3
2.8

0.058
0.24
0.048
0.7
0.5
0.78
0.44
160

OP

kcat/Km
(M-1s-1)

Alteromonas Alteromonas Alteromonas

sp. JD6.5 haloplanktis
undina
kcat (s-1)

5.5x107
2.6x106
9.7x106
8.0x104
1.0x104
1.6x103
45
18

Soman
DFP
GF
Sarin
Paraoxon
Tabun
VX

The OP-degrading enzyme very similar to OPH was also

found in Agrobacterium radiobacter. The gene coding for
this enzyme, termed OpdA, has the amino acid sequence
identity of 90 % with the opd gene in Pseudomonas
diminuta encoding for OPH. Despite the close similarity,
both enzymes exhibit different substrate activities: OpdA
has a higher turnover number for substrates with shorter
side chains, in contrast with other characterized
phosphotriesterases [15][16].

3145
1820
1654
611
124
85
0

1667
691
323
308
255
-

2826
1403
1775
426
368
-

Oxidative enzymes
In addition to the hydrolysis, inactivation of OPs can also
be achieved through enzymatic oxidation of their
alkyl/aryl chains. It is known that phosphorothiolates such
as VX are more resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis and that
the oxidative cleavage of the P-S bond leads to more
efficient detoxification [17][18]. Peroxidases and laccases
are oxidative enzymes which have broad substrate
specificity and are able to transform a wide range of toxic
compounds [19]. Heme-containing peroxidases (EC
1.11.1.X), such as chloroperoxidase (CPO) from
Caldariomyces fumago, lignin peroxidase (LIP) from
Phanerochaete chrysosporium, manganese peroxidase
(MnP) from Coriolopsis gallica and horseradish
peroxidase (HRP), use hydrogen peroxide or other
organic peroxides as electron acceptors to catalyze the
oxidation of a wide range of substrates. Fungal CPO and
mammalian myeloperoxidase could catalyze H2O2
reduction with subsequent oxidation of chloride ions into
free chlorine. Free chlorine (or hypochlorous ions)
produced by CPO could be utilized for degradation of
VX, as it was demonstrated by using CPO isolated from
Caldaromyces fumago, when also a mixture of glucose
oxidase (GOX) from Aspergillus niger and glucose were
used as an alternative source for H2O2 [17]. The HRP in
the presence of 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6sulfonate) (ABTS) and peroxide as co-substrates, is
another efficient VX-degrading enzyme. Laccases (EC
1.10.3.2) are multicopper proteins belonging to the family
of blue-oxidases enzymes, which can oxidize a variety of
aromatic compounds with concomitant reduction of
oxygen to water. The laccases from Pleurotus ostreatus
and Chaetomium thermophilium were found to rapidly
degrade VX and VR in the presence of ABTS as a
mediator [18].

The mammalian enzyme paraoxonase 1 (PON1) is one of

the major enzymes in the human body that is able to
hydrolyze OP nerve agents and the serum level of this
enzyme is thus of great importance for the protection
against OP poisoning. Its activity was initially detected in
rabbit, human and monkey plasma and red blood cells.
This enzyme is responsible for hydrolyzing the oxon
metabolites of phosphorothioate produced through action
of oxidative enzymes, and can hydrolyze the P-O, P-F and
P-CN bonds.
The OPAA enzymes have been isolated from squid,
protozoa, clams, mammals and soil bacteria [4]. The
squid-type of enzyme, usually called squid DFPase, is one
of the OP-hydrolyzing enzymes that have been studied for
the longest period. It has been found only in cephalopods,
requires Ca2+ for activity and stability and hydrolyzes
DFP and G-type nerve agents. DFPase hydrolyzes DFP
five times faster than soman, but does not catalyze the
hydrolysis of VX and paraoxon. Its biochemical
properties are completely different from those of OPH
and others OPAAs, and it appears to belong to a unique
class of enzymes.
Bacterial OPAA was first identified in the obligate
halophilic bacterium Alteromonas sp. JD6.5 and
originally characterized as DPF hydrolyzing enzyme.
After that, enzyme was isolated from a number of other
Alteromonas strains [9]. OPAAs from Alteromonas
species are structurally and functionally similar. These
enzymes have a molecular weight between 50 and 60
kDa, an optimum pH from 7.5 to 8.5, a temperature
optimum of 40 to 55 C and they require Mn2+ for
maximum activity [4]. OPAA is the only nerve agent-

3. ENZYMES ACTING AS STOICHIOMETRIC

SCAVENGERS
OPs are able to bind covalently to serine esterases. Their
primary target is acetylcholinesterase (AChE), whose
inhibition is responsible for their acute toxicity. Certain
734

secondary targets of OPs are found in various tissues and

these endogenous enzymes are involved in natural
defenses against OP toxicity by reducing the number of
OP molecules that can reach the physiological target.
These enzymes include, for example, other serine
esterases, such as butyrylcholinesterase (BChE),
neuropathy target esterase (NTE), carboxylesterase (CaE),
trypsin, chymotrypsin and serum albumin, which act as
scavengers of OPs. Research on bioscavengers mostly
focused on ChEs and CaEs. BChE is the most important
stoichiometric OP scavenger in human plasma. Its
concentration is about 50 nM and its apparent secondorder rate constant with OPs is ~107 M-1min-1 [7]. CaE
has a different substrate specifity: positively charged OPs,
such as VX, react poorly with CaE, while neutral OPs,
such as soman, sarin and paraoxon, react rapidly [20]. The
levels of circulating CaE vary between mammalian
species, and animals that have high levels of plasma CaE
require much larger doses of OPs to produce toxicity.
Albumin displays a low esterase activity and slowly reacts
with phosphoryl esters. However, its concentration in the
blood and lymph is high (~0.6 mM) and it has a large
number of amino acid residues that covalently bind OP
molecules (5 tyrosines and 2 serines), which significantly
contribute to its detoxification role. The reactivity of these
residues could be enhanced upon specific chemical
modifications and this could lead to a new generation of
stoichiometric bioscavengers.

with OP-degrading enzymes as decontaminating

towelettes, gauze, swabs, bandages and wound dressings.
Thus, the use of cellulose as matrix for OP-degrading
enzymes has also been investigated [5]. Furthermore, OPdegrading enzymes have been incorporated into
conventional formulations of fire fighting foams and
sprays, laundry detergent, aqueous degreasers etc [9].
Enzymatic formulations intended for environmental and
personal decontamination purposes, such as skin and eye
lotions, topical skin protectants, foams and tissues, must
act under conditions where local OPs concentrations can
be very high. For such external use, highly concentrated
preparations with enzymes which display high molecular
catalytic activity are favorable. Unlike most chemical
catalysts, enzymes with different properties and
specificities can be mixed together in a single
formulation. Co-immobilization of different enzymes
could be an easy way to extend the spectra of agents
which can be degraded and this also should allow
simultaneous detoxification of different agents [7].
Enzymatic technology in detection is favorable due to
their selectivity, specificity and sensitivity. AChE and
BChE have been described for many years as sensitive
tools for the detection of many OPs. Although very
sensitive, these systems have limitations. Environmental
factors that can cause loss of enzyme activity will result in
false positive signals. In addition, continuous application
of such sensor or its reuse is excluded, due to the
irreversible nature of enzyme-OP interaction. To
overcome the drawbacks of the inhibition-based system,
focus has been shifted towards catalytic systems based on
OPH or OPAA as the immobilized biological recognition
element [21].

4. ENZYMES APPLICATION
Detection and decontamination of OPs
Enzymes are non-toxic, non-corrosive, safe and
environmentally benign, which make them very attractive
for green solution of the decontamination problems
associated with chemical and physical approaches. Two
critical requirements in development of the enzyme-based
decontaminant are the availability of degrading enzymes
in large quantities and their stability at ambient
temperatures. In addition, enzymes used for
decontamination are required to operate under harsh
conditions, such as extreme pH and temperature and in
the presence of organic solvent. Since the preparation and
purification of enzymes can be costly, enzyme must be
immobilized to increase their reusability and stability. The
first report of an immobilized OP-hydrolyzing enzyme
preparation was published by Munnecke, who attempted
to immobilize a pesticide detoxification extract from
bacteria by absorption on glass beads [5]. Since then,
decontamination by immobilized OP-degrading enzymes
has become the focus of many studies [21]. Enzymes have
been immobilized on a wide variety of support materials,
including alumina pellets, trityl agarose and glass/silica
beads. Numerous polymers, such as nylons, acrylates and
several copolymer blends, have also been used as
effective supports. Enzyme-containing polyurethane
materials are ideal matrices because of their ease of
preparation, the large range of polymer properties that can
be prepared and multipoint covalent attachment of
enzyme [5][21][22]. Cotton, as a highly absorptive
material, would be appropriate for use in combination

Prophylaxis and in vivo detoxification

The current treatments for OP poisoning are effective in
preventing lethality, but they lack the ability to prevent
post-exposure incapacitation, performance deficits, or
permanent brain damage [23][24]. Consequently, there
are ongoing efforts to develop effective treatments for in
vivo detoxification of OPs and one of the promising
approaches is based on the use of enzymes. Enzymes of
the ChE family are a natural choice, since they are
endogenous targets of toxic OPs. It was shown that
intravenous administration of fetal bovine serum AChE,
equine serum BChE or human serum BChE (HuBChE)
protected the animals from multiple LD50 of a variety of
OPs, without any toxic effects or performance decrements
[24][25]. Plasma-derived HuBChE represents a first
generation biological scavenger and it is considered to be
the most suitable bioscavenger for human use. In order to
obtain sufficient amounts of enzyme, research efforts
have focused toward more reliable source of HuBChE and
the development of HuBChE from recombinant
expression systems. Among a variety of potential sources
of rHuBChE, enzymes purified from transgenic plants and
from the milk of transgenic goats have been the most
extensively studied. The goat-milk derived rHuBChE
have efficacy very similar to those with plasma-derived
enzyme, but goat-milk derived enzyme has a shorter
circulatory half-life, as a result of different glycosylation
735

pattern [20][26]. To enhance its biological residence time,

rHuBChE was modified by attachment of several
molecules of polyethylene glycol and also by fusion to
human serum albumin [27].

destruction of nerve agents' stockpiles, but also in fabrics

and filters for personal protection, skin protection, in vivo
protection and detoxification from OP poisoning, as well
as in sensors for CWA and pesticide detection. A broad
spectrum of enzymes already found their application in
different biodetection techniques or as a part of
decontamination, detoxification and protective strategy.
Different methods have been used for developing
effective
enzyme-based
biomaterials.
Potentially
applicable enzymes have both advantages and
disadvantages, so efforts to improve binding and expand
the substrate specificities of several candidates are
ongoing. Recent studies have focused on the application
of biomolecular engineering in order to obtain enzymes
with improved ability to biodegradation or other useful
features, depending on the purpose of application. Thanks
to advances in the field of recombinant DNA technology,
microbiology and biochemical processing, enzyme usage
in all of these areas is no longer a laboratory curiosity and
biotechnological applications of enzymes are developing
into useful tools.

The irreversible nature of the reaction between OPs and

ChE and unfavorable OP/ChE mass ratio, cause the
necessity of a large amount of enzyme which is required
to neutralize a small amount of OP. By contrast, a
catalytic scavenger has the advantage of not being
consumed in the process of detoxifying the OPs and it
could be administered in smaller quantities to produce the
same or greater extent of protection against OP poisoning.
Different efforts have been made to improve the
effectiveness of ChEs and convert them into OP hydrolase
enzymes. One approach is based on the use of an oxime in
combination with the enzyme. These enzymereactivator
coupled systems could lead to a new family of pseudocatalytic bioscavengers, which will be successful by using
ChEs mutants with enhanced reactivation and reduced
aging rate, or those that do not age [7][28]. By using
rational site-directed mutagenesis, mutants of human
ChEs capable of hydrolyzing OPs have also been made,
but so far their activity is too low to be of medical interest
[29]. As a naturally occurring plasma enzyme, HuPON1
is the most promising catalytic bioscavenger candidate for
pretreatment and therapy of OP poisoning. Purified
human and rabbit serum PON1 was reported to hydrolyze
various OPs in vitro and in vivo. The hydrolytic activities
of human rPON1 expressed in Escherichia coli and
Trichoplusia ni larvae have also been examined [23][30].
However, the rate at which wild type HuPON1 catalyzes
the hydrolysis of nerve agents is too slow to protect
against a lethal dose of nerve agent. Protein engineering
could be used to improve its efficacy, but a 3D structure is
lacking for a rational design approach [28][30]. In
addition, the enzyme has been difficult to functionally
express and purify from many sources, which complicate
its in vivo testing [30]. In addition to PON1, OPhydrolyzing enzymes from a variety of prokaryotic
sources, such as OPH or OPAA, have also the potential to
improve current treatments of OP poisoning. But
bacterially derived enzymes are likely to initiate an
immune response and so are not suitable for use in
humans. In addition, rapid clearing of the enzyme from
the blood stream may negate its potential benefits [9].
Different approaches have been made in order to reduce
antigenicity and slow down clearance, such as enzyme
conjugation to dextran, PEGylation or inclusion in
nanocontainers [7]. Some approaches include the enzyme
encapsulation in erythrocytes, sterically stabilized
liposomes and a dendritic polymers [31].

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of
Serbia support this work, Grant TR34034.

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5. CONCLUSION
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[16] Ely,F., Hadler,K.S., Gahan,L.R., Guddat,L.W.,
Ollis,D.L., Schenk,G.: "The organophosphatedegrading enzyme from Agrobacterium radiobacter
displays mechanistic flexibility for catalysis",
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[17] Amitai,G., Adani,R., Hershkovitz,M., Bel,P.,
Rabinovitz,I., Meshulam,H.: "Degradation of VX
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23(4) (2003) 225-233.
[18] Amitai,G., Adani,R., Sod-Moriah,G., Rabinovitz,I.,
Vincze,A., Leader,H., Chefetz,B., LeibovitzPersky,L., Friesem,D., Hadar,Y.: "Oxidative
biodegradation of phosphorothiolates by fungal
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[19] Torres,E., Bustos-Jaimes,I., Borgne,S.L.: "Potential
use of oxidative enzymes for the detoxification of
organic pollutants", Applied Catalysis B:
Environmental, 46(1) (2003) 1-15.
[20] Ross,M.C.,
Broomfield,C.A.,
Cerasoli,D.M.,
Doctor,B.P., Lenz,D.E., Maxwell,D.M., Saxena,A.:
"Nerve Agent Bioscavenger: Development of a New
Approach to Protect Against Organophosphorus
Exposure", in: Lenhart M.K., Tuorinsky S.D. (eds),

Textbooks of military medicine, medical aspects of

chemical warfare, The Office of the Surgeon General
at TMM Publications, Washington, 2008: 243-259.
[21] Hlseweh,B.,
Richard,A.,
Niemeyer,B.,
"Immobilization of Enzymes", in: Richardt A., Blum
M.M. (eds), Decontamination of Warfare Agents,
Enzymatic Methods for the Removal of B/C
Weapons, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA,
Weinheim, 2008: 253-271.
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Stabilization
in
[22] Kernchen,R.J.:
Nanostructured
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for
Use
in
Organophosphorus Nerve Agent Detoxification and
Prophylaxis", in: Mikhalovsky S., Khajibaev A.
(eds), Biodefence. Advanced Materials and Methods
for Health Protection, Springer, Dordrecht, 2011:
135-146.
[23] Valiyaveettil,M.,
Alamneh,Y.,
Rezk,P.,
Biggemann,L.,
Perkins,M.W.,
Sciuto,A.M.,
Doctor,B.P., Nambiar,M.P.: "Protective efficacy of
catalytic bioscavenger, paraoxonase 1 against sarin
and soman exposure in guinea pigs", Biochemical
Pharmacology, 81(6) (2011) 800-809.
[24] Doctor,B.P., Saxena,A.: "Bioscavengers for the
protection of humans against organophosphate
toxicity", Chemico-Biological Interactions, 157-158
(2005) 167-171.
[25] Saxena,A., Sun,W., Fedorko,J.M., Koplovitz,I.,
Doctor,B.P.: "Prophylaxis with human serum
butyrylcholinesterase protects guinea pigs exposed to
multiple lethal doses of soman or VX", Biochemical
Pharmacology, 81(1) (2011) 164-169.
[26] Cerasoli,D.M. et al., "In vitro and in vivo
characterization
of
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butyrylcholinesterase (ProtexiaTM) as a potential
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Interactions, 157-158 (2005) 363-365.
[27] Huang,Y.J. et al., "Substantially improved
pharmacokinetics
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albumin", BMC Biotechnology, 8:50 (2008).
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catalytic bioscavengers of organophosphorus nerve
agents", Toxicology Letters, 206(1) (2011) 14-23.
[29] Masson,P., Nachon,F., Broomfield,C.A., Lenz,D.E.,
Verdier,L., Schopfer,L.M., Lockridge,O.: "A
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against
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organophosphorus esters", Chemico-Biological
Interactions, 175(1-3) (2008) 273-280.
[30] Otto,T.C. et al., "Purification and characterization of
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Wild,J.R.: "Protection of Acetylcholinesterase from
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Press Elsevier, San Diego, 2009: 1041-1051.

737

TESTING OF PROTECTIVE AND PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF

MEANS FOR ANTIMICROBIAL RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
NEGOVAN IVANKOVI
Military Academy, University of Defense, Belgrade, negovan.ivankovic@gmail.com
DUAN RAJI
Innovation Centre, Faculty of Technology, University of Belgrade, rajic.dusan1@gmail.com
ELJKO SENI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, zsenic1@gmail.com
MARINA ILI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, lemezalen@yahoo.com
NIKOLA VUKOVI
Faculty of Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade, vukovic.nik@gmail.com
RADOVAN KARKALI
Military Academy, University of Defense, Belgrade, rkarkalic@yahoo.com
NATAA PAJI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, natasa.pajic@eunet.rs

Abstract: Air contamination by biological agents in form of aerosols, as consequence of natural epidemic or use of
bioagents in war or terroristic purposes, continually imposes the need for improve means for personal respiratory
protection. This paper presents the results of comparative testing the filtering effectiveness under conditions of
simulated biological air contamination of four models of epidemiological mask (one market available and three
prototypes) manufactured by "9 September", from Gornji Milanovac, Republic of Serbia. Also, it was tested their
phisiological suitability for use, which is conditioned by applied nanotechnologies in their development. As a test
substance and adequate physical simulator of bioaerosols, solid NaCl aerosol have been used. Determining the
concentration of these aerosols has been carried out by flame photometry, and granulometric distribution by electric
particle analyzer. Inhalation resistance of the tested samples has been measured by differential ''U'' water meter
pressure drop. It has been determined high efficiency and physiological suitability of epidemiological mask in case of
user's respiratory organs exposure to bioagents contamination.
Keywords: protection respiratory protection, epidemiological mask, biological agents, nanomaterials.

1. INTRODUCTION
Air contamination by biological agents as a result of a
natural epidemic or application of bioagents in war or
terrorist purposes, is a regular phenomenon of the modern
era. Number of biological agents that could potentially be
used in the war is far smaller than those in peacetime
situation naturally cause disease. Biological ordnance are
divided into those which act on the man (human
pathogens), the animal (animal pathogens), and the plants
(plant pathogens). Picture 1 shows a possible inoculum
suitable for the production of biological means of combat.
Picture 1: Types of inoculum

738

Biological weapons are pathogenic microorganisms or

their toxins which are used to intentionally causing
disease - death of humans, animals or plants, and its use
in armed conflict, as well as by terrorist organizations,
sects or individuals is defined as biological terrorism bioterrorism [1].

This paper presents the results of comparative testing of

protective and physiological properties of samples of four
types of epidemiological masks for respiratory protection
of the military personel in terms of possible biological air
contamination.

The effectiveness of biological products as biological

weapons illustrated by the fact that some biological toxins
(botulinum toxin, Shiga toxin, ricin) are deadlier than
toxic chemical substances intended for chemical weapons
(VX, soman, sarin) [2]. The structure of biological
weapons and tactics of its application dictate that
dissemination of biological agents at target place be in the
form of aerosols, so the effects be as good as possible, as
the most effective way of presenting the human body to
the influence of biological agents is by inhalation.

2. THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS
Filtering half mask for protection against particles is
personal protective equipment provided to ensure proper
seal to the user's face because protection from the ambient
atmosphere, when the skin is dry or wet, and when the
head moves. It is designed to protect both the solid and
the liquid aerosols. It covers the nose, mouth and chin and
may have a connection to breathing (inhalation valve
and/or exhalation valve). A half mask, wholly or
substantially, consists of a filtering material [10].

Protection from the effects of biological weapons

involves the application of measures for prevention and
suppression of infectious diseases. The vaccines that are
considered to be effective in the protection against
infection, which is formed in a natural way, in these
circumstances may be inefficient, ie. without the exercise
adequate level of protection [3]. Therefore, according to
the recommendations of the World Health Organization
(WHO) one of the basic measures is application of
respiratory protection [4].

Filtration materials from which protective half masks are

produced can be of fibers based on natural or synthetic
materials. With the development of nanotechnology
filtration characteristics of these materials have
opportunities for filtration micron and submicron particles
[11]. Picture 2 shows the filtration material of
epidemiological antimicrobial mask, which is made of the
finest nano fiber non-woven polypropylene material.
Pores for the passage of air are the size of about 3
nanometers.

In line with that in the last decade for virus protection of

the civilian population were used disposable protective
filtering half masks. Their main purpose is to protect from
the inside out, but they were used during outbreaks and
for protection in the opposite direction. They are widely
used in Asian countries, especially during the epidemic of
SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), which
proved to be crucial for continuous protection against this
deadly disease [5]. The mask is designed to be worn on all
occasions where suitable conditions for possible air
contamination by bioagents - as result of being among the
larger number of sick or even apparently healthy
individuals (healthy carriers), in public places and other
gatherings. [6] A similar epidemiological effect in
protection using such a mask is to be expected with the
influenza virus, avia influenza virus type A/H5 N1, A/H1
N1 and A/H3 N2 (in humans), as well as A/H7 N7 and
A/H7 N3 (in bird species) [7].

Figure 2: SEM picture of filtration material of

epidemiology antimicrobial masks

In case of occurrence of an epidemic, or pandemic, it is

necessary to maintain a high operational capacity of the
military, both in peacetime and in wartime. The Serbian
rmy is using military protective mask as a formational
device of personal respiratory protection. During the
testing of military protective masks M3, it was found that
is physiologically suitable and effectively protects the
user's respiratory system in the case of contamination by
biological agents [8].

The mechanism of protection is based on the removal of

aerosols from the inhaled air by physical binding of the
filter material with a large specific surface area.
Accordingly, the efficiency of protection, especially in the
field of protection of micro-organisms (mainly bacteria
and viruses), is conditioned on the number of layers of
filtration materials high performances, with appropriate
physiological suitability of mean for use, which depends
on the resistance to the flow of contaminated air.

Although it is envisaged to use protective half mask to

protect the civilian population in the case of an epidemic
or pandemic [9], the question is whether this kind of
protection for the military personnel is sufficiently
effective and physiologically more appropriate in relation
to an formation means of protection, especially when in
peacetime is needed to perform daily tasks.

Accordingly, one of the key parameters for the

assessment of protection that provides protection half
mask are determining the filtration efficiency of aerosol
contaminants (through the filtration material), provided
with appropriate inhalation resistance because of
physiological suitability. According filtration efficiency
(FE) and the greatest inhalation resistance (IR) filtering
739

half masks to protect against particles are classified into

three classes: FFPl (FE 80% and IR 60 Pa), FFP2 (FE
94% and IR 70 Pa), FFP3 (FE 99% and IR 100
Pa). The protection afforded by FFP2 or FFP3 means
includes that provided by the appropriate mean of below
class or the lower classes [10].

samples have been exposed to tests of mechanical

strength,
using a spray-type Collison, from 1% aqueous solution
of NaCl, has been successfully generated polidispersed
solid aerosol concentration C0 = 8 mg/m3 which
granulometric distribution of generated particles fulfill
requirements for its suitability as a simulator of
biological agents; geometric size distribution of
generated particles has been determined by electrical
particles analyzer EAA-3030 (manufacturer company
TSI, USA) parameters are shown at Table 1,

3. EXPERIMENT
3.1. The tested samples

testing has been performed at a test aerosol flow of 95

dm3/min,

Samples of protective half mask on which test were

carried out in Military Technical Institute laboratories are
a product of a company "9th September", Gornji
Milanovac, Republic of Serbia. This is the only company
that manufactures protective filtering half-mask in the
Republic of Serbia. Epidemiological antimicrobial mask,
which is the subject of our study, is half mask made of
multiple layers of filtration materials (depending on
model). It represents disposable mean of personal
respiratory protection with a pronounced hydrophobic
characteristics.

concentration of test aerosol has been measured before

and after the tested filter by Type 1100 Sodium Flame
Photometer (manufacturer Moores (Wallisdown) LTD.,
UK),
penetration of particles through the tested filter (P) is
calculated by the formula:
P (%) =

Samples of four models of epidemiological masks were

comparative tested:

C2
100
C1

C1 concentration of sodium chloride aerosol in front of

tested filter,

1 - four-layered epidemiological antibacterial mask

without exhalation valve,

C2 concentration of sodium chloride aerosol after tested

filter.

2 - four-layered epidemiological antibacterial mask with

exhalation valve,

Table 1. Parameters of size distribution particle of

generated aerosols from 1% NaCl solution

3 - three-layered epidemiological antibacterial mask

without exhalation valve,

Particle Particle median Particle median Geometric

by weight
per number
diameter
deviation
g
MMD (m)
NMD (m)
dp (m)

4 - three-layered epidemiological antibacterial mask with

exhalation valve.

0,02 2,0

The first model of protection half mask is available on the

market, while the other three are prototype models. Tested
samples of those models are labeled as described in the
purpose of a simpler processing and displaying of results.

0,40

0,03

2,53

Testing of the resistance during inhalation

The method and apparatus for testing per SRPS EN
149:2007 has been used [10]. In accordance with the
method:

3.2. Test procedure

In accordance with the key parameters for the assessment
of protection provided by protective half mask, it has been
made:

the taking of required number of pieces of individually

wrapped epidemiological masks without valve has been
performed (by 9 samples of both models), which have
been prepared for testing as follows: 3 samples in the
state received, 3 samples have been exposed to
temperature conditioning, 3 samples have been exposed
to procedure of simulated wear,

Testing of the leakage through filtering material

Since the testing with real contaminants in the laboratory
circumstances is a high-risk activity, in practice is applied
the test method of generated aerosols of some non-toxic
agent which simulate the presence of contamination in the
air. The method and apparatus for testing with aerosol of
sodium chloride per SRPS EN 149:2007[10], which is
shown in SRPS EN 143:2007 has been used [12]. In
accordance with the method:

the taking of required number of pieces of individually

wrapped epidemiological masks with valve has been
performed (by 12 samples of both models), which have
been prepared for testing as follows: 3 samples in the
state received, 3 samples have been exposed to
temperature conditioning, 3 samples have been exposed
to procedure of simulated wear and 3 samples have
been exposed to conditioning the flow,

the taking of required number of pieces of individually

wrapped epidemiological nanomasks has been
performed (12 samples of all models); all series of
samples have been prepared for testing as follows: 3
samples in the state received, 3 samples have been
exposed to temperature conditioning, 3 samples have
been exposed to procedure of simulated wear and 3

samples of all four models have been tested at

continuous air flow of 30 dm3/min which was corrected
to 23 C and absolute pressure of 1 bar,

740

- resistance during inhalation of the tested samples has

been measured by differential ''U'' water meter pressure
drop, of which is one excerpt connected with the space
beneath the mask in the level of opening the mouth at
Sheffield model of the head, and the other open to the
atmosphere.

for 5-10% than 3-layer model, and it unexpectedly

resulted in a slightly better FE value of 3-layer model. It
is important to point out that in some samples of model 1
measured values are meet the criteria for class FFP3,
which is one more confirmation of build quality of
epidemiological half masks. In accordance with the
above, the obtained results show that filtering material of
all four models own a very high FE level of biological
aerosols.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The analysis of the obtained values of standard deviation

for a series of samples model 2 and 4 (models with
exhalation valve) undoubtedly indicates that the built in
exhalation valve unloading process of breathing, gives
positive effect on increasing the uniformity and
repeatability of test results, although statistically it is not
significant improvement.

4.1. Test results

Results of testing of epidemiological masks are given in
Tables 2 and 3.
Table 2. The results of testing of the leakage through
filtering material
No
1
2
3
4

Testing of the resistance during inhalation

In 4-layer half mask samples (model 1 and 2) the
inhalation resistance is, as expected, somewhat higher at
about 51 Pa, but the values are significantly below the
critical values of resistance allowed for class FFP2 (70
Pa) and FFP3 (100 Pa), what are the limits defined by the
standard [10]. In 3-layer half mask samples (model 3 and
4) the resistance is, as expected, somewhat lower, at
around 30 Pa, but also the values are significantly below
the critical values of resistance allowed for class FFP2
and FFP3 [10].

Test aerosol
Aerosol
Filtration Standard
flow
penetration efficiency deviation
(dm3/min)
P (%)
FE (%)
SD
95
95
95
95

1,190
1,557
1,221
1,155

98,810
98,443
98,779
98,845

0,273
0,103
0,186
0,119

Table 3. The results of testing of the resistance during

inhalation

No

Test aerosol flow

(dm3/min)

Inhalation
resistance
IR (%)

Standard
deviation
SD

1
2
3
4

30
30
30
30

51,28
51,32
29,29
29,28

1,66
1,70
1,33
1,27

No single measured value of resistance does not exceed

the given limits, so that all four models of
epidemiological half mask fully satisfy the requirements
of physiological eligibility defined by standard. Built-in
exhalation valve facilitates the release of carbon dioxide
and water vapor for the user, which increases comfort
when wearing half mask, and what is very important, does
not affect the value of inhalation resistance.

5. CONCLUSION

4.2. Discussion

In accordance with all the exposed, it can be concluded

that:
1. epidemiological half masks can be manufactured in
two versions, without exhalation valves and with it
(especially important for: people who may have
difficulties with breathing such as various types of
asthmatics, children, adults who spend more time on
the field, etc.);
2. in terms of consumer protection and its environment,
and prevention of infection spreading in the military
or any other environment, epidemiological half mask
is more efficient than formational millitary means for
respiratory protection, accordingly to that it perform
filtration of exhaled air, and not only inhaled; this is
the case with military protective mask, although
model M3 has a considerably higher FE of inhaled air
compared to epidemiological half mask [8];
3. because of the low inhalation resistance
epidemiological mask is physiologically more
suitable for use in relation to formational protective
masks, which positively affects to the operability of
military personnel, especially when it comes to
peacetime and longer wearing time of protective
mean.

The decision for the use of sodium chloride aerosol to

simulate biological aerosols in this study has been made
on the basis of comparing the physical properties of
biological agents and generated NaCl aerosols.
Dimensions of the virus aerosols can range from 0.015 to
0.3 m, while the bacterial cells are able to range up to 2
m [13].
Diameters of generated NaCl aerosol particles are in
range from 0,02 to 2,0 m, so Pursuant to the displayed,
NaCl aerosol is suitable as a simulator of biological
aerosols.
Testing of the leakage through filtering material
Results of FE of samples of all four epidemiological mask
models are very high and very homogenous. The analysis
of the mean values of FE shows that the samples of all
four half mask models meet the criteria [10] provided for
class FFP2, but on average, they are little behind the
fulfillment of the criteria set by standards for class FFP3 about 0.2%.
Slightly lower mean value of FE in samples of half mask
model 2 is the result of a shorter fitting line on the user's
face, because the samples of 4-layer model were smaller
741

[7] Fouchier, R.A., Rimmelzwaan, G.F., Kuiken, T.,

Osterhaus, A.D.,"Newer respiratory virus infections:
human metapneumovirus, avian influenza virus, and
human coronaviruses", Current Opinion in Infectious
Diseases, 18 (2005) 141-146.
[8] Ivankovic, N., Rajic, D., Ilic, M., VitorovicTodorovic, M., Pajic, N., "Testing of the efficiency
of military devices for personal respiratory
protection in relation to sub-micron particles of
biological agents", Digest Journal of Nanomaterials
and Biostructures 7 (2012) 1089-1095.
[9] MacIntyre, C.R., Cauchemez, S., Dwyer, D.E., Seale,
H., Cheung, P., Browne, G., et al.,"Face mask use
and control of respiratory virus transmission in
households", Emerging Infectious Diseases, 15
(2009) 233241.
[10] SRPS EN 149:2007, Respiratory Protective Devices
Filtering half masks to protect against particles
Requirements, testing, marking. Institute for
Standardization of Serbia.
[11] Kosmider, K., Scott, J., "Polymeric Nanofibers
exhibit an enhanced air filtration performance",
Filtration+Separation, 39 (2002) 20-22.
[12] SRPS EN 143:2007, Respiratory Protective Devices
Particle filters Requirements, testing, marking.
Institute for Standardization of Serbia.
[13] [Cox, C.S., In Bioaerosol handbook: Physical aspects
of bioaerosol particles, Lewis Publishers, New York,
1995.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Ministry of Education, Science and Technological
Development of the Republic of Serbia support this work,
Grant TR34034 (2011-2014).

REFERENCES
[1] obelji, M., ''Bioloki terorizam'', Glasnik Zavoda
za zatitu zdravlja Srbije, 75 (2001) 18-22.
[2] Klein, L., Merka, V., ''Biological terrorism'', Revue
Internationale des Services de Sante des Forces
Armes, 74 (2001) 46-48.
[3] Geissler, E., Biological and toxin weapons today,
Oxford University Press, SIPRI, 1986.
[4] World Health Organization. WHO global influenza
preparedness plan: the role of WHO and
recommendations for national measures before and
during pandemics. Annex 1. 2005 [cited 2005 Apr].
Dostupno na URL:
http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/influe
nza/WHO_CDS_CSR_GIP_2005_5/en
[5] Pei, L.Y, Gao, Z.C., Yang, Z,, Wei, D.G., Wang,
S.X., Ji, J.M., Jiang, B.G., "Investigation of the
influencing factors on severe acute respiratory
syndrome among health care workers", Beijing Da
Xue Xue Bao 38 (2006) 271275.
[6] Bridges, C.B., Kuehnert, M.J., Hall, C.B.,
"Transmission of influenza: implications for control
in health care settings", Clinical Infectious Diseases,
37 (2003) 10941101.

742

ANALYSIS OF ACOUSTIC CLOAKS FOR ANTI-SONAR CAMOUFLAGE

BASED ON LOCAL RESONANCE IN ACOUSTIC METAMATERIALS
KATARINA RADULOVI
IHTM Center of Microelectronic Technologies, University of Belgrade, Republic of Serbia,
kacar@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
ZORAN JAKI
IHTM Center of Microelectronic Technologies, University of Belgrade, Republic of Serbia,
jaksa@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
MARKO OBRADOV
IHTM Center of Microelectronic Technologies, University of Belgrade, Republic of Serbia,
marko.obradov@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
DANA VASILJEVI RADOVI
IHTM Center of Microelectronic Technologies, University of Belgrade, Republic of Serbia,
dana@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: Non-visual camouflage plays a significant role in the art of military deception. One of the fields of interest is
auditory camouflage, where the goal is to remove the acoustic signature of an object, whether it is generated by the
object itself or scattered from a surveillance device like sonar. A recently proposed approach to auditory camouflage is
acoustic cloaking, where the object is made 'invisible' in acoustic sense by surrounding it with a cloak of acoustic
metamaterial. Acoustic metamaterial is basically an artificial structure tailored to enable control of acoustic wave
dispersion through Bragg scattering, where the features of the structure have subwavelength dimensions. The operation
of an acoustic cloak is based on negative effective dynamic mass and bulk modulus which can be obtained by local
resonances. This leads to a possibility to fully tailor the path of acoustic waves (infrasound, audible waves or
ultrasound) around the camouflaged object, effectively enabling one to make waves avoid the object and render it
invisible. In this contribution we perform a full finite element modeling of the elements of an acoustic cloak, analyze it
and consider coordinate transformation necessary to ensure acoustic concealment of a macroscopic object. We
investigated spatial distribution of acoustic waves for two different scatterers, one of them being a cylindrical object
with circular basis, another one a cylinder with elliptical basis. All our calculations were performed for a realistic sea
water medium, modeled by an empirical formula. We considered the frequency dispersion of the acoustic field in
different spectral ranges, from infrasound to audible frequencies. For elliptic cloaks we applied a very simple approach
that nevertheless furnished better acoustic cloaking than some more complex layered profiles previously published.
Keywords: Acoustic camouflage, Acoustic metamaterials, Phononic crystals, Transformation acoustics, Acoustic cloak.
reflected or created by some external source and scattered
by it. Active devices emit sound pulses and measure their
echoes, i.e. they make use of an acoustic transmitter and a
receiver. The frequencies of sound used in sonars may
vary from low (infrasonic) to very high ultrasonic.
Passive measures of camouflage against sonar include the
use of noise-generating devices as decoys and the
application of sound-absorbent coatings (acoustic stealth)
on the surface of the hardware to be concealed.

1. INTRODUCTION
One of the important measures in military camouflage is
concealment of military hardware and formations against
enemy's observations. A significant position belongs to
the concealment against non-visual observation methods,
most importantly against radar (microwave electromagnetic range), night vision and heat seeking instruments
(infrared range) and sonar (infrasound, audible sound and
ultrasound).

Probably an ideal stealth approach would be to make

acoustic waves avoid the object completely and behave as
if nothing were present in their way. It turns out that such
kind of concealment is possible in reality. It is called
acoustic cloaking and makes use of the recently

Passive and active sonar (acronym for Sound Navigation

And Ranging) devices are a means of choice for detection
of objects in water. Passive devices simply detect sounds
from the environment, created by the target object or
743

introduced paradigm, the transformation acoustics [1].

Essentially, transformation acoustics structures basically
map the spatial coordinates from one spatial geometry to
another and guide a wave along the desired path. Thus an
object can be concealed by a transformation optics
structure by guiding the acoustic waves in such a way to
completely avoid the object, exiting the other side
unchanged. It can be said that transformation acoustics is
used to "distort" acoustic space in a desired manner [2].

introduced photonic
metamaterials.

and

electromagnetic

Acoustic metamaterials are thus artificial structures with

mechanical properties not encountered in nature. An
example of acoustic metamaterial is a structure with
negative refraction of acoustic waves [11-13], i.e. with a
group velocity direction opposite to that of the wave
vector. Their characteristic features are subwavelength
(much smaller than the operating wavelength) and
typically they are built in such a way that local acoustic
resonances appear in them. Under certain conditions,
these local resonances produce negative effective
dynamic mass density and negative bulk modulus [12]
if material is in exact antiresonance with an incident
acoustic wave, it will exert force against the wave and
thus effectively behave as if its mass were negative. The
same is valid for its bulk modulus in antiresonance the
material will expand when pressure is applied to it, and
contract when pressure is removed.

The concept of acoustic cloaking draws its roots from two

relatively recent findings in electromagnetics. One of
these are the electromagnetic metamaterials, structures
with optical properties not readily found in nature [3].
One of the first proposed and fabricated kinds of
electromagnetic metamaterials were structures with
negative refractive index [4]. Based on electromagnetic
metamaterials the transformation optics [5-6] was
proposed, where the possibility of arbitrary adjustment of
refractive index ensured the possibility to obtain almost
any desired spatial distribution of electromagnetic waves.
One of the consequences was the proposal of optical
cloaks [7] rendering electromagnetic invisibility in a
narrow band of the spectrum.

Metafluid with negative acoustic properties was proposed

by Pendry and Li [14]. A relatively simple concept of a
layered acoustic cloak has been proposed by Cummer and
Schurig in 2007 [15] and further elaborated by Torrent
and Snchez-Dehesa [16] for the case of circular basis. In
their contributions gradient acoustic metafluids are used
to ensure negative response of a cloak and thus bend
acoustic waves around the object without causing
disturbance and scattering. The works by Gao et al [17]
and Ma et al [18] investigated elliptical scatterers.

Transformation acoustics [1] was proposed as an obvious

extension of transformation optics. It represents mapping
of one acoustic space into another with an ultimate result
of ensuring full control over sound/ultrasound/infrasound
propagation over space and frequency domain. One
possible transformation is to "stretch" the acoustic space,
thus making the sound waves pass around the object to be
concealed without any disturbance. This is an acoustic
cloak [8-9], rendering acoustic "invisibility" for an object.
A sonar cannot find thus masked object, thus an almost
perfect acoustic stealth mode is ensured. The concept of
such cloaking is illustrated in Picture 1.

a)

crystals

The importance of acoustic cloaking for concealment of

underwater objects is obvious. One could avoid torpedoes
that are directed by on-board sonar, conceal mines or
submarines, etc.
In this contribution we analyze the possibility to utilize
multilayer acoustic cloak based on gradient acoustic
metamaterials for the concealment of macroscopic
underwater objects with cylindrical shape (the often met
form of military hardware for underwater actions) with
circular and elliptical basis. We apply finite element
modeling to simulate acoustic cloaking. We analyze
different spectral ranges, from infrasound to audible
frequencies.

b)

Acoustic scatterer

2. THEORY
Cloaking device

Basic parameters of acoustic metamaterials are the bulk

modulus describing the resistance material gives to
uniform compression and the mass density , defined as
the mass of material per unit of its volume. They
determine the propagation of acoustic waves through such
materials and define the speed of sound c through them.

Wavevector

Picture 1: Concept of acoustic cloaking using acoustic

metamaterial. a) scatterer disturbs the spatial distribution
of acoustic waves; b) acoustic cloak around the scatterer
bends waves and removes disturbance, thus ensuring
concealment

The partial differential equation describing spatial

variation of total acoustic pressure ptot is given as
p
tot

In order to perform mapping of acoustic space, it was

necessary to produce materials with effective mass
density and bulk modulus both lower than zero. This has
been enabled by utilizing sonic crystals and acoustic
metamaterials [10], structures analog to the previously

2 p tot

=0
c 2

where is the angular frequency of the sound wave.

744

(1)

v[m / s ] = 1337.5 + 3.429t[C] + 1.6722 d [km] +

+ 0.03048 C NaCl + 109.73

(4)

where t is temperature in degrees Celsius, d is depth in

km, CNaCl is salinity of water in percent.
Let us consider first the situation where the object to be
concealed is a cylinder with a circular basis 2 m in
diameter, Pic. 2. According to Cummar [15] and Torrent
[16] a multilayered acoustic cloak in the form of a
cylindrical shell is formed of two acoustic metamaterials
alternating around the scatterer (inner cylindrical core).
The geometry and the dimensions of the system are
shown in Pic. 3. The thickness of each single
metamaterial layer is 2 cm, and the total thickness of the
cloak is 1 m, i.e. R1 = 1 m, R2 = 2 m. The whole structure
is submerged in sea water (subscript "w"). The properties
of the both cloak materials are graded and the dependence
of their acoustic parameters on the location within the
cloak are given in a radial coordinate system in the
following form [15, 16]: the relative mass density is

Picture 2: Cloaking of cylindrical scatterer by alternating

acoustic metamaterials.

1, c1

w, cw

2, c2
Rin
Propagation
direction

Rout

r =

r
r Rin w

(5)

r R1
w
r

(6)

and the graded bulk modulus (Lam coefficient) is

Picture 3: Parameters of a cylindrical acoustic cloak:
inner radius of cloak Rin, outer radius Rout, cloak is layered
structure composed of graded metamaterial 1 (1, c1) and
metamaterial 2 (2, c2). w and cw are parameters of the
surrounding medium (water).

(2)

where "b" stands for background, r is the position in

space, p0 is the background pressure if no acoustic wave
is present and k is the standard definition for wave vector.

Rin ( ) =

If a scatterer is present (the concealed object or this object

plus cloak), the resulting pressure can be represented as a
superposition
ptot = pb + pscat

(7)

Further we consider a more realistic situation where the

basis of the cylinder is elliptical. In this work we utilize a
mapping between points within the ellipse and the radial
coordinate system. In this manner the gradient distribution
presented by (5)-(7) is mapped to an ellipse with an
arbitrary degree of flatness. This is achieved by
representing inner and outer acoustic shield elliptical
boundaries in polar coordinates, thus relative mass density
of the shield is position dependable both radial and poolar
coordinate. Two elliptical boundaries are described by
their major and minor axis, ain and bin for inner boundary
and aout and bout for outer boundary. Thus from (5), (6)
and (7) parameters of our acoustic shield become:

First we assume that there is no scatterer (the object to be

concealed). In that case we have only the background
variation of pressure due to the presence of acoustic wave.
The acoustic wave is longitudinal mechanical oscillation
with sinusoidal change, i.e. it can be written as
p b = p 0 exp( kr ), k =

Rout Rin
r

w
Rout r Rin

Rout ( ) =

ain bin

( bin cos )2 + ( ain sin )2

aout bout

(8)

( bout cos )2 + ( aout sin )2

(3)

( r , ) =

where "b" stands for "background" and "scat" means

"scattered".
Contrary to the previous cases considered in literature, we
performed our calculations for a realistic case of acoustic
cloak submerged in sea water. To this purpose we utilized
an empirical formula for the speed of sound in water [19]

r Rin ( ) w
2

Rout ( ) Rin ( )
r
r R ( ) w
Rout ( )

in

(r , ) =

745

(9)

(10)

3. RESULTS
Picture 4 shows the distribution of acoustic waves when a
simple plane wave is incident a cylindrical scatterer that
disturbs its distribution. The calculation was done for a
frequency of 2 kHz. No cloak is applied at this stage.
Pic. 5 shows the calculated total acoustic field
(background + scattered component) if a 50-fold layered
acoustic cloak is applied. The frequency is again 2 kHz.
The presence of the multilayered cloak removes the
disturbance and the field adopts the form as if no scatterer
were present. A warping of the acoustic space is done
according to eqs. (4)-(6) so that the field outside the cloak
behaves the same as in the unperturbed case.
Picture 6 shows the distribution of only the scattered
component of the incident sound wave at 2 kHz. It can be
seen that the most of the scattering is compensated within
the cloak structure itself. Thus outside of it only a weak
disturbance is seen.

Picture 6: Scattered component of acoustic pressure map

at a cylindrical scatterer surrounded by multilayered shell,
2 kHz. Highest scattered pressure is 1.45 Pa (mapped dark
red), lowest 1.45 Pa (dark blue)

The next calculation is done for the case of infrasound.

The operating frequency is 20 Hz, i.e. it is at the very
brink of the audible range. Picture 7 shows the
distribution of the total acoustic pressure in this case. The
cylinder is deeply subwavelength and the role of the cloak
is very small since the object itself is almost invisible to
the interrogating signal. Only the upper half of the
cylindrical structure is shown.

Picture 4: Total acoustic pressure map with cylindrical

scatterer, 2 kHz. Highest pressure is 1.91 Pa (mapped
dark red), lowest 1.69 Pa (dark blue)
Picture 7: Total acoustic pressure map at a cylindrical
scatterer surrounded by multilayered shell, 20 Hz. Highest
pressure is 1 Pa (dark red), lowest 0.95 Pa (dark blue)

Picture 8: Total acoustic pressure map at a cylindrical

scatterer surrounded by multilayered shell, 200 Hz.
Highest pressure is 1 Pa (mapped dark red), lowest 0.2
Pa (dark blue)

Picture 5: Total acoustic pressure map at a cylindrical

scatterer surrounded by multilayered shell, 2 kHz. Highest
pressure is 1.18 Pa (mapped dark red), lowest 1.18 Pa
(dark blue)

Pic. 8 shows the map of the total acoustic pressure in the

sound domain (200 Hz). The redistribution of the acoustic
pressure within the cloak is readily seen.
746

Further we investigate scatterers with elliptical basic. The

calculated density distribution within a layered cloak with
a thickness of 1 m is shown in Pic. 9. The gradient of
density is readily seen.

Picture 9: Spatial distribution of elliptical cloak density

The distribution of the acoustic pressure around a

scatterer with elliptical basis is shown in the further
figures. All the presented spatial distributions were
calculated for a 2 KHz acoustic wave arriving from the
left in the direction of the major axis. Obviously
scattering will differ for acoustic waves arriving from
different directions, contrary to the case of cylinders with
a circular basis.
Picture 10 shows the total acoustic pressure distribution
for the case when a scatterer with a major axis of 2 m and
a minor axis of 1.5 m is considered. Pic. 10 left shows a
situation when a layered acoustic cloak (50 layers, total
thickness 1 m) is applied, while Pic. 10 right shows the
situation without cloaking. A much larger disturbance in
the latter case is readily observed. Picture 11 shows the
same situation, but with scattered pressure shown instead
of the total pressure. It can be seen that backscattering is
strongly suppressed when using a cloak, especially useful
for cloaking navy vessels where object detection is based
on phase difference between emitted and backscattered
wave. Forward scattering is also significantly decreased.
A similar situation is observed for other directions of
incident acoustic waves (not shown in this text).

Picture 11: Scattered acoustic pressure map (top) with

multilayered elliptical acoustic cloak and (bottom)
without acoustic cloak; scatterer is elliptical cylinder,
minor axis 1.5 m, major axis 2 m, cloak thickness 1 m,
frequency 2 kHz.

We also considered the situation when the scatterer is a

more flattened ellipse, with its axes 1 m and 2 m. The
cloak is again with a constant thickness of 1 m, 50 layers.
Compared to the situation presented in [ref], a better
cloaking is observed.

4. CONCLUSION
We considered the possibility of fabricating a cloaking
structure for acoustic concealment of cylindrical
underwater objects. Layered acoustic cloaks with spatial
variation (gradient) of mass density and bulk modulus are
used for that purpose. We investigated the parameters of
the cloaks for different operating frequencies of sonar,
including infrasound and audible sound. We utilized finite
element modeling to solve the partial differential equation
governing the spatial distribution of acoustic pressure
without a cloak and with it. We considered scatterers with
circular and with elliptical basis. In both cases constant
thickness layered cloaks were applied. It can be seen that
in principle full tailoring of the path of acoustic waves
around the camouflaged object (scatterer) is possible. This
gives the opportunity to make sound waves avoid the
object and render it invisible for sonar. Obviously a
number of practical problems related with the fabrication
of the metamaterial itself, as well as with adjusting its
dimensions remains yet to be solved.

Picture 10: Total acoustic pressure map (left) with

multilayered elliptical acoustic cloak and (right) without
acoustic cloak; scatterer is elliptical cylinder, minor axis
1.5 m, major axis 2 m, cloak thickness 1 m, frequency
2 kHz.

747

[4] Ramakrishna, S. A., Grzegorczyk, T. M., Physics and

Applications of Negative Refractive Index Materials,
SPIE Press Bellingham, WA & CRC Press, Taylor &
Francis Group, Boca Raton FL, 2009.
[5] Pendry, J. B., Schurig, D., Smith, D. R., "Controlling
Electromagnetic Fields", Science, 312(5781) (2006),
1780-1782.
[6] Leonhardt, U., "Optical Conformal Mapping",
Science, 312(5781) (2006), 1777-1780.
[7] Cai, W., Chettiar, U. K., Kildishev, A. V., Shalaev,
V. M., "Optical cloaking with metamaterials", Nat.
Photonics, 1(4) (2007), 224-227.
[8] Zhang, S., Xia, C., Fang, N., "Broadband acoustic
cloak for ultrasound waves", Phys. Rev. Lett., 106(2)
(2011).
[9] Zigoneanu, L., Popa, B. I., Cummer, S. A., "Threedimensional broadband omnidirectional acoustic
ground cloak", Nat. Mater., 13(4) (2014), 352-355.
[10] Deymier, P. A., Acoustic metamaterials and
phononic crystals, Springer Verlag, Berlin
Heidelberg, 2013.
[11] Lee, S. H., Park, C. M., Seo, Y. M., Wang, Z. G.,
Kim, C. K., "Acoustic metamaterial with negative
modulus", J. Phys.-Condens. Mat., 21(17) (2009).
[12] Li, J., Chan, C. T., "Double-negative acoustic
metamaterial", Phys. Rev. E, 70(5 2) (2004), 0556021-055602-4.
[13] Yang, Z., Mei, J., Yang, M., Chan, N. H., Sheng, P.,
"Membrane-type acoustic metamaterial with
negative dynamic mass", Phys. Rev. Lett., 101(20)
(2008).
[14] Pendry, J. B., Li, J., "An acoustic metafluid:
Realizing a broadband acoustic cloak", New. J.
Phys., 10(2008).
[15] Cummer, S. A., Schurig, D., "One path to acoustic
cloaking", New. J. Phys., 9(2007).
[16] Torrent, D., Snchez-Dehesa, J., "Acoustic cloaking
in two dimensions: A feasible approach", New. J.
Phys., 10(2008).
[17] Gao, D. B., Zeng, X. W., "Layered ellipticalcylindrical acoustic cloaking design based on
isotropic materials", Wuli Xuebao/Acta Physica
Sinica, 61(18) (2012).
[18] Ma, H., Qu, S., Xu, Z., Zhang, J., Chen, B., Wang, J.,
"Material parameter equation for elliptical
cylindrical cloaks", Phys. Rev. A, 77(1) (2008).
[19] Wilson W. D. "Equation for the speed of sound in sea
water", J. Acoust. Soc. Amer., 1960, vol.32, N 10, p.

Picture 12: Scattered acoustic pressure map (top) with

multilayered elliptical acoustic cloak and (bottom)
without acoustic cloak; scatterer is elliptical cylinder,
minor axis 1 m, major axis 2 m, cloak thickness 1 m,
frequency 2 kHz.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work has been funded by Serbian Ministry of
Education, Science and Technological Development
within the framework of the project TR 32008.

REFERENCES
[1] Chen, H., Chan, C. T., "Acoustic cloaking and
transformation acoustics", J. Phys. D, 43(11) (2010).
[2] Norris, A. N., "Acoustic cloaking theory", P. R. Soc.
A, 464(2097) (2008), 2411-2434.
[3] Cai, W., Shalaev, V., Optical Metamaterials:
Fundamentals
and
Applications,
Springer,
Dordrecht, Germany, 2009; p 207.

748

INDEPENDENT POWER AND ENERGY SOURCES FOR MILITARY

APPLICATIONS
GVOZDEN S. TASI
Vina Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Department of Physical Chemistry, Belgrade, Serbia, gvozdentasic@vinca.rs
PETAR Z. LAUEVI
Vina Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Department of Physical Chemistry, Belgrade, Serbia
IVANA M. PEROVI
Vina Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Department of Physical Chemistry, Belgrade, Serbia
SNEANA M. MIULOVI
Vina Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Department of Physical Chemistry, Belgrade, Serbia
VLADIMIR M. NIKOLI
Vina Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Department of Physical Chemistry, Belgrade, Serbia
MILICA P. MARETA KANINSKI
Vina Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Department of Physical Chemistry, Belgrade, Serbia

Abstract: This paper presents an overview of different military applications of fuel cells. Fuel cells offer significant
reduction in weight, volume and cost compared to conventional power sources. Fuel cells are suited for silent
operations because of their low heat and noise signatures. Recently fuel cells have found use in a variety of critical
military applications such as: unmanned aerial and ground vehicles, soldier portable power, in silent camp, silent
watch applications, in submarines, warships, trucks, cars, forklifts for defense depots and for portable and stationary
power generation.
Providing electrical power to meet the tactical requirements of the future battlefield will become a critical enabling
technology. By installing fuel cell distributed generation systems, electrical sources can be placed right at the location,
eliminating power lines that are vulnerable to accident or attack. Generating power on site at stateside and forward
operating locations also dispenses with the need to deliver fuel. This paper will also present results in the development
of a 5 kW -CHP (combined heat and power) system for supply of electrical and thermal energy, as well as other fuel
cell systems being developed at the Hydrogen nergy Division of Vinca Institute of Nuclear Sciences.
Keywords: hydrogen, fuel cells, power sources, -CHP systems
maturity and commercialization: (1) polymer electrolyte
membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), (2) solid oxide fuel cells
(SOFC), (3) alkaline fuel cells (AFC), (4) phosphoric acid
fuel cells (PAFC), and (5) molten carbonate fuel cells
(MCFC).

