Figure C2.21: The Four Seasons Apartments in Alaska collapsed during the earthquake of March 27, 1964.

The building was under construction and unoccupied.

Geologists think intense earthquakes and volcanoes

frequently occurred in Alberta hundreds of millions of years
ago. No one was around to observe these ancient events, so
if you really want to know what earthquakes are like, you
need to observe the effects of earthquakes in modern times.
Around supper hour on the evening of March 27, 1964,
most people in Alaska were already home from work or on
their way home. Since this day was also Good Friday, the
start of the Easter holiday, many businesses had closed early.
College students had already left to go home for the holiday,
and most highrise office buildings were empty. All these
factors proved to be lifesavers because, at 5:36 p.m., the
second-largest earthquake ever recorded by a seismograph
occurred.

Figure
C2.22: This
simplified view
of a seismograph shows
that during an earthquake, the
base moves but the inertial mass stays
still and a recording of the motion is made on
the paper. The paper is fed at a constant speed.

Earlier in this chapter, you learned that when searching

for petroleum in subsurface rock formations, man-made
explosions can create seismic waves that can be recorded
by a seismograph. In the case of The Alaska Earthquake of
1964, the seismic waves were so intense that a seismograph
in Alaska that was attempting to record the event literally
went off the chart.
The energy released by this earthquake was so intense
that Earth vibrated like a gigantic planetary bell. The ringing
triggered effects that were felt around the world. The next
day, farmers in both Alberta and Saskatchewan noticed
changes in the height of their well water. Similar effects were
later reported from places as far away as South Africa.
Most property damage occurred in the coastal areas of
Alaska closest to the actual location where Earths
tectonic plates suddenly moved. The city of Anchorage
suffered the greatest amount of property damageabout
30 blocks of office buildings and apartment buildings
were destroyed. Most schools were severely damaged. For
example, the Government Hill Grade School was completely
destroyed by one of the many landslides that resulted from
the three minutes of violent ground shaking.
As you will learn later in this lesson, underwater landslides
proved to be particularly devastating due to the huge water
waves they generated in both bays and fjords.
Chapter 2: A Tropical Alberta

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2.3 Earthquakes

Science 20 2006 Alberta Education (www.education.gov.ab.ca). Third-party copyright credits are listed on the attached copyright credit page.

What caused this earthquake? How did seismic waves carry this energy to other parts of the planet? The 1964 earthquake
measured 9.2 on the Richter scale. What does this number mean? How is it determined? In this lesson you will answer these
questions. The answers will form important background information for the next parts of Chapter 2, as you return to events
within Alberta and study the processes responsible for the formation of the Rocky Mountains.

Practice
15. Use the information from this lesson and Lesson 1.1 to define the following terms.
a. crustal plate
b. plate tectonics
c. seismic wave
16. Why do urban areas usually suffer the greatest loss of life as a result of earthquakes?

fault: a crack in
Earths crust due
to the motion of
one tectonic plate
relative to another
subduction: the
downturning of
oceanic crust under
another crustal plate

Causes of The Alaska Earthquake of 1964

The Alaska Earthquake of 1964 was caused by the motion of the Pacific Plate relative to the North American Plate. The
boundary between these two crustal plates is called a fault. The Pacific Plate is made of dense oceanic crust, so it tends to
be pushed under the less dense continental crust of the North American Plate.
This process is called subduction. As a result of this subduction, the continental crust that made up most of
southern Alaska was compressed and warped by the huge pressures between these two plates. The stress caused the rock to
deform or change shape by bending. Energy was stored in the deformed areas in the form of elastic potential energy, much
like when a spring is compressed. When the stress became greater than the breaking strength of the rock, a break occurred
in the fault. The stored energy within the
misshapen plate was suddenly released.
The stress between the two plates was
relieved on March 27, 1964, when portions
of southern coastal Alaska could no longer
withstand the strain and suddenly moved
to the southeast over the Pacific Plate. On
NORTH AMERICAN
average, the total distance moved was about
PLATE
9 m. This sudden motion of the lithosphere
caused seismic waves to be sent out. This
PACIFIC PLATE
transferred energy from the lurching crust to
other points on Earths surface.
During The Alaska Earthquake of 1964,
the seismic waves originated from the initial
breaking point
A
G SE
focus: the region that
ALASKA
ERIN
along
the
fault
B
first breaks along
CAN
AL
Anchorage
(called the
a fault during an
AD
EU
A
TIA
earthquake
focus), which
NI
S
LAN
epicentre: the point
was a region
DS
on Earths surface
H
25 km below
NC
directly above the
RE
T
LATE
Earths surface.
ALEUTIAN
focus of an earthquake
AN P
C
I
R
ME
Prince William
TH A
NOR
Sound, located approximately 120 km east
t
he
LATE
es
ot
of Anchorage, was the place on Earths
w
FIC P
e t year
I
C
h
v
i
A
t
t
P
er
or
ela
surface directly above the earthquakes
N
gr mp
vin 7 c
o
o
focus, so it was called the epicentre.
s m cm t
ei
lat of 5
P
In Utilizing Technology: Subduction,
ic ate
cif
r
Pa at a .
t
you can view an applet on the Science 20
e
s
h
a
T late rrow
:
e
h
.23 n P the a
Textbook CD to see how the process of
ut
C2 ca
f
So
re meri on o
u
subduction can lead to earthquakes.
Fig th A recti
r
i
No he d
t
n
i

