Nicole Demasi

Victorian College
of the Arts
Secondary School

Polar discrete molecular compound

Colourless and odourless
liquid at 25oC
Boiling point of 100oC
Freezing point of 0oC
70.8 % of the Earths
surface.
There is a lot of water
vapour in the Earths
atmosphere

 Latent Heat is the energy needed to change the phase of a

substance at its melting or boiling point.
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION of water is the amount of energy
needed to change a fixed amount of water at 0oC from a solid to
a liquid.
LATENT HEAT OF VAPOURISATION
of water is the amount of energy needed
to change a fixed amount of water at
100oC from a liquid to a gas
A HIGH LATENT HEAT means that a
great amount of energy is needed to
change states. Water has a high latent
heat because of its strong
INTERMOLECULAR forces.

 Water has a high SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (amount of

energy needed to raise 1 g of water by 1oC). This means that
water can absorb a lot of heat without raising its temperature.
That is why water is regularly used as a coolant
in radiators.
The DENSITY of water varies
across the three states of matter.
When water freezes it has a
lower density than liquid water
because it expands. That is why
icebergs float on the top of oceans.

A substance will conduct electricity only if it contains charged particles that

are able to move. The covalent bonding in water, which results in the formation
of neutral molecules, means that it should not conduct electricity even
though these molecules move freely in the liquid state. However, pure water
does conduct electricity very slightly. The amount is so tiny that it is still
often described as a non-conductor. The reason for this is the ability of water
molecules to react slightly with themselves to form a small number of ions.
The equation for this reaction is:

H2O(l) + H2O(l)

H3O+(aq) + OH(aq)

The small extent of this reaction means that only a few ions are formed and
that the resulting conductivity is virtually zero.
We often see warnings on appliances that water and electricity do not mix. These are
necessary because the water that we use every day is never pure, but contains
other substances dissolved within it. Often these substances are ionic or react
to form ions in the water. Once such ions are present, the water will conduct
freely as the charged particles are able to move.

Water is often referred to as the UNIVERSAL SOLVENT because it

dissolves many substances particularly salts.
Water is a polar molecule, the oxygen atom is
slightly negative (d-) while the hydrogen atoms
are slightly positive (d+) due to the different
electronegativities of the two atoms
(Oxygen has a greater capacity to attract
electrons than hydrogen.)
The fact that water is polar means that it has
a strong attraction for other polar molecules.
The stronger the attraction, the closer the
molecules can get and the stronger the
intermolecular bonds will become.

Water contains hydrogen bonded to oxygen and so HYDROGEN

BONDS will form. (These only occur whenever hydrogen is bonded to
oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine as they are more electronegative than
hydrogen).

The shared electron moves closer to the

non metal. As a result, hydrogen bonds
allow the nucleus of the hydrogen atom to
be attracted closely to the negative end of
another molecule. This is because the
hydrogen atom only contains one
electron and this is attracted towards the
more electronegative atom leaving the
nucleus vulnerable to be
attracted to the negative region of
another polar molecule

THEY ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE

FOLLOWING PROPERTIES IN WATER:

Relatively high Melting and Boiling Points (This is

because hydrogen bonding is stronger that dispersion
forces alone).
Water expands when it freezes
as the molecules are pushed
apart by the hydrogen bonds which
decreases its density.
Waters ability to dissolve other
substances is due to the hydrogen
bonds forming a strong attraction
to other molecules such as alcohols.

When a substance dissolves in

another it is either pulled apart
or moves into the empty spaces.
SOLUBILITY (how well a solute
dissolves in a solvent) of one
substance into another is usually
determined by the polarity of
the SOLUTE and SOLVENT.
LIKE dissolved LIKE Rule
A Solution is produced when a solute dissolves in a
solvent. When solutes dissolve in water they are
called AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS.

SATURATED SOLUTIONS - when the maximum

amount of solute is added for the volume of the
solution at a particular temperature.
UNSATURATED SOLUTIONS less
than the maximum amount of
solute a solvent can dissolve.
SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION
slowly cooling a saturated solution
to a lower temperature so it
contains more solute than it
should.

Most salts are soluble in water in some extent.

Solubility is influenced by the temperature of
the solution. Some salts increase their solubility
as the temperature increases while others can
show a decrease in solubility as the temperature
increases. Salts with a solubility greater than 1g
per 100 g of water are classified as SOLUBLE.
Salts with solubility below this are called
INSOLUBLE.
Solubility of a substance versus temperature
can be graphed in a SOLUBILITY CURVE.

THE SOLUBILITY RULES ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

All salts containing Na+, K+ and NH4+ are soluble in water.

All nitrate salts (NO3-) are soluble in water.
All chlorides (Cl-), bromides (Br-) and iodides (I-) are
soluble except if they are formed with silver, mercury (I) and lead.
All sulfates (SO4 2-) are soluble except compounds containing silver,
mercury (II), lead, calcium, strontium and barium.
All phosphates (PO4 3-) and carbonates (CO3 2-) are insoluble except when
formed with sodium, ammonium and potassium.
All hydroxides (OH-) are insoluble except compounds
containing the Group I elements as well as ammonium,
barium and calcium.
All sulfides (S 2-) are insoluble except compounds
containing Group I and Group II elements and
ammonium.

REMEMBER
sodium

potassium

sulfates

halogens

ammonium

nitrates

NaKSHAN
EXCEPTIONS EXCEPTIONS
Ba2+
Ag+
Pb2+
Ca2+
Ag+

All of these salts are

soluble except for the ions
listed below.

POLAR Gases dissolve in water

(like ammonia and hydrogen
chloride).
Nitrogen and oxygen are
both NON POLAR and
do not dissolve readily
in water. Only a small
amount of oxygen dissolves in
water but this is enough to
sustain plant and animal life.

CONCENTRATION is usually defined in terms of the amount of

solute per volume of solvent. The greater the quantity of solute
added to the solvent, the more concentrated the solution will be.
Dilute solutions occur when there is very little solute added.
There are many ways to express the concentration of a solution.
These include:
1) Grams per litre (g/L) or milligrams per litre
(mg/L)
2) Micrograms per gram (ppm or
parts per million)
3) Percentage by mass (%w/w)
4) Percentage mass per volume (%w/v)
5) Percentage by volume (%v/v)

Concentration
=
(IN GRAMS/LITRE)

mass of solute in grams

volume of solution in litres

To convert to mg/L the mass must be multiplied by 1000

Find the concentration of a coffee solution that has 15.00

grams of coffee dissolved in 2500ml of water in both g/L
and mg/L.
Convert 2500ml into litres = 2.5 litres
Concentration = 15/2.5
= 6 g / L or 6000 mg / L

(g)
(L)

Calculate the mass of solute needed to make 50 ml of a

0.25 g/L solution of coffee.
Convert 50 ml into litres = 0.05 litres
Concentration = mass / volume
Mass = concentration X volume
= 0.25 X 0.05
= 0.0125 grams or 12.5 mg

so therefore

Parts per million

(ppm)

= mass of solute in micrograms ( mg)

mass of solution in grams

This calculation is used when small quantities

of solute are dissolved to form a solution.
The concentration of chemicals in the
environment are often expressed in
parts per million (ppm)

A sample of pond water contained 88 micrograms/g of dissolved

oxygen gas. Calculate the amount in grams of dissolved oxygen in
4 L of pond water
4 L of pond water has a mass of 4000 g (as 1 ml of water has a
mass of 1 gram)

ppm = mass of solute in micrograms / mass of solution in grams

88

mass

= mass / 4000

= 88 X 4000
= 352000 micrograms

= 0.352 grams

Concentration
(%w/w)

mass of solute (g)

mass of solution (g)

100

Calculate the concentration (%w/w) of 38.4 g of sodium chloride (NaCl) in

150 g of solution.
Concentration = mass of solute / mass of solution X 100
= 38.4 / 150 X 100
= 3840 / 150
= 25.6 % w/w

Concentration
( %w/v)

mass of solute (g)

volume of solution (ml)

100

Calculate the mass of sodium hypochlorite required to

prepare 375 ml of a 1.5 % w/v solution of bathroom
cleaner.
Mass X 100 = concentration %w/v X volume
Mass

= 1.5 X 375 / 100

= 562.5 / 100
= 5.625 g

Concentration =
( %v/v)

volume of solute (ml)

volume of solution (ml)

100

Acetic acid is dissolved in aqueous solution to make a

5% v/v solution of vinegar.
(a)
What volume of acetic acid is in 0.75 L of vinegar ?
(b)
What volume of vinegar contains 25 ml of acetic acid ?
(a)

