Aggregate

"Aggregate" is a collective term for the mineral materials such as sand, gravel and
crushed stone that are used with a binding medium (such as water, bitumen,
portland cement, lime, etc.) to form compound materials (such as asphalt concrete
and portland cement concrete). By volume, aggregate generally accounts for 92 to
96 percent of HMA and about 70 to 80 percent of portland cement concrete.
Aggregate is also used for base and subbase courses for both flexible and rigid
pavements.
Aggregates can either be natural or manufactured. Natural aggregates are generally
extracted from larger rock formations through an open excavation (quarry).
Extracted rock is typically reduced to usable sizes by mechanical crushing.
Manufactured aggregate is often the byproduct of other manufacturing industries.
This section will briefly discuss aggregate sources and quarrying operations then
describe the basic aggregate mineral, chemical and physical properties most
important to pavements and the typical tests used to determine these properties.
The following source contains more detailed information on aggregate:

National Stone, Sand & Gravel Association (NSSGA). Aggregate

Handbook. National Stone, Sand & Gravel Association. Arlington, VA.
http://www.nssga.org.

2.1 Aggregate Sources

Aggregates can come from either natural or manufactured sources. Natural
aggregates come from rock, of which there are three broad geological classifications
(Roberts, et al., 1996):

Igneous rock. These rocks are primarily crystalline and are formed by the
cooling of molten rock material beneath the earths crust (magma).

Sedimentary rocks. These rocks are formed from deposited insoluble

material (e.g., the remains of existing rock deposited on the bottom of an
ocean or lake). This material is transformed to rock by heat and pressure.
Sedimentary rocks are layered in appearance and are further classified
based on their predominant mineral as calcareous (limestone, chalk, etc.),
siliceous (chert, sandstone, etc.) or argillaceous (shale, etc.).

Metamorphic rock. These are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have

been subjected to heat and/or pressure great enough to change their
mineral structure so as to be different from the original rock.

Manufactured rock typically consists of industrial byproducts such as slag (byproduct

of the metallurgical processing typically produced from processing steel, tin and
copper) or specialty rock that is produced to have a particular physical characteristic
not found in natural rock (such as the low density of lightweight aggregate).

2.2 Aggregate Production

Aggregates are produced in a quarry or mine (see Figure 3.1) whose basic function is
to convert in situ rock into aggregate with specified characteristics. Usually the rock
is blasted or dug from the quarry walls then reduced in size using a series of screens
and crushers. Some quarries are also capable of washing the finished aggregate.
This section shows the basic process flow via a picture gallery of a typical quarry.

Figure 3.1: Aggregate Mine

2.3 Mineral Properties

An aggregates mineral composition largely determines its physical characteristics
and how it behaves as a pavement material. Therefore, when selecting an aggregate
source, knowledge of the quarry rocks mineral properties can provide an excellent
clue as to the suitability of the resulting aggregate. Cordon (1979) provides some
general guidelines for aggregate used in HMA (shown in Table 3.1).

Table 3.1: Desirable Properties of Rocks for HMA

(from Cordon, 1979 as referenced in Roberts et al., 1996)

Rock Type

Hardness,
Toughness

Resistance to
Surface Texture Crushed Shape
Stripping1,2

Igneous
Granite
Syenite
Diorite
Basalt (trap rock)
Diabase (trap rock)
Gabbro (trap rock)

Fair
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good

Fair
Fair
Fair
Good
Good
Good

Fair
Fair
Fair
Good
Good
Good

Fair
Fair
Good
Good
Good
Good

Limestone
Sandstone
Chert
Shale

Poor
Fair
Good
Poor

Good
Good
Fair
Poor

Good
Good
Poor
Fair

Fair
Good
Good
Fair

Metamorphic
Gneiss
Schist
Slate
Quartzite
Marble
Serpentine

Fair
Fair
Good
Good
Poor
Good

Fair
Fair
Fair
Fair
Good
Fair

Good
Good
Fair
Good
Fair
Fair

Good
Fair
Fair
Good
Fair
Fair

Sedimentary

Notes:

1. Aggregates that are hydrophilic (water-loving) tend to strip more readily since water
more easily replaces the asphalt film over each particle.
2. Freshly crushed aggregates with many broken ionic bonds tend to strip more easily.

In general, relationships between mineral and physical properties are quite complex,
making it difficult to accurately predict how a particular aggregate source will behave
based on mineral properties alone.

