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ENGINEERING SURVEY 2
UNIT 1
TACHYMETRY
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
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INPUT
1.1
INTRODUCTION
The word tachymetry is derived from the Greek takhus metron meaning swift
measurement. It is a branch of surveying where height and distances between ground
marks are obtained by optical means only. An example of tachymetry method is the
stadia method. This method employs rapid optical means of measuring distance using a
telescope with cross hairs (Figure 1.1) and a stadia rod (one stadium = about 607 feet).
The distance between marks can be obtained without using a tape. The tachymeter is any
theodolite adapted, or fitted with an optical device to enable measurement to be made
optically.
Cross
Hair
reticle
i=
Stadia
Interval
Figure 1.1 Two Types of Stadia Hair
1.2
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1.3
TACHYMETRY SYSTEM
The alternatives of the tachymetry system are classified based on the basic
principles, which are:
a) Fixed angle:
1) The stadia system
i) Incline Sights With The Staff Vertical
ii) Incline Sights With The Staff Normal
b) Variable angle
1) tangential system vertical staff
2) subtence system horizontal staff
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The theodolite is a standard instrument in each case. It is modified to suit the conditions.
1.3.1
1.3.1.1
The stadia method of providing the horizontal distance between instrument and
staff is shown in Figure 1.4. This technique is always used in stadia tachymetry for
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engineering survey. The telescope consists of two centring tubes. The eyepiece and
diaphragm are built at the end of tube. Move the object glass which is built at the other
side when doing focusing.
When the telescope is in focus, the image of the staff AB will be formed at ab in
the plane of the diaphragm. Then a ray of light will emerge parallel to the optical axis
similarly with the ray from B as shown. The rays here will form two similar triangles
each with their apex at F, the base of the smaller triangle at the object glass being equal to
the stadia interval i.
Eyepiece
Diaphragm
Vertical
axis
Picket
Figure 1.4 Stadia Principle
(Source Land Surveying, Ramsay J.P. Wilson)
f --- the focal length of the object glass
F the outer focal point of the object glass
i --- the stadia interval ab
I--- the distance from the outer focal point to the staff
D---the horizontal distance required
s--- the staff intercept AB
c---the distance from object glass to instrument axis
From these similar triangles:
l
s
but l = D (f + c),
f
i
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D - (f
s
D (f
D
c)
f
i
f
s
i
c)
f
s (f
i
c)
The term f / i is a constant in the stadia formula and is known as the stadia or
multiplying constant and may be denoted by the letter K. The term ( f + c) partly of the
constant f and partly of the variable c, which varies as the object lens is moved in
focusing. However the variation in c is small, especially for sights greater than 10m, and
for all practical purposes may also be considered a constant. The term ( f + c), usually
about 300 to 450mm in this telescope, is known as the additive constant and may be
denoted by the letter C. This reduces the stadia formula to the simple linear equation:
1.3.1.2
Ks C
In order to save the labour of multiplying the staff intercept each time and the
adding the constant for the particular instrument, it would obviously be simpler if K were
to be 100 and C zero. This would provide a stadia formula of D = 100s and calculation
would merely consist of moving the decimal point of the staff intercept reading two
places to the right. Most of the vernier instruments still in use today do not have an
accurate K value of 100, but most modern tachymeters generally do. In 1840, the
elimination of the additive constant was achieved by an Italian, J. Porro, when he
invented the analactic lens. The inclusion of a second convex lens fixed in relation to the
object glass had the effect of bringing the apex of the measuring triangle, the analactic
point, into exact coincidence with the vertical axis of the instrument, as illustrated in
Figure 1.5.
Object glass
Diaphragm
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Analactic point
Analactic lens
Focus point
1.3.1.3
In most modern surveying telescopes the stadia constant is designed to be 100 and
the additive constant 0. To confirm the value of these constants or to establish the stadia
of an old or a new instrument, the following fieldwork should be carried out (Figure 1.6)
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b) Set out four pegs A, B, C, and D on that ground. AB is 100m, AC is 40m and AD
is 90m.
c) Set up the tachymeter over the peg at A and observe to a staff that held at C.
d) Not the staff intercepts.
e) Transfer the staff to D and note the staff intercepts.
