Rhineland massacres

in the massacres included Peter the Hermit and especially

Count Emicho.[3] As part of this persecution, the destruction of Jewish communities in Speyer, Worms and
Mainz were noted as the Hurban Shum (Destruction
of Shum).[4] These were new persecutions of the Jews
in which peasant crusaders from France and Germany attacked Jewish communities. A number of historians refer
to the antisemitic events as "pogroms".[5]
According to David Nirenberg,[6] the events of 1096 in
the Rhineland occupy a signicant place in modern Jewish historiography and are often presented as the rst instance of an antisemitism that would henceforth never be
forgotten and whose climax was the Holocaust.[7]

Massacre of the Jews of Metz during the First Crusade, by Auguste Migette.

1 Background
The preaching of the First Crusade inspired an outbreak
of anti-Jewish violence. In parts of France and Germany,
Jews were perceived as just as much an enemy as Muslims: they were held responsible for the crucixion, and
they were more immediately visible than the distant Muslims. Many people wondered why they should travel thousands of miles to ght non-believers when there were already non-believers closer to home.[8]
It is also likely that the crusaders were motivated by
their need for money. The Rhineland communities were
relatively wealthy, both due to their isolation, and because they were not restricted as Catholics were against
moneylending. Many crusaders had to go into debt in
order to purchase weaponry and equipment for the expedition; as Western Catholicism strictly forbade usury,
many crusaders inevitably found themselves indebted to
Jewish moneylenders. Having armed themselves by assuming the debt, the crusaders rationalized the killing of
Jews as an extension of their Catholic mission.[9]
There had not been so broad a movement against Jews by
Catholics since the seventh centurys mass expulsions and
forced conversions. While there had been a number of regional persecutions of Jews by Catholics, such as the one
in Metz in 888, a plot against Jews in Limoges in 992, a
wave of anti-Jewish persecution by Christian millenniary
movements (who believed that Jesus was set to descend
from Heaven) in the year 1000, and the threat of expulsion from Treves in 1066; these are all viewed in the
traditional terms of governmental outlawry rather than
unbridled popular attacks.[10] Also many movements
against Jews (such as forced conversions by King Robert

El Mal Rahamim - God of Mercy prayer for the murdered communities, in prayer book from the city of Altona

The call for the First Crusade touched o the Rhineland

massacres also known as the German Crusade
of 1096,[1] the persecutions of 1096 or Gezeroth
Tatenu[2] "- Hebrew for the edicts of 856,
which occurred during the year of 4856 according to the
Jewish calendar. Prominent leaders of crusaders involved
1

the Pious of France, Richard II, Duke of Normandy, and

Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor around 10071012) had
been quashed by either Roman Catholicisms papacy or
its bishops.[10] The passions aroused in the Catholic populace by Urban IIs call for the rst crusade moved persecution of Jews into a new chapter in history where these
previous constraints no longer held.

BACKGROUND

claimed he never really intended to kill Jews, but the community in Mainz and Cologne sent him a collected bribe
of 500 silver marks.[12]
Sigebert of Gembloux wrote that before a war in behalf
of the Lord could be fought it was essential that the Jews
convert; those who resisted were deprived of their goods,
massacred, and expelled from the cities.[12]
The rst outbreaks of violence occurred in France. A
contemporary chronicle of events written by an anonymous author in Mainz wrote
There rst arose the ocers, nobles, and
common people who were in the land of France
[Sarefat] who took counsel together and plottedto make clear the way to go toward
Jerusalem.[12]
Richard of Poitiers wrote that Jewish persecution was
widespread in France at the beginning of the expeditions
to the east. The anonymous chronicler of Mainz admired
the Jews
At the time the [Jewish] communities in
France heard [about these things], trembling
seized them. They wrote letters and sent messengers to all the communities around about
the River Rhine, [to the eect] that they should
fastand seek mercy from Him who dwells on
high, that He might save them from their hands.
When the letter reached the holy ones in the
land [of the Rhine], namely the men of renown
in Mainz, they responded [to their brethren
in] France as follows: The communities have
decreed a fast. We have done that which was
ours [to do]. May the Lord save us and may
He save you from all sorrow and oppression
[which might come] upon you. We are in great
fear.[12]

Sixteenth-century bronze statue of Godfrey of Bouillon from the

group of heroes surrounding the memorial to Maximilian I, Holy
Roman Emperor in the Hofkirche, Innsbruck.