2.4 Chemical Properties

While relatively unimportant for loose aggregate, aggregate chemical properties are
important in a pavement material. In HMA, aggregate surface chemistry can
determine how well an asphalt cement binder will adhere to an aggregate surface.
Poor adherence, commonly referred to as stripping, can cause premature structural
failure. In PCC, aggregates containing reactive forms of silica can react expansively
with the alkalis contained in the cement paste. This expansion can cause cracking,
surface popouts and spalling. Note that some aggregate chemical properties can
change over time, especially after the aggregate is crushed. A newly crushed
aggregate may display a different affinity for water than the same aggregate that
has been crushed and left in a stockpile for a year.

2.4.1 Stripping (HMA)

Although the displacement of asphalt on the aggregate particle surface by water
(stripping) is a complex phenomena and is not yet fully understood, mineralogy and
chemical composition of the aggregate have been established as important
contributing factors (Roberts et al., 1996). In general, some aggregates have an
affinity for water over asphalt (hydrophilic). These aggregates tend to be acidic and
suffer from stripping after exposure to water. On the other hand, some aggregates
have an affinity for asphalt over water (hydrophobic). These aggregates tend to be
basic and do not suffer from stripping problems. Additionally, an aggregates surface
charge when in contact with water will affect its adhesion to asphalt cement and its
susceptibility to moisture damage. In sum, aggregate surface chemistry seems to be

an important factor in stripping. However, specific cause-effect relationships are still

being established.

2.4.2 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (PCC)

Alkali-aggregate reaction is the expansive
reaction that takes place in PCC between alkali
(contained in the cement paste) and elements
within an aggregate. The most common is an
alkali-silica reaction. This reaction, which
occurs to some extent in most PCC, can result
in map or pattern cracking (see Figure 3.2),
surface popouts and spalling if it is severe
enough. The mechanism for this alkali-silica
reaction proposed by Diamond is as follows
(Mindess and Young, 1981):
1.

Figure 3.2: Map/Pattern

Cracking Resulting from an
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction

Initial alkaline depolymerization and dissolution of reactive silica. Cement (a

high-alkali substance) can increase the solubility of non-crystalline silica and the
rate at which it dissolves. Additionally, the cement will raise the pH of the
surrounding medium which will affect the crystalline silica.
2. Formation of a hydrous alkali silicate gel. The initial dissolution of reactive
silica then opens up the aggregate pore structure and allows more silica to
dissolve into solution. The end result is alkali-silica gel that is formed in
place. This gel formation is not expansive itself but it does destroy the
integrity of the aggregate particle.
3. Attraction of water by the gel. The gel attracts considerable amounts of
water and expands. If the expansion is great enough, the resulting stress
will crack the now-weakened aggregate and surrounding cement paste.
4. Formation of a gel colloid. After the gel ingests enough water, the water
takes over and the substance becomes an alkali-silica gel disbursed in a
water fluid. This fluid then escapes to surrounding cracks and voids and
may partake in secondary reactions.

This reaction can be controlled by:

Avoiding susceptible aggregates. Local experience may show that certain

types of rock contain reactive silica. Typically rock types that may be
susceptible are: siliceous limestone, chert, shale, volcanic glass, synthetic
glass, sandstone, opaline rocks and quartzite. River rock is also typically
susceptible.

Pozzolanic admixture. By reacting with the calcium hydroxide in the

cement paste, a pozzolan can lower the pH of the pore solution.
Additionally, the silica contained in a pozzolan may react with the alkali in
the cement. This reaction is not harmful because it essentially skips the
expansive water attraction step.

Low-alkali cement. Less alkali available for reaction will limit gel
formation.

Low water-cement ratio. The lower the water-cement ratio, the less
permeable the concrete. Low permeability will help limit the supply of
water to the alkali-silica gel.

In sum, alkali-silica reactions are expansive in nature and occur in most PCC. If the
reaction is severe enough it can fracture aggregates and surrounding paste resulting
in cracking, popouts and spalling. There are several ways of avoiding this reaction,
the simplest of which is just avoiding susceptible aggregate.

2.5 Physical Properties

Aggregate physical properties are the most readily apparent aggregate properties
and they also have the most direct effect on how an aggregate performs as either a
pavement material constituent or by itself as a base or subbase material. Commonly
measured physical aggregate properties are (Roberts et al., 1996):

Gradation and size

Toughness and abrasion resistance
Durability and soundness
Particle shape and surface texture
Specific gravity
Cleanliness and deleterious materials
These are not the only physical properties of aggregates but rather the most
commonly measured. Tests used to quantify these properties are largely empirical.
The physical properties of an aggregate can change over time. For instance, a newly
crushed aggregate may contain more dust and thus be less receptive to binding with
an asphalt binder than one that has been crushed and stored in a stockpile for a
year.