Distance
40
90
Stadia Reading
Staff Intercept
1.620, 1.420,1.220
0.400
1.871,1.421,0.971
0.900
Table 1 Obsevation Data
( Source: Asas Ukur Kejuruteraan, Abdul Hamid Mohamed)
The observation data is shown in table 1. K and C can be calculate by using the
stadia formula, D = Ks + C. D is the distance between staff and the tachymeter, s stands
for staff intercept.
40 = 0.4 K + C ------------------------------ (1)
90 = 0.9 K + C ------------------------------ (2)
Now, we can solve the problem by using simultaneous equation.
(2) (1)
90 40 = 0.9 K 0.4 K
50 = 0.5 K
50
K
0.5
K = 100
Replace K =100 in (1)
40 = 0.4 ( 100) + C
C = 40 -40
C=0
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But
But
From the right angled triangle IXY can been seen that:
V = D sin
D = Ks cos + C
V = Ks cos sin + C sin
cos sin = sin 2
V = Ks sin 2 + C sin
In instruments where the additive constant is zero and K = 100, these formulae are
simplified as follows:
H = 100s cos2
V = (100/2) s sin 2
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To obtain the reduced level at the staff position where the reduced level of the
instrument station is known, the height difference between the points is applied as
follows:
Difference in height, dH = H. I. V h
Where
The reduced level of the instrument position I plus the difference in height equal
the reduced level of the staff position S. Therefore:
R.L.s = R.L.I + H.I V h
Example 1:
In this example, the value of hi cannot be seen on the rod due to some
obstruction. Here, a rod reading of 2.72 with a vertical angle of -6 37 was
booked, along with the h of 1.72 and a rod interval of 0.241., Calculate the
horizontal distance and the vertical distance. Then find the elevation for station 3.
Figure 1
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Solution:
H = 100s cos2
= 100 x 0.241 x cos2 6 37
= 23.8m
V = (100/2) s sin 2
= 100 s cos sin
= 100 x 0.241 x cos 6 37x sin 6 37
= -2.76m
R.L.3 = R.L.2 + H.I V h
= 185.16 + 1.72 +- 2.76 2.72
= 181.40
So, the elevation for station 3 is 181.40,
Figure 1.8 Incline Sight With The Staff Normal to The Line of Sight
(Source: Land Surveying, Ramsay J.P. Wilson)
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This time the staff reading normal to the line of sight is the actual reading and does not
have to be reduced as in the previous case. Therefore
D = Ks + C
But
H= D kos (the distance from point X to the vertical through the staff base)
H = (Ks + C) cos h sin
1.3.2.3
Comparison of Methods
Conditions
a) When
holding staff
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Conditions
b) Reduction
of
observation
c) Careless
staff holding
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The normal position may also be found by swinging the staff until the
lowest possible reading of the centre cross hair is obtained. However,
it is difficult to signal to the staff-man the correct position in the bush.
Staff Normal/Staff Vertical
The vertical staff reduction formulae are simpler than the normal
staff reduction formula when the h sin and h cos are included
in the normal formulae.
Errors of distance and elevation are very much more marked when
there is a deviation from the normal position especially on steep
sights.
The normal position may also be found by swinging the staff until the lowest
possible reading of the centre cross hair is obtained. However, it is difficult to signal to
the staff-man the correct position in the bush.
1.3.2 The Tangential System
In this system the paralactic angle subtended by a known length of staff is
measured directly. Figure 1.9 shows the method where observations are taken to an
ordinary levelling staff held vertically.