In June and July 1095 Jewish communities in the

Rhineland (north of the main departure areas at Neuss,
Wevelinghoven, Altenahr, Xanten and Moers) were attacked, but the leadership and membership of these crusader groups was not chronicled.[13] Some Jews dispersed
eastward to escape the persecution.[14]

The extent of the eras antisemitism is apparent in On top of the general Catholic suspicion of Jews at the
time, when the thousands of French members of the
Godfrey of Bouillon, who swore
Peoples Crusade arrived at the Rhine, they had run out
of
provisions.[15] To restock their supplies, they began
to go on this journey only after avenging
to plunder Jewish food and property while attempting to
the blood of the crucied one by shedding Jewforce them to convert to Catholicism.[15]
ish blood and completely eradicating any trace
of those bearing the name 'Jew,' thus assuaging
his own burning wrath.[11]

Not all crusaders who had run out of supplies resorted

to murder; some, like Peter the Hermit, used extortion
instead. While no sources claim he preached against the
Emperor Henry IV (after being notied of the pledge by Jews, he carried a letter with him from the Jews of France
Kalonymus Ben Meshullam, the Jewish leader in Mainz) to the community at Trier. The letter urged them to supissued an order prohibiting such an action. Godfrey ply provisions to Peter and his men. The Solomon bar

3
religion. But we know that they could not have
been avoided since they occurred in the face of
excommunication imposed by numerous clergymen, and of the threat of punishment on the
part of many princes.[10]

Peter the Hermit preaching the First Crusade, as cited in the 1851
Illustrated London Reading Book

In general the crusader mobs did not fear any retribution

as the local courts did not have the jurisdiction to pursue them past their locality nor the ability to identify and
prosecute individuals out of the mob.[10] The pleas of the
clergy were ignored on similar grounds (no cases against
individuals were brought forward for excommunication)
and the mob believed that anyone preaching mercy to the
Jews was only doing so because they had succumbed to
Jewish bribery.[10]

Simson Chronicle records that they were so terried by

Peters appearance at the gates that they readily agreed
to supply his needs.[12] Whatever Peters own position
on the Jews was, men claiming to follow after him felt
free to massacre Jews on their own initiative, to pillage
their possessions.[12] Sometimes Jews survived by being
subjected to involuntary baptism, such as in Regensburg,
where a crusading mob rounded up the Jewish community, forced them into the Danube, and performed a mass
baptism. After the crusaders had left the region these
Jews returned to practicing Judaism.[10]

Folkmar and Gottschalk

In the spring of 1096, a number of small bands of knights

and peasants, inspired by the preaching of the Crusade,
set o from various parts of France (Cologne) and Germany (Worms). The crusade of the priest Folkmar, beginning in Saxony, persecuted Jews in Magdeburg and
later, on May 30, 1096 in Prague in Bohemia. The
Catholic Bishop Cosmas attempted to prevent forced
conversions, and the entire Catholic hierarchy in Bohemia preached against such acts.[10] Duke Betislav II
was out of the country and the Catholic Churchs ocials
Statue of Coloman, Heroes Square, Budapest, Hungary
protests were unable to stop the mob of crusaders.[10]
The hierarchy of the Catholic Church as a whole condemned the persecution of the Jews in the regions affected (though their protests had little eect). Especially
vocal were the parish priests (only one monk, named
Gottschalk, is recorded as joining and encouraging the
mob).[10] Chronicler Hugo of Flavigny recorded how
these religious appeals were ignored, writing:
It certainly seems amazing that on a single
day in many dierent places, moved in unison
by a violent inspiration, such massacres should
have taken place, despite their widespread disapproval and their condemnation as contrary to

Gottschalk the monk went on to lead a crusade from

the Rhineland and Lorraine into Hungary, occasionally
attacking Jewish communities along the way. In late
June 1096, the crusader mob of Gottschalk was welcomed by King Coloman of Hungary, but they soon began plundering the countryside and causing drunken disorder. The King then demanded they disarm. Once their
weapons had been secured, the enraged Hungarians fell
upon them and the whole plain was covered with corpses
and blood.[16]
The priest Folkmar and his Saxons also met a similar fate
from the Hungarians when they began pillaging villages
there because sedition was incited.[13][16]