344

Unit C: The Changing Earth

Subduction
Purpose

Science Skills

You will watch the applet Subduction that animates a similar

process to the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the North
American Plate, which caused the famous 1964 earthquake.
The analysis questions will allow you to apply the information
presented in this lesson to the process shown in the applet on
the Science 20 Textbook CD.

Performing and Recording

Analyzing and Interpreting
southwest

northeast

Analysis
The following labels have been omitted from the diagram:
fault, focus, epicentre, lithosphere, asthenosphere,
seismic waves, oceanic crust, and continental crust.

E.

A.
F.

B.

B.
C.

G.

1. Correctly match each label on the diagram with its correct

box in Figure C2.24.
2. Recall your work with the rock cycle in Chapter 1.

D.

trench

Use Figure C2.24 to answer the next two questions.

H.
Figure C2.24: This diagram outlines an earthquakes focus and epicentre.

a. Identify the type of rock (sedimentary, igneous, or

metamorphic) you would expect to find at the point labelled E.

b. Concisely explain what happens to the oceanic crust as it descends into the mantle.
c. Use your answer from question 2.b. to concisely explain why it is quite likely that the mountains shown in
Figure C2.24 are volcanically active.

Types of Seismic Waves

So that energy released at the focus can reach the surface,
seismic waves have to transfer the energy through the
subsurface rock. One way for seismic waves to transfer
energy is through primary waves, which are often called
P-waves for short.

secondary
or
S-wave

direction of wave travel

crests

amplitude
primary
or
P-wave

compressions

direction of wave travel

expansions
Figure C2.25: P-waves are also known as primary waves.

As the name suggests, the primary or P-waves are the

first to arrive because they travel the fastest. As these waves
travel through the rock, the matter is alternately compressed
and then expanded. Since P-waves are like an extremely
low-frequency sound wave, they are able to travel through
solids, liquids, and gases.
Another way that seismic waves can transfer energy is
through secondary waves or S-waves.

troughs
Figure C2.26: S-waves are also termed secondary waves.

S-waves move slower than P-waves and can only move

through solid rock. In an S-wave the rock vibrates up and
downor left and rightas the wave moves forward. As
a result, S-waves cause the rock to change shape without
changing volume. Since liquids and gases do not resist a
change in shape (liquids and gases flow instead), S-waves
cannot pass through liquids and gases. S-waves have a larger
amplitude and, therefore, transfer more energy than P-waves.
primary wave or P-wave: a seismic wave that travels through
rock as a series of compressions and expansions of particles
A P-wave is able to pass through solids, liquids, and gases.
secondary wave or S-wave: a seismic wave that travels
through rock as a series of crests and troughs
An S-wave can pass through solids but not liquids or gases.
amplitude: the maximum displacement of a wave from the
rest position

Chapter 2: A Tropical Alberta

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Utilizing Technology

Science 20 2006 Alberta Education (www.education.gov.ab.ca). Third-party copyright credits are listed on the attached copyright credit page.

Investigation
Modelling Seismic Waves with a Spring
Purpose
You and your partners will use a large-diameter spring (a Slinky) to
generate waves that model P-waves and S-waves. You will also
have an opportunity to observe the connection between spring
properties and the speed of the wave that travels through the spring.

