FOREIGN POLICY & DIPLOMACY

DIPLOMACY AS A TECHNIQUE OF
FOREIGN POLICY
Paper presented by Appu Nath,M.A.SOCIOLOGY & M.A.INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS-SIKKIM UNIVERSITY
DO NOT CITE WITHOUT PERMISSION

INTRODUCTION
In this paper I will be focusing on Diplomacy and its types
with special reference to Foreign Policy.In this paper I
have tried to highlight the basic features of diplomacy
and a short brief on its origin.Diplomacy plays an
important role in Foreign policy because through
diplomacy the states try to achieve its interest and apply
its policies to gain from it and diplomacy also plays a
vital role in conflict negotiations. Diplomacy has always
been a keyword in International Politics and till date it
has been playing a significant role in International
Relations. But before I move on Diplomacy it is important
to know what Foreign Policy means and after that I will be
moving with diplomacy ending it with a conclusion on
importance of diplomacy in todays world. Lastly, I will be
providing an overview on Diplomacy problem between

India and Pakistan in recent years which will be helpful in

projecting the role of diplomacy.

WHAT IS FOREIGN POLICY?

Foreign Policy is the use of political influence in order to induce
other states to exercise their law-making power in a manner
desired by the states concerned: it is an interaction between
forces originating outside the countrys borders and those working
within them. Foreign policy of a state is concerned with the
behaviour of a state towards other states. It refers to the ways in
which the central governments of sovereign states relate to each
other and to the global system in order to achieve various goals
or objectives. Through its foreign policy it endeavors to persuade
others in accordance with ones own ends. It is primarily in
proportion to its national power that its persuasive power is
effective in this regard. However, even a powerful state cannot
afford to enjoy a solo flight in this regard. It has to take into
account, not only its own objectives and interests, aspirations and
problems, but also those of other states. This process involves
intricate processes of diplomacy short of war. It is also based on
the observations regarding the traditional behaviour of a given
state. Moreover, a state while implementing its foreign policy
cannot afford to ignore the rules of International law and canons
of international morality. The whole essence of this prelude is that
the term foreign policy cannot be studied in isolation from the
factors that determine it.
Foreign policy is the key element in the process by which a state
translates its broadly conceived goals and interests into concrete
course of action to attain these objectives and preserve interests

So foreign policy is the bundle of principles and practices that

regulate the intercourse of a state vis--vis other states. Through
foreign policy a state seeks to achieve a variety of objectives. The
objectives sought to be attained by a state are of different types
and categories, yet there are certain objectives which are
uniformly pursued by all states i.e. Political independence and
territorial integrity, economic well being and, prestige and status
of a nation. They have been classified into short range, middle
range and long-range objectives.

Diplomacy and Foreign Relations

Cultivating and managing a favourable world opinion toward a
nation-state is the mandate of diplomacy. Diplomacy generally
refers to a governments process of communicating with foreign
publics in an attempt to bring about understanding for its nations
ideas and ideals, its institutions and culture, as well as its national
goals and current policies. By this accord, nation-states partake in
the most pluralistic organizing institution in the international
system. One state can confidently enter into diplomatic relations
with another under a shared understanding. With sovereignty
mutually recognized, nation-states can use diplomacy as the
means to achieving political ends. Foreign policy is the content of
foreign relations, comprising the aspirations and aims a country
wants to achieve in its relations with other states and
international governmental organizations. A developmental
foreign policy is pro-engagement; it is not isolationist. It is
fundamentally concerned with addressing domestic, continental,
and global disparities and inequalities. Some countries formulate
and publish their foreign policy goals. Sometimes a countrys
foreign policy goals are not published, but kept under wrap for
security purposes. Diplomacy plays an important part in shaping

what happens in international relations. Diplomacy provides the

spokes for one states political interests to interface with those of
another without resorting to military force. Diplomacy is used to
manage the goals of foreign policy focusing on communication.
Diplomacy attempts to manage the goals of foreign policy mostly
by implementing goals but also by preparing foreign policy
decisions. Diplomacy is negotiated when the interests of states
cannot be fully reconciled, and explicit bargaining is required to
reveal the area of agreement. On the other hand, even when the
will or opportunity to negotiate is absent, and when it is not
explicit, bargaining can converge upon and underscore common
interests between states, avoid misunderstandings, highlight the
potential for communication between adversaries, and define
practical steps to strengthen the harmony of interests. Nonnegotiated bargaining is critical for international norms of
behaviour. Convergent interests are commonly understood as
increasing the potential of interstate cooperation. Convergence is
stimulated either by shifts in national interest or by new
opportunities to recognize those shifts.