LATER ATTACKS ON JEWS

Emicho

The largest of these crusades, and the most involved in

attacking Jews, was that led by Count Emicho. Setting
o in the early summer of 1096, an army of around
10,000 men, women and children proceeded through the
Rhine valley, towards the Main River and then to the
Danube. Emicho was joined by William the Carpenter
and Drogo of Nesle, among others from the Rhineland,
eastern France, Lorraine, Flanders and even England.
Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, absent in southern Italy,
ordered the Jews to be protected when he learned of Emichos intent. After some Jews were killed at Metz in May,
John, Bishop of Speyer gave shelter to the Jewish inhabitants. Still 12 Jews of Speyer were slain by crusaders on
May 3.[12] The Bishop of Worms also attempted to shelter
Jews, but the crusaders broke in to his episcopal palace
and killed the Jews inside on May 18. At least 800 Jews
were massacred in Worms when they refused Catholic
baptism.[12][17]
News of Emichos crusade spread quickly, and he was
prevented from entering Mainz on May 25 by Bishop
Ruthard. Emicho also took an oering of gold raised
by the Jews of Mainz in hope to gain his favor and their
safety.[12] Bishop Ruthard tried to protect the Jews by
hiding them in his lightly fortied palace. Nevertheless,
Emicho did not prevent his followers from entering the
city[12] on May 27 and a massacre followed. Many among
the Christian business class (the burghers) in Mainz, had
working ties with Jews and gave them shelter from the
mobs (as the burghers in Prague had done).[10] The Mainz
burghers joined with the militia of the bishop and the
burgrave (the towns military governor) in ghting o
the rst waves of crusaders. This stand had to be abandoned when crusaders continued to arrive in ever greater
numbers,[10] and the militia of the bishop together with
the bishop himself ed and left the Jews to be slaughtered
by the crusaders.[18] Despite the example of the burghers,
many ordinary citizens in Mainz and other the towns were
caught up in the frenzy and joined in the persecution and
pillaging.[10] Mainz was the site of the greatest violence,
with at least 1,100 Jews and (possibly more) being killed
by troops under Clarambaud and Thomas.[12] One man,
named Isaac, was forcefully converted, but later, wracked
with guilt, killed his family and burned himself alive in
his house. Another woman, Rachel, killed her four children with her own hands so that they would not be cruelly
killed by the crusaders.

The Army of Priest Volkmar and Count Emicio Attacks

Mersburg. In the battle against Merseburg, the Crusaders are
panic-stricken when several ladders collapse under their weight.

had already left or were hiding in Christian houses. In

Cologne, other smaller bands of crusaders met Emicho,
and they left with quite a lot of money taken from the Jews
there. Emicho continued towards Hungary, soon joined
by some Swabians. Coloman of Hungary refused to allow them through Hungary. Count Emicho and his warriors besieged Meseberg, on the Leitha. This led Coloman to prepare to ee into Russia, but the morale of the
crusader mob began to fail which inspired the Hungarians and most of the mob was slaughtered or drowned
in the river. Count Emicho and a few of the leaders escaped into Italy or back to their own homes.[16] William
the Carpenter and other survivors eventually joined Hugh
of Vermandois and the main body of crusader knights.

4 Later attacks on Jews

Later in 1096, Godfrey of Bouillon also collected tribute from the Jews in Mainz and Cologne, but there was
no slaughter in this case. Saint Louis University ProfesEliezer b. Nathan, a Jewish chronicler at the times, para- sor Thomas Madden, author of A Concise History of the
phrased Habakkuk 1:6 and wrote of
Crusades, claims the Jewish defenders of Jerusalem retreated to their synagogue to prepare for death once the
cruel foreigners, erce and swift, FrenchCrusaders had breached the outer walls of the city durmen and Germans[who] put crosses on their
ing the siege of 1099.[19] The chronicle of Ibn al-Qalanisi
clothing and were more plentiful than locusts
mentions the building was set re while the Jews were
on the face of the earth.[12]
still inside.[20] The Crusaders were supposedly reported
as hoisting up their shields and singing Christ We Adore
On May 29 Emicho arrived at Cologne, where most Jews Thee! while they circled the ery complex.[21] How-

5
second in 1320 also attacked and killed Jews in Aragon.