2.5.1 Gradation and Size

The particle size distribution, or gradation, of an aggregate is one of the most
influential aggregate characteristics in determining how it will perform as a pavement
material. In HMA, gradation helps determine almost every important property
including stiffness, stability, durability, permeability, workability, fatigue resistance,
frictional resistance and resistance to moisture damage (Roberts et al., 1996). In
PCC, gradation helps determine durability, porosity, workability, cement and water
requirements, strength, and shrinkage. Because of this, gradation is a primary
concern in HMA and PCC mix design and thus most agencies specify allowable
aggregate gradations for both.

2.5.1.1 Maximum Aggregate Size

Maximum aggregate size can affect HMA, PCC and base/subbase courses in several
ways. In HMA, instability may result from excessively small maximum sizes; and
poor workability and/or segregation may result from excessively large maximum
sizes (Roberts et al., 1996). In PCC, large maximum sizes may not fit between
reinforcing bar openings, but they will generally increase PCC strength because the
water-cement ratio can be lowered. ASTM C 125 defines the maximum aggregate
size in one of two ways:
Maximum size. The smallest sieve through which 100 percent of the
aggregate sample particles pass. Superpave defines the maximum aggregate
size as "one sieve larger than the nominal maximum size" (Roberts et
al., 1996).
Nominal maximum size. The largest sieve that retains some of the
aggregate particles but generally not more than 10 percent by weight.
Superpave defines nominal maximum aggregate size as "one sieve size
larger than the first sieve to retain more than 10 percent of the
material" (Roberts et al., 1996).
Thus, it is important to specify whether "maximum size" or "nominal maximum size"
is being referenced.

2.5.1.2 Gradation Test

The gradation of a particular aggregate is most often determined by a sieve analysis

(see Figure 3.3). In a sieve analysis, a sample of dry aggregate of known weight is
separated through a series of sieves with progressively smaller openings. Once
separated, the weight of particles retained on each sieve is measured and compared
to the total sample weight. Particle size distribution is then expressed as a percent
retained by weight on each sieve size. Results are usually expressed in tabular or
graphical format. PCC gradation graphs are traditionally semi-logarithmic, while HMA
graphs often employ the standard 0.45 power gradation graph.

Figure 3.3: Sieve Analysis

Figure 3.4 shows typical gradation graphs. Note that sieve sizes are presented from
smallest to largest, left to right. The number and size of the sieves used in a sieve
analysis depend upon specification requirements.

Figure 3.4: Example Sieve Analysis Plot on a 0.45 Power Graph

For PCC, aggregate is typically classified as either "coarse" or "fine". Coarse
aggregate is generally the fraction retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve while fine
aggregate is the fraction passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve.
Standard Sieve Analysis test methods are:

AASHTO T 27 and ASTM C 136: Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse

Aggregates

AASHTO T 11 and ASTM C 117: Materials Finer Than 75-m (No. 200)
Sieve in Mineral Aggregate by Washing

AASHTO T 30: Mechanical Analysis of Extracted Aggregate (this is used for

aggregate extracted from bituminous mixtures)

2.5.1.3 Desired Gradation

Gradation has a profound effect on material performance. But what is the best
gradation? This is a complicated question, the answer to which will vary depending
upon the material (HMA or PCC), its desired characteristics, loading, environmental,
material, structural and mix property inputs. Therefore, gradation requirements for
specific HMA and PCC mixes are discussed in their respective pavement type
sections. This section presents some basic guidelines applicable to common densegraded mixes.

It might be reasonable to believe that the best gradation is one that produces the
maximum density. This would involve a particle arrangement where smaller particles
are packed between the larger particles, which reduces the void space between
particles. This creates more particle-to-particle contact, which in HMA would
increase stability and reduce water infiltration. In PCC, this reduced void space
reduces the amount of cement paste required. However, some minimum amount of
void space is necessary to:

Provide adequate volume for the binder (asphalt binder or portland

cement) to occupy.

Promote rapid drainage and resistance to frost action for base and
subbase courses.

Therefore, although it may not be the "best" aggregate gradation, a maximum

density gradation does provide a common reference. A widely used equation to
describe a maximum density gradation was developed by Fuller and Thompson in
1907. Their basic equation is:

d
P

D
where:

% finer than the sieve

aggregate size being considered

maximum aggregate size to be used

parameter which adjusts curve for fineness or coarseness (for

maximum particle density n0.5 according to Fuller and
Thompson)

The 0.45 Power Maximum Density Curve

In the early 1960s, the FHWA introduced the standard gradation graph used in the
HMA industry today. This graph uses n = 0.45 and is convenient for determining the
maximum density line and adjusting gradation (Roberts et al., 1996). This graph is
slightly different than other gradation graphs because it uses the sieve size raised to
the nth power (usually 0.45) as the x-axis units. Thus, n = 0.45 appears as a
straight diagonal line (see Figure 3.5). The maximum density line appears as a
straight line from zero to the maximum aggregate size for the mixture being

considered (the exact location of this line is somewhat debatable, but the locations
shown in Figure 3.4 are generally accepted).