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calculated as:
AY = H tan
BY = H tan
AY BY = s
= H ( tan tan
H
or
s
(tan
tan )
s
(tan
tan )
The difference in height between the instrument station and the staff station is found as
follows :
Vertical component, V = BY = H tan
Height difference, dH = H.I V BX
Check : AY=H tan ( when dH = H.I. V AX)
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distance apart remains almost constant. The targets may be lit from behind for night
observations, which have the advantage of a less disturbed atmosphere resulting in
increased accuracy in the angular measurement.
s
cot
2
2
because half the bar length divided by the perpendicular sector of the isosceles triangle of
half the measured angle . Usually the bar is 2m long to simplify the calculation. So
From the figure above, it can be seen that the horizontal distance H
cot
If height differences between theodolite and bar stations are required then a
vertical angle must be measured to the line of the bar and the vertical component
calculated from the formula V = H tan (figure 1.11). The height of the theodolite above
its station (Hi) and the height of the bar above its station (Hb) must be measured. Then
the height difference between stations X and Y(dH XY) is shown as below:
dH = Hi V Hb
where Hi = Height of the theodolite
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V = vertical component
Hb = Height of substance bar
So, the reduced level of the staff position Y, RL x = RL Y + dHXY
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Activity 1a
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Feedback 1a
1.1 Tachymetry means swift measurement where height and distances between
ground marks are obtained by optical means only.
1.2 The tachymetry measurements are based on the common principle of the isosceles
triangle. The perpendicular bisector of the base is directly proportional to the
length of this base. If the base length and paralactic angle are known, then the
length of the perpendicular bisector can be calculated.
1.3
From equation D = Ks + C
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f
s (f
i
c)
fs
D ( f c)
230 (2.185 1.073 )
112 .489 (0.230 0.150 )
230(1.100)
112.48 0.380
= 2.3 mm
i
f 230
i
2.3
C = f +c
= 230+150
= 380mm
Therefore, K
100
1.4
In the stadia system, the apex angle of the measuring triangle is defined by the
stadia hairs on the telescope diaphragm. The base length is obtained by observing
the intersection of the stadia hairs on the image of the measuring staff seen in the
telescopes field or view. The tangential system in which the apex angle
subtended by a basic of known length is accurately measured, usually with the
single-second theodolite. In order to obtain the distance between instrument and
base, the tangent of the angle or angles observed must be used in the calculation.
Well done. You have done a good job!!
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INPUT
1.4
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j) Read the upper hair, determine the rod interval, and enter the value in the
notes.
k) Sight the main horizontal hair precisely on the h value.
l) Wave off the rod holder on point a, point b and point c.
m) Read and book the horizontal angle and the vertical angle from station 2 to
points a, b and c. Try to take as many details as possible.
n) Check the zero setting for the horizontal angle before moving the instrument
to station 3.
o) Repeat step d to m for observation at station 3(3-d, 3-e,3-f) , station 4 (4-g,4h,4-i) and station1(1-j).
p) Finally reduce the notes (compute horizontal distances and elevation) after
field hours and check the reductions.
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ENGINEERING SURVEY 2
Station and
Instrument
Height
Station 2
1.542m
Horizontal
Angle ()
Vertical
angle
Middle
Stadia
reading
50 23 00
+88 31
0.6m
343 25 00
-92 32
0.5m
342 57 00
- 96 36
0.4m
357 00 00
-96 20
0.8m
305 31 00
-94 28
1.2m
214 16 00
-94 37
1.2m
220 37 00
-94 05
1.3m
250 36 00
-94 06
1.3m
255 26 00
-94 23
1.3
Stadia
reading
(a upper
reading)
b- lower
reading)
a- 0.890
b- 0.310
a- 0.551
b- 0.449
a-0.454
b-0.346
a-0.837
b- 0.763
a-1.242
b-1.548
a- 1.230
b- 1.170
a- 1.326
b- 1.274
a- 1.334
b- 1.266
a- 1.323
b- 1.277
Horizontal
Length
H = Ks
Cos2-C
Vertical
difference
V=(Ks Sin
2)/2 - sin
Difference
in Height
H = Hi
V-h
Reduced
level of
station
Reduced
level of
point
57.961m
1.501m
2.443m
100
102.443m
10.068m
-1.153m
-0.111m
99.889m
10.657m
-1.233m
-0.091m
99.909m
7.340m
-0.811m
-0.069m
99.931m
8.353m
-0.652m
-0.310m
99.690m
5.961m
-0.481m
-0.139m
99.861m
5.174m
-0.369m
-0.127m
99.873m
6.765m
-0.485m
-0.243m
99.757m
d-tree (radius2.7m)
e- beside
drainage
f- beside
drainage
g- lamp post
4.573m
--0.351m
-0.109m
99.891m
h- road side
Remarks
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1.5
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with the length of sight. The obvious solution is to limit the length of sight
to ensure a good resolution of the graduations.