1. INTRODUCTION
Recent decades have been showing an increasing
concerns on the depletion of petroleum-based energy
resources, climate change and enviromental protection,
which accelerated the development of alternative and
renewable power sources. Among these new technologies,
fuel cells have received much attention due to their high
efficiencies and low emissions. Fuel cells, which are
classified according to the electrolyte employed, are
electrochemical devices that directly convert chemical
energy stored in fuels, such as hydrogen, to electrical and
termal energy [1]. Fuel cell efficiency can reach 60% in
electrical energy conversion and overall 80% in cogeneration of electrical and thermal energies with >90%
reduction in major enviromental pollutants [2]. There are
several types of fuel cells that have reached technological

Althougth there are great research efforts involved

towards commercialization of the fuel cells, the demand
for alternative and renewable power sources with superior
performance has increased. These power sources must
yield adequate power output while at the same time
maintaining criteria such as a small volume and
lightweight packaging. Fuel cells offer strategic
advantages in military applications as well. Unmanned
aerial, ground, and underwater vehicles can all use fuel
cell power systems to extend their range significantly
while reducing heat and noise signatures.
749

Other advantages provided by fuel cells include fuel

flexibility and elimination of the need to charge batteries.
Many types of fuel cells are fuel flexible; they can be
powered by whatever fuel source is the most available.
Since fuel cells are more efficient than other engines and
generators, they require less fuel.

several hundreds W to several kW. PEMFC are the most

suitable for these distant places, as they can be easily
operated in a wide temperature range from -10C-50C.
Also, these fuel cells have the potential of quick start of
about 30 s, while the dynamic operation, e.g. changing the
desired power output, is instant.

Auxilliary power units (APU) based on fuel cell

technology have already been integrated into millitary
vehicles by GM, Figure 1.

One of the greatest applications of PEMFC, for both

civilian and millitary purposes, are so-called combined
heat and power systems (CHP). These systems are
designed to power separate buildings with electricity and
heat, independently of centralized electric and thermal
grid. Also, these systems are using natural gas as a source
of hydrogen fuel for PEMFC, via steam reforming
process, which is included in the system. Figure 3. present
a shematic view of the CHP system.

Figure 1 - GM fuel cell powered vehicle

The fuel cell APU, designed and built by Hydrogenics, is
a 5-kilowatt PEM regenerative fuel cell system capable of
producing electricity and hydrogen in remote areas. APUs
based on PEMFC technology aimed for millitary transport
applications are commonly using hydrogen produced via
integrated water electrolyzers in so called regenerative
PEM fuel cells. SOFC based APUs could even use the
commercial diesel or kerosene fuel to provide power
output of several kW [3].

Figure 3 Scheme of the CHP system

These CHP systems are currently reaching the overall
efficiency (heat and electricity) of about 75%, while the
electrical efficiency is around 40%. On the first view this
low value of electrical efficiency is derived from the fuel
for PEMFC stack. Natural gas supply is connected to the
CHP system and is transformed in the mixture of
hydrogen, carbon dioxide, methane and carbon monoxide,
which is used as a fuel for PEMFC. The most commonly
used catalyst for the PEMFC is nanodispersed platinum
onto high surface area carbon support [8], for which a
small amount of carbon monoxide n the fuel, act as a
catalytic poison [9]. Also, the cost of these catalysts
greatly influences the capital cost for PEMFC assembly.
Researchers from Hydrogen Energy division at Vinca
Institute have been investigating the possibilities of
increasing the CO tolerance and replacement of
commercial PEMFC catalysts [10, 11]. Figure 4. shows
the PEMFC polarization curves using novel
electrocatalyst.

Another important millitary application of fuels cells in

the field of portable power sources aimed to serve for
portable electronic systems [4,5]. Figure 2 presents a
shematic overview of the portable fuel cell based power
sources.

It was found that the replacement of carbon with tungsten

carbide catalyst support resulted in the similar power
output of such single PEMFC of about 2W. This single
membrane electrode assembly (MEA) can be used in
serial connection for the formation of desired PEMFC
stack, with needed power output.

Figure 2 - Overview of the portable fuel cell based power

sources
These systems are typically PEMFC or DMFC based
power modules designed to weight around 5kg with
power output of about 100W or enough energy stored for
about 1500 Wh [6].
The PEMFC system can be used for decentralized power
supply, suitable for millitary communication systems [7].
These systems provide a power output ranging from
750

(CHP). These systems are designed to power separate

buildings with electricity and heat, independently of
centralized electric and thermal grid. Researchers from
Hydrogen Energy division at Vinca Institute have been
investigating the possibilities of increasing the CO
tolerance and replacement of commercial PEMFC
catalysts. It was found that the replacement of carbon with
tungsten carbide catalyst support resulted in the similar
power output of such single PEMFC of about 20 W. This
clearly opens the possibility for various applications,
since only 5 cell PEMFC stack will provide about 100 W
of electricity.

REFERENCES
[1] J.Garche, L.Jorissen, PEMFC fuel cell,Handbook of
fuel
cells:
fundamentals,
technology
and
applications, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. (2003).
[2] D.Papageorgopoulos, DOE fuel cell technology
program overview and introduction to the 2010 fuel
cell pre-solicitation workshop in DOE fuel cell presolicitation workshop. Department of Energy,
Lakewood, Colorado; 2010.
[3] S.C. Singhal, Solid oxide fuel cells for stationary,
mobile, and military applications, Solid State Ionics
152153 (2002) 405 410.
[4] C.G.Quah, N.Sifer, A.Patil, et al., Compact fuel cell
systems for soldier power, in: Proceedings of the
International Fuel Cell Conference, 2003.

Figure 4 - Comparison of polarization curves of the 5

cm2 single PEMFC using Pd/WC and commercial Pt/C
anode catalysts
Figure 5. shows the power performance of the single
PEMFC with active surface area of 25 cm2 at elevated
temperatures, which was fed with pure hydrogen and
reformate (mixture of hydrogen and CO).
25

(70 C, H2/air)
o

(70 C, reformate/air)
1,0
20

0,8

P (W)

U (V)

15

0,6

[5] A.Kundu, J.H.Jang, J.H.Gil, C.R.Jung, H.R.Lee, S.-

H.Kim, B.Ku, Y.S.Oh, Micro-fuel cellsCurrent

development and applications, Journal of Power
Sources 170 (2007) 6778.
[6] Ashok S. Patil, Terry G.Dubois, Nicholas Sifer,
Elizabeth Bostic,Kristopher Gardner, Michael Quah,
Christopher Bolton, Portable fuel cell systems for
Americas army: technology transition to the field,
Journal of Power Sources 136 (2004) 220225.
[7] D.Cho, R.Jiang, K.Gardner, R.Jacobs, J. Schmidt,
T.Quakenbush, J.Stephens, Polymer electrolyte
membrane fuel cells for communication applications,
Journal of Power Sources 96 (2001) 174-178.
[8] J.Larminie, A.Dicks, Fuel Cell System Explained,
2003.

10

0,4

0,2
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0
45

I (A)

Figure 5 Power output of the single PEMFC

It could be seen that the increase in operating temperature
to 700C greatly increases the performance of such single
PEMFC, reaching the maximum power output of about 20
W, even if the reformate fuel was used. This clearly opens
the possibility for various applications, since only 5 cell
PEMFC stack will provide about 100 W of electricity,
while the dimensions will be kept at 25 cm2 of active
surface area.

[9] S.J.Lee,

S.Mukerjee, E.A.Ticianelli, J.McBean,

Electrocatalysis of CO tolerance in hydrogen
oxidation reaction in PEM fuel cells, Electrochimica
Acta 44 (1999) 3283-93.
[10] V.M.Nikolic,
D.L.Zugic,
I.M.Perovic,
A.B.
Saponjic,B. M.Babic, I.A.Pasti, M.P.Marceta
Kaninski. Investigation of tungsten carbide
supported Pd or Pt as anode catalysts for PEM fuel
cells, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 38
(2013) 11340-5.
[11] G.S.Tasic, S.S.Miljanic, M.P.Marceta Kaninski,
D.P.Saponjic, V.M.Nikolic. Non-noble metal catalyst
for a future Pt free PEMFC, Electrochemistry
Communications 11 (2009) 2097100.

CONCLUSION
The PEMFC system can be used for decentralized power
supply, suitable for millitary communication systems.
These systems provide a power output ranging from
several hundreds W to several kW. PEMFC are the most
suitable for these distant places, as they can be easily
operated in a wide temperature range from -10C-50C.
Also, these fuel cells have the potential of quick start of
about 30 s, while the dynamic operation, e.g. changing the
desired power output, is instant. One of the greatest
applications of PEMFC, for both civilian and millitary
purposes, are so-called combined heat and power systems
751

DISCRETIZATION OF THE FINITE ELEMENT NETWORK ALONG THE

CRACK LINE IN THE CONCRETE
EDVIN BOLI
University in Biha Faculty of Technical Engineering Biha, Biha, edvinbolic@hotmail.com
DENANA GAO
University in Biha Faculty of Technical Engineering Biha, Biha, dzgaco@bih.net.ba
FADIL ISLAMOVI
University in Biha Faculty of Technical Engineering Biha, Biha, f.islam@bih.net.ba
MERSIDA MANJGO
University in Mostar Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Mostar, mersida.manjgo@unmo.ba

Abstract: The fracture mechanics of concrete is connected to two things that are regularly subject to research: the
length of the fracture process zone (FPZ) and the width of the fracture process zone (FPZ). Following the examination
of this problem, this paper describes the process of discretization of the crack in the concrete using finite element
method and its application for the determination of concrete fracture mechanics parameters. The results of testing on
concrete samples made of concrete grade C30/37 of river gravel and crushed stone were processed. The paper
demonstrates the principle of modeling such problems.
Keywords: concrete, fracture mechanics, fracture parameters, crack length, linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) ,
non-linear fracture mechanics (NFM) , fracture process zone (FPZ) , finite element method (FEM).

1. INTRODUCTION
Concrete structures are full of damages that occur due to
the hydration process, during strengthening and load
application in the exploitation process.
These are the damages that occur in the form of micro
cracks which can gradually grow to considerable size and
cause problems in structure exploitation or even lead to its
failure.
For these reasons, fracture mechanics of concrete
structures that treat these issues significantly helps in
observing occurrence of these processes in the concrete
structures.
The area, located in front of the macro crack, is called
fracture process zone (FPZ) in the concrete. In the
fracture process zone (FPZ) concrete still has the ability
to transmit stress, i.e. it has defined remaining strength.

Figure 1. (a) Fracture process zone in the concrete; (b)

Distribution of cohesive stress in FPZ
In this paper we will try to define how to model the
fracture zone in the concrete directly in the fracture
process zone (FPZ).

This paper describes the modeling fracture areas process

in the concrete directly in the fracture process zone (FPZ).

752

2. DISCRETIZATION WITH THE FINITE

ELEMENT METHOD

external load acting on the structure and grouped in the

column w matrix and corresponding force on the nodes
which are located in the column F matrix.

There are two values in fracture mechanics that regularly

provoke the interest of scientists in the field of fracture
modeling in the concrete, and that are (i) the fracture
process zone (FPZ), and (ii) the width of the fracture
process zone

The remaining node displacements and forces in the

nodes for the remaining part of the structure are grouped
in a column wR and FR matrix. This matrix form can be
described as follows:

The experimental testing conducted by Peterson (1981)

show that the length of the FPZ (fracture process zone) is
significant and comparable, and the width is usually small
compared to the length (depending on the maximum size
of the agregate) and compared to the structure size.

(1)
If we say that there are no other forces that affect the
remainder of the sample,
=0, and exclude all
components of displacement wR from the expression, the
matrix form of balance equation would have the following
form:

The most commonly used models are effective crack

model (ECM) and cohesive crack model (CCM), which
begin with the assumption that the fracture process zone
(FPZ) is reduced to a line in a one-dimensional analysis or
to a surface in a two-dimensional analysis.

(2)
where:
(3)
Crack opening for n nodes along the fracture zone is
expressed in the following adjusted expression:
(4)

Figure 2. Model I of crack opening (split tension)

When one macroscopic crack opens inside the defined
direction for the clean Model I (Figure 2), cohesive crack
can be easily modeled by means of the procedures
proposed by Petersson (1981), which were further
improved by Carpinteri (1989) and Planas and Elices
(1991).

is the vector that represents the

In this equation
movement of nodes on the crack,
is the symmetric
matrix and Kij members represent crack opening in the
node i, initiated by unit tensile force which causes the
crack opening and is applied at node j,
is the load
vector in the nodes,
is vector that represents the value
of crack opening in the node and when P=1 (unit

In this model, the number of nodes along the potential

fracture line is retained as fixed in the standard linear
elastic finite element method (FEM).

is crack opening vector in the point

value). Finally,
and the sample weight.
In this analysis, we improved the methods of influence by
Planas and Elices (1991), who used it to solve the
equations (4). Assuming that the total number of nodes on
the crack line is n and that the initial crack tip lies on the
k-node, based on this method, the equation (4) is
thickened between nodes i=1,2,3,.......(k-1) in the nodes
i=k,(k+1),(k+2),.....,n. The equation (4) can now be
written as follows:

The potential fracture line for TPBT sample is shown in

Figure 3. In the case of application of finite element
method, the nodes in the crack are arranged so that the
first is at the bottom of the crack, and n is at the tip of the
crack along the potential fracture line.

P+

(5)

Indexes N and L mark a part of the notch for i = 1,2,....,

(k-1) and inter zones i=k,(k+1),(k+2),...,n. Since the crack
opening width in the zone where i=k,(k+1),(k+2),...,n
equals to zero, the initial crack in that zone without tensile
strength can be express as follows:
(6)
Figure 3. Discretization of finite elements along the
fracture line

Expressions (5) and (6) become:

(7)

Crack opening along the fracture line is caused by

753

where:

,
Following the solutions of the equation (13) for
the value of P can be determined with the equation (12)
and the value
with the equation (11). Returning
backwards to equation (10), (9), (8), (6), (5) and (4) it is
possible to determine all of the unknown values for
and
.

(8)
Furthermore, this binding area can be divided between
cohesive (damaged) zone and non-cracked (undamaged)
zone along the fracture line. If we consider that cohesive
zone between nodes is j=k,(k+1),....,l and undamaged
part of j=(l+1),(l+2),...,n, then with further thickening in
the equation (8) we can write the following expression:
-

P-

3.DETERMINING THE DEFLECTION ON

THE BEAM
For known values of parameters
the middle of the beam
following expression:

and P, deflection in

is determined according to the

(9)
(14)

In the above expression indexes C and U denote the

cohesive zones for j=k,(k+1),.....l and undamaged zone
for j=(l+1), (l+2),....,n. The width of the crack opening in
the undamaged zone and in the last point of the cohesive
zone is equal to zero, which can mathematically be
expressed as:

DL is deflection in the point where the load acts when the

the load vector at the
external load is P = 1 (unit),
point of deflection when the vector unit load is
, Dg presents a deflection in the middle of the
beam due to its own sample weight.

(10)

,
, and Dg in the formulas (4) and
Members
(14) can be calculated using standard linear elastic finite
element method.

Equations (9) and (10) become:

(11)
For j=l node applied load can be expressed follows:

(12)
With equations (11) and (12) for nodes j=k, (k+1),
(k+2),......,(l-1) a large number of non-linear dependent
equations can be formed for crack opening in the cohesive
zone.
Functional form of non-linear dependent equations can be
expressed as:
(13)

Figure 4.Typical four-node isoparametric plane element

in (,) coordinates
Experiments were conducted so that the finite element
network in bands 3D/4 and D varies, whereas in the band
of D/4 width is retained in the same ratio (aspect ratio of
square sides in finite element network is equal to 1).
The experimental testing was conducted on samples with
dimensions B=100[mm], D= 100 [mm] and S = 400[mm].

If sign convention is used properly, this can be written as

, where in order to have proper
discretization, we conduct division on the network size h,
, for all values i except for the value of i=k,

The characteristic values of the used material are

determined with WST test on standard concrete cylinder
(150mm x 300mm).

for i=k and i=n. The solution

and i=n; and
to the equation (13) is obtained by using the NewtonRapshon method.

The resulting material properties have the following

=3,29 [MPa], and
values : = 0,10, E=36,5 [GPa],
GF=110 [N/m]. All beams are made of constant
dimension and the height of the sample is D =
100[mm]. Notch on the beam was taken in ratio of 1/3
notch to beam height a0/D.

Function Z and its Jacobian matrix for unknown crack

opening (displacement) use different softening functions
which are programed in separate functions.
Thus, this method becomes useful and effective as well as
many types of softening rules as much as they can be
incorporated into the program.

The test results conducted on the beam samples in the

laboratory are shown in Table 1.
754

Table 1: Test results of three-point bending geometry for

notched concrete beam

D
(mm) Sample

a0

Nu

GF

(mm)

(mm)

(kN)

(MPa)

(N/m)

6,321

2,71

118

6,124

2,67

113

6,028

2,61

109

B100-k1
100

B100-k2

400

33

B100-k3
B100-r1
100

B100-r2
B100-r3

400

33

5,362

2,45

106

5,089

2,19

101

5,158

2,32

104

3D/4

D/2

3D/4

Figure 6. Method of forming a finite element network

In each case, finite element network can be selected and
thickened in a different method, depending on the
computer's memory.

Finite element network was selected so that the sample

was divided into 16 equal parts by height D.
In the longitudinal direction the division was conducted
so that the band D/2 was divided to 8 parts, band 3D/4 to
8 parts and band D to four equal parts. A total of 14 nodes
were selected along the fracture line.

3D/4

D/2

3D/4

Figure 7. Method of forming a 512 finite elements

network on a sample

4. EXPERIMENTAL PART OF THE PAPER

As can be seen in Figure 7, a network of 512 finite

elements was adopted, the number of degrees of freedom
is 561, and the number of nodes along the potential
fracture line is 14.

4.1. Description of the samples and models

In this example we consider the sample of the notched
beam, which was used for further testing, and the sample
was examined according to the below specified geometric
relationships.

,
,
, DL and
Firstly, coefficients such as
Dg were obtained by the linear elastic finite element
method.
These coefficients are determined once during the
experiment and are used all the time in determining the
cohesive crack propagation. In the beginning, while the
state in the element is linear elastic, tensile stress in the k
node will reach the limit of concrete tensile stress, and
formation of crack will first occur in this node.

Figure 5. Geometry of test sample of notched beam

After that cohesive forces in the material begin to act on

neighboring nodes according to given softening law. At
this
time
the
unknown
values
are
and P, and are determined
with equations (12) and (13). Subsequently, the values
and
are calculated, and then the beam
deflections are determined using equation (14).

Discretization of the beam by the finite elements was

conducted as shown in Figure 6.
Discretization of the beam was performed with typical
four-node isoparametric elements with four nodes, as
shown in Figure 4.
In order to simplify the calculation beam was divided by
its length in the areas D; 3D/4, D/2, 3D/4 and finally D.

In this step, the first point of the P-CMOD and curve that
shows the relationship between load and strain (P-) are
determined. In the second phase of the calculation,
external load P was increased to the value where the
tensile stress in the concrete at the node (k +1) is greater
than the strength of concrete in tension.

According to this division we have the middle (D/2)

width band, which was divided using finite elements
network, and the remaining bands along the tested beam
of 3/4D and D width, whose division was conducted on a
smaller number of finite elements.

At this point we now have a situation that crack is formed

in the node (k+1) with cohesive forces acting in that
node. In the same manner, as mentioned above in second
phase, the values of P-CMOD and P- curve are
calculated.

Discretization of the beam by height D was conducted so

that the number of divisions in the D/2 width band was
selected and the aspect ratio of square sides in finite
element network is equal to 1.

This process continues until the crack develops in the

node (l-1), and continues until the crack reaches node l=n.

755

The number of unknown values in each step is as high as

the number of nodes where crack occurred in the cohesive
zone.

even if we make the relatively courser finite element

mesh such model provides stable peak load values for
these samples.

At each stage of the calculation, the value of COD (crack

opening displacement) is checked and when it becomes
greater than or equal to wc (max. COD) corresponding
values of forces in the nodes take the value zero.

REFERENCES
[1] Shailendra Kumar, Sudhirkumar V. Barai, Concrete
Fracture Models and Applications, Springer Verlag
Berlin Hridelberg 2011.
[2] H. Mihashi, K Rokugo, ConcreteFracture Mechanics
of Concrete Structures, Volume II, AEDIFICATIO
Publishers 1998.
[3] Carpinteri A, Columbo G, Concrete Numerical
analysis of catastrophic softening behaviour (snapback instability), AEDIFICATIO Department of
Structural Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
ENEL-CRIS, 20162 Milano, Italy 1989.
[4] Petersson PE (1981) Crack growth and development
of fracture zone in plain concrete and similar
materials. Report No. TVBM-100, Lund Institute of
Technology.
[5] Planas J, Elices M (1991) Nonlinear fracture of
cohesive material.

This same calculation is conducted on a sample with

thicker finite elements network. 30 finite elements were
selectedby height, band D was divided to 10 parts, band
3D/4 also to 10 equal parts and band D/2 to 15 equal
parts.
In this case we got a network of 1650 finite elements, the
number of degrees of freedom is 1736, and the number of
nodes along the potential fracture line is 20.
Peak loads obtained from the numerical results for the
first case is 7.15 kN and for the second case of division to
the thicker finite element network is 6.71 kN.

5. CONCLUSION
It has been determined through these examples that the
finite element mesh in these cases did not much affect the
coefficients along the fracture lines. It was shown that

756

THE DEPENDENCE OF THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THE

TRIBLOCK-COPOLYMER SBM ON THE POLYBUTADIENE ISOMERS
DRAGUTIN NEDELJKOVI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade, Serbia, dragutin@tmf.bg.ac.rs
ALEKSANDAR STAJI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade, Serbia
ALEKSANDAR GRUJI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade, Serbia
JASNA STAJI-TROI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade, Serbia
JASMINA STEVANOVI
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade, Serbia

Abstract:The mechanical properties of a polymer are influenced by various factors, e.g., varying morphologies, total
molar mass, chain topology as well as the solvents used for sample preparation. In poly(styrene)-poly(butadiene)poly(methylmethacrylate) (SBM) triblock terpolymers, the polybutadiene block is usually a combination of 1,2- and 1,4isomers. Depending on the chain length, the B microstructure has an enormous influence on the polymers properties.
Depending on the presence of 1,2-B and 1,4-B, different thermal properties can be obtained. The total molar masses of
the polymers vary within 38-170 kg/mol and the molar mass of the SM blocks are ranging from 24-115 kg/mol. The
SBMs have different polybutadiene microstructures ranging from 16-90 mol. % of 1,2-B content. It has been shown that
polymers with lower mole % of (1,2) and relatively higher 1,4-B content show increasing stresses during elongation
process. In these SBMs, moderate stress drops occurred after yielding. The maximum strain at break was found close to
600% or above. The yield stresses for these polymers were around 15 MPa. On the other hand, at the polymers with
higher x(1,2)% and relatively higher 1,2-B contents, lower strain hardening is observed.
Keywords: triblock-copolymers, mechanical properties, SBM polymers, structure of polybutadiene.
defined length of sequences, molar masses with low
coefficients of the polydispersity. This procedure brought
the revolution in the field of the synthesis of the
thermoplastic elastomeric materials. [3-6]. In general,
thermoplastic elastomers contain two phases. One is
amorphic or semi-crystaline (hard) phase, and the other is
elastomeric matrix (soft phase). Hard phase is brittle at
the room temperature and provides mechanical hardness,
while the soft phase provides elasticity. If the hard phase
is molten or dissolved in the appropriate solvent, material
could be processed by the conventional methods.
Mechanical and elastic properties could be recovered by
cooling. High thermodynamical incompatibility results in
the high viscosity of the molten material which negatively
affects possibility of the processing of the material.

1. INTRODUCTION
Polymer materials are the class of the materials that have
extremely high significance in current production and
technological processes. Raw materials for their
production are widely available at the relatively low
process cost, and the conditions for their synthesis and
production are well known and described. Blockcopolymers with defined structure have wide possibilities
for the application in the biology, medicine, as well as in
the material science and solid-state physics. The main
interest for those materials in the field of material science
are improved mechanical, optical and thermical properties
of the materials [1-2]. If two or more thermodinamically
incompatible blocks are bonded by covalent chemical
bond, various morphologies in the microstructures could
be obtained. Therefore, optimal microstructure for the
future application could be obtain by choosing the
appropriate synthesis mechanism. Sequential anionic
polymerization (SAP) results in block-copolymers with

Usual microstructure of styrene-butadiene (SBS) triblockcopolymer is that polystyrene (S) blocks form spheres and
polybutadiene blocks (B) form bridges between the
spheres. In some cases, it is possible that two S-blocks of
757

the same chain are present in the same polystyrene sphere

which negatively affects mechanical properties. This
effect, known as looping back can be avoided if one of
the S-blocks is replaced by the poly(methyl methacrylate)
(M). In this case, B-block forms the bridge between one
S-sphere and one M-sphere [7], and the number of
elastomeric bridges of the B-block is significantly higher
compared to the SBS system. If the looping back is
present, that B-bridge does not contribute to the elastic
properties of the material. In SMB structure, elastic
properties are improved which results in higher resistance
to the deformation.

2. EXPERIMENTAL
The SBM triblock terpolymers were synthesized in THF
by sequential addition of the monomers to obtain higher
content of 1,2- polybutadiene. It was already shown that
the ability of forming block copolymer depends strongly
on the stability of the carbanionic chain ends and the
completeness of the monomer conversion of each block.
Hence, the triblock terpolymers were synthesized
according to the following procedure. 500 ml of THF (2
days refluxed over potassium) were collected in a reactor
and then pre-treated with ~8 ml sec-BuLi at -30 C. When
the color of the solution turns yellowish and does not
change at least for 30 minutes, then the solution is
supposed to be free of impurities. The solution was
slowly stirred overnight at 20 C to obtain the alkoxide
additives. On the next day the solution is supposed to be
colorless. The synthesis was started with styrene
homopolymerization as a first block because of the high
nucleophilicity of the styrene carbanion. As a typical
example, freshly distilled styrene was added to the
pretreated THF at -65 C and the polymerization was
initiated by sec-BuLi. The solution turned to yellowish
indicating the livingness of the S chains. As a next step,
butadiene was added to the living S-anion at -65 oC and
the solution was slowly warmed up to -10 C. The color
of the solution became light yellowish. The reaction was
allowed to continue at this temperature for 4-5 hours to
ensure the conversion of all butadiene that was present in
the system. Before adding MMA, the living chain ends of
the polybutadiene were capped with of 1,1
diphenylethylene (DPE) at -30 C in order to reduce the
reactivity. The instantaneous red color in the solution
clearly indicated the presence of living diphenylmethane
anion. The reaction was kept for additional 30 minutes at
this temperature and then the solution was cooled down to
-70 C for MMA polymerization. The color of the
solution instantly disappeared when MMA was added.
After one hour, a mixture of MeOH and HCl were used to
terminate the reaction. The precursors of S, S AND B
diblock and SBM triblock were collected throughout the
reaction for further investigations using 1H-NMR and
GPC.

Differences in the mechanical properties between

different copolymers depend on type and the intensity of
interactions between different phases as well as the
resulting morphology. The conditions for the testing and
molecular
parameters
(molecular
mass
and
microstructure) are significantly different by di-; tri- and
multiblock systems. By comparison of the properties
during the elongation of copolymer systems containing S
and B blocks, it was found out that triblock-copolymer
has significantly higher tensile strenght, and at the macrolevel, the forming of the neck is observed at the
elongation of the few hundred procents [8]. In comparison
with linear copolymers, multigraft and random
copolymers show higher deformation at the break due to
the higher number of places for physical bonds between
the blocks [9-11]. It was shown that S-block in multigraft
copolymer have the worm-like structure which allows
strengthening in the S domain which results in the
increased elasticity.
Different lamellar SBMs have been characterized by
various measurement technicques. The formation of
lamellar morphologies is influenced by the total molar
mass and the polybutadiene microstructure of the
polymer. For the molar masses ranging from 80 to 170
kg/mol, very well segregated lamellar domains are
obtained. Short lamellar domains are found for the molar
masses ranging from 40 to 55 kg/mol. Mixed lamellae are
obtained mostly when 1,4-B is predominant. Again, the
transitions of B from lamellae to cylinder structure can be
seen in the SBMs containing a higher 1,2-B and in the the
presence of SB residuals. A chain like oriented lamellae is
obtained for a polymer, with low molar mass and the ratio
of 1,2- and 1,4-B of 1:2.

The compositions of the different polymer blocks were

calculated from 1H-NMR spectra. CDCl3 was used as
NMR solvent. As the microstructure of polybutadiene (B)
was the main focus of the investigation, only the
characteristic signals of B special attention was paid to
the differences between the 1H-NMR spectra of 1,2 and
1,4 polybutadiene: in CDCl3. The range of the spectra was
highlighted from 4.7 to 5.7 ppm only to show the
polybutadiene units. The broad peaks between 5.2 and
5.67 ppm correspond to the two protons of the double
bond of 1,4- unit and one proton of the vinyl group of
1,2- unit. The other two vinyl protons of 1,2- unit
appeared between 4.7 and 5.1 ppm. From the two
butadiene signals the ratio of 1,2- and 1,4- isomers as well
as the weight fraction of polybutadiene blocks were
determined.

The mechanical properties of a polymer are influenced by

various factors, e.g., varying morphologies, total molar
mass, chain topology as well as the solvents used for
sample preparation.[12-15] In SBM triblock terpolymers,
the polybutadiene block is usually a combination of 1,2and 1,4-isomers. Depending on the chain length, the B
microstructure has an enormous influence on the
polymers properties. In a 1,4-B microstructure four
carbon atoms exist in the repeating units whereas in a 1,2B microstructure two carbon atoms are present in the
repeating units and the remaining two stay as a pendant
group. Depending on the presence of 1,2-B and 1,4-B,
different thermal properties can be obtained. The glass
transition temperatures (Tg) vary significantly for 1,2-B
and 1,4-B, e.g., Tg(1,2-B) = -12 C and Tg(1,4- B) = 90C.

The molar mass and the polydispersity of the polymers

were obtained from GPC. At an elution volume ranging
from 25.5 to 32.5 mL, three peaks were detected. The first
758

peak emerged from 29 to 32.5 mL elution volume due to

the contribution of S homopolymer. The presence of S
homopolymer was confirmed by the ratio of UV (= 254
nm)/RI. The typical value of the UV/RI ratio was found to
be 0.35 for S. The diblock copolymer of S AND B was
detected by the peak between 26.5 and 31 mL. The final
product, SBM, was found at the elution volume ranging
from 25.5 to 29 mL. As the GPC standard was calibrated
versus polystyrene, only the molecular mass of the S
block is absolute, while the masses of the other blocks are
apparent.

SBM6
S31B38M3138
SBM2
S37B31M32106
SBM10
S32B31M3791
SBM4
S31B31M3855

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The mechanical properties are discussed correlating the B
microstructure and total molar mass of the polymer. In
Table 1 the tested polymers are summarized along with
the detailed constituents and tensile test results. The
number of B repeating units and their ratios are also listed
for a better overview of the SBMs. The total molar
masses of the polymers vary within 38-170 kg/mol and
the molar mass of the SM blocks are ranging from 24-115
kg/mol. The SBMs have different polybutadiene
microstructures ranging from 16-90% of 1,2-B content.
One can see that the polymers with lower x(1,2)% and
relatively higher 1,4-B content (e.g., SBM1, SBM3 and
SBM7) show increasing stresses during elongation
process. In these three SBMs, moderate stress drops occur
after yielding. The maximum strain at break is found
close to 600% or above. On the other hand, the polymers
with higher x(1,2)% and relatively higher 1,2-B contents,
lower strain hardening is observed. Among the 1,2-B
SBMs, the SBM2 and SBM10 show moderate stress
drops after yielding and comparatively lower strains at
break (~400%) compared to 1,4.B rich SBMs. For SBM4
where the x(1,2)% is nearly the same and the molar mass
of SM is smaller than that of SBM2 and SBM10, a
significant stress drop after yield point is observed leading
to a strain softening. Comparing the low molar mass
SBMs, (e.g., SBM4 and SBM6) with the high molar mass
SBMs, (e.g., SBM2 and SBM10), one can see that the
lower molar mass SBMs result in lower strains at break
compared to the others.
E, MPa

B, %

B, MPa

1:5

230

600

23

1:4

460

528

22

1:2

523

575

27

19

11

8:1

832

337

40

8:1

697

226

23

9:1

527

96

20

Therefore, elastic modulus is increased if 1,2-B is

predominant, (e.g., for SBM4). On the other hand, 1,4-B
unit has four carbons in the backbone in one repeating
unit, which causes more flexibility and more orientation
during tensile test. Hence, lower modulus is obtained
(e.g., for SBM7).
An exceptional influence of B microstructure on the
tensile modulus is seen when the ratio of 1,2- and 1,4-B
repeating units is close to 1:2. In case of SBM3
(S32B32M36170), the tensile modulus is almost same as the
modulus of SBM4 (S31B31M3855) despite very high molar
mass of the SM blocks of SBM3 (115 kg/mol) compared
to SBM4 (38 kg/mol) is present. From Table 1, it has
been seen that the ratios of 1,2- and 1,4- B units is 1: 2 in
SBM3, whereas it is 9:1 in SBM4. Therefore, SBM3
shows comparatively lower tensile modulus than SBM4,
although the number of 1,2-units for SBM3 is 302 and for
SBM4 it is 211. It is assumed that at this ratio (1:2) of
1,2- and 1,4-B repeating units the stiffness of 1,2-B is
degraded by more flexible 1,4-B. This observation can
also be supported by the tensile modulus for SBM6
(S31B38M3138) where the same ratio of the B repeating
units (1:2) is present. Due to the presence of higher 1,4-B,
the tensile modulus is the lowest (251 MPa) in this
polymer.

Table 1: Mechanical properties of SBM copolymers1

1,2:1,4

251

Due to its inherent structural properties of S, B, and M

domains, the overall elastic modulus for different lamellar
structure varies. For increasing molar masses the E
modulus also increases. The highest tensile modulus, E =
832 MPa is obtained for SBM2 (S 37B31M32106) due to its
high molar mass of the polymers and the glassy domains
(106 and 73 kg/mol). On the other hand for SBM6
(S31B38M3138) this value is low (E = 251 MPa) because of
its low molar mass of the polymer and the glassy domain
(38 and 24 kg/mol). However, the tensile modulus for
SBM3 has found comparatively low despite the high
molar mass of the polymer and the glassy SM domains
(170 and 115 kg/mol). This exception is mainly due to the
influence of 1,4-B content which are more flexible than
the 1,2-B. Higher modulus (527 MPa) is obtained for
SBM4 (S31B31M3855) and lower modulus (230 MPa) is
obtained for SBM7 (S30B29M4153), despite the fact that the
weight fractions and molar masses of the glassy domains
of both SBM4 and SBM7 are same (38 kg/mol). For
SBM4 90% 1,2-B is present whereas for SBM7 only 16%
1,2-B is present. This means, more flexible 1,4-B domains
are dominant in SBM7 than in SBM4. From the analysis
of chemical structure of polybutadiene it is reported that
the higher presence of 1,2-B results in less orientation and
less flexibility compared to 1,4-B.

The strain-stress experiments were carried out on a

Zwick model Z020, with a load cell of 20 kN. The
measurements were done with a crosshead speed of 5
mm/min at ambient temperature, according to the
standard ASTM D882. The samples have an average
dimension of 12 mm x 35 mm x 250 m.

SBM7
S30B29M4153
SBM1
S34B31M3580
SBM3
S32B32M36170

1:2

The lowest stress at break is obtained in SBM6 (11 MPa)

due to its low molar mass of S and M block (24 kg/mol)
whereas in SBM2 this stress is very high (40 MPa), which

In our nomenclature (SxByMcm) the subscripts give the weight

percent of the corresponding block, and superscript is the molar
mass of the triblock copolymer in kg/mol)
1

759

is mainly due to its high molar mass of S and M block (73

kg/mol). The lower stress values (22-23 MPa) are
observed in the polymers with the molar mass of SM
blocks ranging from 38 to 61 kg/mol. In this region the
SBMs contain both the 1,2- and 1,4-B contents with a
significant variation. The result indicates that the
influence of B microstructure on the stress at break may
not be prominent. Again, the SBM10 and SBM4 show
low stress at break (B = 20-23 MPa) despite their high
content of 1,2-B, where x(1,2) is higher than 89%. In this
case, the low molar mass of S and M blocks (38-61
kg/mol) results in lower stress at break.

the elastomeric properties increase for high molar masses

of the glassy SM blocks and for the ratio between the B
microstructures when reaches to 1:4.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The results presented in this paper were obtained as the
part of the work on the project TR34011, financially
supported by the Ministry of Science, Education and
Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia

REFERENCES

An increasing tendency of final strain (strain at break) is

noticed for an increasing molar mass. An exception has
been noticed for the SBM1 and SBM7 having lower
molar masses of SM blocks, 55 kg/mol and 38 kg/mol,
respectively. Both the polymers show higher strain at
break.

[1] U. Breiner, U. Krappe, T. Jakob, V. Abetz, R.

Stadler, Polym. Bull. 1998, 40, 219.
[2] U. Breiner, U. Krappe, V. Abetz, R. Stadler,
Macromol. Chem. Phys. 1997, 198, 1051
[3] S. Brinkmann-Rengel, "Thermoplastic Elastomere
auf Basis von ABA und ABC Dreiblockcopolymer",
in am Fachbereich Chemie und Pharmazie, der
Johannes Gutenberg- Universitt Mainz, 1998
[4] U. Krappe, R. Stadler, I. G. Voigt-Martin,
Macromolecules 1995, 28, 4458.
[5] U. Breiner, U. Krappe, E. L. Thomas, R. Stadler,
Macromolecules 1998, 31, 135
[6] P. Tang, F. Qui, H. Zhang, Y. Yang, J. Phys. Chem.
B 2004, 108, 8434
[7] K. Arai, T. Kotaka, Y. Kitano, K. Yoshimura,
Macromolecules 1980, 13, 1670
[8] Y. Mogi, K. Mori, H. Kotsuji, Y. Matsushita, I.
Noda., Macromolecules 1993, 26, 5169
[9] C. Auschra, R. Stadler., Macromolecules 1993, 26,
2171
[10] M. Shibayama, H. Hasegawa, T. Hashimoto, H.
Kawai, Macromolecules 1982, 15, 274
[11] U. Breiner, "Morphologische Studien zum
Phasenverhalten
mikrophasenseparierter
ABC
Dreiblockcopolymer", in am Fachbereich Chemie
und Pharmazie, der Johannes Gutenberg- Universitt
Mainz, 1996
[12] T. Goldacker, "berstrukturen in Mischungen aus
Blockcopolymeren", in im Fach Chemie der Fakultt
fr Biologie, Chemie und Geowissenschaften,
Univerrsitt Bayreuth, 1999
[13] K. Jung, "Polybutadien-block-polystyrol-blockpolymethylmethacrylat-Dreiblockcopolymere-Vom
Spiel mit der Monomersequenz zu nichtzentrosymmetrischen Schichtstrukturen." in an
Fachbereich Chemie und Pharmazie, der Johannes
Gutenberg-Universitt Mainz, 1996
[14] C. C. Honeker, E. L. Thomas, Chem. Mater. 1996, 8,
1702
[15] J. Brandrup, E. H. Immergut, E. A. Grulke, Polymer
Handbook. 1999, Fourth Edition

An increasing tendency of the strain at break is noticed

with an increasing 1,4-B content. As in SBM1 and SBM7
the 1,4-B content is higher (88 mole %), a higher strain at
break is accountable. Further influences of the B
microstructure are compared for SBM7 and SBM4. In
both the polymers the molar masses and the weight
fractions of different blocks are same. The results show
very high strain at break in SBM7 (B = 600%) for 1,4-B,
whereas in SBM4, the strain value is very low (B = 96%)
for 1,2-B. For lamellar patterns, the percentage of 1,2and 1,4-B repeating units also influences the elongation
behavior (strain at break) of the polymer. For example, in
SBM3 (S32B32M36170) 302 units of 1,2-B and 704 units of
1,4-B at a ratio of 1 : 2 is present. On the other hand the
SBM7 (S30B29M4153) has only 45 units of 1,2-B and 235
units of 1,4-B at a ratio of 1: 5. Though the molar mass of
SBM3 is 3 times higher than the SBM7, the strain at
break is almost same (B = 575% and 599%) for both the
polymer. Hence, the B domains are more dominant on the
strains at break.

4. CONCLUSION
The mechanical properties are investigated on symmetric
polymers (SBM2; SBM4; SBM6 and SBM10) with
lamellar structure The results show a significant influence
of B microstructures on the elongation behavior. Higher
elongation is obtained if the 1,4-B is predominant in
SBM. Also, high molar masses favor a higher elongation
to break. The tensile moduli are mainly dominated by the
total molar mass, the presence of glassy phases, S or M,
and higher 1,2- B content. On the contrary, the increasing
tendency of stress at break is dominated moderately by an
increasing tendency of the total molar mass of the
polymers and the glassy domains. In case of asymmetric
SBMs (SBM1; SBM3 and SBM7), the tensile modulus
and the stress at break strongly depend on the ratio of 1,2and 1,4-B. Slight increase of the 1,2-B content (relative
ratio of 1,2- and 1,4-B changes from 1:6 to 1: 4) decrease
the stiffness of the polymer sharply. On the other hand,

760

INTERLAMINAR STRESS ESTIMATION IN ISOGEOMETRIC

COMPOSITE PLATES BASED ON THE HIGHER ORDER DEFORMATION
THEORY
OGNJEN PEKOVI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, opekovic@mas.bg.ac.rs
SLOBODAN STUPAR
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, sstupar@mas.bg.ac.rs
ALEKSANDAR SIMONOVI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, asimonovic@mas.bg.ac.rs
SRAN TRIVKOVI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, strivkovic@mas.bg.ac.rs
NIKOLA PETRAINOVI
Faculty of mechanical engineering, University of Belgrade, npetrasinovic@mas.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: This research paper presents interlaminar stress recovery procedure for isogeometric laminated composite
plate elements. The isogeometric formulation is based on NURBS (non-uniform rational B-splines) basis functions of
varying degree and plate kinematics is based on third order shear deformation theory (TSDT) of Reddy. High continuity
and variation diminishing property on NURBS basis make it possible for interlaminar transverse normal and shear
stresses to be calculated directly from equilibrium equations. Numerical results with different element order are
presented and obtained results are compared to analytical and conventional numerical results. Obtained results are in
exelent agreement with 3D elasticity solution.
Keywords: Isogeometric analysis, Third order shear deformation theory, Interlaminar stress calculation.
analysis. Equivalent single layer (ESL) theories based on
the replacement of composite laminate with static
equivalent single layer plate give good results in the case
of global response analysis of composite plates. Among
ESL, classical plate theory (CPT) is the simplest ESL
theory and it provides accurate results only for very thin
plates since it is unable to capture transverse shear effects.
First order shear deformation theories (FSDT) assume
constant transverse shear strains through laminate
thickness resulting in constant transverse shear stresses
through thickness, which is contradictory to the elasticity
solution. In order to make up for this one must use shear
correction factors that are hard to determine. Third order
shear deformation theory of Reddy [2] assume quadratic
variation of transverse shear strains with vanishing of
transverse shear stresses on top and bottom surface thus
eliminating the need for the use of shear correction
factors. It is most widely used higher order shear
deformation theory since it provides the best ratio
between accuracy and computational cost.

1. INTRODUCTION
Composites are widely used in aerospace, marine and
wind turbine industries, and lately, there is great number
of general industrial products made of composites.
Composites are characterized by high strength to weight
ratio, high stiffness, and good dimensional stability after
manufacturing and high impact, fatigue and corrosion
resistance. In addition to this, composite laminates
possess ability to follow complex mould shapes and to be
specifically tailored through optimization of ply numbers
and fiber orientations through the structure so that they
can meet specific needs while minimizing weight [1].
Depending on the considered problem, the analysis of
thin-walled composite structures can be accessed by in
different ways. In order to simplify the differential
equations of elasticity theory numerous structural models
of plates and shells are developed so that the overall
three-dimensional problem of elasto-mechanics is reduced
to the two-dimensional case. Since composite laminates in
general have one dimension much smaller than other
linear dimensions, one can use various plate theories
instead of general 3D elasticity equations for their

Delamination is the mode of failure of composite

materials that is mainly caused by transverse interlaminar
stresses in laminates. Since ESL theories neglect the
761

transverse normal stress and simplify transverse shear

stress state in laminates, accurate interlaminar transverse
stresses must be calculated from 3D equilibrium
equations. This requires calculation of higher order
derivatives of displacements.

Bezier curves together, it is easy to obtain C1 continuous

curve but obtaining higher order continuity becomes very
complicated. Since C2 continuous curves are very
important in aerospace, nautical and automotive industries
B-spline curves are developed. The pth-degree B-spline
curve is defined by

Generation of finite element mesh consumes a significant

part of engineering time and introduces geometrical
approximation errors into the model. In order to overcome
those difficulties a new technique formally named
isogeometric analysis is proposed [3] that allows the
execution of the analysis on geometrical CAD model.
Unlike the conventional FEM that uses Lagrange or
Hermit polynomial basis functions, isogeometric analysis
relies on NURBS basis functions, which are supported by
almost every CAD package. Since NURBS basis
functions can have arbitrarily large continuity they can be
effectively used for computation of transverse
interlaminar stresses from 3D equilibrium equations.
Recently several research papers appeared that used
isogeometric approach for composite plate and shell
analysis [4-11].

C (u ) =

i, p

( u )Pi , a u b

(4)

i =0

where the {Pi} are the control points and the {Ni,p(u)} are
the pth-degree B-spline basis functions (Pict.1) that are
defined on the nonuniform knot vector

U = a,...,
a
,
u
,...,
u
,
b
,...,
b
.
p
+
1
m

1
N

p +1

p +1

(5)

This paper presents static analysis of thick composite

plates based on TSDT theory with special emphasis on
the calculation of interlaminar transverse stresses.

2. NURBS PRELIMINARIES

Picture 1: Non-zero cubic B-spline basis functions

defined on the open knot vector
U={0,0,0,0,0,0.2,0.5,0.8,1,1,1,1,1}

Non-uniform rational B-Spline (NURBS) is a technology

that can represent arbitrary freeform shapes with
analytical exactness that is needed in computer graphics,
CAD and CAM applications [12]. NURBS are
generalizations of nonrational Bezier curves and surfaces
and nonrational B-splines. Bezier curves are parametric
polynomial curves defined as
C (u ) =

i,n

( u )Pi ,

0 u 1

B-spline basis functions of pth-degree are defined

recursively

Ni ,0 ( u ) =

u ui
N
(u )
ui +1 ui i , p 1
ui + p +1 u
N
+
(u )
ui + p +1 ui +1 i +1, p 1

where the {Pi} are geometric coefficients (control points)

and the {Bi,n(u)} is the nth-degree Bernstein polynomials
(basis or blending functions) defined as

n! u i (1 u )ni
i !( n i ) !

(6)

(7)

In order to represent conic sections B-splines are

generalized to obtain a rational representation and such a
curve is named NURBS. A pth-degree NURBS curve is
defined by

(2)

Since polynomials cannot exactly represent conic

sections, using the fact those conic sections can be
represented with rational functions, rational Bezier curves
are defined so that for the nth-degree curve it follows

C (u ) =

i, p

( u )wi Pi

i=0
n

, aub,
i, p

(8)

( u )wi

i =0

i ,n

C (u ) =

1 ui u < ui +1
,
0 otherwise

Ni, p (u ) =

(1)

i=0

Bi ,n ( u ) =

( u ) wi Pi

i=0
n

i ,n

, 0 u 1.

where the {Pi} are the control points, the {wi} are the
weights and the {Ni,p(u)} are the pth-degree B-spline basis
functions that are defined on the nonuniform knot vector
given by Eq.(5). If we define the rational basis functions
as

(3)

( u ) wi

i=0

B-spline curve is a generalization of the Bezier curve.

Many curves are too complicated to be defined by a single
Bezier curve. On the other hand, spline curves represent a
sequence of curve segments that are connected at end
points to form a single continuous curve. By connecting

Ri , p ( u ) =

Ni , p ( u ) wi
n

j =0

762

N j , p ( u )w j

(9)

we can write NURBS curve as

C (u ) =

i, p

( u )Pi

where u0, v0, w0 represent linear displacements of the

midplane and x, y are the rotations of normals to the
midplane about the y and x-axes respectively.

(10)

In-plane strains {xx yy xy}T are given as

i =0

p = 0 + z 1 + z 3 3 ,

NURBS are also used to represent surfaces (Pict.2). A

NURBS surface of degree p in the u direction and degree
q in the v direction is a bivariate vector-valued piecewise
rational function of the form
n

S ( u, v ) =

i, p

0
0
0
0 = { xx
yy
xy
} =

( u )N j ,q ( v )wi , j Pi , j

i =0 j =0
n
m

N
i =0

with
T

(11)
i, p

( u )N j ,q ( v )wi , j

1 =

j =0

where the {Pi} are the control points, the {wi} are the
weights and the {Ni,p(u)} and {Nj,q(v)} are the nonrational
B-spline basis functions that are defined on the
nonuniform knot vectors

U = a,...,
a
,
u
,...,
u
,
b
,...,
b
p
+
1
r

1
N

p +1
p +1

V = cN
,..., c , uq +1 ,..., us q +1 , d,...,
d

q +1
q +1

(14)

1
xx
1
yy
1
xy

u0 v0 u0 v0
+
x y y x

y
,
=

x + y
y
x

, (15)

(16)

x 2 w0
+

x
3
x
xx

y 2 w0

(17)
3 = 3yy = 42
+
,
y
y 2
3 3h

xy
x y
2 w0
y + x + 2 xy

(12)

and cross plane components p={ yz xz}T as

where r=n+p+1 and s=m+q+1. Rational solids are

defined analogously.

p = 0 + z 2 2 ,

(18)

with

0
0 = yz0 =
xz

+ w0
y y

,
x + w0

2
2 = yz2 = 42
xz h

(19)

+ w0
y y .

x + 0

(20)

Constitutive relations between stresses and strains in the

kth lamina in the case of plane stress state, for local
coordinate system of the principle material coordinates
(x1,x2,x3) where x1 is fibre direction, x2 in-plane normal to
fiber and x3 normal to lamina plane, are given by

Picture 2: NURBS Surface with control polygon

3. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF REDDY

TSDT PLATE

1( k )
(k )
2
(k )
12 =
(k )
23k
( )
13

In TSDT of Reddy [2, 13], the displacement field is

defined as:

w
u ( x, y, z ) = u0 ( x, y ) + z x 42 z 3 x + 0 ,
x

3h
w

v ( x, y, z ) = v0 ( x, y ) + z y 42 z 3 y + 0 , (13)
y

3h

w ( x, y, z ) = w0 ( x, y ) .

0
0
Q11 Q12 0
Q12 Q22 0
0
0
0
0 Q66 0
0

0
0 Q44 Q45
0
0
0 Q45 Q55
0

(k )

1( k )
(k )
2
(k )
12 . (21)
( k )
23k
( )
13

The quantities Qij are called the plane reduced stiffness

components and are given in terms of material properties
of each layer as

763

( )
Q11
=

E1( k )

(k )
Q12

E1(k),

(k )

( )
, Q22
=
(k )

1 12 21
12( k ) E2( k )

(k )

1 12 21

( )
( )
, Q66
= G12
,
(k )
k

(k )
G23
,

( Aij , Bij , Dij ) =

1 12 21

(k )
Q44

,
(k )

(k )

E2( k )

(k )
Q55

k =1
N

(22)

h/2

( Eij , Fij , H ij ) =

(k )
G13
.

E2(k)

are Young moduli, 12(k), 21(k) are Poisson

coefficients and G12(k), G13(k), G32(k) are shear moduli of the

k =1
N

Aijs ,

Dijs ,

Fijs

h/2
h/2

Qij( k ) (1, z , z 2 )dz ,

Qij( k ) ( z 3 , z 4 , z 6 )dz ,

(28)

) = h / 2 Qij( k ) (1, z 2 , z 4 )dz.

h/2

k =1

lamina.

4. ISOGEOMETRIC FINITE ELEMENT

MODEL OF TSDT PLATE

Composite laminates are usually made of several

orthotropic layers of different orientation. In order to
express constitutive relations in referent laminate (x,y,z)
coordinate system (Pict.3.) lamina constitutive relations
are transformed as
xx
yy

xy =
yz

xz

h/2

In TSDT the field variables are in plane displacements,

transverse displacements and rotations at control points.
By using isogeometric paradigm the same NURBS basis
functions that are used to describe plate geometry are
used for interpolation of field variables. If we define field
variables vector as

0 xx
Q11 Q12 Q16 0
Q
Q
Q
0
0 yy
22
26
12

0 xy , (23)
Q16 Q26 Q66 0
0
0
0 Q44 Q45 yz

0
0
0 Q45 Q55 xz

u = {u 0 v0

w0 x y } ,
T

(29)

we can write

where elements of the matrix in Eq.(23) are layer planestress-reduced stiffnesses in the laminate coordinate
system [13].

nxm

u=

N q ,

(30)

I I

I =1

where nm is the number of control points (basis

functions), NI are the rational basis functions
NI
0
NI = 0

0
0

0
NI
0
0
0

0
0
NI
0
0

0
0
0
NI
0

0
0
0 ,

0
N I

(31)

and qI the degrees of freedom associated with a control

point I
Picture 3: Composite ply (lamina) with principal (x1,x2,
x3) and laminate (x,y,z) coordinate systems [13]

q I = {u 0 I

h/2

{M } =
{P } =
i

h/ 2
h/2

h/2
h/2

h/2

{ i } zdz

{ i } z 3 dz

{R } =
{Qi } =
i

h/ 2

h/2
h/2

h/2

{ i } dz

B
D
F
0
0

(24)

S0
I

{ i } z dz

E 0 0 0
F 0 0 1
G 0 0 3

0 As D s 0

0 D s F s 2

0
I

(32)

B 1I B I3 q I ,
B IS 2 q I .

(33)

If we denote basis function spatial derivatives as

Nx=N/x and Ny=N/y, B matrices in Eq.(33) are
Nx
B0 = 0

Ny
0 0
B1 = 0 0

0 0
0 0
B3 = 0 0

0 0

the stress-strain relations are obtained in the following

form:
N A
M B
E
P=
Q 0
R
0

B
= B

p =

{ i } dz

The in-plane strains and shear strains are written as

If we define stress resultants of the laminate as

{Ni } =

w0 I xI yI } .

v0 I

(25)

where elements of matrix that relates stress resultants to

strain are also 3x3 matrices defined as

and
764

0 0 0 0
N y 0 0 0 ,

N x 0 0 0
0 Nx 0
0 0 Ny ,

0 Ny Nx
0 Nx 0
0 0 Ny ,

0 N y Nx

(34)

0 0 0 0 N
B S 0 =
= BS 2.
0 0 0 N 0

calculation of shear part of stiffness matrix and force

vector and full (p+1)(q+1) Gauss integration for the
bending part of the stiffness matrix.

(35)

The virtual work statement of the static model for TSDT

composite plates in matrix form is defined as

T
p

D p d +

T
s

D s s d =

5.1. Antisymmetric [0/90] square laminated

plate under sinusoidally distributed load

pd . (36)

A two layer composite plate simply supported on all sides

subjected to a sinusoidal load q is considered first.