Figure 3.5: Maximum Density Curves for 0.45 Power Gradation Graph
(each curve is for a different maximum aggregate size)
To illustrate how the maximum density curves in Figure 3.5 are determined, Table
2.2 shows the associated calculations for a maximum aggregate size of 19.0 mm.
Table 2.2: Calculations for a 0.45 Power Gradation Curve Using 19.0-mm
(0.75-inch) Maximum Aggregate Size
Particle Size
(mm)

19.0

% Passing

19.0

19.0

0.45

1.000 100.0%

12.5

12.5
P

19.0

0.45

9.5

9 .5
P

19.0

0.45

2.00

2.00
P

19.0

0.45

0.300

0.300
P

19.0

0.075

0.075
P

19.0

0.833 83.3%

0.732 73.2%

0.363 36.3%

0.45

0.45

0.154 15.4%

0.082 8.2%

Gradation Terminology
Several common terms are used to classify gradation. These are not precise
technical terms but rather terms that refer to gradations that share common
characteristics (refer to Figure 3.6):
Dense or well-graded. Refers to a gradation that is near the FHWAs 0.45
power curve for maximum density. The most common HMA and PCC mix
designs in the U.S. tend to use dense graded aggregate. Typical gradations
are near the 0.45 power curve but not right on it. Generally, a true maximum
density gradation (exactly on the 0.45 power curve) would result in
unacceptably low VMA.
Gap graded. Refers to a gradation that contains only a small percentage
of aggregate particles in the mid-size range. The curve is flat in the mid-size
range. Some PCC mix designs use gap graded aggregate to provide a more
economical mix since less sand can be used for a given workability. HMA gap
graded mixes can be prone to segregation during placement.
Open graded. Refers to a gradation that contains only a small percentage
of aggregate particles in the small range. This results in more air voids
because there are not enough small particles to fill in the voids between the
larger particles. The curve is near vertical in the mid-size range, and flat and
near-zero in the small-size range.
Uniformly graded. Refers to a gradation that contains most of the
particles in a very narrow size range. In essence, all the particles are the

same size. The curve is steep and only occupies the narrow size range
specified.
Restricted zone. Note: the restricted zone will be eliminated by late
2002. The restricted zone refers to a particular area of the FHWAs 0.45
power gradation graph associated with Superpave mix designs. It was
originally observed that mixes closely following the 0.45 power maximum
density line in the finer gradations sometimes had unacceptably low VMA.
Therefore, in an attempt to minimize this problem, Superpave included a
restricted zone through which a typical gradation should not pass as a
recommended guideline. However, since the restricted zone's original
inception, NCHRP Report 464: The Restricted Zone in the Superpave
Aggregate Gradation Specification has concluded that "...gradations that
violated the restricted zone performed similarly to or better than the mixes
having gradations passing outside the restricted zone; therefore, the
restricted zone requirement is redundant for mixes meeting all Superpave
volumetric parameters...It has been recommended to delete references to the
restricted zone as either a requirement or a guideline from the AASHTO
specification (AASHTO MP 2) and practice (AASHTO PP 28) for Superpave
volumetric mix design." (Kandhal and Cooley, 2001).
Fine gradation. A gradation that, when plotted on the 0.45 power
gradation graph, falls mostly above the 0.45 power maximum density line.
The term generally applies to dense graded aggregate.
Coarse gradation. A gradation that, when plotted on the 0.45 power
gradation graph, falls mostly below the 0.45 power maximum density line.
The term generally applies to dense graded aggregate.
Figure 3.6: FHWA Gradation Graph Showing Representative Gradations

Permeability
Figure 3.7 shows some typical aggregate gradations and their associated
permeabilities. This shows that even a small amount of particles passing the 0.075mm (#200) sieve results in very low permeability. Therefore, for base and subbase
aggregates where permeability is important for drainage and frost resistance, many
agencies will specify a maximum percent-by-weight passing for this sieve.

