INTERRELATINGWITHANIMALS:NONHUMANSELVESINTHELITERARYIMAGINATION

BY

JOANNEMIEREK

THESIS

Submittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirements
forthedegreeofMasterofScienceinLibraryandInformationScience
intheGraduateCollegeofthe
UniversityofIllinoisatUrbanaChampaign,2010

Urbana,Illinois

Adviser:

AssistantProfessorKateWilliams

ABSTRACT

Childrensliteratureisfullofanimalcharacterswidelyunderstoodtobesymbolic

humans.Theyarebelievedtoprovidethereaderwithacombinationofdelightandthe
neutralityandemotionaldistanceconsiderednecessaryfornavigatingvariousstagesof
maturationorcomplexandchargedsocialissues.Inthispaper,Iaskwhetheranimal
charactersmaysometimesbeunderstoodasanimalselves,andnotassymbolic
humans.Interestintheselfhoodofnonhumananimalshasbeengaininggroundin
academicdebatesinthefieldsofanimalandcognitivescience,philosophyofmind,and
anthropology,resultingintheoreticalworkthatpaintsanintriguingpictureofwhat
animalselvesmightconsistofandhowwemayalreadyknowthoseselves.Asthe
foundationforthisstudyofcontemporarychildrensbookswithanimalcharacters,
selectedcurrenttheoryisreviewed,beginningwithanintroductionofbasicconcepts
andincludingLeslieIrvinesCoreSelfelementsandNuritBirdDavidsRelational
Epistemology.Currentthinkingonthefunctionandroleofanimalsinchildrens
literatureisbrieflydiscussed.Thestudyitselfisdesignedtodistinguishpatternsin
animalcharacterizationinordertobuildonJohnAndrewFishersframeworkforthe
disambiguationofanthropomorphism,atermreferringtothecommonpractice,often
consideredacategoricalfallacy,ofattributinghumanlikecharacteristics(including
selfhood)tononhumans.Fisherrecognizestwobroadtypesofanthropomorphic
attributionthathecallsInterpretiveandImaginative,thelatterfoundinworksofthe
imagination.Thepresentstudyconsistedofasurveyandanalysisof46contemporary

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childrensbookswithdomesticanimalcharacters,developedusingcriteriafromthe
theoreticalconceptspresentedonanimalselfhood.Significantdifferenceswerefound
inthosecharactersportrayedasclothedand/orbipedalandthosepresentedmore
naturalistically,intheactivitiesengagedin,andinthecharactersvoices,suggestingat
leasttwobroadapproachesbyauthorsandillustratorstoanimalcharacters,here
labeledsymbolichumanandanimalself.

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

INTRODUCTION.1
CHAPTER1:WHATAREANIMALSELVESANDHOWDOWEKNOWTHEM?.3
CHAPTER2:ANTHROPOMORPHISMANDTHELITERARYIMAGINATION..14
CHAPTER3:CASESTUDY:ANIMALSELVESINCHILDRENSLITERATURE19
ANNOTATEDBIBLIOGRAPHYOFCORESOURCES25
APPENDIXA:SURVEYSAMPLE.51

iv

INTRODUCTION

Nonhumananimalsfascinateus.Theyhaveappearedinartandstories

throughouttimeandacrossmosthumancultures(Boyd,2007;DastonandMitman,
2005).Inourstoriesandart,particularlyinchildrensliterature,fantasy,andfolktales,
weourselvestransformintootheranimals,wecommunicatewiththem;weevenmarry
them,livewiththem,andlearnfromthem.Thereisasenseofalargercommunityof
beingsofwhichweareonepartandinwhichwetakedelight.

Butthereisanothersidetoourrelationshipwithnonhumananimals,especially

inthemodernWesternworld.Overthelast150years,inresponsetoEuroAmerican
industrializationpracticesandsomeaspectsofempiricallaboratoryinvestigation,a
steadilygrowingconcernforanimalwelfareandanimalrightshasarisen(Irvine,2004;
Wynne,2004).Increasinglywearecomingtounderstandthatouractionsinpursuitof
perceivedhumangoalshaveresultedinthedevastationofournaturalenvironment,
includingwildanimalhabitatsandpopulations.Animalswehavedomesticatedoften
farenobetter.