(b)

5 % v/v = volume of acetic acid / volume of vinegar X 100

5 = acetic acid / 750 X 100
0.05 = acetic acid / 750
Acetic acid volume = 0.05 X 750 = 37.5 ml
5 % v/v = volume of acetic acid / volume of vinegar X 100
5 = 25 / vinegar volume X 100
0.05 = 25 / vinegar
vinegar volume = 25 /0.05 = 500 ml

As our technology becomes more sophisticated, the

pollutants that we discharge will become more complex. It
will therefore take longer for the sea to degrade the waste.
Some waste is biodegradable. This means that it is broken
down by natural processes. However, an increasingly larger
proportion of waste is non-biodegradable.
MICRO-ORGANISMS
Fresh water contains numerous plankton-type microorganisms. These include bacteria, algae and protozoa.
Some micro-organisms need atmospheric oxygen to live.
They are called aerobic micro-organisms. Others can exist
only in the absence of atmospheric oxygen and they are
called anaerobic.
The decay of plant or animal matter produces nitrogen in
the form of amino acids, urea (in urine) and ammonia.
Once this enters the water bacteria will start to react with
them and release nitrogen back into the atmosphere. This is
an important part of the nitrogen cycle.

CHLORINE
Chlorine is added to water to kill bacteria. We add chlorine to swimming pools. A
concentration of 0.5 mg L1 is sufficient to kill most bacteria. Chlorine gas is very poisonous. It
reacts with water to form the hypochlorite ion (OCl) and the chloride ion as seen in the
following equation:
Cl2(g) + H2O(l)

OCl(aq) + 2H+(aq) + Cl(aq)

The hypochlorite ion breaks up in the presence of sunlight and so more calcium hypochlorite
must be added to maintain a sufficiently high concentration of the ion to kill bacteria.
HEAVY METALS
The dangers of some heavy metals were first exposed after a tragedy in
Minemata Bay in Japan during the 1950s. At least 60 people had been
seriously affected before a cause was determined. The victims had
been eating fish. These fish had accumulated a large quantity of
methyl mercury in their bodies. A chemical company had been using
mercury as a catalyst and was discharging large quantities of mercury
waste into the sea. Bacteria converted the waste into the toxic methyl
mercury.
Mercury, lead and cadmium are just some of the heavy metals that pose a major
disposal problem. Shellfish accumulate heavy metals and should not be eaten if
they are taken from near a sewage outlet or a polluted river.

Virtually all water, including rainwater and

mineral spring water, carries a variety of chemical
impurities in a range of concentrations.
The water that comes out of your tap is a
solution of solutes in a solvent. Water picks up
solutes in its travels from the clouds, through the
atmosphere, into our dams and water tanks then
through our taps are the solutes.
All water on earth contains a variety of minerals
in a range of concentrations. Calcium,
magnesium, sodium and potassium, are found
in our water. They are usually
harmless and may even be beneficial to us at
these concentrations.

There is so much saltwater present on the planet has led to much

research and development of desalination methods by which salt
and other substances can be removed from seawater, leaving fresh
water.

There are TWO processes by which this can occur:

1) Distillation
2) Reverse Osmosis
The cost of this water is higher than traditional
fresh water. Removal of the waste product is
also a concern. The residual water containing everything that was
dissolved in the water has to be disposed of carefully. Although the
residual water can be pumped back into the ocean, care must be
taken to avoid causing localised areas of higher salinity and in turn
affecting the local marine flora and fauna.

DISTILLATION is used to separate a mixture of

substances that have different boiling temperatures. It
can be used to recover a solvent from a solution
where the boiling temperature of the solute is much
higher than that of the solvent. In simple distillation,
the impure mixture is placed in the distillation flask and
heated. The solvent begins to boil as the temperature
rises, its vapours rise and are led into the condenser
where they are cooled and condensed back into droplets
of pure solvent. The impurities are left behind in the
distilling flask.

Simple distillation is used on a large scale to desalinate

water but to save energy, it is sometimes performed at
reduced pressure - which lowers the boiling
temperature of water and saves energy

Osmosis is the diffusion of a solvent through a

membrane towards an area of higher
concentration of dissolved substances. To purify
water, the water needs to move away from a
region of dissolved substances so that it can
subsequently be collected as pure water. This
process is called reverse osmosis, and it cannot
occur without energy.
When used to desalinate water, this process forces
pressurised water through a series of membranes.
These membranes contain tiny holes (or pores)
that allow the smaller water molecules to pass
through but prevent larger particles of
contaminants. To prevent clogging of these
membranes, they are often used in series, with
each successive membrane becoming more
selective.

Nicole Demasi
Victorian College
of the Arts
Secondary School

Acids are very versatile substances. They are found in our stomach, in many
foods that we eat and used in many different industries.
PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
- Usually taste sour
- Corrosive
- Dissolve in water
- Turn blue litmus paper red
- Neutralised by bases
EXAMPLES OF ACIDS
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Nitric Acid (HNO3)
Acetic Acid (CH3COOH)
Carbonic Acid (H2CO3)

1)

There are seven different general equations for reactions involving acids.
They are:
Acid + reactive metal
salt + hydrogen gas

2)

Acid + metal carbonate

3)
4)

Acid + metal hydrogen carbonate

salt + water + carbon dioxide gas
Acid + metal sulfite
salt + water + sulfur dioxide gas

5)

Acid + metal sulfide

salt + hydrogen sulfide gas

6)

Acid + metal oxide (basic)

salt + water

7)

Acid + base (metal hydroxide)

salt + water + carbon dioxide gas

salt + water

PROPERTIES OF BASES
Usually taste bitter
Feel slippery
Turn red litmus paper blue
Can conduct electricity
May be corrosive
Oxides or hydroxides of metals
If soluble in water, are called ALKALIS.
EXAMPLES OF BASES / ALKALIS
Ammonia (NH3)
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
Calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH)2)

An ACID is a proton donor. A BASE is a proton acceptor.

ACID-BASE reactions involve the transfer of protons (A proton is a
hydrogen ion------- H+)
The following equation shows hydrochloric acid acting as an acid and
donating a proton to water.
HCl (aq)
+
H2O (l)
Cl- (aq) +
H3O+ (aq)
In this example, HCl is the acid and H2O is the base.
This is also an example of IONISATION as a
molecule has reacted with water and produced
two or more ions. H3O+ is called the
HYDRONIUM ION.

When ionic substances dissolve in water to produce ions. These ions can act as acids or
bases when they react with water. As a result, acidic or basic solutions can form.
In such cases, anions will react with water to produce OH- or cations will react to
produce H3O+.
Sodium carbonate will form Na+ and CO32when it dissolves in water. The carbonate ions
will react in water as follows
CO3 2- (aq) +

H2O (l)

OH - (aq)

HCO3- (aq)

A basic solution will be produced due to the presence of the OH ion.

If ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is dissolved in water, ammonium and
chloride ions are produced. The ammonium ions react as follows:
NH4+ (aq) +

H2O (l)

H3O+ (aq) +

NH3 (aq)

This solution would be acidic due to the formation of H3O+(aq).

Ionic bases do not react with water as acids do. They dissociate
or separate into their constituent ions. Sodium hydroxide will
form sodium and hydroxide ions.
NaOH (aq)
Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Molecular bases such as NH3 cannot
dissociate as they do not contain ions.
Ammonia ionises according to the
equation below:

NH3 (aq) + H2O (l)

NH4+ (aq)

+ OH (aq)

When an acid and a base reacts, NEUTRALISATION occurs.

EXAMPLE
HCl (aq) + KOH (aq)
H2O (l) +

Ionic equation
H+ + Cl- + K + + OH-

K+ +

Cl- +

H2O

Spectator ions Cl- and K+ are removed and the

equation is simplified as
H + (aq) +

OH - (aq)

H2O (l)

This is rewritten as H+ does not exist so

H3O + (aq)

OH - (aq)

2 H2O (l)

This is called the IONIC EQUATION OF NEUTRALISATION.

KCl (aq)

Neutralisation reactions are one way of producing

pure samples of salts. If hydrochloric acid and
calcium hydroxide are mixed together, an
aqueous solution of calcium chloride results.
2HCl (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq)
CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
The water can be removed by evaporation.
Neutralisation reactions are seen in
antacid tablets. Although the
hydrochloric acid in the gastric juices
in our stomachs helps break down the
food we eat, if too much hydrochloric
acid is produced, indigestion may result. Antacid tablets contain
bases such as magnesium hydroxide or sodium bicarbonate that
neutralise the acid in the stomach.

