Lesson 7 - Ideas To Implentation - Teacher

Fall
HSC
Physics
Ideas to Implementation
Lesson 7:
Semiconductors
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Summary of Key Words
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LESSON 7: Ideas to Implementation
HSC Physics
Account for: state reasons for, report on. Give an account of: narrate a
series of events or transactions
Analyse
Identify components and the relationship between them; draw out and
relate implications
Apply
Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation
Assess
Make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size
Calculate
Ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or information
Clarify
Make clear or plain
Classify
Arrange or include in classes/categories
Compare
Show how things are similar or different
Construct
Make; build; put together items or arguments
Contrast
Show how things are different or opposite
Deduce
Draw conclusions
Define
State meaning and identify essential qualities
Demonstrate
Show by example
Describe
Provide characteristics and features
Discuss
Identify issues and provide points for and/or against
Distinguish
Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; to note
differences between
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HSC Physics
Evaluate
Make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of
Examine
Inquire into
Explain
Relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things evident;
provide why and/or how
Extract
Choose relevant and/or appropriate details
Extrapolate
Infer from what is known
Identify
Recognise and name
Interpret
Draw meaning from
Investigate
Plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about
Justify
Support an argument or conclusion
Outline
Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of
Predict
Suggest what may happen based on available information
Propose
Put forward (for example a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion) for
consideration or action
Recall
Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences
Recommend
Provide reasons in favour
Lesson Dotpoints
HSC Physics
By the end of the lesson, you should understand the following

concepts:
Semiconductors
Identify that the use of germanium in early transistors is

related to lack of ability to produce other materials of suitable
purity
Describe how doping a semiconductor can change its

electrical properties
Identify differences in p and n-type semiconductors in terms of

the relative number of negative charge carriers and positive
holes
Applications
Identify data sources gather, process and present information

to summarise the use of the photoelectric effect in:
Solar cells
Photocells
HSC Physics
1. Semiconductors
CHECKPOINT:
Identify that the use of germanium in early transistors is related to

lack of ability to produce other materials of suitable purity
Describe how doping a semiconductor can change its electrical

properties
Identify differences in p and n-type semiconductors in terms of the

relative number of negative charge carriers and positive holes
Germanium vs. Silicon

Germanium and silicon are similar in that they are both
semiconductors
As of the 1940s, germanium was the first semiconducting material
to be readily purified
The purity of a semiconductor was essential for its applications in
electronics
-
Why is does a semiconductor have to be pure?

Even tiny impurities have dramatic effects on electrical
properties as well see in the doping section
As this technique for purification did not translate from germanium

to silicon, scientists resorted to using germanium for early
electronic devices such as transistors
-
What is a transistor?
A switch made out of semiconductors that has 3 modes, off, on
and super on. Voltage/Current enabled switch/amplifier.
The use of Germanium however had problems its biggest flaws

lied in its rarity and relatively small energy gap between the
valence and conduction bands
HSC Physics
Sketch what germaniums band structure would look like
This meant with relative ease and a small energy input, valence
electrons could easily make the jump to the conduction band
Consequently, at low-mid temperatures germanium possesses a
significant number of electrons in the conduction band
-
Explain why germanium possesses so many electrons available

for conduction at room temperature
Temperature is a measure of kinetic and as such, as
temperature increases, the energy of the valence electrons do
too. Germanium possesses a small energy gap of which is
easily overcome by an input of energy and as such a relatively
low-mid temperature is capable of allowing the valence
electrons to make the jump to the conduction band.
As the temperature of the germanium system increases, these

conduction electrons begin colliding with one another resulting in
resistance
This resultant resistance meant that germanium transistors lost
conductivity at operating temperatures and were henceforth not
very reliable
Silicon on the other hand, possesses a slightly larger energy gap of
which prevents this resistance from occurring at operating
temperature
Thus, whilst silicon possessed superior properties over germanium,
germanium was used in early electronics until a suitable method of
HSC Physics
purification was developed for silicon
In the early 1950s a method for purifying silicon was established