Figure 3.7: Typical Aggregate Gradations and Permeabilities (after

Ridgeway, 1982)

Table 3.3 and Figure 3.8 show some typical specification bands for aggregate courses
taken from the FHWA 1996 Standard Specifications (FHWA, 1996).
Table 3.3: Some Representative Gradation Specifications for Aggregate
Courses from
the 1996 FHWA Standard Specifications for Construction of Roads and
Bridges on Federal Highway Projects (FP-96)
Percent Passing
Sieve Size

Subbase Course
(Grading A)

Base Course
(Grading B)

Surface Course
(Grading F)

63 mm

2.5-inch

100

50 mm

2-inch

100

97 - 100

37.5 mm

1.5-inch

97 - 100

25.0 mm

1-inch

100

19.0 mm

0.75-inch

97 - 100

12.5 mm

0.5-inch

40 - 60 (8)

4.75 mm

No. 4

40 - 60 (8)

41 - 71 (7)

0.425 mm

No. 40

9 - 17 (4)

12 - 28 (5)

0.075 mm

No. 200

0 - 12 (4)

4 - 8 (3)

5 - 16 (4)

Notes:
1. Number in parentheses indicates the allowable deviations ( ) from the target
value.
2. These are only representative gradations and do not represent a comprehensive list
of FHWA specified gradations.

Figure 3.8: Some Representative Gradation Specifications for Aggregate

Courses from
the 1996 FHWA Standard Specifications for Construction of Roads and
Bridges on Federal Highway Projects (FP-96)
(click on text in the Figure to show plots)

2.5.1.4 Fineness Modulus

For aggregates used in PCC, another common gradation description for fine
aggregate is the fineness modulus. It is described in ASTM C 125 and is a single
number used to describe a gradation curve. It is defined as:

where:

F.M.

fineness modulus

specified
sieves

0.150 mm (No. 100), 0.30 mm (No. 50), 0.60 mm (No. 30),

1.18 mm (No. 16), 2.36 mm (No. 8), 4.75 mm (No. 4), 9.5

mm (0.375-in.), 19.0 mm (0.75-in.), 37.5 mm (1.5-in.), and

larger increasing in the size ratio of 2:1.

The larger the fineness modulus, the more coarse the aggregate. A typical fineness
modulus for fine aggregate used in PCC is between 2.70 and 3.00.

2.5.2 Toughness and Abrasion Resistance

Aggregates undergo substantial wear and tear throughout their life. In general, they
should be hard and tough enough to resist crushing, degradation and disintegration
from any associated activities including manufacturing, stockpiling, production,
placing, compaction (in the case of HMA) and consolidation (in the case of PCC)
(Roberts et al., 1996). Furthermore, they must be able to adequately transmit loads
from the pavement surface to the underlying layers (and eventually the subgrade).
Aggregates not adequately resistant to abrasion and polishing will cause premature
structural failure and/or a loss of skid resistance.

2.5.2.1 Los Angeles Abrasion Test

A common test used to characterize toughness and abrasion resistance is the Los
Angeles (L.A.) abrasion test. For the L.A. abrasion test, the portion of an aggregate
sample retained on the 1.70 mm (No. 12) sieve is placed in a large rotating drum
that contains a shelf plate attached to the outer wall (the Los Angeles machine see
Figure 3.9). A specified number of steel spheres are then placed in the machine and
the drum is rotated for 500 revolutions at a speed of 30 - 33 revolutions per minute
(RPM). The material is then extracted and separated into material passing the 1.70
mm (No. 12) sieve and material retained on the 1.70 mm (No. 12) sieve. The
retained material (larger particles) is then weighed and compared to the original
sample weight. The difference in weight is reported as a percent of the original
weight and called the "percent loss".

Figure 3.9: Los Angeles Abrasion Machine

Table 3.4 shows some typical test values from the L.A. abrasion test. Unfortunately,
the test does not seem to correspond well with field measurements (especially with
slags, cinders and other lightweight aggregates). Some aggregates with high L.A.
abrasion loss, such as soft limestone, provide excellent performance. However, no
matter the performance characteristics, aggregate with high L.A. abrasion loss values
will tend to create dust during production and handling, which may produce
environmental and mixture control problems.

Table 3.4: Typical L.A. Abrasion Loss Values

(from Roberts et al., 1996; NHI, 2000)
Typical L.A. Abrasion Loss
(by percent weight)
General Values
Hard, igneous rocks
10
Soft limestones and sandstones
60
Rock Type

Ranges for Specific Rocks

Basalt
Dolomite
Gneiss
Granite

10
18
33
27

17
30
57
49

Limestone
Quartzite

19 - 30
20 - 35

Standard L.A. abrasion test methods are:

AASHTO T 96 and ASTM C 131: Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size
Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine
ASTM C 535: Resistance to Degradation of Large-Size Coarse Aggregate
by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine

2.5.3 Durability and Soundness

Aggregates must be resistant to breakdown and disintegration from weathering
(wetting/drying and freezing/thawing) or they may break apart and cause premature
pavement distress. Durability and soundness are terms typically given to an
aggregates weathering resistance characteristic. Aggregates used in HMA are dried
in the production process and therefore should contain almost no water. Thus, for
aggregate used in HMA, freezing/thawing should not be a significant problem. This is
not true for aggregate used in PCC or as base and/or subbase courses. These
aggregates typically contain some water (on the order of 0.1% to 3% usually) and
are not dried prior to use.