Inhisinfluential1967articleforSciencemagazineTheHistoricalRootsofour

EcologicCrisis,historianLynnWhite,Jr.tracesthefusionofwesternscienceand
technologyanddiscussestheprofoundinfluenceofChristianaxiomsonthescientists,in
particulartheaxiomthatnoiteminthephysicalcreationhadanypurposesaveto
servemanspurposes.(1205)Thesetrendscombined,accordingtoWhite,tocreate
ourmodernecologiccrisis.Heconcludesthatapplyingmoretechnologywillnotsolve

currentecologicalproblemsoravoidfuturebacklashes.Wemusttracerootcausesby
rethinkingouroldreligionandideasaboutourrelationshipwiththenaturalworld.

Inthispaper,Ihopetocontributetotheefforttorethinkourhumanrelationship

withnonhumancreaturesbyoutliningrelevantscholarshipinthescienceofmind,
philosophy,literature,andinanthropologythatpointtoawayofengagingwithour
environmentandwiththenonhumananimalswhoshareitwithus.Thiswayisoneof
relationship;ithasancientroots,affordsknowledgeandunderstanding,andmaybe
foundintheWestinworksoftheimaginationincludingliteratureandartaswellasin
everydaycommonsense.
Iambeginningfromthepremisethatanimalsareselvesinmanyoftheways
thatweare;thatcapacitiessuchasemotionalexpressionandcognitiveprocessingare
presentinnonhumananimalsinwaysbothsimilartoanddistinctfromourown,and
thatwecanunderstandandrelatewithindividualanimalselvesinwaysthatarenot
dependentonlanguageAspartofmyanalysis,Iwillpresentfindingsfromasurveyof
animalcharactersinasmallsampleofmodernchildrensfiction,nonfiction,andpoetry.
AsIwillshow,animalcharactersarepresentedintwobroadways,whichIamcalling
symbolichumanandanimalself.Theyaredistinguishedbyphysicalpresentation,
charactervoice,andbytheactivitiesengagedin.Theimaginativedevelopmentof
naturalisticanimalprotagonistsmayitselfbeinformedbythedirectexperienceand
knowledgeofanimalselves.


CHAPTER1
WHATAREANIMALSELVESANDHOWDOWEKNOWTHEM?

Twotheoriesofanimalselfhoodexistingintherealworldareintroducedinthis

chapterafterabriefcontextualdiscussionofevolutionarycontinuity.Thefirst,
sociologistLeslieIrvinesCoreSelfelements,stemsfromherworkwithdomesticpet
animals,especiallycatsanddogs.Thesecondhasbeendevelopedfromscholarshipin
animism,ananthropologicaldescriptorforawayofbeingthatisaliveandopentoa
worldincontinuousbirth.(Ingold2006,9)

CONTINUITY
CharlesDarwinstheoryofnaturalselectionimpliescrossspeciescontinuity;that
is,thedifferencesbetweenhumansandotheranimals,andamonganimalspecies,are
ofdegreeandnotkind.Darwinwrotein1871ofnumberlessgradationsseparatingall
animals.1Theanimalsoftheearthareunderstoodtobekinduetosharedevolutionary
ancestry.Indeed,biological,physiological,andgeneticcontinuityiswidelyassumed.
Currentunderstandingofanimaltaxonomyandtheapplicationofexperimentalresults
fromanimalstopeoplerelyonthisassumption.

1SeeTheDescentofManandSelectioninRelationtoSex.NewYork:TheModern

Library,[1936].