this allowed for silicon to instead be used in the manufacturing of
electronics
Silicon was preferred over germanium for a variety of reasons
1) It is far more abundant than germanium
2) It retains conductivity at higher temperatures i.e. silicon
transistors were more reliable
3) It can be manipulated under oxygen rich environments to
produce insulating layers where necessary
-
Explain how silicon retains better conductivity at higher

temperatures than germanium
Germaniums relatively small energy gap means with a small input of

energy (such as an increase in temperature), valence electrons are
readily promoted to the conduction band. As the energy of the system
increases this then results in these conduction electrons colliding and
giving rise to resistance, decreasing the conductivity of germanium.
Silicon however, requires a greater input of energy for valence
electrons to be promoted. As such, less collisions occur as
temperature increases and as such conductivity is maintained at
higher temperatures.
HSC Physics
Doping
Doping involves the manipulation of the atomic structure of a
semiconductor such as silicon
-
How many valence electrons does silicon possess?

Group 4 therefore 4
Draw the electron configuration of a single silicon atom
In a normal silicon solid, each of silicons four valence electrons

form a covalent bond with a neighbouring silicon atom this gives
rise to a crystal lattice structure
-
Sketch a diagram of the crystal-lattice structure of silicon
HSC Physics
Covalent
Doping is the process
of bond
adding a group 3 or group 5
element impurity into the crystal lattice structure of a
semiconductor to improve conductivity
If silicon was to be doped, certain silicon atoms of the crystal lattice
structure would be replaced by atoms of either group 3 or group 5
When these impurities are added, only very minute amounts are
used to avoid the possibility of unpredictable properties
Doping gives rise to special semiconductors called extrinsic
semiconductors
-
What is the name given to a pure semiconductor?

An intrinsic semiconductor
The addition of a group 3 impurity such as boron, results in the

formation of a p-type semiconductor
-
Why do you think adding boron creates a p type

semiconductor? (Hint:What does the p stand for?)
Boron has 3 valence electrons which means it is missing one
electron in comparison to silicon. This means it is positive
relative to silicon therefore p for positive
The addition of a group 5 impurity such as phosphorus, results in

the formation of an n-type semiconductor
-
Explain why it is called an n type semiconductor?

Phosphorus has 5 valence electrons which means it has an
extra one compared to silicon. This means it is negative
relative to silicon therefore n for negative.
Draw the atomic structure for both boron and phosphorus in

the space below
HSC Physics
P-type Semiconductors
A p-type semiconductor is the result of a pure semiconductor such
as silicon being doped with a group 3 element such as boron
Every group 3 atom has three valence electrons
To form a p-type semiconductor, group 3 atoms are sparsely spread
into the silicon crystal lattice (a few silicon atoms are replaced
with group 3 atoms)
Such an impurity is often called a trivalent impurity
It is important to note that group 3 atoms possess one less valence
electron than group 4 atoms such as silicon
This means whilst all three of borons valence electrons form

covalent bonds with the surrounding silicon atoms, one electron of
HSC Physics
the adjacent silicon atoms will be unable to form a covalent bond

This results in a shortage of electrons in the crystal lattice structure
This deficiency of electrons correlates to the formation of a hole a

region of relative positive charge
As holes serve as additional charge carriers and increase the
conducitvity of the semiconductor
-
Label and title the diagrams below
Missing e (hole)
Unpaired electron
Undoped silicon lattice
P-type doped semiconductor
Holes are considered the dominant charge carriers of p-type

semiconductors
HSC Physics
The holes of this lattice structure exist at an energy level slightly

higher than that of the pure group 4 element
These holes therefore correlate to an addition energy level, an
acceptor level that exists between the valence and conduction
band
-
Label the diagram below
Conduction band
Valence band
Which Leaves holes

behind in valence band
which are charge carriers
Valence electrons are easily promoted into the acceptor level

leaving mobile holes in the valence band
As the energy required to promote an electron from the acceptor
level to the conduction band is less than the energy required to
promote an electron from the valence band to conduction band,
conductivity is said to have been improved
-
Is the overall charge for a p-type semiconductor positive?