When acids and bases react a CONJUGATE ACID and CONJUGATE BASE are
formed.
Conjugate acid base pairs differ by a proton (H+). To find the conjugate base of an
acid , subtract a H+. To find the conjugate acid of a base, add a H+.
EXAMPLE
HCl

H 2O

Cl-

CONJUGATE PAIRS are (HCl/ Cl-) and (H2O/ H3O+)

GENERAL RULE TO REMEMBER
- H+
conjugate acid
conjugate base
+ H+

H 3O +

POLYPROTIC ACIDS

Acids capable on giving away more than ONE proton.

Examples
H2SO4 (diprotic acids two protons can be donated)
H3PO4 (triprotic acid three protons can be donated)
AMPHIPROTIC SUBSTANCES
Substances capable of acting as ACIDS or BASES (they can accept or donate
protons). Water is an example. Ampholytes are ionic amphiprotic substances.

Requirements to be AMPHIPROTIC/ AMPHOLYTES

Must have a proton to donate
Must have a negative charge to attract a H+
Other examples include:
HSO4- and HCO3-

A strong acid donates protons readily. A strong base

accepts protons readily. Weak acids and bases do not
donate or accept protons readily.
Strength is different from concentration.
Concentration is to do with how much
the solution is diluted with water. A
concentrated acid has very little water
added to it while a dilute acid has had
a lot of water added to it.
Strong acids and bases are good
conductors of electricity as they form
many ions in water as they
accept /donate protons.

Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid and its reaction in water is nearly complete,
producing many ions.
HCl (aq) +
H2O(l)
H3O+(aq)
+ Cl(aq)
Acetic acid is weak, so it will not react to completion, and its solution is a poor
conductor of electricity because not many ions are formed.
CH3COOH(l) + H2O(l)
weak acid

H3O+(aq)
partial reaction only

CH3COO(aq)

The strength of a base also affects its conductivity. A base is said to be strong if it
produces many hydroxide ions in solution because the hydroxide ion readily accepts
protons. Sodium hydroxide is a strong base because it dissociates completely, producing
many hydroxide ions. Sodium hydroxide is therefore a good electrolyte.
H2O
NaOH(s)
Na+ (aq) + OH(aq)
Ammonia is a weak base and will not readily ionise and accept
protons. It forms very few ions in solution. Ammonia is therefore
a poor conductor of electricity.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
NH4+(aq) + OH(aq)

The strength of an ACID or BASE is measured

numerically on the pH scale. pH stands for power of
hydrogen.

The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.

Neutral substances are 7. The
stronger the acid, the lower the pH.
The stronger the base, the higher
the pH.
The pH is a logarithmic scale. An acid with a pH of 4
is ten times stronger than an acid with a pH of 5.

The strength of an acid or base is measured by its tendency to donate or

accept protons. The strength of an acid has to be taken into consideration
when calculating the pH, as it determines the acids ability to ionise.
Not all acids of 0.1 mol L1 concentration have the same pH, and do not
conduct electricity to the same extent. Consider two acids, HCl and
CH3COOH, with the same concentration of 0.1 mol L1 at 25C.
Hydrochloric acid has a pH of 1 while acetic acid has a pH of 3. Almost every
HCl molecule donates protons to water. Whereas only one in every hundred
CH3COOH molecules loses a proton, and therefore a solution of acetic acid
is a poor electrolyte and hence a poor conductor of electricity.
The pH of a basic solution is also affected by the
ability of the base to dissolve or dissociate in water.
A 0.1 mol L1 solution of NaOH is a strong base and
has a higher pH than a 0.1 mol L1 solution of NH3
which is a weak base. The sodium hydroxide solution
is therefore a better electrolyte than the ammonia
solution.

pH can be measured in two ways :

1) INDICATORS these are dyes that
show different colours when placed in an
acid or a basic solutions Litmus,
phenolphthalein, methyl orange and
universal indicator are the most commonly
used indicators. Universal indicator is a
mixture of several indicators. It changes
colour gradually, from red through green to
violet as the solution changes from acidic
through neutral to basic.
2) pH METER consists of electrodes
connected to a millivoltmeter. Very
accurate.

Nicole
Demasi
Victorian College
of the Arts
Secondary School

The study of relative amounts ratios of substances involved

in chemical reactions is known as stoichiometry. The word
stoichiometry comes from two Greek words meaning element
and measure.
Stoichiometry is used every day in the
home and in industry. Baking a cake
in the kitchen requires a recipe to
ensure proper quantities of all ingredients
are used. What would a cake taste like if
you added three times the required amount of flour!.
An industrial chemist reducing iron in a blast furnace needs to
know exactly how much iron ore (Fe2O3), coke (C) and
limestone (calcium carbonate - CaCO3) to feed into the top of
the furnace in order to produce a certain amount of iron.

What a balanced chemical reaction shows

us:
The mole ratio of the reactants and
products (the coefficients in front of the
various formula)
The ratio between the number of particles
and mass of the reactants and products.
What a balanced reaction does not tell
us:
The rate of the reaction (whether it is
occurring quickly or slowly).
Whether heat is given off or required
for a reaction to take place.

Silver tarnishes in the home because of the presence of small amounts of hydrogen
sulfide (H2S rotten egg gas), according to the following reaction:
4 Ag (s) + 2 H2S (g) + O2 (g)

2Ag2S (s) + 2H2O (l)

1)

How many mole of silver sulfide form from the complete

reaction of 1 mole of silver ?
As 4 moles of silver makes 2 moles of silver sulfide,
then one mole of silver would make 0.5 mole of silver
sulfide.

2)

How many mole of hydrogen sulfide will react with 1 mole of silver ?
As 4 moles of silver reacts with 2 moles of hydrogen sulfide, then one mole of silver
will react with 0.5 mole of hydrogen sulfide.

3)

How many moles of silver sulfide form from 3.5 moles of hydrogen sulfide ?
As the number of mole of hydrogen sulfide and silver sulfide is the same, 3.5 moles
of hydrogen sulfide would make 3.5 moles of silver sulfide.

You will be given the mass of a reactant or product,

and be asked to find the mass of another product or
reactant.
The following equation must be used
Moles (n) =
Mass (m)
Molar mass (M)
Four steps required to calculate such problems:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Write a balanced equation for the reaction.

Calculate the number of moles of the known quantity of
substances present (using n = m/M)
Find the molar ratio of the known and unknown substances and use it to
find the number of moles of the required substance.
Calculate the quantity (mass) of the required substance.

Phosphine (PH3) is a poisonous gas used as a fumigant for stored grain according to
the equation:
Ca3P2 (s) + 6H2O (l)
3Ca(OH)2 (s) + 2PH3 (g)
Calculate the mass of phosphine that can be prepared from 25 g of Ca3P2
1) KNOWN Ca3P2 UNKNOWN PH3
2) Calculate the number of moles of Ca3P2
n=m/M
= 25 / (40.08 x 3 + 2 x 30.97)
= 25 / 182.18
= 0.137 mol
3)

The Molar Ratio 1 Ca3P2 : 2 PH3 becomes 0.137 : 2 X 0.137

= 0.274 moles of PH3

4)

Calculate the mass of PH3

n=m/M
0.274 = m / (30.97 + 3 x 1)
0.274 = m / 33.97
m = 0.274 x 33.97

= 9.31 grams

When the amounts of reactants provided for a reaction are not in the mole ratio, amounts of
one or more reactants will be left over once the reaction has taken place. The reactant that is
completely used up is called the limiting reactant. Any unreacted reactants are called excess
reactants. The amounts of the products will be limited by the amount of the reactant that is
completely used up in the reaction.
Calculations are completed using the limiting reactants.
Consider the example below:
N2 (g) + 3H2(g)

2NH3 (g)

According to this equation one mole of nitrogen gas reacts

with three moles of hydrogen gas to produce two moles
of ammonia gas.
If one mole of nitrogen and five moles of hydrogen are mixed and
allowed to react, then all the nitrogen and three moles of hydrogen are used up. This
means that two mole of hydrogen are left over. The amount of product formed by the
reaction is limited by the amount of the limiting reactant. In this case, the number of
moles of nitrogen (limiting reactant) would be used to calculate the amount of ammonia
produced and not the hydrogen.