Theassumptionofmentalorpsychologicalcontinuitybetweenhumansand
otheranimals,althoughsimilarlyimpliedbynaturalselection,iscontroversial,justas
biologicalcontinuitywas(andstillis,forsome).Uncomfortablefeelingsaboutspecies
ambiguityandthedemotionofhumanbeingsareprovoked.Becausementaland
psychologicalcapacitiesaredifficulttomeasureempiricallyeveninverbalhumans,
attemptstodosoinnonverbalanimalsappearsabsurdandimpossibletomany.
Despitetheseobstacles,Darwinhimselfpracticed,inpart,whathascometobe
calledanecdotalcognitivism;hedescribedmanyinstancesoftheexpressionofmental
andemotionalcapacitiesintheanimalsheobserved.Forexample,Dastonquotesfrom
TheDescentofManDarwinsobservationthatadoghasimaginationasshewnbyhis
dreams(45)ThoughmorecriticalthanDarwinofanecdotalcognitivism,disciple
GeorgeRomanescollected,classified,andpublishedanecdotes(AllenandBekoff,1997)
inwhichheincludes,forexample,observationsofmaternalandmischievousfeelingsin
monkeys.

Theideaofcontinuitybetweenhumansandotheranimalshasgeneratedan

ongoinginterestanddebateaboutboundariesbetweenspecies,aboutkinship,and
particularlyaboutwhatitisthatmakesushuman.Manyofthetwentiethcenturys
findingsofanimalstudiesscientistsinbehavior,languageacquisitionanduse,and
geneticshavechallengedspeciesclassificationsandassumptionsaboutthecapacitiesof
nonhumananimals.Chimpanzeesmakeandusetools,elephantsreturnrepeatedlyto
siteswherecloserelativeshavedied,anddolphinscoordinatehuntingactivityand
communicatewitheachotherusingcomplexsystemsofsound.Itisbecomingmore

apparentthatunderstandingthesimilaritiesanddifferencesamonghumansandother
animalsiscomplicated,dependingontheanimalinquestionandthecapacityunder
investigation.
PsychologistCliveD.L.WynnehasproposedwhathecallstheSimilarity
Sandwichinordertoframetheissueofcrossspeciescontinuityinahelpfulway.Likea
sandwich,therearethreelayers.Thebottom,orbread,layerasksthequestion,whatis
different?Wynneobservesthatallspeciesaredistinguishable,thatspecificsensory
abilities(batsonar,dogssenseofsmell,eaglesfovia)varywidelyacrossspecies
affectingperceptionandexperience.

Aboveallthiswonderfuldiversity,thewhirring,humming,perceiving,reacting

multiplicityofanimalnature,isanothermorepeacefullayer.(228229)Themiddle
layer,thepeanutbutterandjelly,describeswhatisshared.Wynnelistscognitive
capacitieswhichseemtobecommontoawiderangeofspeciesandtooperatein
similarways.(6)Theseincludeasenseoftime,number,samedifferent,navigation,
learning,somekindsofmemory,andproblemsolving.

Thetoplayeridentifieswhatisnearlyuniqueinhumans.HereWynneincludes
sophisticatedlanguageabilitiesandasenseofindependentselfawarenessasthose
capacitiesthatdistinguishusmostclearlyfromotheranimals.

ANIMALCORESELFANDINTERSUBJECTIVITY

AccordingtosociologistLeslieIrvine,whohasworkedextensivelywithdomestic

companiondogsandcats,animalshavethecapacityfortheelementsofacoreselfthat

enablesthemtoparticipateinrelationshipswithus.Interactionswithinallofour
relationshipsconsistoftwosimultaneousprocesses.First,theselfoftheotheris
revealedtousthroughtheiractionsandresponsesandsecond,wereceiveconfirmation
ofourownself.Althoughhumandevelopmentaddsastrongverbaldimensionto
selfhood,thecoreselfthatwesharewithotheranimals,whichdoesnotdependon
language,allowsthisprocesstooccurinrelationshipswiththem.So,forexample,when
potentialadopterscometoananimalshelter,theyoftendecideonaparticularanimal,
whichmaynotbetheanimaltheadopterwasoriginallylookingfor,basedona
connectionthatIrvineconcludesisacompatibilityofcoreselves.

IrvineborrowsWilliamJamesfouraspectsofIandrefinedbystudieswith

preverbalinfants.2Theyareagency,orasenseofcontrol,coherence,orindividual
integrity,affectivity,orthecapacityforemotion,andselfhistoryormemory.Irvine
describesthislastelementasconnectingtheselftogetherintoanindividualsubjectivity.
Thecoreselfhasafunctionalaspectbasedongoalsandactionsandanexperiential
aspectallowingustoknowandtofeel.Thesecoexistingaspectsinformeachotherand
arepartofthedevelopmentofthespecificcoreselfelementsinindividuals.