WHAT IS DIPLOMACY?
1.The coexistence of separate political units
necessitates a certain degree of contact amongst
themselves. There is a need for communication
between governments & the business of
communicating between governments is
technically termed as diplomacy.

 2. The Oxford dictionary defines diplomacy as

the management of international relations by
negotiation.

ORIGIN OF DIPLOMACY
Diplomacy as an instrument of foreign policy is nothing new
and can be traced back to antiquity.Greece, Byzantium;
Renaissance Italy made the most notable contributions to its
evolution. But the origins of organized diplomacy dates back
to the Congress of Vienna,1815 & the subsequent
regulations of Aix-la-Chapelle ultimately established the
diplomatic services & the representation of the powers on an
agreed basis.
Four categories of representation were defined1. Ambassadors, papal legates & papal nuncios
2. Extra ordinary envoys & plenipotentiary ministers
3. Ministers resident
4. Charge d Affaires

NICOLSONS MEANING TO DIPLOMACY

Synonym for foreign policy
Negotiation

 The machinery by which such negotiation is carried

out
A branch of the foreign service
An abstract quality or gift, which, in its best sense
implies skill in the conduct of international
negotiations and in its worst sense, implies the more
guileful aspects of tact.

Morgenthau referred to diplomacy as

the brain of state power.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN FOREIGN POLICY &
DIPLOMACY
J.R.Childs(American Foreign Service,1948) suggested foreign
policy as the substance of foreign relations & diplomacy as
the process by which policy is carried out.
Sir Harold Nicolson in his study The Congress of Vienna(Nov.1814june 1815) said that foreign policy is based upon a general
conception of national requirements.diplomacy on the other
hand is not an end but a means, not a purpose but a methodit
is the agency through which foreign policy seeks to attain its
purpose by agreement rather than by war.

FUNCTIONS OF DIPLOMACY
Morgenthau provides four functions of diplomacy. These
functions imply that one must:-

1. Determine the objectives of diplomacy in light of power

actually & potentially available for the pursuit of these
objectives.
2. Access the objectives of other nations and the power
actually & potentially available for the pursuit of these
objectives.
3. Determine to what extent these different objectives are
compatible with each other &
4. Employ the means suited to the pursuit of these objectives.

WHO IS A DIPLOMAT?
A diplomat is a person appointed by a state to
conduct diplomacy with another state or international
organization. The main functions of diplomats revolve around the
representation and protection of the interests and nationals of the
sending state, as well as the promotion of information and
friendly relations.
Diplomats are the oldest form of any of the foreign
policy institutions of the state, predating by centuries foreign
ministers and ministerial offices.
Diplomats in posts collect and report information that could affect
national interests, often with advice about how the home country
government should respond. Then, once any policy response has
been decided in the home country's capital, posts bear major
responsibility for implementing it. Diplomats have the job of
conveying, in the most persuasive way possible, the views of the
home government to the governments to which they are
accredited and, in doing so, to try to convince those governments
to act in ways that suit home country interests. In this way,
diplomats are part of the beginning and the end of each loop in
the continuous process through which foreign policy is made. The
diplomat should be an excellent negotiator but, above all, a

catalyst for peace and understanding between peoples. The

diplomat's principal role is to foster peaceful relations between
states. This role takes on heightened importance once war breaks
out. Negotiation must necessarily continue but within significantly
altered contexts.

MORGENTHAUS FUNCTION OF DIPLOMATS

To him a diplomat fulfills three basic functions for his
government1. SYMBOLIC
2. LEGAL
3. POLITICAL

PALMER & PERKINS CLASSIFICATION OF

FUNCTIONS OF DIPLOMATS
They classify the functions of diplomats as1. Representation
2. Negotiation
3. Reporting
4. Protection of national interests and nationals abroad
5. Maintenance of international peace and promotion of
international cooperation.

POULLADAS FUNCTIONS OF DIPLOMACY

Conflict management
Problem solving
Cross-cultural interaction on a wide range of issues
Negotiation & bargaining
Programme management of the foreign policy
decisions of one country to another.
TYPES OF DIPLOMACY
TRADITIONAL DIPLOMACY
NEW DIPLOMACY

TRADITIONAL DIPLOMACY
Till the end of 18th century diplomacy was branded as
old or traditional diplomacy.
It was old European kind of diplomacy
The old diplomacy carried out its tasks in a world
made up of states that were small,seperated,limited
in power and blessed ironically enough by halfhearted political loyalties.