Error in the determination of the instrument constants K1 and K2, resulting
in an error in distance directly proportional to the error in the constant K1
and directly as the error in K2.
Effect of differential refraction on the stadia intercepts. This is minimized
by keeping the lower reading 1 to 1.5m above the ground.
Random error in the measurement of the vertical angle. This has a
negligible effect on the staff intercept and consequently on the horizontal
distance.
In addition to the above sources of error, there are many others resulting from
instrumental errors, failure to eliminate parallax, and natural errors due to high winds and
summer heat. The lack of statistical evidence makes it rather difficult to quote standards
of accuracy; however, the usual treatment for small errors will give some basis for
assessment.
1.5.2 Errors in elevations
The main sources of error in elevation are errors in vertical angles and additional
errors rising from errors in the computed distance. Figure 1.13 clearly shows that whilst
the error resulting from errors in vertical angles remains fairly constant, the results from
additional errors rising from errors in the computed distance increases with increased
elevation.
H D tan
H
D tan
D sec2
H
H
D tan
0.48 tan 5
D sec2
200 sec2 5
2 1/ 2
0.046
This result indicates that elevation need be quoted only to the nearest 10mm.
Accuracies of 1 in 1000 may still be achieved in tachymetry traversing, due to the
compensating effect of accidental errors, reciprocal observation of the lines and a general
increase in care.
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1.6
PLOTTING
After the field observations, the collected data must now be processed. The
traverse closure is calculated and then all adjusted values for northing, easting and
elevations are computed manually or by computer programs. After that, the data is
processed by using software such as TRPS and Autocad. All the details can be plotted the
following way.
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Revisions to the plan are usually referenced immediately above the title
block, showing the date and a brief description of the revision.
The title block is often of standard size and has a format similar to that in
figure 2.4.
All the drawings on tracing paper are done manually by using the
technical pens with Indian ink or by using AutoCad software.
The size of the technical pen is determined based on texts and lines
required in a drawing.
Grid value
Direction
Scale
Logo client
Plan number
Plan title
Datum explanation
Legend
Explanation of observation, Land Survey
Firm, Name of surveyor, date, plan reference
number and others.
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1.7
APPLICATION
This method is easy to apply in the field, but unless a direct-reading tachymeter is
used, the resultant computation for many spot-shots can be extremely tedious, even with
the use of a computer program. The very low order of accuracy and its short range limit
its application to detail surveys in rural areas or contouring.
1.7.1 Detail Survey
The theodolite is set up at a control station A ( Figure 1.18) and oriented to any
other control station (RO) with the horizontal circle set to 0 00. Thereafter the bearings
(relative to ARO) and horizontal length to each point of detail (P1, P2, P3, etc) are
obtained by observing the stadia readings on a staff held there, the horizontal circle
reading ( 1, 2, 3, etc) and the vertical angle. The cross hair-reading is also required to
compute the reduced level of the point.
The field data is booked as shown in table 2.1. Note that the angles are required to the
nearest minute or arc only. It is worth noting that the staff-man should be the most
experienced member of the survey party who would appreciate the error sources, the limit
accuracy available and thus the best and most economic staff positions required.