Evidenceforagencyindogs,accordingtoIrvine,canbefound,forexample,in
behaviortraininginwhichdogsarebeingtaughttoexerciseselfcontrol.Theimplication
oftheabilitytocontrolonesbehavioristhatonemusthaveameasureofvolitionor

2Inparticular,Irvineliststhesesources:James,William.ThePrinciplesof

Psychology.[1890]NewYork:Dover,1950;Myers,Gene.ChildrenandAnimals:
SocialDevelopmentandOurConnectionstoOtherSpecies.Boulder,Colo.:Westview
Press,1998;Stern,DanielN.TheInterpersonalWorldoftheInfant:AViewFrom
PsychoanalysisandDevelopmentalPsychology.NewYork:BasicBooks,1985.

will.Catsinitiateinteractionswithpeopletoachievegoalssuchasfood,companionship,
orplay,oftenbyinterferinginhumanactivities.Indicatorsofasenseofnonverbal
coherenceincludeactionsthatprotectbodilyintegritysuchashiding.Affectivitycanbe
understoodtomeanbothindividualfeelings,likehappinessorgrief,andbodilyvitality
affects,throughwhichweoftenrecognizetheindividualfeelingsofothers.Selfhistory
turnsinteractionsintorelationships.

Sharingthoughts,intentions,andfeelingswithanimalsdoesnotdependon

language;thatis,althoughtheabilitytotalkabouttherelationshipdoesrelyon
language,theabilitytohaveitdoesnt.Withanimals,thoughtscanbeunderstoodas
thefocusofattentionthroughvocalizingoreyecontact,aswhenadogchecksinor
glancesatthedoorortheleashorthefooddish.Thebestexamplesofsharedintentions
betweenguardiansandanimalscomefromplayactivitieswithdogsandcats(especially
kittens)becausecommunicatingintentioncreatesthenecessarycontextforthe
behavior.AccordingtoAllenandBekoff:
Tosolvetheproblemsthatmightbecausedby,forexampleconfusing
playformatingorfighting,manyspecieshaveevolvedsignalsthat
functiontoestablishandmaintainamoodorcontextforplay.Inmost
speciesinwhichplyhasbeendescribed,playsolicitingsignalsappearto
fostersomesortofcooperationbetweenplayerssothateachresponds
totheotherinawayconsistentwithplayanddifferentfromthe
responsesthesameactionswouldelicitinothercontexts.(9899)

Mostpeoplewhospendtimewithanimalsbelievethemtobesensitivetoemotional
states.IrvinerelatesthefamousexampleofCleverHans,thecelebratedcountinghorse:
CleverHanslivedinBerlinintheearlytwentiethcentury.Hebecamea
celebrityforhispurportedabilitytosolvemathematicalproblems.His
ownerwouldaskhimforthesumoftwonumbers,andHanswouldgive
theanswersbystrokinghishoofontheground.Manypeoplesuspected
fraudandaccusedHansownerofgivingthehorsecuesforwhentostop
stompinghishoof...(Arigorousinvestigationdiscovered)thatHanswas
indeedrespondingtocues,butofasortdifferentfromwhatanyone
expected...Hanswaspickingupsubtle,unintentionalcuesfromthe
peoplearoundhim,whoimperceptiblyrelaxedorquietlyexhaledwhen
hereachedthecorrectanswer.(158)
Irvinearguesthattheunderstandingofemotionalstatesobservedinanimalshasboth
aninstinctiveaffectcontagionaspectandisasocialnecessity.Theinterplayofthese
aspectsacrossspeciesthataremoreorlesssocialmayhelptoexplaindifferences,for
exampleincommunicationstylesandmodes,betweendogsandcats.