Magnesium and chlorine react according to the following equation:

Mg (s) + Cl2 (g)

MgCl2 (s)

If 20 g of magnesium and 20 g of chlorine are available for reaction,

determine:
(a) The limiting reactant
Mg
n= m / M = 20/24.3 = 0.823 mol
Cl 2
n = m / M = 20 / 70.9 = 0.282mol
As it is a 1:1 ratio, the chlorine is the limiting factor.
(b) The mass of MgCl2 formed.
n = MgCl2 = n Cl2 = 0.282 mol
M = 24.3 + 70.9 = 95.2

m=n xM
= 0.282 x 95.2 = 26.8 grams

Many chemical reactions take place

between substances that have been
dissolved in a liquid, usually water to form
a solution. The liquid in which the
substances are dissolved is called the
solvent; the dissolved substance is called
the solute.
When working with solutions, the most
easily measured quantity is their volume.
However, for the volume of a solution to
provide useful information, the solutions
concentration (the amount of solute in a
given volume) must be known.

Molar concentration (or Molarity) is often used to show the

concentration of solutions. It is the amount of solute, in moles, present
in 1 litre of solution.
The symbol is M (where 1M = 1 mole per litre)
Molar concentration is defined as:
concentration = quantity of solute (moles)
volume of solution (litres)
c = moles /volume
or
n = cV

= n/V

Calculate the concentration of copper sulfate (CuSO4) in 700

ml of solution containing 750 g of CuSO4.5H2O.
n=m/M
= 750 / (63.55 + 32.06 + 4 x 16 + 5 X 18)
= 750 / 249.61
= 3.00
n = cV
3 = c X .70
c = 3 / .7

= 4.29 M

The following five steps should be followed:

1. Calculate the number of moles of solute that are
needed to obtain the correct concentration of
solution for the volume of solvent to be used
according to the formula n = cV.
2. Calculate the mass of the solute needed, using the
formula m = nM.
3. Partially fill a volumetric flask
with water, and add the correct
mass of solute.
4. Dissolve the solute.
5. Add water to the required volume.

Many ionic compounds are soluble in water as the cations and anions are
dissociated from each other. The concentration of the resulting ions can be
calculated
Ionic concentrations are written in square brackets eg [Na +]
EXAMPLE
Calculate the concentration of magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3)2 solution
in which the concentration of nitrate ions is 0.03 M.

Dissociation equation
Mg(NO3)2 (s)

H2 O

Mg 2+ (aq)

+ 2 NO3- (aq)

Mole Ratio
n(Mg(NO3)2 ) = n(NO3- ).
As volume is constant, then M (Mg(NO3)2 ) = M(NO3- ).
= 0.5 x 0.03 = 0.015M

Liquid water has a concentration.

The concentration of water can be

expressed as grams per litre (density) or
moles per litre.
The density of water is 1 g mL1 so
therefore 1000 mL of water has a mass of
1000 g.
This can be converted to moles
using the formula
n = m/M = 1000 / 18
= 55. 5 mol

When a solution is diluted by the addition of more solvent, the number of moles
of the solute does not change. Therefore, the mass of the solute does not change
either.
n (before dilution) = n (after dilution) OR
n 1 = n 2 THEREFORE
c1V1=c2V2
EXAMPLE
A 2 M CuSO4 solution is diluted from 200 ml to 750 ml.
Find the concentration of the diluted solution.
c1V1=c2V2
2 X 0.2 = c2 x 0.750
c2 = 2 X 0.2/ 0.75 = 0.53 M

When chemical reactions involve solids and solutions it is referred to

as mass-concentration stoichiometry.
Two formula can be used in such reactions
n = m/M and n = cV
1)
2)
3)

4)

The same four steps are used as in Mass-Mass Stoichiometry.

Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
Calculate the number of moles of the known quantity of substances
present. (using n = m/M or n = cV)
Find the molar ratio of the known and unknown substances and use
it to find the number of moles of the required
substance.
Calculate the quantity (mass or concentration)
of the required substance.

EXAMPLE
Zinc metal is reacted with 400ml of a 0.25 M solution of sulfuric acid, H2SO4. Calculate the
mass of zinc sulfate produced.
1)
2)

3)
4)

Balanced Equation
Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq)

ZnSO4 (aq)

Calculate the number of moles of sulfuric acid.

n = cV
= 0.25 X 0.4
= 0.1 moles
Ratio of sulfuric acid : zinc sulfate is 1:1
Calculate the mass of zinc sulfate
n=m/M
0.1 = m / (65.38 + 32.06 + 16 X 4)
0.1 = m / 161.44
m = 0.1 x 161.44
= 16.144 grams

H2 (g)

Concentration Concentration Stoichiometry includes

precipitation reactions and neutralisation reactions. The formula
n = cV is used.
The same rules and steps apply .
They are listed below.
1) Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
2) Calculate the number of moles of the
known quantity of substances present. (using n = cV)
3) Find the molar ratio of the known and
unknown substances and use it to find
the number of moles of the required substance.
4) Calculate the quantity (concentration)
of the required substance.

What volume of a solution of 0.2 M potassium hydroxide, KOH, will

exactly neutralise 20 ml of a solution of 0.3 M hydrochloric acid, HCl ?
1)

Balanced equation

2)

Calculate number of moles of HCl

n = cV
= 0.3 x 0.02
= 0.006 mole
Mole ratio is 1:1 , therefore number of moles of KOH = .006 mole

3)
4)

KOH

HCl

Volume of KOH
n = cV
V = n/c
= .006/.2
= 0.03 L = 30 ml

H2O

KCl

Acidbase titrations are based on neutralisation reactions. They are a type of volumetric
analysis where the unknown concentration of a solution is determined by reacting it with a
solution of known concentration ( a standard solution). This is prepared by dissolving an
accurate amount of a solute in water using a volumetric flask that is calibrated to contain the
specified volume. The standard solution (normally a base like sodium carbonate) is placed in
a burette, which is used to deliver definite but variable volumes of liquid.
In a titration, the volume of liquid measured by the burette is
called a titre. The solution of unknown concentration is added
to a conical flask using a pipette. A pipette is used to deliver a
known volume of liquid which is then called an aliquot.
A suitable indicator is added to the aliquot in the conical flask.
The solution in the burette is slowly added to the aliquot
until the indicator changes colour. This process is called
titration. The point at which chemically equivalent amounts
of acid and base (according to the equation) are present is
called the equivalence point. The point at which the indicator
changes colour is called the end point and is usually about one drop after the equivalence
point.
Titres within 0.05 mL of each other are called concordant titres. Three concordant titres are
needed to calculate the average titre.

 The strength of an ACID or BASE is measured numerically

on the pH scale. pH stands for power of hydrogen.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. Neutral substances are 7.
The stronger the acid, the lower the pH. The stronger the
base, the higher the pH.

The pH is a logarithmic scale. An acid with a pH of 4 is

ten times stronger than an acid with a pH of 5.

pH = log10[H3O+]
When the [H3O+] in a solution is expressed as a power of
10 the pH is equal to the power multiplied by 1.

If [H3O+] = 10x, then pH = x.

A aqueous solution in which [H3O+] is

0.001 M. What is the pH?
[H3O+] = 0.001 M = 103 M
log 10 [H3O+] = log 10 [103 ]
=-3
pH = -1 X 3
= 3

IONIC PRODUCT OF WATER

At 25 degrees
[H3O+] x [OH-] = 10 -14 M2
In Neutral solutions
[H3O+] = [OH-] = 10-7 pH = 7
In Acidic solutions
[H3O+] > [OH-] and pH < 7
In Basic solutions
[H3O+] < [OH-] and pH > 7

Calculate the pH of an aqueous solution

containing 0.073 g HCl in 2 L water
n = m/M
= .073 /(35.45 + 1)
= .073 / 36.45 = .002mol
Therefore
n = cV
.002 = c X 2
c = .002 / 2 = .001M
MOLE RATIO 1: 1 as

HCl

H2O

Cl-

H3O+

THEREFORE

[H3O+]

= 0.001 M
= 103 M
log 10 [H3O+] = log 10 [103 ]
=-3
pH = -1 X 3
= 3

The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product that can be formed
from a given reaction. (Calculated mathematically)
The actual yield is the amount of product formed from the reaction when it is
carried out in the laboratory.