5 Catholic Church response

Siege and Capture of Jerusalem, 1099

ever, a contemporary Jewish letter written shortly after

the siege does not mention the burning synagogue. But
playing on the religious schism between the two sects of
Judaism,[22] Arabist S.D. Goitein speculates the reason
the incident is missing from the letter is because it was
written by Karaite Jews and the synagogue belonged to
the Rabbanite Jews.[23]
Following the siege, Jews captured from the Dome of
the Rock, along with native Christians, were made to
clean the city of the slain.[24] Tancred took some Jews as
prisoners of war and deported them to Apuleia in southern Italy. Several of these Jews did not make it to their
nal destination as Many of them were [] thrown into
the sea or beheaded on the way.[24] Numerous Jews and
their holy books (including the Aleppo Codex) were held
ransom by Raymond of Toulouse.[25] The Karaite Jewish
community of Ashkelon (Ascalon) reached out to their
coreligionists in Alexandria to rst pay for the holy books
and then rescued pockets of Jews over several months.[24]
All that could be ransomed were liberated by the summer
of 1100. The few who could not be rescued were either
converted to Catholicism or murdered.[26] The First Crusade ignited a long tradition of organized violence against
Jews in European culture. Jewish money was also used in
France for nancing the Second Crusade; the Jews were
also attacked in many instances, but not on the scale of
the attacks of 1096. In England, the Third Crusade was
the pretext for the expulsion of the Jews and the conscation of their money. The two Shepherds Crusades, in
1251 and 1320, also saw attacks on Jews in France; the

The massacre of the Rhineland Jews by the Peoples Crusade, and other associated persecutions, were condemned
by the leaders and ocials of the Catholic Church.[27]
The bishops of Mainz, Speyer, and Worms had attempted
to protect the Jews of those towns within the walls of their
own palaces, but the Peoples Crusade broke in to slaughter them. Fifty years later when St. Bernard of Clairvaux was urging recruitment for the Second Crusade, he
specically criticized the attacks on Jews which occurred
in the First Crusade. There is debate on Bernards exact
motivations, as like many he may have been disappointed
that the Peoples Crusade devoted so much time and resources to attacking the Jews of Western Europe while
contributing almost nothing to the attempt to retake the
Holy Land itself, the result being that Bernard was urging the knights to maintain focus on the goal of protecting
Catholic interests in the Holy Land. It is equally possible
that Bernard honestly held the belief that forcibly converting the Jews was immoral, or perceived that the original Rhineland massacre was really motivated by greed:
both of these sentiments are echoed by canon Albert of
Aachen in his chronicle of the First Crusade. Albert of
Aachens view was that the Peoples Crusade were uncontrollable semi-Catholicized country-folk (citing the
goose incident, which Hebrew chronicles corroborate),
who massacred hundreds of Jewish women and children,
and that the Peoples Crusade were themselves slaughtered by Muslim forces in Asia Minor.

6 Jewish reactions
News of the attacks spread quickly and reached the Jewish communities in and around Jerusalem long before the
crusaders themselves arrived. However, Jews were not
systematically killed in Jerusalem, despite being caught
up in the general indiscriminate violence caused by the
crusaders once they reached the city.
The Hebrew chronicles portray the Rhineland Jews as
martyrs who willingly sacriced themselves in order to
honour God and to preserve their own honour.[28]
Sigebert of Gembloux wrote that most of those Jews
who converted before the crusader threat later returned
to Judaism.[12]
In the years following the crusade, the Jewish communities were faced with troubling questions about murder
and suicide, which were normally sins for Jews just as
they were for Catholics. The Rhineland Jews looked to
historical precedents since Biblical times to justify their
actions: the honourable suicide of Saul, the Maccabees
revolt against Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the suicide pact

at Masada, and the Bar Kochba revolt were seen as justiable deaths in the face of a stronger enemy.Haverkamp,
Eva (2009). Martyrs in rivalry: the 1096 Jewish martyrs
and the Thebean legion. Jewish History 23 (4): 319
342.
Previous to the Crusades, the Jews were divided among
three major areas which were largely independent of one
another. These were the Jews living in Islamic nations
(still the majority), those in the Byzantine Empire and
those in the Roman Catholic West. With the persecutions
that began around 1096, a new awareness of the entire
people took hold across all of these groups, reuniting the
three separate strands.[29]
In the late 19th century Jewish historians used the episode
as a demonstration of the need for Zionism (that is, for a
new Jewish state).[30]

References

[1] Gilbert, M. (2010). The Routledge Atlas of Jewish History.