Materials

Science Skills
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording
Analyzing and Interpreting
Communication and Teamwork

metre-stick
stopwatch
large-diameter spring (for example, a Slinky)

Dont overstretch the spring. Overstretching may cause the spring to become
permanently deformed. Dont suddenly release one end of the spring when
its stretched. The recoiling spring may strike and injure your partners.

Procedure
step 1: Model a P-wave. Generate a P-wave by thrusting your handwhich is holding the springback and forth
toward the other end of the spring. You can tell if this is being done correctly because the spring will remain in
a straight line. There will be little sideways motion. The main motion should be the compression travelling down
the spring.
step 2: Repeat the previous step until all members of your group have a chance to generate the model of the P-wave.
step 3: Record a sketch of your model of a P-wave. Be sure to include labels for compressions and expansions.
step 4: Model an S-wave. Have two members of your team stretch the spring out several metres across a
hard-surfaced floor. Have one partner hold his or her end of the spring still while the other partner moves the
end of the spring to the left and to the right at a steady rate. Adjust the rate of hand motion so the wave clearly
shows crests and troughs.
step 5: Repeat step 4 until all members of your group have an opportunity to generate the model of an S-wave.
step 6: Record a sketch of your model of an S-wave. Be sure to include labels for crests and troughs.
step 7: Design a simple procedure to measure the speed of a model S-wave when the spring is stretched to its safest
maximum length. Concisely record your method.
step 8: Record your measurements and calculations in an appropriate format.
step 9: Repeat steps 7 and 8 when the spring is only stretched to half of its maximum length. Record your results.

Observations
1. Record your labelled sketch of a model P-wave.
2. Record your labelled sketch of a model S-wave.
3. Record the procedure used to determine the speed of a wave.

Calculations
4. Record the data and calculations for the speed of the S-wave when the spring is at its safest maximum stretch.
5. Record the data and calculations for the speed of the S-wave when the spring is at one-half the length of its safest
maximum stretch.

Evaluation
6. Share the results of your calculations with other student teams.
a. Compare your speed values with those of other groups. How do you account for any differences?
b. Compare your procedure for determining velocity with the methods devised by other groups. If you had to repeat
this activity, what improvements would you incorporate?

346

Unit C: The Changing Earth

longitudinal wave: a wave in which the vibration of the particles

is parallel to the direction the wave is travelling
transverse wave: a wave in which the vibration of the particles
is perpendicular to the direction the wave is travelling

S-Wave Model

P-Wave Model

compress

particle motion
wave direction

expand compress

particle motion
wave direction

wave direction

particle motion

P- Waves, S-Waves, and Earths Interior

In Modelling Seismic Waves with a Spring, you observed that changing a propertylike the tension in a springinfluences
the speed of a wave that travels through that spring. In Chapter 1 you learned that Earth is comprised of a number of layers.
These layers have different properties, such as density, temperature, and pressure, that all increase as you move from
Earths crust to its inner core. If you combine the results of the investigation with this idea, it is reasonable to suppose that
seismic waves should travel at different speeds as they pass through different layers of Earths interior. Geologists have found
evidence to support this.
As depth increases, the speed of both P-waves and S-waves increase. Sudden changes in rock properties cause the waves
to quickly change direction. This is similar to light waves bending as they enter a lens. This sudden change in direction causes
a region where P-waves from an earthquake cannot be detected; this region is called a P-wave shadow zone. Researchers
concluded that the P-wave shadow zone could be explained if Earths centre were composed of different material than the mantle.
earthquake
epicentre
an
d

ves
wa
S-

e
id outer cor

d
only
P-waves detecte
S

e
- w av e
Figure C2.27:
shadow zon
Shown are the changes in
direction of seismic waves as they pass through Earth. The sudden change
of properties at the mantle/core boundary causes the P-waves to bend.

St
wa
ec
v
dir s.
l
t o es a n
e
al l
d
trav ne
reg P-waves can ow zo
ions w
d
a
ith no sh

ly

ve e
wa on
P- w z
o
ad

sh

liq
u

cted
dete

solid
inner
core

le

sh P-w
ad av
ow e
zo
n

ma
nt

earthquake
epicentre
P-w
ave
s

Figure C2.28: An imaginary Earth with a completely solid

interior of uniform composition would have no shadow zones.