The Percentage yield measures the efficiency of the reaction and is calculated by
the equation below.
Actual Yield / Theoretical Yield x 100%

EXAMPLE
The expected mass of zinc sulfate in the reaction previously
discussed was 16.1 grams. The experiment was carried out at
VCASS and only 13.78 grams was produced.
Calculate the percentage yield

Percentage yield = 13.78 / 16.1 X 100 = 85.6 %

Nicole Demasi

Victorian College
of the Arts
Secondary School

Oxidation Reduction reactions can be

seen in the following :
Digestion of food
Healing broken bones
Seasickness
Conduction of nerve impulses
Photography
Bushfires
Treating water supplies

Oxidation was initially used to describe reactions

when substances combined with oxygen.
Examples
1) The combustion of methane
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g)
CO2 (g) +
2) Iron reacting with air to form rust
4Fe (s) + 3 O2 (g)
2Fe2O3 (s)

2H2O (g)

Some part of the reactant combined with oxygen

Reduction is when compounds are decomposed

with the loss of oxygen (the compound is reduced).
Examples
1) Copper oxide reduced by hydrogen
CuO (s) + H2 (g)
Cu (s) + H2O (g)

2) Iron oxide reduced by carbon monoxide

Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO(g)
2Fe (s) + 3CO2 (g)

Oxidation and Reduction reactions occur together. When one

reactant is being REDUCED, the other is being OXIDISED.
This is seen when ammonia reacts with
oxygen. The ammonia is oxidised while
the oxygen is reduced as it gains
hydrogen from ammonia.

4NH3 (g) +

5O2 (g)

4 NO (g)

6H2O

The OXIDANT is the

species which causes
oxidation but is itself
reduced.

The REDUCTANT is
the species which
causes reduction but
is itself oxidised.

Most REDOX Reactions involve the

transfer of ELECTRONS. They dont
always have to be reactions involving
oxygen and hydrogen.

OILRIG
Oxidation is loss. Reduction is gain.
Oxidation must be accompanied by
reduction, they occur simultaneously

Magnesium reacts with oxygen to produce magnesium oxide.

2 Mg (s) + O2 (g)
2 MgO (s)
There are actually two reactions that occur here
OXIDATION

Mg
2Mg

REDUCTION

O2

Mg 2+ + 2e
2Mg 2+ + 4e -

4e-

2O 2-

The substance that is oxidised loses electrons and is the electron

donor. The substance that is reduced gains electrons and is the
electron acceptor.

Some redox reactions do not involve the transfer of electrons, but the
sharing of electrons. As a result, the definition of redox reactions was
altered to take these covalent reactions into consideration. The
OXIDATION NUMBER is used to help explain these reactions.
OXIDATION NUMBER the imaginary charge
an atom would have if it existed as an ion in
a compound.
OXIDATION is an increase in the oxidation
number of an atom.

REDUCTION is a decrease in the oxidation number

of an atom.

1) Atoms in their elemental form have

an oxidation number of 0.
2) The oxidation number of a simple
ion is the charge on the ion.
3) Hydrogen has an oxidation number of
+1 when combined with non metals and an oxidation number
of 1 when combined with metals
4) Oxygen has an oxidation number of 2 in most cases.
5) In neutral compounds, the oxidation numbers must add up to
ZERO.
6) In polyatomic ions, the oxidation numbers must add up to its
overall charge.
eg NH4+ has an oxidation number of + 1.

Determine the oxidation number of S in the following compounds

(a)

H2SO4

(b)

SO2

OXIDATION NUMBER

OXIDATION NUMBER

0 = (2 x +1) + S + (4 x 2)
0=2+S8
0 =-6+S

0 = S + (-2 x 2)
0=S-4
S = +4

Oxidation number = +6

Oxidation number = + 4

REDOX REACTIONS
Single Replacement Reactions
Combination Reactions
Combustion Reactions
Decomposition Reactions

NOT REDOX REACTIONS

Acid Base Reactions
Double Replacement Reactions

How can you tell if a REDOX Reaction

has occurred ?
You check to see if the OXIDATION NUMBER has
changed. If it has, both oxidation and reduction
have occurred.

Determine if the following is a REDOX Reaction.

If so, determine the substance being oxidised and reduced.
2 Fe (s)
+
3 Cl2 (g)
2FeCl3 (s)
OXIDATION NUMBERS
Fe
Cl2
FeCl3

Oxidation number = 0
Oxidation number = 0
Oxidation number of Fe = +3
Oxidation number of Cl3 = - 3
Oxidation number of Cl = - 1

REDOX REACTION - Fe has been oxidised. Cl2 has been reduced.

Overall Equation
Fe (s)

CuSO4 (aq)

FeSO4 (aq)

Cu (s)

Ionic equation for this reaction

Fe (s) + Cu 2+ (aq)
(s)

+ SO4 2- (aq)

Fe 2+ (aq) + SO4 2- (aq) + Cu

Spectator ions removed

Fe (s) + Cu 2+ (aq)

Fe 2+ (aq) +

Cu (s)

The Half Equations for this reaction are:

Fe (s)

Fe 2+ (aq)

2e-

Fe and Fe 2+ are the oxidation conjugate pair.

(they differ by two electrons). Two electrons are
lost.
Cu 2+ (aq) +

2e-

Cu (s)

Cu and Cu 2+ are the reduction conjugate pair.

(they differ by two electrons). Two electrons are gained.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Write the half-equations for oxidation and reduction

showing conjugate pairs.
Balance all elements except hydrogen and oxygen.
Balance oxygen atoms, where needed, by adding water.
Balance hydrogen atoms, where needed, by adding H+.
Balance the charge by adding electrons.
Multiply each half-equation by factors
that will lead to the same number of
electrons in each half-equation.
Add the half-equations and omit the
electrons.

Write half equations for the oxidation of ethanol

(C2H5OH) to acetaldehyde (CH3CHO) , and for the
reduction of potassium dichromate ions to chromium
(111) ions and hence determine the overall reaction.
(Assume reactions occur in an aqueous solution)

REDUCTION (Potassium is a spectator ion so is eliminated)

Step 1

Cr2O72-

Cr 3+

Step 2

Cr2O72-

2 Cr 3+

Step 3

Cr2O72-

2 Cr 3+ + 7 H2O

Step 4

Cr2O72-

Step 5

Cr2O72-

+
+

14 H+
14 H+ + 6 e -

2 Cr 3+ + 7 H2O
2 Cr 3+ + 7 H2O

Reactants had a charge of + 12, Products had a charge of + 6.

Therefore six electrons were needed on the reactants side to even up the charges.

OXIDATION
Step 1
C2H5OH
CH3CHO
Oxygen and Carbon are balanced. Need to balance hydrogen
Step 4
C2H5OH
CH3CHO + 2H+
Step 6
C2H5OH
CH3CHO + 2H+ + 2eMust multiply Oxidation reaction by 3 so that there are 6 electrons
(the same number as in the reduction reaction.) This way, the electrons cancel each
other out.
3 C2H5OH
3 CH3CHO + 6 H+ + 6eOVERALL EQUATION
3C2H5OH + Cr2O72- + 14 H+ + 6 e 3 CH3CHO +
+
6H + 6e +
2 Cr 3+ + 7 H2O

3 C2H5OH

+ Cr2O72- + 8 H+

3 CH3CHO + 2 Cr 3+
+ 7 H2O

OXIDATION
Gain of oxygen
Loss of hydrogen
Loss of electrons
An increase in oxidation number
REDUCTION
Loss of oxygen
Gain of hydrogen
Gain of electrons
A decrease in oxidation number

AN OXIDANT
accepts electrons
undergoes reduction
has its oxidation
number decreased
A REDUCTANT
donates electrons
undergoes oxidation
has its oxidation
number increased

OXIDATION is loss. REDUCTION is gain

Some metals are more reactive than others.

Potassium is highly reactive and is only found
naturally in a compound. When extracted, it must be stored
under oil so that it does not react with moisture or oxygen.
Gold is very un-reactive and is found as a pure element in
nature. This is why it is used in the space program.
Potassium and Gold are at opposite ends
of the REACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS
which is shown on the next slide.

All of the reactions on the previous slide are

REDOX reactions. The metal is always the
reductant.
Displacement reactions are the most direct way to
determine the reactivity of the various metals.
DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS - The less
reactive metal will come out of a solution and
coat a more reactive metal. When zinc is placed
in a copper sulfate solution, the copper will
coat the zinc strip because copper is less reactive
than zinc. Zinc will lose its outer shell electrons
and become a zinc cation. Copper will be
converted from a cation into an atom when it
accepts zincs electrons.