For static analysis, the finite element formulation of a

TSDT plate is obtained as
Kq = f .

The following material characteristics are used: E1=25E2 ;

G12= G13=0.5E2 ; G23=0.2E2 ; 12=0.25 [13].

(37)

The normalized displacement and stresses are defined as

xx = 10 h / b

b0
A B E B

B D F Bb1 d
E F H b3

B
s0 T
s
s
B A D Bs0
+ s2 s

d ,
F s B s 2
B D

yy

The length-to-width ratio is a/b=1, and length-tothickness ratios are a/h= 5, 10 and all layers have the
same thickness. The plate is modeled with 1616
elements per side. In Table 1. The results of the present
method are compared with the analytical and finite
element solutions of corresponding ESL theory [13].

and f represents load vector

pNd

yz = 10 ( h / b ) yz ( a / 2, 0, 0 ) / q ;

(38)

f =

(
) xx ( a / 2, a / 2, h / 2 ) / q ; ;
2
2
= 10 ( h / b ) yy ( a / 2, a / 2, h / 2 ) / q ;
2

Bb0

K = Bb1
b3
B

= (100 E 2 / h 3 ) ( a / 2, a / 2, 0 ) / qa 4 ;

K is the global stiffness matrix defined as

(39)

The transverse shear stresses calculated from constitutive

relations Eq.(23) do not satisfy stress continuity
conditions at the interfaces between layers. Therefore 3D
elasticity equilibrium equations are used to calculate the
transverse shear stresses. Equilibrium equations are given
as:

x xy xz
+
+
= 0,
x
y
z
y xy yz
+
+
= 0,
y
x
z
z yz xz
+
+
= 0.
z
y
x

(40)

Picture 4: Distribution of normalized xx stress

The interlaminar stresses are obtained from equilibrium

equations by integration through laminate thickness as
follows:
L

i
xi xy

dz,
+
x

y
hL 1
i
hL i

xy
y
y + x dz,
hL 1

xzL z =hL =

i =1
L

hL

yzL z =hL =

i =1
L

xzi iyz
dz
+

y
hL 1 x

zzL z =hL =

i =1

(41)

hL

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this section, we present the performance of the
proposed isogeometric method. The present method is
illustrated with quadratic, cubic and quartic basis
functions. We used reduced Gauss integration for the

Picture 5: Distribution of normalized yy stress

765

Values in the parenthesis denote interlaminar transverse

shear stresses obtained from the equilibrium equations.
Pictures 4.-9. show through the thickness distribution of
normalized stresses in the case of length-to-thickness ratio
of 5 for isogeometric CPT, FSDT and TSDT elements.
Cubic basis functions are used except in the case of
normal transverse stress where quartic basis functions are
used. The transverse stresses calculated from the
equilibrium equations are denoted with suffix il. It can be
seen that the equilibrium interlaminar transverse stresses
are more accurate than those obtained through stressstrain and strain-displacement equations and that they
satisfy continuity conditions between the layers.
Picture 6: Distribution of normalized zz stress

Picture 9: Distribution of normalized xz stress

Picture 7: Distribution of normalized xy stress

5.2. Symmetric [0/90/90/0] square laminated

plate under sinusoidally distributed load
In this example a four layer composite plate simply
supported on all sides subjected to a sinusoidal load q is
considered. Same material characteristics as in example
5.1. are used. The length-to-width ratio is a/b=1, and
length-to-thickness ratios are a/h= 4, 100 and all layers
have the same thickness. The normalized displacement
and stresses are defined as

= (100 E2 h3 ) ( a / 2, a / 2, 0 ) / qa 4 ;

(
)
2
2
yy = ( h / b ) yy ( a / 2, a / 2, h / 6 ) / q;

xx = h / b xx ( a / 2, a / 2, h / 2 ) / q; ;
2

Picture 8: Distribution of normalized yz stress

Table 1: Normalized displacements and stresses of [0/90] laminated plate under sinusoidal load

a/h

Method

xx

yy

yz

HSDT analytical [13]

HSDT FEM [13]

1.667
1.667

8.385
7.669

8.385
7.669

3.155
-

Present solution p=2

1.6660

-8.3898

8.3898

3.2194 (-0.0173)

Present solution p=3

1.6670

-8.4079

8.4079

3.1564 (1.1203)

Present solution p=4

1.6670

-8.3854

8.3854

3.1545 (1.1563)

766

HSDT analytical [13]

HSDT FEM [13]

1.216
1.214

7.468
6.829

7.468
6.829

3.190
-

Present solution p=2

1.2156

7.4802

7.4802

3.2855 (0.2573)

Present solution p=3

1.2161

7.4843

7.4843

3.1901 (1.1846)

Present solution p=4

1.2161

7.4679

7.4679

3.1901 (1.2098)

10

Table 2: Normalized displacements and stresses of [0/90/90/0] laminated plate under sinusoidal load
a/h

100

Method

xx

yy

xy

xz

yz

Exact solution [14]

1.954

0.720

0.663

0.0467

0.219

0.292

SDT [13]

1.894

0.665

0.632

0.045

0.206
(0.231)

0.239
(0.298)

FSM [15]

1.8937

0.6651

0.6322

0.0440

0.2064

RBF [16]

1.8864

0.6659

0.6313

0.0433

0.1352

Present solution p=2

1.8924

0.6639

0.6352

0.0445

Present solution p=2

1.8937

0.6677

0.6325

0.0440

Present solution p=2

1.8937

0.6651

0.6322

0.0440

0.2100
(0.1239)
0.2064
(0.2285)
0.2064
(0.2318)

0.2409
(0.2850)
0.2389
(0.2995)
0.2389
(0.2987)

Exact solution [14]

0.4347

0.5390

0.2760

0.0216

0.337

0.141

SDT [13]

0.434

0.539

0.271

0.0213

0.290
(0.339)

0.112
(0.139)

FSM [15]

0.4343

0.5387

0.2708

0.0213

0.2897

RBF [16]

0.4365

0.5413

0.3359

0.0215

0.4106

Present solution p=2

0.4342

0.5409

0.2724

0.0215

Present solution p=2

0.4343

0.53928

0.270899

0.02134

Present solution p=2

0.4343

0.53870

0.270826

0.02134

0.3018
(0.2947)
0.28956
(0.3398)
0.28973
(0.3406)

0.1153
(0.1340)
0.1114
(0.1396)
0.1117
(0.1388)

quartic isogeometric TSDT elements are carried out and

obtained results are compared with exact and analytic
TSDT solutions as well as with other available numerical
solutions. It can be seen that the performance of proposed
method is very accurate.

xy = h 2 / b 2 xy ( 0, 0, h / 2 ) / q;
yz = ( h / b ) yz ( a / 2, 0, 0 ) / q;
xz = ( h / b ) xz ( 0, b / 2, 0 ) / q;

The transverse stresses are much more accurate if they are

obtained through the integration of the equilibrium
equations. In order to implement direct integration of
equilibrium equations it is necessary to calculate third and
fourth spatial derivatives of displacements which are
possible when NURBS basis is used.

In Table 2. the results of the present method obtained with

1616 elements per side and different basis function
degrees are shown. The results are compared with exact
analytical elasticity theory solution [14], analytical
solution of TSDT theory [13], finite strip method-FSM
solution [15] and collocation method with radial basis
functions-RBF [16].

Both, normal and shear transverse stresses can be

accurately determined which is very important for
delamination analysis.

5. CONCLUSIONS

It is demonstrated that NURBS isogeometric finite

element method can be used for the analysis of laminated
composite materials and that it offers much advantages
when compared to conventional finite element method.

This paper presents an isogeometric formulation for static

analysis of the laminated plates based on the TSDT theory
of Reddy.
Investigation of the behavior of quadratic, cubic and
767

[9] Li, X., Zhang, J., Zheng, Y., "Static and Free
Vibration Analysis of Laminated Composite Plates
Using Isogeometric Approach Based on the Third
Order Shear Deformation Theory", Advances in
Mechanical Engineering, (2014) 1-16.
[10] Thai, C.H., Ferreira, A.J.M., Bordas, S.P.A.,
Rabczuk, T., Nguyen-Xuan, H., "Isogeometric
analysis of laminated composite and sandwich plates
using a new inverse trigonometric shear deformation
theory", European Journal of Mechanics A/Solids,
43 (2014) 89-108.
[11] Kapoor, H., Kapania, R.K., Soni, S.R. "Interlaminar
stress calculation in composite and sandwich plates
in NURBS Isogeometric finite element analysis",
Composite Structures, 106 (2013) 537548.
[12] Rogers, D., An Introduction to NURBS With
Historical
Perspective,
Morgan
Kaufmann
Publishers, San Francisco, 2001.
[13] Reddy, JN., Mechanics of laminated composite
plates and shells theory and anlysis 2nd Ed., CRC
Press, New York, 2004.
[14] Pagano, N.J., "Exact solutions for rectangular
bidirectional composites and sandwich plates", J
Compos Mater, 4 (1970) 2034.
[15] Akhras, G., Cheung, M.S., Li, W., "Static and
vibrations analysis of anisotropic laminated plates
by finite strip method", International Journal of
Solids and Structures, 30(22) (1993) 31293137.
[16] Ferreira, A.J.M., Roque, C.M.C., S.Martins P.A.L.,
"Analysis of composite plates using higher-order
shear deformation theory and a finite point
formulation based on the multiquadric radial basis
function method", Composites Part B, 34 (7) (2003)
627636.

REFERENCES
[1] Robert, J.M., Mechanics of Composite Materials 2nd
Ed., Taylor-Francis, Philadelphia, 1999.
[2] Reddy, J.N., "A Simple Higher-Order Theory for
Laminated Composite Plates", J. Appl. Mech., 51 (4)
(1984) 745-752.
[3] Hughes, T.J.R., Cottrell, J.A., Bazilevs, Y.,
"Isogeometric analysis: CAD, finite elements,
NURBS, exact geometry and mesh refinement",
Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg., 194 (39-41)
(2005) 4135-4195.
[4] Shojaee, S., Valizadeh, N., Izadpanah, E., Bui, T.,
Vu, T-V., "Free vibration and buckling analysis of
laminated composite plates using the NURBS-based
isogeometric finite element method", Composite
Structures, 94 (2012) 1677-1693.
[5] Thai, C.H., Nguyen-Xuan, H., Nguyen-Xuan, N.,
Le, T-H., Nguyen-Thoi, T., Rabczuk, T. "Static, free
vibration, and buckling analysis of laminates
composite Reissner-Mindlin plates using NURBSbased isogeometric approach", Int. J. Numer. Meth.
Engng. 91 (6) (2012) 571-603.
[6] Kapoor, H., Kapania, R.K. "Geometrically nonlinear
NURBS isogeometric finite element analysis of
laminated composite plates", Composite Structures,
94 (2012) 3434-3447.
[7] Casanova, C., Gallego, A., "NURBS-based analysis
of higher-order composite shells", Composite
Structures, 104 (2013) 125-133.
[8] Nguyen-Xuan, H., Thai, C., Nguyen-Thoi, T.,
"Isogeometric finite element analysis of composite
sandwich plates using a higher order shear
deformation theory", Composites Part B:
Engineering, 55 (2013) 558-574.

768

FORMATION OF THE CONDUCTIVE PATHWAYS AND ELECTRICAL

CONDUCTIVITY OF THE COPPER FILLED LIGNOCELLULOSE
COMPOSITES
MIROSLAV M. PAVLOVI
University of Belgrade, ICTM-CMM, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, mpavlovic@tmf.bg.ac.rs
VLADAN OSOVI
University of Belgrade, ICTM-CMM, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
MILADIN GLIGORI
University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Technology, Zvornik, Republic of Srpska, BiH
VASO BOJANI
University of Banja Luka, Agrifaculty, Banja Luka, Republic of Srpska, BiH
MIOMIR G. PAVLOVI
University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Technology, Zvornik, Republic of Srpska, BiH

Abstract: The electrical conductivity of the composite system based on lignocellulose (LC) biopolymer matrix
electrodeposited copper powder filler has been studied. Highly porous, highly dendritic galvanostatically produced copper
powder was used as filler since these particles have high values of specific area. Volume fraction of the electrodeposited
copper powder was varied from 1.9 - 29.4 vol%. Analysis of the most significant properties of prepared composites and its
components included impedance spectroscopy (IS) behavior, measurements of electrical conductivity, scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) and structural analysis. The significant increase of the electrical conductivity could be observed as the
copper powder content reaches the percolation threshold (PT). It was shown that PT depends on both particle shape and
type of spatial distribution. IS measurements and SEM analysis have shown that particles having pronounced grain
boundaries have great effect on appearance of electric conductive pathways thus on the composite conductivity. The
packaging effect and more pronounced interpartical contact with copper powder particles lead to movement of PT, which
for the particles <45 m and highest processing pressure of 27 MPa was 7.2% (v/v). IS response of the composites showed
existence of electrical conductive layers, each having different resistivity which increases towards interior of the composite.
Keywords: electrolytic copper powder, impedance spectroscopy, lignocellulose, composite.
methods of engineering electrical conductivity and shielding
properties into polymers and polymer composite systems
while preserving fundamental advantages (mechanical,
manufacturing, density, cost, etc.).

1.CINTRODUCTION
Polymer and fiber reinforced composites play an
increasingly important role in commercial, defense, and
private sectors. While polymeric systems are well suited for
replacing metallic structures with respect to mechanical and
processing properties, the electrical properties of
polymeric systems are orders of magnitude apart from
metals. This transition to polymeric systems occurs
concurrently with an increase in utilization of and reliance
on digital technologies which are highly sensitive to
electromagnetic shielding.

Traditional solutions for conductivity in polymers and

polymer matrix composites have included metal filled
polymers, intrinsically conductive polymers, and meshes,
foils, and wires for laminate structures. The rapidly
growing field of nanotechnology has presented new
materials that can increase polymer composite conductivity.
Traditional conductive additives (such as milled powders,
coated spheres, platelets, etc.) have aspect ratios on the
order of 1 to 10, while newer nanomaterials (such as
carbon nanofibers) have aspect ratios in the thousands. This
aspect ratio advantage, combined with nanoscale
geometries, means that less conductive material is required
in terms of both volume percent and weight percent to
achieve high conductivity levels [1-4].

Traditional metal structures naturally present an electrically

conductive and shielding material, as isotropic metals have
free valence electrons to facilitate electrical conduction.
Polymer matrix composites are naturally not as well suited,
consisting of insulating or moderately conducting fibers in
an insulating matrix. Thus, the challenge is to find
769

The overriding objective of this paper was to seek

understanding of the electrical properties of metal filled
polymers using copper fillers. Previously, the majority of
studies on filler systems have dealt with characterization
through empirical results. A main deliverable of this work
is to investigate structure property relationships within filler
composites in order to develop a better predictive capability
for electrical conduction behaviors. This is accomplished
through examining screening metrics and predictive
variables for characterizing the polymer dependent, but
processing method and volume fraction independent,
electrical conduction of filler composites
The electrical properties of metal filled polymer systems can be
modeled using percolation theory [5-8]. Classical percolation
theory considers a connected network of conductive links in a
nonconductive matrix across an infinite sample. In a filler
composite, this network structure is created by dispersed fillers
connecting throughout the polymer. When a sufficient volume
of fillers are present to create an electrically conductive path, an
abrupt change in conductivity is observed, referred to as the
critical percolation threshold. The resistivity of the composite
decreases dramatically above the percolation threshold,
eventually approaching a stabilized conductivity level at the
percolation limit. This limit presents a limiting value for welldispersed conductive networks. For loadings beyond the
percolation limit, a decrease in electrical and mechanical
properties is often observed, indicating that the polymer host is
no longer capable of facilitating additional increases in filler.
Filler polymer composites have been able to achieve
conductivities in excess of 5000 S/cm, and have been
demonstrated in applications including electrostatic
discharge [9], electromagnetic shielding [10-12], conductive
adhesives [13, 14], caulks and gaskets [15], paints [16, 17],
and lightning strike protection [10, 27-21]. Previous studies
have indicated that the resultant conduction of a filler
composite can depend on multiple factors. For example, an
early study [22] indicates that the resistivity of filler
composites is a function of the type of polymer used as the
matrix material. This work extends that early effort through
a systematic characterization of fillers across multiple
polymer systems, including modeling efforts.
The electrical resistivity of filler polymer composites in
epoxy is observed to be 10=2 to 102 ohm-cm, depending on
volume fraction, sample geometry, and dispersion method.
Of particular note, the electrical resistivity of the filler
filled polymer system is not invariant with geometry; i.e.,
the electrical resistance of a sample does not rely linearly
on sample dimensions and bulk electrical material
properties. [23] Conduction in these systems relies on
percolated pathways, which introduces considerations that
are nonlinear with changes in sample geometry. These
considerations are factors such as the number of conductor
insulator junctions, the distance between junctions, and
characteristics of the dispersed conductive network. [23]
The mechanical strength of the composite system is not
statistically different from the strength of the unfilled
system at the volume loading and test methods considered
(up to 7.5 volume percent in lap shear).

method of choice for characterizing the electrical behavior

of systems in which the overall system behavior is
determined by a number of strongly coupled processes, each
proceeding at a different rate [23,24]. Impedance
spectroscopy is a relatively new and powerful method of
characterizing many of the electrical properties of materials
and their interfaces with electronically conducting materials.
It may be used to investigate the dynamics of bound or
mobile charge in the bulk or interfacial regions of any kind
of solid or liquid material: ionic, semiconducting, mixed
electronicionic, and even insulators (dielectrics). It can be
used for measurements in wide range of materials from solid
electrolyte materials (amorphous, polycrystalline and single
crystal), solid metallic electrodes, fused salts, aqueous
electrolytes and composite materials [24].
The aim of this work was to compare results of electrical
conductivity of copper powder filled lignocellulose matrix
composites produced under different pressures obtained by
different measuring techniques, and to explain the influence
of particle shape (i.e. particle morphology) on percolation
threshold by impedance spectroscopy.

2. EXPERIMENTAL
Copper powder was galvanostatically produced with distinct
dendritic morphology and large specific area [25-27], with
all the same parameters of electrolysis and deposition times
as stated in [23]. Electrolytic copper powder has been
produced from electrolyte containing 140 g/dm3 sulfuric
acid and 15 g/dm3 copper ions, using an electrolyte
temperature (502)C. The powder was deposited
galvanostatically at current density of 3600 A/m2 and the
deposition time (time of powder removal by brush) was 15
min, where the experimental setup was the same as in [23].
The wet powder was washed several times with a large
amount of demineralized water until the powder was free
from traces of acid, at room temperature, because the acid
promotes rapid oxidation of the powder during drying.
Obtained copper powder was washed afterwards with
sodium soap SAP G-30 solution to protect the powder
against subsequent oxidation, which was prepared and used
as in previous work [23]. After drying in the tunnel furnaces
at 110 120C in a controlled nitrogen atmosphere, the
copper powder was sieved through a mesh with 45m
openings.
Celgran C fraction of the corn cob produced by Maize
Research Institute "Zemun Polje" was used as a source of
lignocellulose. It was milled and then sieved, with particle
sizes below 45 m. Lignocellulose prepared and obtained in
this manner was used as natural polymer matrix.
Investigated composites of lignocellulose matrix filled with
copper powder were prepared with filler contents in the
range 2.0% (v/v) 29.8% (v/v), while pure lignocellulose
samples were prepared as reference materials. Thoroughly
homogenized composite powder mixtures were pressed into
16 mm diameter pellets under pressures of 10, 20 and 27
MPa. at ambient temperature (t = 25 oC).
Impedance spectroscopy (IS) experiments were performed
in potentiostatic mode on all prepared composites.
Instrumentation involved Bio-Logic SAS Instrument,
model SP-200, guided by EC-Lab software. Samples were

Impedance spectroscopy (IS) is gaining more important role

in fundamental and applied electrochemistry and materials
science in the last years. In a number of respects it is the
770

put between two metal plates and they responded to the

potential input sinusoidal signal of 10mV (rms) amplitude.
Geometry of the instrument contacts used is such that it
minimizes edge effects thus it can be assumed that they do
not exist. Experimental IS data were fitted by ZView
software [28].

dendrite branching and, hence, this powder is good

prerequisite for formation of more interparticle contacts
between conductive copper particles and lowering the
percolation threshold. Figure 1b shows SEM
photomicrograph of the used lignocellulose with distinct
layered structure.

Sample thicknesss (necessary for the calculation of

conductivity) was determined using micrometer, to an
accuracy of 0.01 mm. Several thickness measurements were
taken per sample and then averaged.

Results of the percolation threshold (obtained from of the

maximum of the derivative of the conductivity as a function
of filler volume fraction) measured from the experimental
data of impedance spectroscopy are in good agreement with
previous results [23].

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

At an interface between two phases in the composite,

physical properties like crystallographic, mechanical,
compositional, and, particularly, electrical change
precipitously and heterogeneous charge distributions
(polarizations) reduce the overall electrical conductivity of a
system. The morphology of used copper powder (Figure 1)
shows that greater interpartical contact of smaller, highly
porous, highly dendritic particles with high values of
specific area move percolation threshold towards lower
filler content.

As previously mentioned, the conductivity of filled

polymers is strongly dependent on the nature of the contact
between the conductive filler elements, particle size and
shape of the conductive particle filler. This was shown in
[23] where highly dendritic copper powder was used, and
the percolation threshold was moved to lower filler content.
Electrical properties of lignocellulose polymer matrix are
altered by addition of conductive copper powder as filler.
The electrical conductivity of polymer composites does not
increase continuously with increasing electroconductive
filler content. Instead it has rapid increase in conductivity
when the percolation threshold of the conductive filler
content is reached. Therefore, the copper powder was
galvanostatically produced since it should have distinct
dendritic morphology and large specific area [25-27]. This
feature can be seen in Figure 1a, which shows typical
copper powder particle obtained by constant current
deposition. Copper powder particles have pronounced

It should be mentioned that the resistance of the composites

increases due to the increasing contribution of the part of
internal surface of polymer matrix as frequency decreases.
In the certain frequency range, capacitance and resistance
values are similar.
The electrical conductivity of all the particle size
composites as a function of filler content for all the samples
was measured from impedance characteristics of a
composite having the filler of characteristic morphology.
Electrical conductivity was determined according to
relation:

1
7

l
S

(1)

where is electrical conductivity, Ri resistivity of a layer

in equivalent circuit, l length and S cross-section area of
the sample. Measurements of electrical conductivity as a
function of filler content for all the samples are presented in
Figure 2.

a)

b)
Figure 1. SEM photomicrographs of a) copper powder
particles obtained in constant current deposition and b)
lignocellulose matrix used in composite preparation

Figure 2. Comparison of electrical conductivities, as a

function of filler content, of lignocellulose composites filled
with copper powder under different processing pressures
771

Due to the packaging effect and more pronounced interparticle

contact with smaller, highly porous, highly dendritic particles
with high values of specific area lead to movement of
percolation threshold towards lower filler content. This feature
can be observed on Figure 3. The conductivity of the composite
is obtained through conductive pathways of the filler that form
in the composites. These pathways are formed in 3D in a pure
random order. SEM images of the inner structure of the
composites are prepared after composite preparation and its
braking.
It should be mentioned that copper powder filler was sieved
through mesh with the openings of 45 m, and the
conductive pathways are at much larger scale which can be
observer on Figure 3 [29].

There is an influence of the pressure on electrical

conductivity of the composites. For the pressure of 10 MPa
the percolation threshold was lowered to 12.5% (v/v), for 20
MPa it was 11.6% (v.v), and for 27 MPa was 7.2% (v/v)
which is the difference of 5.8% (v/v) in filler content. At
higher pressures less filler is needed to form conductive
pathways through a composite. However, at the pressure of
27 MPa it can be observed that the starting surface features
of electrodeposited copper powder is a bit deformed,
although it is still forming conductive pathways (Figure 4).
Further tests, at higher pressures will show the future impact
of increased pressure on composite conductivity, and
whether it starts to decrease after certain point.

a)
a)

b)
Figure 4. SEM images of the a) electrodeposited copper
powder used as a filler and b) copper powder in the
composite prepared at 27 MPa. Magnification x2500

b)

Flandin et al. [30] state that typical values of 2040% (v/v)

for percolation threshold for spherical filler particles. Hence,
electrodeposited copper powder particles represent excellent
choice as conductive composite fillers.

4. CONCLUSIONS
Experimental study about the effects of particle morphology
of electrodeposited copper powder on the electrical
conductivity of lignocellulose composites filled with this
powder has been described in this article. It have been
shown that particle shape of copper powder with very high
surface area and pronounced dendrite branching plays
significant role on electrical conductivity of the prepared
samples. Electrical conductivity was calculated from the
results of impedance spectroscopy measurements and it is in
agreement with previously published results [7-9]. Layered

c)
Figure 3. SEM images of the conductive pathways in the
composites at percolation threshold. Composites are
prepared under a) 10 MPa, b) 20 MPa and c) 27 MPa. All
photographs are prepared at magnification x350
772

electrical conductivity through the samples was found,

where the resistance of the inner layers is guiding process of
the overall resistance of the composite. Grain boundary
plays significant effect. The response is elongated coupled
resistance with constant impedance tail towards lower
frequencies. It can be pointed out that resistance increases
due to the increasing contribution of the part of internal
surface of polymer matrix as frequency decreases. The
internal space charge that is created at the phase boundaries
leads to a significant increase in the concentration of mobile
defects, hence giving the circuit response with purely
geometric reductions in the conductivity with respect to the
single crystal thus showing that grain boundary plays
significant effect. This response is elongated coupled
resistance with constant impedance tail towards lower
frequencies. Polycristallinity, high surface area, greater
number of interparticle contacts and grain boundary effect
of the copper powder are key factors influencing percolation
threshold in the LC-Cu composites. This research has
undeniably shown that particle morphology of
galvanostatically obtained copper powder and lignocellulose
matrix plays significant role in electrical conductivity of the
composites.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the

United States of America, vol. 105, pp. 8221-226, 2008.
[8] S.F.Wang and A.A.Ogale, "Simulation of Percolation
Behavior of Anisotropic Short-Fiber Composites with a
Continuum Model and Non-Cubic Control Geometry,"
Comp Sci and Tech, vol. 46, 1993.
[9] G.Hansen, N.Hansen, and L.Hansen, "The Roles of
Nanostrands and Nickel Coated Fibers in Electrically
Conductive Composite Design" presented at the
SAMPE Fall Technical Conference, Seattle, WA, 2005.
[10] G.Hansen, "A Concurrent Solution for both Lightning
Strike and Electromagnetic Protection of Aerospace
Composites" presented at the SAMPE International
Conference, Long Beach, CA, 2008.
[11] G.Hansen, "Highly Effective Broadband Shielding
Materials," presented at the National Space and Missile
Materials Symposium, Henderson, NV, 2008.
[12] G.Hansen, "Advances in HPM and EMP Hardening
Materials," presented at the HEART Conference,
Colorado Springs, CO, 2008.
[13] J.Burghardt, N.Hansen, L.Hansen, and G.Hansen, "The
Mechanical and Electrical Properties of Nickel
Nanostrands in Hysol 9396 Epoxy," in SAMPE
International Conference, Long Beach, CA, 2006.
[14] N.Hansen, L.Hansen, and G.Hansen, "Electrically
Conductive Structural Adhesive with Milliohm
Resistance," presented at the SAMPE International
Conference, Long Beach, CA, 2008.
[15] N.Hansen, G.Hansen, and E.Silverman, "Versatile Gap
Fillers and Sealants for High Level Conductivity and
Electromagnetic Shielding," presented at the SAMPE
Spring Symposium, Seattle, WA, 2010.
[16] N.Hansen and G.Hansen, "Electromagnetically
Shielding Spray Paints Using Commercial-Off-TheShelf Polymer Systems," presented at the SAMPE Fall
Technical Conference, Wichita, 2009.
[17] J.Tomblin, J.Kostogorova-Beller, G.Hansen, and
N.Hansen, "Evaluation of Lightning Strike Protection
Schemes which Employ Conductive Primers," presented
at the SAMPE Fall Technical Conference, Wichita, KS,
2009.
[18] J.A.E.Bell and G.Hansen, "Nickel Coated Fibers for
Aerospace Applications," presented at the SAMPE
International Symposium Proceedings, Anaheim, CA,
1991.
[19] G.Hansen, "Nano-Microstructured Lightning Strike
Protection System Using Nanostrands and Conductive
Fiber Composites" presented at the SAMPE
International Conference, Long Beach, CA, 2006.
[20] G.Hansen, N.Hansen, D.O. Adams, J.Burghardt,
D.Widauf, and T.McNeill, "Electrically Conductive
Putty Type Repair System For Composite Structures"
presented at the SAMPE International Conference,
Baltimore, MD, 2007.
[21] G.Hansen and N.Hansen, "The Role of Nanomaterials
in Lightning Strike Protection of Aircraft," presented at
the National Nano Engineering Conference, Boston,
MA, 2007.
[22] G.Hansen, "High Aspect Ratio Sub-Micron and Nanoscale Metal Filaments," SAMPE Journal, pp. 24-28,
April 2005.
[23] M.M.Pavlovi, M.G.Pavlovi, V.Pani,N.Talijan,
Lj.Vasilevi, M.V.Tomi, Electrical Conductivity of

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was financially supported by Ministry of
Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia under the
research projects: ON172046 and ON172037 as well as
Ministry of Science and Technology of the Republic of
Srpska under the research project "Electroconducting
composite materials based on lignocellulose and copper
powders prepared by constant and programmed currentvoltage electrolysis regimes" (ELBAKOM140283).

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774

SURFACE MODIFICATION OF WTi/Si THIN FILM AND STAINLESS

STEEL BY PICOSECOND LASER IRRADIATION
DUBRAVKA MILOVANOVI
VINA Institute of nuclear sciences, University of Belgrade, Serbia, duca@vin.bg.ac.rs
SUZANA PETROVI
VINA Institute of nuclear sciences, University of BelgradeSerbia, spetro@vin.bg.ac.rs
MILORAD ANELKOVI
Grammar school Svetozar Markovi, Surdulica, Serbia,
MILO TODOROVI
Chemical and food technology school, Belgrade, Serbia,
STEPAN STANI
Grammar school Pirot, Pirot, Serbia,
MILICA VESELINOVI
First Belgrade gymnasium, Belgrade, Serbia,
MARIJA BJELAN
Tenth gymnasium Mihajlo Pupin, Belgrade

Abstract: Surface effects resulting from the picosecond laser ablation of stainless steel and WTi/Si are discussed in this
work. The surface of the sample was irradiated by Nd:YAG laser at 1064 nm wavelenght, with the different count of
pulses at constant pulse energy. Morphological changes of the induced prominent ablation were registered and
analyzed. Various analytical techniques were used for characterization of the samples before and after laser
irradiation. Surface morphology was monitored by optical microscopy and SEM. Crater depth and surface profile
analysis was done by non-contact optical profilometer. Also, an important parameter - the laser ablation threshold
fluence (Fth) of these materials was calculated.
Keywords: Surface modification, laser, profilometry, stainless steel, thin films, Wti.
conditions. More importantly, controlled modification
that produces highly precise surface features, like holes
and periodic structures is the advantage of the laser
ablation processing by short and ultra-short laser pulses.

1. INTRODUCTION
Laser modification/processing of materials is a very
attractive
and
promising
branch
of
modern
science/technology in such areas of industry as
electronics, optics, novel high temperature engines,
medicine and medical equipment, etc [1,2]. Material
processing by nanosecond and picoseconds laser pulses
has advantages in some annealing, ablative and melting
applications, especially for micro and nano-scale
purposes. Laser-induced damage of solid materials,
particularly on the surface, depends on the material
characteristics (surface state, fabrication, etc), laser
parameters (pulse duration, wavelength, number of
accumulated pulses, etc) and conditions of irradiation
(vacuum, gas atmosphere, the gas pressure, etc) [3,4].
Modification of the surface area by short pulse is an
important field of research, providing the information
about the behavior of these materials under extreme

Excellent combination of hardness and anticorrosion of

stainless steel and tungsten - titanium thin films allows
wide range of their applications, from aircraft industry to
gas sensors. Stainless steel with medium carbon content
improves its hardness and tensile strength [5]. Due to
these and other excellent physical and chemical
properties, stainless steel is widely applied from
machinery to military industry. Particularly, in the
military industry, it can be used for low and high-pressure
sections, high-temperature application, etc. On the other
hand, there is an increasing interest in the coatings/thin
films, as the materials that significantly improve the
properties and the life of the bulk materials. Tungsten
titanium (WTi) thin film is the promising new coating
775

characterized by thermochemical stability, high melting

temperature and hardness. For these reasons WTi thin
films can be applied in micro-electronic as the diffusion
barrier, in gas sensor technology; in protection technology
as
a
protective
coating,
etc.
Conventional
modification/processing of these materials are extremely
difficult because of their hardness and brittleness. The use
of a laser, in this context, is possibly an adequate,
promising solution.

Table 1. Surface parameters, Ra and PV, obtained by

optical profilometer for stainless steel and WTi/Si
Surface parameters
Stainless steel
WTi/Si
Ra (m)
0.047
0.002
PV (m)
1.011
1.230
Investigations of the morphological changes induced by
picosecond laser on the stailness steel and WTi thin film
sample have shown their dependence on laser beam
characteristics, primarily on the laser fluence, peak power
density, number of accumulated pulses and wavelength
and by materials properties (optical reflectivity,
microstructure and surface state).

2. EXPERIMENTAL
Rectangular shaped samples, bulk dimensions 10x70 mm,
of stainless steel and tungsten titanium deposited on
silicon (WTi/Si) were cleaned in the ethanol prior to laser
irradiation. Experiment was done in air, by focused laser
beam at 1064 nm wavelength and pulse duration of 150
ps. The laser was Nd:YAG (EKSPLA, model SL212P)
operating in the TEM00 mode at repetition rate of 10 Hz.
Laser beam was driven to the quartz lens (focal length of
171 mm) by the mirror system. Samples were placed at
the focal length distance from the lens and mounted on
the triple axis (x, y, z) positioning system.
The energy was kept constant at 20 mJ, with pulse to
pulse variation 5%. Number of accumulated pulses
ranged from 10 to 200 pulses. Under described
experimental conditions, fluences were 3.4 J cm-2 for
stainless steel and 2.4 J cm-2 for WTi/Si.

Interaction of the laser radiation with metallic and alloy

materials can is complex and accompanied by several
processes. The basis of laser/material interaction can be
presented as energy transfer, in the form of heat, from the
laser beam to free electrons from the conduction band of
the target. Electron electron collisions follow and lead
to heating of the target. If sufficient amount of energy is
applied, the energy is transferred to protons, inducing
breakage of the crystal lattice and melting or evaporation
of the material. Dependance of laser impact on steel
surface is expressed by heat affected zone (HAZ) of 22
nm, calculated from the thermal diffusivity of steel (D =
3.352 m2 s-1) and pulse duration ( = 150 ps). First
inspection of the regions after laser irradiation was done
by optical microscopy and damage threshold, Fth for steel
at this wavelenght was determined to be 0.72 J cm-2.

Various analytical techniques were used for surface

analysis of the samples before and after laser irradiation.
Surface morphology was monitored by optical
microscopy (Axioplan, model Opton) and SEM (JEOL,
model JSM 5800LV). Crater depth and surface profile
analysis was done by non-contact optical profilometer
(Zygo, model New View 7100).

After laser irradiation of the steel at fluence 3.4 J cm-2

and number of accumulated pulses 10, 50, 100, 150 and
200, the pronounced features are detected on the surface.
Developement of the ablated area morphology after multipulse laser action is presented on SEM microphotographs
in Picture 2.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Prior to irradiation, stainless steel plate had a typical silver
grey metallic colour. As-deposited WTi/Si sample possessed
metallic color while the surface was like a mirror due to high
reflectivity (~ 93 %). Surface topography was analyzed by
non contact optical profilometry and reconstructed three
dimensional surface maps of steel and WTi/Si are shown in
Picture 1. Surface parameters like mean surface roughness
(Ra) and peak to valley ratio (PV) were determined for both
samples and presented in Table 1. Microscopic methods
have shown that the structure of the samples were highly
homogeneous, with a low mean surface roughness below of
50 nm for stailness steel and about 2 nm for WTi thin film.
Figure 2. SEM photographs of stailness steel after: (A)
10 pulses and (B) 150 pulses at center and periphery of
irradiated area, respectively.
Laser action of ten accumulated pulses led to uniform
melting of the material in the interaction area, (Fig. 2.A1A2). Main effect after 10 and 50 pulses irradiation is
surface corrugation from the molten material and increase
of Ra to 0.23 and 0.52 m compared to non irradiated
sample, Table 1.

Picture 1. Reconstructed three dimensional surface maps

of stailness steel and WTi/Si

776

Further increase of accumulated pulses caused

removal/rearrangement of the material from the surface
i.e. ablation. Characteristic features of the steel's surface
after irradiation by 150 accumulated pulses are shown in
Picture 2B. The ablated area is characterized by pond of
molten material in the central part, Picture 2.B1, which is
propagated towards the periphery of the affected area due
to the pressure gradient. Molten material is accumulated
on the periphery like partial frozen wavy structure, but
with the formation of the cracks due to the rapid cooling
of the material after ending laser radiation. Hydrodynamic
features are present in the form of resolidified droplets,
accumulated material, and recrystallization of solid
particles with diameter 1 m, Picture 2.B.
Irradiated/modified area of the WTi/Si surface after
picosecond laser irradiation, at fluence of 2.4 J cm-2 has a
fairly regular circular shape, Picture 3.A1-B1. Surface
morphological changes to the system WTi/Si include the
following phenomena and effects: partial ablation of WTi
thin layer and Si substrate in central part of the irradiated
area, the occurrence of hydrodynamic effects in the form
of resolidified material at the periphery of the modified
zone and the cracking of the WTi thin layer.

Picture 3. Optical microscopy analysis of WTi/Si system

after irradiation with: (A) 10 pulses and (B) 150 pulses at
center and periphery, respectively.
After laser action of ten pulses, there was a partial
ablation (removal) of WTi thin layer, Picture 3.A., while
after laser irradiation by 150 accumulated pulses intense
ejection of the substrate material with formation of deep
crater, was observed, Picture 3.B.

Received laser radiation is converted into thermal energy

on the sample surface, which drives a series of effects
such as heating of the sample, melting and ejection of
material from the surface and subsequently from the depth
of the sample. In the case of complex sample composed
from thin film and substrate, with different
thermophysical properties, accurance of cracks and
peeling of thin film material is possible. The difference in
the thermal expansion coefficients for WTi thin layer and
Si substrate causes the creation of additional stress at the
interface between the layer and the substrate. As the direct
consequence of this stress, there is an appearance of
micrometer size cracks and peeling of WTi thin layer,
radial oriented for a low number of accumulated pulses.

Besides cracks and corrugation of molten material,

formation of parallel periodic structures is noticed at some
parts of the periphery, Picture 3.A2-B2. These surface
features have the periodicity of approximately 1.1 m. It
is believed that the mechanism of formation of laser
induced parallel periodic structures is interference
between the incident laser beam and the
reflected/diffracted light from the sample surface. The
periodicity of these structures is directly related to the
wavelength of the used laser radiation, its polarization and
the angle at which the irradiation is carried out.
The comparative two dimensional profiles and 3D maps
of the ablated areas on both samples after 200
accumulated pulses is shown in Picture 4.

Picture 4. 2D profile and 3D maps of irradiated area after 200 accumulated pulses for stainless steel and WTi/Si
samples.

777

Profilometry analysis indicates that the depth changes are

more expressive for the WTi/Si sample than the stainless
steel as consequence of higher hardness. However, for the
stainless steel diameter of the modified area was
significantly higher in the steel, specifying that the
delivered energy in steel much more lateral spread. In 2D
profiles can be observed that the initial formation of
craters was occurred in the steel with depth of about
0.5 m, as that in the WTi/Si sample the formed crater
had depth of 2 m deep into the Si substrate. In the case
of WTi/Si, it is interesting to denote that there is no
expansion of the modified area with an increase in the
number of accumulated pulses in the range of 10 to 150
pulses, Picture 3.A1-B1, but the modification of the above
system is transferred to the depth of the sample,
Picture 4.B.

with a specific parallel periodic structure expressed after

the action of the higher number of pulses and; (iv)
appearance of hydrodynamic features such as resolidified
material including micro-sized grains. The WTi/Si sample
is complex, i.e. a combination of two materials with
different thermophysical properties, and, thus, a cracks
occurrence is possible, and was registered on the surface.
Also, the cracks were appeared at the modified surface of
steel due to rapid cooling process after ending laser
treatment.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research was sponsored by the Ministry of Education,
Science and Technological Development of the Republic
Serbia through projects No. III 45016 and No. OI 172019.
We also acknowledge the support from Secretariat for
Sports and Youth of the City of Belgrade, Serbia, project
Vinine nauionice.

4. CONCLUSION
A study of morphological changes on the stainless steel
and tungsten-titanium (WTi/Si) thin film surfaces induced
by picosecond Nd:YAG laser, operating at 1064 nm and
with different number of accumulated pulses, is
presented. It was shown that picosecond laser pulses
induce morphological changes of the steel and WTi/Si
samples. Laser fluence of 3.4 J cm-2 for the stainless steel
and 2.4 J cm-2 for thin film system was found to be
sufficient for inducing surface modifications with any
number of accumulated pulses. The surface
morphological changes can be summarized for both
samples as: (i) ablation of material, its level being
dependent on laser pulse count; (ii) surface melting of
steel with accumulated of molten materials at the
periphery in form of frozen wavy structure (iii) partial
modification of the silicon substrate in WTi/Si system,

REFERENCES
[1] Stefanov P, Minkovski N, Balchev I, Avramova I,
[2] Sabotinov N and Marinova Ts, Applied Surface
Science, 253 (2006) 1046-1050.
[3] Han A, Gubencu D and Pillon G, Optics & Laser
Technology, 37(7) (2005) 577-581.
[4] Guo Z, Hu J, Lain J and Chumakov A N, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 184 (2007) 173176.
[5] Mondal A K, Kumar S, Blawent C and Dahotre N B,
Surface and Coating Technology, 202(14) (2008)
3187-3198.
[6] W. Perrie, M. Gill, G. Robinson, P. Fox, W. ONeill,
Applied Surface Science,

778

FAILURE ANALYSIS OF DISEL ENGINE PISTON

LJUBICA RADOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, ljubica.radovic@vti.vs.rs
DUAN VRAARI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade

Abstract: A commercial aluminium cast piston for diesel engine failed during operation after a short period (about 150
km) after overhaul. In order to identify the cause of the failure, a metallurgical analysis was performed by means of
visual inspection, optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), as well as analysis of chemical
composition and hardness measurement. Seizure marks along and around the piston and changed color of connecting
rod are identified. Also, the piston crown have been competely destroyed by local melting and erosion. These features
are attributed to incipient melting of copper-base intermetallics, coarsening and spheroidization of the microstructural
constituents. Furthermore, presence of secondary porosity observed in the microstructures in the crown vicinity,
indicates that the piston was exposed to excessive temperature. All results lead to conclusion that overheating was the
main cause of this failure.
Keywords: cast Al-Si alloy, piston, failure, overheating.
This study has been a result of failure investigations
related to a diesel engine piston. It failed during operation
after a short period (about 150 km) after overhaul.

1. INTRODUCTION
The analysis of causes of diesel engine failures has been a
very common task for engineers for years and the subject
of many studies [1-4]. Damaged piston is one of the most
common reasons for damage of the engine. The piston
and cylinder damages happen in about 11 % cases of all
engine failures [2]. The most failures are related to
damaged ring, head and pin, as well as head, skirt and pin
seizing. The most of seizing and other damages are
caused by insufficient clearances, poor lubrication,
overheating and abnormal combustion. In order to prevent
failures, a lot of manufacturers even provide technical
information about possible types of failure and probable
causes [5-7].
The piston is one of the most stressed components of a
vehicle and it must be so designed that can withstand the
extreme heat and pressure of combustion. Pistons must
also be light enough to keep inertial loads on related parts
to a minimum. Aluminumsilicon casting alloys are
widely used in automotive components such as pistons,
due to their excellent castability, light weight, low cost
and acceptable strength [8-9]. Eutectic AlSi alloy has
been used for many years, but with increased piston
temperatures new alloys with increased content of Si, Cu
and other alloying elements, have been applied [10-13].
Hypereutectic aluminumsilicon alloys (with more than
12 % silicon), have a higher strength compared to more
common cast aluminum alloys for pistons, outstanding
wear resistance and lower coefficient of thermal
expansion, which allows much tighter tolerances. Cast
pistons have lower mechanical properties than forged
pistons but they have a lower cost.

2. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The chemical composition of the pistons material was
determined by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (Philips
PW 1404) for each delivered piston. The microstructures
were characterized by a Leitz optical microscope and
scanning electron microscope (SEM-JEOL JSM
6610LV). Metallographic samples were prepared using
traditional grinding and polishing techniques. For etching
used Keller solution.
Hardness measurement was performed using Brinell
hardness method (2,5/62,5/30). Hardness tester
Wolpert Diatestor 2RC was used.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Visual examination
Two pistons were subjected to visual examinations in
their as-received condition, designated piston 1 and piston
2. Visual examination of the piston 1 revealed destroyed
piston crown and seizure marks and cracks on the piston
skirt, shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Severe erosion at the piston
crown and melted area are visible. Changed color of
connecting rod is also identified, shown in Fig. 3. Visual
examination of the piston 2 revealed only the existence of
seisure marks on the piston skirt, as shown in Fig. 4.
779

Observation of the piston crown at higher magnification,

using stereo microscope, revealed granular, incompact
surface, what confirmed degradation by melting and
severe erosion (Fig. 5).

Fig. 4. Seizure marks on the piston skirt. Piston 2.

Fig. 1. Damaged piston crown of a diesel piston.

Fig. 5. Stereo optical microscope. Erosion on the piston

crown (detail in Fig. 1).

3.2 Chemical composition

The chemical compositions of the pistons alloy are given
in Table 1.

Fig. 2. Seizure marks and crack on the piston skirt.

Table 1: Chemical composition of the pistons, mass. %

Piston Si
1 13.5
2 12.5

Cu
3.6
3.4

Mg Fe Mn Ni
0.8 0.44 0.2 1.75
0.8 0.44 0.2 1.68

Ti
0.1
0.1

Al
Bal.
Bal.

3.3 Hardness
Hardness measurement positions on the cross section of
both pistons 1 and 2, shown in Fig. 6 and corresponding
hardness distributions shown in Fig. 7.
The results have shown that the hardness level of the
piston 1 (105 HB average) was lower than hardness of the
piston 2 (140 HB average). Hardness differences at the
same position were from 25 to 45 (measuring
point 7 8).

Fig. 3. Changed color of the connecting rod.

780

Fig. 8. Microstructure of Al-Si alloy far from the fracture

area of the piston 1.Unetched.

Fig. 6. Hardness measurement on the cross section of the

piston 1 and piston 2
160

Specimen 2

150

Hardness, HB2,5

140
130
120

Fig. 9 Microstructure of Al-Si alloy of the piston 2, the

same area as in the piston 1. Unetched.

110
100

Specimen 1

90

Microstructure in the vicinity of destroyed area of the

piston crown is shown in Fig.10. It revealed
fragmentation of the primary silicon particles (grey
arrows), as well as partial melting of the eutectic (black
arrows), which has a lower melting point [14].

80
70
1

Measuring point

11

Fig. 7. Hardness distribution on the cross section of the

pistons 1 and 2 (Fig. 5).

3.4. Microstructure
Microstructure of the fractured piston, far from the fracture
area is shown in the Fig. 8. It consists of polygonal primary
silicon particles, eutectic and other intermetalic phases
(Mg2Si, Al-Si-Cu, Al-Cu-Ni, Al-Si-Cu-Fe-Ni, idetified by
EDS). These phases and microstructure corresponds to
hypereutectic composition of Al-Si-Cu-Mg alloy, which is in
according to chemical composition (chapter 3.2). Similar
microstructure is observed in the piston 2 (Fig. 9). The
metalographic analysis of the piston 2 do not reveal the
presence of defects.

Fig. 10. Microstructure in the vicinity of the piston crown

(piston 1). Cracked primary silicon grains (grey arrows,
partial melting of the eutectic-black arrows).

There is an also less amount of eutectic phase in the

microstructure compared to related specimen of the piston 2.

781

Observed characteristics were analysed in detailed by

SEM (Fig. 11). Backscatter micrograph revealed the
cracking of the primary silicon particles (light gray) and
expressed fragmentation and spheroidization of the
intermetalic phases (white), as well as incipient melting of
the low melting copper-base eutectic (black).

Si-Mg-Cu alloy used for the both pistons, despite the

small difference in the Si content in specimen 1 and 2. It
can be result of nonhomogeneous distribution of the
coarse primary silicon particles.
Microstructures of the piston body, of specimen taken far
from the fractured surface (Figs. 8 and 9), correspond to
hypereutectic composition of Al-Si-Cu-Mg alloy, in both
pistons, which is in according to chemical composition.
However, in the microstructure in the vicinity of the
piston crown fragmentation of the primary silicon
particles, fragmentation and spheroidization of the
intermetalic phses (Figs. 10-11), and less amount of
eutectic phase (Figs. 8 - 9). These features indicate that
the serious structure disintegration occurred on the piston
crown. Such microstructural changes occur when Al-Si
alloys are exposed to a high temperature level [15-17].
This indicate that the failure was not related to initial
defect of the material, but piston was overheated, i.e.
exposed to temperature higher than normal operating
temperature for the piston.
The fragmentation and spheroidization of the intermetalic
phses, and ecpecialy incipient melting (fusion of low
melting point phases occurred [18-19]), decreased the
mechanical properties of the casting. This was confirmed
by hardness measurement (Fig. 7). Hardness of the piston
2 was used for comparison, because of regular
microstructure. Further damages proceeded with erosion
on the piston crown and removed material caused
additional seizing and probably fracture on the piston
skirt. The changed color of the connecting rod also
contributes to this statement, i.e. it was also result of
overheating.

a)

5. CONCLUSION
Two failed pistons were subjected to examination. Piston
1 has had competely destryed piston crown by melting
and erosion, and seizure marks along and around the
piston skirt. Piston 2 has had seizure marks along the
piston skirt.

b)
Fig. 11. SEM. Microstructure in the vicinity of the piston
crown (piston 1): fragmentation a) and spheroidization
and incipient melting of the phases b).

In microstructure of this piston 1 in the crown vicinity

incipient melting of eutectic, cracking of the primary
silicon particles and fragmentation and spheroidization of
the intermetallics, were observed. In microstructure of the
piston 2 has had no defects.

4. DISCUSSION

These features suggest that the piston was exposed to

excessive temperature level, higher than normal operating
temperature.

Tha appearance of the both failed pistons (Figs. 1 to 4)

and eroded surface of the piston crown (Fig. 5) indicate
that severe seizure marks all allong and around the piston
1, have intensified by melted-away material removal from
the piston crown. piston material in the second stage of
failure. First stage was the same as on the piston 2.

The lower hardness of the piston 1 (105 HB aver.)

compared to piston 2 (140 HB aver.), confirmed observed
degradation of the microstructure.

This type of damage was reported to be occured when the

piston is exposed to the excessive temperature level [5-7].
The excessive temperature level can occur due to an
abnormal combustion or overheating of the piston crown.
An abnormal combustion as well as overheating of the
piston crown can be caused by a number of factors [5-6].

REFERENCES
[1] Von Wielligh A.J., Burger N.D.L.,. Wilcocks T.L,
Diesel engine failures due to combustion
disturbances, caused by fuel with insuficient
lubricity, Volume 55, Number 2 (2003) 6575.

Chemical analysis (Table 1) carried out on both pistons,

indicated that the pistons material was a hypoeutectic Al782

[2] Filipczyk J., Stanik Z., Piston damages case studies

and possibilities of early detection, Journal of Kones
Powertrain and Transport, Vol. 19, No. 4, 2012.
[3] Singh O.P., Umbarkar Y., Sreenivasulu T.,
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[5] Waldhauer B., Schilling U., Schnaibel., Szopa J.,
Piston damages-Recognising and rectifying, 1st
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[7] Engine Failure Analysis & Tips, Guide to Preventing
Repeat Engine Failures, Ford Motor Company,
Version 1.0, 2013.
[8] Zeren M., The effect of heat-treatment on aluminumbased piston alloys, Materials and Design 28 (2007)
25112517.
[9] Konen R., Nicoletto G., Kunz L., Svoboda M.,
Baa A., Fatigue strength degradation of
AlSi12CuNiMg alloy due to high temperature
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Engineering 74 (2014) 43 46.
[10] Lee J. A., Cast aluminum alloy for high temperature
applications, The 132nd TMS Annual Meeting &
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[11] Silva F.S., Fatigue on engine pistons A

compendium of case studies, Engineering Failure
Analysis 13 (2006) 480492.
[12] Joyce M.R., Styles C.M., Reed P.A.S., Elevated
temperature short crack fatigue behaviour in near
eutectic AlSi alloys, International Journal of Fatigue
25 (2003) 863869.
[13] Wang G., Bian X., Wang W., Zhang J., Influence of
Cu and minor elements on solution treatment of Al
SiCuMg cast alloys, Materials Letters 57 (2003)
4083 4087.
[14] Samuel F.H., Incipient melting of Al5Mg8Si6Cu2 and
Al2Cu intermetallics in unmodified and strontiummodified Al-Si-Cu-Mg (319) alloys during solution
heat treatment, Journal of Materials Science, 33
(1998) 2283- 2297.
[15] Pitkowski J., Gajdzik B., Matua T., Crystallization
and structure of cast A390.0 alloy with melt
overheating temperature, Metalurgija 51 (2012) 3,
321-324.
[16] Hurtalov L., Belan J., Tillov E., Chalupov M.,
Changes in Structural characteristics of Hypoeutectic
Al-Si Cast Alloy after Age Hardening, ISSN 13921320 Materials Science (Mediagotyra). Vol. 18, No.
3. 2012.
[17] Lasa L., Rodriguez-Ibabe J.M., Characterization of
the dissolution of the Al2Cu phase inwo AlSiCu
Mg casting alloys using calorimetry, Materials
Characterization 48 (2002) 371 378.
[18] Mohamed A.M.A., Samuel F.H., A Review on the
Heat Treatment of Al-Si-Cu/Mg Casting Alloys Heat
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Issue 1 (2011) 19-25.

783

ACCURACY OF EDS/SEM MICROANALYSIS OF ALUMINIUM AND

COPPER ALLOYS
LJUBICA TOTOVSKI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, ljtotovski@gmail.com

Abstract: The accuracy of quantitative energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry on electron scanning microscope was
studied for various types of aluminium and copper alloys. Analysis were based on fitted standardless method. Reference
materials with known composition were used and average relative error was calculated. The deviations of results were
discussed related to interelement effects of the analysed samples.
Keywords: Energy dispersive spectrometry, accuracy, standardless quantitative microanalysis.
is the absorption correction that limits the conventional
ZAF procedure most severely. They proposed general
model for calculation of emergent x-rays based on the
ionization distribution function (z). They have used the
usual fundamental physical concepts applied in x-ray
microanalysis and applied to them the most accurate
description of the depth distribution, (pz).

1. INTRODUCTION
Energy dispersive spectrometry on scanning electron
microscope (EDS/SEM) enables compositional and
microstructural analysis in metallurgical investigations to
be simultaneously performed. The need for fast analysis
of localized areas at micrometer scales makes the
standardless EDS the most popular method of
microanalysis.

The PAP procedure is derived taking into account the

following data and calculations: distributions (pz)
which were experimentally obtained by the tracer method,
measurements of the depth of penetration of electrons in
function of their energy, Monte Carlo simulations,
analysis of binary specimens of known composition at a
wide range of accelerating voltages and analyses of
layered samples as a function of accelerating voltage.