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At station
A
Grid ref E 400, N300
Weather Cloudy,cool
Staff
point
RO
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Angles observed
HoriVertical
Vertical
zontal
circle
angle
0 00
P1
4812
9520
-520
P2
8002
9340
-340
P3
10756
8320
Staff
readings
+640
1.942
1.404
0.866
0.998
0.640
0.281
1.610
1.216
0.822
Staff
intercept
Horizontal
Distance
Ks cos2
Vertical
Angle
K/2 s sin
2
V
Reduced
level
Ax V-h
Remarks
Station B
Edge of
pond
1.076
106.67
-9.96
20.54
0.717
71.41
-4.58
26.68
Edge of
pond
0.788
77.74
+9.09
39.77
Edge of
pond
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1.7.2 Contouring
Contouring is carried out exactly the same manner as above, but with many more
spot shots along each radial arm (Figure 1.19). The arms are turned off at regular angular
intervals, with the staff man obtaining levels at regular paced intervals along each arm
and at each distinct change in gradient. Subsequent computation of the field data will fix
the position and level of each point along each arm, which may then be interpolated for
contours.
Direct-Reading Tachymeters
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There are other makes of instruments which have different methods of deriving at
the solution. However, the objective remains the same-to eliminate computation. It
should be noted that there is no improvement in accuracy.
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Activity 1b
1.5 List down 5 steps that are needed to produce a topographic map.
1.6 The following observations were taken with a tachymeter, having constants of
100 and zero, from point A to B and C. The distance BC was measured as 157m.
Assuming the ground to be a plane within the triangle ABC, calculate the horizontal
distance and vertical distance for AB.
At
A
To
B
C
Vertical Angle
+ 7 36
-5 24
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Feedback 1b
1.5 There are 5 steps to produce a topographic map.
a) Plotting Control Station
b) Details plotting
c) Contours
d) Preparation of title block on tracing paper.
e) Final drawing
1.6 Horizontal distance AB = 100 x S cos2
= 100 x (3.98 1.48) cos2 7 36
= 246 m
Vertical distance AB = 246 tan 7 36
= +32.8m
1.7 There are three kind of errors:
a) Careless staff holding. This is minimized by using staff bubbles.
b) Error in reading the stadia intercepts. This source of error will increase with
the length of sight. The obvious solution is to limit the length of sight to
ensure good resolution of the graduations.
c) Effect of differential refraction on the stadia intercepts. This is minimized by
keeping the lower reading 1 to 1.5m above the ground.
1.8 Establish 4 control stations (station 1, station 2, station 3 and station 4) by using
wooden pegs.
Implement horizontal control networks on each. Record the data in a field book.
After that, implement the levelling process to get the elevation of each station.
Record the observations in the field book.
Now, use either stadia tachymetry method or stadia electronic method to set the
theodolite over station 2.
Measure the height of the theodolite at station 2 as Hi2 with a steel tape.
Set the horizontal circle to zero.
Sight the reference station (Station 1) at 000.
Sight the stadia point to Station 3 by loosening the clamp (clamp is tight).
Sight the main horizontal hair roughly on the value of h, then move the lower hair
to the closest even foot (decimeter) mark.
Read the upper hair, determine the rod interval, and enter the value in the notes.
Sight the main horizontal hair precisely on the h value.
Wave off the rod holder on point a, point b and point c.
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Read and book the horizontal angle and the vertical angle from station 2 to points
a, b and c. Try to take as many details as possible.
Check the zero setting for the horizontal angle before moving the instrument to
station 3.
Repeat step d to m for observation at station 3(3-d, 3-e,3-f) , station 4 (4-g,4-h,4-i)
and station1(1-j).
Finally reduce the notes (compute horizontal distances and elevation) after field
hours and check the reductions.