Routledge. ISBN 9780415558105. Retrieved 2014-1005.
[2] David Nirenberg, 'The Rhineland Massacres of Jews in
the First Crusade, Memories Medieval and Modern', in
Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory, Historiography, p.279-310
[3] Robert Chazan (1996). European Jewry and the First Crusade. U. of California Press. pp. 5560.
[4] Shum Hebrew: "were the letters of the three towns
as pronounced at the time in old French: Shaperra, Wermieza and Magenzza.
[5] Sources describing these attacks as pogroms include:
Richard S. Levy. Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia Of Prejudice And Persecution, ABC-CLIO,
2005, ISBN 9781851094394. p. 153.
Christopher Tyerman. Gods War: A New History
of the Crusades, Harvard University Press, 2006,
ISBN 9780674023871, p. 100.
Israel Jacob Yuval. Two Nations in Your Womb:
Perceptions of Jews and Christians in Late Antiquity
and the Middle Ages, University of California Press,
2008, ISBN 9780520258181, p. 186.

REFERENCES

Avner Falk. A Psychoanalytic History of the

Jews, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1996, ISBN
9780838636602, p. 410.
Hugo Slim. Killing Civilians: Method, Madness,
and Morality in War, Columbia University Press,
2010, ISBN 9780231700375, p. 47.
Richard A. Fletcher. The Barbarian Conversion:
From Paganism to Christianity, University of California Press, 1999, ISBN 9780520218598, p. 318.
David Biale. Power & Powerlessness in Jewish History.
Random House, 2010, ISBN
9780307772534, p. 65.
I. S. Robinson. Henry IV of Germany 1056
1106, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN
9780521545907, p. 318.
Will Durant. The Age of Faith. The Story of Civilization 4, Simon & Schuster, 1950, p. 391.
[6] David Nirenberg | Department of History | The University of Chicago. history.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 201410-05.
[7] Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory, Historiography, page 279 Chapter 13, The Rhineland Massacres of Jews in the First Crusade, Memories Medieval
and Modern, by David Nirenberg
[8] C. Tyerman, The Crusades, p.99
[9] Hans Mayer. The Crusades (Oxford University Press:
1988) p. 41.
[10] Salo Wittmayer Baron (1957). Social and Religious History of the Jews, Volume 4. Columbia University Press.
[11] Patrick J. Geary, ed. (2003). Readings in Medieval History. Toronto: Broadview Press.
[12] Norman Golb (1998). The Jews in Medieval Normandy:
a social and intellectual history. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
[13] John France (1997). Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade. Cambridge University Press,
1994. p. 92.
[14] Robert S. Robins, Jerrold M. Post (1997). Political Paranoia: The Psychopolitics of Hatred. Yale College. p. 168.

Nikolas Jaspert. The Crusades, Taylor & Francis,

2006, ISBN 9780415359672, p. 39.

[15] Max I. Dimont (1984). The Amazing Adventures of the

Jewish People. Springeld, NJ: Behrman House, Inc.

Louis Arthur Berman.

The Akedah: The
Binding of Isaac, Jason Aronson, 1997, ISBN
9781568218991, p. 92.

[16] T. A. Archer (1894). The Crusades: The Story Of The

Latin Kingdom Of Jerusalem. G.P. Putnam Sons.

Anna Sapir Abulaa, Crusades, in Edward

Kessler, Neil Wenborn. A Dictionary of JewishChristian Relations, Cambridge University Press,
2005, ISBN 9780521826921, p. 116.
Ian Davies. Teaching the Holocaust: Educational Dimensions, Principles and Practice, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2000, ISBN
9780826448514, p. 17.

[17] Jim Bradbury (2004). The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 182.
[18] Marvin Lowenthal, The Jews Of Germany (1939)
[19] CROSS PURPOSES: The Crusades (Hoover Institute
television show). The entire episode can be viewed with
RealPlayer or Windows Media Player.