Why/why not?
Despite having a deficiency of electrons and the presence of
holes, p-type semiconductors are in fact still neutral, NOT
positive. This is as boron contributes an equal amount of
protons and electrons (3 of each), not an imbalance. The holes
existence is purely based on the fact that boron has one less
valence electron.
What is an acceptor level and when is it empty?
It is a new energy level which electrons can exist. It is empty at 0K as

a small amount of energy is needed for electrons in the valence band
to jump to the acceptor level
-
Compare the energy spacing between the acceptor levels and

the top of the valence band assuming that the band gap of a
HSC Physics
semiconductor is ~1ev
The energy from valence to acceptor is very small compared to the
already small band gap of a semi-conductor. Approximately 0.05eV to
go from valence band to acceptor level.
-
Explain the improved conductivity of p-type semiconductors

over their intrinsic counterparts
p-type semiconductors are formed by the addition of a Group 3

impurity such as boron to a silicon lattice structure. This doping
results in the formation of holes. These holes are caused by a
deficiency of electrons in that boron only has 3 valence electrons
whereas silicon has 4. Thus, only 3 of 4 of silicons valence
electrons are able to form covalent bonds. The 4th is without a
boron electron. These holes act as excess charge carriers which
henceforth improve conductivity. Another reason for their
improved conductivity is in the fact that the holes correspond to
a slightly higher acceptor level. This acceptor level allows for
electrons to be promoted to the conduction band with less energy
yet again improving conductivity.
N-type Semiconductors
An n-type semiconductor is the result of a pure semiconductor such
as silicon being doped with a group 5 element such as phosphorus
Such an impurity is often called a pentavalent impurity
Every group 5 atom has five valence electrons
To form a n-type semiconductor, group 5 atoms are sparsely spread
into the silicon crystal lattice (a few silicon atoms are replaced
with group 5 atoms)
-
What is the above process called?

Doping of semiconductors
It is important to note that group 5 atoms possess one more

valence electron than group 4 atoms such as silicon
HSC Physics
This means whilst all four of silicons valence electrons are able to
form covalent bonds with the phosphorus impurity, the
phosphorus contributes one excess electron
This results in an excess of free electrons throughout the crystal
lattice
These excess electrons serve as additional charge carriers and

increase the conducitvity of the semiconductor
-
Label and title the diagram below
HSC Physics
Electrons are considered the dominant charge carriers of n-type

semiconductors
These group 5 electrons exist at energy levels much greater than
the valence electrons of the pure group 4 element
These excess electrons exist at an additional energy level denoted
the donor level
-
Label the diagram below
Electrons in the
donor level jump
to conduction
band when temp
increases, thus
increases
conductivity.
Also donor level
is FULL at 0K
As the energy required to promote an electron from the donor level

to the conduction band is far less than the energy required to
promote an electron from the valence band to conduction band,
conductivity is said to have been improved
HSC Physics
What is a donor level and when is it full?
It is a new energy level where electrons exist. It is FULL at 0K and a

small amount of energy is needed for electrons in the valence band to
jump to the acceptor level
-
Compare the energy spacing between the donor level and the
bottom of the conduction band
The energy from donor to conduction band is very small compared to

the already small band gap of a semi-conductor. Approximately
0.05eV to go from donor level to conduction band
-
Explain the improved conductivity of n-type semiconductors

over their intrinsic counterparts
n-type semiconductors are formed by the addition of a Group 5