The overall reaction is as follows

Zn (s) + Cu 2+ (aq)

Cu (s)

Zn 2+ (aq)

If copper metal were placed in a zinc sulfate solution then nothing would
happen as copper could not give up its electrons and become a cation
NOT POSSIBLE
Cu (s) + Zn 2+ (aq)

Zn (s)

Cu 2+ (aq)

The metals in groups I and II are the

most reactive metals. The reducing
strength of metals decreases as you move
to the right along a period. Sodium is
more reactive than aluminium.
The reducing strength of metals generally
decreases as you move down a group.
(Even though calcium is more
reactive in water than magnesium
which is higher up the Periodic table)

The reaction between zinc and copper sulfate solution occurs

spontaneously and releases energy in the form of heat. The energy
used in displacement reactions is the basis of the battery.
We need to make use of the moving electrons and so to create a
battery a different set up is required. This is called an
ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL.
THE DANIELL CELL (An example)
Zinc is placed in a zinc sulfate solution.
Copper is placed in a copper sulfate solution.
A wire connects the ZINC and COPPER strips.
The two beakers are connected via a SALT
BRIDGE which completes the circuit.

A SIMPLE ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL consists of

Two half cells, containing two ELECTRODES
(ANODE and CATHODE) and two ELECTROLYTES.
A conducting wire.
A salt bridge (containing another electrolyte).
The wire that connects the two electrodes provides the
pathway for the electrons (The electrodes and wire
connecting them is called the EXTERNAL CIRCUIT)
The salt bridge provides the ions (from the electrolyte)
to compensate for the ions lost or gained during the
redox reactions in the two half cells.
This is the INTERNAL CIRCUIT.

Zinc is more reactive than copper and so will give away its electrons.
Therefore OXIDATION is taking place in the zinc half cell. The zinc half cell is the
ANODE
OXIDATION occurs at the ANODE
Zn (s)

Zn 2+ (aq)

+ 2e -

REDUCTION is taking place in the COPPER half cell.

The copper half cell is the CATHODE.
REDUCTION occurs at the CATHODE
Cu 2+ (aq) + 2e

Cu (s)

Remember AN OX and RED CAT

The relative ability of all half cells to attract electrons can be ranked in an
ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES OF METALS.

The strongest oxidants are at the top left

of the table and the weakest oxidants are
at the bottom left.
Reductants appear on the right hand side of the
table since they lose electrons. The most reactive metals are on the bottom of the
table since they lose electrons more readily. The corresponding cation is a weak
oxidant as it attracts electrons weakly.
This is different to the REACTIVITY SERIES as it lists the metals (reductants) in
order of decreasing ease of oxidation while the ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES
lists the metal cations (oxidants) in order of decreasing ease of reduction.

If two metals (possible reductants) and their corresponding cations

(possible oxidants) are put together only one reaction will occur. It
will be the reaction between the stronger oxidant and the stronger
reductant.
FOR EXAMPLE
If Mg 2+, Mg, Cu and Cu 2+ come in
contact with each
other then Mg (strongest reductant)
will react with Cu 2+ (strongest oxidant)
Mg (s)

+ Cu 2+ (aq)

Mg 2+ (aq)

Cu (s)

1)

2)

Corrosion is the oxidation of metals by materials in the

environment. There are two types:
DRY CORROSION This is when a metal reacts
directly with oxygen. Example magnesium reacts with
oxygen to produce magnesium oxide.
WET CORROSION This is when a metal reacts
directly with oxygen in the presence of water. Iron
corrodes must more quickly in the
presence of water.
Corrosion can be viewed as the
process of returning metals to
their natural states.

This is commonly know as RUSTING. Iron rusts when a water drop containing dissolved
impurities lands on it. A simple electrochemical cell is set up on different sites on the iron.
The anode is usually located at the stress site of the iron (like a scratch on the surface). This
is where iron is oxidised and releases electrons.
Fe (s)

Fe 2+ (aq) + 2 e

These electrons travel through the metal to the cathode and are
accepted by oxygen (usually at the edge of the water droplet
where it meets the air). The oxygen accepts the electrons and is reduced.
O2 (g)

2H2O (l) + 4 e

4 OH (aq)

The hydroxide ions and the Fe 2+ ions migrate towards each other and react to produce iron
(II) hydroxide which is green and insoluble. The overall equation for the reaction is:
2 Fe (s) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
2 Fe (OH)2 (s)

In a GALVANIC CELL, the external

wire plays the same role as the iron
metal (where electrons travel)
and the salt bridge acts as the
water droplet.

Iron (II) hydroxide is very

unstable and quickly reacts with
oxygen to form brown iron (III)
hydroxide.
4 Fe (OH)2 (s) + O2 (g)

+ 2H20 (l)

4Fe(OH)3 (s)

The brown precipitate will then partially dehydrate to produce iron (III)
oxide, Fe 2O3.xH20 where x is less than three.

 Metal oxides (rust) have less tensile strength and less

elasticity than uncorroded metal. They may develop
weaknesses that result in a malfunction or
breakage.

A severely corroded metal cannot conduct

electricity.
Corroded copper pipes and hot water tanks leak as
the copper compounds dissolve in the water fl owing
through them.
Products of corrosion are brittle and flake off,
resulting in holes in iron roofing, for example.
A corroded metal occupies a larger volume than the
original metal. Corroded nuts and bolts may jam
machinery.

Three main ways to protect metals from

corrosion. They are
1) Surface Protection coating the metal
with plastic, paint, grease or oil and metal
coatings. Steel can be coated by a less
reactive metal (called NOBLE COATING)
which doesnt protect the steel from
corrosion if scratched, or a more
reactive metal (called SACRIFICIAL
COATING). The more reactive metal
corroded and the steel is protected. This is also
called GALVANISING.

will be

2) Alloying Iron can be alloyed with small quantities of

metals such as chromium, nickel, manganese ad
molybdenum, to produce stainless steel.
3) Electrochemical Protection Placing a more reactive
metal in electrical contact with the metal that needs
protection. One metal is sacrificed to save another.
Zinc or Magnesium are often connected to iron and
act as an anode and are corroded. Iron, the cathode,
remains intact. Sometimes called SACRIFICIAL
PROTECTION or CATHODIC PROTECTION.

Nicole Demasi
Victorian College
of the Arts
Secondary School

Our Earth is surrounded by an ATMOSPHERE which

extends 150km above the Earths surface. There are
four separate layers. They are:
1) EXOSPHERE closest to the sun.
2) IONOSPHERE a large number of electrically charged
particles present. Also contains the OZONE LAYER
which protects the Earth from UV radiation.
3) STRATOSPHERE strong and steady winds present
but no dust or water vapour.
4) TROPOSPHERE contains the BIOSPHERE the
atmosphere that support life. Many weather
changes take place.

The gases in the air are separated by FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION. This relies on the fact that the different gases have different boiling points.
If we cool a gas down enough, it eventually
and expanding air many times it is possible
different gases making it up. Because each
gases can be separated. This is a physical
distillation.
As the temperature is reduced, a
removed.

changes into a liquid. By compressing

to eventually liquefy the
gas has a different boiling point, the
process and is a form of fractional
different gas will liquefy and can be

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

78 % of the Earths atmosphere.

colourless, odourless and non toxic.
diatomic molecules.
only dissolves in water slightly.
does not support combustion.
not very reactive due to triple bond.
prevents oxidation.
Nitrogen can also be used for the
preservation of biological tissue for
transplant surgery and semen for
artificial insemination.
At 196C nitrogen is a cold, unreactive
liquid. It is ideal for the quickfreezing
of foods.
first obtained from air by Karl Scheele in 1772.
The Nitrogen Cycle is a very important
process in the environment. Not possible
without very important bacteria in the soil.

Nitrogen can be prepared by warming ammonium

nitrite, which decomposes to form steam and
nitrogen:
NH4NO2(s)

N2 (g) + 2H2O(g)

Nitrogen is prepared industrially by one of

two methods:
1. by the fractional distillation of liquid air
2. by passing air over red-hot coke. The
carbon combines with oxygen to
form carbon dioxide, while the
nitrogen remains unchanged

 Plants and animals need nitrogen for the manufacturing of amino

acids and proteins. Plants can not take nitrogen directly from the air
and rely on bacteria in the soil to convert this nitrogen to nitrates.

Loss of nitrogen from the soil

Soluble nitrogen compounds in the soil are removed in the
following three ways:
1. absorption by the roots of green plants
2. loss in drainage water
3. certain bacteria in the soil called
denitrifying bacteria can convert
nitrates into nitrogen.