The method was invented by R. Castaing [1] who was the

first to combine scanning electron microscope with a
curved crystal x-ray spectrometer. In his doctoral thesis
(1951.) he developed theoretical approach to quantitative
analysis [2] and also showed that the number of
parameters, instrumental and physical, would be
considerably reduced by comparing the intensity of the
sample with a known standard. He introduced the k ratio
of the two intensities as a roughly proportional to the
mass concentration of the considered element and he
pointed out the importance of intensity correction for
absorption of the generated intensities in the matrix.

The PAP model was adjusted to general approach,

adapted at the same time to the correction problems, to
the determination of x-ray absorption coefficients and to
the analysis of layered samples, for which the most
accurate description of (pz) is required. This model is
particularly intended for the quantitative study of samples
which are inhomogeneous with respect to depth.

The importance of atomic number effect was established

about 10 years later by theoretical calculations, as well as
by the Monte Carlo calculations. ZAF model correction
procedure which was introduced by Philibert [3], included
correction factors for atomic number (Z), absorption
factor (A) and secondary fluorescence (F). In the ZAF
model correction factors were calculated separately. With
introducing the ZAF model quantitative analysis became
a routine job [4].

For less rigorous demands, such as quantitative analysis

of bulk samples, XPP [6] model which is simplified
version of PAP model is preferred. In that model
mathematical formulation for (pz) is less rigorous, but it
allows more rapid calculations. The XPP model is now
applied in many commercial types of software. The
software used in this work is based on XPP model.

For a long time ZAF model and the empirical model were
the only models available for electron microprobe
microanalysis. Empirical model are based exclusively on
relative intensities from "known" specimens, usually for a
specific composition range.

The accuracy of quantitative microanalysis depends not

only on the mathematical model applied, but also on mass
absorption coefficients which are used in that model. The
uncertainties in absorption coefficients are present for
light elements bellow 2 keV and for L and M series of
heavier elements. Those uncertainties affect the accuracy
of analysis especially in the cases of complex

In 1984. Pouchou, J. L. and Pichoir, F. [5, 6] presented a

new model, known as "PAP" model. They noticed that it
784

multielement samples which consists of light and heavy

elements in a wide range of atomic numbers. There are
several sets of absorption coefficients which are published
till now and they are still updated [7-10].

bronze), B21, 22, 23, 24 (brass), B15, 16, 18, 19 (main

elements in brass), C71.32-2, C72.34-2 (gun metal),
C52.52, C52.53, C52.56 (Al bronze) and BAS CURM
51.12-4 (Al bronze).

In the early days of the SEM/EDS method the accuracy of

the quantitative analysis was reported by many authors.
Beaman and Solosky [11] collected the results of previous
quantitative work on EDS and also carried out their own
measurements applying the ZAF correction model. They
reported experimental results for different types of alloys
(some binary alloys, e.g. Au-Cu, Ag-Cu, brass containing
Fe, Sn, Al and Pb, stainless and tool steel and cobalt base
alloy) and they have concluded that for the concentrations
greater than about 20 wt% a relative error of about 6%
of the amount present could be expected. In the reported
results some deviations of the true values appeared for the
elements which are analyzed at L and M lines as well as
for complex alloys like tool steel (Fe-Cr-V-Mo-W) or
brass containing Fe, Sn, Al and Pb.

For Al alloy series 7000 the following MBH (CRMs)

were employed: G77 J3, J4 and J5 (old series), G77
J4(E80) and J5(D45). The sample AZ-3 is manufactured
by ITC-VUK (P.Breany-Poland) and 736/01 by Suisse
Technology.
To evaluate the accuracy of analysis for Al alloy series
5000 the following standards were used: AM3, AM4,
AM5 which were made by ITC-VUK (P. Breany); MBH
CRMs: G05H4(F44), G3000B3(B44) which belongs to
series 3000 and BAM 307. Series 2000 is represented
with MBH G2000J1(C46), G2000J3 (C148) and AC23
(P. Breany).
The samples were prepared by grinding and polishing
with final polishing with diamond paste 3/2 m.
Measurements were performed on scanning electron
microscope JEOL 6610LV with OXFORD X-Max EDS
SDD detector. Standardless procedure based on XPP
model and normalization to 100% was applied.
Measurements were made at 20 kV and 100 sec.

Nowadays, after more than fifty years of research on

modeling the correction procedures and with more
sophisticated equipment, the accuracy of the method is
remarkably improved.
With standardless procedures even inexperienced users
are enabled to perform the analysis. However, the
commercial softwares that incorporate standardless
procedures are not provided with any comprehensive
error testing of the methods included in the software.
Also, there are very few publications of such error testing
of standardless analysis in the microanalysis literature.
Even in those papers which deal with the accuracy of
analysis, mainly binary samples are analyzed with
concentrations of the constituents higher than 20 wt %
[12]. Low concentrations of metallic materials in the
range of 1-5 wt% or less than 1wt% are rarely considered.
The fact that there are a huge number of constructional
materials with concentrations of alloying elements beyond
5 wt% implies the need for testing standardless analysis
for these materials.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Analysis were performed for all elements contained in the
standards, but the results are shown mainly for alloying
elements present at concentrations higher than 1%. For
each element average value from several analyses is
calculated. The analyses were carried out at different
locations on the samples. The size of the analyzed area
was chosen to be large enough to compensate for
inhomogeneity introduced by the presence of various
phases. Relative error was calculated according to
following equation:
RE ( % ) =

100 ( Cm Ctrue )
Ctrue

(1)

The purpose of the present work is to ascertain the

accuracy attainable for standardless EDS analysis on the
scanning electron microscope for aluminum and copper
alloys.

RE relative error, %
Cm average of measured concentrations, wt%
Ctrue certified concentration, wt%.

EXPERIMENTAL

Calculation of relative error was performed for elements

present in In some cases lower concentrations were
included.

The accuracy of standardless EDS analysis of aluminum

and copper alloys was tested on the samples of known
composition. For Al based alloys series 7000, 5000 and
2000 were tested. Copper alloys were represented with
series of reference materials which belong to brass, Albronze, gun metal and tin bronze. All tested samples were
certified reference materials which are intended for X-ray
fluorescence spectrometry and prepared by casting.

Results of analysis are presented in Table 1for brass, tin

bronze and gun metal, in Table 2 for Al-bronze, in Table
3 for aluminum alloys series 7000 and in Table 4 for
aluminum alloys series 5000 (AlMg ) and 2000 (AlCu).
In the Tables 1 4 relative error RE (%) was calculated
for concentrations 1%, based on average of 8-10
analysis for copper alloys and 10-13 measurements for Al
alloys. Average relative error, REav, is calculated from
absolute values of RE. In the table 4, RE and REav for Fe
is calculated for concentrations > ~0.4 % and for Mn all
values are included. In the Table 5 there are the results of
13 analysis for standard BAM 307 (series 5000). Cm1 Cm13 are measured concentrations (wt%) on various
locations on the sample for all elements.

The exceptions are some commercial grade Al alloys

marked as AlZn9CuMg, 7075 and AlMg5 which are
analyzed by XRF and 804 which was analyzed by
interlaboratory testing.
For analysis of copper alloys the following MBH CRMs
(Certified Reference Materials) were applied: PB23 (Sn785

In the software report of quantitative results the intensity

correction is referred. This factor shows the inter-element
effects calculated according to the XPP correction. The
intensity correction shown for each element is the ratio of
the combined correction for the sample to the combined
correction for the standard used for that element. If
intensity correction is close to 1.0, this indicates that
correction applied to the measured apparent concentration
is small. Ideally, correction factors should be within the
range of 0.81.25. For majority of analysis this is
satisfied. The exceptions are the cases when light
elements are in the matrix of heavier elements (Al, Si in
copper based alloys), as well as the elements which are
analyzed at L and M lines.

the lost of intensity spent to enhancement of iron. The fact

is that the loss of intensity is overestimated and that Ni is
also overcorrected. The absorption of Al varies with
respect to surrounding matrix and its intensity is also
overcorrected. Due to normalization, the Cu concentration
is a little lower than certified. The relative errors are:
4.3% for Al, 5.4% for Fe, 8.2 % for Ni and -1.3% for Cu.
Although this level of errors is not too high, the problem
with those analysis consisted in the fact that all results
were higher than true values.

Results for copper based alloys: brass, Sn bronze and gun

metal are presented in the Table 1. Results are reported
only for the main alloying elements: Cu, Zn, Pb, Sn, and
Al. Moreover, the samples B21 and B22 also contains:
Fe, Ni, Si, As, Bi, Sb, and P, mainly at concentrations
below 0.2 wt%, while B23 and B24 contains some
elements beyond 0.05 wt%. The standards B15, 16, 18, 19
are certified only for main elements. The analysis showed
that they contain some impurities at the level of 0.3 wt%
or less. Relative errors for analyzed elements in brass are
0.47% for Cu, 1.59% for Zn, 5.18% for Sn, 13.2 % for Pb
and 7.36 % Al.
It can be observed that the best results are obtained for
brass, due to negligible absorption effects between Cu and
Zn. Larger errors for Sn and Pb are expected because
those elements are analyzed at their L lines for Sn and M
lines for Pb. Besides, Pb is localized in globular phases
which are inhomogeneously distributed accuracy of
analysis for those elements is affected by which is often
present in cast alloys.
The analysis of Al bronze is presented in the Table 2. This
alloy is characterized with relatively high content of
alloying elements. The range of concentrations in
analyzed samples is 6.4-10.3 wt% for Al, 2.94.8 wt% for
Fe and 0.1-5.7 wt% Ni. Results for all alloying elements
are greater than true values and it was so in every single
analysis. In the case of Al bronze there is a strong
absorption of Al as a light element in the matrix of
heavier elements: Cu, Fe and Ni. Also, in the systems
where Ni and Fe are present, iron is enhanced by nickel,
because the energy of Ni K line (7.47 keV) is greater
than energy needed for excitation of Fe K radiation (7.11
keV). Therefore, this additional intensity of Fe K due to
secondary fluorescence is corrected by the software. The
intensity correction is calculated on the basis of average
composition. However, the fact is that Al and Fe in the
standards used for the analysis are not homogeneously
distributed. Analysis of numerous distinct phases shows
that they consist of high concentration of Fe (40-60 wt%)
with other elements in much lower concentrations and
that almost all iron is located in them (Figure 1). Those
phases are surrounded with matrix with very low
concentration of iron. The consequence of such
inhomogeneous distribution of iron is that actually only a
small part of iron content is enhancened by nickel and in
the report of quantitative results iron is overcorrected. In
the case of Ni, intensity correction should compensate for

Figure 1. Line scan and point analysis shows the high

content of Fe in the various forms of phases
Table 3 Represents the results for Al alloy 7000. The
analyzed samples contain Mg in the range of 0.72.5
wt%, Cu from 0.7-1.6 wt% and Zn from 5-9 wt%. The
greatest relative error is obtained for Mg (~9.5%).
Intensity correction for Mg is calculated on the basis of
homogeneous distribution of elements. The presence of
heavier elements, Cu and Zn in the aluminium matrix
contributes to Mg absorption in the matrix. Due to
segregation of the alloying elements in some samples (i.e.
standard 736, Figure 2.), there was the spreading of
results for Cu and Zn about true values, but the results are
very close to true values. The results for Mg were lower
than true values. Due to inhomogeneity the absorption of
Mg differs at different locations and intensity correction is
786

underestimated. Relative errors were: 2.14% for Zn,

3.27% for Cu, -9.45% for Mg and 0.26% for Al.
The results for Al alloys series 5000 (AlMg) and 2000
(AlCu) are presented in the Table 4. In the case of AlMg
alloys, absorption of Mg radiation is less pronounced
because the alloy consists mainly of the light elements.
Heavier elements like Fe and Mn are present at low
concentrations so that they dont have great influence on
the absorption of Mg. Average relative error is 2.1 wt%
for Mg and 0.28 wt% for Al. In the calculation of relative
error for Fe included were all concentrations higher than
0.4 wt%. For Mn included were all concentrations.
Average relative error is 4.8 wt% for Mn and 7.2 wt% for
Fe. In the calculation of REav for Mn and Fe included are
results for both series 5000 and 2000. Relative error for
Cu in series 2000 is 6.6 wt% and 0.84 wt% for Al. For
both series relative error for Al is 0.45 wt%. The reported
results of analysis at the present work are based on a large
number of measurements which were carried out on the
different areas on the sample. The example of
measurements performed on the sample BAM 307 (13
analyses) is shown in the Table 5.

Figure 2. Inhomogeneous distribution of elements in the

standard 736 (series 7000) is shown by mapping

Table 1. Results of analysis for brass, tin bronze and gun metal
Cu(K)
id
B15
B16
B18
B19
B21
B22
B23
B24
PB23
C71.34
C71.32
REav

Cm
Ctrue
57.77 58.8
57.8 57.7
58.21 58.3
58.72 58.7
69.2 69.2
80.4 80.8
89.42 89.57
95.51 95.65
91.73 92.0
86.2 86.8
82.74 81.74

Zn(K)
RE
-1.75
0.17
-0.15
0.03
0.00
-0.50
-0.17
-0.15
-0.29
-0.69
1.22
0.47

Cm
Ctrue
36.8 36.3
37.0 37.1
40.71 40.7
38.9 38.78
29.27 29.5
17.54 17.32
9.82 9.97
1.93 1.99
0.002
1.36
1.3
6.37
6.2

Sn(L)
RE
1.38
-0.27
0.02
0.31
-0.78
1.27
-1.50
-3.02
4.62
2.74
1.59

Cm
1.32
2.51

Ctrue
1.26
2.84

0.14
0.25
0.07
1.96
7.93
8.8
6.34

0.13
0.21
0.06
1.93
7.56
8.3
6.2

Pb (M)
RE
4.76
-11.62

1.55
4.89
6.02
2.26
5.18

Cm

Ctrue

1.09
2.37
0.12
nd
0.07
0.08

1.00
2.52
0.12
0.21
0.05
0.05

2.3
3.1

2.6
4.2

Al(K)
RE

Cm
3.65
2.20

Ctrue
3.45
2.02

RE
5.80
8.91

9.00
-5.95
0.00 (0.19) 0.12
0.23 0.13
0.03 0.005
0.002
-11.5
0.05
-26.2 0.16
0.1
13.2

7.36

Table 2. Results of analysis for Al-bronze

Cu(K)
id

Cm

Al (K)

Ctrue

RE

Cm

Fe (K)

Ni (K)

Ctrue

RE

Cm

Ctrue

RE

Cm

Ctrue

RE

C52.52

78.4

79.4

-1.3

10.68

10.3

3.7

4.99

4.76

4.8

4.13

3.78

9.3

C52.53

76.46

77.9

-1.8

11.11

10.57

5.1

6.32

5.9

7.1

4.56

4.2

8.5

C52.56

77.76

78.83

-1.35

8.87

8.5

4.3

6.0

5.7

5.3

6.09

5.7

6.9

51.12

87.8

88.3

-0.6

6.61

6.36

3.9

3.0

2.87

4.5

0.13

0.11

REav

-1.26

4.25

787

5.4

8.2

Table 3. Results of analysis for aluminum alloys series 7000

Mg(K)
id
J5(D45)
G77J5
J4(E80)
G77J4
AlZn9
7075
AZ3
736
G77J3
804
REav

Cm
0.69
0.82
1.25
1.41
1.78
1.84
1.91
2.28
2.33
2.33

Zn(K)

Ctrue
0.72
0.79
1.47
1.8
1.89
2.06
2.14
2.56
2.47
2.48

RE
-4.2
3.8
-15
-21.7
-5.8
-10.7
-10.7
-10.9
-5.7
-6
-9.45

Cm
7.58
7.38
5.54
6.55
8.83
5.61
6.0
7.88
5.18
5.72

Cu(K)

Ctrue
7.57
7.0
5.3
6.3
8.95
5.63
6.05
7.9
5.03
5.63

RE
0.13
5.43
4.53
3.97
-1.34
-0.36
-0.83
-0.25
3
1.6
2.14

Al(K)

Cm

Ctrue

RE

0.81
0.75
1.49
1.41
1.71
1.53
1.42
1.41

0.81
0.71
1.51
1.34
1.75
1.57
1.43
1.3

0
5.63
-1.3
5.22
-2.3
-2.55
-0.7
8.46
3.27

Cm
88.43
88.48
90.09
88.59
87.7
90.26
88.9
87.59
88.54
89.77

Ctrue
88.45
88.81
90.0
88.46
87.36
89.9
88.3
87.35
88.4
89.82

RE
-0.02
-0.37
0.1
0.15
0.39
0.4
0.68
0.27
0.16
-0.06
0.26

Table 4. Results of analysis for aluminum alloys series 5000 (AlMg ) and 2000 (AlCu)
Mg(K)

Al(K)

id

Cm

Ctrue

RE

Ctrue

2.08

2.05

1.46

96.77 96.94

AM4

3.25

3.2

1.56

95.36

95.6

-0.36

0.25

-0.43

0.21

AM3

3.85

3.96

-2.78

94.48 94.35

-0.04

0.48

BAM307

4.69

4.58

F44

5.28

5.1

2.40

93.77 94.03

-0.46

3.53

93.54 93.58

-0.22

AlMg5

5.23

5.3

-1.32

93.7

-0.05

0.28

B44
C46

0.78

0.8

-2.50

97.11 96.55

0.40

1.68

1.7

-1.18

91.94 92.26

-0.53

3.7

3.29

12.5

93.02 92.23

0.68

5.1

5.25

-2.9

92.57 91.21

1.31

4.57

4.78

-4.4

C148
REav

Ctrue

93.58

RE

2.1

Cm

Ctrue

Mn(K)
Cm

AC23

Cm

Cu(K)

0.45

RE

Fe(K)
RE

Cm

Ctrue

RE

0.23

6.96

0.20

0.17

(19.4)

0.19

10.53

0.49

0.44

11.4

0.47

2.13

0.45

0.54

-16.67

0.73

0.7

4.29

0.38

0.4

-5.00

0.55

0.55

0.15

0.14

(7.14)

0.25

12.0

0.40

0.31

(29.0)

0.38

7.9

0.66

0.67

-1.49

0.35

0.38

-7.89

1.09

1.06

2.8

0.41

1.24

1.27

-2.4

0.55

0.59

6.6

-6.7
5.3

7.2

Table 5. The results of analysis for standard BAM 307 (series 5000). Cm1 - Cm13 measured concentrations (wt%) on
various locations on the sample; reproducibility of the results is very good, but all values are a little higher than true
value; Ctrue-certified concentration (wt%); Cm- average measured concentration (wt%); RE relative error (%)
BAM
307

Cm1

Cm2

Cm3

Cm4

Cm5

Mg

4.71

4.7

4.74

4.76

Al

93.77 93.83 93.65 93.43

Si

0.18

Ti

0.16

0.26

0.15

Cr

0.16

0.15

Mn

0.77

0.72

Fe

0.4

0.31

0.2

Cm6

Cm7

Cm8

Cm9

Cm10

Cm11

Cm12

Cm13

Cm

Ctrue

RE

4.78

4.6

93.8

94.16

4.67

4.65

4.63

4.59

4.7

4.74

4.65

4.69

4.58

2.40

94.1

93.97 93.59 94.08 93.25 93.83 93.54 93.77 94.03 -0.28

0.11

0.15

0.19

0.16

0.14

0.18

0.26

0.19

0.13
0.17

0.21
0.11

0.12

0.21

0.79

0.87

0.69

0.74

0.64

0.69

0.7

0.38

0.48

0.42

0.34

0.39

0.35

0.46

0.16

0.17

0.16

6.25

0.14

0.13

0.1

30.0

0.19

0.24

0.16

0.18

0.16

12.5

0.71

0.84

0.69

0.68

0.73

0.7

4.29

0.44

0.49

0.27

0.36

0.38

0.4

-5.00

elements at various locations on the sample. If it is

necessary to determine the average composition of the
sample using SEM/EDS method, the only acceptable way
is to perform the analysis at many different locations on
the sample.

CONCLUSIONS
A fundamental requirement in the physical basis for
quantitative analysis is that the composition must be
constant within the excited volume. The fact is that most
samples in practical applications dont satisfy the
requirement for homogeneity. The presence of various
phases lead to different concentrations of alloying

In the present work it is shown that the average

concentrations of analyzed elements obtained from many
measurements are close to certified values.
788

In the analysis of Al-bronze, all results for alloying

elements Al, Fe and Ni were somewhat higher than true
values. In Al alloy series 7000 the results for Mg were
lower than certified (RE -9.5%). Intensity correction is
calculated on the basis of average composition, but due to
inhomogeneity, interelement effects differ from place
toplace and lead to some deviations of the certified
values. In the cases of inhomogeneous samples the
prefered way of doing analysis is to compare the
unknown with similar sample of known composition.

[4] Kurt F.J. Heinrich, Strategies Of Electron Probe

Data Reduction, Electron Probe Quantitation, Ed.
K.F.J. Heinrich and Dale E. Newbury p.9. 1991.
Springer
[5] Pouchou J.L. and Pichoir F., J.Phys. 45 (1984) C2-17
[6] Pouchou,J.L, Pichoir,F. Quantitative analysis of
homogeneous or stratified microvolumes applying
the model 'PAP'. In: Electron Probe Quantitation,
Heinrich K.F.I., Newbury D.E., eds, New York:
Plenum Press, p. 31 (1991)
[7] Heinrich, K.F.J. (1966), The Electron Microprobe,
McKinley, T. D., Heinrich, K. F. J., and Wittry, D.
B., eds., Wiley, New York, 296-377.
[8] Heinrich, K. J. F., Proc. 11th Int. Congr. on XRay Optics and Microanalysis, University of
Western Ontario 1986, 67 (1987).
[9] Henke et al., Atom. Data Nucl. Data Tables 27, New
York: Academic Press, (1982).
[10] Bastin, G. F. and Heijligers, H. J. M. (1986), X-Ray
Spectrom. 15, 143-150.
[11] D.R.Beaman and L.F. Solosky, Accuracy of
Quantitative Electron Probe Microanalysis with
Energy Dispersive Spectrometers, Anal. Chem,
vol.44, No.9 (1972) 1598.
[12] Dale E. Newbury, Standardless Quantitative
Electron-Excited X-ray Microanalysis by EnergyDispersive Spectrometry: What Is Its Proper Role?
Microsc. Microanal. 4,585-597, 1999.

General conclusion is that in the range of 1-10 wt%

relative error is less than 10% and for higher
concentrations relative error decreases. For base metal in
alloys, Al in Al based alloys or Cu in brass or bronze,
relative error is less than 1.5%.
The results for concentrations beyond 1wt% depend on
the homogeneity of the sample. It is noticed that in the
range from 0.3-1 wt% results are mainly at the level of the
true concentrations. Beyond 0.3wt% there is a great
uncertainty of results.

REFERENCE
[1] Castaing R., Thesis, Univ. Paris, 1951
[2] Castaing R., Electron Probe Quantitation, Ed. K.F.J.
Heinrich and Dale E. Newbury, p.1, 1991. Springer
[3] Philibert, J. and Tixier, R.(1968), Quantitative
Electron Probe Microanalysis, Heinrich, K.F.J., Ed.,
NBS Spec. Publ. 298, p. 13. (1968), 114.

789

INJECTION MOULDING: ESSENTIAL STEP OF POWDER INJECTION

MOULDING (PIM) TECHNOLOGY
JOVAN RADULOVI
MilitaryTechnical Institute, Belgrade, vti@vti.vs.rs

Abstract: The basic phases of highly productive and widely used plastics technology i.e. injection moulding technology
are presented. This technology is of essential importance in production of complex shape high volume completely metal
parts by powder injection moulding technology, shortly PIM technology. Four phases of PIM technology are described
(compaunding ei. prepearing of feedstock, injection moulding of binder/powder material, debinding of binder
component and sintering) based on the material consisting of thermoplastic binder and metal powder. A feedstock
polyacetal binder/low alloy steel powder was chosen and by injection moulding technology is obtained injection molded
product so called green part. By this way, a green part (precisely, test specimen according to standard ASTM
E8/E8M-11) is produced, for the first time in Serbia. A feedstock characteristics (density, semi-quantitative analysis
and visual appearance) and green partproperties (mass, density, semi-quantitative analysis and visual appearance)
were tested. It was concluded that satisfactory results were obtained.
Keywords: Injection moulding, thermoplastics with metal powder, green part, characteristics, powder injection
moulding technology.

1. INTRODUCTION

3.

When the Hyatt brothers, John and Isaiah, built and

patented the first injection moulding machine in 1872,
it was doubtful if they could possibly have imagined
the impact this invention would have on the world [1].

Maintenance pressure: when plastic aterial is

injected, the screw is kept in front applying pressure
before it is solidified, to minimize the part shrinkage
during cooling. Maintenance pressure is usually
smaller than injection pressure and it is supported
until the part starts to solidify (Picture 3).

Basic principles of injection molding technology, as

one phase of multi-phases PIM technology, are
described in this paper. Parameters about the first
attempts of injection molding of thermoplastic
materials with metal powders in Serbia are presented.
Results obtained by examination of used feedstock
material (polyacetal with steel powders) and
characteristics of the first parts, produced by mentioned
method, are, also, shown.

2. INJECTION MOULDING

Picture 1: Close of the mould

Injection moulding is a cyclic process in which a

variety of materials both plastic and non-plastic can be
used as feedstock.
The injection moulding cycle can be split in the
following steps [2]:
1.

Close of the mould: empty mould is closed while

the quantity of plasticized material inside the
barrel is ready to inject (Picture 1).

2.

Injection of material: a screw injects the

plasticized and molten material, pushing it through
the nozzle inside the mould cavities with injection
pressure (Picture 2).

Picture 2: Material injection

790

technology, started by using a non-organic components

(glass fiber, glass beads, mica, gypsum, etc.). The next
step was using the organic additives (carbon fibers,
aramid fibers, etc.) and lately a metal and ceremic
powder ingredients are used.
Use of thermoplastic materials with metal powders
pointed out on necessity of development of a specified
phase of production and on incorporating a metal
materials technology.

Picture 3: Maintenance Pressure

4.

Realized achievements enabled the development of

materials with entirely new properties, production of
parts with, until then, unknown combination of
characteristics and expanding a using of this products
in numerous new areas.

Plasticization of material: a screw turns passing

the plastic grains since the hopper and it plasticizes
them. Fund material is supplied through the front
part of the screw, where a pressure is forcing the
screw to go back until it the found required
material for injection (Picture 4).

One of the new technologies which enables a volume

production of complex geometry parts is Powder
Injection Moulding (shortly PIM).

3. POWDER INJECTION MOULDING

TECHNOLOGY PIM- TECHNOLOGY
Powder injection moulding (PIM) technology allows
metal parts production with the same ease and design
freedom as for plastics material. Feedstock for PIM
technology consists of binder and powder component.
Depending to nature of powder existing in binder, there
are two possibilities of PIM technology [3]:

Picture 4: New step of material plasticization

5.

Part extraction: material inside the mould

continues cooling where the heat is dissipated for
the cooling liquid. When cooling time is finished,
the mould mobile part opens and the part is
extracted (Picture 5).

Metal Injection Technology (shortly MIM), where a

metal powder is a component of injection molded
material and
Ceramic Injection Moulding (shortly CIM), where a
ceramic based powder is a component of injection
molded material.
PIM technology can consists of four main phases:
1. compounding i.e. preparing of feedstock,
2. injection moulding,
3. debinding and
4. sintering.

3.1. Prepearing of feedstock

Picture 5: Part extraction
6.

Feedstock for PIM technology or more precisely

speaking a starting material for injection moulding
process consists of binder and powder.

Close of the mould: Mould is closed and the

injection moulding cycle restarts again.

The binder must be able to incorporate a high volume

of fine metal or ceramic powders (typically 60% by
volume), to form a coherent mass that can be plastified
and injection moulded at elevated temperature, to allow
removal of the main binder constituent in a reasonably
short, environmentally friendly process, to provide
enough strength after debinding by means of the
backbone binder, to be supplied in a regular granular
form that can easily be fed into an injection moulding
machine, and that runners and green scrap should be
easily recyclable and be cost effective [4].

Injection moulding technology of thermoplastic

material without additives enables production of parts
widely used, but they are limited by properties of
starting materials regarding physical, mechanical,
thermal,
chemical,
dimensional
and
other
characteristics or by combination of mentioned and
another properties. An essential improvement in
investigation and development of this area was done by
application of different additives, which improves
characteristics of newly developed materials, and by
development of existing technology and by
combination with other production procedures.

A role of binder is to adhere the powder particles and

to enable their production by injection moulding
technology and to give a resistance of product during
all phases of PIM process. A combination of two

Development of thermoplastic materials with additives,

which can be produced by injection moulding
791

binders (one as the main and the other as a secondary)

gives the best results: the main binder is removed almost
completely during debinded phase and the residual one
(backbone) gives strength to PIM shaped samples after
debinding and is removed in sintering phase. Binders used
most often are thermoplastic materials (POMpolyoxymethylene i.e. polyacetals, PP-polypropylene, PEpolyethylene, PS-polystyrene, PVC-polyvinyl chloride,
PA-polyamide, PPS-polyphenylene sulphide), PWparaffin, wax, PEC-polyethylene carbonate, PEGpolyethylene
glycol,
MW-microcrystalline
wax,
thermoreactive resins, water-based systems (agar,
carrageenan), elastomers (EVA), etc. Besides main and
secondary binders, other additives are used (lubricants,
surface active agents to lower viscosity and improve
impregnating, hardeners, etc). [5,6].

polyphenylene oxides, polysulfones and thermoplastic

polyesters, because they are used for production of
stressed parts [8]. Polyacetal is semi-crystalline
thermoplastic material which has good processing
characteristics, high dimensional stability, high rigidity
and good warm strength. Their good overall property
profile makes polyacetals the preffered material in
demanding applications. The adventage of this material
in the molding phase can, also, be utilized in powder
injection molding equally well [9].
By injection moulding of thermoplastic material (PPS)
with the powder additives based on metal (Fe),
transient element (B) and rare earth (Nd) can be
obtained a green part which is used as a final
product. An example is injection moulding of
NdFeB/PPS material and production of so called
plastic magnet [10].

Powders should have tailored particle size distribution,

for high packing density and low cost (mixture of
lower cost large particles and higher cost small
particles), no agglomeration, predominantly spherical
(or at least equiaxed) particle shape, smooth surfaces
for better flow of the feedstock, sufficient inter-particle
adhesion to avoid distortion after binder removal, small
mean particle size for rapid sintering(<20 m), dense
particles free of internal voids, minimized explosion
and toxic hazards and clean particle surface for
predictable impregnation with the binder. The list of
powders that have been used includes stainless steels,
low alloy steels; high speed steels, copper base alloys,
nickel, aluminum and cobalt base alloys, carbides,
titanium, intermetallics, magnetic alloys, refractory
metals, hard metals, ceramic materials (alumine,
circonate, silicone-carbide, silicone-nitride), MMC,
CMC, etc. [6]

3.3. Debinding
After injection moulding phase and production of
green part, the next phase in PIM technology is
removing a binder component, shortly debinding or
dispelling.
There are more ways of debinding process: thermal, by
dissolving, by supercritical carbon dioxide, catalytic, etc.
Thermal debinding is process in which binder is
removed from green part by thermal energy, often by
burning.
Debinding by dissolving means that appropriate
chemical agents dissolve binder component.
Supercritical process with carbon dioxide takes place at
a critical temperature and pressure, at which CO2 has
an extremely low viscosity, which allows the small
molecules to penetrate into the fine pore channels of
green part that are created during debinding [4].
Catalytic debinding process is based on the action of
suitable catalyst on binder component. Removing a
mentioned component from polyacetal/low alloy steel
powder green part is based on the ability of this
material for catalytic gas phase decomposition of the
binder. This ability is innate to the chemical structure
of polyacetal chain which is characterized by recurring
carbon-oxygen bonds, as depicted in Picture 6 [9].

3.2. Injection moulding

Growing demands in many industry sectors led to the
development of binder/powder material that can be
processed by injection moulding technology.
Powder injection moulding (PIM) as a production
process was established in thirties of the previous
century, but was neglected up to, approximately,
twenty five years ago [3]. There are powder injection
moulding at low pressure (LPIM) and powder injection
moulding at high pressure (HPIM).
Geometrically complex parts can be economically
manufactured with conventional injection molding
machines using thermoplastic materials with metal or
ceramic powder [7].
By powder injection moulding technology the so called
green part is obtained. This is a compact product and
consists of appropriate binder and powder.
For the purpose of this paper a material that consists of
thermoplastic binder and metal powder was chosen. A
binder component is thermoplastic material polyacetal
and metal powder component consists of a low alloy
steel ingredients.

Picture 6: Chemical reaction of polyacetal removing

from green part

Polyacetals are known as thermoplastics engineering

polymers, besides polycarbonates, polyamides,
792

The oxygen atoms in the polymer chain are susceptible

to acid attack, causing the macromolecule split of
successively CH2O (formaldehyde) unit when it is
exposed to suitable acidic catalyst. The catalyst used
for debinding process is gaseous nitric acid, in nitrogen
atmosphere. The reason why this reaction is so
eminently suited for debinding in powder injection
moulding are the conditions under which this reaction
can take place. Debinding proceeds at high speed at
110oC, which is far below the melting range of
polyacetal (150 oC to 170 oC), so polymer is directly
converted from solid into a gas. The binder-gas
interface proceeds inward at linear speed of 1 mm/h to
2 mm/h. The small formaldehyde gas molecules
(boiling point -21oC) are able to escape easily and
without disruption the powder particle packing
structure through the already porous outer zone of the
part, as shown in Picture 7 [9].

Debinding phase ended by the combustion of present

gaseous ingredients (formaldehyde gas, nitric acid gas,
nitric oxides gas, etc.) to ecological allowable products.

3.4. Sintering
During sintering phase of the above mentioned
brown part, two processes take place.
The first is removing, or, precisely spoken, thermal
decomposition of residual binder component.
The second process takes place in porous part, which
contains only metal powders. This process involves
thermally activated transport of material on an atomic
scale, resulting in a decrease in the specific surface
area on the powder particles. The growth of particles
contacts and the reduction in the pore volume result, in
macroscopic terms, in shrinkage of the part, which is
shown in Picture 8. The aim of sintering is to modify
the properties of the article, which is highly porous in
the debound state, towards the properties of pore-free
material. Parts are sintered under the protective gas
atmosphere. The density achieved in finished parts is a
measure of the sintering quality. The higher the density
achieved, the better technological properties. Given
appropriate process control, the density materials range
from 96 % to 100 % of the theoretical values. The
remaining pores are very small and uniformly
distributed. Since they are virtually spherical, these
pores are not responsible for crack initiation [11].

Picture 7: Polyacetal debinding mechanism from

green part
At the same time the binder is still fully rigid, lending
the parts a continuing stiffness during debinding,
avoiding any plastic deformation and resulting in better
tolerances. After completion of polyacetal removing
there is a residual amount (usually around 5 % to 10
weight % of the original binder content) of an acid
resistance binder component, which confers a certain
strength for handling to the part.

Picture 8: Growth of particles contacts

Scheme of all four mentioned phases and
corresponding products of PIM technology, based on
thermoplastic binder and metal powder is presented in
Picture 9 [9].

The catalytic debinding of compact green part, which

contains thermoplastic binder and metal powders, is
done in a furnace. During this catalytic reaction almost
whole binder quantity is removed and so called
brown part, which contains binder in traces is
produced. The brown part has porous structure and is
very sensitive on external mechanical actions.

A catalytic debinding technology enables a fully

continuous PIM process i.e. the link between the highly
automated moulding machines as used for plastic and
the large continuous sintering furnaces used in powder
metallurgy.

793

Picture 9: Scheme of phases and corresponding products of PIM technology

4. EXPERIMENTAL PART

green part were determined: visual appearance, density,

mass and metal powder content.

For the purpose of this paper a low alloy steel PIM

material trade name Catamold 4605, produced by the
Chemical Company BASF, Ludwigshafen, was chosen.
This PIM material is classified as low alloy steel and
contains a polyacetal as thermoplastic binder and in
ferrous based metal powder there are carbon (from 0,4 %
to 0,6 %), nickel (from 1,5 % to 2,5 %), molybdenum
(from 0,2 % to 0,5 %) and silicone (less than 1 %) [10].

A visual appearance of feedstock and of green part

were tested by naked eye, without any magnifying
instrument.

Fact that the final product of multi-phase PIM technology

is compact part of completely metal structure, was a base
to choose a standard test specimen according to ASTM
E8/E8M-11 as a product of the first phase of mentioned
technology i.e. of the injection moulding. A chosen test
specimen is shown in Picture 11 [12].

A metal powder content of feedstock and metal powder

content of injection moulded specimen were determined
by semi-quantitative method using SEM model JSN6610LV manufactured by JEOL equipped with EDS
produced by OXFORD Instruments.

Density of feedstock was examined by pyknometer

method and density of green part was tested by
immersion method, both according to SRPS EN ISO
1183-1 [14].

Mass of injection moulded specimen was determined by

technical balance.

5.1. Results of feedstock testing

A density of used grey-bluish granule feedstock is 4,53
g/cm3. Laboratory (lab) determined metal powder content
of feedstock i.e. Catamold 4605 and content of the same
metal elements according to ASTM B 883-10 are
presented in Table 1 [15].
Table 1: Metal powder content of feedstock and
according to ASTM B 883-10
Content to
Metal
Content to ASTM
lab tests
elements
883-10
(% mass)
Nickel
1,62
from 1,5 % to 2,5 %
Molybdenum
0,29
from 0,2 % to 0,5 %
Silicon
0,45
less than 1 %
Carbon
0,5*
from 0,4 % to 0,6 %
Ferrum
97,14
Balance
estimated value

Picture 11: Test specimen according to standard ASTM

E8/E8M-11
The main technological parameters of injection moulding
were as followed:
temperature of cylinder and nozzle: first (near barrel)
zone 160oC, second (in the middle) zone 170oC, third
(near nozzle) zone 180oC and nozzle 190oC,
injection pressure: high,
mould temperature: 120oC,
cooling time: 20s.
Due to the crystalinity of the polyacetal-based binder, but
also due to the much higher thermal conductivity of the used
material, an uncharacteristic high mould temperature is
combined with comparatively low cylinder temperature [13].

5. RESULTS OF TESTING AND ANALYSIS

As can be seen from Table 1 there is a good agreement

between laboratory determined metal powder content and
requirements from ASTM B 883-10.

5.2. Results of injection moulded specimen testing

Injection moulded specimen has flat and shine outer area
without scratches and visual defects, as can be seen in
Picture 12. By visual inspection of the injection moulded
specimen (green part) neither leaking nor overheating
were not recorded.

The visual appearance, density and metal powder content

of feedstock were tested.
Following properties of injection moulded specimen i.e.
794

5. Tested characteristics of injection moulded product

(green part) indicates that injection moulding process
was done correctly and degradation of the used feedstock
did not happen.

REFERENCES
[1] Goodship V., Arburg, Practical Guide to Injection
Moulding, iSmithers Rapra Publishing, 2004, ISBN
1859574440.
[2] Baranda Enriquez MA., Design and manufacturing of
complex moulds for powder injection moulding,
Master Project, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid,
Hes so Valais Wallis University of Applied Science,
Western Switzerland, February 2010.
[3] Stanimirovic I. and Stanimirovic Z., PIM technologyopportunities and Challenges, INFO-TEH, Jahorina,
Vol 8, Ref. E-I-20, pp 438-440, Mart, 2009.
[4] Binders and binder removal techniques, www.
Orangeleaf Systems Ltd.
[5] Berginc B. and, Rot M., Brizganje pranatih
materijalov, IRT 3000, No. 9, pp. 139-141, june
2007.
[6] Zlatkov B.S. et al., Recent Advances in PIM
Technology I, Science of Sintering, Vol 40, 2008, pp
79-88, UDK 622.785:621:76.2
[7] Muenk ., New Catamold product line for metal
injection molding, April 22, 2013, P 246/13e,
www.basf.com.
[8] Radulovic J., Dzelebdzic N. and Jovancic S.,
Injection Moulded Polycarbonate Rocket Launcher
Tube Covers, Scientific Technical Review, ISSN
1820-0206, 2014, Vol. LXIV, No.1, pp.55-61.
[9] Catamold Feedstock for Metal Injection Moulding,
Technical Information: Processing Properties Applications, BASF AG, 2003.
[10] http://bvmagnetics.manufacturer.globalsources.com/s
i/6008846357682/pdtl/Rare-earthmagnet/1061555592/NdFeB-Magnet.htm.
[11] Catamold Feedstock for Metal Injection Molding, T
Catamold 4605, Data Sheet, BASF, The Chemical
Company, Ludwigshafen, April, 2006 Technical
Information, BASF, May 2003.
[12] ASTM E8/E8M-11 Standard Test Method for
Tension Testing of Metallic Material, ASTM
Committee f Standards, Philadelphia, 2011.
[13] Maat J., Thom A. and Bloemacher M., Metal
Injection Moulding-Steel Component made easy with
Plastic
Processing
Technology,
Technical
Information,
BASF,
Aktiengesellschaft,
Ludvigshafen, Germany.
[14] SRPS EN ISO 1183: 1 Plastics-Methods for
determining the density of non-cellular plastics-Part
1: Immersion method, liquid pyknometer method and
titration method, Institute for Standardization of
Serbia, Belgrade, 2013.
[15] ASTM B 883-10 Standard Specification for Metal
Injection Moulding (MIM) Ferous Materials, ASTM
Committee f Standards, Philadelphia, 2010.

Picture 12 : Complete injection moulded specimen

A density of injection moulded specimen is 4,63 g/cm3. A
single test values (X), arithmetic mean values ( X ) and
standard deviations values () of complete injection
moulded specimen mass are presented in Table2.
Table 2: Mass of complete injection moulded specimen
Mass of complete
injection moulded specimen, g
(X)
X
27,97;27,12; 28,42;
27,710,51
27,85;28,12;27,13;27,41
Laboratory determined values of injection moulded
specimen mass are uniform, which indicates that injection
moulding process was realized correctly.
Table 3 contains laboratory determined metal powder
content of feedstock and injection moulded specimen.
Table 3: Metal powder content of feedstock and injection
moulded specimen
Injection moulded
Feedstock
Metal element
specimen
(% mass)
(% mass)
Nickel
1,62
1,65
Molybdenum
0,29
0,30
Silicon
0,45
0,49
Carbon
0,5*
0,50*
Ferrum
97,14
97,06
* estimated value

6. CONCLUSIONS
From the previous text it can be concluded:
1. An injecion moulding of thermoplastic binder/metal
powder material was done and injection moulded product
(green part) was obtained, for the first time in Serbia.
2. Fabrication of injection molded product (green part)
represents first step of powder injection molding
technology i.e. PIM technology.
3. A green part was produced using polyacetal/low
alloy steel powder feedstock and standard injection
moulding machine.
4. Properties of used feedstock, determined by the
contemporary SEM/EDS method, are in accordance with
demands specified in standard for metal injection
moulding ferrous materials.
795

INVESTIGATION OF SEALING OF PLASTICS PARTS ASSEMBLY

EXPOSED TO HIGHER WATER PRESSURE
ALEKSANDRA KOSTI
Technical Overhaul Works, Kragujevac, trzk@trzk.co.rs.
DEJAN VASI
Technical Overhaul Works, Kragujevac, trzk@trzk.co.rs.
JOVAN RADULOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, vti@vti.vs.rs

Abstract: In this paper a procedure used for sealing plastics parts assembly, as well as exposure treatment of
mentioned assemblies to higher and moderate water pressure are described. Specimens, made of impact resistant
polystyrene and four sealing systems are used for production mentioned assemblies. Specific white silicone, modified
black silicone, epoxy system consisting of modified epoxy resin and amine hardener and the solution obtained by
dissolving polystyrene in toluene are used. Applied systems should prevent water pass through produced assemblies
and protect indicator paper inside assemblies from water influence. Produced assemblies were sunk in a water at depth
1 m (moderate water pressure) according to SORS 0189 and 4 m (higher water pressure) according to SRPS EN 600682-17. Based on a detailed inspection of plastic parts in assemblies and indicator paper, it was concluded that water
breakthrough did not happen and that all four applied systems are acceptable for this purpose.
Keywords: Plastics parts, assembly, sealing, higher water pressure.
levels [1].

1. INTRODUCTION

This paper describes an investigation of sealing plastic

parts in assemblies exposed to moderate and higher water
pressure.

One of the essential elements of complex construction is

the regular functioning i.e., acting of assemblies build in
the final product.

The sealant material is material in paste and liquid form,

which is applied to all types of joints and which curing
reaction take place by forming a seal against water, gases
and outdoor weather [1].

Assemblies can be exposed to very different influences.

Generally speaking, for a production of assemblies of
elements, different materials can be used (polymeric
materials, metal materials, wood, ceramic, glass, etc.), but
in this paper, it would be discussed about elements made
of plastic material.

As can be seen from Table 1 sealing is one of rational

procedure for assembly production when thermoplastic
high-volume parts are concerned.

It is estimated, at the beginning of this century, that about

five million people are employed in the plastics industry
in the world [1].

Generally speaking, there are two types of sealant

materials: hardening and nonhardening.
The hardening types can be further classified as rigid or
flexible.

Assemblies, elements can be jointed by different ways, in

order to produce assembly which fulfills its function.

Rigid, hardening types set up firm and have little or no

resiliency, while flexible, hardening sealants remain
flexible after cure.

2. SEALED PLASTIC ASSAMBLIES

Plastics materials, generally speaking, can be divided into
thermoplastics and thermosetting materials.

Nonhardening sealants remain wet and flexible after

application and never truly dry [2].

Both types of materials are used for high-volume or lowvolume production.

Major sealants are based on silicone, epoxy resins, butyl

elastomers, polychloroprene, polysulphide-polyether
polymers, polyurethanes, high sulphur liquid polymers
and aqueous- and solvent-based acrylates.

In Table 1 are presented procedures for assembly

production for above mentioned materials and volume
796

Table 1: Procedures for assembly production

3. USED MATERIALS
Elements of assemblies, intended for sealing
investigation, are produced by injection moulding of
thermoplastic high-impact polystyrene.

Picture 2: Silicone basic unit

Injection molding is the most important molding method

for thermoplastic materials[3].

Polymers in which a main chain is consisting of repeating

-Si-O-units together with predominantly organic side
groups are referred s polyorganosiloxanes, or loosely
silicones.

Although polystyrene is not an engineering thermoplastic

material, it is intensively used for fabrication the products
which find applications in numerous areas of human
activities.

These materials are by far the most important inorganic

polymers and are based on a silicone, transient metal
abundantly available on our planet.

Polystyrene, whose basic unit in macromolecule chain is

presented in picture 1, is obtained by free-radicals
initiated chain polymerization of styrene.

Silicone polymers are available on numbers of the form:

fluids, paste, grease, rubber and resins.
Owing to their general thermal stability, water repellency,
and constancy of properties over a wide temperature
range, silicones had found numerous and diverse
applications [2].
Practically, there are one component and twocomponent silicone.

Picture 1: Polystyrene basic unit

One component room-temperature vulcanizing (RTV)

silicone consist of an air-tight package containing silanolterminated
polysiloxane,
cross-linking
agent
(metylacetoxy silane) and catalyst (e.g. dibytiltin laurate).

The main properties of polystyrene are rigidity, good

electrical insulation characteristics, no taste, no odor or
toxicity, low water absorption, transparency, ease of
coloring and processing, very low cost, but the limitation
is its brittleness.

Moisture from the atmosphere converts the cross-linking

agent to the corresponding silanol, which brings about
further polymerization combined with cross-linking of
polysiloxane.

By adding a styrene/butadiene rubber this problem is

solved and high-impact polystyrene is produced.
For the purpose of this paper a silicone material, system
epoxy resin and solution based polystyrene are chosen as
sealant materials.
All chosen sealant systems are room temperature curing
i.e., vulcanizing materials.

At two component RTV silicone, polysiloxane and crosslinking agent are in separate packages. A typical twocomponent RTV formulation cured by the reaction of
silanol end groups with silicate ester in the presence of a
catalyst.

Silicone, whose basic unit is shown in picture 2, is

produced by polycondensation of chlorosilane.

Epoxy resins are oligomeric compound with threemembered oxirane (epoxy) groups. Reaction product of
797

bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin, whose structure is

shown in picture 3, compromise about 90 % of world
production of this thermosetting material.

4. EXPERIMENTAL PART
Plastic parts are injection moulded using polystyrene
trade mark Styron 485, produced by the Dow Chemicals
Company, USA [5]. This easy-flow polystyrene is
characterized by high impact resistance and good
flexibility. An upper and lower plastic parts, shown in
pictures 6 and 7, respectively, are used for assembly
production, intended for sealing investigation.

Picture 3: Reaction product of bisphenol A and

epichlorohydrin
Standard epoxy resins with number of repeating units
0,1<n <0,6 are liquid, while those with 2<n<25 are
solid [4].
Epoxy resins are hardened (cured) by cross-linking
reaction of their oxirane and hydroxyl groups with
polyfunctional amines (cold curing) and acid anhydrides
(warm curing). Cold curing generates -hydroxy
propylamine structures, for example R`R``N-CH2-CHOOCH2 from R`R``N and epoxy groups and
correspondingly structures from polyfunctional amine
(her used triethylenetetramine-picture 4, diethylenediamine, etc.).

Picture 6:Upper part of assmbly

Picture 4:Triethylenetetramine
Warm curing leads to ester structure from epoxy and
hydroxyl groups and ether structure from epoxy group.
The main advantages of epoxy sealant are their high
degree of adhesion, low cost, easy handling, high
cohesive strength, low shrinkage and good overall
chemical resistance.

Picture 7:Lower part of assmbly

For sealing of assemblies, which consist of mentioned
upper and lower parts, a four sealing systems are used:

Dilute-polystyrene solution is obtained by dissolving

polystyrene, which is used for production of assemblies
elements i.e., upper and lower parts, in toluene.
Polystyrene [by IUPAC nomenclature
phenylethylene)] is aromatic polymer.

1. System 1 is specific white silicone trade mark Dow

Corning 744, produced by Dow Corning Company,
USA. This one-component RTV silicone has good
adhesion to many different materials and is stable and
neutral from -50 C to +180 C. It produced sealed
joint resistant to mechanical shocks, temperature
cycling and outdoor influences (water, moisture,
mechanical action, etc.) [6].

poly(1-

Toluene (by IUPAC nomenclature methylbenzene),

whose formula is shown on picture 5, is an aromatic
derivative of benzene, non-miscible with water.

2. System 2 is black modified silicone trade mark

Permatex Black Silicone Adhesive Sealant, produced
by Permatex, USA. This one-component sealant for
plastics, metals and glass surface, resistant to water,
vibrations is used from -59 C to 232 C [7].
3. System 3 is epoxy system, which consists of epoxy
resin trade mark Araldite DBF and hardener trade
mark Haerter HY 951, both produced by Huntsman,
USA. This is low-viscous system with good
mechanical
properties,
excellent
electrical
characteristics and good resistance to weather
influences, which cure at room temperature. Epoxy
resin Araldite DBF is a liquid reaction product of
bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin, number average

Picture 5: Toluene
The basic point of this procedure is so called similar to
similar principle. Sealing of polystyrene parts with
solution of polystyrene in appropriate solvent is, in free
speech, cold welding.

798

molecular weight <700.

in water at depth 1 m (moderate water pressure), are

shown in pictures 8, 9, 10 and 11, respectively. These
specimens have marks 1/1, 2/1, 3/1 and 4/1, respectively.

Curing agent Haertr 951 is liquid polyfunctional

polyamine i.e., triethylenetetramin (by IUPAC
nomenclature N'-[2-(2-aminiethylamino)ethyl]ethan-1,2diamine) [8].
4. System 4 is solution of polystyrene trade mark Styron
485 in toluene produced by Hemrad, Serbia
System 4 is obtained by dissolving 30 g of polystyrene in
70 g toluene with gentle warming.
In order to achieve best results in sealing, also in bonding,
it is necessary to prepare working surfaces in regular
manner. Strength of sealed joint, in great extent, depends
on the adhesion between working surfaces and applied
sealing material. An adhesion force between sealant and
working surfaces are improved, to an important extent, by
removing a surface layer of an appropriate material by
mechanical treatment and by degreasing and cleaning
with appropriate chemicals. Surface layers of polystyrene
upper and lower parts are removed by abrasive paper,
followed by ethanol degreasing and cleaning. In order to
check an efficiency of the applied treatment (mechanical
removing, degreasing and cleaning) a water drop
method can be used. A few drops of clean water are put
on prepared surfaces. If the water drop remains ball
shape, a surface is not clean enough. If water drops spread
out over the surface, wetting of surface is good and the
surface is clean enough [9].

Picture 8: Assembly sealed with white silicone

Picture 9: Assembly sealed with black silicone

The internal surface of lower and upper parts are properly

dried, an indicator paper is put into the lower part, upper
part is positioned on the lower part and the gap between
lower and upper part is sealed with the chosen sealing
system.
For the purpose of this paper a mark system/depth is
introduced. For example, mark 3/1 denotes assembly
sealed with system 3 (epoxy system) and immersed in a
water to a depth of 1 m.
The first group of assemblies is exposed to moderate
water pressure in a metal tube. Mentioned plastic
assemblies are immersed in water temperature 23 oC at
depth 1 m for a period of 24 h in accordance to procedure
B of standard SORS 0189. This procedure is identical
with one of possible procedures of sealing investigation,
according to paragraphs 5.5.2. (depth of immersion),
5.5.3. (period of immersion) and 5.5.4. (temperature of
water) of standard SRPS EN 60068-2-17 [10].

Picture 10: Assembly sealed with epoxy resin

A second group of assemblies is exposed to higher water

pressure because sealed assemblies are immersed into
water temperature 23 oC at a depth of 4 m for a period of
24 h according to paragraphs 5.5.2., 5.5.3. and 5.5.4. of
standard SRPS EN 60068-2-17 [10]. According to
mentioned designation, assembly mark 3/4 denotes
specimen sealed with system 3 (epoxy resin) and
immersed to depth 4 m.

Picture 11: Assembly sealed with polystyrene solution

By visual inspection of the assemblies mark 1/1, 2/1, 3/1
and 4/1, after immersion to depth of 1 m, any change on
sealing materials is not recorded.

5. RESULTS OF TESTING AND ANALYSIS

Plastics assemblies sealed with white silicone (system 1),
black silicone (system 2), epoxy system (system 3) and
polystyrene solution (system 4), prepared for immersion

Mentioned assemblies are carefully cut in horizontal

direction. On indicator paper, which is in the lower part of
799

assemblies, any change is not recorded at any tested

specimen. Detailed examination of internal surfaces of
lower and upper parts is done and no traces of water are
recorded.
Plastic assemblies mark 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 and 4/4 i.e.,
assemblies sealed with systems 1, 2, 3 and 4, after
exposure to higher water pressure (immersion depth 4 m)
are carefully examined. By visual inspection of mentioned
assemblies any change on sealing materials is not
recorded, excluding a few stains, at a few specimens,
owing to corrosion of metal tube, in which assemblies
were immersed.

Picture 15: Assembly mark 4/4

Mentioned assemblies are carefully cut in horizontal

direction and shown in pictures 12, 13, 14 and 15
respectively.

Any change on indicator paper, which is in the lower part

of assemblies, is not recorded at any tested specimen.
Internal surfaces of lower and upper parts are carefully
examined and no traces of water are recorded.