impurity such as phosphorus to a silicon lattice structure. This
doping results in the existence excess free electrons. These excess
electrons act as excess charge carriers which henceforth improve
conductivity. Another reason for their improved conductivity is in
the fact that these excess electrons correspond to a much higher
energy level than that of valence electrons. These excess
electrons can easily be promoted to the conduction band yet
again improving conductivity.
The conductivity of extrinsic semiconductors (both n-type
and p-type) is greater than intrinsic semiconductors for
two main reasons
1) Increased charge carriers
2) The existence of additional energy levels
HSC Physics
Applications 1.1
Question 1 (HSC 2002 Qu 14)
During the early 1950s most transistors were manufactured using
germanium.
Why was germanium used instead of silicon?
a) Silicon is more brittle than germanium.
b) Germanium could be more easily produced in a purified
form.
c) Germanium is a more abundant raw material.
d) Silicon does not retain its semiconductor properties at high
temperatures.
Which option best identifies why germanium was replaced by silicon in
the semiconductor industry?
Germanium
Remains a useful
a)
semiconductor at higher
temperatures
b)
c)
d)
Silicon
Less abundant
Less abundant
Remains a useful
temperatures
Remains a useful
temperatures
More abundant
More abundant
Remains a useful
temperatures

A sample of pure silicon is doped with arsenic.
How does the electrical conductivity of the doped silicon change, and
for what reason?
Conductivity increases as there are increased number of free electrons
(saying increased number of charge carriers is not good enough, if
doped with boron then you would say increased number of holes)
HSC Physics

A doped silicon semiconductor has the following energy-level diagram.
What element was most likely used to dope the silicon?

a)
b)
c)
d)
Boron
Germanium
Phosphorus
Sulfur

A block of silicon doped with boron is connected as shown in the
diagram below.
What is the main way in which conduction occurs in the doped silicon
block?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Valence band electrons move to the right.

Valence band electrons move to the left.
Conduction band electrons move to the right.
Conduction band electrons move to the left.
HSC Physics
Provide a reason for the answer you have chosen above.

This is because of the acceptor level. Valence band electrons are more
likely to move to the acceptor level than they are to the conduction
band. This means that there will be more holes (charge carriers) in the
valence band than there would be in the conduction band. This means
the holes in the valence band move toward the negative plate (right)
which is analogous to electrons moving to the positive plate (left)
Which of the following diagrams best represents the energy bands in
ptype and ntype semiconductors? After you have selected the
correct diagram, label which one is p-type and which is n-type.
Diagram 1
Diagram 2
Diagram two is correct, diagram 1 is incorrect. The one on the left is ptype the one on the right is n-type.
Question 7
a) What is responsible for the production of current in a p-type
semiconductor? Draw a diagram of the band structure to help you.
Electrons jump from valence band to acceptor level and creates holes
in valence band. The movement of holes in the valence band is
analogous to movement of electrons in the valence band. (Note:
Acceptor level is empty at 0K)
b) What is responsible for the production of current in an n-type
semiconductor? Draw a diagram of the band structure to help you.
HSC Physics
Electrons jump from donor level to conduction band. This means more
electrons in the conduction band for increased conductivity. Current is
produced by movement of electrons in the conduction band.
Question 8 (STANSW 2004 Qu 26)

Explain how the differences in composition of a p-type semiconductor
and an n-type semiconductor give rise to their particular electrical
properties. (5 marks)
The p-type and n-type semiconductors are both extrinsic
semiconductors that have improved conduction properties over
intrinsic semiconductors created by the addition (doping) of particular
impurities into the crystal lattice of silicon atoms. In p-type
semiconductors, atoms of a Gp3 element from the Periodic table, e.g.
gallium or boron, are combined into the silicon crystal lattice. Since
silicon has four valence electrons and the Gp3 element only three
valence electrons, a positive region termed a hole is left where silicon
atoms are deprived of one of the electrons they need to bond with.
The hole reduces the amount of energy required to mobilise charge
into the conduction band of the semiconductor. When a p-type
semiconductor experiences an electric field, an electron falls into a
hole promoting the hole to the conduction band. The positive holes
can then drift through the semiconductor lattice as a conventional
current. In an n-type semiconductor the dopant element from Gp5 of
the Periodic table, e.g. arsenic or phosphorus, has five valence
electrons. This means that the extra electrons from the dopant
element are not bound in the silicon lattice and are easily promoted
into the conduction band when an electric field is applied. The
electrons can then drift through the silicon lattice as current. The
conduction properties of n-type and p-type semiconductors are
determined by the element that has been used to dope the silicon,
giving rise to the primary charge carriers in a p-type being positive
holes and in an n-type electrons.
HSC Physics
2. Applications of the photoelectric effect