Return of nitrogen to the soil

1. Nitrification. The remains of plants
and animals in the soil decay and are
changed
into amino compounds.
(NH2
+
group), then to ammonium compounds (NH4 ) by other bacteria present
in the soil. They may then be changed to nitrites by other bacteria and
then to nitrates by even different bacteria.
2. Nitrogen fixation. Although nitrogen makes up 80% by volume of the
earths atmosphere, it cannot be used directly by plants or animals in this
form. Nitrogen is converted to nitrogen compounds that plants and
animals can use in a process known as nitrogen fixation. This is
achieved in FOUR ways:
(a) Free living nitrogen fixing bacteria.
(b) Nitrogen fixing bacteria in the roots of legumes.
(c) Lightning can convert nitrogen into nitrogen monoxide.
Nitrogen dioxide and nitric acid can be produced as well.
(d) Through the action of natural and synthetic fertilisers.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

21 % of the Earths atmosphere.

slightly soluble in water.

89 % of the Earths crust.

colourless, odourless and diatomic.

forms compounds with most elements.

(excluding the noble gases).

required for combustion reactions.

first prepared in the laboratory by Joseph

Priestly and Antoine Lavoisier in 1777.

TEST FOR OXYGEN Oxygen makes a

glowing splint re ignite.

Some other uses include the following:

In the steel industry, oxygen is used to burn off the carbon which is present
as an impurity in cast iron and which makes iron brittle.
Oxygen is also used in oxyacetylene torches which burn ethyne in
oxygen and are used for cutting and welding metals.
In hospitals, oxygen is used to revive accident victims and
patients with breathing difficulties with diseases.
Deep-sea divers, mountaineers and high-altitude pilots also use oxygen.

Laboratory preparation of oxygen

There are a number of ways of producing oxygen in the laboratory. Two are described
below.
Hydrogen peroxide can be dropped onto manganese (IV) oxide. The hydrogen
peroxide decomposes and the oxygen gas given off is collected by the downward
displacement of water. The manganese (IV) oxide acts as a catalyst
MnO2
2H2O2 (aq)
2H2O(l)
+
O2 (g)

Water can be dropped onto sodium peroxide (bleaching powder).

This reaction also releases oxygen. Once again the oxygen gas may
be collected by the downward displacement of water.

PROPERTIES OF OZONE

allotrope of oxygen (O3).

poisonous gas and a pollutant.

a powerful oxidant

highly toxic to plants.

irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes.

can cause fatigue, lack of coordination and lung

disturbances.

good purifier of water as it kills bacteria and

viruses.

absorbs UV radiation and is found in a layer

50 to 80 km above the Earths surface.

TROPOSPHERE - about 0.04 ppm is ozone

STRATOSPHERE about 10 ppm is ozone.

can be destroyed by nitrogen monoxide and

chlorofluorocarbons. Chlorofluorocarbons
convert ozone to diatomic oxygen.

Ozone is produced naturally in the upper atmosphere :

UV light
O2(g)
O(g) + O(g)
These oxygen atoms react with oxygen to form ozone:
O2 (g) + O(g)

O3(g)

Then some ozone molecules break down in the presence of a

slightly different frequency of radiation into oxygen atoms and
oxygen molecules:
UV/visible light
O3(g)

O 2 (g) + O(g)

These reactions have been occurring continually in the

atmosphere for millions of years, keeping the concentration of
ozone relatively constant, until human
activity intervened and began using compounds
such as chlorofluorcarbons (CFCs).

It is often the chlorine that is released from these compounds that reacts with the ozone.
A single atom of chlorine can destroy 100 000 ozone molecules.
UV light
CCl3F(g)
The chlorine atom then attacks the ozone
Cl(g) + O3(g)
ClO(g) + O(g)
Net reaction:
O(g) + O 3 (g)

CCl2F(g) +Cl(g)
ClO(g) + O 2 (g)
Cl(g) + O2 (g)

2O2 (g)

The chlorine atom is released in the process and is available

to attack another ozone molecule. Some balance is achieved
when chlorine and ClO react in side reactions and
offset the damage:
The level of ozone depletion over the Antarctic
increases during this time. This situation is
referred to as the ozone hole.

present in small quantities in the atmosphere.

colourful and odourless

a pollutant if present in large quantities.

needed for PHOTOSYNTHESIS (a process

where green plants make food from the sunlight)

solar energy
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(1)
6O2 (g) + C6H12O6(aq)
chlorophyll

The solar energy harnessed in photosynthesis and stored

in carbohydrate foods (glucose and starch) is released in
the process known as respiration.

produced in CELLULAR RESPIRATION in

PLANTS and ANIMALS.

6O2 (g) + C6H12O6(aq)

6CO2(g) + 6H2O(1)

produced when acids react with metal carbonates.

Some carbonates will decompose when heated, giving off carbon dioxide,
eg
CaCO3(s)
CaO(s) + CO2(g).
This is how carbon dioxide is produced industrially. Calcium oxide
(quicklime) is used to make cement.
TESTING FOR CARBON DIOXIDE
- Carbon dioxide makes limewater go cloudy.
Carbon dioxide is given off in the fermentation of various sugars
C6H12O6(aq)
2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
Carbon dioxide is used in fire extinguishers
because it does not support combustion.

produced when carbon or

hydrocarbons are burnt in
the presence of insufficient
oxygen.
colourless and odourless.
produced by motor vehicles and may
contribute to the greenhouse effect.
present in cigarette smoke
Carbon monoxide bonds to the
haemoglobin in human blood more
easily than oxygen and prevents
oxygen from being carried to
the body tissues.

THE REMOVAL OF CO2 FROM THE ATMOSPHERE

Carbon Dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by plants and

phytoplankton through PHOTOSYNTHESIS.

Dissolved carbon dioxide is also used by crustaceans to build their

shells.

THE RETURN OF CO2 TO THE ATMOSPHERE

Respiration by plants and animals.

Decay of plant and animal matter.

Combustion (coal and oil are burnt as

fossil fuels creating carbon dioxide)

Erosion of limestone.

Volcanic eruptions.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT

created by the behaviour of our atmosphere in response to the suns

radiation. May lead to GLOBAL WARMING as the radiation
warms up the Earths surface. This may in turn cause the air to
warm up.

ACID RAIN

gases in the air like sulfur dioxide react with water and when it
rains ACID RAIN is produced which is dangerous to plant and
animals life.

SMOG

heavily polluted moisture laden fog.

Petrochemical smog is a special term used to

describe smog produced mainly for car engines.

The formation of photochemical

smog requires the sun acting on a
combination of oxygen, NOx
(nitrogen oxides), and
hydrocarbons.
There are three reactions involved.
sunlight
NO2(g)
NO (g) + O (g)
O(g) + O2 (g)
O3(g)
O3(g) + NO(g)
NO2 (g) + O2 (g)

These gases are unreactive as they have a full outer shell of electrons. They are
all gases at room temperature. All noble gases other then helium have eight
electrons in their outer shell, helium has 2.

Nicole Demasi
Victorian College
of the Arts
Secondary School

1) Gases have low densities. Liquids are 800

times more dense than a gas. Solids are 2000
times more dense than a gas.
2) Gases fill all containers completely and
uniformly.
3) Gases are compressible. Liquids and solids are
not.
4) Gases exert a uniform pressure on all inner
surfaces of a container.
5) Gases diffuse easily and quickly

FIVE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER

(Developed for a fictional Ideal Gas)
1) Gases are made up of particles moving randomly and
constantly.
2) Gases move faster the hotter it is, due to increased
kinetic energy.
3) The forces of attraction and repulsion between gas
particles is virtually zero.
4) Gas particles are very far apart. The volume they
occupy is small compared to the volume occupied by
the gas.
5) When gas particles collide with each other and the
container they are in, no kinetic energy is lost as the
collisions are perfectly elastic.

 Particles exert a force by colliding

with the container they are in. The
collisions all add to a force called
PRESSURE.
Pressure is defined as the force per
unit area
P = force / area
Pressure has many units. The
standard unit is pascal (Pa). 1 pascal
is equivalent to a 1 N force exerted
on 1 square metre (Nm-2)

 Measured by a BAROMETER.
At sea level is roughly equal to 101.3
kPa.
Also measured in atmospheres. 101.3
kPa is equal to 1 atmosphere.
Also measured in mmHg
(millimetres of mercury). 1 mmHg is
the pressure needed to raise a
column of mercury 1 millimetre. 1
atmosphere is equal to 760 mmHg.
101.3 kPa = 1 atm = 760 mmHg.