Patience was a watchword, negotiations and talks would

be initiated, broken off,resumed,discontinued temporarily
and re-opened again by professionals in whose lexicon
there was no substitute for diplomacy.
TRADITIONAL DIPLOMACY is also known as Old diplomacy
Bilateral diplomacy
French/Italian system of diplomacy
FEATURES OF TRADITIONAL DIPLOMACY

STRUCTURE-Had a communication process

between recognizably by modern states rather
than any other forms of political organizations
such as the Catholic church.It was Europecentric.Diplomacy was virtually European
Diplomacy.Traditional diplomacy was the
monopoly of the aristrocratic class and of the
professional diplomats who shared a rapport
with each other.
PROCESS-Diplomacy organised on bilateral
basis & undertaken in secrecy characterised by
certain rules and procedures.
AGENDA-Parochial and narrow.

NEW DIPLOMACY
The 19th century diplomacy is referred to as
modern diplomacy or new diplomacy.
Factors like development in technology and
communication, importance of public opinion
and change in the structure of international
society after Post-second world war gave birth
to new diplomacy.
Europe was no longer the center of
international affairs.
FEATURES OF NEW DIPLOMACY

STRUCTURE-Structure of new diplomacy was

same as of old diplomacy. States still remained
the major actors. The only difference was that
the stage has to be shared with non-state
actors.

 PROCESS-Diplomacy became more complicated

activity involving states and non-state actors.
Alongside bilateral negotiations on a state-tostate basis, groups of states negotiated
multilaterally in inter-governmental
organisations like the U.N.& other nongovernmental organizations.
AGENDA-The agenda contained a no. of
economic,social,welfare issues identified as
low politics & military,war,peace issues
identified as high politics.

TYPES OF NEW DIPLOMACY

Democratic diplomacy
Totalitarian diplomacy
Summit diplomacy
Personal diplomacy
Diplomacy by conference
Parliamentary diplomacy
Multilateral diplomacy
Bilateral diplomacy

DEMOCRATIC DIPLOMACY
Common form of diplomacy by the turn of 21st
century.
Participation of people in the politics of the
state.
Importance of public opinion.
TOTALITARIAN DIPLOMACY

The rise of totalitarian states like Germany,Italy,The

soviet union after the first world war a new but
disturbing kind of diplomacy came-up.

Use of modern techniques of military,political and

psychological power to expand their spheres of
influence ,gain and control over other states and
subvert other regimes and further their aggressive
policy of expansion.

SUMMIT DIPLOMACY
Direct participation of foreign minister,Heads of
States and Heads of Governments in diplomatic
negotiations.
PERSONAL DIPLOMACY
Normal channels of diplomacy are used only to a
limited degree.

 Heads of States embark on using their personal

agents or representatives to handle delicate
problems in international relations.
They even sometimes grow a tendency to consult
their personal favorites rather than the foreign
ministers.
Sometimes they directly approach his counterpart in
the other country.
DIPLOMACY BY CONFERENCE
Involves periodic meetings of regional and international
organizations attended by a no. of representatives of the
member states and sometimes the non-member states
too.
PARLIAMENTARY DIPLOMACY

A continuing organization
A regular public debate exposed to the media
Rules of procedure which govern the process of
debate
Formal conclusions ordinarily expressed by
resolution

MULTILATERAL DIPLOMACY

 Having many sides.

Involving more than two nations or parties
BILATERAL DIPLOMACY

consists of the political, economic, or cultural

relations between two sovereign states
It is in contrast to unilateralism or multilateralism,
which refers to the conduct of diplomacy by a single
state or multiple states, respectively. When states
recognize one another as sovereign states and agree
to develop diplomatic relations, they exchange
diplomatic agents such as ambassadors to facilitate
dialogues and cooperation.