CHECKPOINT:
Identify data sources gather, process and present information to

summarise the use of the photoelectric effect in:
Photocells
Solar cells
Photocells
-
Define the photoelectric effect

The liberation of electrons from a surface due to the transfer of
energy from a photon of incident radiation above the
frequency threshold.
Photocells are cells where the electrons responsible for the

flow of current are produced by the photoelectric effect
Photocells consist of a cathode coated in a photosensitive material
that is capable of emitting electrons through the photoelectric
effect
As photons of light above the frequency threshold strike the
cathode, photoelectrons are liberated which travel to the relative
positive potential of the anode
-
Based on the above statement, why might the applications of

photocells be limited?
They require incident radiation to be above the f0 which in many cases

is quite high
HSC Physics
A simple photocell can be seen in the diagram below
Draw in the path a photoelectron would take in the above

diagram
With a continuous source of electromagnetic radiation, a constant

photocurrent can be produced by which a potential difference
exists between the anode and cathode
Knowing that the photocurrent is proportional to the intensity of
incident electromagnetic radiation, photocells can be used for a
variety of applications
-
What energy transformation do photocells involve?

EMR Electrical
Electric eyes are photocells that rely on the incident radiation

being obscured
An example of an electric eye is an automatic door these work by
having a path of incident light shining onto a photosensitive
cathode. When someone walks by and obstructs this light, the
HSC Physics
photocurrent in the circuit will drop due to a lack of incident

radiation. This drop will induce a function in this case would be the
opening of a door.
Another application of photocells is in light gates - light gates are
used to measure the velocity of an object based on the duration of
time for which light is obstructed
Photocells can also be used for monitoring pollution as the
incident light and therefore measured photocurrent is dependent
on the concentration of particles a higher concentration of
particles equates to less incident light and therefore a reduced
photocurrent
-
With the aid of a diagram, explain how the pollution of a water

sample could be determined using a photocell
Source of light
Sample
Photocell
The concentration of particles determines how much light is

obstructed and therefore how the intensity of incident radiation
and photocurrent produced By comparing this value with the
photocurrent of a clean sample, a degree of pollution can be
determined.
-
How could photocells be used in street lights?

Street lights must turn on when it is dark enough i.e. when
there is not enough incident light. Therefore, a street light
should function only when the photocurrent produced is lower
than a certain value. In this way, during the day time the street
light is struck by a highly intense amount of EMR and therefore
is above this photocurrent threshold and should not be in
operation, however, at night, the intensity of EMR decreases,
significantly decreasing the photocurrent to the point it is
below below the threshold, prompting the light to turn on.
HSC Physics
P-N Junctions
A p-type
possesses
hence a
electrons
semiconductor
positive holes and
deficiency of
Conversely, an
semiconductor
free electrons
n-type
possesses excess
When a p-type
n-type
joined, it is said
has been
semiconductor and
semiconductor are
that a p-n junction
formed
When this
occurs, the excess
electrons of
the n-type
semiconductor travel to occupy the positive holes of the
p-type semiconductor
-
Label the diagram below to show this process
As a result of this electron movement, the n-type side of the

junction now possesses less electrons than protons while the ptype side of the junction now possesses more electrons than
protons
Thus, the n-type side of the junction has a slightly positive charge
while the p-type side of the junction has a slightly negative
charge!
This forms an electric field known as the depletion zone
The depletion layer formed at the junction has two defining
properties
HSC Physics
1. It has no mobile charge carriers (it is depleted of charge