Chapter 2: A Tropical Alberta

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In Modelling Seismic Waves with a Spring, you

created a model of P-waves by moving your hand in a
direction parallel to the direction the wave was moving.
This is why a P-wave is classified as a longitudinal wave.
When you created a model of S-waves, your hand moved
in a direction perpendicular to the direction the wave was
moving. It is for this reason that an S-wave is classified as
a transverse wave.

Science 20 2006 Alberta Education (www.education.gov.ab.ca). Third-party copyright credits are listed on the attached copyright credit page.

If you look carefully at Figure C2.27, you will see a region on the side of Earth opposite the earthquake epicentre where
only P-waves are detected. There is a much larger region called the S-wave shadow zone where no direct S-waves are
received. What could prevent S-waves from travelling directly from the earthquake through the planets centre? The simplest
explanation is that the outer portion of the core must be liquid, since S-waves do not move through liquids. If Earth had a
uniformly solid composition from its crust to its centre, both P-waves and S-waves would move in straight lines at a constant
speed, as in Figure C2.28. Therefore, there would be no bending and no shadow zones.

Surface Wave Examples

direction of wave travel

direction of wave travel

Surface waves do not travel through the interior of Earth, but

they do move along the surface of Earths crust. The motion of
surface waves is more complex than P-waves or S-waves.
As a surface wave moves along the ground, it causes the
ground to move, much like a water wave will move a boat up
and down. Surface waves will also move the ground from side to
side, similar to an S-wave. Surface waves do not travel far from
the epicentre, and they travel slower than S-waves.
The Properties of Seismic Waves table summarizes the
properties of types of seismic waves.

Figure C2.29: Surface waves move along the surface of Earths crust.

PROPERTIES OF SEISMIC WAVES

Property

Primary Waves

Secondary Waves

Surface Waves

6 to 14

3 to 8

1 to 6

range of speeds (km/s)

mode of vibration

longitudinal: particles vibrate

parallel to wave velocity by
creating compressions and
expansions

transverse: particles
vibrate perpendicular to
wave velocity by creating
crests and troughs

complicated combination of
transverse and longitudinal vibrations

transmitting materials

solids, liquids, and gases

solids only

mainly through solids

part of Earth transmitting

type of wave

all parts of Earthatmosphere,

lithosphere, mantle, and core

the lithosphere and

mantle only

top layer of Earths crust in upper

lithosphere

first wave to arrive

perceived as abrupt thud

second wave to arrive

causes first period of
ground rolling
more damaging than
P-waves

last waves to arrive

responsible for most of ground
shaking
cause most damage because
buildings can only withstand
minimal shaking

effects during an
earthquake

Practice
200 km
100 km

66 k
seismograph

II
I

III

lithosphere
asthenosphere

Figure C2.30: Three seismic waves are illustrated.

348

epicentre

Unit C: The Changing Earth

focus

Refer to Figure C2.30 to answer questions 17 and 18.

It shows three seismic waveslabelled I, II, and III.
It also shows the distance travelled by these waves
from the focus of an earthquake after 20 s. These
waves are all eventually detected and recorded by the
seismograph located 200 km away from the epicentre.

Time (s)
0

a. Calculate the speed of waves I, II, and III.

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

b. Use your answer from 17.a. to determine the

type of wave that corresponds to each wave.
c. The energy of a seismic wave is indicated by
the amplitude of the signal recorded by the
seismograph. The maximum amplitude of
wave III is indicated as A 3 on Figure C2.31.
Relate two reasons why wave III is more likely
than waves I and II to damage buildings at the
seismographs location.

A3
waves
leave focus
wave I
arrives at
seismograph

wave III arrives at seismograph

wave II
arrives at
seismograph

18. Refer to your answers for question 17. Determine

Figure C2.31: A seismogram is an earthquake record obtained by a seismograph.
which of the waves could travel directly to a
seismograph on the completely opposite side of the planet from the epicentre.