6. CONCLUSION
Based on presented details, it can be concluded:
1. Sealing of plastic polystyrene assemblies, exposed to
higher water pressure of 39.1 kPa (immersion depth 4
m) and to moderate water pressure of 9.78 kPa
(immersion depth 1 m) are done successfully.
2. Sealing is realised using polystyrene parts (produced
by injection moulding of high impact polystyrene
trade mark Styron 485) and four sealing systems:

Picture 12: Assembly mark 1/4

Specific white silicone trade mark Dow Corning 744,

Black modified silicone trade mark Permatex Black
Silicone Adhesive Sealant,
Epoxy system, consisting of modified epoxy resin trade
mark Araldite DBF and amine curing agent trade mark
Haerter 951 and
Solution of high impact polystyrene trade mark Styron
485 in toluene.
3. By analysis of indicator paper, which is inside of
producing sealed plastic assemblies, and by detailed
visual inspection of internal surfaces of upper and
lower parts of mentioned assemblies, it is established
that water breakthrough did not happen.
4. All four applied sealing systems prevent water pass
through produced assemblies and protect indicator
paper inside assemblies from water influence.
5. Considering all aspects of using mentioned sealing
systems, best results were obtaining by black modified
silicone and by epoxy resin/hardener system.
6. Proper pre-treatments of surfaces, those are going to
be sealed, by mechanical removing of the surface
layer of polystyrene parts by abrasive paper and
degreasing and cleaning with liquid chemical
(ethanol), are important.

Picture 13: Assembly mark 2/4

REFERENCES
[1] Rosato D., Rosato M.G. and Rosato D.V., Concise
encyclopedia of Plastics, Kluwer
Publishers,
Norwell, 2000 ISBN 0-7923-8496-2.

Picture 14: Assembly mark 3/4

800

[2] Adhesives and Sealants, Materials Engineering, May,

1976, pp 73-78.
[3] Chanda M. and Roy S.K., Plastic Technology
Handbook, CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group,
Boca Raton, 2007, ISBN 13:978-0-8493-7039-7.
[4] Elias H.G., Introduction to Plastics, Wiley-VCH
GmbH and Co.K Ga A, Weinheim, 2003.
[5] http://www.styron.com/eu/en/products/plastics/poly_
res.htm.
[6] http://krayden.com/tds/dow_744_tds.pdf.
[7] http://www.permatex.com/products-2/product-

categories/adhesives-sealants/sealants/permatexblack-silicone-adhesive-sealant-detail.
[8] http://www.silmid.com/getattachment/8d2ddcd0ad60-41a8-bd6d-3cdcdf462c29/ARALDITEHY951-TDS.aspx.
[9] Der Loctite, Technical Information, Loctite
G.m.b.H., Wiener Verlag, Himberg 1998.
[10] SRPS EN 60068-2-17, Basic environmental testing
procedure - Part 2-17 : Test s Test Q : Sealing,
Institute for standardization of Serbia, Belgrade,
2008.

801

INVESTIGATION OF POSSIBLE SUPERSTRUCTURES FOR

NANOAPERTURE ARRAY-BASED PLASMONIC SENSORS FOR
SIMULTANEOUS DETECTION OF MULTIPLE DANGEROUS
SUBSTANCES
DRAGAN TANASKOVI
IHTM Centre of Microelectronic Technologies, University of Belgrade, Serbia dragant@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
OLGA JAKI
IHTM Centre of Microelectronic Technologies, University of Belgrade, Serbia olga@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
MARKO OBRADOV
IHTM Centre of Microelectronic Technologies, University of Belgrade, Serbia
marko.obradov@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs
ZORAN JAKI
IHTM Centre of Microelectronic Technologies, University of Belgrade, Serbia, jaksa@nanosys.ihtm.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: Monitoring of dangerous substances, including toxic and explosive materials in trace amounts is one of the
primary targets of the CBRNe (chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear and explosive) protection. The goal is to
detect and recognize warfare agents and to obtain approximate information about their concentration. Hazard
identification is critical in field work for the implementation of appropriate protective measures, but currently this
process requires sophisticated equipment and complex lab analysis. Since it cannot be known in advance which warfare
agent will be used, one has to simultaneously check for different possible substances. The usual approach is to utilize an
array of different sensors, each dedicated to a single agent. The aim of this paper is to analyze possible nanoplasmonic
sensor with high sensitivity and custom-designed spectral selectivity convenient for simultaneous detection of multiple
warfare agents. A new simple geometry of nanoplasmonic metamaterial sensor is proposed where the basic
metamaterial fishnet structure (a metal-dielectric-metal sandwich with rectangular openings) is modified by
superposing additional subwavelength patterns. Thus a unit cell superstructure is obtained with multiple tailorable
spectral peaks that increase the selectivity at different wavelengths. Finite elements method was used for simulations of
the proposed sensor. Our results show that selectivity can be tuned by modifying geometry at deep subwavelength scale.
Keywords: plasmonic sensors, metamaterials, chemical sensing, CBRNe threats.
sensitivity. For instance, explosive substances are present
in atmosphere only in trace amounts [2]. Very low
dosages of biological toxins are enough to make large
damages. Another required sensor property is high
selectivity the device has to distinguish between similar
substances and to unambiguously point out a dangerous
one. It is also convenient that a CBRNe sensor detects
several different agents simultaneously. One cannot know
in advance which substances could be used in an attack
and the best approach is to simultaneously check for as
large number of potential threats as possible. Finally, the
sensors should be as fast as possible so that threat is
discovered immediately. The possibility of real time
operation offers time to react and implement
countermeasures quickly enough to minimize or
completely avoid damages.
Plasmonic sensors [3] readily satisfy most of the quoted
requirements. These devices utilize the propagation of

1. INTRODUCTION
Chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear and explosive
(CBRNe) detection, measurement and protection [1]
represents a paradigm with growing importance for
today's defense technologies. The possibility of terrorist
attacks to locations where crowds gather like airports,
sport or cultural events, etc., as well as the need to detect
chemical/biological warfare agents under combat
conditions impose demands for more versatile and more
sensitive sensors. Obviously, such means can be
implemented independently of warfare/homeland defense
for protection against threats in nonmilitary conditions
where accidental situations can occur like spillage of
hazardous or dangerous substances, as well as in waste
management and environmental protection.
In order to be utilized as a CBRNe sensor, a device has to
satisfy several basic needs. One of them is high
802

evanescent electromagnetic waves along a conductordielectric interface to reach extremely high sensitivities,
up to the detection of single molecules. These sensors are
basically refractometric: a subnanometer layer of
adsorbed agent causes sufficient refractive index change
to trigger the sensor response. Plasmonic sensors are
extremely fast and ensure real-time operation, since they
operate at optical frequencies. The best performance and
the largest degree of designer freedom are offered by
nanoplasmonic devices [4], i.e. those based on metaldielectric nanocomposites.
Numerous methods are used to enhance the selectivity of
plasmonic sensors. Typically a layer of receptor substance
is deposited onto the active surface of the sensor, ensuring
adsorption of a targeted analyte [5]. Another question is
simultaneous multianalyte detection. This can be
obviously done by using an array of devices in parallel
and ensuring multiplexing of their output [6]. However,
this method has disadvantages of complexity and high
cost. A simpler approach is to use a single device that is
inherently multiplexed. One of the methods to ensure
spectral multiplexing is to use a sensor with multiple
resonance peaks at different frequencies.
Two large groups of nanoplasmonic sensors are the
devices with ordered nanoaperture arrays. One of them is
the group of extraordinary optical transmission structures
[7, 8], where a nanohole array is fabricated in a single
opaque metal sheet and the presence of chemical/biological analyte modifies its transmission. Another group
are devices based on fishnet metamaterials with negative
refractive index [9, 10]. In this group one fabricates holes
in metal-dielectric-metal sandwich, and the device again
operates in transmission mode. Both belong to aperturebased 2D plasmonic crystals [11].
A method to ensure multiple resonances at different
wavelengths is to modify the basic geometry of the
sensor. This can be done by fabricating superstructures
obtained as superposition of simple ("primitive") forms.
In the case of nanohole array-based sensor, this effect can
be obtained by superposing two or more nanoholes with
different parameters within the same unit cell of the
plasmonic crystal. Literature describes small changes of
unit cells for tweaking of their spectral response [12-13]
In this contribution we consider the possibility to obtain
complex response of our sensors with multiple resonances
at different wavelengths by repeatedly superposing a
simple square nanohole shape. The intention is to obtain
increased sensitivity of the resulting sensors in different
parts of the spectrum, while at the same time utilizing the
simplest possible set of masks for photolithography. To
this purpose we perform ab initio finite element method
simulation utilizing Comsol Multiphysics software
package. We check the applicability of our approach on
the example of ethanol-benzene mixture.

Our idea is to make superposition of another array over

the basic one. As an example, Picture 1 right shows a
structure where the identical array of square nanoholes is
superposed to the basic pattern by simply shifting the
original pattern along both in-plane axes by one third of
the square hole side length, then performing the same
shifting again, but this time by two thirds of the side
length.

Picture 1: Fishnet structure (metal-dielectric-metal)

without a superstructure array (left) and with a triple
square hole array obtained by shifting twice the basic
pattern along both axes.
The increased number of sharp edges in the superstructure
on the right side of Picture 1 will result in the appearance
of a larger number of spectral peaks at different
wavelengths, each connected with a different mode
caused by the geometry change. Thus the obtained sensor
will allow for multispectral interrogation of its output
signal and thus the possibility to perform simultaneous
measurement of multiple analytes using a white light
readout signal.
The virtue of the proposed method is that it utilizes the
identical set of photolithographic masks to produce
different forms, thus drastically simplifying the procedure
and fabrication costs. In spite of the obvious simplicity of
the scheme, the number of the possible combination is
vast.
Picture 2 shows several different supercells obtained by
compositing two square lattices with square nanoholes.
The starting form of the fishnet, without any
superposition is shown in Pic. 1 left. Pic. 2a shows the
result of superposition of two nanohole arrays, where the
second one is shifted by a half of the square nanohole side
along both in-plane axes. In Pic. 2b the shift is 90% and
the nanoholes barely overlap. After shifting further the
second array, we first arrive to the case where the
nanoholes only touch each other at one corner, Pic. 2c.
Finally, Pic. 2d shows the situation where two arrays do
not touch each other, but are very close, so that the
response of the two nanoholes is coupled due to their
immediate vicinity. Each picture includes a square drawn
by dashed lines, showing the exact position and
dimensions of the unit cell of the obtained double square
superlattice.

2. THEORY
A typical fishnet structure for metamaterials with negative
effective refractive index in the optical wavelength range
is shown in Picture 1 left. It shows an array of square
nanoholes in metal-dielectric-metal sandwich (dielectric
is represented by lighter color).

The dimensions of the basic structure were as follows: the

aperture dimensions 120 nm 120 nm, square unit cell
with a 300 nm side, the top and the bottom metal layer
803

30 nm thick, and the thickness of the dielectric part is

40 nm. It has been assumed that the metal part was gold,
well described by Drude model. The utilized material
parameters for gold were as follows: plasma frequency
p = 2.176 PHz, collision frequency = 6.5 THz. The
dielectric part was aluminum oxide with a refractive index
in the visible range of 1.63.

Scattering parameters

1.0
0.8

S11
S21

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
500

550

650

700

750

800

Wavelength, nm

b)

a)

600

Picture 3: Reflectance (S11) and transmittance (S21) of the

supercell pattern shown in Picture 2a (50% shift between
patterns)

c)

Scattering parameters

1.0

d)

Picture 2: Four main supercell patterns used in this work

for spectral enhancement of chemical sensors.
a) superstructure formed by a set of identical apertures
shifted by a half of the aperture side along both axes;
b) shift by 90% of both aperture sides; c) shift by 100%,
corners coincide; d) shift by 110% of both aperture sides,
no aperture overlap. Dashed squares in the middle of each
pattern denote the unit cell.

0.8

S11
S21

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
500

550

600

650

700

750

800

Wavelength, nm

Picture 4: Reflectance (S11) and transmittance (S21) of the

supercell pattern shown in Picture 2b (90% shift between
patterns).
The introduction of superstructures induces additional
electromagnetic modes in the fishnet response, which can
be observed as new peaks in the spectral dependence of
scattering parameters. New peaks become more distinct
with larger shift between the two sets of holes.
1.0

Scattering parameters

We utilized the RF module of Comsol Multiphysics software

package to calculate the scattering parameters of our fishnets.
The unit cell was treated as a waveguide surrounded by air.
We applied the periodic boundary conditions to this basic
geometry in order to simulate an infinite periodic structure.
Two ports were added above and below the unit cell, each of
them parallel to the surface. One port was active and incident
light entered the waveguide through it. Parametric sweep of
incident light wavelength was used to determine the spectral
dependence.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Pictures 3-6 show the real parts of reflectance (scattering
parameter S11) and transmittance (S21) of the supercell
structures presented in Pic. 2. The results shown in Pic. 3
correspond to a superstructure formed by overlapping two
sets of identical apertures where the second one is shifted
by 50% of the aperture side length along both in-plane
axes (structure shown in Pic. 2a). Pic. 4 corresponds to a
90% shift (structure in Pic. 2b), Pic. 5 is 100% shift (Pic.
2c) and Pic. 6 is 110% shift, i.e. larger than the whole
aperture width (separate structures, Pic. 2d). Dashed lines
correspond to reflectance, solid lines are transmittance.
The overall appearance of the hole arrays is shown in the
insets in the corresponding pictures.

0.8

S11
S21

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
500

550

600

650

700

750

800

Wavelength, nm

Picture 5: Reflectance (S11) and transmittance (S21) of the

supercell pattern shown in Picture 2c (100% shift between
patterns, corners touching).
804

and for pure benzene at 298.15 K. The spectral shifts and

change of transmittance curves shape are both very
distinct.

0.8

1.0

S11
S21

0.6

0.2
0.0
500

550

600

650

700

750

800

Picture 6: Reflectance (S11) and transmittance (S21) of the

supercell pattern shown in Picture 2a (110% shift between
patterns, no aperture overlap).

500

650

700

750

800

Picture 9 shows the comparison between transmittance

spectra of pure ethanol and a mixture of 1% benzene with
99% ethanol. The shift of the characteristics by several
nanometers is readily observable, as well as the change of
the spectral curve shape. The resulting transmittance
variation between these two cases is up to 40% in certain
spectral points, making two cases easily distinguishable.
The calculation in the whole visible range shows even
much larger changes, especially near the resonant modes
with steep characteristics, pointing out to the fact that
much smaller differences in concentration can be
discerned by simple transmission measurement.

Re(n)

2.0
4.0

800

600

Picture 8: Transmittance (S21) of the supercell pattern

shown in Picture 2a (110% shift between patterns, no
aperture overlap) for three different media (pure ethanol,
mixture 30% benzene with 70% ethanol and pure
benzene).

Im(n)

600

550

Wavelength, nm

2.0

400

0.4

0.0

4.0

0.0

0.6

0.2

Wavelength, nm

Effective refractive index

C2H5OH 100%
C6H6 30%, C2H5OH 70%
C6H6 100%

0.8
0.4

Transmittance

Scattering parameters

1.0

1000

Wavelength, nm

Picture 7: Effective refractive index of fishnet structure

with 90% shift of the aperture side length. Top curve:
Imaginary part of refractive index; bottom curve: real part
of refractive index of the fishnet.

0.7
0.6

Transmittance

In order to further analyze the chosen structures we

utilized the extraction of effective optical parameters to
determine its relative permittivity and permeability, which
were further used to calculate the effective refractive
index. The procedure of extraction of effective values of
optical parameters is described elsewhere [14].
As an example, Picture 7 shows the calculated values of
extracted refractive index for the structure from Pic. 2b.
There are three distinct peaks with negative values of
effective refractive index between 550 nm and 600 nm. At
shorter wavelengths additional peaks appear, but this time
their values are positive.

99% C2H5OH
1% C6H6

0.5
0.4
0.3

100% C2H5OH

0.2
0.1
0.0
560

565

570

575

580

Wavelength, nm

Further we determined the spectral shift caused by

changes of effective index of the ambience. We chose
benzene, an almost omnipresent pollutant and carcinogen.
We extrapolated the values of the refractive index of
mixture of benzene with ethanol based on the data on
benzene mixtures published in literature [15]. Picture 8
shows calculated transmittance of the supercell shown in
Pic. 2b in the case of immersion of the fishnet structure in
pure ethanol, in a mixture 30% benzene in 70% ethanol

Picture 9: Transmittance of the supercell pattern shown

in Picture 2b (90% shift between patterns for pure
ethanol, and mixture 1% benzene with 99% ethanol.

5. CONCLUSION
We introduced a concept of compound supercells at the
level of unit cells of fishnet metamaterials in order to
obtain multiple peaks in sensor response due to newly
805

introduced electromagnetic modes. In this manner we

succeeded in obtaining a richer response that ensures
multispectral operation of the sensor. Using white light
readout beam a spectrally selective readout is obtained
that can be used for simultaneous detection of different
analytes in the case when these analytes have different
spectral dispersions of refractive index even if their values
of refractive index at a single wavelength coincide. The
virtue of the proposed method is that it ensures the
possibility to utilize the identical set of photolithographic
masks to produce different forms. The complex shapes
are then simply produced by shifting the basic shapes
during photolithographic mask alignment procedure.

M., "Multi-analyte surface plasmon resonance

biosensing", Methods, 37(1) (2005), 26-36.
[7] Ebbesen, T. W., Lezec, H. J., Ghaemi, H. F., Thio,
T., Wolff, P. A., "Extraordinary optical transmission
through sub-wavelength hole arrays", Nature,
391(6668) (1998), 667-669.
[8] Gordon, R., Sinton, D., Kavanagh, K. L., Brolo, A.
G., "A new generation of sensors based on
extraordinary optical transmission", Acc. Chem.
Res., 41(8) (2008), 1049-1057.
[9] Kafesaki, M., Tsiapa, I., Katsarakis, N., Koschny, T.,
Soukoulis, C. M., Economou, E. N., "Left-handed
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deep-subwavelength inclusions", Scientific Reports,
3(2013).
[13] Jiang, Z. H., Lin, L., Bossard, J. A., Werner, D. H.,
"Bifunctional plasmonic metamaterials enabled by
subwavelength nano-notches for broadband,
polarization-independent
enhanced
optical
transmission and passive beam-steering", Opt.
Express, 21(25) (2013), 31492-31505.
[14] Smith, D. R., Schultz, S., Marko, P., Soukoulis, C.
M., "Determination of effective permittivity and
permeability of metamaterials from reflection and
transmission coefficients", Phys. Rev. B, 65(19)
(2002), 195104.
[15] Shams, A. K., "Densities, Refractive Indices and
Excess Properties of Binary Mixtures of Acetonitrile
with Benzene, Toluene, m-Xylene and Mesitylene at
Temperatures from (298.15 to 313.15) K", Journal of
Al-Nahrain University 14(2) (2011), 75-85.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work has been funded by Serbian Ministry of
Education, Science and Technological Development
within the framework of the project TR 32008.

REFERENCES
[1] Vaseashta, A., Braman, E., Susmann, P.,
Technological Innovations in Sensing and Detection
of Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear
Threats and Ecological Terrorism, Springer
Dordrecht, 2012.
[2] Senesac, L., Thundat, T. G., "Nanosensors for trace
explosive detection", Materials Today, 11(3) (2008),
28-36.
[3] Becker, J., Plasmons as Sensors, Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2012.
[4] Jaki, Z., Optical metamaterials as the platform for a
novel generation of ultrasensitive chemical or
biological sensors. In Metamaterials: Classes,
Properties and Applications, Tremblay, E. J., Ed.
Nova Science Publishers: Hauppauge, New York,
2010; pp 1-42.
[5] Jaki, O. M., Jaki, Z. S., upi, . D.,
Randjelovi, D. V., Kolar-Ani, L. Z., "Fluctuations
in transient response of adsorption-based plasmonic
sensors", Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 190(0)
(2014), 419-428.
[6] Homola, J., Vaisocherov, H., Dostlek, J., Piliarik,

806

THE INFLUENCE OF CARBAMIDE ADDITIVE ON THE PROPERTIES OF

ELECTRODEPOSITED MANGANESE COATINGS
MLADEN VURUNA
Military Academy, University of Defense, Belgrade, Serbia, nacelnik@va.mod.gov.rs
MIHAEL BUKO
Military Academy, University of Defense, Belgrade, Serbia, mbucko@tmf.bg.ac.rs
LJUBICA RADOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, ljmradovic@gmail.com
JELENA BAJAT
Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Serbia, jela@tmf.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: Pure manganese coatings were prepared on the steel (AISI 4340) electrode by non-conventional
electrodeposition method, with the assistance of 8 mol dm-3 of carbamide as a plating additive. The influence of
carbamide on the electrodeposition of Mn was investigated by linear sweep voltammetry. The morphology of the
coatings was studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and their elemental composition by energy dispersive Xray spectrometry (EDS). The results showed that the presence of carbamide in the solution enhanced both the reduction
of water and Mn2+ ions. Moreover, carbamide improves the characteristics of Mn deposits, i.e. their adhesiveness,
porosity, compactness, and appearance. Except from oxygen as a part of Mn corrosion product at the coatings' surface,
no carbon or nitrogen incorporation was detected in the deposits by EDS.
Keywords: carbamide, electrodeposition, Mn coating, morphology.
The use of additives is the key to produce dense highquality Mn metal at a high current efficiency, and so
various additives have been investigated for this purpose.
Group VI element (S, Se and Te) compounds were
reported to be the most successful additives which
increase the overpotential for hydrogen evolution and
improve the leveling effect of the electrolyte, but
unfortunately these compounds have a hazardous effect
on the environment and also contaminate the manganese
products [4]. Besides S, Se and Te compounds, many
other additives, especially organic compounds, such as
ammonium thiocyanate [1], carboxylic acids, glycerol,
water-soluble polyacrylamide, guar gum and thiourea,
have been tested to improve manganese electrodeposition
[5,6], but there is little information about theirs
performance.

1. INTRODUCTION
The production of pure manganese coating on a steel
substrate may offer interesting practical uses, as shown by
following examples. Metallic manganese is used on a
large scale in certain types of steel, as alloying element.
Coatings of Mn as well as Mn-alloys with Cu, Zn, Ni or
Co, are potentially useful as sacrificial coatings for
protecting ferrous substrates against corrosion [1]. Also, it
has been published recently [2] that when Mn coating is
obtained on stainless steel, and post annealed with flow of
nitrogen, the manganese nitride coating is formed, which
significantly increases the corrosion resistance of stainless
steel in NaCl medium.
The most common way of obtaining Mn coating is the
electrochemical deposition [3]. Industrially, manganese is
obtained by cathodic reduction of manganese sulfate or
chloride from water solution, together with corresponding
ammonium salts on steel sheets. However, the standard
reduction potential for Mn2+/Mn is very negative (1180
mV vs. SHE), so the reduction of Mn2+ to Mn is always
accompanied by hydrogen evolution. Therefore, Mn
electrodeposition is still technically very challenging due
to a low current efficiency and formation of rough and
dendritic deposits [3].

In the present study, the influence of carbamide or urea,

(NH2)2CO, on manganese electrodeposition from an
acidic sulfate solution was investigated by linear sweep
voltammetry. The morphology and elemental composition
of the Mn deposits were analyzed using scanning electron
microscopy (SEM).
Carbamide was reported as an additive in
electrodeposition of other metals, for instance CrCo
alloys [7], bright Cu deposit [8], Zn coating [9] etc. It may
807

act as leveling agent [8] due to selective adsorption of

carbamide molecules on the specific crystal planes of
metal electrode [10], but it is also a complexing agent for
metal ions [7]. However, in the present work, a different
approach to metal electrodeposition was applied, in sense
that carbamide was added in high concentration (8 mol
dm3) to the aqueous solution, so it did not behave only as
an additive, but also as a supporting electrolyte.
Carbamide is affordable compound, produced on an
industrial scale, and it is very soluble in water (108 g/100
ml at 20 C).

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Voltammetric study
To determine the effect of carbamide on the reduction of
Mn(II) and H2O at steel electrode, we carried out
voltammetric studies in the potential range from 0.9 to
1.6 VSCE in different solutions. Fig. 1 presents the LSV
curves obtained in (NH4)2SO4 solution, containing or not
carbamide and MnSO4. Since the hydrogen evolution
reaction (HER) is always accompanied with Mn
deposition [3], the first experiments were made on blank
solutions without Mn2+ (Fig. 1a). It is seen that no
significant current is performed until the potential reaches
1070 mV, the value which corresponds to the onset of
HER, and then the current increases steadily with the
potential sweep. However, the comparison of the two
curves in Fig. 1a shows that the overpotential for H2O
reduction is for about 90 mV lower when carbamide is
added to the electrolyte. The first explanation for this
result could be that some additional electrochemical
process occurs, i.e. that carbamide is reduced together
with HER. However, we assumed that this process did not
happen in our case due to the absence of any peak.
Instead, it was assumed that the water reduction process is
slightly catalyzed with carbamide addition to the solution,
although there are no published data on practical use of
carbamide additive in water electrolysis.

2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
The electrodeposition of Mn coatings and the
electrochemical experiments were performed using a
sulfate electrolyte containing 1.0 mol dm-3 (NH4)2SO4 and
0.2 mol dm-3 MnSO4, pH 5.50. Two types of solutions
were prepared to examine the effect of carbamide on the
Mn deposition process: the first solution contained the
above ingredients, and in the second solution, carbamide
was added in concentration of 8 mol dm-3. The
electrolytes were prepared with analytical grade reagents
and double distilled water.
The substrates for all experiments were steel (AISI 4340)
panels with an active surface area of 3.57 cm2. Prior to
each experiment, the steel surface was prepared using
abrasive emery papers of the following grades: 600, 1000
and 1200, and then degreased in a saturated solution of
NaOH in ethanol, pickled with 2 mol dm-3 HCl for 30 s
and finally rinsed with distilled water.

When Mn2+ ions are present in the solution (Fig. 1b) the
first current onset occurs again at 1070 mV, probably
relating to HER as in previous case, but at more negative
potential there is a current hump denoting Mn2+/Mn
reduction [11]. It can be noticed that this hump is higher
at the diagram recorded in the presence of carbamide,
proving that metal reduction process is accelerated by
carbamide addition to the electrolyte, as it was the case
with the HER process.

A three-electrode cell arrangement was used for both the

voltammetric studies and manganese electrodeposition, at
the temperature of 25C without stirring. The reference
electrode was a saturated calomel electrode (SCE)
mounted in a Luggin capillary. All potentials in this paper
are referred to this electrode. The counter electrode was a
platinum plate with surface area of 3 cm2. The working
and counter electrode were separated by a polyester
membrane with dimensions of 3 4 cm, with the aim of
preventing Mn2+ oxidation products (anodic sludge) to
diffuse from anode to the cathodic surface.

According to the previous literature data from the

research of chromium electrodeposition, the observed
influence of carbamide on Mn reduction could be
explained through the formation of carbamide-complex
salts of Mn2+ ions [12, 13]. In analogy to Cr deposition,
we assume that the formation of carbamide-complex
species is meritorious for facilitating of Mn2+ reduction
process in our investigation, so much more the complex
and
salts
like
[Mn(carbamide)3(H2O)6-3]2+
2+
[Mn(carbamide)6] are well documented [14].

The Mn coatings were electrodeposited from solutions

with and without carbamide, galvanostatically at current
densities (c.d.s) in the range of 20 90 mA cm-2, using a
PAR M173 galvanostat as the power supply. The
deposition time was chosen to obtain layers of 10 m
thickness, verified by a coating thickness measuring
instrument Dualscope MPOR.

On the contrary, the role of 8 mol dm3 carbamide in

increasing the rate of HER is not easy to explain and it
requests further research, also because we could not find
any report regarding the catalytic or inhibiting activity of
carbamide towards water reduction. Nevertheless, the
explanation maybe could be the complexation of water
molecules as for the Mn2+ ions, because the H2Ocarbamide complex species have been reported [15].

The linear sweep voltammetry experiments with IR

correction were performed at 20 mV s-1 between 0.9 and
1.6 V vs. SCE by using a ZRA Reference 600
potentiostat, Gamry Instruments. The potential sweep
started from the rest potential of the substrate and
continued in the cathodic direction.
Surface morphology of the coatings was examined by
scanning electron microscopy, SEM Jeol JSM 6610LV.
Chemical analysis of the deposits was performed by an
attached energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer
(SEM/EDS).
808

different c.d.s in the presence of carbamide. The

agglomerates formed at higher c.d (Fig. 2c) are less
uniform in size, and they possess spot-like pores,
probably due to the more intensive hydrogen evolution at
the growing deposit [16]. Also, the coatings obtained at
40 mA cm-2 were white and semi-bright in appearance,
while those produced at higher c.d. were dull, as affirmed
by naked eyes.

Figure 1: Influence of carbamide addition on the linear

sweep polarizations for H2O (Fig. a) and Mn2+ (Fig. b)
reduction. The electrolyte composition is denoted in
diagrams.

Effect of carbamide on the morphological

properties of Mn coating
The effect of carbamide addition to the plating electrolyte
on the form and distribution of the manganese
agglomerates formed on the steel substrate, was
investigated by SEM. Microphotographs were taken for
deposits obtained at c.d.s in the range of 40 60 mA cm-2,
the values selected where the plating current efficiency
was the best. The time of deposition was adjusted to
produce coatings 10 m thick.
Figure 2a shows the deposit obtained at 40 mA cm-2 in the
absence of carbamide. The growth of Mn produces a
surface with high roughness on the macroscopic scale and
the formation of porous deposits. The flower-like clusters,
having different sizes, are dispersed all over the steel
surface, but pores between them reach even to the
substrate. When longer deposition time was applied, to
make coatings thicker than 10 m, the deposits peeled off.
In contrast, in the presence of carbamide (Figs. 2b and 2c)
the coatings are characterized by smoothness and strong
adherence. The growth of the Mn crystallites
perpendicular to the surface is inhibited and they spread
across the surface as smooth oval-shaped agglomerates to
produce deposits which are rather flat and dense on the
microscopic scale. So, it was found that carbamide
functioned as a leveling agent. However there are still
small differences between the coatings obtained at

Figure 2: Manganese coatings electrodeposited at 40 mA

cm2 from bath without carbamide (a), at 40 mA cm2
from bath with carbamide (b), and at 60 mA cm2 from
bath with carbamide (c).
To sum up, the SEM analysis gives evidence that 8 mol
dm-3 concentration carbamide in the plating electrolyte
improves morphological properties of Mn deposits, such
as increasing adhesion, smoothness, uniform coverage,
809

and white appearance. These differences might be

ascribed to the adsorption action of carbamide molecules
at the active sites of Mn coating [8] and to the change of
the electrodeposition mechanism caused by the Mncarbamide complex species formation [17]. In a
commercial production of manganese, with increasing
deposition time, the Mn deposit gradually becomes
rougher and more dendritic, resulting in a lower current
efficiency. Therefore the Mn electrolysis industry
constantly seeks for new additives which ensure smooth
and compact deposition and have a minimum
contamination of the Mn coating [5].

the deposits. On the contrary, Cr coatings obtained by

Cr(III) electrodeposition in the presence of carbamide,
may contain considerable amounts of organo-metallic
compounds with amide- and carboxylic-groups,
chromium carbides or nitrides, as a consequence of the
reduction of the organic ligand from the inner
coordination sphere of the chromium complex [7]. So,
although it was concluded in the electrochemical section
that carbamide enhances Mn and Cr deposition in a
similar way, the elemental analysis of the deposits proves
that there still are differences in the carbamide-assisted
reduction mechanism of these two metals.

Effect of carbamide on the chemical composition

of Mn coating

4. CONCLUSION
This work offers a new method for manganese
electrodeposition from aqueous solution, where an
organic substance is added in high concentration (8 mol
dm-3) to improve process and deposit characteristics.
Carbamide was chosen as a high-concentration additive.
Electrochemical analysis has shown that carbamide
facilitates both the hydrogen evolution reaction and Mn2+
reduction,
probably
through
the
complexation
phenomenon. Additionally, the highest efficiency was
measured in the current density range between 40 and 60
mA cm-2.

In order to examine the purity of electroplated

manganese, the elemental composition of the coatings
was determined by EDS, and the data for the deposits
obtained at different c.d.s with or without carbamide are
presented in Table 1. Besides Mn, around 6 wt. % of
oxygen was detected at the surface of all coatings, but this
is a regular observation for manganese, because a layer of
manganese oxides and/or hydroxides (30 to 50 nm)
naturally forms on electrodeposited Mn coatings [1, 17].
It is known from earlier research [11, 17] that much
higher oxygen content (60 wt. % and more) is present in
Mn deposits when Mn oxides/hydroxides are included in
the coating during the electrodeposition process. So, it
may be concluded that under the conditions applied in the
present work, oxygen-free Mn deposits are obtained.
Nevertheless, Table 1 shows that at the sample deposited
in carbamide-free electrolyte at 40 mA cm-2, EDS
detected around 2 wt. % Fe from the substrate, despite the
fact that the coatings were 10 m thick. This finding is in
agreement with SEM microphotograph (Fig. 2a) which
has shown that the Mn coating was porous and the pores
reached to the substrate.

The most distinct effect of carbamide was observed by

SEM analysis of the coatings' morphology, where it was
shown that without the additive, porous coating is formed,
with flower-like agglomerates which are detached from
the substrate at longer deposition times. In contrast, the
Mn samples obtained with carbamide are smooth,
compact, with oval-shaped agglomerates, and for
deposition current density of 40 mA cm-2 have white and
semi-bright appearance. The chemical analysis shows that
Mn deposits formed in this work, regardless of the
carbamide presence in the plating electrolyte, do not
contain inclusions with oxygen, carbon or nitrogen atoms.

Table 1. EDS elemental composition of manganese

coatings electrodeposited at different current densities
Deposition
conditions

wt. %
Mn

wt. %
O

wt. %
Fe

40 mA cm-2 no urea

92

40 mA cm-2 with
urea

94

60 mA cm-2 with
urea

93

REFERENCES
[1] P. Daz-Arista, G. Trejo, Surface and Coatings
Technology, 201 (2006) 33593367.
[2] A. R. Grayeli-Korpi, H. Savaloni, M. Habibib,
Applied Surface Science, 276 (2013) 269275.
[3] A. Sulcius, E. Griskonis, K. Kantminiene, N.
Zmuidzinaviciene, Hydrometallurgy, 137 (2013) 33
37.
[4] Y. Sun, X. Tian, B. He, C. Yang, Z. Pi, Y. Wang, S.
Zhang, Electrochimica Acta, 56 (2011) 83058310.
[5] J. Lu, D. Dreisinger, T Glck, Hydrometallurgy, 141
(2014) 105116.
[6] Q. Wei, X. Ren, J. Du, S. Wei, S. Hu, Minerals
Engineering, 23 (2010) 578586.
[7] S. Survilien, V. Jasulaitien, A. enien, A.
Lisowska-Oleksiak, Solid State Ionics, 179 (2008)
222227.
[8] L. Bonou, M. Eyraud, R. Denoyel, Y. Massiani,
Electrochimica Acta, 47 (2002) 41394148.
[9] K. Boto, Electrodeposition and Surface Treatmant, 3
(1975) 7795.

It should be emphasized in this section that no carbon or

nitrogen was detected in the deposits, although a high
concentration of carbamide was involved in the
electrodeposition process. This is in agreement with the
report from B. Bozzini et al., who investigated thoroughly
the influence of thiourea, (NH2)2CS, on the
electrodeposition of Zn-Mn alloys [18]. Thiourea differs
from carbamide only in sense that carbon atom is double
bonded to sulfur, instead to oxygen atom, and what is
more, cathodic reduction of thiourea gives carbamide
together with Zn2+ and Mn2+ reduction. However, the
authors did not find by XPS any presence of S, C or N in
810

[10] R.N. Emerson, C.J. Kennady, S. Ganesan, Thin Solid

Films, 515 (2007) 33913396.
[11] M. Buko, J. Rogan, B. Joki, M. Mitri, U.
Lanjevac, J. B. Bajat, Journal of Solid State
Electrochemistry, 17 (2013) 1409-1419.
[12] S. Surviliene, O. Nivinskiene, A. Cesuniene, A.
Selskis, Journal of the Applied Electrochemistry, 36
(2006) 649654.
[13] Y.B. Song, D.T. Chin, Electrochimica Acta, 48
(2002) 349356.

[14] O.B. Ibrahim, Advances in Applied Science

Research, 3 (2012) 35223539.
[15] X. Hoccart, G. Turrell, Journal of Chemical Physics
99 (1993) 84988503.
[16] M. Buko, U. Lanjevac, J. B. Bajat, Journal of the
Serbian Chemical Society, 78 (2013) 122.
[17] J. Gong, G. Zangari, Journal of the Electrochemical
Society 149 (2002) C209C217.
[18] B. Bozzini, E. Griskonis, A. Fanigliulo, A. Sulcius,
Surface and Coating Technology 154 (2002) 294
303.

811

THE INFLUENCE OF THE HEAT TREATMENT ON THE PROPERTIES OF

FLOW FORMED ROCKET MOTOR CASES OF 30CrMoV4 AND 41Cr4
STEELS
MILUTIN NIKAEVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, nikacevic.milutin@gmail.com
LJUBICA RADOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade
JELENA MARINKOVI
Military Technical Institute, Belgrade

Abstract: The aim of this work was to evaluate the possibility of substitution of 30CrMoV9 steel with cheaper 41Cr4 for
rocket motor cases. Different heat treatments applied on the preforms, resulted in different microstructures and tensile
strength from 700 MPa to 1000 MPa. Flow forming was performed using mandrels with diameters of 50 mm and 122
mm. Total and partial wall thickness reductions were varied. Microstructure, mechanical properties, toughness and
macroscopic residual stress of the preforms, as well as flow formed tubes, were examined. It was shown that in some
cases 30CrMoV9 steel can be substituted with 41Cr4 steel.
Keywords: rocket motor case, flow forming, 30CrMoV4 steel, 41Cr4 steel.
Flow forming is one of the spinning process where the
preform, the most often cup or tube, is formed into hollow
cylinder with the wall thickness reduction (Fig.1). During
the process the wall thickness is reduced as material is
encouraged to flow mainly in the axial direction,
increasing the length of the workpiece, without changing
of inner diameter.

1. INTRODUCTION
Metal spinning has a wide application in many industry,
especially in aerospace, automotive and rocket industry
[1, 2]. Compared to alternatives manufacturing methods
(deep drawing, forging and press forming) and machining
which also used for the production of axisymmetric sheet
metal components, this process has a lot of advantages.
Some of them are high dimensional accuracy, and quality
of inner element surface, low tools price, high process
rate, material savings, increasing in both strength and
stiffness, etc. [3-5]. Metal spining, i.e. flow forming is
irreplaceable in forming high strength thin wall tubes with
ratio length/diameter>10 and diameter/wall thickness
>50.
Production of thin-walled rocket motor cases by cold flow
forming using high strength steel (YS>1000 MPa) is wery
complex task. Among many factors that influence the
process, the most important are selection of the type of
steel and optimal heat treatment of the preform and motor
case, partial and total deformation and gap between
mandrel and preform [6]. Quality of the rocket motor case
is also influenced by design and dimension of the rollers,
position during the forming, mandrel speed and axial
roller feed rate. The biggest influence on the efficency
and price of the rocket motor case has partial deformation,
i.e. number of passes and axial feed rate of the rollers.

Fig. 1. Schematics of forward and backward flow forming

(tube spinning) [2].
The aim of this work was to establish correlation among
preform properties, process parameters and flow formed
tube properties, as well as evaluate the possibility of
substitution of 30CrMoV9 steel with cheaper 41Cr4 for
rocket motor cases.

812

conducted by scheme given in Table 2. Mandrel speed

was 415 rpm and axial roller feed rate between 420 and
450 mm/min.

2. EKSPERIMENTAL
2.1. Material

2.3. Testing methods

30CrMoV9 and 41Cr4 steels were used for manufacturing

of rocket motor cases. Preforms made of hot rolled
seamless steel tubes after tempering, according to DIN
17204, DIN 2448 and DIN 50 049/3.1B. Dimension of
the preforms and related tubes dimension are given in the
Table 1, where is -wall thickness of the used tubes.
Table 1. Preforms and tubes dimension
Hot rolled tube
Steel
(mm)
Dout (mm)
30CrMoV9
73.1
12.5
41Cr4
146
20

Mechanical properties were determined by tensile tests,

Vickers (HV10, HV30) and Brinell hardness
measurement (HB2.5/187.5). Tensile tests were carried
out at room temperature on
Instron 8032 and Amsler 200 kN, testing machines,
using small round proportional specimens (d0=6 mm,
L0=30 mm) and squered specimens (L0=50 mm),
acoording to SRPS EN ISO 6892-1.
Rings, 20 mm high, which were cut from the tubes were
used for the macro residual stresses determination. The
outer diameter, as well as thickness were measured at four
points before and after cutting of the ring. The equation
(1) was used for the residual stresses calculation [7]:

Preform
Dout/Din (mm)
69.0/50.4
141/122.4

The preforms for flow forming of 30CrMoV9 steel

processed by:
machining up to 72/49 mm and 160 mm length,
heat treatment:
I: annealed at 700C/2h;
II: tempered at 870C/1 h, OQ
+620C/2h
final machining

E (3Dav + 2 )
D
3Dav 2 D

(1)

-elasticity modulus, [MPa],

-coefficient, = 1 2 , -Poissons coefficient,
1
Dav -average ring diameter, [mm],
D -outer ring diameter, [mm],
D -the difference D after and before cutting, [mm],

-ring wall thickness, [mm].

(OQ-quenching in oil)
The preforms for flow forming of 41Cr4 steel processed by:
machining
heat treatment: HT1 700 /2h
HT2: 870C, OQ+580C
HT3: 870C, OQ+550C
HT4: 870C, OQ+520C
final machining

Microstructure of the heat treated preforms analysed by

optical microscope Leitz. The metalografic specimens
were prepared by grinding, polishing and etching in 3%
nital solution.

2.2. Flow forming

Forward flow forming was performed using
KIESERLING AS 24.61 CNC machine, with two rollers.
Tools (mandrel and rollers) were made of high quality
tool steel and polished. Inner diameters of rocket motor
cases were 50.4 mm and 122.4 mm and wall thickness of
1.8 mm and 2.8 mm, respectively.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Microstructure
Microstructures of the preforms of 41Cr4 and 30CrMoV9
steels, annealed and temperd are shown in Figs. 2 and 3.

Preforms of 41Cr4 steel (=9.3 mm) processed in two

passes, up to 128/122.4 mm and 2.8 mm, where total
reduction was 71 %. Mandrel speed was 200 rpm, axial
roller feed rate 160 mm/min (about 1 mm/rev).

Microstructure of annealed 41Cr4 steel specimen is

ferritic-bainitic (Fig.2a), with carbides different
dispersion. Microstructure of tempered specimes consists
of highy tempered matrensite with some beinite (Fig.2b).

Table 2. Scheme of flow forming preforms of 30CrMoV9

steel
Wall thickness after pass (mm)
tot p N
(%)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7 8
(%)
22 22 1 7,2
36 36 1 5,95
36 20 2 7,5 5,95
54 31 2 6,2 4,3
54 20 4 7,5 6,0 5,1 4,3
80 34 4 6,2 4,1 2.8 1,8
80 20 8 7.5 6.1 4.8 3.8 3.2 2.6 2.2 1.8
tot-total deformation (reduction of the wall thickness),
p- partial reduction (in one pass),
N-number of passses.

Flow forming of 30CrMoV9 steel preforms were

a)
813

3.2. Mechanical properties

Mechanical properties of the flow formed tubes produced
of 30CrMoV4 and resudual steress are given in the
Table 3.
Mechanical properties of these preforms were: 200 HB
and 250 HB, YTS=680 MPa and 850 MPa, after
annealing and tempered, respectively.
The results given in Table 3, have shown influence of the
heat treatment i.e. initial microstructure of the preforms
on the mechanical properties and resudual stress of the
flow formed tubes. The hardness and strength of the tubes
increase with increasing of the wall thickness reduction.
This increase is more intensive for annealed preforms
(43% ) than tempered (35 %). Higher strength was
obtained when higher partial deformation applied. It was
supposed that this is result of higher accumulated
deformation and more homogenous distibution on the
wall tube cross-section.

b)
Fig. 2. Microstructure of the 41Cr4 preform (diameter
141/122.4 mm): a) annealed at 700C/2h; b) tempered at
870C, OQ+580C

The partial and total deformation have had an important

influence on macroscopic resudual stress (Table 3). Their
influence is also clearly visible in Fig.4. Resudual stresses
are tensile in all cases, which is undesired. They have a
negative influence on the allowed pressure in rocket
motor. With increase of total deformation from 22 % to
80 %, resudual stress arise almost four times (103 to 405
MPa, i.e. 49 to 178 MPa). This is result from increasing
accumulated deformation energy and its nonhomogenous
distribution through the wall cross-section in axial and
radial direction.

Microstructure of annealed 30CrMoV9 steel specimens

(Fig.3a) is ferritic, with fine dispered carbide particles.
Tempered specimens of the same steel consist of beinite
with small amount ferrite (Fig.3b).

a)

Fig. 4. Tube rings after cutting (mm and wall thickness of

1.8 mm): a) tempered b) annealed.
Higher residual stresses values (1.2 to 2.5 times) were
induced during forming annealed than tempered preforms.
The partial deformation also has shown influence on
residual stress. Lower partial deformation (more passes
for the same deformation) lead to higher residual stress
(p=20 %, =450 MPa; p=34 %, =160 MPa). This
increase of residual stress is result of concentration
deformation in surface zone i.e. in the contact zone
between roller and preform/tube. It was shown that more
ductile material (annealed preforms) had a higher
tendency to nonhomogenous deformation.

b)
Fig. 3. Microstructure of 30CrMoV9 preform (diameter
69.0/50.4 mm): a) annealed at 700C/2 h; b) tempered at
870C, OQ+620C/2h

814

Table 3. Mechanical properties and residual stresses of flow formed tubes, Din=54.0 mm (30CrMoV4)
tot, % p, %
22
36
36
54
54
80
80

22
36
20
31
20
34
20

(mm)

1
1
2
2
4
4
8

7,2
5,95
5,95
4,3
4,3
1,8
1,8

D (mm)

HV30 (HV10)

During flow forming tempered preforms, d=141/122.4 to

tubes, d=128/122.4 and wall thickness of 2.8 mm (tot= 71
%), increase in YS was 103225 MPa (1342%), in UTS
was 295 344 MPa, (3237 %). At the same time
elongation significantly decreased (2410.8 %), etc.
(Tables 4 and 5), but, these are high values eventually.

Table 4. Mechanical properties of 41Cr4 preforms

HB

Annealed (700C)
Tempered
(870C +580C)
Tempered (870C
+550C)
Tempered (870C
+520C)

200

(MPa)

Anneal Tempered Anneal. Tempered Anneal. Tempered Anneal. Tempered

0,21
0,10
237
268
806
911
103
49
0,30
0,23
249
284
847
966
125
96
0,38
0,30
253
304
860
1034
159
125
0,59
0,33
260
298
884
1013
182
102
0,65
0,50
268
318
911
1081
201
155
1,09
0,84
277
325
942
1100
160
124
2,82
1,24
286
337
972
1146
405
178

Mechanical properties of the preform of the 41Cr4 steel

and flow formed tubes are given in the Tables 4 and 5.

Temper

YTS (MPa)

YS
UTS Elong. Contr.
(MPa) (MPa) (%)
(%)
540
720
24
51

266

620

805

21

64

280

690

870

19

62

295

760

930

18

61

Tubes formed from preforms (HT4) had UTS>1200 MPa.

YS is higher than 800 MPa and UTS than 1100 MPa for
all tubes formed from tempered preforms. Stress relieving
at temperatures between 250 and 300C affect the
strength significantly (YS increases up to 314 MPa, UTS
up to 50 MPa). At the same time it had a low negative
effect on the plasticity and resistance to brittle fracture.
Besides that, stress relieving shown influence on the
residual stress and dimensional stability during machining
of the rocket motor cases, which is reported earlier [8].

The results have shown that the lower strength have

annealed preforms with ferritic-beinitic microstructure
(Fig.2a). But they have also the lower plasticity
(elongation and contraction). Mechanical properties of
tempered preforms are influenced by temperature of the
tempering. Increase of the temperature leads to hardness
and strength decrease. At the same time increase of
plasticity is very small. On the base of these results it can
be assumed that the deformabity during flow forming
(spinnability) would be higher for tempered than annealed
preforms.

4. CONCLUSION
It was found that partial deformation during flow forming
of 30CrMoV9 steel performs (69.0/50.4 mm) had a great
influence on the macrosopic residual stress (=405/160
MPa for p=20/34 %, tot=80 % for annealed preforms).

Table 5. Mechanical properties of the flow formed 41Cr4

tubes
Mechanical properties
HB2.5/187.5
Temper
YS
UTS Elong.
Preform
(MPa) (MPa)
(%)
FF
665
1064
10.8
FF+250C/3h
887
1117
9.0
200
FF+280C/3h
875
1120
10.2
FF+300C/3h
979
1110
8.8
FF
823
1107
14.4
FF+250C/3h
832
1147
13.4
266
FF+280C/3h
830
1135
10.9
FF+300C/3h
1047
1154
14.1
FF
833
1165
14.2
FF+250C/3h
965
1219
13.3
280
FF+280C/3h
955
1218
12.8
FF+300C/3h
988
1210
11.1
FF
863
1225
11.5
FF+250C/3h
983
1253
13.6
295
FF+280C/3h
981
1260
13.0
FF+300C/3h
1030
1256
13.2

The partial deformation had a bigger influence on the

residual stress after flow forming of annealed preforms
30CrMoV9, compared to tempered preforms of the same
diameter.
The influence of the partial deformation on the strength is
low but, consistent. When smaller partial deformation
applied, the higher tube strength achieved in both
annealed and tempered preforms (UTS=1146/1100 MPa
for p =20/34 %, tot=80 % for tempered preforms).
Residual stress was tensile in all cases, i.e. at all applied
deformation and both tempers.
It was shown that during the flow forming of 41Cr4 steel
preforms (d=144/122.4 mm) when obtained tube
(d=128/122.4 mm), the temper of the preforms had a great
influence on the all tensile properties. On the other hand,
stress relieve temperature had a great influence only on
the YS and small on the UTS and elongation.
Results shown that it is possible to obtain flow formed
rocket motor cases with high mechanical properties
(YS>1000 MPa, UTS >1200 MPa, elongation >10 %)
using low cost 41Cr4 steel.
815

[6] Srinivasul M., Komaraiah M., Krishna Prasada Rao

C. S., Experimental studies on the characteristics of
AA6082 flow formed tubes, ournal of Mechanical
Engineering Research Vol. 4(6), 192-198, 2012.
[7] ..,
,

, , 1956.
[8] Nikaevi M., Radovi Lj., Jordovi B., The
influence of mg content and impurities in 5083
alloy on the properties of flow formed tubes, Metall.
Mater. Eng. Vol 19 (4) 2013 p. 307-317.

REFERENCES
[1] Sivanandini M., Dhami S.S., Pabla., Flow Forming
Of Tubes-A Review, International Journal of
Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 3, Issue
5, May-2012.
[2] Wong C.C., Dean T.A., Lin J., A review of spinning,
shear forming and flow forming processes,
International Journal of Machine Tools &
Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435.
[3] ASM metals handbook: Forming and Forging, Vol.
14. 9th ed. Ohio: ASM Metals Park, 1988.
[4] www.thefabricator.com/PressTechnology
[5] www.dynamicflowform.com

816

SECTION VIII

QUALITY, STANDARDIZATION, METROLOGY, MAINTENANCE

AND EXPLOITATION

CHAIRMAN
Assitant professor Biljana Markovi, PhD

ANALYSIS OF MEASURING UNCERTAINTY OF DC CURRENT

CALIBRATION OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF THE RESISTORS
USING DIG ITAL MULTIMETER AGILENT 3458A
MILANA NIKOLI
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, metrologija@toc.vs.rs
ZORAN KNEEVI
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, metrologija@toc.vs.rs
SLAVKO VUKANI
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, metrologija@toc.vs.rs

Abstract: The measurement method of DC current calibration of electrical resistance of the resistors, measuring
equipment for verification and calibration results obtained by direct method using as reference standard digital
multimeter Agilent 3458A, in Technical Test Center, Department of Metrology (TOC - SM), Laboratory for primary
standards of electrical quantities (ML 01) with emphasis on evaluation and expression of the measuring uncertainty
are presented. The uncertainty budget for resistor nominal value 100 according to the international standards is
given in this paper also.
Keywords: Calibration, dc resistance standard, digital multimeter, measuring uncertainty.
uncertainty budget for a calibrated four-terminal resistor
is obtained in 4 - wire ohms mode and with resolution 8
digits. The four terminal connectors of each resistor are
connected in turn to the terminals of the multimeter. The
3458A can also measure AC and DC volts, AC and DC
current, period and frequency and perform complex math
calculations. The multimeter has a maximum reading rate
of 100000 readings/s and the resolution is from 4 to
8 digits. The 3458A has a digitizing function that
converts analog signals into discrete samples. All
instrument functions are selectable from the front panel or
remotely over the General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB).

1. INTRODUCTION
DC current calibration electrical resistance of the resistors
is carried out according to the document TOC-SM "Guide
for DC current calibration electrical resistance of the
resistors" [1]. This article describes direct method of
calibration of electrical resistance of the resistors using as
reference standard digital multimeter Agilent 3458A
(DMM RE).
The main targets of calibration the resistance of the
resistors to the guidance document [1] re : 1) To confirm
the uncertainty budget of the resistors as the items to be
calibrated in TOC; 2) To check the correctness of the
calibration results; 3) To support the correct traceability
of the standards.

Calibration results of the four-terminal resistors obtained

by direct method using as reference standard digital
multimeter RE Agilent 3458A (Option 002 - High
Stability Reference), appropriate resolution and accuracy,
showed adequate agreement within the stated
uncertainties in 4 - wire ohms mode and with resolution
8 digits. The appropriate TOC uncertainty budget for
the resistor nominal value 100 as item under calibration
which is presented [1] proved the contributions and
requirements of this particular calibration using RE
3458A whose performance characteristics showed the
optimum technical specifications based on autocalibration (ACAL) of the instrument within previous 24
hours and following ambient temperature changes of less
than 1 C [5, 6].

Method of electrical resistance calibration by direct

method using as reference standard digital multimeter
Agilent 3458A, in Technical Test Center, Department of
Metrology (TOC - SM), Laboratory for primary standards
of electrical quantities (ML 01)with emphasis on
evaluation and expression of the measuring uncertainty
are presented. The uncertainty budget for resistor nominal
value 100 according to the international standards is
given in this paper also [2, 3, 4].
The 3458A is a high precision digital multimeter that can
measure resistance in 4 - wire ohms mode or 2- wire
ohms mode with the resolution 8 digits (Option 002 High Stability Reference, 410-6 for one year). The best

The calibration of the electrical resistance of a digital

821

multimeters is determined also using reference standard

multimeter Agilent 3458A according to guidance
document EURAMET/cg-15/v.2.0 [9] and automation of
measurements and adjusments a calibrated multimeters,
using calibrator FLUKE 5500A and reference standard
multimeter Agilent 3458A [7, 8].

measurements the number n of observations also has to be

stated. It is recommended to present data as average from
ten readings of the DMM (type A evaluation of standard
uncertainty, normal distribution). "Type A" is the method
of evaluating the uncertainty by the statistical analysis of
series of observations. In this case the standard
uncertainty is the experimental standard deviation of the
mean that follows from an averaging procedure or an
appropriate regression analysis.

2. TOC METHOD WITH AGILENT 3458A

TOC method of measurement electrical resistance of the
resistors is based on the direct comparison with a
calibrated reference standard multimeter Agilent 3458A,
USA. This article describes direct calibration of the
standard resistor nominal value 100 , type 5684C,
Tinsley, No 225.356, England.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS IN
LABORATORY
- ambient temperature:
- relative humidity:
- Faraday cage.