8.2

Primary

[20] Gibb, H. A. R. The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades:

Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn AlQalanisi. Dover Publications, 2003 (ISBN 0486425193),
p.48
[21] Rausch, David. Legacy of Hatred: Why Christians Must
Not Forget the Holocaust. Baker Pub Group, 1990 (ISBN
0801077583), p.27
[22] Goitein, S.D. A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents
of the Cairo Geniza. Vol. V: The Individual: Portrait of a
Mediterranean Personality of the High Middle Ages as Reected in the Cairo Geniza. University of California Press,
1988 (ISBN 0520056477),p.358
[23] Kedar, Benjamin Z. The Jerusalem Massacre of July
1099 in the Western Historiography of the Crusades. The
Crusades. Vol. 3 (2004) (ISBN 075464099X), pp. 15
76, pg. 64
[24] Goitein, S.D. Contemporary Letters on the Capture of
Jerusalem by the Crusaders. Journal of Jewish Studies 3
(1952), pp. 162177, pg 163
[25] Goitein, Contemporary Letters on the Capture of
Jerusalem by the Crusaders, pg. 165
[26] Goitein, Contemporary Letters on the Capture of
Jerusalem by the Crusaders, p.166
[27] http://catholiceducation.org/articles/history/world/
wh0070.html The Church and the Jews in the Middle
Ages
[28] (German) Mentgen, Gerd (1996).
Die Juden des
Mittelrhein-Mosel-Gebietes im Hochmittelalter unter
besonderer Bercksichtigung der Kreuzzugsverfolgungen.
Der Erste Kreuzzug 1096 und seine Folgen, Die Verfolgung
der Juden im Rheinland 9 (Evangelical Church in the
Rhineland (Schriften des Archivs der Evangelischen
Kirche im Rheinland).

8.2 Primary
Charny, Israel W. (1994). The Widening Circle of
Genocide. ISBN 1560001720.
Chazan, Robert (1987). European Jewry and the
First Crusade. University of California Press.
Chazan, Robert (1996). In the Year 1096: The First
Crusade and the Jews. Jewish Publication Society.
ISBN 082760632X.
Claster, Jill N. (2009). Sacred Violence: The European Crusades to the Middle East, 10951396.
ISBN 1442600608.
Cohen, Jeremy (2004). Sanctifying The Name of
God: Jewish Martyrs and Jewish Memories of the
First Crusade. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Eidelberg, Shlomo (1996). The Jews and the Crusaders. ISBN 0881255416.
Homan, Lawrence A. (1989). Beyond the Text: A
Holistic Approach to Liturgy. ISBN 0253205387.
Nirenberg, David. The Rhineland Massacres of
Jews in the First Crusade, Memories Medieval and
Modern*". Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual,
Memory, Historiography.
Reif, Stefan C. (1995). Judaism and Hebrew Prayer.
ISBN 0521483417.
Shwartz, Susan (2002). Cross and Crescent. ISBN
0759212929.
Tartako, Paola (2012). Between Christian and
Jew: Conversion and Inquisition in the Crown. ISBN
0812244214.

[29] Hacker, Joseph (1966). On the Persecutions of 1096.

Zion 31.

Tyerman, Christopher (2009). The Crusades. ISBN

1402768915.

[30] Altho, Gerd; Fried, Johannes; Geary, Patrick J. (2002).

Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory, Historiography. Cambridge UP. pp. 3058.

Vauchez, Andr; Dobson, Richard Barrie; Lapidge,

Michael (2000). Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages 1.
ISBN 1579582826.

Bibliography

8.1
8.1.1

Primary sources
Manuscripts

Albert of Aix, Historia Hierosolymitana

Mainz Anonymous
Solomon bar Simson Chronicle
Eliezer bar Nathan Chronicle

8.3 Secondary sources

(Hebrew) Facing the Cross: The Persecutions of
1096 in History and Historiography. Yom Tov Assis,
Geremi Cohen, Ora Limor, Aharon Kedar, Michael
Toch (editors). Jerusalem. July 2000.
Robert Chazan (2000). God, Humanity, and History: The Hebrew First-Crusade Narratives. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Chazan, Robert (1996). In the Year 1096: The Jews
and the First Crusade. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America.