Studying Earthquakes Using Seismic Waves

Although surface waves produce the most damage in an earthquake, most geologists are more interested in P-waves and
S-wavesthese waves can travel through Earth and provide a lot of information about its internal structure. Although they
were generically referred to as seismic waves earlier in Chapter 2, the waves that geologists generate to look for petroleum in
subsurface rock are, in fact, P-waves.
One of the most common applications of P-waves and S-waves is locating an earthquakes epicentre. In questions
17 and 18, you saw how the S-waves lag behind the P-waves. This is due to the lower speed of the S-waves.
The time difference between the arrival of S-waves, as compared to P-waves, provides a method of locating the distance
between the seismograph and the epicentre. The farther away from the epicentre, the greater the time difference between the
arrival of the P-waves and S-waves. This principle is similar to two runners, where the faster runner will always reach the
finish line first. But the longer the race, the greater the time difference between the arrival of the two runners.
The time interval between
the two waves can also be used
with other values to determine
the Richter magnitude of
an earthquake. The Richter
magnitude is useful for both
categorizing and comparing
earthquakes. An earthquake
with a Richter magnitude of
3.0 is barely detectable by
people. The Alaska Earthquake
of 1964 had a Richter
magnitude of 9.2, second
only to the 9.5 magnitude of
the Chilean earthquake of
1960. Earthquakes with larger
magnitudes may have occurred
prior to the development of the
Richter scale.
Figure C2.32: This United States Coast Guard dock was drastically altered after The Alaska Earthquake of 1964.
It was raised more than two metres above the high-tide mark.

Earthquake Analysis on page 350 uses an applet that illustrates the key points in both
finding the epicentre and determining the Richter magnitude of an earthquake.

Richter magnitude: a number

assigned to an earthquake based
upon the amount of vertical
ground motion at its epicentre

Chapter 2: A Tropical Alberta

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17. Assume that all three waves travel 200 km from

the focus to the seismograph.

Science 20 2006 Alberta Education (www.education.gov.ab.ca). Third-party copyright credits are listed on the attached copyright credit page.

Utilizing Technology
Earthquake Analysis

Most of the damage and loss of life from this earthquake

was due to the resulting tsunami that moved down the
Pacific coast of North America and across the Pacific Ocean.

Science Skills
Performing and Recording
Analyzing and Interpreting
Purpose
You will locate the epicentre of an interactive earthquake
by using the applet titled Earthquake Analysis on the
Science 20 Textbook CD. You will also have an
opportunity to calculate the Richter magnitude
of the virtual earthquake by using your data.

Preparation
This application is completely self-contained and is quite
user-friendly. It would be very helpful to have access to a
printer. You will want to print key documents to not only
record your progress but also provide study materials to
prepare for tests.
Work through the application according to the
instructions. To create a record of your progress, print
the following key documents:

the tables for calculating distance to the epicentre

On December 26, 2004, the strongest earthquake

since The Alaska Earthquake of 1964 occurred 255 km
off Sumatras coast in the Indian Ocean. Like the Alaska
earthquake, this was a large earthquakewith a Richter
magnitude of 9.0caused by one tectonic plate being
subducted under another. This generated a powerful tsunami.
However, in this case, the tsunami hit densely populated
areas in South Asia and East Africa. Hardest hit were parts
of Sumatra, Indonesia, and Indias Nicobar Islands. In total,
approximately 300 000 people lost their lives in this tragedy.

a map that shows the triangulation to find the

epicentre

Tsunamis and First Nations People

the seismograms that allow the measurement of

the S-wave and P-wave intervals

the seismograms that allow the measurement of

the S-wave amplitudes
a table (nomogram) for determining the
earthquakes Richter magnitude

Check for Understanding

1. Outline the basic steps to determine an earthquakes
epicentre by using data from three different
seismographs. Answer in the form of a flowchart.
2. Concisely explain why the amplitude for the S-wave
measured by a seismograph is a smaller value
at a seismic station located farther away from an
earthquakes epicentre.

Tsunamis
Although it was a victim of The Alaska Earthquake of 1964,
the fishing boat in Figure C2.33 was not carried to the centre
of the town of Kodiak by earth movement. This damage was
done by a tsunami, which is sometimes incorrectly called a
tidal wave. The sudden movement of the sea floor that
occurred as the Pacific Plate moved
tsunami: a seismic
under the North American Plate
sea wave set off by
an earthquake in or
caused a series of enormous seismic
near an ocean basin
sea waves.
350

Figure C2.33: This boat was damaged by a tsunami in 1964.

Unit C: The Changing Earth

The oral traditions of the Pachena people from northern

Vancouver Island suggest that an earthquake and the large
tsunami that followed destroyed a village. This was described
by Chief Louis Clamhouse in 1964.
They had practically no way or time to try to save
themselves. I think it was at nighttime that the land
shook . . . . I think a big wave smashed into the beach.
The Pachena Bay people were lost . . . .