Challenges in Diplomacy and Foreign

Relations
In international relations, diplomacy is inevitably driven
by changing events, if not exclusively so. The points of
contact between states have increased dramatically.
International trade, tourism, migration, development
assistance, and cultural exchanges have linked countries
together. The communications revolution, the impacts of
modern technology, the emergence of new nongovernment influences (business, the professionals, civil
society), the new risks (environmental dilapidation,
resource scarcity), as well as those intractable afflictions
(poverty) magnified by globalization are all set to
undermine diplomatic services over the pursuit of
relations and issues between countries. Diplomatic

communication, traditionally based on government-togovernment and diplomat-to-diplomat interactions,

has expanded to include government-to-people
contacts. Foreign public opinion today is gaining ever
more significance in forming an emerging globalized
public and influencing international political process and
outcome. Issues that used to be considered part of the
domestic domain, figure prominently today on the
international agenda. Publics, domestic or foreign, do not
always have an informed view or coherent opinion on
matters related to cross-national and foreign policy
issues. Direct and effective linkages between public
opinion and policies always do not exist either. However,
the role of individuals and their expressed opinions do
form a climate of opinion in which decision-makers
pursue policies. Therefore, the perceptions and opinions
held by foreign publics regarding a given nation are
critically important to decisions by nation-state.
The goals of a countrys foreign policy are increasingly
influenced by domestic and external forces, thus, the
objectives of a countrys foreign policy undergo frequent
changes. With the changing global political and economic
landscape, the proliferation of media and communication
technologies, the emergence of new actors in global
affairs, and most of all, the complex confluence of these
facets, the credibility and effectiveness of standard
communication practices in diplomacy is under challenge.
Managing the information flow in such contexts is the
realm of diplomacy, particularly in the new world of
globalization and communication.

Diplomacy today struggles to reflect the diversity and

pluralism of the globalized age. It is almost impossible to
examine any problem in contemporary international
relations effectively without considering the diplomatic
challenges which it poses, the innovations in diplomatic
practice which it calls forth, and the contribution which
diplomacy can make to easing the problem in such a way
as to contribute to a more peaceful, just, and orderly
world.

INDIA-PAKISTAN DIPLOMACY IN RECENT PAST

Soon after their independence, India and Pakistan established
diplomatic relations but the violent partition and numerous
territorial disputes would overshadow their relationship. Since
their independence, the two countries have fought three major
wars, one undeclared war and have been involved in numerous
armed skirmishes and military standoffs. The Kashmir dispute is
the main centre-point of all of these conflicts with the exception of
the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971, which resulted in the secession
of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).
List of some insurgent attacks
Insurgents attack on Jammu and Kashmir State Assembly: A car
bomb exploded near the Jammu and Kashmir State Assembly on 1
October 2001, killing 27 people on an attack that was blamed on
Kashmiri separatists. It was one of the most prominent attacks
against India apart from on the Indian Parliament in December
2001. The dead bodies of the terrorists and the data recovered
from them revealed that Pakistan was solely responsible for the
activity.

1997 Sangrampora massacre: On 21 March 1997, 7 Kashmiri

Pandits were killed in Sangrampora village in
the Budgam district.

Wandhama Massacre: In January 1998, 24 Kashmiri

Pandits living in the city Wandhama were killed by nonsense
Islamic terrorists.

Qasim Nagar Attack: On 13 July 2003, armed men believed

to be a part of the Lashkar-e-Toiba threw hand grenades at the
Qasim Nagar market in Srinagar and then fired on civilians
standing nearby killing twenty-seven and injuring many more.

Assassination of Abdul Ghani Lone: Abdul Ghani Lone, a

prominent All Party Hurriyat Conference leader, was
assassinated by an unidentified gunmen during a memorial
rally in Srinagar. The assassination resulted in wide-scale
demonstrations against the Indian occupied-forces for failing to
provide enough security cover for Mr. Lone.

20 July 2005 Srinagar Bombing: A car bomb exploded near

an armoured Indian Army vehicle in the famous Church Lane
area in Srinagar killing four Indian Army personnel, one civilian
and the suicide bomber. Terrorist group Hizbul Mujahideen,
claimed responsibility for the attack.

Budshah Chowk attack: A terrorist attack on 29 July 2005

at Srinigar's city centre, Budshah Chowk, killed two and left
more than 17 people injured. Most of those injured were media
journalists.