carriers)
2. It has an electric field
Label the diagram below showing p-type, n-type, electrons,

holes, depletion region and direction of electric field
E field
In the junction (depletion region) all mobile charge carriers have

been lost, since the electrons have moved to fill the holes and are
now fixed
The direction of the electric field is given from positive to negative
of the fixed charges in the depletion region
As this zone acts as an electric field, it retards and prevents the
migration of electrons from the n-type (positively charged) to the
p-type (negatively charged) side
Electrons can still move from p-type to the n-type
This P-N junction thus acts as a semiconductor diode a device
which rectifies AC current into DC, only permitting the flow of
electrons in one direction (due to its nature as an electric field)
HSC Physics
Label the allowed direction of current flow in the diagram

below
Solar cells
Solar cells work through amalgamating the photoelectric effect with
extrinsic semiconductors in the form of p-n junctions
-
Explain how a depletion zone is formed

A depletion zone is formed when a n-type semiconductor
comes into contact with a p-type semiconductor. The excess
electrons of the n-type flow into the vacant holes of the p-type
semiconductor. This excess of electrons on the p-type side
results in this side of the junction developing a slightly positive
charge whereas the deficiency of electrons in the n-type side
results in a slightly negative charge. This electric field becomes
a form of barrier by which there are no mobile charge carriers
present.
*Diagram would be a nice addition if they chose to draw one*
Semiconductors are used for solar cells as their threshold

frequencies are low enough such that visible light can induce the
photoelectric effect
When visible light strikes a solar cell, a photon of light transfers its
energy to a valence electron of an electron-hole pair
This frees the electron from the hole and promotes it to the
conduction band - this is the photoelectric effect
It is important to note that depletion zones do not permit the
movement of electrons from the n-type side to the p-type side of
the junction
As the freed electrons cannot drift from the n-type side to the ptype side of the junction, they instead drift in the direction of the
HSC Physics
positively charged n-type region

-
Explain why an electron cannot flow directly from the n-type

side to the p-type side of the junction?
The p-type side of the junction possesses a slightly negative
charge whereas the n-type possesses a slightly positive
charge. This electric field retards the movement of electrons
attempting to reach the p-type side to the extent that nearly
no electron can travel through the depletion zone.
The electrons then travel from the n-type region through a contact
grid into an external circuit, doing work on any load such as a
lightbulb
After travelling through the external circuit, the electrons are then
fed into the p-type side of the junction through a back contact
grid where they then recombine with holes present in the p-type
side
As this process occurs and electrons are freed from electron-hole
pairs, another electron drifts to the n-type side to fill the vacated
hole that the freed electron has left behind
In doing so, this other electron also leaves behind a hole in its place
As photons continuously strike the solar cell, electron flow is

therefore in the direction of the n-type region while hole flow is in
the opposite direction, from the n-type to the p-type
Thus, as long as radiation is constantly hitting the solar cell, a
constant photocurrent can be produced that is capable of doing
HSC Physics
work on an attached load

-
Indicate on the diagram where the contact grid and back

contact grid would be
Contact grid
Back contact grid
Do solar cells operate on DC or AC? Why?

DC. The depletion zone acts a diode which rectifies current and
only permits one direction for electron flow.
In addition to the parts labelled above, solar cells possess a few

other components to preserve their function such as anti-reflective
glass
Complete the table below

COMPONENT
Cover Glass
Anti-reflective glass
ROLE
Protects the solar cell from
hail/corrosion
Reduces reflection losses
A mesh of wires used to carry the
Contact grid
current from the n-type

semiconductor
A mesh of wires used to deliver the
Back contact grid
electrons from the external circuit to

the p-type semiconductor
HSC Physics
Write out what each letter of the solar cell represents

Word Bank:
- Anti-reflective
coating
- p-type
semiconductor
- Back contact grid
- n-type
semiconductor
- Contact grid
- Cover glass
Advantages of Solar cells