2.5.3.1 Soundness Tests

The most common soundness test involves repeatedly submerging an aggregate
sample in a saturated solution of sodium or magnesium sulfate. This process causes
salt crystals to form in the aggregate pores, which simulate ice crystal formation (see
Figure 3.10 and 3.11). The basic procedure is as follows (from Roberts et al., 1996):
Oven dry the sample and separate it into specific sieve sizes.
Immerse the sample in a saturated solution of sodium or magnesium
sulfate and let it remain at a constant temperature for 18 hours.
Remove the sample from the solution and dry to a constant weight at 110
5oC (230 9oF).
Repeat this cycle five times.
Wash the sample to remove the salt; then dry.
Determine the loss in weight for each specific sieve size and compute a
weighted average percent loss for the entire sample.
The maximum loss values typically range from 10 20 percent for every five cycles.

Figure 3.10: Aggregates Before a

Soundness Test

Figure 3.11: Aggregates After a

Soundness Test

Other soundness tests use relatively the same procedure but substitute actual
freezing and thawing in place of the salt crystallization of the procedure described
previously. Cracks in PCC resulting from poor aggregate freeze-thaw resistance are
often called durability cracks or "D cracks".
Standard soundness tests are:
AASHTO T 104 and ASTM C 88: Soundness of Aggregates by Use of
Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate
AASHTO T 103: Soundness of Aggregates by Freezing and Thawing

2.5.4 Particle Shape and Surface Texture

Particle shape and surface texture are important for proper compaction, deformation
resistance, HMA workability and PCC workability. However, the ideal shape for HMA
and PCC is different because aggregates serve different purposes in each material.
In HMA, since aggregates are relied upon to provide stiffness and strength by
interlocking with one another, cubic angular-shaped particles with a rough surface
texture are best. However, in PCC, where aggregates are used as an inexpensive
high-strength material to occupy volume, workability is the major issue regarding
particle shape. Therefore, in PCC rounded particles are better. Relevant particle
shape/texture characteristics are:

 Particle shape. Rounded particles create less particle-to-particle interlock

than angular particles and thus provide better workability and easier
compaction. However, in HMA less interlock is generally a disadvantage as
rounded aggregate will continue to compact, shove and rut after construction.
Thus angular particles are desirable for HMA (despite their poorer
workability), while rounded particles are desirable for PCC because of their
better workability (although particle smoothness will not appreciably affect
strength) (PCA, 1988).
Flat or elongated particles. These particles tend to impede compaction or
break during compaction and thus, may decrease strength.
Smooth-surfaced particles. These particles have a lower surface-tovolume ratio than rough-surfaced particles and thus may be easier to coat
with binder. However, in HMA asphalt tends to bond more effectively with
rough-surfaced particles, and in PCC rough-surfaced particles provide more
area to which the cement paste can bond. Thus, rough-surface particles are
desirable for both HMA and PCC.

2.5.4.1 Tests for Particle Shape and Surface Texture

There are several common tests used to identify and quantify aggregate particle
shape and surface texture. Among the most popular are:

Particle index

Percent fractured face (or coarse aggregate angularity)

Fine aggregate angularity

Other tests, using automated machines equipped with video cameras and lasers are
under development.
Particle Index
The particle index test provides a combined shape-texture characterization. This test
requires that an aggregate sample be divided up into specific size fraction. Each size
fraction is placed into a container in three layers. This is done twice; the first time,
each layer is compacted with 10 blows of a tamping rod, and the second time, each
layer is compacted with 50 blows of a tamping rod. The particle index is computed
from the following equation:

where:

Ia

particle index

V10

voids in aggregate compacted at 10 drops per layer

V50

voids in aggregate compacted at 50 drops per layer

The overall sample particle index is computed as a weighted average of the individual
size fraction particles indexes based on the size fraction weights. Aggregates
composed of rounded, smooth particles may have a low particle index of around 6 or
7, while aggregates composed of angular, rough particles may have a high particle
index of between 15 and 20 or more.
The standard particle index test is:
ASTM D 3398: Index of Aggregate Particle Shape and Texture

Percent Fractured Face (or Coarse Aggregate Angularity)