9
Cohen, Jeremy. A 1096 Complex? Constructing
the First Crusade in Jewish Historical Memory, Medieval and Modern (PDF).
Cohen, Jeremy (13 Feb 2006). Sanctifying the Name
of God: Jewish Martyrs and Jewish Memories of the
First Crusade. University of Pennsylvania Press.

EXTERNAL LINKS

Haverkamp, Eva (2008). What did the Christians

know? Latin reports on the persecutions of Jews in
1096. The Journal of the Society for the Study of
the Crusades and the Latin East.
Haverkamp, Eva (2009). Martyrs in rivalry: the
1096 Jewish martyrs and the Thebean legion. Jewish History 23 (4).

Nirenberg, David. The Rhineland Massacres of Jews

in the First Crusade, Memories Medieval and Modern, in Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory. Historiography.

Kober, Adolf (1940). available online Cologne

Check |url= value (help). Philadelphia: The Jewish
Publication Society of America.

Kedar, Benjamin Z. (1998). Crusade Historians

and the Massacres of 1096. Jewish History.

Malkiel, David (2001). Destruction or Conversion: Intention and Reaction, Crusaders and Jews,
in 1096. Jewish History 15 (3).

Otter, Monika (2012). Goscelin of St Bertin. ISBN

1843842947.
Kenneth Setton (ed.) (19691989). available online A History of the Crusades Check |url= value
(help). Madison.
Vauchez, Andr; Dobson, Richard Barrie; Lapidge,
Michael (2000). Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages 1.
ISBN 1579582826.

8.4

Journal articles

Eidelberg, Shlomo (1999). The First Crusade and

the persecutions of 1096: a recollection for their
900th anniversary. Medieval Ashkenazic History.
Eidelberg, Shlomo (1996). The Jews and the Crusaders: The Hebrew Chronicles of the First and Second Crusades. History (KTAV Publishing House
Inc.,).
Gabriele, Matthew (2007). Michael Frassetto, ed.
available online Against the Enemies of Christ:
The Role of Count Emicho in the Anti-Jewish Violence of the First Crusade Check |url= value (help).
Christian Attitudes towards the Jews in the Middle
Ages (Routledge).
Goitein, G.D (1952). Contemporary Letters on the
Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders. Journal of
Jewish Studies 3: 162177, 163.
(Hebrew) Hacker, Joseph (1966). On the Persecutions of 1096. Zion 31.
(German) Haverkamp, Eva (2005). Hebrische
Berichte ber die Judenverfolgungen whrend des
Ersten Kreuzzugs [Hebrew reports on the persecution of Jews during the First Crusade]". Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Hebrische Texte aus
dem mittelalterlichen Deutschland (Hanover Hahnsche Buchhandlung) 1.

(German) Mentgen, Gerd.

Die Juden des
Mittelrhein-Mosel-Gebietes im Hochmittelalter
unter besonderer Bercksichtigung der Kreuzzugsverfolgungen [The Jews of the Middle Rhine
Moselle area in the High Middle Ages, with special
emphasis on crusade persecutions]. Der Erste
Kreuzzug 1096 und seine Folgen, Die Verfolgung
der Juden im Rheinland [The First Crusade in
1096 and its aftermath, the persecution of Jews
in the Rhineland] 9 (Evangelical Church in the
Rhineland, Dsseldorf 1996 (Schriften des Archivs
der Evangelischen Kirche im Rheinland).
Die Juden des Mittelrhein-Mosel-Gebietes im
Hochmittelalter unter besonderer Bercksichtigung
der Kreuzzugsverfolgungen [The Jews of the Middle
Rhine Moselle area in the High Middle Ages, with
special emphasis on crusade persecutions]". Monatshefte fr Evangelische Kirchengeschichte des Rheinlandes 44. 1995.

9 External links
Albert of Aix and Ekkehard of Aura: Emico and the
Slaughter of the Rhineland Jews.
Jewish Encyclopedia: The Crusades
Map and picture concerning German crusade
Who Was Count Emicho? by Dr. Henry Abramson

10
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Rhineland massacres Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhineland_massacres?oldid=719245379 Contributors: Bryan Derksen,

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