Murder of Ghulam Nabi Lone: On 18 October 2005 suspected

man killed Jammu and Kashmir's then education minister
Ghulam Nabi Lone. No Terrorist group claimed responsibility for
the attack.
Insurgent activities elsewhere
The attack on the Indian Parliament was by far the most dramatic
attack carried out allegedly by Pakistani terrorists. India blamed
Pakistan for carrying out the attacks, an allegation which Pakistan
strongly denied and one that brought both nations to the brink of
a nuclear confrontation in 200102. However, international peace

efforts ensured the cooling of tensions between the two nuclearcapable nations.
Apart from this, the most notable was the hijacking of Indian
Airlines Flight IC 814 en route New Delhi from Kathmandu, Nepal.
The plane was hijacked on 24 December 1999 approximately one
hour after take off and was taken to Amritsar airport and then
to Lahore in Pakistan. After refueling the plane took off
for Dubai and then finally landed in Kandahar, Afghanistan. Under
intense media pressure, New Delhi complied with the hijackers'
demand and freed Maulana Masood Azhar from its captivity in
return for the freedom of the Indian passengers on the flight. The
decision, however, cost New Delhi dearly. Maulana, who is
believed to be hiding in Karachi, later became the leader of Jaishe-Mohammed, an organisation which has carried out several
terrorist acts against Indian security forces in Kashmir.
On 22 December 2000, a group of terrorists belonging to
the Lashkar-e-Toiba stormed the famous Red Fort in New Delhi.
The Fort houses an Indian military unit and a high-security
interrogation cell used both by the Central Bureau of
Investigation and the Indian Army. The terrorists successfully
breached the security cover around the Red Fort and opened fire
at the Indian military personnel on duty killing two of them on
spot. The attack was significant because it was carried out just
two days after the declaration of the cease-fire
between India and Pakistan.
In 2002, India claimed again that terrorists from Jammu and
Kashmir were infiltrating into India, a claim denied by Pakistan
President Pervez Musharraf, who claimed that such infiltration had
stoppedIndia's spokesperson for the External Affairs Ministry did
away with Pakistan's claim, calling it "terminological
inexactitude. Only two months later, two Kashmiri terrorists
belonging to Jaish-e-Mohammed raided the Swami Narayan
temple complex in Ahmadabad, Gujarat killing 30 people,
including 18 women and five children. The attack was carried out
on 25 September 2002, just few days after state elections were
held in Jammu and Kashmir. Two identical letters found on both

the terrorists claimed that the attack was done in retaliation for
the deaths of thousands of Muslims during the Gujarat riots.
Two car bombs exploded in south Mumbai on 25 August 2003; one
near the Gateway of India and the other at the famous Zaveri
Bazaar, killing at least 48 and injuring 150 people. Though no
terrorist group claimed responsibility for the attacks, Mumbai
Police and RAW suspected Lashkar-e-Toiba's hand in the twin
blasts.
In an unsuccessful attempt, six terrorists belonging to Lashkar-eToiba, stormed the Ajodhya Ram Janmbhomi complex on 5 July
2005. Before the terrorists could reach the main disputed site,
they were shot down by Indian security forces. One Hindu
worshipper and two policemen were injured during the incident.
The Indian intelligence agency RAW is claimed to be working in
cover to malign Pakistan and train & support insurgents
for Baluchistan conflict.

Conclusion
Whenever more than two states have to deal with an
issue, multilateral diplomacy is in demand. Globalization
has subsequently added new chapters to diplomacy.
Since the world has become smaller and the calls for
multilateral diplomacy have become louder, multilateral
diplomacy now stands in dire needs of improvement if it
is to reflect effectively our interdependent globalized
world. Since globalization is an international
development, international cooperation is required.
Global issues are diffuse and rest on the decisions and
behaviour of millions, if not billions, of people. To facilitate
technical cooperation, accelerate economic cooperation,
fight hunger, promote development assistance, foster
cultural relations, protect human rights, save the natural

environment, and to avoid wars are some of the

international problems that demand attention and need
to be dealt with on a permanent basis. Diplomacy in its
present configuration contributes to shaping the
international community. Diplomacy will continue to
contribute to establishing rules of international law. It
does so by a large network of communication that is used
by the players to protect the interest of their states.
Effective foreign public policy is the number one
requirement reflecting a move away from old style
foreign policy between governments to a new style of
multimedia and multi-parity international policy. The very
notion of security needs some serious re-thinking as a
basis for modern diplomacy. In addition, the pivotal role of
science and technology in modern international relations
requires different skill sets among diplomats and better
outreach by foreign services to other expertise,
government and non-government, than is the case now.
Governments must respond by changing the way they
practise diplomacy, offer development assistance, and
deploy force. This means making the new public
diplomacy a core foreign policy tool.