The resistors are calibrated of TOC - SM, calibration

laboratory ML-01. The four-terminal resistance values of
the resistors are given in TOC Reports of calibrations and
are traceable to the national standard resistor in DMDM.
The reference multimeter (DMM RE) was calibrated
against TOC resistance standards. Instrument range 100
is calibrated with reference standard 100 , type 5684C,
Tinsley, No 225.360, England, Report of calibration No
316, 09 December 2010 (TOC).

(23 2) C
(50 15) %

The ambient temperature was monitored by

thermohygrometer, TESTO, type 171-3, No 4030000012,
measurement accuracy for temperature 0,5 C (range
< 40 C) and for relative humidity 3 % RH, range (2 to
98) % 1 digit. The measurement conditions are
presented in Report of calibration for calibrated 4terminal resistor nominal value 100 , type 5684C,
Tinsley, No 225.356, England.

The reference multimeter (DMM RE) was set to the 4 wire ohms function, integration time was set to 100
NPLC and number of digits displayed to 8 . The 4- wire
ohms mode eliminates the measurement error caused by
test lead resistance. Select the 4 - wire ohms function
executed the OHMF command. Execute the OCOMP ON
command and AUTO ZERO ON. Measurement range the
3458A is 100 for 100 resistor as the item to be
calibrated [1].

The resistors are allowed to stabilize before the

measurement at least 24 hours in reference conditions of
laboratory according to the guidance document TOC-SM
[1]. The four terminal connectors calibrated 4-terminal
resistor are connected in turn to the terminals of the
DMM. It is determined that the measuring current on the
100 range of the DMM of 1 mA is sufficiently low not
to cause any appreciable self-heating of the resistor. The
measuring procedure used also ensures that the effects of
external leakage of resistances on the result of
measurement could be insignificant.

The 3458A accuracy (option 002) is specified for 4 hour

warm-up to the AC line power before the start of the 4 wire ohms resistance measurements. The Agilent 3458A
Auto-Calibration (ACAL ALL) function removes
measurement errors caused by component temperature
and time drift. For maximum accuracy, ACAL should be
performed every 24 hours. The time to perform complete
ACAL is about 12 minutes. ACAL ACV takes about 1
minute, ACAL DCV 2 minutes and ACAL OHM takes
about 9 minutes. TOC method of electrical resistance
calibration using the 3458A is in accordance with the
guidance document TOC-SM [1]. TOC gives one value
for the resistor 100 which resistance is determined by
direct method using the reference multimeter 3458A with
corresponding measurement uncertainty which was
calculated for a confidence level of 95 % and the mean
measurement
date,
respectively.
For
repeated

4. TOC UNCERTAINTY BUDGET FOR

CALIBRATION OF NOMINAL 100
RESISTOR WITH AGILENT 3458A
TOC uncertainty calculations for type B evaluation of
standard uncertainty a calibrated 4-terminal resistor are in
the table 1 for measurement point DMM: 100 ,
instrument range 100 (4-wire ohms function) [2, 3, 4].
The resistance RDUT of the unknown resistor is obtained
from the relationship:
RDUT = RRE + RRE + RRE-cal + RRE-rez+
+ RRE-tk+ RRE-st

Table 1: TOC Uncertainty budget calculation for resistor nominal value 100 (reference standard multimetar Agilent
3458A, instrument range 100 , 4-wire ohms function)
Quantity
Xi
RRE
RRE-cal
RRE-rez
RRE-tk
RDUT

Estimate
Standard
Probability
xi
uncertainty u(xi) distribution
0
0
0
0
100

981,5
60,0
2,89
163,3

rectangular
normal
rectangular
triangular
k=1
822

Sensitivity
coefficient
i
1
1
1
1

Contribution to the standard

uncertainty
ui(y)= i u(xi)
981,5
60,0
2,89
163,3
996,8

Type B evaluation of standard uncertainty:

Agilent 3458A (Option 002 - High Stability Reference,

410-6 for one year) in calibration laboratory ML-01, with
emphasis on evaluation and expression of the uncertainty
budget of the TOC at the level 100 according to the
international standards are presented [1]. The best
uncertainty budget for a calibrated four-terminal resistor
is obtained in 4 - wire ohms mode and with resolution 8
digits.

Where:
Specified error of the RE 3458A for resistance
measurement 100 (RRE): The 3458A in 4-wire ohms
mode (OHMF), OCOMP ON and AZERO ON,
integration time 100 NPLC and number of digits
displayed to 8 , instrument range 100 , the measured
value of the nominal 100 resistor, No 225.356, Tinsley,
gives resistance value within uncertainty 981,5 at
the specified reference temperature 23 C.

REFERENCES
[1] M.Nikoli, "Radno uputstvo za etaloniranje
elektrine otpornosti otpornika DC struje", C.41.040,
TOC (2012).
[2] Z.ofranac, "Uputstvo za odreivanje merne
nesigurnosti kod etaloniranja", TOC, C.40.005
(2004).
[3] "Expression of the Uncertainty of Measurement in
Calibration" EA-4/02, European Cooperation for
Accreditation (1999).
[4] "Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in
Measurement" GUM, corrected and reprinted
(1995).
[5] User's Guide, Agilent Technologies 3458A
Multimetar, Agilent Technilogies, Edition 4, Manual
No:03458-90014, March 2001.
[6] 3458A Multimetar Calibration Manual, gilent
Technologies, Edition 3, Manual No:03458-90017,
March 2001.
[7] S.Vukani, M.Nikoli, Z.ofranac, M.Pavievi,
"Etaloniranje kod digitalnog multimetra HP 3457A u
Tehnikom opitnom centru", Zbornik radova 55.
Konferencije za ETRAN, Banja Vruica (6-9. juna
2011).
[8] S.Vukani, Z.Kneevi, M.Nikoli, "Automatizacija
etaloniranja digitalnog multimetra HP 3457A",
Zbornik radova Kongres metrologa 2011, Kladovo
(17.-19. oktobar 2011).
[9] EURAMET/cg-15/v.2.0,
"Guidelines
on
the
calibration of Digital Multimeters", EURAMET,
March 2011.

Traceability of the RE 3458A (RRE-cal): The reference

multimeter was calibrated with TOC resistance standards
which are traceable to the national standard resistor in
DMDM (TOC Report of calibration No 305, 08.12.2010.
for resistor 100 , No 225.356).
Resolution of the DMM (RRE-rez): Contribution due to
the limited instrument resolution of the 3458A (8
digits) and in its 100 range resulting in resolution limits
of the resistance readings of 10 which are estimated
to have limits 5 for each reading, uncertainty
2,89 .
Temperature correction of the RE 3458A (RRE-tk):
The resistance variation 3458A for range 100 due to
ambient temperature variation 2 C of the reference 23C,
resulting from the temperature coefficient (TC) of the
multimeter with ACAL function ON, from the
manufacturer Agilent [6], gives the deviation 0,4 m,
uncertainty 163,3 for triangular distribution.
The expanded measurement uncertainty for resistance
calibration 100 (k=2):
N =1993,6
Reported result:
RX = 100,0000 1993,6

5. CONCLUSION
Method of electrical resistance calibration, measuring
equipment for verification and calibration results of the
resistors (DUT) using a reference standard multimeter

823

MILITARY AIRWORTHINESS
MILUTIN JANKOVI
Aeronautical Plant Moma Stanojlovi, Batajnica, jmilutin@verat.net
ZORAN ILI
Technical Test Center, Beograd, zoranilic_65@yahoo.com
MILAN DRONJAK
Aeronautical Plant Moma Stanojlovi, Batajnica, dronjakm@ptt.rs
VLADAN PAREZANOVI
Air Force and Air Defence Command, Zemun, vladan.parezanovic@gmail.com
STEVAN JOVII
Technical Test Center, Beograd, stevanjovicic@gmail.com

Abstract: In Europe, military and state operated aircraft are excluded from the scope of the European Aviation Safety
Agency (EASA) legislation. As a result, military airworthiness is regulated only at national level. The need to improve
European defence capabilities influenced decision of the European Defence Agency (EDA) to establish the Military
Airworthiness Authorities (MAWA) Forum to develop, adopt and implement harmonized European Military
Airworthiness Requirements (EMARs). Up to date, MAWA Forum has developed and approved three sets of EMARs
that cover: Initial Aircraft Certification (EMAR 21), Aircraft Maintenance (EMAR 145) and Maintenance Training
Organizations (EMAR 147). The issue of military airworthiness becomes more and more important because of the
signing of the Administrative Arrangement with The Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Serbia in December 2013. In
the years to come, it can be expected that the Republic of Serbia will implement those harmonized requirements into
own national regulatory documentation. This paper shows the content of the approved EMARs and considers some
important consequences of its implementation.
Keywords: Military Airworthiness, EMAR, EDA, MAWA Forum, EASA.
of a Military Airworthiness Authorities (MAWA) Forum
and approved the associated military airworthiness
roadmap for achieving common harmonization and
certification processes [2]. The goal of MAWA Forum is
to complete full set of European Military Airworthiness
Requirements (EMARs) until 2015. It is important to
emphasize that the EMARs are not mandatory, and each
country has a possibility to decide whether to implement
them or not.

1. INTRODUCTION
The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) is a
European Union (EU) agency with regulatory and
executive tasks in the field of civilian aviation safety that
ensures that all civil aircraft within Europe are airworthy
and safe. Because of the national sovereignty reasons,
military and state operated aircrafts are excluded from
related legislation. Therefore, each Member State is
individually responsible to ensure that those aircrafts are
airworthy and can be flown safely.

The growing importance of this issue can be viewed

through the signing of an arrangement regarding
enhanced cooperation between EDA and EASA in June
2013. This arrangement specifically covers the
harmonization of military aviation safety requirements
with a primary focus on airworthiness [3].

A series of accidents and incidents throughout the 1990s,

where participants were military aircrafts, had influence
on the decision to pay more attention to questions related
to the military airworthiness. According to [1],
airworthiness is defined as ability of an aircraft, or other
airborne equipment or system, to operate in flight and on
ground without significant hazard to aircrew, groundcrew, passengers (where relevant) or to other third parties.

The aim of this paper is to show the potential impact of

adopted EMARs on the defence system of the Republic of
Serbia. Accordingly, a comparative review of
airworthiness regulations and activities that are
performing by EASA and MAWA Forum is given.

In November 2008, the EDA Steering Board entrusted the

EDA (European Defence Agency) with the establishment
824

Also, the issues of military airworthiness in some

European countries are presented. It is stated that the
Serbian Ministry of Defence should start with
implementation of EMARs in order to comply with the
military aviation standards that have been adopted in
other European countries.

MAWA Forum. This document is adopted by EDA,

approved nationally by 22 Member States, and it is not
equivalent to the EASA Basic Regulation. It clarifies the
principles of a common approach to military
airworthiness and addresses issues such as the mutual
recognition between National Military Airworthiness
Authorities which is essential to realize the expected
benefits from regulatory harmonization.

2. MAWA FORUM
The aim of MAWA Forum is harmonization of the national
legislation related to military airworthiness. Factor that
considerably complicates the achievement of this objective is
a complexity of the aviation sector, and this complexity
makes it too difficult to regulate, and requires the existence
of different level regulation. In some situations, it is
necessary to use binding rules, while in other situations it is
desirable to provide a certain level of flexibility, which can
be achieved through the adoption of non-binding standards.
This need for a balanced approach is universally recognized
and implemented by all international organizations and
national regulatory bodies.

On the basis of this document, to date, the MAWA Forum

has developed and approved three sets of European
Military Airworthiness Requirements (EMARs) that
cover: EMAR 21 for the initial and continued certification
of military aircraft including the approval of the design
and production organizations, EMAR 145 covering the
approval of maintenance organizations and the activities
they undertake and EMAR 147 detailing the
responsibilities of organizations responsible for the
training of maintenance personnel. Beside these EMARs,
MAWA Forum has also approved the following
supporting documents: European Military Airworthiness
Document 1 (EMAD-1), European Military Airworthiness
Document Recognition (EMAD-R) and European
Military Airworthiness Certification Criteria (EMACC).
EMAD-1 provides definitions and explanations for those
words, terms and phrases, in the whole EMAR/EMAD
document set, which could otherwise be considered
ambiguous, confusing or unclear. EMAD-R deals with the
recognition of certificates and organizational approvals
issued by any of the Authorities amongst participating
Member States (pMS). EMACC contains a framework of
certification criteria to assist in the determination of
airworthiness for all manned and unmanned, fixed and
rotary wing air systems [5].

Picture 1: EASA regulatory system

The complete set of EMARs is planned to be approved by

the end of 2015 [6]. Furthermore, the implementation of
the EMARs will be on a voluntary basis, with each
European Military Airworthiness Requirement being
transcribed into national regulations. It should be stressed
that the MAWA Forum does not have the authority to
impose airworthiness regulations on individual nations
who retain their sovereignty for military airworthiness.

In the EASA system, three main levels of Regulatory

material exist (Picture 1) [4]:
The Basic Regulation itself, adopted by the European
Parliament and the Council, binding in all its elements,
Implementing Rules to the Basic Regulation, adopted
by the European Commission; and

Member States in the work of the EDA MAWA Forum

participate through four working groups: 1) for basic
framework (definitions, membership, organization etc.),
2) for EMAR Certification (type certification, design
approvals, issue of airworthiness certificates etc.), 3) for
EMAR
maintenance
(maintenance
organization,
certification, housing, equipment etc.) and 4) for military
certification criteria (define the new air systems
airworthiness basis).

Soft law, adopted by EASA. This level consists of nonbinding standards: Certification Specifications (CS),
Acceptable Means of Compliance (AMC) and
Guidance Material (GM).
MAWA Forum accepted analogy with adopted EASA
regulations, so the future structure of harmonized
requirements for military airworthiness is represented in
Picture 2.

3. EMARS
The aim of the EMARs is to provide each National Military
Airworthiness Authority (NMAA) with a set of harmonized
requirements that can be implemented into their own
national regulatory documentation. This could result in that
the EMARs become the uniform standard for all European
States, thus avoiding national regulatory differences. It
should be stressed that the EMARs are not mandatory
documents. This means that each European Military

Picture 2: Future structure of harmonized requirements

Basic regulation of MAWA Forum is European
Harmonized Military Airworthiness Basic Framework
Document which defines the role and functions of the
825

Airworthiness Authority can decide if they will deviate from

EMARs with specific national requirements. There are many
benefits for the Military Authorities and Industry in case of
the implementation of standardized airworthiness
requirements into national military regulations, particularly
when it comes to the certification of products and the
approval of organizations across Europe.

intended to be carried out when actual staff availability is

less than the planned staffing level for any particular work
shift or period.
The organization shall establish and control the
competence of personnel involved in any maintenance,
management and/or quality audits in accordance with a
procedure and to a standard defined through the
Maintenance Organization Exposition and approved by
the NMAA.

The adoption of common rules and procedures between

the European Military Airworthiness Authorities will
facilitate the recognition of certificates and approvals
issued by any of the Military Airworthiness Authorities
amongst participating Member States. [2]. A good
example of the possible positive effects of joint
cooperation can be a usage of a diplomatic clearance web
portal, which started to work in June 2013. This portal
implements a technical arrangement signed by 13 EU
countries (Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic,
Germany, Greece, Italy, Lithuania, the Netherlands,
Romania, Slovakia, Sweden and Norway) for common
provisions and harmonized procedures for over-flights
and landings. Its main purpose is granting diplomatic
clearances for military transport aircrafts [7]. Under a new
arrangement, EDA members do not need to submit a
diplomatic clearance request for each flight that transits
the territory of another member. Instead, annual
clearances are issued. The accord also harmonizes the
requirements for requests and notifications of clearances
and uses a common diplomatic clearance form.

Organization maintaining aircraft, shall in the case of aircraft

line maintenance, have appropriate aircraft type rated
certifying staff, qualified as category B1, B2 and B mil or
national equivalent qualification in accordance with EMAR
66 and EMAR 145.A.35. In the case of base maintenance of
aircraft, organization shall have appropriate aircraft type
rated certifying staff qualified as category C or national
equivalent qualification in accordance with EMAR 66 or
equivalent and EMAR 145.A.35.
Additionally, organization shall ensure that certifying and
category B1, B2 and B mil support staffs have an
adequate understanding of the relevant aircraft and/or
components to be maintained together with the associated
organization procedures. In the case of certifying staff,
this must be accomplished before the issue or re-issue of
the certification authorization. The organization shall
maintain records of all certifying staff and support staff
containing details of any aircraft maintenance licence held
under EMAR 66 or national equivalent requirement, all
relevant training completed, the scope of the certification
authorizations issued (where relevant) and particulars of
staff with limited or one-off certification authorizations.
The organization shall retain the record for at least three
years after the certifying staff or B1, B2 or B mil or
national equivalent qualification or support staffs have
ceased employment with the organization or as soon as
the authorization has been withdrawn.

EMAR 145
The requirements that must be met by the Maintenance
Organizations for the maintenance of aircraft and aircraft
components are specified in EMAR 145. This
requirement contains two sections. Section A establishes
the requirements to be met by an organization to qualify
for the issue or continuation of an approval for the
maintenance of aircraft and components. Section B
establishes the administrative procedures which the
National Military Airworthiness Authority shall follow
when exercising its tasks and responsibilities regarding
issuance, continuation, change, suspension or revocation
of maintenance organization approvals in accordance with
the requirements of EMAR 145.

EMAR 145 also defines a set of requirements related to

equipment, tools, material, facilities, workshops,
production of spare parts, and certification of
maintenance.

EMAR 21

According to EMAR 145 requirement [8], the

organization shall appoint an Accountable Manager who
has corporate authority for ensuring that all maintenance
can be carried out to the standard required by EMAR 145.
The Accountable Manager shall appoint a person with
responsibility for monitoring the quality system, including
the associated feedback system, and other personnel. In
order to ensure the achievement of certain operations of
maintenance, such as the maintenance and operations of
laying and removal of armaments, the organization must
have sufficient staff possessing the class B mil or national
equivalent qualification.

The requirement EMAR 21 is organized in two sections

with the subparts and paragraphs numeration
corresponding to Implementing Rules Part 21 annex to
EC regulation 1702/2003 regarding certification of
aircraft and related products, parts and appliances, and of
design and production organizations.
According to EMAR 21 requirement [9], Section A
establishes general provisions governing the obligations
and privileges of the applicant for, and holder of, any
certificate issued or to be issued in accordance with
EMAR 21. Section B establishes the procedures for the
Authorities when exercising their tasks and
responsibilities concerned with the issuance, maintenance,
amendment, suspension and revocation of certificates,
approvals and authorizations referred to in this EMAR.

The organization shall have a maintenance man-hour plan

showing that the organization has sufficient staff to plan,
perform, supervise, inspect and quality monitor the
organization in accordance with the approval. In addition
the organization shall have a procedure to reassess work

This requirement enforces collaboration between the

design organization and the production organization as
826

necessary to achieve the proper support of the continued

airworthiness of the product, part or appliance and also to
achieve the satisfactory coordination of design and
production. Further, it establishes the procedure for
issuing Type-Certificates (TCs) for products and
Restricted Type-Certificates (RTCs) for aircraft, and
establishes the rights and obligations of the applicants for,
and holders of, those certificates. EMAR 21 establishes
the procedure for the approval of changes to type designs
and type-certificates, and establishes the obligations and
privileges of the applicants for, and holders of, those
approvals.

practical assessors. Also, training procedures and quality

system are considered. Section B establishes the
administrative procedures which the NMAA shall follow
when exercising its tasks and responsibilities regarding
issuance, continuation, change, suspension or revocation
of MTO approvals in accordance with the requirements of
EMAR 147.

4. REGULATION OF MILITARY
AIRWORTHINESS
In the United Kingdom, as a part of the Ministry of
Defence (MOD), the Military Aviation Authority (MAA)
was established in 2010. The MAA is an independent and
autonomous organization responsible for the regulation,
surveillance, inspection and assurance of the Defence Air
operating and technical domains. It ensures the safe
design and use of military air systems. As the single
regulatory authority responsible for regulating all aspects
of Air Safety across Defence, the MAA has full oversight
of all Defence aviation activity.

The procedure for the issuance of a military production

organization approval (MPOA) is established. Also,
procedure for the approval of major changes to the type
design under supplemental type-certificate procedures is
defined, and the obligations and privileges of the
applicants for, and holders of, those certificates are
established.
This EMAR makes a distinction between continued and
continuing airworthiness. In this document, the term
continued (design) airworthiness means all tasks to be
carried out to verify that the conditions under which a
type-certificate or a supplemental type-certificate has
been granted continue to be fulfilled at any time during its
period of validity (Type Design). Term continuing
(preservation of) airworthiness means all of the
processes ensuring that, at any time in its operating life,
the aircraft complies with the airworthiness requirements
in force and is in a condition for safe operation
(Maintenance).

The MAA was established in response to the

recommendations made by Mr Justice Haddon-Cave in his
Nimrod Review, which called for a radical overhaul of
military airworthiness regulation. The Nimrod Review is an
independent review into the broader issues surrounding the
loss of the RAF Nimrod MR2 Aircraft XV230 in
Afghanistan in 2006, killing 14 military personnel in
Britain's biggest single loss since the Falklands War. Mr
Haddon-Cave condemned the change of organisational
culture within the MoD between 1998 and 2006, when
financial targets came to distract from safety. As well as
attributing blame over the safety case, the review also
strongly criticises a wider culture around safety and risk in
defence that was created by politicians and senior
commanders. He said that the Afghanistan crash occurred
because of a systemic breach of the military covenant. In
March 2009 in response to the Review, the Ministry of
Defence admitted responsibility for the deaths of 14
servicemen aboard Nimrod aircraft XV230. Now, the MAA
is taking a more active role in the MAWA Forum [11].
In France, Decree N 2006 1551 was released on
December 07, 2006, and it integrates and adapts to the
French State aircraft (military or used by the State) the
principles of airworthiness, regulations and authorities
introduced by the Chicago convention. This decree was
superseded by Decree N 2013-367 of April 29, 2013
which regulates the same topic.
Following the release of this Decree, the French Ministry
of Defense had begun drafting standards for the State
aircrafts. Basing on the appropriate EASA documents, in
order to apply best practices in terms of air safety, the
Ministry of Defence has developed specific regulations
for State aircrafts. There are five FRAs (France): FRA 21
is related to design and manufacturing, FRA 145 is related
to maintenance organizations, FRA M is related to
airworthiness issues, FRA 66 is related to individual
Aircraft Mechanics licensing and FRA 147 is related to
Maintenance Training Organizations. The purpose of
these regulations is to make a controlled environment for
the State aircrafts, recognized by other European
organizations, such as EASA and EDA.

Permits to fly shall also be issued in accordance with the

EMAR 21 to aircraft that do not meet, or have not been
shown to meet, applicable airworthiness requirements but
are capable of safe flight under defined conditions.

EMAR 147
Requirements that must be met by the Maintenance
Training Organizations (MTO) seeking approval to
conduct training and examination are specified in EMAR
147. This EMAR, in a kind of introduction, stressed that
the Task Force 3 has tried to maintain a clear link to the
principles of EASA Part 147 (amendment M5), making
changes where necessary for use within a military
airworthiness context. Also, this document notes that
EMAR 147 cannot be adopted/implemented in isolation
from EMAR 66 (which is currently being developed by
Task Force 3) or by a pMS that does not have a national
Military Licensing Scheme for their maintenance
personnel. It is pointed out that current form of EMAR
147 Edition 1.0 provides a framework within which pMS
can work towards adopting/implementing the harmonized
Requirements for Aircraft Maintenance Training
Organizations [10].
This requirement contains two sections. Section A
establishes the requirements to be met by organizations
seeking approval to conduct training and examination as
specified in EMAR 66. Special attention in this Section is
paid to requirements related to facilities, personnel, and
records of all instructors, knowledge examiners and
827

The French Aviation Safety Agency was created in 2010

to oversee the safety of the French government (Air
Force, Army, Navy, DGA, Gendarmerie, Civil Security
and Customs) for three Ministries (Defense, Interior and
Budget), which represents in a total a fleet of 1,600
airplanes and helicopters.

system of aircraft spare parts production, military aircraft

maintenance and training of military personnel in
accordance with adopted harmonized requirements. After
a comprehensive analysis, it should start with
implementation of EMARs in order to comply with the
military aviation standards that have been adopted in
other European countries. All this will result in an
increase of safety and compatibility of military aircraft.

In October 2012, UK and France signed an agreement to

launch a mutual recognition process around continuing
airworthiness based on the draft of EMAD-R, which was
approved in the meantime by MAWA Forum [12].

REFERENCES
[1] European Defence Agency, MAWA Forum,
European Military Airworthiness Document

EMAD 1 Definition and acronyms document, Ed.

1.1., 2013.
[2] MAWA Forum, Frequently Asked Questions
(FAQs), Ed. 1.0., 2011.
[3] http://easa.europa.eu/system/files/dfu/2013-0618%20
Press%20release_EDA%20EASA%20cooperation%
20agreement_final.pdf, retrieved May 13, 2014.
[4] https://www.easa.europa.eu/document-library/
acceptable-means-compliance-amcs-and-alternativemeans-compliance-altmocs, retrieved May 11, 2014.
[5] "Europe - RP Defense", available from:
http://rpdefense.over-blog.com/tag/Europe/108,
retrieved April 16, 2014.
[6] "Aronautique - RP Defense", available from:
http://rpdefense.over-blog.com/tag/Aronautique/33,
retrieved April 16, 2014.
[7] "EDA simplifies military air transport clearances",
available from: http://www.spa.gov.sa/english/print.
php?id=1117241, retrieved May 13, 2014.
[8] European Military Airworthiness Requirements
(EMAR) EMAR 145 Requirements for
Maintenance Organisations. European Defence
Agency (EDA). Military Airworthiness Authorities
(MAWA) Forum. Ed. 1.1. 25/09/2012.
[9] European Military Airworthiness Requirements
(EMAR) EMAR 21 Certification of military
aircrafts and related products, parts and appliances,
and design and product organisations. European
Defence Agency (EDA). Military Airworthiness
Authorities (MAWA) Forum. Ed. 1.0. 23/01/2013.
[10] European Military Airworthiness Requirements
(EMAR) EMAR 147 Requirements for
Maintenance Training Organisations. European
Defence Agency (EDA). Military Airworthiness
Authorities (MAWA) Forum. Ed. 1.0. 14/06/2012.
[11] The Nimrod Review: an independent review into the
broader issues surrounding the loss of the RAF
Nimrod MR2 aircraft XV230 in Afghanistan in
2006.
[12] report, available at https://www.gov.uk/government/
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/229037
/1025.pdf, retrieved May 13, 2014.
[13] http://rpdefense.over-blog.com/tag/Airworthiness/,
retrieved June 2, 2014.
[14] http://www.bmvg.de, retrieved June 2, 2014.
[15] http://www.airbus.com/aircraftfamilies/militaryaircraft/a400m/, retrieved June 2, 2014.

In February 2014, The Federal Ministry of Defence of

Germany formed the Military Aviation Authority
(Luftfahrtamt der Bundeswehr) tasked to concern itself
with all aviation affairs of the German Armed Forces.
This body will oversight over all military aviation assets,
the certification of civil contractors and military personnel
as well as setting rules and writing manuals for all
military aviation procedures. The first staff element
started to work in April 2014. Complete operational
capability for the Military Aviation Authority was
expected until the end of 2017 [13].
The Serbian Ministry of Defence and EDA signed an
Administrative Arrangement in December 2013. This
arrangement enables Serbia to participate in EDAs
projects and programmes. EDA has previously signed an
Administrative Arrangement with Norway (in 2006) and
Switzerland (2012). This enables these countries to
participate in EDAs projects and programmes.
Representatives of these countries can participate in the
EDA Steering Boards as observers.

5. CONCLUSION
Recent common European dual-use aircrafts projects
forced EDA's participating Member Countries to establish
National Military Airworthiness Authorities, with similiar
tasks like Civil Aviation Authorities. This leaded to close
cooperation between military and civil authorities. Good
example of cooperation is A400M aircraft which required
more than 5,000 flight-hours test and certification
programme to meet both civil and military airworthiness
standards before the initial delivery, which was received
by the French Air Force in August 2013 [14]. An
agreement signed in June 2013, between EDA and EASA,
enhancing their civil-military cooperation in the
harmonization of military aviation safety requirements
and airworthiness in areas of dual use aircraft and the
Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS) can be viewed
as a confirmation of this conclusion. Also, three approved
EMARs are similiar to related EASA documents. Aircraft
airworthiness must be considered as a coherent process
running from the design of the aircraft to the monitoring
of its technical condition in airline service.
It should be noted that, in Europe, there is a tendency to
harmonize requirements related to the military
airworthiness. This harmonization can be viewed as a
process with duration similar to the extension of EASA
competences during the last decade.
Experiences that many European countries have in the
area of military airworthiness obtrude a need for the
Serbian Ministry of Defence to review the existing
828

IMPLEMENTATION OF ANALYTIC HIERARCHY PROCESS METHOD IN

THE SELECTION OF THE OPTIMAL MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION
FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSE DEVICES
VOJKAN RADONJI
Technical Overhaul Works aak aak, vojkan.r69@gmail.com
MILENKO IRI
Technical Overhaul Works aak aak, ciric.milenko4@gmail.com
MARKO ANDREJI
Military Academy, Belgrade, markodandrejic@hotmail.com
SAA PETROVI
Uprava za logistiku GVS Beograd, saskop@eunet.rs

Abstract: This paper is a result of a broader study, oriented to optimization of maintenance process for special purpose
devices. This paper presents the selection of optimal maintenance variant for selected specific purposes device, using
the method of analytic hierarchy process, with assumed model of device usage. This paper formalizes the decision
process, decision-makers subjectivism boils down to an acceptable level, impruves optimization approach for solving
the problems in hierarchical systems, and encourages training in the improvement of decision makers in solving
problems of multi character.
eywords: Multi-criteria analysis, the method of analytic hierarchy process, organization of maintenance.

1. INTRODUCTION

without the use of available modern methods, techniques,

software and equipment.

Application of modern logistic concepts requires that for

each technical device that is inserted into the Serbian
Army is develop: the concept of maintenance,
maintenance organization and maintenance technology.
Decisions are maded by respecting the characteristics and
properties of the resources, technical and tactical
demands of the holder, the designer and the device user.
All the factors that should be taken into consideration can
be divided into several groups: tactical, technical and
logistics factors. One of the major problems in the
logistical support in the Army of Serbia is the
development and selection of the adequate maintenance
process for special purposes devices. Observing the
problem from the point of decision-making, can be seen
that this is a multi-criteria problem. Good decisions on
the selection of the appropriate maintenance can be taken
only if the decision-making process is formalized and
implemented based on scientific method, with
consideration of several variants of the maintenance and
multiple criteria of different complexity and different
levels of significance.

In order to increase the objectivity of the decision-maker

in process of choosing the optimal organization of
maintenance, this work presents the application of the
method of analytic hierarchy process and the use of
Expert Choice'' software for optimal variant selection of
the special purpose devices maintenance. In developing
and defining the variants of maintenance are taken into
account all elements of the system (resources, personnel,
equipment maintenance and diagnostics, space and
facilities), maintenance and their characteristics,
maintenance procedures, maintenance methods, methods
of repair and maintenance of well-known organizational
forms.

Knowledge from practice shows that the decisions on the

selection of appropriate maintenance organization are
made with a lot of subjectivity, intuitive and experience,

2. AHP METHOD
The method of analytic hierarchy process (AHP) has
developed by Thomas Saaty. This method is a tool that
assists decision makers in solving complex multicriteria
decision problems. Method of the AHP is based on a
hierarchical decomposition of the complex of problems in
a real system. The aim is at the top of the hierarchy, while
the criteria, sub-criteria and alternatives are at lower levels.
Application of the method proceeds in four phases:
829

structuring the problems,

collecting the data,
evaluation of relevant weight and
finding the solutions.

Structuring the problems consists of a problem

decomposition into a series of hierarchies, defining
objectives, criteria, sub-criteria and alternatives.
With collecting the data and their measurement begins
the second phase of the AHP method. The decision
maker assigns a relative evaluation criteria by comparing
them in pairs of one hierarchical level and so for all
levels of the entire hierarchy. For this purpose it is used
nine-point scale [1]. Upon completion of the second
phase, is obtained matrix of comparing the respective
couples, or matrix of estimation criteria.
Evaluation of relevant weight is the phase in which the
matrix of pairs comparisons '' translates'' into the problem
of determining eigenvalues and normalized in order to
obtain their own unique vector weight for all criteria.
Finding the solutions is the last phase of the AHP
method, and she involves finding the composite
normalized vectors. After determination of the sequence
vector for model ordering activity criteria, for this criteria
starts the process of determination for order of
importance model activity. The overall synthesis of the
problem is performed in the following manner:
involvement of each alternative is multiplied by the
weight of the monitored criteria, and then these values
are summed separately for each alternative. The resulting
information is the weight of the observed model

alternative. By comparing the weight of each alternatives,

we determine their order in the model. AHP method has
the ability to identify the consistency of decision-makers in
the process of comparing elements from hierarchy. Since
the comparison of alternatives is based on a subjective
assessment from decision maker, it is necessary its
constant monitoring in order to ensure the required
accuracy [2,3]. AHP method enables monitoring of
consistency in such a way that is by using consistent index,
calculate the ratio of consistency. If for matrix of
comparisons is relationship between consistency
C.R. 0.10 , evaluation of relevant significance criteria are
counted as acceptable.

3. SOLVING THE PROBLEMS OF OPTIMAL

DEVICE MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION
USING THE SOFTWARE'' EXPERT
CHOICE''
The special purpose device is used within the radio-relay
system of the Army. Variants of system maintenance are
assumed according to technological maintenance programs
that include the necessary technological operations and
should be implemented in each of the proposed levels of
maintenance (Table 1). Assumed technology programs
creates conditions that presume hierarchical organization
of maintenance at three levels, in terms of technology,
clearly separated powers, responsibilities and duties of
each level of maintenance [4,5]. The objective function is
defined by selecting the optimal variant of the
maintenance special purposes devices.

Table 1: Assumed variants maintenance organization with technological tasks

Maintenance variants ----------------------
Maintenance levels with a technological tasks
I level of maintenance technical inspection which is realized by II level of
maintenance units
I level of maintenance basic maintenance and technical inspection which is realized by
immediate device users
II level of maintenance corrective maintenance at the module level, which is realized
by II level of maintenance units
II level of maintenance corrective maintenance at the module level, which is realized
by II level of maintenance units with a mobile workshop which contains equipment for
level II maintenance and spare modules
III level of maintenance corrective maintenance at the components level, which is
realized by III level of maintenance units

II

III
X

X
X

Figure 1: The structure of the optimal choice problem for special purpose devices maintenance
830

IV

>Cekanje delova

The decision maker is in a position to choose between

4 different versions of the maintenance of appropriate
technological applications which are shown in Table 1.

I varijanta
II varijanta
III varijanta
IV varijanta
Inconsistency = 0.
with 0 missing judgments.

Selection is based on 7 criteria that can be seen in

Figure 1. Structured problem of choosing the optimal
maintenance organization is represented in Figure 1.In
further studies of optimal maintenance organization by
the method of AHP, we used the results obtained by
using the software solutions'' Expert Choice'' [6].
Figure 2 shows the ranking criteria defined in the
model. From the picture you can see that the criteria''
Readiness'' and ''Quality'' have the highest values of
their own vector. Consistency coefficient is
C.R. = 0.04 < 0.10 .

Figure 5: The importance of alternatives to criterion K3

(mean waiting time for spare parts)
>Transport
I varijanta
II varijanta
III varijanta
IV varijanta
Inconsistency = 0.03
with 0 missing judgments.

Goal: OPTIMALNA ORGANIZACIJA ODRZAVANJA

Gotovost
Odrzavanje
Cekanje delova
Transport
Oprema
Obuka
Kvalitet
Inconsistency = 0.04
with 0 missing judgments.

.236
.193
.055
.082
.145
.093
.196

>Oprema
I varijanta
II varijanta
III varijanta
IV varijanta
Inconsistency = 0.
with 0 missing judgments.

In the same way are determined the eigenvectors of

alternatives in relation to each criterion individually. In
Figure 3 are compared the weights of alternatives and
presented the order of alternatives in relation to
criterion K1 (readiness).

.400
.400
.100
.100

Figure 7: The importance of of alternatives against the

criteria K5 (equipment costs)

>Gotovost
.095
.160
.277
.467

>Obuka
I varijanta
II varijanta
III varijanta
IV varijanta
Inconsistency = 0.
with 0 missing judgments.

Figure 3: Importance of alternatives in relation to

criterion K1 (readiness)

>Kvalitet
I varijanta
II varijanta
III varijanta
IV varijanta
Inconsistency = 0.03
with 0 missing judgments.

>Odrzavanje
.092
.131
.295
.481

Figure 4: Importance of alternatives with respect to

criterion K2 (mean time of maintenance)

.375
.125
.375
.125

Figure 8: The importance of of alternatives against the

criteria K6 (training costs)

By using a software application Expert Choice'''' were

calculated
eigenvectors
alternatives
(variants
maintenance) in relation to other 6, and the criteria are
shown in the following figures.

I varijanta
II varijanta
III varijanta
IV varijanta
Inconsistency = 0.03
with 0 missing judgments.

.093
.245
.154
.508

Figure 6: The importance of of alternatives against the

criteria K4 (transport costs due to maintenance of the
devices)

Figure 2: Displaying important criterion in the model

I varijanta
II varijanta
III varijanta
IV varijanta
Inconsistency = 0.01
with 0 missing judgments.

.125
.125
.375
.375

.451
.169
.261
.119

Figure 9: The importance of of alternatives against the

criteria K7 (quality)
A comprehensive synthesis of optimal choice problem for
the special purposes devices maintenance is obtained by
adding the products of its own vector of each alternative,
and participation (weight) within the observed criteria.
831

Table 2 below presents final table of the obtained

results, and these results are shown graphically in
Figure 13.
Maintenance of devices for special purposes, organized
by the presumed IV variants of maintenance

organization is the optimal choice for the defined criteria,

which directly attaches importance to the criterion of
readiness and indirectly to maintenance costs (Figure 11).
Other presumed variants have worse performance in
relation to these criteria.

Table 2: The final table of the results

Alternative
I variant
II variant
III variant
IV variant

Waiting for
Total Readiness Maintenance
Trans-port Equipment Training Quality
spare parts
Rang (L: .236)
(L: .193)
(L: .082)
(L: .145) (L: .093) (L: .196)
(L: 055)
0.236
0.204
0.192
0.333
0.182
1
1
1
0.193
0.343
0.272
0.333
0.482
1
0.333
0.374
0.256
0.593
0.614
1
0.304
0.25
1
0.578
0.315
1
1
1
1
0.25
0.333
0.264

Suppose that the decision maker have to give the

dominant importance of the criteria of "quality" in
relation to a criterion of readiness and other criteria
(Figure 12). In this case, by increasing criteria of
quality for 15% I variant of maintenance of special
purpose devices becomes the optimal choice, until II i
III variant of maintenance organization remains

unchanged, and rank IV variants of the maintenance

decreases.
Also, I variant of maintenance organization has the
highest value when for ranking is the dominant criterion
selecting the initial investment in equipment and training
of employees.

Figure 11: Comparison of variants in relation to dominant maintenance readiness criteria

Figure 12: Comparison of variants in relation to dominant maintenance quality criteria

832

Figure 13: Final Ranking of presumed maintenance variants

Figure 14: View of the final decision choice of optimal maintenance organization in different graphs sensitivity
From the aspect of the transporting cost, it is preferable to
implement IV variant maintenance as optimal choice of
the maintenance organization.

increase the objectivity of the decision makers and to

optimize decision-making process, we applied the method
of analytic hierarchy process. In addition to defining
problems, criteria and alternatives of the maintenance
organization, is described the process of application
methods, and the problem is solved using the software
Expert Choice. It can be concluded that for a given
problem, directly prefere two criteria: the quality and
readiness of the indirect costs of transportation to
maintain the product. Criteria for readiness and quality
are mutually opposed, so that although the lead IV variant

Figure 13 shows ranking of superiors maintenance

variants, and final rank, and Figure 14 shows the final
solution for the problem of optimal supervisor of
maintenance of special purposes devices, for the
considered criteria and alternatives.4. CONCLUSION
In solving the problem of optimal maintenance
organization for special purposes devices, in order to
833

for the maintenance organization, if the decision maker

decides that the quality has a dominant importance, the
solution will also be a variant I of maintenance for special
purposes devices. The used software package is a very
powerful tool for decision makers which well knows the
concept and logic multi-criteria decision making, usage of
the considered devices and realistic system maintenance.
Used tool allows also improving the training of decisionmakers in real logistical and other organizational systems
in solving problems of multi character (most in the
environment). The tool provides a number decision maker
analysis: a sensitivity analysis, the analysis of reaching
the goal and what if analysis, in accordance with their
preferences and aversions.

[2] Nikoli
I.,
Borovi
S.,
Viekriterijumska
optimizacija-metode, primena u logistici, softver,
Centar vojnih kola, Beograd, 2006.
[3] upi M., Sukovi M., Viekriterijumsko
odluivanje-metode I primeri, Univerzitet Braa
Kari, Beograd, 1995.
[4] Pei Z., Tehnologija odravanja motornih vozila,
VIZ Beograd, 2009.
[5] Radonji V., Jovanovi D., Milojevi I., Proraun
parametara
pouzdanosti
kod
uspostavljanja
organizacije odravanja radio-relejnih ureaja, 16.
Meunarodna konferencijaUpravljanje kvalitetom i
pouzdanou ICDQM-2013 Beograd.
[6] www.expertchoice.com (27.04.2014.)

REFERENCES
[1] Saaty T., An Eigenvalue Allocation Model for
Priorization
and
Planning,
University
of
Pennsylvania, 1972.

834

PROBLEMS OF RELIABILITY PREDICTION OF ELECTRONIC

EQUIPMENT
SLAVKO POKORNI
Information Technology School, Belgrade, slavko.pokorni@its.edu.rs

Abstract: Military handbook for the reliability prediction of electronic equipment MIL-HDBK-217 is still used by more
than 80% of engineers. But, in spite of that MIL-HDBK-217 was updated several times to keep pace with technology
advancement as well as the changes in prediction procedure, it has limitations. Beside that, problems in setting
requirements for reliability were encountered in practice. The both lead to differences between the calculated reliability
and actual reliability in use. The limitations of MIL-HDBK-217 and efforts to revise it are presented in this paper. The
problems to establish good reliability requirements in connection with the statistics of causes of failures, which shows
that big percentage of failures are non-hardvare failures and a way how to establish a good contractual reliability
requirements, are also presented.
Keywords: reliability, reliability calculation, MIL-HDBK-217, hardware, software, human, reliability requirements
1961 [1], and the first version was published in 1965 [2].
The aim was to establish a consistent and uniform
methods for assessing the inherent reliability of the
military electronic equipment and systems. MIL-HDBK217 provides the basis for forecasting the reliability of the
military electronic equipment and systems during design
and contracting. It is extensively used for military and
non-military programs. It also provides a basis for
comparison and evaluation of the prognostic reliability of
certain variants of the project. It is designed to be a tool
for increasing the reliability of the equipment that is
designed. It is periodically updated to folow the change of
technology and innovations in design procedures. There
are versions A, B, C, D, E and F, as well as the addition
of two variants for version F (Notice Notice 1 and 2). It
has not been modified since 1995 [2].

1. INTRODUCTION
Reliability as a theory and practice began to develop in
the 50s of the last century. In the mid 60s the military
manual for calculating reliability of MIL-HDBK-217
appeared. Even though the commercial manuals appeared
later, the MIL-HDBK-217 is still used by more than 80%
of engineers in calculating reliability. By the time it has
been shown that this manual, which is essentially based
on an exponential distribution of failure, has a number of
limitations, and that other approaches are needed, such as
for example, so-called physics of failure.
First, we briefly analyzed in this paper the limitations of
the MIL-HDBK-217, as well as efforts on its
revitalization. The analysis shows that the problem is not
only in the models underlying the failure intensity of
electronic components in MIL-HDBK-217, but also the
problem is establishing good requirements. This is
because the statistics of the causes of failure shows that
nearly 70% of the failures belong to the so-called nonhardware failures, so we addressed this problem and also
the way to solve it.

MIL-HDBK-217 contains two calculation methods of the

reliability: Parts Count and Parts Stress. The methods
differ in the amount of information required as input data
for models of failure rate of elements. The Parts Count
calculation of reliability is performed in the early stages
of the system design (when the electrical diagram is not
yet known) and based on the mean values of the failure
rate of the elements and environmental conditions in
which the system or its parts is used. Generally, serial
configuration of the elements according to the reliability
(reliability block diagram) is assumed. The Parts Stress
reliability calculation requires a large amount of
information. It is done in the later stages of design when
the electrical and other components that will be installed
are known, it means that the real failure rate of elements
based on the actual load (electrical, temperature, etc) and
the actual surrounding conditions must be known and the
actual configuration of elements with respect to reliability

Beside that, the problem is in the inadequate cooperation

of engineers who design the equipment and engineers
who calculate the equipment reliability, especially in
inadequate estimate of the input data in the calculation of
reliability.

2. LIMITATIONS AND REVITALIZATION OF

MIL-HDBK-217
MIL-HDBK-217 is a military manual for the calculation
of the reliability of electronic devices. It was developed in
835

mus be determined [3, 4, 5].

engineering evaluation of the input data in the calculation

must be performed. This requires additional knowledge of
the engineers involved in the design of devices and
reliability calculations, and close cooperation of the
engineers, which in practice is not adequate, so an
adequate education of engineers in the field of reliability
is necessary.

Although other industrial and commercial standards

appeared, MIL-HDBK-217 is still used by more than 80%
of engineers doing the calculation of reliability (on the
second place are PRISM and Telcordia) [2].
During the last 20 years of the last century, when
updating of the MIL-HDBK-217E was done, it was
concluded that the model of constant failure rate (it means
the exponential distribution of failures) on which it is
mainly based, is not reasonably applied to each type of
the element and the system, if it is not really justified [2].
This has led to the fact that the Department of Defense,
since 1994, began to stimulate the use of the industry
standards such as the ISO 9000 series of standards for the
quality assurance.

3. PROBLEMS OF ESTABLISHING
REQUIREMENTS FOR RELIABILITY
The practice of reliability calculations showed that the
problem is not only calculation of prognostic reliability,
but also establishing the good requirements for reliability.
Studies have shown that the distribution of causes of
failures in electronic systems is as in Table 1 [9]. In the
practice of contracting requirements for reliability only
part of this causes of failures are assumed, generally only
those relating to the failures of the elements (parts,
hardware). In fact, the eight categories of causes of
failures, in the first column of the Table 1, can be grouped
into two categories, as in the second column of the Table
1: the inherent failures of hardware and non-hardware
failures. The inherent hardware failures are those that
occur because of failure of parts before its expected endof-life (or wearout) is reached, or due to variations in the
quality (random failures, typicaly based on part quality
variability issues). In non-hardware failures "everything
else" is counted. From the Table 1, it can be also seen
that, in practice, there are 20% failures whose causes of
failures are not identified (No Defect), and 9% whose
causes of failures are software bugs.

It is believed that the MIL-HDBK-217, as the basis of

almost all the conventional approaches to the calculation
of the reliability, has the following limitations [2]:
It has not been updated since 1995 and data for most
integrated circuits have not been updated since in 1991,
so the most recent technologies are not included or
defined;
In practice, significant deviations between the values of
reliability which were obtained by calculations based on
MIL-HDBK-217 and values really achieving in the use,
appeared [2, 6];
Models have never been subjected to an independent
review by an association of engineers or technical
journals;
Price of calculation is largely compared with the value
of the results and sometimes can direct on the wrong
path in the design of reliable electronic equipment;

If we start from the assumption that the system original

specified MTBF (initial MTBF required by the user) is
1000 hours, then such a request was made assuming that
in the reliability calculation all of these causes were taken
into account. However, the calculation of reliability takes
only the reliability of the hardware in account, and
everything else is not taken into account, so the actual
MTBF will be 310 hours in use, as shown in the next to
the last column of the Table 1 (Corresponding Original
Operational MTBF). Based on the system original
specified MTBF and failure statistics in Table 1, such a
result (really MTBF of the system or equipment), based
on [9], can be obtained by the relation

Multiple failure mechanisms can appear in

semiconductor circuits with the same load factor:
electrical voltage or temperature. The exponential
distribution with only one parameter is good for
individual failure mechanism of an element, but not for
the whole equipment.
Efforts to update and revitalize the MIL-HDBK-217F
began in 2004. Version G was planned to be finished by
the end of 2009 [1]. The goal was to determine which
tools are used in industry to gather data for MTBF (Mean
Time Between Failure). A group of representatives of the
U.S. Government, Department of Defense and industry is
formed, and researches in the field of space equipment are
sponsored. The IEEE Reliability Society (IEEE, The
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) also
participated. It is not known that the version G appeared,
but the Handbook of 217Plus Reliability Prediction
Models appeared in 2006. This handbook is no longer
free, and can be found on the website of RIAC
(Reliability
Information
Analysis
Center)
http://www.theriac.org/riacapps/search/?category=all%20
products&keyword=217plus (accessed 17/04/2014),
where so called physics of failure should be implemented
[7, 8].

MTBFs =

Re q + Non HW

(1)

where

Re q =

1
MTBFRe q

(2)

u Non HW

u Inh. HW Re q

(3)

and

Non HW =
where:

Non HW
- failure rate contribution of all NonHardware failure categories (in failures per hour, h-1),

In addition, it is recommended that not only MIL-HDBK217 is to be used in the calculation and serious
836

requirements for the reliability of software is often not

adequately specified and the requirement for human
reliability almost not specified at all. Reliability of the
system, considering hardware reliability, software
reliability and human reliability, supposing that failures
are mutually independent, can be obtained by the next
relation

u Non HW
- percent contribution (decimal) of NonHardware failure categories to overall system failure rate,
u Inh. HW - percent contribution (decimal) of Inherent
Hardware failure categories to overall system failure rate,

Re q - operational failure rate required by the end user (in

1/hour)

RS ( t ) = RHW ( t ) RSF ( t ) RH ( t )

MTBFRe q - operational MTBF required by the end user

(in hours).

where

So if we need MTBF during use of the system of 1000

hours, MTBF, which should be specified (required) for
the inherent hardware reliability in the application, can be
obtained by relation

MTBFInh. HW Req =
MTBFInh. HW Req =

1
uInh. HW Req

hardware reliability,

Calculation of the hardware reliability is also faced with a

number of problems. In [15] it is stated that there is no
standard method for creating hardware reliability
prediction, so predictions vary widely in terms of
methodological rigor, data quality, extent of analisys, and
uncertainty, and documentation of the prediction process
employed is often not presented. Because of that IEEE
has created a standard IEEE Std.1413 (Standard
Framework for the Reliability Prediction of Hardware) in
2009. The IEEE 1413 Standard focuses not on selecting
or using any specific prediction methodology, but on rigor
of what methodology is selected. This standard provides a
clear set of the guidelines that, when followed, will
provide the user of the prediction a better undestanding of
the true value of the prediction.

and MTBF that would apply to non-hardware failures can

be obtained by relation

MTBFNonHW. Req =

RH

Author's experience has also shown that the calculated

prognostic MTBF should be at least or about twice of the
required MTBF in order to have the operational (actual,
correct) MTBF equal to the required (original) MTBF [11
] and that was applied as a rool when Parts Count
reliability calculation has been made [12, 13, 14].

(4)

1
uNonHW Req

and

software reliability and human reliability, respectively [1,

2, 10].

1
= 3226 h
0,31 0,001

MTBFNonHW. Req =

RHW , RSF

(5)

1
= 1449 h
0,69 0,001

Table 1 shows that 9% of the failures is caused by the

software, and the 20% failures is with undetermined
causes (No Defect), in which, possibly, there are those
which causes are human errors. Although there are many
models of software reliability and human reliability, the
Table 1: Original and Correct System MTBF
Failure Category

Original
Specified
MTBF

Correct Contribution to
Specified
Operational
MTBF
Reliability

Parts
Inherent
1000 hours
Hardware, 31%
Wearout
System
Management
1000 hours
Design
Non-Hardware,
N/A
Software
69%
Manufacturing
Induced
No Defect
TOTAL System

22%
9%

Corresponding
Corresponding
Original
Correct
Operational
Operational MTBF
MTBF
3226 hours
1000 hours

4%
9%
9%
15%
12%
20%
100%

450 hours

1449 hours

310 hours

1000 hours

in different nature of software compared to hardware.

Although defined as probabilistic function software
reliability is not a direct function of time [16]. Another
problem is that techniques for software reliability
prediction are rarely used as routine software engineering
practices and it is the case for the army programs. It calls
for collaboration between software and reliability subject
matter experts to take appropriate steps to include
software into the reliability case for the system [17].

4. SOME PROBLEMS WITH SOFTWARE

RELIABILITY
Software reliability is an important attribute determining
the quality of the software as a product. As we said, there
are many models of the software reliability, but the
requirements for the reliability of the software are often
not adequately specified if specified at all. The problem is
837

[3] Pokorni S., Reliability and Maintainability of

technical systems, Military Academy, Belgrade,
2002. (in Serbian)
[4] Pokorni S., Reliability of information systems,
textbook, Information Technology School, Belgrade,
2014. (in Serbian)
[5] Pokorni S., Approach to determining the reliability of
electronic devices in the operating conditions of the
aircraft, magister thesis, Faculty of electrical
engineering, Sarajevo, 1985. (in Serbian)
[6] Pokorni S., Reliability and Maintainability of
technical systems: theory and practice, ICDQM
2009, proceedings, pp. 44-57, Belgrade, 25-26. june
2009. (in Serbian)
[7] Pokorni S., Ramovi R., The role of physics of
failure in assessment of reliability of up to date
technical systems, OTEH 2005, Belgrade 06-07
December 2005. (in Serbian)
[8] Pokorni S., Ramovi R., Assessment of high
reliability of military equipment by physics of
failure, OTEH 2007, Belgrade, 03-05 October 2007.
(in Serbian)
[9] Nicholls D., Lein P., When Good Requirements
Turn Bad, Reliability and Maintainability
Symposium, RAMS 2013.

The real issue with reliable software is that the critical

function fails safe. Failing safe is often misunderstood
and is often misinterpreted as never failing. Software
safety and software reliability are allies in the realization
of their mutual goal of developing safe and reliable
software. And again there is a need for cooperation
between software and reliability engineers. But, a few
educational institutions or industry professionals teach the
basics of software reliability and its dependence upon
software safety to be effective [18].

5. CONCLUSION
Although the military manual for the calculation of the
reliability of electronic devices MIL-HDBK-217, updated
six times up to now (latest version is F), is used for almost
50 years, and is still used by more than 80% of engineers,
it has a number of limitations and the use of exponential
distribution on which MIL-HDBK-217 is mainly based, is
not always justified. MIL-HDBK-217 has not been
updated since 1995 and the efforts to revitalize it
indicated that other approaches must be combined, such
as the so-called physics of failure, although physics of
failure is not applicable for all the periods of failure rate
curve or equipment life time, but is applicable for wearout
region of the failure rate curve.
The cause of the discrepancy between the calculated and
actual reliability during use is not only MIL-HDBK-217,
but also inadequate requirements for reliability, where it
is not taken into account that a significant percentage of
the total number of failures, so called non-hardware
failures (which includes not only failures due to defects in
the software that is an integral part of the device). In
practice, the reliability calculation is based only on
hardware failures (only hardware failures are taken into
account). Using an example, it has been shown how this
could be taken into account in this paper.