For coarse aggregate, a sample retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve is collected
and the number of particles with fractured faces is compared to the number of
particles without fractured faces. A fractured face is defined as an "angular, rough,
or broken surface of an aggregate particle created by crushing, by other artificial
means, or by nature" (ASTM, 2000). In order for a face to be considered fractured it
must constitute at least 25 percent of the maximum cross-sectional area of the rock
particle.
The standard percent fractured face test is:
ASTM D 5821: Determining the Percentage
of Fractured Particles in Coarse Aggregate
Fine Aggregate Angularity
Superpave uses a test to determine the uncompacted
void content of fine aggregate, which gives some
indication of fine aggregate particle shape and surface
texture. The test involves filling a 100 mL cylinder
with fine aggregate (see Figure 3.12), defined as that
aggregate passing the 2.36 mm (No. 8) sieve, by
pouring it from a funnel at a fixed height. After
filling, the amount of aggregate in the cylinder is
measured and a void content is calculated. The
assumption is that this void content is related to the
aggregate angularity and surface texture (e.g., more
smooth rounded particles will result in a lower void

Figure 3.12: Fine

Aggregate Angularity
Test

content). The key disadvantage to this test is that inclusion of flat and elongated
particles, which are known to cause mix problems, will cause the fine aggregate
angularity test results to appear more favorable. Finally, surface texture may have a
larger effect on mix performance than fine aggregate angularity values.
The standard fine aggregate angularity test is:
AASHTO T 304 and ASTM C 1252: Uncompacted Void Content of Fine
Aggregate

Flat or Elongated Particles

Flat and elongated particles can cause HMA problems because they tend to reorient
and break under compaction. Therefore, they are typically restricted to some
maximum percentage. An elongated particle is most often defined as one that
exceeds a 5:1 length-to-width ratio. Testing is done on a representative sample
using a caliper device and a two-step process. First, the longest dimension is
measured on one end of the caliper (see Figure 3.13). Then, based on the position
of the pivot point (numbered holes shown in Figure 3.12), the other end of the
caliper (see Figure 3.14) is automatically sized to the predetermined length-to-width
ratio (in Figures 3.13 and 3.14 it is set at 2:1). If the aggregate is able to pass
between the bar and caliper it fails the test.
The standard flat or elongated particle test is:
ASTM D 4791: Flat or Elongated Particles in Coarse Aggregate

Figure 3.13: Testing Caliper Measuring

the Elongated Dimension

2.5.5 Specific Gravity

Figure 3.14: Testing Caliper Measuring

the Flat Dimension

Aggregate specific gravity is useful in making weight-volume conversions and in

calculating the void content in compacted HMA (Roberts et al., 1996). AASHTO M
132 and ASTM E 12 define specific gravity as:
"the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of a material at a stated temperature to the
mass of the same volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature."
The commonly used "stated temperature" is 23 C (73.4 F). Given the structure of
a typical aggregate particle, there are several different kinds of specific gravity. This
section will first describe the structure of a typical aggregate particle and then
discuss each type of specific gravity and its use.

2.5.5.1 Aggregate Particle Structure

A typical aggregate particle consists of some amount of solid material along with a
certain amount of air voids. These air voids within the aggregate particle (see Figure
3.15) can become filled with water, binder or both (see Figure 3.16). It takes a finite
amount of time for water/binder to penetrate these pores, so specific gravity test
procedures generally contain a 15 to 19-hour (for AASHTO procedures) or a 24-hour
(for ASTM procedures) soak period for the purpose of allowing penetration into these
pores.

Figure 3.15: Dry Aggregate

Figure 3.16: Wet Aggregate

Depending upon how aggregate voids are dealt with, calculated aggregate specific
gravities can vary. If they are excluded entirely, then the specific gravity is that of
the solid portion of the aggregate only, while if they are included entirely then the
specific gravity essentially becomes a weighted average of the specific gravity of the
solid aggregate and whatever is in its voids.

2.5.5.2 Aggregate Specific Gravities

Generally, there are three different aggregate specific gravities used in association
with pavements: bulk, apparent and effective.

2.5.6 Cleanliness and Deleterious Materials

Aggregates must be relatively clean when used in HMA or PCC. Vegetation, soft
particles, clay lumps, excess dust and vegetable matter are not desirable because
they generally affect performance by quickly degrading, which causes a loss of
structural support and/or prevents binder-aggregate bonding.