Figure 2
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Self Assessment
1)
2)
A line of third order levelling is run by theodolite, using tachymetry methods with
a staff held vertically. The usual three staff readings of centre and both stadia
hairs are recorded together with the vertical angle (VA). A second value of height
difference is found by altering the telescope elevation and recording the new
readings by the vertical circle and centre hair only.
The two values of the height differences are then meaned. Compute the difference
in height between the points A and B from the following data:
The stadia constant are :multiplying constant =100; additive constant = 0.
Backsights
Staff
Foresights
Staff
Remarks (all
VA
VA
measurements in m)
+ 0 02 00
1.890
1.417
Point A
0.945
+0 02 00
1.908
-0 18 00
3.109
2.012
0.914
Point B
0 00 00
3.161
(height difference between the two ends of theodolite ray = 100s cos sin , where s=
stadia intercept and = VA)
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3)
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The rod reading made to coincide with the value of the hi, is typical of 90 percent
of all stadia measurements. In figure 1, the vertical angle is + 1 36 and the rod
interval is 0.401. Both the rod hi and the rod reading (R.R.) are 1.72m. Calculate
the horizontal distance and the vertical distance. Then find the elevation for
station 2.
.
Figure 2
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Station
and
instrument
height
Station
4
1.417
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4)
5)
The table below shows a tachymetry stadia field booking. Complete the table
below and calculate elevation of each point.
Horizontal
Angle
()
Vertical
angle
Middle
Stadia
reading
a upper
reading
b- lower
reading
Horizont
al Length
H = 100s
Cos2-C
Vertical
difference
V=100s
cos sin
Reduced
level
of station
Reduced
level
of point
Remarks
10.417
45 51'
-90 18
3.100
17018
-98 48
1.120
12021
87 46
2.202
3.301
2.900
1.252
1.000
2.475
2.100
Beside
road
Lamp post
Centre
line
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Staff
1)
Theodolite
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Check Reading
V = 50 (0.945) sin 0 40 00
= 0.550m
Difference in level from instrument axis = 0.550 -1.980
= -1.358
Mean = 1.360m
To B, V = 50 (3.109-0.914) sin -0 36 00
= -1.149m
Difference in level from instrument axis = -1.149-2.012
= -3.161
Check level = -3.161
Mean = - 3.161m
Difference in level AB = -3.161+1.360
= -1.801m
3)
H= 100s cos2
= 100 x 0.401 x cos2 1 36
= 40.1m
V = (100/2) s sin 2
= 100 s cos sin
= 100 x 0.401 x cos 1 36x sin 1 36
= +1.12m
R.L.2 = R.L.1 + H.I V h
= 185.16 + 1.72 +1.12 1.72
= 186.28
So, the elevation for station 2 is 186.28.
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4)
Figure 1
From basic equation,
CD = 100s cos2
190.326m = 100 s cos2 25
s = 2.316m
HJ = s cos2 25
= 2.316 * cos2 25
= 2.1m
From figure 1,
Inclined distance
2
CE = CD sec cos2 25
2.1
rad 0 34'23"
210
0 17'11"
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=2.316
(Check)
From which it is obvious that the a) Upper reading = (2.292 +1.161) = 3.453
b) Lower raeding = (2.292 1.155) = 1.137
Vertical Height DE
=h
= CD tan 25
= 190.326 tan 25
= 88.749( as above)
ENGINEERING SURVEY 2
C 2005 / 1 / 45
5)
Station
and
instrument
height
Station
4
1.417
Horizontal
Angle
()
Vertical
angle
Middle
Stadia
reading
a upper
reading
b- lower
reading
Horizont
al Length
H = 100s
Cos2-C
Vertical
difference
V=100s
cos sin
Reduced
level
of
station
Reduced
level
of point
Remarks
10.417
45 51'
-90 18
3.100
17018
-98 48
1.120
12021
87 46
2.202
3.301
2.900
1.252
1.000
2.475
2.100
40.099
0.210
8.524
a- Beside
road
24.610
3.810
6.904
b -Lamp
post
37.443
1.460
11.092
c-Center line