[10] [10] Pokorni S., Reliability human-technical

systems, Novi Glasnik 6/1999, pp. 11-17 (in
Serbian)
[11] Pokorni S., Pavlovi S., Study of checking the
reliability of the device for improving the stability
and controllability of aircraft, VZ "ORAO",
Rajlovac, Sarajevo, 1990. (in Serbian)
[12] Pokorni S., Parts count reliability calculation of
controllable camera mount (project), Energoinvest,
Sarajevo, 1990. (in Serbian)
[13] Pokorni S., Milanovi V., Reliability calculation of
electronic switch for car headlights AUTO LIGHTS
12-24 for Elektrometal - Ni, Faculty of electrical
engineering, Belgrade, 2008. (in Serbian)
[14] Pokorni S., Reliability calculation of microwave lownoise amplifier, MTT INFIZ, Belgrade, 2014. (in
Serbian)
[15] Elerath G. J., Pecht M., IEEE 1413: A Standard for
Reliability Predictions, IEEE Transactions on
Reliability, Vol. 61, No. 1, March 2012, pp. 125-129
[16] Kapur P. K., Measuring Software Quality (State od
the Art), 5th DQM International Conference Life
Cycle Engineering and Management ICDQM 2014,
proceedings, pp 3-45 27-28, Belgrade, 27-28 June
2014
[17] Payne S. R., A practical Approach to Software
Reliability for Army Systems, Reliability and
Maintainability Symposium, RAMS 2014.
[18] Naylor W., Joyner B., A Discourse on Software
Safety and Software Reliabiliy, Reliability and
Maintainability Symposium, RAMS 2014.

In setting the requirements for reliability to adequately

take the reliability of the software into account is
necessary (the software is becoming more prevalent and
performs important functions), and also reliability of
human and access software and human reliability.
A serious engineering evaluation of the input data in the
calculation is also important, and this requires close
cooperation of engineers involved in the design of the
equipment and engineers who deal with the reliability
calculations, and this requires certain education from the
reliability for design engineers.

REFERENCES
[1] Gullo L., The Revitalization of MIL-HDBK-217,
IEEE Reliability Society 2008 Annual Technology
Report (part of), IEEE, 2008.
[2] White M., Bernstein J. B., Microelectronics
Reliability: Physics-of-Failure Based Modeling and
Lifetime Evaluation, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Jet Propulsion Laboratory California
Institute of Technology, 2008.

838

SIMULATION APPROACH TO COMMUNICATION NETWORKS TWOTERMINAL RELIABILITY AND AVAILABILITY ESTIMATION

RADOMIR JANKOVI
Union University School of Computing, Belgrade, rjankovic@raf.edu.rs
SLAVKO POKORNI
ITS Information Technology School, Belgrade, slavko.pokorni@its.edu.rs
NEBOJA NIKOLI
Strategic Research Institute, Belgrade, nidzan@ptt.rs

Abstract: An approach to two-terminal reliability (2TR) and availability (2TA) estimation of communication networks
consisting of repairable nodes and links by means of computer simulation has been presented. The necessary definitions
have been given, as well as the simulation model elements, the algorithms of the realized simulators for 2TA and 2TR
estimation and an example with a brief analysis of the experiments results. The realized simulators can be used in
communication networks early conception phases, as well as in their exploitation and maintenance planning.
Keywords: Communication network, simulation, reliability, availability, estimation.
few of them can be applied if the network is complex,
especially if its elements are repairable, which is usually
the case. In essence, these methods are based on counting
the states in which system is operational, and by summing
the probabilities for the system being in these states [1].
But the number of these states can be great, which makes
the achievement of analytical solutions for reliability and
availability of a network difficult and often even
impossible. This is the reason why simulation can be used
for the solution of such problems [3-5].

1. INTRODUCTION
Communication networks are complex systems,
consisting of elements (nodes and links) which are
subjects to occasional failures by nature. With the
increase of the number of network elements, the
disruption probability of the connection between two
users who interchange information across the network
also increases. Mitigating factor is the possibility of
reestablishment of the connection by choosing some
alternative path in the network, which is available at the
time of the network element failure.

We applied 2 simulation methods [6] for complex

communication network reliability estimation, consisting
of nodes and links characterized by their mean times
between failures (MTBF). However, in further research
[7], [8], we concluded that availability would be better
quality indicator for users of services supported by
communication network consisting of repairable
elements.

For any technical system, reliability and availability

characterize its best capability to persist in functioning.
For communication networks in particular, it is necessary
to determine which kind of network reliability and
availability are to be estimated. They can be [2]:
Network 2-terminal reliability (2TR) and availability
(2TA): probabilities that there is at least 1 operational
path between 2 terminal nodes, Ns (source) and Nd
(destination) in time t = T, or in any time t, respectively;

The aim of this article is to present our approach to

complex communication networks 2-terminal reliability
and availability estimation by applying the discrete events
simulation method, as well as some of results achieved in
our research so far.

Network k-terminal reliability (kTR) and availability

(kTA): probabilities that there is at least one operational
path between at least k defined nodes in time t = T, or in
any time t, respectively;

2. DEFINITIONS
For the sake of this research, the following definitions
have been adopted and cited in [7]:

Network total reliability (ATR) and availability (ATA):

probabilities that all nodes (any two) are connected in
time t = T, or in any time t, respectively.

Communication network is a set of network elements,

interconnected for the sake of information transfer. In this
research, complex communication network is a system

There are analytical methods for reliability and

availability calculation or at least assessment, but only a
839

R (t ) = e t

consisting of at least 2 terminal nodes, connected by

means of links and/or other nodes by at least 2 different
ways.

(2)

Where is failure rate of the element.

Network elements are nodes and links.

Mean time between failures (MTBF) of nodes and links

are basic input data for the reliability of a complex
communication network calculation. If exponential
distribution of time to failure can be applied, the relation
between MTBF and is MTBF=1/ . This is adequate if
the assumed network consists of electronic elements.

Node Ni is a network element for sending, receiving

and routing information through communication network. A node can be terminal (source or destination of
communication), or intermediate (router). All nodes in
this research are capable of sending, receiving and
routing the traffic over the links they are connected to.

We assume that network fails if its elements (nodes and

links) fail in such way that there is no at least one
communication path between two nodes.

Link Lij is a network element intended for connecting

adjacent nodes Ni i Nj. In this research all links are
bidirectional, i.e. Lij Lji.

Model for communication networks two-terminal

reliability is in the discrete events simulators class. The
simulator prototype has been implemented by means of
the GPSS World simulation language [9].

Connection is a communication in a network,

established between two terminal nodes (source and
destination).
Path is a serial connection of network elements (terminal nodes, intermediate nodes and corresponding
links). It consists of at least 3 elements: 2 terminal
nodes (source and destination) and 1 link. A path can
have more additional elements, intermediate nodes for
routing and corresponding links.

START
Initialization
Ns, Nd, SV, T

Complexity of a path Si has been introduced in this

research, as a measure of path acceptance order for
connection establishment. It is defined by the
expression:

Path generator:
P1.....PK

Si = N i + Li = 2 N i 1

Path
matrix

(1)

Where Ni and Li are the numbers of nodes and links in a

path i, respectively.

Trial
generator:
new trial

On the occasion of establishing a connection between 2

terminal nodes, network management considers all
available paths, in ascending order of their complexity.
Network traffic consists of all requirements for
establishing paths and busy times of those path
elements during connection life time.

i=1

Failure of network element (node or link) occurs

when an element stops functioning due to its failure,
and lasts until it is repaired. Failures of network
elements are defined by mean time, MTBF [h], and
exponential distribution of the time between failures.

i>K?
i=i+1

No

Yes

No
Pi operational?

Yes

Path failure occurs when any of its constituent

elements fails, because all of them are serially
connected in a path.

Cs = Cs +1

Repair of a network element is a process of putting the

failed element back into operational state. Network
element repair time, trep, is defined by its mean,
=MTTR [h], and its exponential distribution.

Cf = C f + 1

SV = SV -1
No

3. NETWORK 2TR SIMULATOR

SV = 0 ?
Yes
R(T)=
Cs/(Cs+Cf)

Reliability R(t) of a technical system is a probability of

the system being operational to perform the given
function for the period of time from zero to t. We
supposed that exponential distribution of time to failure of
the elements can be applied, so the reliability of the
element of the system is given by:

STOP
Picture 1: Network 2-TR simulator algorithm
840

The simulator algorithm has been depicted in Picture 1.

Basic modules of the simulator are network path
generator, access trial generator, and network operation
simulator.
The algorithm is based on the fact that 2TR reliability is
the probability that a system dispose of at least one
operational path between source and destination node in
the time instant t = T.
On simulator initialization, source node Ns, destination
node Nd, time instant t = T in which the network 2TR is to
be estimated, and the sample value (SV) of trials of
communication establishing are selected.
Based on the network configuration and its operational
elements, module path generator forms the path matrix,
containing all available paths Pi, i = 1, , K, leading
from Ns to Nd. The matrix is sorted according to paths
complexities Si, calculated by the expression (1).
The trial generator generates SV sample of trials to
communicate through the network. At each trial, the
simulator goes through all possible paths between Ns and
Nd, from the simplest to the most complex one. Each path
element is examined, by sampling its probability of
correct functioning, calculated for the time instant t = T
by the expression (2). If any path element fails, the
simulator tries the next possible path, excluding every
path that includes the failed element.
If at the end of the trial a fully operational path is found,
the communication between source and destination node
can be established and the network success counter Cs is
incremented by 1. If not, the network failure Cf counter is
incremented by 1. After each completed trial, sample SV
is decremented by 1. At the end of the simulation, when
SV = 0, two-terminal reliability of the network in time
instant t = T is calculated by the expression:
Cs
R (T ) =
Cs + C f

4. NETWORK 2TA SIMULATOR

Availability (A) of a technical system is a probability that
the system, when used under given conditions, will
satisfactorily operate in any time [10], which is defined by
the expression:

A=

tuse
tuse + t f

(4)

Where tuse is system usage time and tf is system fail time.

Failure
generator

START
Initialization
Ns, Nd, to, T
Path generator:
P1.....PK

Change in
path matrix

Path
matrix
Traffic
generator:
new traffic
unit

i=1
i>K?
i=i+1

(3)

No

Yes

No
Pi
available?

Yes

In order to dynamically estimate network two-terminal

reliability, one can execute several simulation
experiments for different time points of interest, Ti, and
put the results together in the common time diagram.

Seize Pi

t = t +t0

The simulator itself has been realised in GPSS World

language. It is relatively simple to implement and can be
useful in situations when it is necessary to estimate
performance of communication networks consisting of
non-repairable elements.

Release Pi

It is much more difficult to estimate how useful a

communication network is when it consists of repairable
elements, because when failure of one or more nodes
and/or links occurs, the network can still try to continue
functioning, by choosing some of possible alternative
paths across operational nodes and links. Failure of a
network as a whole occurs only if at the time of network
service request there is no available path enabling that
service. In such situations, it is convenient to calculate or
at least estimate the communication network availability.

tuse = tuse + t0
No

tf = tf + t0

tT?
Yes
Asd=tuse / T

STOP
Picture 2: Network 2-TA simulator algorithm

841

Our approach to communication networks availability

estimation consists of formulation and programming of
simulation model for network 2-terminal availability
estimation, simulation of network operation and
corresponding events in chosen time interval T, gathering
data of times tuse and tf during the simulation experiment
and network availability calculation according to the
expression (4).

RELATIVE DEVIATION FROM

THEORETICAL LIMIT AVAILABILITY

Relative deviation [%]

0.4

The simulator algorithm has been depicted in Picture 2. In

spite of some common modules in the realised simulators,
our approach to network availability estimation by
simulation is rather different to that of network reliability
estimation.

0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1000

10000

100000
Time [h]

1000000

10000000

Picture 3: Simulator output convergence to theoretical

limit value

In the network reliability simulator for each point in time

of interest we generate a sample SV of trials (attempts to
establish a connection between Ns and Nd along one of the
operational paths) and than put the results of the
experiments together to dynamically estimate 2TR.

When i-th network element fails, it passes into failure

state, the consequences of which are change in the path
matrix and the beginning of that element repair. The
change in the path matrix consists of putting all the paths
containing the failed network element into state of
unavailability for traffic in the network.

On the other hand, in network availability simulator we

generate traffic units at each basic time interval t0,
simulate the network operation and all important discrete
events in a long simulated time period T, estimate 2TA in
the time points of interest, and observe how 2TA
dynamically changes during the whole time period T.

Failed network element repair is simulated by

incrementing network fail time tf counter by the repair
time trep which is calculated according to that element
mean time to repair (MTTR-i) and exponential
distribution of the repair time.

On simulator initialization, source node Ns, destination

node Nd, basic time interval t0 and total time T of
simulated network operation are selected.

After finishing the repair, transaction representing the

failure updates the path matrix, by putting that element in
operational state in all paths containing it.

Again, based on the network configuration and its

operational elements, module path generator forms the
path matrix, containing all available paths Pi, i = 1,, K,
leading from Ns to Nd, sorted according to paths
complexities Si.

In all time points of interest, the realised programsimulator calculates and returns the so far reached
network 2-terminal availability, according to the
expression (4).

The traffic in the communication network is simulated by

flow of traffic units, represented by means of GPSS
transactions [9].

The simulation stopping criterion is the expiration of

predetermined network simulated operation time T. When
time T expires, simulation is terminated and the finally
reached value of 2-terminal availability is calculated and
returned.

In the model, we consider the worst case, when

continuous network service (information traffic between
source node Ns and destination node Nd) is requested. In
the program-simulator it is achieved by generating new
traffic unit at every basic interval t0 by the traffic
generator module. On the occurrence of every new traffic
unit, path matrix content is examined, in ascending order
of path complexities.

5. VALIDATION
Validations of proposed algorithms have been performed
by comparing the results of realised simulators with those
of the known theoretically solved cases, as it has been
proposed in [1].

If there is an available path Pi from Ns to Nd, the traffic

unit seizes it, and keeps it busy for 1 interval t0, then
releases it, increments use time tuse counter by 1 interval
t0 and finally leaves the simulation. If there is no available
path, the traffic unit increments fail time tf counter by 1
interval t0 and leaves simulation.

As an example of such cases, let us consider the serial

connection of two repairable subsystems with the same
mean time to failure, MTBF = 1/ = 3000 h, and the same
mean time to repair, MTTR=1/ = 5 h.
The theoretical limit value of such systems availability
[10] is defined by the following expression:

Independently of traffic generation in the network, the

failure generator module generates element failures, also
represented by means of GPSS transactions.

A(t ) =

There are as much independent failure generators as there

are network elements, one for each. Failure generator for
i-th network element (node or link) generates new GPSS
transaction which simulates that element failure,
according to its MTBF-i and exponential distribution of
the time between failures.

2
= 0.9966722
+ 2 + 1 2
2

(5)

The relative deviation, in percents, of the 2TA simulator

output from that theoretical limit value is depicted in
Picture 3.
842

In the first 1000 hrs of simulated time, that deviation is

constant (0,35%), because in that time interval no one
simulated failure occurred, due to MTBF of 3000 hrs.
After that point of simulated time, the relative deviation
of the 2TA simulators output was less than 0,4 % in the
worst case, and the convergence to the availability
theoretical limit value is evident, which validates the 2TA
simulators algorithm in Picture 2.

Table 1: Impacts of network elements failures to paths

Path
Network
elementa
P2
P3
P4
P5
P1
0
N1
0
0
0
0
0
N2
X
0
0
X
0
N3
0
0
0
0
0
N4
X
X
X
0
0
N5
X
X
0
0
L12
X
0
0
X
X
L13
0
X
X
X
X
0
L14
X
X
X
0
0
L23
X
0
X
X
L25
X
X
0
X
X
0
L45
X
X
X
0
X
L35
X
X
0
0

The validation of the proposed 2TR simulators algorithm

has been done in a similar way.

6. EXAMPLE
As a demonstrating example [7], [8], we executed several
experiments with realised simulators, to estimate twoterminal reliability and availability of the simple
communication network (Picture 4), consisting of 5 nodes
and 7 links, with the following characteristics:

a.

Nodes: MTTF = 3000h, exponential distribution;

The results of the simulation (Picture 5) show that 2TR in

the first 10 hours of the system functioning is 100 %, with
or without the communication network.

Links: MTTF = 4000h, exponential distribution.

Two-terminal reliability has been estimated between
nodes N1 and N3, in the following time points: Ti (h) {1,
10, 100, 1000, 5000, 10000}. For every time point a
sample of SV=10000000 access trials has been generated.
It has been assumed that in the time instant t = 0, all
network elements were operational.

L14

N3

L23

With network

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

N2

N4

Without network
1

Two-terminal reliability

L12

Source

SIMULATION RESULTS

Destination

L13

N1

0 means that network element has failed, which disrupts every part
containing it; X means that network element has no impact to path
operation

L25
L45

L35

P2

N1-L12-N2-L23-N3

P3

N1-L12-N2-L25-N5-L53-N3

P4

N1-L14-N4-L45-N5-L53-N3

P5

N1-L14-N4-L45-N5-L52-N2-L23-N3

1000

10000

Picture 5: Network 2-TR simulation results

N5

Between 10 and 100 hours, 2TR decreases relatively

slowly, and from 100 hours more rapidly until 5000
hours, when it practically reaches 0.

Possible paths between nodes N1 and N3 (Fig.1), sorted by

ascending complexity are:
N1-L13-N3

100

Time (h)

Picture 4: Network example: 5 nodes, 7 links

P1

10

In that interval, the network shows slightly better

performance than simple monolink connection, but not as
spectacular as one could have expected.
It can be concluded that this is a consequence of the fact
that MTBF of the proposed nodes and links are of the
same order of magnitude, so the source and destination
nodes have predominant impact to 2-terminal reliability,
and the network helps only in cases when both N1 and N3
are operational, and the direct link N13 has failed. In such
situation, in order to maintain an acceptable level of 2TR,
one should focus on increasing the source and destination
node reliabilities.

The experiments have been executed in order to estimate

two-terminal reliability in the following cases:
N1 and N3 are connected by means of single link N13

Picture 6 represents the results of the simulation, executed

in order to estimate 2-terminal availability (2TA) of our
example network.

N1 and N3 are connected by means of the network.

The impact of every networks element failure to every
possible path between is shown in Table 1.

843

and calculates 2TR based on success and failure counters

values at the end of the simulation. One can dynamically
estimate network two-terminal reliability over the given
time period by putting the results of simulations for every
time point of interest.

SIMULATION RESULTS
Without network

With network

Two-terminal availability

1.001
1
0.999
0.998

The more complex network 2TA simulator is particularly

useful for estimation of networks consisting of repairable
elements. It generates traffic units in each basic time
interval, independently generates failures of network
elements, simulates network operation and all relevant
events in simulated time period, and returns 2TA values
in all time points of interest, enabling users to
dynamically estimate network two-terminal availability.

0.997
0.996
0.995
0.994
0.993
0.992
0.991
100

1000

10000

100000

1000000

Time (h)

Picture 6: Network 2-TA simulation results

The realized simulators can be useful in communication

networks early conception phases, as well as in their
exploitation and maintenance planning.

The initial assumptions are the same as for the 2TR

simulator, with the exception that our example network
now consists of repairable elements, with the following
characteristics:

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work has been done within the project III-40027,
supported partly by the Ministry of Education, Science
and Technological Development of the Republic of
Serbia.

Nodes: mean time to repair MTTR = 5h, exponential

distribution;
Links: MTTR = 3h, exponential distribution.
It is assumed that the repair of failed network element
starts on failure occurrence. The total simulated time
period is T = 1000000 hours. The basic time period is t0 =
1 minute.

REFERENCES
[1] Shooman, M.L., Reliability of Computer Systems
and Networks, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002.
[2] abarkapa, M., Mijatovi, ., Krajnovi, N.,
Network Topology Availability Analysis, Telfor
Journal, 3(1), pp. 23-27, 2011.
[3] Ping, H. K., Network Reliability Estimation, PhD
thesis, University of Adelaide, 2005.
[4] Luby, M., Monte-Carlo Methods for Estimating
System Reliability, University of California
Berkeley, 1984.
[5] Jiang, Y. et al. Monte-Carlo Methods for Estimating
System Reliability, proceedings of ICQRMS 2012 International Conference on Quality, Reliability,
Risk, Maintenance, and Safety Engineering, 2012.
[6] Pokorni, S., Jankovi, R., Reliability Estimation of a
Complex Communication Network by Simulation,
proceedings of 19th Telecommunications Forum
TELFOR 2011, Belgrade, 2011.
[7] Jankovi, R., Pokorni, S., Communication Networks
Availability Estimation by Simulation, proceeding
of 4th DQM International Conference on Information
Technology ICDQM-2013, June 27-28, Belgrade,
2013.
[8] Jankovi, R., Pokorni, S., Milinovi, M.,
Communication
Networks
Two-Terminal
Reliability and Availability Estimation by
Simulation, proceeding of 4th International
Conference on Information Society and Technology
(ICIST 2014), March 9-13, Kopaonik, Serbia, 2014.
[9] Minuteman Software, GPSS World Reference
Manual, www.minutemansoftware.com
[10] Vujanovi, N. Reliability Theory of Technical
Systems (In Serbian), VINC, Belgrade, 1990.

As it can be seen in Picture 6, the introduction of

repairable elements in our example communication
network results in much better performance: in both cases
(with network and with simple monolink connection), in
the considered time interval of T = 1000000 hours the 2terminal availability is 99,22 % 2TA 100 %.
In the first 1000 hours of the system functioning 2TA in
both cases is 100 %, with or without the network.
With network, between 1000 and 2000 hours, 2TA is still
100 %, and then decreases, with slight oscillations, but
never below 99,6 %, in the whole simulated period.
Without network, in the first 1000 hours, 2TA is 100 %.
Between 1000 and 10000 hours, it decreases, with some
oscillations, and than increases in the whole remaining
period of simulated time T, but never over 99,56 %.

5. CONCLUSION
Our approach to communication networks two-terminal
reliability (2TR) and availability (2TA) estimation
consists of formulation and programming of network
simulation model, simulation of network operation in
chosen simulated time interval, gathering data of relevant
events and processes during that operation and calculation
the network reliability and availability based on obtained
experimental data. After developing of a set of basic
modules, two different simulators have been realised.
The network 2TR simulator is simpler and suitable for
estimation of communication networks consisting of nonrepairable elements. In each time point of interest, it
generates a sample of attempts to establish
communication between source and destination nodes,
844

INTELLIGENT SHIP MAINTENANCE

VESELIN MRDAK
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, mrdak.v@ikomline.net

Abstract: By reviewing a contemporary scientific literature about ship maintenance are noticing new strategies approaches
in these scopes. New strategies for ships and ship system maintenance are associated with the new technologies of a
shipbuilding technologies and automated diagnostic measurements of marine systems that expedite maintenance processes.
Ship maintenance processes have passed under significant modifications from the followings inventions: programmable
logic controllers (PLCs), applied artificial intelligence and intelligent information systems. With the advent and use of
programmable logic controllers (PLCs) in production systems, equipment and process parameters can now be continually
monitored. Intelligent maintenance involves automatic diagnosis of electronic systems and modular replacement units. For
these emergencies, there is a noticeable trend of using automated information systems for maintenance processes. As an
example, we present the article Diagnostic Technology Insertions for LSD Mid-Life Upgrade which describes the usage
new maintenance strategies in the US navy. US navy are advancing a streamlined automation technologies like as are
diagnostic software agents. By them would have been possible to automate the essential analytical work necessary to
implement an effective Condition-Based Maintenance (CBM) program at minimum cost to the US Navy. Diagnostic software
agents belong to concept of rational agents which are central theme of artificial intelligence.
Technical test center intends to initiate diagnostic measurement in river unit objects in the purpose predictive ship
maintenance.
Keywords: ship maintenance, artificial intelligence, diagnostic software agents, intelligent ship maintenance.

1. INTRODUCTION

System and steering structure (diagram work programs,

functional diagram, description of the system);

The purpose and aim of ship and ship`s systems

maintenance process is to achieve the highest level of
operational safety marine systems at the lowest cost. This
paper presents the new trends in the maintenance of ships.

Mechanical design (structure and support units, functional

units, setting);

The modern methods and principles of maintenance are

based on the assumption of high level operation and
increased maintenance costs. There is a noticeable trend in
the development and installation of diagnostic software
agents (intelligent information and diagnostic systems) that
form the basis of new methods and principles of
maintenance.

Actuators (electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, mechanical);

Propulsion elements (electric, pneumatic, hydraulic,

mechanical);
The control system (relay logic (pneumatic and hydraulic,
pneumatic (clean), PLC);
Providers of signal (binary sensors, analogy sensors and
digital sensors) and
Power source (electrical, pneumatic, and hydraulic).
Among the large number of elements in a ship, there are to
be found those with a longer or shorter working time or a
small amount of maintenance required. For this reason, the
board needs to be some interaction planned and organized,
which should include:

2. MAINTENANCE METHODS
The term maintenance (according to DIN 31051) refers to
all activities that ensure the maintenance and establishment
of the desired status, as well as the determination and
evaluation of the current state of technical resources of the
system. The maintenance process consists of three main
activities: servicing, inspection and repair. The basic
precondition for successfully finding defects and then
repairs it, a good knowledge of the system and its working
process.

planned maintenance system that would define the time

and scope of all required maintenance,
a system of records of spare parts, inventory and supplies
that would provide optimal economics of consumption of
spare parts, supplies and use of tools,
evidence and control the consumption of fuel and
lubricants, situation analysis, failures and weaknesses of
the ship.

The structure of the system can be viewed through the

following elements:
845

Such a system requires a large number of elements in the

ship to be classified into specific groups and subgroups,
each of which has its own machine map (map maintenance),
which needs to be maintained in electronic media.

continuous process of assessing the state of the system

during operation. Intelligent software, which have installed
into marine systems by PLCs measures and controls:
vibration ("vibration monitoring"), hits ("schock pulse
monitoring"), temperature ("temperature monitoring"),
analysis of cooling and boiler water ("water boiler and
cooling water analysis"), leak detection and inadequate
sound ("noise and leak detection"), thickness control of
certain parts and cracks ("thickness measure monitoring and
crack detection"), and so on. In operation as a fault event or
phenomenon that measures the likelihood of failure are:
pressure, temperature, visual manifestations (changes in
colour, appearance of smoke , the occurrence of
deformation visible leakage and leakage, inclusions,
deposits, corrosion, cracks, etc.), speed, level, flow,
abnormal sounds (noise, squeaks, cavitation crackling,
hissing, banging, crunching, wheezing, etc.), vibration,
radiation, voltage, resistance, analysis of fuel, oil and
cooling water as well as analysis of combustion products,
recording diagrams, analyses and etc.

Contemporary scientific literature about technical systems

maintenance has classified maintenance processes in the
further categories: corrective maintenance, preventive
maintenance, predictive maintenance, condition-based
maintenance, and intelligent or self-maintenance.
Corrective maintenance involves all unscheduled
maintenance actions performed as a result of system/product
failure to restore the system to a specified condition.
Corrective maintenance includes failure identification,
localization and isolation, disassembly, item removal and
replacement or repair in place, reassembly, and check out
and condition verification.
Preventive maintenance includes all scheduled maintenance
actions performed to retain a system or product in a
specified condition. These actions involve periodic
inspections, condition monitoring, critical item
replacements, and calibration.

There are some problems in which the probability of failure

of a particular component is not precisely known. That
probability is thus treated as a random variable that has a
known prior distribution. This distribution is then updated in
a Bayesian fashion, taking into account information
received continually on the operational status of the
component. Depending on the problem, Beta or Gamma
distributions are used for the priors and it is shown that the
posterior distribution is also Beta or Gamma (with different
parameters).

Predictive maintenance is a relatively new concept in

maintenance planning. This category of maintenance occurs
in advance of the time a failure would occur if the
maintenance were not performed. The time when this
maintenance is scheduled is based on data that can be used
to predict approximately when failure will occur if certain
maintenance is not undertaken. Data such as vibration,
temperature, sound, colour, and so on have usually been
collected off-line and analyzed for trends.

3. NEW MAINTENANCE APPROACHS

With condition-based maintenance, the PLCs are wired

directly to an on-line computer to monitor the equipment
condition in a real-time mode. Any deviation from the
standard normal range of tolerances will cause an alarm (or
a repair order) to be automatically generated. Installation
costs for such a maintenance system can be high, but
equipment service levels can be significantly improved
(Pradhan, Bhol, 2009, pp.30)

Demands of time and new technologies, world-class

manufacturing, many industries are appreciating the need
for efficient maintenance systems that have been effectively
integrated with corporate strategy. The statement: as
equipment complexity increases, and as the need for high
equipment availability becomes paramount in today's
complex, dynamic systems, there has been a corresponding
increase in maintenance modelling sophisticationconforms
the need for new approaches maintenance process which
would be compatible to artificial intelligence and new
production management techniques. Also there exists the
real possibility that the new methods and technologies for
maintenance management may become "islands of
automation" that will not provide any meaningful feedback
to improve organizational performance [Pradhan, Bhol,
2009, pp.31].

Intelligent maintenance, or self-maintenance, involves

automatic diagnosis of electronic systems and modular
replacement units, n "automatic replacement" dynamic
programming algorithm, for minimizing the expected total
(failure and replacement) cost of a component on board the
ship. Sensor data from remote facilities or machines would
be provided on a continuous basis to a centralized
workstation. From this workstation, the maintenance
specialist could receive intelligent support from expert
systems and neural networks for decision-making tasks.
Commands would then be released into the remote sites to
begin a maintenance routine that may involve adjusting
alarm parameter values, initiating built-in testing
diagnostics, or powering standby or subsystems, for
instance.

Despite advances in computer technology and

manufacturing techniques, benchmarking studies of actual
maintenance performance signal the need for new, improved
methods for analyzing and designing maintenance systems
that are consistent with novel developments in information
technology and management systems.
There are many new methods and techniques, which have
evolved for maintenance planning, such as: Bayesian
inference, Dempster/Shafer method, weighting/voting
fusion, fuzzy logic inference, neural network fusion, expert
systems, constraint-based reasoning, belief networks, and
artificial neural networks. These methods have applied to

Estimating the state of the system ("condition monitoring")

includes the use of instruments, sensors in the regular,
periodic or continuous measurement of a certain size in
order to assess the state of the system and equipment
without interrupting their work. The development of
automation in most marine systems was established in a
846

create date fusion architecture for obtaining the highest

diagnostic prediction/detection level. Multi-sensor date
fusion implies intelligent processing of 2 or more sensors
for improving the accuracy of diagnostic or prognostic
approaches. Having said above, emerged an essential need
to develop a broader structure to ensure that these methods
become integrated into the working procedures of an
organization. Also a lot of authors emphasis advantages of
new methods: for reliability prediction and maintenance
diagnoses coupled with the use of maintenance automation
technology offer significant promise in helping to meet the
global demands of competitive pricing, quality, and on-time
deliveries, will prevent the situation where a new
maintenance system is developed in isolation, encourages
the development of individual qualifications for
maintenance technicians, places awareness on collective
learning processes as implemented by formal organizational
structure and management systems for production planning
and control and also places awareness on collective
learning processes as implemented by formal organizational
structure and management systems for production planning
and control and recognizes the role that informal systems
play in operationalizing maintenance concepts[Pradhan,
Bhol, 2009, pp.31].

innovation, are: Navy fleet maintenance has recently

transformed into Operations-Focused Maintenance,
striving to improve operational readiness and availability
while providing an enhanced surge capability. In the past,
surface fleet maintenance needs were met through a twoyear cycle. Ships were deployed for six months and then
spent the next 18 months, primarily in a maintenance and
training sequence. A ship would then be ready for another
deployment. Although the six-month deployment schedule
still remains, ships now must enter the basic training phase
earlier, perhaps before maintenance has been completed. If
there are needs for uncertain operational demands, ships
may be deployed for longer or shorter periods than in past
tradition. Authors stress that the primary challenge is
establishing the management processes to identify and
complete necessary maintenance activities.

4. INTELLIGENT SHIP MAINTENANCE

Improving on-board equipment health monitoring with

CBM technologies.

Navy requirements for Operations-Focused Maintenance

were:
Engineering for reduced maintenance,
Extending time-between-overhauls,
Reducing time in maintenance,
Optimizing continuous maintenance through effective
distance support, and

As a good example usage new approaches of intelligent ship

maintenance models and methods, it took from the article
Diagnostic Technology Insertions for LSD Mid-Life
Upgrade by Kevin P. Logan and Capt. John G. Walker.
This article describes us a new maintenance approach in
the US navy.

Important date, which found in the article related to level

machinery automation in the future are the levels of
machinery automation in future ship designs will continue
to increase, providing massive amounts of data for
equipment health monitoring, by some estimates, on the
order of 100,000 data points. Another major consideration is
that technology contributes to solving problems of
intelligent ship maintenance, in the manner to outfitting
intelligent ships with intelligent systems [Logan, Walker,
2009, pp.2].

The authors have outlined that USA Navy has introduced

efficient automation technologies into existing Fleet ships
as part of the U.S. Navys LSD 41/49 Class Mid-Life
Upgrade program, diagnostic software agents are being
embedded into the modernized Machinery Control System
(MCS) to support sailors in keeping ship equipment running
reliably. Also U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
has developed the Remote Maintenance Monitoring System
(RMMS) that is an example of the future tendency in
maintenance automation.

The expectation of strength of the crews aboard future

minimum-manned ships presents the inversely proportional
between processes and equipment automation and strength
of the crews aboard. In other words will be more
machinery data to monitor and fewer people with less time
to analyze it.

Software agents serve to automate the essential analytical

work necessary to implement an effective Condition-Based
Maintenance (CBM) program at minimum cost to the Navy.
Intelligent software agents will deliver real-time
diagnostics and predictive analytics for various missioncritical systems, such as the main propulsion diesel engines,
electric generators, etc. It is envisioned that software agents
will become as commonplace on future shipboard networks
as the anti-virus software running on most PCs today.

The authors presume: two major maintenance megatrends taking place: 1) new technology has dramatically
increased the complexity of many ship systems, and 2) there
is a continuing decrease in the skilled maintenance labour
pool, caused partly by new systems complexity (i.e. new
skill set requirements not being met), workforce attrition,
and manning reductions.
Mode of operation software agents based on computer
representations of human knowledge, as it were to perform
information processing tasks exceeding the sailors
capabilities. Their intelligent processing functions will allow
ship maintenance managers to leverage valuable diagnostic
knowledge across a ship fleet. Once constructed, the agents
become a valuable resource that can be distributed when and
where needed to enhance operations and performance. CBM
and reliability-centred maintenance (RCM) strategies are
widely used today. Ideas and objectives for the emergence
of CBM/RCM maintenance strategies are to optimally

Advantages of new technological innovation and strategy

for intelligence ship maintenance by authors is to deliver
new capabilities for automated diagnosis of equipment
faults, early warning of equipment health problems,
automatic generation of maintenance work orders, and
timely delivery of equipment health information to both the
crews and shore-side support staff.
Changes in the structure and organization US navy fleet
maintenance, which caused of new technological
847

manage the risk of equipment failure, while maximizing

equipment reliability and minimizing maintenance costs.
Increasingly complex automation and voluminous data
collection will demand advanced operator/analyst skill sets
to implement effective CBM programs, yet fewer resources
will be available (people and money). This is exactly where
intelligent software agents can help. Human intelligence
can be converted into computer representations by
acquiring rare and valuable (expert) knowledge through
knowledge engineering. Knowledge can then be replicated
by creating distributable knowledgebases, for example,
equipment diagnostic or troubleshooting knowledge,
[Logan, Walker, 2009, pp.3].

between a large number of faults and their corresponding

symptom patterns. Once trained, the PNN is connected to
the MCS to perform real-time diagnostics. Automated
prognostics are a direct extension of diagnostics, coupled
with an automated trending analysis function [Logan ASNE
ISS 2007, Logan 2003].

It is important to highlight the way deriving corporate

knowledge from the best possible sources, which typically
include OEM technical information and Failure Mode and
Effects Analysis (FMEA) performed by Subject Matter
Experts.

the task is to decide whether the fault (or state of nature)

is either A or B. The Bayes decision rule for this
classification task, denoted d(X), can be expressed as:

The knowledgebase-centric software agents are

characterized by three types of intelligence: 1) a reasoning
mechanism, 2) diagnostic knowledge, and 3) equipment
performance models.

d(X) = B if P' L P(X) < P'B LB PB(X)

PNN uses a Bayesian decision strategy to classify unknown

symptom patterns in a way that minimizes expected risk.
Authors consider only two possible fault categories, A and
B. Based on a set of measurement symptoms:
XT = [X1, X2, XP],

d(X) = A if P' L P P(X) > P'B LB PB(X)

(1)

where:
P', P'B = a priori probability of faults A and B,
respectively,

The title Diagnostic reasoning with artificial neural

networks presents process usage artificial neural networks
as reasoning mechanism. Reasons and advantages usage
artificial neural networks as reasoning mechanism of
software agents: are well-proven pattern recognition
devices, tolerant of noisy or incomplete input data, handle
uncertainty well, are capable of real-time pattern
recognition, and learn classification tasks from training
data.

L = loss associated with decision d(X) = B, when the fault

= A ,
LB = loss associated with decision d(X) = A, when the fault
= B,
P(X), PB(X) = probability density functions for A and B,
respectively, [Logan, Walker, 2009, pp.5].
Authors also emphasis that the structure of the Bayesian
decision model is powerful and useful if the a priori
probability and loss functions are available for use in the
model. It is important to highlight the importance examining
the component factors of the decision model, as useful
statements about equipment reliability and readiness.

The subject matter experts are chosen among the next

subjects: the Navys In Service Engineering Agents,
manufacturers technical documentation, operation,
maintenance and troubleshooting procedures, in-house
system expertise, and historical data. The authors advances
that the results of the FMEA represent valuable diagnostic
knowledge of the equipment and can be rapidly
incorporated into a knowledge base and, in turn, a neural
network.

They explain the recommended approach of deriving the a

priori probabilities of the two faults, P' and P'B, is to derive
component failure distributions from historical maintenance
records, assuming accurate and complete records are kept.
Beyond this, OEM failure statistics, such as Mean-TimeBetween-Failure, can be used for a priori fault probability
estimations.

Although, there are many neural models exist, the authors

were chosen the Probabilistic Neural Network (PNN) for
embedded agent intelligence, primarily due to the following
advantages:

The effects of making the wrong fault call, which in

practice could also equate to making no call when a fault
was actually present, are modelled though the loss functions
in (1), i.e. L and LB. Recall that L is the loss associated
with making the wrong the decision, d(X) = B , when the
fault was actually A. Loss values can be defined on any
scale, whether monetary or in criticality metrics; however,
as with the a prioris, the work effort involved in derivation
of the loss functions could be substantial, as expert
subjective analysis is typically required.

Fault classification probabilities are directly output from

the PNN, generated by its nonlinear decision surfaces.
PNN is capable of handling situations in which one or
more input variables are missing or corrupted using valid
statistical treatment of uncertainty.
PNN can be rapidly deployed using existing experiential
and empirical knowledge and can be readily updated as
new knowledge is acquired.
PNN training is effectively instantaneous, unlike other
neural methods that require hundreds of thousands of
learning iterations, [Logan, Walker, 2009, pp.4].

Bayesian Fault Classification implies the PNNs function is

to classify or assign an input symptom pattern to a fault
category. For most practical pattern classification problems,
the Bayes optimal decision surfaces in this multidimensional pattern space are non-linear, making
classification assignment difficult. For the two category
example involving the decision rule from (1) above, the

Also a PNN is used to classify symptom patterns according

to the faults that may have generated the alarm conditions.
A single PNN can be pre-trained to learn the associations
848

decision boundary between the two fault categories, A and

B, is given by:
P(X) = C PB(X)

standard data processing, collaboration, and communication

functions have been defined, additional agents can be
deployed as needed when new equipment is added to an
existing configuration.

(2)

Future ship systems and using intelligent software agents

depend on as increases in processing power and advances
in control theory make modern controllers more capable, the
expected complexity of ship`s systems will likely increase
exponentially in next generation ships. Future ship systems
may be comprised of tens of thousands of connected
components. Autonomous control using intelligent software
agents appears to be one of the few options available for
dealing with an enormous number of possible equipment
states. Software agent technology used to implement
distributed machine intelligence will allow collaborative
control during reconfiguration situations.

where C = P'B LB/P' L

The decision surface represented by (2) can be highly
nonlinear, since there are few restrictions on the density
functions, P(X) and PB(X). In practice, the decision
surfaces for diagnostic problems involve a large number of
fault categories. [Logan, Walker, 2009, pp5-6].
The authors stress that the key to using the PNN for
diagnostics is estimating the class probability density
functions (PDFs) so that the Bayes decision rules can be
implemented. There are non-parametric methods of PDF
estimation with good accuracy and PDF estimation which
are embedded in the software agents.

Figure 2. Diagnostic/Prognostic Software Agent Data

Processing [Logan, Walker, 2009, pp.7]

Figure 1. Steps in Building Diagnostic Knowledgebase

[Logan, Walker, 2009, pp.6]

The importance of connection among devices, LSD sensors,

real time date, knowledgebase and management decisions
have realized via two data communications interfaces; one
with the MCS and a second interface to the Shipboard
Automated Maintenance Management (SAMM) system.
The MCS interface provides strictly real-time data from the
machinery plant.

Title Embedded Diagnostic Knowledge for LSD describes

the way developing and embedding the diagnostic
knowledge bases and the targeted equipment for diagnostic
coverage for LSD.
The authors also presents that the MCS signal inputs,
performance data manually recorded from a cylinder
combustion analyzer was also available, in total,
approximately 4400 individual engine fault diagnostics will
be performed by software agents aboard each LSD vessel,
the USS Gunston Hall (LSD44) is the first vessel of the
class to receive diagnostic software agents as part of her
Mid-Life Upgrade. The USS Germant own will be the
second installation during FY09, followed by ten additional
vessels.

The topic Agent Machinery Control System Interface

characterizes itself structure as described in the article The
LSD MCS consists of multiple Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLCs) forming the Advanced Engineering
Console System (AECS) network. Roughly 4000 data
signals are transmitted across the AECS LAN amongst the
various PLCs. The MCS software acts as an intermediate
data broker to all external data consumers, such as the
software agents. The MCS software developed by
NSWCCD Philadelphia shields data consumer applications
from signal changes at the PLC level that may occur over
the life of the ship. The LSD software agents acquire
approximately 450 MCS signals in real-time [Logan and
Walker, 2005, pp 7].

The title Diagnostic Agent Information Processing

presents approaches which depict apply multi-agent
techniques, information fusion, computing applications. In
addition to localized data processing and computation,
advantages include scalability, since once an agents

The LSD network architecture has the possibilities to allow

the software agents to distribute diagnostic/prognostic
results to MCS workstations located throughout the AECS
LAN.
The topic Shipboard Automated Maintenance Management
849

System Interface describes the way of its applying for

Military Sealift Command as a preventive maintenance tool.

existing alarms. It relies on the same diagnostic knowledge

base and pre-trained PNN as diagnostics, but outputs
predicted device faults derived from detecting trends in its
residuals.

SAMM (Shipboard Automated Maintenance Management

System) is an automated system for documenting onboard
maintenance and equipment configuration control. SAMM
integrates various software applications, including
maintenance scheduling, machinery history record keeping,
machinery vibration monitoring, lube oil analysis, electronic
watchkeeping data collection, and diesel engine combustion
analysis.

The last topics Automatic Generation of Maintenance

Work Orders and Business case analysis (BCA) and
projected cost savings describes the final phase in the ship
maintenance automation process: the diagnostic and
prognostic alerts generated by the LSD software agents are
provided for the SAMM maintenance system for automatic
conversion into Work Requests. The Work Requests are
afterward transmitted ashore for ISEA review.

It is important to emphases that the software agents employ

model-based diagnostics. For key diagnostic or performance
parameters, the device model is used to derive expected
device outputs () from other salient device measurements.
The estimated output is then compared to actual device
measurements (Y). The difference between expected and
measured output forms a residual which is a key to detecting
anomalous device behavior. These residuals are used in all
diagnostics and prognostics, as opposed to raw sensor
measurements. For LSD, initial baseline models were
developed from test data provided by the engine OEM. A
more complete modelling effort will be performed with
actual machinery data collected during sea trials.

The software agents and SAMM computerize the process of

converting plethora of raw engine data into actionable
information. The Work Request/Work Order mechanism
gives instructions the crew and/or shoreside maintenance
engineers for detecting machinery faults.
By authors the BCA calculated only MPDE maintenance
cost data that included for Organizational, Intermediate, and
Depot level activities for a two year period. The objective
was to determine the diagnostics software agents cost
avoidance potential for MPDE maintenance. [Logan,
Walker, 2009, pp.11-13].

Model implementation alarm detection process by PNN

algorithms, authors presents the PNN algorithms are
applied to associate detected residual alarm conditions with
known fault conditions. This technique is fast, memory
efficient, performs near real-time, and produces Bayesian
probability estimates based on the similarity between stored
diagnostic knowledge and detected alarm conditions. The
diagnostic knowledge base maintains the essential
associations between fault conditions and expected alarm
conditions.

6. CONCLUSION
Artificial intelligence has invaded in many fields of human
activity: Accepting the theory of probability and decision
theory in artificial intelligence have brought along to with
emerging the Bayes nets, which allow representing an
uncertain knowledge and a rigorously reasoning. This
approach had solved a lot of problems the reasoning of
systems probability and allows the training on the basis an
experience and combine the best aspects artificial
intelligence and neural nets.

The article presents the logics of working and connecting

among fault prediction, alarm prediction and prognostic
function:

This article presents the history of ship maintenance,

especially contemporary intelligent ship maintenance. The
central part of the article is the presentation the article
Diagnostic Technology Insertions for LSD Mid-Life
Upgrade which describes the usage new maintenance
strategies in the US navy. The presentation is an evidence
usage of artificial intelligence for integral process ship
maintenance in the US navy. Integral process ship
maintenance implies all processes from diagnostics faults
and symptoms of components, equipment and systems for
Automatic Generation of Maintenance Work Orders and
Operations-Focused Maintenance.

Fault predictions (prognostics) are based on the residuals

history by which allowing to record and maintenance of the
historical data store. System configuration settings control
the prediction horizon of the prognostic (i.e. how far ahead
one wishes to predict faults). Prognostic schemes have
developed to predict across multiple prediction horizons
using varying time resolutions of residual histories.

REFERENCES
[1] Military&Aerospace, Shipboard control system, mart
2001, www.milaero.com .
[2] Edward J. Walsh, Navy pushing bridge-combat systems
integration for new surface warship, jul 2000,
www.milaero.com .
[3] Stuart Russell. and Peter Norving, Artificial
Intelligence: A Modern Approach, Pearson Education,
2010.
[4] dr Andrija Lompar, "Odravanje i ekonomika brodskih
pogona", Kotor 1997.

Figure 3. Prognostic Agent Alert Message [Logan,

Walker, 2009, pp.10]
Alarm prediction comprises quantifying the trends in device
residuals in due course and using detected trends to predict
future alarm conditions.
The prognostics function executes resembling the
diagnostics function, but inputs predicted alarms instead of
850

[5] M. K. Pradhan and J. P. Bhol "Trends and Perspectives

in Industrial Maintenance Management", M. K.
Pradhan & J. P. Bhol, MKP&JPB, 2009.

[6] Kevin P. Logan and Capt. John G. Walker, "Diagnostic

Technology Insertions for LSD Mid-Life Upgrade,
ASNE Intelligent Ships Symposium VIII, 2009.

851

SPATIAL DATA QUALITY PRINCIPLES AND EVALUATION

PROCEDURES BASED ON ISO 19113 AND 19114 STANDARDS
STEVAN RADOJI
Military Geographical Institute, Belgrade, stradojcic@sezampro.rs
SAA BAKRA
Military Geographical Institute, Belgrade, sbakrac@yahoo.com
SLAVIA TATOMIROVI
Military Geographical Institute, Belgrade, slavisa.tatomirovic@sbb.rs

Abstract: This paper gives a review of spatial data quality principles and evaluation procedures based on relevant ISO
standards, ISO 19113 and ISO 10114. It also gives an overview of their implementation in Serbia and Military
Geographical Institute of Serbian Armed Forces (MGI), and some considerations and suggestions about further efforts in
development of spatial data quality system in MGI.
Keywords: Spatial data quality; ISO 19113; ISO 19114; Military Geographical Institute.
quality requires higher costs and someone has to pay for it.

1. INTRODUCTION

This is why there are very active standardization activity in

the area of geospatial data quality today. Standards on
spatial data quality are consist of the [2]:

Thanks to the development of modern technologies in the last

thirty years, spatial data management has become much easier
than ever in history. The acquisition, processing, storage,
distribution, using and especially updating the spatial data are
significant facilitated, simplified and accelerated, with
appropriate cost and other benefits. Moreover, this
development enabled sharing data among different users, in
order to avoid some costs or to speed up some jobs.

standards for terminology on spatial data quality

standards for a quality model comprising quality
parameters & measures
standards for acceptable (conformance) quality levels
standards for a spatial data quality evaluation model

In the same time, however, a few new problems has appeared.

One of the most important of them is that the risk of poor data
quality has increased. The errors influencing the spatial data
quality may be classified into six categories [1]:

The main role within international standardization process

in the field of geospatial (geographic) information has the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) i.e. its
standard technical committee TC211, established in 1996.
The ISO/TC211 efforts are closely related to the work of
Open Geospatial Consortium and has close contacts with
numerous standardization entities and bodies. The
contribution of ISO/TC211 to standardization is well known
and documented ([3], ([4], ([5]) and it is not a topic of this
paper. But, it is important to notice that ISO/TC211 has
adopted and published more than sixty standars in the field
of (digital) geographic information, numbered in the range
starting at 19101. Few of them are related to spatial data
quality, and the most important are ISO 19113:2002
Quality principles and ISO 19114:2003 Quality
evaluation procedures. Both of them help the spatial data
producers to describe spatial data quality in a standard
manner i.e in the way in which the data producer can control
and demonstrate if certain data fulfilled the production
specification, and the data user can conclude if those data
can satisfy the given quality requirements.

Data modeling errors

Data source errors
Data collection & input errors
Data storage errors
Data processing & analysis errors
Data representation /output errors
Each of them can introduce the unacceptable error(s) into
final production (a map, database, etc), and decrease its data
quality significantly.
In order to avoid it, each data producer should establish
procedures of quality control of data, as a part of working
process. But, the different producers can have different
(even very different) approach to data quality. Furthermore,
a data producer and a data user also may have different view
to data quality, specially because quality costs higher
852

2. ISO 19113:2002 QUALITY PRINCIPLES

The main objective of this standard is to provide principles
for describing the quality of geographic data and concepts
for handling quality information for geographic data ([6]). It
also specifies components for reporting quality information
and provides an approach to arrangement information about
data quality. It is intended to data producers (to asessment if
degree of dataset quality satisfy certain requests) as well as
to data users (to determine if the quality of some dataset
satisfy their demands).

POSITIONAL ACCURACY

The quality of a dataset is described by two components:

1. Data quality elements and subelements (which, together
with the descriptors of a data quality subelements,
describe how well a dataset meets the apdopted criteria
for product specification and provide quantitive quality
information)
2. Data quality overview elements (which provide
general non-quantitative quality information)

THEMATIC CORRECTNESS
(THEMATIC ACCURACY)

TEMPORAL ACCURACY

Data quality overview elements

The data quality overview elements defined in ISO 19113
are:

Of course, ISO 19113 allows to create and use some other

elements, if they are more suitable for describing
quantitative
and
non-quantitative
data
quality
characteristics. Quantitative information about data quality
are reported as metadata in compliance with ISO 19115 and
with report procedures defined by ISO 19114.

Purpose
Usage
Lineage

The standard does not define the minimal acceptable level

of spatial data quality. It leaves it to the data producers or
the data users to decide whether they will use the certain
data.

Data quality elements and subelements

The quality elements defined by ISO 19113 are a starting point
for conceptual definitions. ISO definitions of data quality
elements and sub-elements are reproduced in Table 1.
Completeness means presence or absence of features, their
attributes and relationships; logical consistency is degree of
adherence to logical rules of data structure, attribution and
relationships1; positional accuracy is accuracy of the
position of features; temporal accuracy is accuracy of the
temporal attributes and temporal relationships of features;
thematic accuracy is accuracy of quantitative attributes and
the correctness of non-quantitative attributes and of the
classifications of features and their relationships.

In order to get an objective evaluation of data quality of a

dataset, the assessment of data quality must be done with
clear procedures and in a consistent manner. That approach
enable data producers to express quality degree and quality
characteristics of its dataset, and, on the other hand, data
users to recognize which dataset meets their requirements.
ISO 2014 provides a framework of procedures for decisionmaking and evaluating data quality consistent with the data
quality principles defined in ISO 19113. It also establishes a
framework for reporting data quality results, either as part of
data quality metadata only, or also as a quality evaluation
report ([7]).

Table 1: Data quality elements and subelements

COMPLETENESS
LOGICAL CONSISTENCY

Purpose is the rationale for creating a dataset and

information about posibilities for its exploitations. Usage
specifies the application(s) for which a dataset has been
used by the data producer or by data users. Lineage
describes the history of a dataset and the life cycle of a
dataset from collection and acquisition through compilation
and derivation to its current form. Lineage may contain two
unique components: the source information (the parentage
of a dataset), and the process step or history (a record of
events or transformations in the life of a dataset, including
the process used to maintain the dataset, whether it was
continuous or periodic).

3. ISO 19114:2003 QUALITY EVALUATION

PROCEDURES

ISO 19113 defines meaning of each data quality

subelement. The subelements are described by descriptors:
data quality scope, data quality measures, data quality
evaluation procedure, data quality result, data quality value
type, data quality value unit, and data quality date.
Data quality element

absolute or external
accuracy
relative or internal
accuracy
gridded data position
accuracy
accuracy of a time
measurement
temporal consistency
temporal validity
classification correctness
non-quantitative attribute
correctness
quantitative attribute
accuracy

Data quality subelement

commission
commission
conceptual consistency
domain consistency
format consistency
topological consistency

Evaluating data quality results

The process for evaluating data quality is consists of steps
presented in Picture 1.
There are five steps, actually descriptors from ISO 19113
that describe subelements and elements of data quality:
3. identify data quality elements and subelements, as
well as the data quality scope errors

data structure can be conceptual, logical or physical

853

1.
2.
3.
4.

identify a data quality mesure

select and apply a data quality procedure
determine the data quality result
determine conformance to specificied requirements

on all or part of the dataset, and can be conducted in a

systematic manner on the entirely of the selection (a full
inspection or so-called a 100% inspection) or by sampling
on a representative subset of the selection.
It has to be noticed that full inspection may be undertaken if
the size of the production lot is sufficiently small, otherwise
the sampling is applied. Automated techniques includes the
use of validation software and other programmed solutions.
Non-automatic technique involves direct (visual) review of
data.

Reporting data quality results

Quantitative data quality results are reported as metadata in
accordance with ISO 19115 Metadata. There are two
conditions under which a quality evaluation report is to be
produced:
1. when data quality results reported as metadata are only
reported as pass/fail
2. when aggregated data quality results are generated
In the second case, the report has to explain how
aggregation was done and how to interpret the aggregate
result. However, a quality evaluation report may be created
at any other time (for example, in order to provide more
detail than reported as metadata), but a quality evaluation
report cannot be used instead of reporting as metadata.