2.5.6.1 Tests for Deleterious Materials Sand Equivalent

The sand equivalent test is a rapid field test to show the relative proportions of fine
dust or claylike materials in aggregate (or soils). A sample of aggregate passing the
4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve and a small amount of flocculating solution are poured into a
graduated cylinder and are agitated to loosen the claylike coatings from the sand
particles. The sample is then irrigated with additional flocculation solution forcing
the claylike material into suspension above the sand. After a prescribed
sedimentation period, the height of flocculated clay and height of sand are
determined. The sand equivalent is determined from the below equation:

Cleaner aggregates will have higher sand equivalent values. Agencies often specify a
minimum sand equivalent around 25 to 35 (Roberts et al., 1996).

Standard sand equivalent tests are:

AASHTO T 176: Plastic Fines in Graded Aggregates and Soils by Use of the
Sand Equivalent Test
ASTM D 2419: Sand Equivalent Value of Soils and Fine Aggregate

2.5.6.2 Tests for Deleterious Materials Clay Lumps and Friable Particles
To test for clay lumps or friable particles, a sample is first washed and dried to
remove material passing the 0.075-mm (No. 200) sieve. The remaining sample is
separated into different sizes and each size is weighed and soaked in water for 24
hours. Particles that can be broken down into fines with fingers are classified as clay
lumps or friable material. The amount of this material is calculated by percentage of
total sample weight. Specifications usually limit clay and friable particles to a
maximum of one percent.
Standard sand equivalent tests are:
AASHTO T 112 and ASTM C 142: Clay Lumps and Friable Particles in
Aggregate

2.5.7 Moisture Content

Since aggregates are porous (to some extent) they can absorb moisture. Generally
this is not a concern for HMA because the aggregate is dried before HMA production.
However, this is a concern for PCC because aggregate is generally not dried and
therefore the aggregate moisture content will affect the water content (and thus the
water-cement ratio also) of the produced PCC and the water content also affects
aggregate proportioning (because it contributes to aggregate weight). In general,
there are four aggregate moisture conditions (see Figure 3.17):
1. Oven-dry (OD). All moisture is removed by heating the aggregate in an
oven at 105C (221F) to constant weight (this usually constitutes heating
it overnight). All pores connected to the surface are empty and the
aggregate is fully absorbent.
2. Airdry (AD). All moisture is removed from the surface, but pores
connected to the surface are partially filled with water. The aggregate is
somewhat absorbent.

3. Saturated surface dry (SSD). All pores connected to the surface are filled
with water, but the surface is dry. The aggregate is neither absorbent nor
does it contribute water to the concrete mixture.
4. Wet. All pores connected to the surface are filled with water and there is
excess moisture on the surface. The aggregate contributes water to the
concrete mixture.
Note that pores not connected to the surface are not considered.
Figure 3.17: Aggregate Moisture States
(these moisture states only consider the aggregate pores that are
connected to the surface)
These conditions are used to calculate various aggregate properties. The moisture
content of an aggregate is expressed as:

where:

MC

moisture content expressed as a percentage

Wstock

weight of aggregate in stockpile condition

WSSD

weight of aggregate in SSD condition

If the moisture content is positive, the aggregate has surface moisture and will
contribute water to the PCC, while if the moisture content is negative the aggregate
is air dry to some degree and will absorb moisture from the PCC.
Typical moisture tests are:

ASTM C 70: Surface Moisture in Fine Aggregate

AASHTO T 85 and ASTM C 127: Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse

Aggregate

AASHTO T 84 and ASTM C 128: Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine

Aggregate

AASHTO T 255: Total Evaporable Moisture Content of Aggregate by Drying

ASTM C 566: Total Moisture Content of Aggregate by Drying

2.6 Aggregate as a Base Material

Aggregate is often used by itself as an unbound base or subbase course. When used
as such, aggregate is typically characterized by the preceding physical properties as
well as overall layer stiffness. Layer stiffness is characterized by the same tests used
to characterize subgrade stiffness.

2.7 Summary
Aggregates are a principal material in pavement. Additionally, they are often used in
either stabilized or unstabilized base/subbase courses. They comprise the majority
of pavement volume but only account for a minority of total pavement material
costs. Therefore, a knowledge of aggregate properties is crucial to designing a high
quality pavement. Aggregates can be either natural or man-made and are most
often characterized by their physical properties, including:

Gradation and size

Toughness and abrasion resistance
Durability and soundness
Particle shape and surface texture
Specific gravity
Cleanliness and deleterious materials
Moisture content
However, aggregate chemical and material properties are also important because:
Stripping and alkali-aggregate reactions can be affected by aggregate
chemical properties.
Aggregate behavior is largely determined by aggregate physical
properties.

In sum, accurate aggregate characterization (physical, chemical and material) will

not always ensure high quality aggregate, but it can at least make structural and mix
designers aware of a particular aggregates characteristics, which may aid in critical
design decisions.