1. Direct conversion of light to electricity no moving parts, no
intermediate steps
2. Long lifetime (~20 years) and low maintenance
3. Suitable for remote applications do not require a distribution
system
4. Minimal adverse environmental effects
Disadvantages of Solar cells
1. Is not enough for a primary energy source some form of
energy storage or backup supply is often needed (only operates
on sunny days)
2. Solar cells are low efficiency and solar energy is low density
large areas of collectors are needed
3. Generally quite expensive to manufacture
HSC Physics
Applications 2.1
Question X (CSSA 2009 Qu 13)
The function of a photocell is to
a) heat a filament to make it emit electrons.
b) produce an electric current when light photons strike the
cathode.
c) detect invisible infra-red radiation in burglar alarms.
d) produce light photons when a current is applied.
Question X (HSC 2003 Qu 25)

A physics student was conducting an investigation on the
photoelectric effect. The student used an infrared laser with a
wavelength of 1.55 106 m for this investigation.
a) Calculate the energy of a photon from this laser. (2 marks)
For a photon,
19
1.28245 10
E=hf
and
19
1.28 10
c=f
E=
hc 6.626 1034 3.00 103

=
6
1.55 10
b) When the laser light was shone onto a photo-cell, no current was
detected. The student increased the intensity of the light but still
detected no current.
Explain this observation. (3 marks)
Current will only be detected if the photoelectric effect occurs. This
involves the release of electrons from the surface of the photocell
by each electrons absorption of a photon. However, electrons will
only be released if the energy of the light photons is equal to, or
greater than, the energy required by the electrons to overcome the
forces binding them to the surface. The energy of a photon
depends on the frequency of the light. In this case, the frequency
and hence energy of the light must be too low to release electrons
from the photocell.
HSC Physics
Increasing the intensity of the light increases the number of

photons but does not increase the energy of the photons. So if the
individual photons have insufficient energy, no photoelectrons will
be released from the photocell.
MARKING CENTRE COMMENTS:
Most candidates were able to cite the work function or the threshold
frequency as an explanation for the observation described in the
question, but many then went on to explain what would happen if the
frequency was increased without explaining why it would happen in
terms of photon energy.
MARKING CRITERIA
All 3 of the following bullet points:
The photon needs to have a minimum
energy/frequency to excite an electron to leave the
surface
For these photons the energy is too low
OR
An increase in energy is required
Increasing the intensity (number of photons) does not
increase the energy of the photons
MARKS
Question X (HSC 2010 Qu 31b)

Explain why light having a wavelength longer than a certain value
does not produce an electric current in a photocell. (3 marks)
Photocells rely on the photoelectric effect for their operation. In the
photoelectric effect, a photon with sufficient energy (greater than or
equal to a threshold called the work function) is able to cause an
electron to be ejected from the surface of a metal. These ejected
electrons are the photocell current. Longer wavelength light contains
lower energy photons, so light with a wavelength longer than the
threshold wavelength is not able to eject electrons (= produce a
photocell current).
MARKING CRITERIA
Shows a good understanding of the photoelectric
effect and relates it to the production of a current
Shows understanding that longer wavelengths mean
lower energy photons

An example of a solar cell is shown below.
MARKS
3
HSC Physics
The solar cell is able to produce a current due to the photoelectric

effect and the electrical properties of the n-type and p-type layers.
Use this information to outline the process by which light shining on
the solar cell produces an electric current that can light up a light
globe. (6 marks)
A solar cell (photovoltaic cell) converts energy from the Sun into
electrical energy. Within the p-type and n-type semiconductors, the
charge is balanced when there is no light. When light of a sufficiently
high frequency hits the cell, each photon of light frees an electron
from the junction between these layers, thus creating holes and free
electrons. The free electrons flow to the n-type layer and the holes to
the p-type layer. This creates an electric potential between the layers.
The electrons flow via the external circuit to the p-type layer, releasing
energy to the light globe. The greater the intensity of the light that is
falling on the solar cell, the greater will be the current that will flow
through the circuit.
In an experiment to investigate the photoelectric effect, light is shone
onto a sliver surface and the resulting maximum kinetic energy is
measured and recorded.
a) Determine the frequency of the highest energy photons used in