The oral traditions of other First Nations people recall a

time when Earth shook for days, whales were found in the
forest, and landslides buried entire villages. Many geologists
regard these stories as accurate oral accounts of an earthquake
that occurred on the west coast of Vancouver Island on
January 26, 1700, at about 9:00 p.m. How could scientists
deduce the time of this event? The arrival of the resulting
tsunami ten hours later was accurately recorded in the
historical records of fishing villages all along the east coast
of Japan.
Using this data and other evidence, geologists suspect that
the quake probably originated off the coast of Vancouver Island.
You can learn more about the Cascadia Megathrust Earthquake
of 1700 in the Chapter 2 Review Questions.

2.3 Summary
Earthquakes occur due to the sudden release of stored energy.
This energy builds up over time due to the motion of crustal
plates. When the energy is released, one plate suddenly
moves relative to anotherthis causes seismic waves to
travel through the surrounding rock. Primary waves, or
P-waves, travel the fastest, so they are the first to arrive at
some other point on Earths crust. Secondary waves, or
S-waves, arrive next and these tend to cause more damage
than P-waves. Although they do not travel as far as primary
waves and move at relatively low speeds, surface waves
tend to do the greatest damage during an earthquake. The
difference in the arrival times of P-waves and S-waves
can be used to determine the location of the epicentre of
the earthquake if data from at least three seismographs is
available. This information can also be combined with the
maximum amplitude of the S-wave to determine the Richter
magnitude number of the earthquake.

S-P
Interval (s)

Distance to
Epicentre
(km)

Maximum
Amplitude of
S-wave (mm)

Vancouver

77

760

Bella Coola

40

390

140

Prince George

63

620

20

Use this data and the Richter Magnitude Chart to

determine the Richter magnitude for this earthquake.
Richter Magnitude Chart
800
700

8.0

600

7.0

400

Knowledge
1. Sketch two diagrams to illustrate the differences between
S-waves and P-waves.
2. Identify which type of seismic wave produces the most
damage in an earthquake.
3. Explain why it is incorrect to say that the seismic waves
produced by an earthquake start at its epicentre.
Applying Concepts

0k

62

Prince
George
390 km

Edmonton

Bella
Coola

760 km

Seismograph
Station

500

2.3 Questions

Queen
Charlotte
Islands

5. Refer to Figure C2.34. The three seismograph stations

shown on the map recorded the following data.

6.0

300

5.0

200

4.0

100

3.0

60
40
30

2.0
1.0

500
200
100
50
20
10
5
2
1
0.5
0.2
0.1

20

Distance (km)

Magnitude Amplitude (mm)

6. Concisely explain why the maximum amplitude of the

S-wave is larger in Bella Coola than it is in Vancouver,
even though the seismographs are measuring the same
earthquake.
7. Internet Search: The largest earthquake
recorded by seismographs in Canada had its
epicentre in the same location as the fictional
earthquake described in questions 4 to 6.
Use the Internet to research answers to the
following questions.
a. Identify when Canadas largest earthquake recorded by
a seismograph occurred.
b. What was the Richter magnitude number for this
earthquake?
c. Concisely describe the cause of this earthquake in
terms of the motion of tectonic plates.

Vancouver

Figure C2.34: This map of British Columbia shows estimated

distances to an earthquakes epicentre.

d. Explain how you located information to answer the

other parts of question 7. Identify the search strategies
used and how much time you needed. Compare your
strategies and results with other students. How could
you have improved your approach to more efficiently
find the information?
Chapter 2: A Tropical Alberta

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4. Figure C2.34 shows the estimated distances to the

epicentre of an earthquake for three seismographs. Use
the map to determine the epicentre of this earthquake.

Photo Credits and Acknowledgements

All photographs, illustrations, and text contained in this book have been created by or for Alberta Education, unless noted herein or
elsewhere in this Science 20 textbook.
Alberta Education wishes to thank the following rights holders for granting permission to incorporate their works into this textbook.
Every effort has been made to identify and acknowledge the appropriate rights holder for each third-party work. Please notify Alberta
Education of any errors or omissions so that corrective action may be taken.
Legend: t = top, m = middle, b = bottom, l = left, r = right
343 (t) National Information Service for Earthquake Engineering
University of California, Berkeley 349 (b) U.S. Geological Survey 350
U.S. Geological Survey