There are two main temperature scales used in

Australia.
1) Degrees
Celsius The freezing point of o water
o
is 0 C. The boiling point of water is 100 C.
Temperatures under the freezing point of water are
assigned negative numbers
2) Absolute scale (The Kelvin) The freezing point
of water is 273 K. The boiling point
is
373 K.
o
Absolute zero is 0 K (equal to 273
C). No
molecular movement occurs
below this
temperature.
K = oC + 273

or

C = K - 273

Kelvin vs Celsius Diagram

Gases are commonly

measured in either
(a) cubic metres (m3),
(b) millilitres (mL) or
(c) litres (L).

1 m3 = 10 3 L = 10 6 mL

BOYLES LAW
The volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely
proportional to the pressure exerted on it.

That is, as pressure increased, the volume

decreased OR
P is proportional to 1 / V.
PV equals a constant value at a given
temperature so (at a constant temperature)
P1V1 = P2V2

EXAMPLE
What volume of air at 78 kPa pressure is needed to fill a 35 L
car tyre to a pressure of 275 kPa if the temperature
remains constant ?
P1V1 = P2V2
78 V1 = 275 x 35
V1 = 275 x 35 / 78
= 9625 / 78
= 123.4 L

Jacques Charles while experimenting found

that as the temperature increased, the
volume of a gas increased.
His law states that
The volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant
pressure is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature (in Kelvins).
Since V is proportional to T
Then V / T = constant.
Charles Law can be rewritten as
V1/T1 = V2/T2 at a constant pressure

Charles Law only works when the Absolute Scale is used

(Kelvin Scale). A straight line graph will only pass through the
origin when it is at Absolute Zero (0 K = -273 oC).
(SEE BELOW)
At this temperature, the average kinetic energy of
gas particles is virtually zero.

Charles Law is consistent with the Kinetic Molecular Theory

EXAMPLE
A balloon has a volume of 325 ml at 17 oC. What is the temperature if the
volume increased to 392 ml (at constant pressure) ?

V1/T1 = V2/T2
325 / (273 + 17) = 392 / T2
325 / 290 = 392 / T2
1.12 = 392 / T2
T2 = 392 / 1.12
= 350 K = ( 77 oC)

Gay Lussacs Law states that, for a given quantity of gas (if the
volume is constant), the pressure of the gas is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature.
P is proportional to T, then P/T = constant
SO P1 / T1 = P2 / T2

This can be demonstrated by the EGG in

a FLASK trick

This Law is based on the combination of the Charles and

Boyles Laws. It explains how a volume of a fixed mass of
gas changes when both temperature and pressure change
at the same time.
It was found that
So therefore

PV/T = constant (c)

P1V1 / T 1 = P 2 V2 / T2

A welder needs 4500 L of oxygen gas at 145 kPa pressure at a

temperature of 20 oC. To what pressure must a 60 L tank be
filled at 12oC ?
T1 = 20 oC. = 293 K
T2 = 12 oC. = 285 K

P1V1 / T 1 = P 2 V2 / T2
145 X 4500 / 293 = P 2 X 60 / 285
P2 = 145 X 4500 X 285 / 293 X 60
= 185962500 / 17580
= 10578.07 kPa OR
= 1.1 x 104 kPa

The pressure that each gas exerts in a mixture of gases is known as its PARTIAL
PRESSURE and is equal to the pressure it would exert if it were alone in the
container.
DALTONS LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE states that, at constant
temperature and volume, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of all the
partial pressures.
P total = P1 + P2 + P3 + .

EXAMPLE
A cylinder contains a mixture of two gases with a combined pressure of
1.36 atm. If the partial pressure of one gas is 750 mmHg, determine the
pressure of the other gas (in mmHg)
P total = P1 + P2

P total = 1.36 atm = 1.36 X 760 mmHg = 1033.6mmHg

P 2 = Ptotal - P1
= 1033.6 750
= 283.6 mmHg
Some calculations may require the use of the other calculations
(such as P1V1 = P2V2)

Gases that are insoluble in water can be

collected by the displacement of water
from a closed inverted jar.
When the liquid level inside the
collection jar is the same as that in the
basin, the atmospheric pressure equals
the pressure exerted by the molecules
in the jar.
However, since water vapour contributes
to the total pressure exerted by the
molecules in the jar, this must be taken
into account when determining the
pressure of the gas collected.

To compare gases there must be one of two sets of conditions.

They are:
1) STANDARD TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE
(STP)
Standard temperature is 273 K (0 OC)
Standard pressure is 1 atmosphere
(or 760 mmHg or 101.3 kPa)
2)

STANDARD LABORATORY
CONDITIONS (SLC)
SLC temperature is 298 K (25 OC)
SLC pressure is 1 atmosphere (or 760 mmHg or 101.3 kPa)

Avogadro hypothesised that equal volumes of all gases measured at the same
temperature and pressure contained the same number of particles. They must
therefore contain the same number of moles.
At STP, one mole of any gas occupies 22.4 L
(called the MOLAR GAS VOLUME)
At SLC, the molar gas volume is 24.5 L.
(The temperature is higher so gases expand)

Another Important Equation to remember

n = V / V m (Vm is the molar volume)
SO n (STP) = V / 22.4
n (SLC) = V /24.5

V is measured in litres

Calculate the volume of the following gases at STP and SLC

(a) 1.3 mol of hydrogen (H2)
(b) 3.6 g of methane (CH4)

(a) At STP
n = V / 22.4
V = 1.3 X 22.4
V = 29.12 L

At SLC
n = V / 24.5
V = 1.3 X 24.5
V = 31.85 L

(b) n = m/M = 3.6 / 16 = 0.225 moles

At STP
n = V / 22.4
V = 0.225 X 22.4
V = 5.04 L

At SLC
n = V / 24.5
V = 0.225 X 24.5
V = 5.5125 L

When Boyles Law and Gay Lussacs Laws are combined

and due to the fact that as pressure increases the number of
moles of gas must also increase we come up with
P is proportional to nT/V
OR
PV is proportional to nT
To replace the proportional sign with an equality sign, a
constant must be added.
This is the GENERAL GAS CONSTANT (R)
SO
PV = nRT
(where R = 8.31 JK-1 mol -1 )
OR
PV = mRT / M

P is in kPa, V is in L and T is in K.

Calculate the volume occupied by 42 g of nitrogen

gas
O
at a pressure of 200 kPa and a temperature of 77 C.
T = 77OC = 350 K
PV = mRT / M
200 V = 42 X 8.31 X 350 / (14 x 2)
200 V = 122157 / 28
200 V = 4362.75
V = 4362.75 / 200
= 21.81375 L

EQUATIONS WILL REQUIRE THE USE OF EITHER MASS- VOLUME OR

VOLUME VOLUME STOICHIOMETRY.
EXAMPLE OF MASS VOLUME STOICHIOMETRY
The equation for photosynthesis to produce glucose is as follows:

6 CO2 (g)

+ 6H20 (g)

C6H12O6 (g) +
6O2 (g)

What volume of carbon dioxide, measured at 28 oC and 1.3 atm pressure is needed to
produce 1.5 g of glucose ?
n (glucose) = 1.5 / 180 = 0.0083 mol
therefore n (CO2) = 6 X 0.0083 = 0.05 mol
P = 1.3 atm = 1.3 x 101.3 = 131.69 kPa
T = 28 oC = 301 K
PV = nRT
131.69V = 0.05 X 8.31 X 301
131.69V = 125.0655
V = 125.0655 / 131.69
V = 0.95 L

Calculate the volume of O2 gas needed at STP to completely

burn 125 g of octane (C8H18) gas. Water and carbon dioxide
are produced.
EQUATION

2 C8H18 + 25 O2

18H2O +

16 CO2

n (octane) = 125 / (12X8 + 18) = 125/ 114 =1.096

n (O2) = 25 X 1.096 / 2 = 27.41 / 2 = 13.71 moles
n (STP) = V / V m
13.71 = V / 22.4
V = 13.71 X 22.4
= 307 L

IDEAL GASES obey all the gas laws perfectly at any temperature or
pressure.
REAL GASES show large departures from ideality, particularly at high
pressure and low temperatures. This is because of intermolecular forces
between particles, giving the gas molecules a definite volume (it is
assumed to be negligible).
At high pressure, the gas particles
move closer together and so the
intermolecular forces grow stronger.
At low temperatures, the gas molecules
move more slowly and the intermolecular
forces become large.
The gas laws are only applicable at high
temperatures (above room temperature)
and at low pressure.