the experiment. (2 marks)
c=f
HSC Physics
c
3 108
f= =
=2 MHz ?
150 109
b) What effect would changing the intensity of the light have on

the measured electron kinetic energy? (1 mark)
No effect. Intensity is number of photons per second, only the
frequency and work function affect the kinetic energy.
c) With reference to the photo electric effect, and the
semiconductors shown in the diagram, explain the operation of
a solar cell. (4 marks)
A solar cell is a device that converts light energy from the sun into
electrical energy.
It uses a n-type semiconductor (doped with Group 5 elements) and ptype semiconductor (doped with Group 3 elements) joined together.
The extra electrons in the n-type fill in the holes in the p-type creating
a depletion layer with an electric field allowing electrons to only flow
from the n-type to the p-type. The electrons are ejected from the ntype into the p-type by the photoelectric effect, ie the electrons
gaining energy from the photons of light. The electrons move
throughout the entire circuit and the process is repeated.
HSC Physics

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LESSON 7: Ideas to Implementation

LESSON 7: Ideas to Implementation

LESSON 7: Ideas to Implementation

By the end of the lesson, you should understand the following

Identify that the use of germanium in early transistors is

Describe how doping a semiconductor can change its

Identify differences in p and n-type semiconductors in terms of

Identify data sources gather, process and present information

Copyright HSC Synergy Education 2016 4

LESSON 7: Ideas to Implementation

Identify that the use of germanium in early transistors is related to

Describe how doping a semiconductor can change its electrical

Identify differences in p and n-type semiconductors in terms of the

Germanium vs. Silicon

Why is does a semiconductor have to be pure?

As this technique for purification did not translate from germanium

The use of Germanium however had problems its biggest flaws

Copyright HSC Synergy Education 2016 5

LESSON 7: Ideas to Implementation

Sketch what germaniums band structure would look like

Explain why germanium possesses so many electrons available

As the temperature of the germanium system increases, these

LESSON 7: Ideas to Implementation

purification was developed for silicon

In the early 1950s a method for purifying silicon was established

Explain how silicon retains better conductivity at higher

Germaniums relatively small energy gap means with a small input of

Copyright HSC Synergy Education 2016 7

LESSON 7: Ideas to Implementation

How many valence electrons does silicon possess?

Draw the electron configuration of a single silicon atom

In a normal silicon solid, each of silicons four valence electrons

Sketch a diagram of the crystal-lattice structure of silicon

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LESSON 7: Ideas to Implementation

What is the name given to a pure semiconductor?

The addition of a group 3 impurity such as boron, results in the

Why do you think adding boron creates a p type

The addition of a group 5 impurity such as phosphorus, results in

Explain why it is called an n type semiconductor?

Draw the atomic structure for both boron and phosphorus in

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LESSON 7: Ideas to Implementation

This means whilst all three of borons valence electrons form

LESSON 7: Ideas to Implementation

the adjacent silicon atoms will be unable to form a covalent bond

This deficiency of electrons correlates to the formation of a hole a

Label and title the diagrams below

Undoped silicon lattice

P-type doped semiconductor

Holes are considered the dominant charge carriers of p-type

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LESSON 7: Ideas to Implementation

The holes of this lattice structure exist at an energy level slightly

Label the diagram below

Which Leaves holes

Valence electrons are easily promoted into the acceptor level

Is the overall charge for a p-type semiconductor positive?

What is an acceptor level and when is it empty?

It is a new energy level which electrons can exist. It is empty at 0K as

Compare the energy spacing between the acceptor levels and

Copyright HSC Synergy Education 2016 12