Picture 1: Evaluating and reporting data quality results

The standard specifies the fields to be filled in when

reporting on assessment as a quality evaluation report
(Annex I in the standard):

Data quality evaluation methods

identification of reporting document

The ISO 19114 defines two methods for evaluating data

quality (Picture 2):
1. a direct method of comparing data with other data,
either within the dataset (in this case, the method is
direct and internal) or external data
2. an indirect method of deducing or estimating of
measure of data quality based on external knowledge,
i.e. from metadata and, more specifically, from lineage
information or data usage

scope observed
measure used (formula, resulting values, result unit,
reliability, reliability unit)
confidence in conformance test (confidence value,
confidence unit, documents explaining the method)
type of quality evaluation method used (direct, external
etc., inspection strategy applied)
description of quality method used (basic assumptions,
processing algorithms, definition of parameters, parameter
values for the specific test, parameter units)
possible aggregation of results (unit for aggregated
values, resulting values, statistics used for aggregation,
computation date, pointer to aggregation report)
other descriptions may be provided if necessary

4. THE MGI EXPERIENCE

The Military Geographical Institute of the Serbian Armed
Forces issues a set of digital geospatial products, mainly
vector and raster topographic and geographic maps from scale
1:25.000 to 1:1.500.000, the appropriate digital elevation
models and digital ortophoto maps at different scales. In fact,
almost all of them are by-products of a central (geo)spatial
database (CGDB) which stores spatial data (in vector and
raster form), the relations between spatial features, attributes
of features, symbology, geographical names, marginal data,
etc., all within basic scale at 1:25.000. The spatial database is
updated mainly by geodetic (photogrametric) survey and
appropriate field works.

Picture 2: Quality evaluation methods

Whichever be the method used, the evaluation can be done
854

The geospatial products of the MGI are used by Serbian

Army Forces and Ministry of Defence for various kind of
spatial analysis and planning and for dicision-making
process, in peace as well as in war. This is the main reason
why the MGI have to pay a full attention to the spatial data
quality. The system of quality contol implemented is an
indispensable part of the data production process in MGI. It
is full-scaled, and comprise appropriate checking every
single data and inspection of every phase of the whole
production process.

(acquisition, processing, storage, distribution and updating

spatial data) considerable simplefied. But, the risk of poor
quality of data has increased as well. Using a spatial dataset
with no information about the quality (as well as with
incomplete or ambigous information) can lead to wrong
decision, what can have huge consequences.
So, it is very important to adopt and maintain a clear
defined, coherent system of spatial data quality, usable and
equally understandable for data producers as well as for data
users. In other words, it should to implement data quality
standards.

The testing and assesment are done automatically or

manually, and any discrepancies are immediately vizualized
and localized. Each stage is reported and signed by
authorized person. From time to time, the rejected data are
investigate in order to perceive possibilities for improving
quality of data acquisition and processing.

The Military Geographical Institute, as a leading military

and scientific cartographic institution in Serbia recognized
the ISO standards as the most appropriate standards for
implementation in area of spatial data quality. The ISO
standards for data quality (and geographical information as
a whole) are widely adopted by similar institution all over
the world. At this stage of implementation, the MGI adopted
ISO 19113 and ISO 19114 as a basis for elaboration a
process of data quality control. The first results encourage
and the MGI will continue to go on this way.

When MGI adopted a digital cartography production (in the

middle of 1990's), the existing data quality control system
(that used for analogous products) was just slightly adapted.
From few years ago, it become obviously that it has to be
completely revised and replaced by a new system, based on
international and national standars. After some
investigation, the ISO standars are choosed as the most
suitable for implemantation in MGI.

REFERENCES
[1] Wenzhong, S., Fisher, P., Goodchild, M. F., Spatial
data Quality, Taylor & Francis, London, 2002
[2] Rapai, M., Luketi, N., "ISO norme za kontrolu
kvalitete geoinformacija", Geodetski list, Zagreb, 62
(85) No. 1 (2008) 23-36.
[3] Jakobsson, A., Giversen, J., Guidelines for
Implementing the ISO 19100 Geographic Information
Quality Standards in National Mapping and Cadastral
Agencies,
http://
www.eurogeographics.org/documents/Guidelines_ISO
19100_Quality.pdf, Online: June 2014
[4] Standards
guide:
ISO/TC211
Geographic
Iinformation/Geomatics:
2009-06-01,
The
International Organization for Standardization/
Technical Committee 211, http://www.isotc211/
Outreach/ISO_TC_211_Standards_Guide.pdf., Online:
June 2014
[5] Pei Wang, P., Yu Y., Zhao, L., Guo, X., Quality control
of "DLG and MAP" product The 8th International
Symposium on Spatial Data Quality, pp. 71/73, Hong
Kong, 2013.
[6] The International Organization for Standardization/
Technical Committee 211, ISO19113:2002 :
Geographic information Quality principles, ISO,
Geneva, 2004.
[7] The International Organization for Standardization/
Technical Committee 211, ISO19114:2003 :
Geographic information Quality evaluation
procedures, ISO, Geneva, 2003.

The main problem in this process is that it requires

considerable additional resources. It is not possible to
provide it, specially now when the priority is given on
completely and radical changing existing geodetical and
cartographical features and solutions (geodetic datums,
reference coordinate systems, orientation, dimension and
size of all multi-sheets maps, letter, etc). Besides, there is no
national implementation guidelines (or similar kind of
national support) in Serbia: the MGI nowadays has to
implement ISO data quality standards directly.
So, the MGI started to implement quality control system and
ISO standars step by step, from the easier tasks toward the
more complex tasks. Till today, the user requirements and
products specification are defined, the existing system of
data quality control and assessment is reexamined in the
light of ISO 19113 and ISO 19114 (a description of quality
elements, quality sub-element and quality measures
applicable for that dataset, setting the quality evaluation
procedures, etc), existing procedures are analysed in detail
to identify the major quality gaps, and some procedures
according to considered standards are implemented (and
some other are planned for implementation, as soon as the
needed conditions to be achieved).
The completely implementation is expected to be done untill
the end of 2016.

5. CONCLUSION
The spatial data play an important role in decision making
process. Thanks to the use of modern technologies, the
spatial data became more procurable and data management

855

THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN APPROPRIATE FRAMEWORK OF IP

MANAGEMENT
MILANA VITAS
RT-RK Institute for Computer Based Systems, Novi Sad, Serbia, milana.vitas@rt-rk.com
DRAGAN KUKOLJ
RT-RK Institute for Computer Based Systems, Novi Sad, Serbia, dragan.kukolj@rt-rk.com
MIROSLAVA DRAI
RT-RK Institute for Computer Based Systems, Novi Sad, Serbia, miroslava.drazic@rt-rk.com
ELJKO TEKI
University of Novi Sad/Faculty of Technical Science, Novi Sad, Serbia, tekicz@uns.ac.rs
SANDRA KUKOLJ
RT-RK Institute for Computer Based Systems, Novi Sad, Serbia, sandra.kukolj@rt-rk.com

Abstract: This paper illustrates the appropriate framework for development and management of the intellectual
property (IP) assets in the enterprises. The focus of this work was on development of unique IP management framework
consisting of IP strategies with the aim to develop, manage and finally commercialize patent portfolio. We considered
an approach where patent strategies are defined as internal and external. In this paper, it is shown that the IP Audit
gives the complete overview of the IP resources of one company. The IP strategies always need to include patent filling
strategies and they might be offensive, such as: obtaining a competitive advantage, generating income from transfer of
intellectual rights and using as bargaining chips; or strategies could be defensive: fencing technology in, blocking
competitors and confusing or intimidating competitors. As the final stage of an appropriate IP framework - the
commercialization is developed through its the main directions: product enhancement, licensing the patent rights, joint
ventures and/or creating strategic alliances.
As a contribution to the support of creating described IP management framework, a recently developed software tool
for competitive intelligence based on patent data is used. Patent Search and Analysis for Landscaping and Management
(PSALM) tool analyzes, compares and evaluates strengths and weaknesses of different patent portfolios. A single realworld case study as an illustration of PSALM tool usage capabilities is presented.
Keywords: IP management framework, patents, economic asset, IP audit, IP strategy, patent portfolio.
commercialize new ideas. IP management is the heart of
this transformation process.

1. INTRODUCTION
Intellectual property (IP) is one of the concepts whose
content is well known (trademarks, copyrights, patents,
etc.), but which is difficult to define. Generally speaking,
IP is a generic term for the various rights or bundles of
rights which the law accords for protecting creative
efforts, more specifically, for the protection of economic
investment in creative effort [4], [6].

IP is an economic asset, and for this reason, many

countries are seeking practical information on how IP can
be used to promote economic growth. Like other types of
properties, IP can be developed and managed so that it
creates an economic return [6].
The framework which we present in this paper includes
the creation of general strategies for IP management,
improving IP audit sheet, usage of the patent analysis tool
PSALM previously developed by RT-RK engineers and
considering the interesting case study as an example of IP
management.

Effective IP management involves the following four key

areas:
1. Planning/risk management
2. Responsibility
3. Communication
4. Evaluation and reporting.

2. STRATEGY FOR IP MANAGEMENT

The IP of some companies can be a significant asset. The

IP management framework of a company has been
developed to assist agencies to manage their IP
effectively.

IP strategy, as an integral part of an overall business strategy,

should follow the mission of a certain institution.
Competitive environment, the companys technology
position, its size and the business maturity determine the IP
strategy. Depending on these conditions, an appropriate IP
value extraction model(s) is chosen. IP strategy is not static
and should be adapted when the conditions change. There

As the product cycle shortens and competitors reduce

time to market, the competition must continuously
validate and improve its processes to develop and
856

are many models of IP strategies. Two major and wellknown IP strategies [3] are:

The IP acquisition and maintenance strategy is the third

internal element of the IP strategy. The company must
develop rules to determine what type of IP rights will be
secured. It deals with cost implications, patent filing
strategies and with IP maintenance to minimize risks.

Creation of exclusivity - it allows a company to create

unique products that others are not allowed to copy.
Use of this model implies that one actively monitors the
market and acts when competitors use the exclusive IP.
For example, Honeywell received an award of US$127
million for damages from Minolta for technology it
itself did not commercialize. IBM made US$1 Billion
from licensing non-core technologies).

The first IP strategy, called the enforcement strategy, is

the use of competitive intelligence and patent information.
These are all part of the overall strategy to enhance
competitiveness between companies. Second external IP
strategy is the competitive intelligence strategy that
focuses on future direction and shape of technologies and
industries. Competitive intelligence has been defined in
various ways, as the knowledge that could assist the
decision of the company CEO, in order to achieve the best
strategic goal of the company, analyze, understand and
disseminate information upon the activities of the
competitors, the technologies and the general tendencies
of the companys activities, etc. The third external IP
strategy represents the public-policy issues, which might
present a barrier and have a negative impact on making
use of the IP. An example of public-policy issues [3] are:
the use of open source software, bio-prospecting, access
to essential medicines, etc.

Defense against attacks by other companies - Here IP is

used as some kind of insurance, or deterrent. In Europe,
36% of patents are not used. Whenever the company is
accused of infringing someones IP, its own portfolio is
checked for usage by the accuser.
In addition to the above strategies, IP strategies address
the management of IP internally, as well as externally [3].
An internal IP strategy is comprised of:
the IP audit,
the IP policy and
the IP acquisition & maintenance strategies
An external IP strategy is comprised of:
the enforcement strategy,
the competitive intelligence strategy and
the public-policy issues.

There are also many models of IP strategies, including

patent filing, which could be offensive or defensive.
Patent protection is obtained as a part of an offensive
strategy to:

The IP audit is the first internal element of an IP strategy

and it forms the basis of the IP strategy. It is defined as a
systematic review of the IP assets owned, used or
acquired by a business. Both internal and external assets
[3], [5] are listed in Table 1.

Obtain a competitive advantage:

Patents are filed to obtain protection for a given
technology, and the patented products or processes are
sold at premium prices.
Generate income:

Table 1: IP audit
Internal Assets
Trademarks
Patents
Designs
Copyright
Trade Secrets
Custom Software
Recipes/Formulations
Manuals
Publications
Training
Licenses in/out

The patents are registered for purposes of licensing them

out to third parties in exchange for paying royalties.

External Assets
Company "House" Brand
Product Brands
Distribution Contracts
Raw Material Networks
Client Lists
Marketing/Advertising
Goodwill
Customer Loyalty
Product Certification
Import/Export Network

Used as bargaining chips:

Companies are enabled to achieve access to third parties
technologies through cross licensing. This patent filing
strategy provides access to technologies, for example
through patent pooling.
Transfer of patent rights:
Patents are obtained by investing in a start-up, or they are
transferred for financing purposes.
On the other hand, patent protection is obtained as a part
of the defensive strategy which:

The IP policy is the second internal element of an IP

strategy and it defines the basic rules that the organization
follows in handling IP. It should also define IP ownership
and explain the rules that apply to independent
contractors.

Fences technology in:

Patents for the invented future or improved products/
processes are filed to force competitors to design around
the patents.

Briefly, the IP policy should address IP ownership,

sharing revenues/benefits from the commercialization of
IP
(between
the
employer
and
employees/researchers/inventors, or between departments
within the institution and sponsors), IP asset management
and negotiation, costs of IP protection and maintenance
payment, management of invention disclosure procedure,
and deciding about transfering technology of spin-off
companies to the private sector for commercialization.

Blocks competitors:
Patent filing can be done to block a third party product.
Patents are not used by the patentee. They form a bar
against the use of the patented product or process, which
causes higher development costs for competitors.
Confuses or intimidates competitors:
A large patent portfolio is obtained to confuse and
857

intimidate competitors and to force them to do additional

R&D around the patents.

decided for the IP strategy to prohibit the sale of products

that infringe on their patents. In the light of this story,
Apple has launched a lawsuit against the company: HTC,
Samsung and Motorola Mobility. The dispute between
Apple and HTC was made in order to ban the import of
all devices in the USA which relate to the following
patents: US5946647, US6343263 and US6125447. In
response to this dispute, the HTC company has taken the
IP strategy of buying S3 Graphics company that won the
lawsuit against Apple.
On the other hand, Microsoft, in its IP framework, used a
strategy of IP commercialization through licensing.
Microsoft commercialized its IP assets through revenues
from Samsung under the copyright on any device that
Samsung sells which is based on Android OS. As the
third company, Oracle has applied a totally different
strategy, which included a lawsuit directly against Google
for violating some of the patents owned by Oracle.
If all of the above is considered, there is an open question
whether Google may protect companies that produce
hardware that uses the Android OS. Also, in addition to
Samsung, Microsoft has gained income from the company
HTC, Acer, ViewSonic, Inventec, etc.
Still, a fact is that the company Google was beaten when
Apple and Microsoft purchased 6,000 patents from
Nortel. After that trade, Google has implemented a
strategy of buying Motorola Mobility company probably
with a reason because Motorola filed a lawsuit against
Apple. Meanwhile, Motorola has lost that lawsuit, and
again there is the question of whether it was the right
decision by Google.
When some company wants to buy a patent portfolio,
some preliminary IP analysis, technology analysis and
analysis of competitors must be carried out. Picture 3
illustrates the analysis related to the patent pool of
Motorola company. The analysis was performed by
means of the cited and citing patents. Picture 3 shows the
list of the above mentioned 55 patents regarding Android
OS dispute. We can see that Motorola owns 26 patents
which not enough and not adequate for defensive Google
IP strategy.
Further step in this case involves the analysis of all
disputes that are active and recently close cases directed
towards the Android OS. Picture 1 illustrates that 50% of
the total number of disputes are related to the Android OS
disputes. With the PSALM tool, the analysis and
classification of the aforementioned patents in Android
dispute were done in the context of patent owners. Picture
2 illustrates this analysis.

3. COMMERCIALIZATION
In the previous section we considered different IP
Management strategies in order to define appropriate IP
framework. In context of that story, this section presents
the final stage of IP framework-IP commercialization [4].
IP commercialization stimulates economic growth in
several ways:
Product enhancement
Licensing (e.g. Dolby Laboratories-sound technology)
Joint ventures and strategic alliances.
Product enhancement is defined as an ability to produce a
better, customized product. It is useful when competitors
do not have some advantages for IP commercialization.
Licensing is one of the most dynamic ways that IP uses.
IP rights are shared under certain conditions defined by
the contract with another company (the licensee), in
exchange for the payment of royalties. Licensing can be
attractive for the licensors as well, because they can reach
markets that they may not otherwise be able to reach (for
example, because they may not have distribution channels
or manufacturing capacity).
Joint ventures and strategic alliances are combined to
form businesses alliances. The legal forms vary, but IP
licenses are a common aspect of such ventures. They are
often combined with a development agreement contract,
whereby the parties divide up responsibilities and IP
ownership, with respect to the research and development
of an agreed technology or product. The parties agree to
cross-license their IP in order to create or manufacture a
better product. A strategic alliance may consist of a
network of companies, for research centers that agree to
share and leverage resources [4].

4. CASE STUDY
As an illustrative example, in the context of mentioned IP
framework and its IP strategies we presented an analysis
of actual litigation case and lawsuit against the Android
operating system developed primarily for smart phones
[8],[9]. The whole case included an analysis of IP
Resources (IP Audit), IP strategies and consideration of
the final commercialization related to the companies
which are directly or indirectly involved in this case. The
PSALM [2] tool is used as a support for this patent
analysis, comparison and assessment of the strengths and
weaknesses of companies and portfolios. In this section,
the so-called Android OS case will be presented and
analyzed.

At the end of this example there are several conclusion

facts:
Google currently does not have a strong portfolio that
could defend the Android OS, so the companies are left
to themselves.

As devices based on Android OS started taking an

increasing place on the global market, the number of
lawsuits against manufacturers who sell smart phones
based on Android OS, has been increasing. Most of the
lawsuits were filed by the main competitors: Google,
Apple and Microsoft.
In light of the development of an appropriate IP
framework and the appropriate IP strategy, Apple has

Based on the analysis of Picture 3, it can not be

concluded that the decision to buy Motorola's patents
was wrong, however, further work should be carried out
including technological analysis of whether these
patents were close to patent disputes in order to predict
possible further purchases by Google.
858

Picture 1: Patent disputes

Picture 2: Distribution of patents by the owner of the patent rights

Picture 3: All cited and citing patents in dispute

859

[2] Kukolj, D, Tekic, Z., Nikolic, Lj., Panjkov, Z.,

Pokric, M., Drazic, M., Vitas, M., Nemet, D.,
Comparison of Algorithms for Patent Documents
Clusterization, Mipro 2012
[3] WIPO-Strategy for IP Management,2012.
[4] IP Asset Development and Management: A key
Strategy for Economic Growth
[5] http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/freepublicatio
ns/en/intproperty/896/wipo_pub_896.pdf
[6] IP Audit Tool
[7] http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/freepublicatio
ns/en/intproperty/927/wipo_pub_927.pdf
[8] Intellectual Property Management Framework for the
NSW Public Sector
[9] http://www.dpc.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/00
04/1012/Intellectual_Property_05.pdf
[10] These tables show HOW Android infringes Apple's
two HTC-beater patents
[11] http://www.fosspatents.com/2011/07/these-tablesshow-how-android-infringes.html
[12] The smartphone patent wars
[13] http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/de24f970-f8d0-11e0a5f7-00144feab49a.html#axzz1caYTb5ix
[14] Apples Victory Over Motorola in Essential Patent
Case is Huge
[15] http://www.trefis.com/stock/aapl/articles/106425/app
les-victory-over-motorola-in-essential-patent-case-ishuge/2012-03-01?from=email%3Anotd

5. CONCLUSION
This paper gives a contribution to research methods and
techniques in the field of management of intellectual
property. It illustrates the PSALM tool for automatic
processing of patent documents. Its real power is in
analyzing portfolios with a larger number of patents.
In this paper, we analyzed case of current lawsuit
regarding Android operating system, developed primarily
for the so-called "smart phones". A further possibility can
be reflected in finding new ways to expand the palette of
applicable methods for the commercialization of
intellectual property resources. Also, future work will be
concentrated on extending the test data set in order to
further verify the results and improve data mining
techniques, but also clustering and visualization modules.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was partially supported by the Ministry of
Education, Science and Technological Development of
the Republic of Serbia under Grant TR36029 and by the
Secretary of Science and Technology Development of the
Province of Vojvodina under Grant 114-451-2636/201201.

REFERENCES
[1] Tekic, Z., Kukolj, D., Nikolic, Lj., Pokric, M.,
Drazic, M., Vitas, M.: SMEs, Patent Data and New
Tool for Business Intelligence, Proceedings of
International Conference for Entrepreneurship,
Innovation and Regional Development ICEIRD 2012

860

UNCERTAINTY ANALYSYS OF ANGLE OF ATACK MEASUREMENT

DEJAN PAVLOVI
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, vazduhoplovi@toc.vs.rs
SLAAN PEKMEZOVI
Technical Test Center, Belgrade, vazduhoplovi@toc.vs.rs

Abstract: In this paper is presented one of the methods of uncertainty analysis of angle of attack measurement using
modular approach. Measurement system is treated as array of serial connected modules, witch are described by the
analytical expressions with analysis of potential sours of errors. Then is analyzed uncertainty of each of sours of errors for
each module and also combined uncertainty at the output of the each module. Then is analyzed uncertainty of howl system.
Keywords: uncertainty, measurement system, angle of attack.

1. INTRODUCTION
Due to the fact that during the testing of the aircraft, it is
necessary to estimate the accuracy with which it measures
certain parameters, it is necessary to determine the
measurement uncertainty for the measurement of flight test
parameters. Angle of attack (hereinafter abbreviated AOA)
is a one of the parameters witch is acquired by acquisition in
aircraft flight testing. This article describes one of the
methods for uncertainty analysis evaluation of angle of
attack measurement, in fact, there are several methods as for
example Monte Carlo method [1]. In analysis was used
approach to modeling measurement system [1], that means
all main parts of measurement chain was threaded as
modules and output from one module witch comprise
uncertainty for that module is used as input to the next
module. Computations and results were obtained using
Excel spreadsheet.

Picture 1: Measurement process block diagram.

After the angle of attack transducer was mounted on the
plane as part of the measuring equipment, it was performed
its calibration with klinometer produced by Hilgar Watts
with precision of 1` or 0.01660. Calibration conducted thru
33 data point in range from +24.50 to -25.50 presented in
the Table 1.
Table 1: Calibration data points.
Measurement
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

3. MEASUREMENT PROCESS AND

CALIBRATION
Measurement process is presented in picture 1, and
conducted in the way that acquisition systems UAM-5
provide 5V DC power supply for potentiometer sensor of
angle of attack. Continual signal from potentiometer is
conducted to UAP-16 signal conditioner in UAM-5
acquisition system. Card UAP-16 is 32-channel acquisition
card for unipolar continual signals. Signal is further
exported to the A/D Converter card UCC-A of UAM-5
system, with resolution of 12 bit. That means that continual
voltage signal in range of 5 V DC from potentiometer
sensor is digitalized with 4096 quantization levels, witch
means that measured range of 5 V is quantized in steps of
0.122mV. Those quantization levels we called counts.

861

Digits
2405
2412
2363
2340
2347
2310
2287
2287
2248
2224
2229
2185
2161
2163
2126
2110

Angle
set
24.5
24.5
21.5
19.5
19.5
16.5
14.5
14.5
11.5
9.5
9.5
6.5
4.5
4.5
1.5
0

Measurement
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33

Digits
2102
2100
2061
2038
2044
1999
1975
1983
1947
1920
1923
1885
1859
1859
1821
1805
1801

Angle
set
-0.5
-0.5
-3.5
-5.5
-5.5
-8.5
-10.5
-10.5
-13.5
-15.5
-15.5
-18.5
-20.5
-20.5
-23.5
-25.5
-25.5

Regression analysis was used to obtain the least squares best

fit curve to data acquired by calibration process and that is
in fact straight line presented in Picture 2.

4. POTENTOMETER MODUL OUTPUT

EQUATIONS
Angle of attack transducer was produced in military
technical institute and it is potentiometer type of 2.5
K. Potentiometer is passive element and its behaved as
voltage divider e.g. full supply voltage at his final ends are
divides by wiper as it present in the next Picture 4, so
potentiometer are designated to obtain voltage drop between
his wiper and minus end. This voltage drop as part of body
resistance RP designated at Picture 4 as RP, should be linear
proportional to angular displacement with amplitude witch
depends of supply voltage [2].

Straight line best fit of calibration data

25
20
15

Angle of atack

10
5
0
-5
-10

y = 0.0824x - 173.74
R2 = 0.9997

-15
-20

-25
1790 1840 1890 1940 1990 2040 2090 2140 2190 2240 2290 2340 2390 2440

Counts

Picture 2: Straight line best fit of calibration data

Straight line that best fit the calibration data can express by
next formula:
Y = 0.0824 X 173.74

(1)

Picture 4: Potentiometer as voltage divider

This formula used for transforming data from counts to

angles in data processor module witch convert recorded
counts during acquisition process to angle of attack in
degrees.

Equation witch express potentiometer output voltage is:

2. MODEL OF SYSTEM

Where:
V0
VI
K
XP

V0 = VI K X
XP

(2)

output voltage,
input voltage,
potentiometer sensitivity,
maximum angle in degrees that potentiometer
can travel and,
X
sensed angle in degrees.
When we analyze an uncertainty for the potentiometer
module, we have to consider the impact that errors in VI, K,
X and XP will have on the output value V0. We should take
in consideration error sources as: sensed angle, supply
voltage, maximum angle, sensitivity, linearity, hysteresis,
repeatability and resolution.
Sensed angle. In this analysis, a klinometer produced by
Hilger Watts type TB103-1is used to provide a given
transducer angle. Therefore, any uncertainty in the angle
established via the klinometer must be determined and
included in the analysis. Resolution of sensed angle based
on his metrology data for klinometer is 1` or 0.01660. Using
this data we take that tolerance limits are +0.01660. For the
purposes of this analysis, we will interpret these limits to be
the 100% confidence interval and that the associated errors
are uniformly distributed. We use as nominal sensed angle
value of 24.5 degree.
Supply voltage. AOA transducer has potentiometer sensor,
witch is a passive component and need excitation to produce
analog voltage signal. Excitation of 5V DC is provided by
UAP-16 card in acquisition system UAM-5. Excitation
voltage accuracy is stated to be + 0.015 V. In this analysis
we assume that the error limits for the excitation voltage
represent the 100% confidence interval and that the errors
are uniformly distributed.

The angle of attack measurement chain is modeled in the

following way: first module is transducer of angle of attack,
signal conditioner as second and data processor as third
module.
Block diagram of the system model comprising modules
used for uncertainty analysis of AOA measurement is
presented in the picture 3.

Picture 3: System model of measurement chain.

The output Y, from any given system module comprises the
input of the next module in the series, it means that any
output carries an element of uncertainty, and this uncertainty
will be present at the input of a subsequent module.
In this analysis we dont take into consideration errors
caused by signal losses and attenuations due to modules
connections, interfaces and cables. Error sources witch will
take into the consideration are:
error associated with transducer,
error associated with signal-conditioner and
error associated with data processor calibration
polynomial.
862

Maximum Angle. The specification sheet for the AOA

potentiometer indicates a maximum or actual electrical
travel of 3400 0.10. We interpret that for the maximum
angle error limit is 0.10. We assume that these limits
represent a 100% confidence interval and assume that the
associated errors are uniformly distributed.
Sensitivity. The potentiometer sensitivity is essentially the
dimensionless slope of the linear response curve shown in
Picture 4. Ideally, the potentiometer sensitivity should have
a value of unity. However, variation in potentiometer
sensitivity can occur due to non-linearity, hysteresis,
resolution or other factors.
Linearity, or more appropriately non-linearity, is a measure
of the deviation of the actual input-to-output performance of
the device from an ideal linear relationship. Linearity error
is fixed at any given input, but varies with magnitude and
sign over a range of inputs. The specification for AOA
transducer indicates linearity in range of 0.093%FS. For the
purposes of this analysis, we take a limits of the 0.0093
FS. We also interpret these limits to represent a 100%
confidence interval and assume that the linearity error is
uniformly distributed.
Hysteresis: Hysteresis error is a kind of repeatible error and
refers to the offset calculated by approaching a set of data
points from opposite directions. The specification sheet for
AOA indicates Hysteresis error in range of 0.1% FS. We
represent Hysteresis error with limit of + 0.01 FS. We also
interpret these limits to represent a 100% confidence
interval and that the errors are uniformly distributed.
Repeatability: Repeatability error is calculated by
collecting data at the same point for example two or more
time, then comparing the data to see the differences in each
measurement. The specification sheet for AOA indicates
repeatability error in range of 0.022% FS and we use
repeatability error limit in range of + 0.0022 FS. We also
interpret these limits to represent a 100% confidence
interval and assumed that the errors are uniformly
distributed.
Resolution: Resolution defines the smallest possible
increment of value for example voltage or angle change that
can be detected. In potentiometers, resolution is the voltage
drop in one turn of resistance wire. Because we havent the
resolution of the potentiometer expressed in terms of travel
in inches or degrees, we use the specification sheet for AOA
that indicates resolution limit of + 0.10. We interpret these
limits as +0.029% FS, to represent a 100% confidence
interval and assumed that the errors are uniformly
distributed.
Potentiometer module Output Equation. For
potentiometer module we develop equation witch establish
connection between module input and module output
including parameter witch affect uncertainty of that module:
Pout = VS K S

Where:
Pout
VS
KS
AFIX

AFIX
+ ER
AMAX

AMAX
ER

Maximum angle
Repeatability error

Sensitivity KS wi can express as:

KS = L + R + H + NS

Where:
L
R
H
NS

(4)

Linearity
Resolution
Hysteresis
Nominal sensitivity

In next Table 1 are listed all parameters with its description,

nominal or mean values, error limits, confidential interval
and assumed type of error distribution witch are used in
potentiometer module equation [3].
Table 1: Parameters used in Potentiometer Module
Equation
NomiPara%
nal or
Error
Error
meter Description
Confi
Mean
Limits
Distrib.
Name
dence
Value
Supp._
Excitation
Volta5V
+ 0.015V 100 Uniform
Voltage
ge
Klinometer
Sensed
Fixture
24.50 +0.01660 100 Uniform
Angle
Angle
Max. Max. Pot.
+0.10
100 Uniform
3400
Angle
Angle
Nom.S Potentiom.
1
ens sensitivity
Line- Sensitivity
0
+0.00093 100 Uniform
arity Linearity
Reso- Transducer
100 Uniform
0
+0.029
lution Resolution
Hyste100 Uniform
Hysteresis
0
+0.001
resis
Repea- Repeatabi0
+0.00022 100 Uniform
tability
lity

5. SIGNAL-CONDITIONER MODUL OUTPUT

EQUATIONS
Signal Conditioner Module (M2) consist of 16-channel
signal conditioner card UAP-16 (UAP - Universal
Acquisision Potentiometre) and A/D converter UCC-A card,
(UCC-Universal Coder Card) bought manufactured by
Socit de Fabrication d'Instruments de Mesure (SFIM) and
integrated together in acquisition system UAM-5 (UAMUniversal Acquision Model). The UAP-16 card, witch
consists of low pass filter and amplifier, accept input
continuous voltage in range 0V to 5V. SFIM specifies an
accuracy of 0.25% ( 12.5 mV) of input voltage range and
we assume that associated confidence level is 100%. In this
analysis, we assume that error associated with the signal
conditioning module is uniformly distributed.
The UCC-A card is 12-bit analog to digital converter. That
means that continuous input voltage in range (0-5) V DC is
quantized by 4096 quantization levels or counts. The filtered
voltage signal from UAP-16 card is quantized in UCC-A

(3)

Potentiometer output
Supply voltage
Sensitivity
Fixture angle
863

card to a digital value ranging from 0 to 4095 counts.

During quantization, a finite number of counts are used to
represent a continuous value. The resulting resolution limit
from the quantization of a 5 V signals using a 12-bit ADC is
5 V/2048 or 1.2 mV. The quantization error limits is half of
the quantization step or 0.6 mV. In this case we assume
that the associated errors are uniform distributed with a
100% confidence level.
Signal Conditioner Output Equation. Because of
calibration purposes the 0 to 4095 counts output range from
UCC-A card is limited according to input voltages in UAP16 card corresponding to angles ranging from - 250 to + 250
e.g. angle range of 500 corresponds voltage range of 0.737
V and 611 counts. The conversion from volts to counts is
equal to 611 counts/0.737V or 819.67 counts/V. In addition,
00 angles correspond to 2110 counts. For signal conditioner
module we develop equation:
SCout = ( Pout + Acc + Q ) * C1 + C2

regression analysis of the calibration data, as shown in

Picture 2. The regression equation is typically expressed as:
YR = a X + b

Where:
YR
predicted value for a given X,
b
value of YR when X is equal to zero and
a
amount of change in YR with X.
In regression analysis, the standard error of estimate is a
measure of the difference between actual values and values
estimated from a regression equation (6). The standard error
of estimate is also defined as the standard deviation of the
uniform distributions of Y for any given X [3].
Standard Error of Estimate. The standard error of
estimate is computed using equation:

(5)

(Y Y )
i

Where:
SCout
Pout
Acc
Q
C1
C2

(6)

see =

Signal Conditioner output

Potentiometer output
Accuracy
Quantization error
Coefficient 1
Coefficient 2

Where:
see
Yi
YiR
N

i =1

iR

(7)

( N 2)

standard error of estimate,

angle in i-th data point,
angle in i-th data point by regression analysis,
number of data points.

In next Table 2 are listed all parameters with its description,

nominal or mean values, error limits, confidential interval
and assumed type of error distribution witch are used in
signal conditioner module equation [3].

The calibration data listed in Table 1 and the linear

regression equation (1) were entered into a spreadsheet. The
standard error of estimate was computed to be equal to
0.27880 for AOA transducer angle.

Table 2: Parameters used in Signal Conditioner Module

Equation

Data Processor Output Equation. The output equation for

the data processing module is expressed in equation (9).
Relevant information for the equation parameters are listed
in Table 3 [3].

Nom. or
Error
%
Error
Mean
Limits Confidence Distrib.
Value

Parameter
Name

Descripti
on

Pot
Output

Voltage

2.5 V

Accuracy

Signal
Conditioner
Accuracy

0V

+ 12.5
mV

100

Quantization

Quantization
Error

0V

+ 0.6
mV

100

Coeff1

Conversion 819.67
Coefficient Counts/V

Coeff2

Conversion
Coefficient

DPout = SCout * C3 C4 + EEst

Where:
DPout
SCout
C3
C4
EEst

Uniform

Uniform

(9)

Data processor output

Signal Conditioner output
Coefficient 3
Coefficient 4
Standard error of estimate

Table 3: Parameters used in Data Processor output

Module Equation

2110
Counts

Parameter DescriptName
ion

6. DATA PROCESOR MODUL OUTPUT

EQUATIONS

Nominal
Error
%
Error
or Mean
Limits Confidence Distrib.
Value

Data
SC_Output Processor
Input
Regression 0.0824
Coeff3
Line Slope o/count
Regression
Coeff4
173.74o
Line
Intercept
+
Standard
Regression
0.5465
Error of
0o
Error
0
Estimate

The data processing module takes the quantized A/D

converter output counts and computes an AOA transducer
angle using the linear regression equation (1) obtained from
calibration data. Errors associated with data processing
result from computation round-off and differences between
an acquired value during calibration and the value estimated
from a regression equation.
In this analysis, we will observe the error resulting from
864

100

Uniform

100

Uniform

100

Uniform

Pout Pout K S
A
=

= VS FIX
AMAX
H
K S H

7. SYSTEM OUTPUT AND TOTAL

UNCERTAINTY
In the system analysis approach, each module is analyzed
separately and the output and associated uncertainties for
each module are propagated to subsequent modules. The
output for the AOA Measurement System and the associated
total uncertainty are equivalent to the output and uncertainty
from the data processing module M3. For uncorrelated input
quantities the square of the standard uncertainty associated
with the output estimate y is given by [3]
u2 ( y ) =

2
i

( y)

Signal Conditioner module Sensitivity

Coefficients

(10)

i =1

The quantity is ui(y) (i=1,2,...N) the contribution to the

standard uncertainty associated with the output estimate y
resulting from the standard uncertainty associated with the
input estimate xi [3]:
ui ( y ) = ci u ( xi )

(11)

SCout
= C1
Pout

(20)

SCout
= C1
Acct

(21)

SCout
= C1
Q

(22)

SCout
=1
C2

(23)

Data Processor module Sensitivity Coefficients

where ci is the sensitivity coefficient associated with the

input estimate xi, i.e. the partial derivative of the model
function f with respect to Xi, evaluated at the input estimates
xi [3]:
f
f
ci =
=
xi X i

(19)

(12)

Dout
= C3
SCout

(24)

Dout
= SCout
C3

(25)

Dout
= SCout
C3

(26)

Dout
= 1
C4

(27)

Dout
=1
ERe g

(28)

X1 = x1 ,... X N = xN

The three system modules were evaluated using Excel

spreadsheet calculations. The appropriate module equations
are stated earlier as (3), (4), (5) and (9) for reference.
Excel Spreadsheet Analysis. For potentiometer module,
signal conditioner module and data processor module we
have developed partial differential equations for each
parameter and error source coefficient and they were
determined offline. The partial derivative equations are
listed below for reference.

Pout
A
= K S FIX
VS
AMAX

(13)

Pout Pout K S
A
=

= VS FIX
AMAX
N S
K S N S

(14)

The module equations, partial derivative equations and error

source data were entered into an Excel spreadsheet. The
inverse uniform distribution function was also included to
compute the coverage factors ( 3 =1.7321) for specified
distribution and confidence levels. We assume uniform
distribution for all error sources. The probability density
function f(x) for the uniform distribution is given in next
equation:

(15)

1 , a x a,
f ( x ) = 2a
0, otherwise

Potentiometer modul Sensitivity Coefficients

Pout VS K S
=
AMAX
AFIX

(29)

Pout
AFIX
= VS K S
AMAX
A
( MAX )2

(16)

The containment limits of the distribution are a . The

standard deviation, or standard uncertainty, u for the
uniform distribution is obtained from folowing equation:

Pout Pout K S
A
=

= VS FIX
AMAX
L
K S L

(17)

u= a
3

Pout Pout K S
A
=

= VS FIX
AMAX
R
K S R

(18)

The uncertainty analysis results for each module are

summarized in Tables 4 through 6.

865

(30)

Table 4. Spreadsheet Analysis Results for Potentiometer Module

Parameter Name
Supply Voltage
Fixture Angle
Max Angle
Nominal sensitiv.
Linearity
Resolution
Hysteresis
Repeatability

+ Error
Limits
+0.015 V
+0.01660
+0.10

%
Error
Confi
distribution

Uniform
Uniform
Uniform

dence
100
100
100

Standard
Uncertainty

Sensitivity
Coefficient

Component
Uncertainty

0.00866 V
0.009580
0.057730

0.03676
0.01471V/0
-0.00054 V/0

0.00062 V
0.00014 V
-0.00006 V

+0.00093
Uniform
100
+0.029
Uniform
100
+0.001
Uniform
100
+0.00022
Uniform
100
Potent Module Output is 0.36V

0.0053692
0.05773
0.00577
0.00127

0.184 V
0.184V
0.184 V
0.184 V
Total uncertainty

0.00019 V
0.0603 V
0.00021 V
0.00005 V
is 0.0061V

Nominal
or mean
value
5V
24.50
3400
1
0
0
0
0

Table 5. Spreadsheet Analysis Results for Signal Conditioner Module

Parameter Name
Pot Output
Accuracy
Quantization
Coeff1

+ Error
Limits
0.0125 V
0.0006 V

%
Error
Confi
distribution

Uniform
Uniform
Uniform

dence
100
100
100

Standard
Uncertainty
0.0061V
0.007217V
0.000346V

Uniform

100

Component
Uncertaint
y
819.67 Counts/V 4.98 Counts
819.67 Counts/V 5.92Counts
819.67 Counts/V 0.28Counts
Sensitivity
Coefficient

0.36 V

Coeff2
Uniform
100
Signal Conditioner Module Output is 2405 Counts

1
Total uncertainty is 7.74 Counts

Nominal or
mean value
0.36V
0V
0V
819.67
Counts/V
2110Counts

Table 6. Spreadsheet Analysis Results for Data Processor Module

%
Standard
+ Error
Sensitivity
Component
Nominal or
Error
Confid Uncertaint
Parameter Name
distribution
Limits
Coefficient
Uncertainty
mean value
ence
y
0
SC_Output counts
Uniform
100
7.74 Counts 0.0824 /Counts 0.63748 Counts 2405 Counts
0.0824
Coeff3
2405 Counts
0
/Counts
Coeff4
-1
173.74 0
Regression Error
Uniform
100
0.27880
1
0.278800
+ 0.48290
deg
Data processor Module Output is 24.460
Total uncertainty is 0.7 0

8. CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

As presented in Table 6. Spreadsheet Analysis Results for

Data Processor Module the uncertainty for AOA
measurement chain is calculated as B type uncertainty. In
this way for the angle of 24.5 as input angle in the system
we obtain at the output of the Data Processor module angle
value of 24.460, and uncertainty of 0.70 at the output of the
last module in chain in other words system uncertainty is
0.7 degrees.

[1] M G Cox and P M Harris, Software Support for

MetrologyBest Practice Guide No. 6, NPL Report
DEM-ES-011, September 2006.
[2] John G. Webster Measurement, Instrumentation, and
Sensors Handbook, CRC Press LLC, 1999,.
[3] European co-operation for Accreditation, EA-4/02 M:
2013, Evaluation of the Uncertainty of Measurement in
Calibration, September 2013 rev 01.

866

PARTS MARKING SYSTEMS IN MAINTENANCE

SAA PETROVI
Ministry of Defense, Department of Logistics (J-4) of SAF Belgrade, saskop@eunet.rs
JASMINA LOZANOVI AJI
Innovation Center, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, jlozanovic@mas.bg.ac.rs

Abstract:Material support and control is one of important sub-domain in maintenance. In this paper we discus about
part numbering systems, existing schemes, and proposed way for interoperability. This is challenging area.
Keywords: parts marking, interoperability, data mining.
common categories. With classification, similar things are
members of a class. Similar classes are members of yet a
more general class or family, and so on. The relationship
among things and the relationship of a thing to its class
are information signals that are necessary for item
discovery; spend analysis, and product awareness.

1. INTRODUCTION
Technological and software progress with the evolution of
processes within company have highlighted the need to
evolve systems of maintenance process from autonomous
systems to cooperative and sharing information system
based on software platform [1]. The rapid advancement of
information and communication technologies has resulted
in a variety of maintenance support systems and tools
covering all sub-domains of maintenance. All these
systems are currently based on different models that are
usually complementary and always heterogeneous. The
principal problem confronted by these systems is to
provide the means to move from coexistence to the
interoperability and cooperation within the same
environment [2].

Table 1. Example from real word

Manufacturer/ part number
characters
area
organization
example
Siemens
49D36098001
11
automation
6ES7315Siemens
14
automation
2AH14-0AB0
ALLEN1747-L532
8
automation
BRADLEY
Robert Bosch 0 986 424 797
10
automotive
Mahle
219-1006
7
automotive
SKF
6205-2RSJ
8
industrial
SKF
MU 1207-TV
8
industrial
Volvo
CH 271092
8
vehicles
5320-1001171KAMAZ
13
vehicles
00
3139-00-121NATO (NSN)
13
organizational
6210
EAN
3286340244312
13
organizational
UNSPSC
20184514
8
organizational

Material support and control is one of important subdomain in maintenance. In this paper we discus about part
numbering systems, existing schemes, and proposed way
for interoperability. This is challenging area.

2. PART NUMBERING (MARKING) -CODING

PRODUCTS, PRODUCER AND CUSTOMER
VIEWS
Coding products and services according to a standardized
classification convention is necessary for streamlining
commerce among companies and organizations.
Classifying products and services with a common coding
scheme facilitates commerce between buyers and sellers
and is becoming mandatory in the new era of electronic
commerce [3]. Identification codes are used to make an
unambiguous identification of a thing. The one-to-one
correspondence between the code and the thing is very
useful for recording and linking records of items and
actions taken on the items (such as point-of-sale
transactions, inventory management, and record keeping).
Classification codes are used to group similar things into

Part numbering provides a standard way to reference

parts. Manufacturers use part numbering schemes to
assign a unique number to each part. The goal of any part
numbering system is to uniquely identify the component
approved for a specific application. Any part numbering
system design must consider some purely human
elements. The part numbering system must accommodate
high-volume users people who work with hundreds or
even thousands of part numbers each week. Document
control analysts, warehouse clerks, purchasing agents,
production supervisors, and field technicians need to
accurately and concisely convey part numbers, often over
867

the phone in noisy environments. Many years of academic

study, verified by real-world experience, proves that data
entry errors increase as the number of characters increase.
Numeric
characters
are
universal,
visually
distinguishable, and independent of local language
variations [4, 5]. Manufacturers typically use one of the
following types of part numbering schemes:
A) Non-intelligent Also referred to as nonsignificant. The part number does not provide any
information about the part. Non-significant part
numbers are typically serial (pulled in numerical
order), regardless of the type of part.
B) Intelligent Also referred to as significant. The
part number contains descriptive and informative
details that provide significant information about the
part. Intelligent numbering schemes uses middle path,
encoding only certain attributes in the part numbering
system, and leaving other attributes to the part. A
super-significant part number can easily require 50 or
even 100 characters.

technologies for its delivery: e-Products and e-Services.

[7]
As cooperative environment progressively evolve, two (or
more) information systems (IS) need to interoperate
between each other in order to fulfill a given objective
determined by the cooperation context. Typically, this
cooperation requires that heterogeneous ISs coordinate
with each other by sharing information. The
interoperability occurs when each one of those ISs is able
to successfully use the exchanged information. When it is
related to exchange and use of information, or to carry out
an operation on behalf of another system, this is
commonly called interoperation. [8]

In the real life codification has to serve logistics.

Processes as procurement, stock management, order
processing and integrated logistics support need to be
supported by a codification system. In the real life
industry still tries impose its own codification system
when furnishing the data required by the consumer. The
absence of a widely accepted data exchange pattern
contributes to this behavior. As result, for complex
systems, Codification Clauses are not easy to issue and
put in practice. Codification process is expensive and time
consuming, [6].

Picture 1. Interoperability properties [8]

Picture 2. Semantic gap configurations (properties) [8]

3. INTEROPERABILITY

In distributed networks, autonomous and heterogeneous

information systems lead up to cooperate in order to
achieve common goals. This cooperation involves
necessarily the capacity of those ISs to interoperate. The
last two figures show opportunities to compare two or
more ISs.

Most important international effort to ensure

interoperability in parts numbering system is NATO
codification system, ISO standard series 22745 and
ECCMA project.
As a multidimensional concept, interoperability can be
viewed from numerous perspectives and approached from
various directions. Interoperability is a broad and complex
subject. Numerous definitions have been given for
interoperability. For instance, one of definitions of
interoperability is the ability of two or more systems or
elements to exchange information and to use the
information that have been exchanged. The
interoperability levels are technical, syntactic, semantic,
and organizational interoperability.

4. CODE TRANSLATOR MODEL

In the real world there is an objective need for Part
Marking Systems (PMS) to understand each other.
Existing classification schemes are showing lack of
semantic precision due to combined usage of functional
and design definitions of products and absence of
appropriate cross-references. Another issue of existing
classifications is that they are valid only in predetermined, well-defined context. [9]

Data attributes focus on information processes of the

system, and contain both data format (syntax) and its
content or meaning (semantics). These data attributes of
interoperability include protocols and formats enabling
information and data interchanges.

If we record all meaningful part attributes within a

database, and use the part number simply as an index to
that data, then our part numbering system goals can easily
be met using only 5 to 7 digits, which can represent
100,000 to 10 million unique part numbers. Most
attributes that people typically want to encode in their part
number system can be either explicitly defined within the
Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) system attributes
(such as document and part type, make or buy sources,
commodity codes, component versus assembly, etc.) or in

The Products and Services area of concern covers the

design, specification, and identification of the
organizations products and services, its lifecycle strategy
and the quality characteristics. Achieving interoperability
at this area of concern requires identifying new
opportunities, and specifying the same aspects for new
products and services that make use of networked
868

the item description (part name or document title). Use

the product structure to manage the relationships of
documents-to-documents (i.e., a "data list"), parts-to-parts
("bill of materials"), and parts-to-documents ("part control
data"). Other item identifiers defined within the PLM
database can be used to satisfy almost any user's
information or query needs. [5]

understanding, data transformation into information,

action taking and outcome measuring. [15]
In general, Data mining is a term used to describe
knowledge discovery by identifying previously unknown
relationships in data. Alternative terms for mining include
knowledge extraction, data archaeology, data dredging
and data harvesting. The technique relates to the idea that
large databases contain a lot of data, with many links
within that data not necessarily becoming evident until the
database is analyzed thoroughly. Data mining is used in
many different areas of business, including marketing,
banking, retailing and manufacturing. The main aim of
data mining in these situations is to uncover previously
hidden relationships and then use this information to
provide some competitive advantage for the organization,
[16].

If we have a short-term need to'' harmonize'' two or more

part marking systems (PMS), it is suitably to apply the socalled '' Data Mining solution'' and create ''neutral''
database, with the proviso that the entire process must be
controlled-managed by an expert in a particular area.
Another approach is to use Expert system for reasoning,
Neural networks, Case-based reasoning, Rule-based
reasoning, Genetic algorithms or combinations of various
methods and techniques. These tools require more time
and knowledge to be created.

We proposed and tested model for part codification

translator. The main premise is that: essential product data
(attributes, features) are generated by manufacturer. Any
specific PMS, by internal schema, rules and Business
processes, create own part numbering (marking) system
and each part have a number code and usually
(mandatory) additional attributes (OEM mark, name,
function, general product). With neutral approach, to
two or more PMS, it is possible to find minimum of
attributes (property-values pair), which may indicate that
it is the same thing.

The integration of data mining and decision support can

significantly improve current approaches and create new
approaches to problem solving, by enabling the fusion of
knowledge from experts and knowledge extracted from
data. [10]
Data Mining and Multiple Attribute Decision Making
(MADM) are two fast growing trends in Operations
Research (OR) /Management Science (MS). [11]
Data mining is an interdisciplinary field that combines
artificial intelligence, database management, data
visualization, machine learning, mathematic algorithms,
and statistics. This technology is motivated by the need of
new techniques to help analyze, understand or even
visualize the huge amounts of stored data gathered from
business and scientific applications. [12]

The above concept implies that different systems PMS,

denote things and always use the attributes specified by
the manufacturer. The core of process is capture data as
is. If may be formed neutral database by using an efficient
tools, which will contain all the attributes, translator
problem will be solved. An efficient tool will provide
indexing the same thing regardless of PMS.

Today, data driven decision making is considered as the

corner-stone of modern organizational strategy. It
involves the mining of large volumes of data, in the quest
for discovering nuggets of knowledge. In recent years
Data Mining practitioners and researches have recognized
the need for formal Data Mining process models that
prescribes the journey from converting data into
knowledge. In this field exists many models and concepts.
[13]
Decision Support Systems (DSS) is a specific class of
computerized information system that supports business
and organizational decision making activities. In the other
hand, Data Mining extends the possibilities for decision
support by discovering patterns and relationships hidden
in the data and therefore enabling an inductive approach
to data analysis. [14]

Picture 3. Concept: Data capture as is [Peter R. Benson,

MIT Information Quality Industry Symposium, July 1517, 2009]

Data mining refers to a broad set of different techniques.

An information extraction activity whose goal is to
discover hidden facts contained in databases. Using a
combination of machine learning, statistical analysis,
modeling techniques and database technology, data
mining finds patterns and subtle relationships in data and
infers rules that allow the prediction of future results.
Taking a narrow view, data mining usually involves large
data repositories and utilizes a collection of tools and
techniques to discover something from the data. The data
mining process can be divided into four phases: business

For experimental phase, we used properties and

knowledge (codification rules, schemas, business process
in part codification, features), and looking part (thing)
attributes in two different designation systems with
specific operators embedded in software which we use.
These operators (see Picture 2.) are discussed in [8].
Suppose that the meaning of the term is defined and
agreed by the EU public procurement vocabulary.

869

Table 2. Overview of synonyms (NATO, Serbia, and EU)

Nato
class
code

Nato name

tires and
tubes
diesel
2815 engines and
components

2610

3110

bearings

SRB
group
code
6605

Now, suppose that we have Nato labeling system joined

to the European labeling, which is presented in the Table
3. This must be done on the basis of the meaning of
words-term.

EU procuSRB
rement
EU name
name
code
gume za
gume 34351100
automobile

2815

motori
34312000
dizel

delovi za
motore

3105

lezaj
44440000
kuglicini

lezajevi

If an independent Serbian labeling exists and to him can

be assigned European labeling.
By introducing a'' European'' labeling, we have created
conditions for the existence of a translator. Using of
software solutions for data mining, as is graphically
shown below, we can make analysis.
On this figure, left boxes are individual ISs, middle box is
operator which combines tools for looking any common
feature, and right box represent selecting of these
attributes (features) and making new values (relations) if
they exists between two or more ISs.

Table 3. Nato labeling system joined to the European labeling

Natoclass
1005
1045
1220
1305
1305
1330
1390
1560
1540
1620
1630
2310
2320
2330
2610
2815
2910
2920
3110
3411
3417
3444
3805
3805
3805
4120
4710
4910

natoname
evropskikodnabavki
Guns,through30mm
35321200
Launchers,TorpedoandDepthCharge
34712300
FireControlComputingSightsandDevices
Ammunition,through30mm
35331100
Ammunition,through30mm
35331100
Grenades
35331300
Fuzes
24615000
AirframeStructuralComponents
35600000
Gliders
34522100
AircraftLandingGearComponents
35641000
AircraftWheelandBrakeSystems
35641000
PassengerMotorVehicles
34110000
34130000
TrucksandTruckTractors,Wheeled
Trailers
34138000
TiresandTubes,Pneumatic,ExceptAircraft
34351100
DieselEnginesandComponents
34312000
34312000
EngineFuelSystemComponents,Nonaircraf
34312000
EngineElectricalSystemComponents,Nonai
Bearings,Antifriction,Unmounted
44440000
BoringMachines
43620000
MillingMachines
42623000
ManualPresses
42636000
EarthMovingandExcavatingEquipment
43250000
EarthMovingandExcavatingEquipment
43211000
EarthMovingandExcavatingEquipment
43220000
AirConditioningEquipment
42500000
Pipe,TubeandRigidTubing
44163100
44510000
MotorVehicleMaintenanceandRepairShop

Picture 4. Data mining

870

evropskoznaenje
puke
lanseri
meci
meci
granate
fitilji,kapisle,upaljai
vojniavioni
jedrilice
delovivojnihaviona
delovivojnihaviona
putnikiautomobili
vozilazaprevozrobe
drumskitegljai
gumezaautomobile
delovizamotore
delovizamotore
delovizamotore
leajevi
mainezabuenje
glodalice
prese
utovarivai
buldoeri
grederi
rashladniureaji
cevi
alati

Property-value pairs are defined in NATO-EU

vocabulary, and so in Serbia-EU vocabulary. Now, we
were looking for any intersection in thus two or more
PMS simultaneously.

In other words, using the common attributes and meaning

of the term, the class of products in NATO is associated
with a group of products in Serbia. Concept can be used
not only to reference the class, but for every single thing.

This gives the following result, in Picture 5.

This result may be permanently stored as a table in the
database.

Picture 5. NATO-EU vocabulary and Serbia-EU vocabulary

5. CONCLUSION
The basic set of information (or attributes) of the product
is created in producing stage. Codification number is just
one additional attribute. Marking system still use those
data regardless of the marking scheme which is used. Not
a problem is, translation of product class, if is provided
that the agreed of meaning (bed, car, microprocessor ...).
Problem is uniquely translating markings referred to one
to another (or between more) marking system. Translation
is not needed; it is necessary (if there is a reason) we can
create reference links between the marking system,
according to the lowest common denominator, in our
case-attribute. If they are powerful database of marking
system, for translation between two or more PMS is
enough a significant product characteristics, such as a
resistor, 20 ohm (there is a problem of language barriers,
method for marking, etc.).

[2]

[3]
[4]

Main benefit of tested concept is real possibility to saving

time for codification in interoperation between two or
more PMS. In this example, top reference marking system
is EU public procurement vocabulary. In real world for
many purposes this reference system can be other.

[5]

[6]

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