Whydowehaveactiverelationshipswithanimals?Irvinereviewsvarious

answerstothissuchasthewilltodominanceorthatanimalsaresurrogatepeople
standinginfordeficienthumanrelationships.Becausetheyrefertosinglecauses,she
findsthemlacking.Animals,accordingtoIrvine,helptoconstructandmaintainwho
weare.Ouridentitiesarefluidandinteractive.Wedevelopandultimatelythriving
throughintersubjectiveinteractionswithothersentientbeings.


ANIMISTPERSONHOODANDRELATIONALEPISTEMOLOGY

EdwardTylor,consideredthefatherofanthropology,coinedthetermanimism

inthelatenineteenthcenturyfromseventeenthcenturyalchemistGeorgE.Stahls
anima,usedtorefertothevitalizingelementoflife.AccordingtoTylor,animismisa
ubiquitousandprimitivedelusion,definitiveofreligion,andacategoryerrorthatcould
stillbefoundinthemodernspiritualismofhisday.Tylorwasinterestedintheoriginsof
religionand,usingsecondhandaccountsfromnewlycolonizedindigenouslands,
developedhisideasthatreligionandreligiousperspectivesaremythopoeticandlearned
mistakesabouttheworld.3

Definitionsofanimismchangedverylittlethroughmuchofthetwentieth

century,despitericherandbroaderdatasets.Scholarscontinuedtoattributeanimistic
beliefsandpracticestochildisherror,fancifulinterminglingofcorrectrepresentations
ofthingswithmysticaltales,projectionsofinternalprocesses,orasareasonablebut
mistakenperceptualsurvivalstrategy(BirdDavid,1999;Harvey,2006).
However,animistpracticesandconceptionsoftheworldareincreasinglybeing
reexaminedbywesternscholarsinfluencedbychangesinthesovereigntyand
subsequentselfdefinitionofindigenouspeopleandbyanewacademictendency
towardsdialogueandagrowingrespectfordiversity...metwithadegreeof
uncertaintyaboutmodernityspreferenceforobjectivityoversubjectivity(whichhas)

3SeeTylor,EdwardB.PrimitiveCulture:ResearchesintotheDevelopmentof

Mythology,Philosophy,Religion,Language,ArtandCustoms.NewYork:H.Holtand
Co.,1874.

resultedinahostofnewconversationsbetweenacademicsandothers.(Harvey,205)
Amongthefruitfulareasofinvestigationarepersonhoodconcepts(Irvine,BirdDavid)
andecologicalperception(BirdDavid,Ingold).
In1960,notedanthropologistA.IrvingHallowellpublishedOjibwaOntology,
Behavior,andWorldViewinwhichhebeginstodescribewhathascometobeknown
asthenewanimism.4Theconceptofpersonhoodiscentraltothisunderstanding.
AccordingtotheOjibwe,theworldisfullofpeople,onlysomeofwhom
arehuman.However,itisamistaketoseethisasaprojectionor
attributionofhumanlikenessorlifelikenessontoinanimateobjects.
Whiletheydodistinguishbetweenpersonsandobjects,theOjibwealso
challengeEuropeannotionsofwhatapersonis.Tobeapersondoesnot
requirehumanlikeness,butratherhumansarelikeotherpersons.
Personsisthewidercategory,beneathwhichtheremaybelistedsub
groupssuchashumanpersons,rockpersons,bearpersons,and
others.Personsarerelatedbeingsconstitutedbytheirmanyandvarious
interactionswithothers.Personsarewillfulbeingswhogainmeaningand
powerfromtheirinteractions.Personsaresociablebeingswho
communicatewithothers.(Harvey,1718)

Hallowellcoinedthetermotherthanhumanpersonstodescribenonhuman

membersofthislargerpersonhoodcategory.

4SeeDiamond,Stanley.CultureinHistory:EssaysinHonorofPaulRadin.NewYork:

ColumbiaUniversityPress,1960,pp.1952.

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Theanimismthatinformsthisviewofpersonhoodisfoundmoreofteninthe
eldersofagroupthaninthechildren.Thisisbecauseitmustbetaughtandlearnedasit
involvesdevelopingtheskillsofbeingintheworldwithotherthings,makingones
awarenessofonesenvironmentandonesselffiner,broader,deeper,richer.(Bird
David,S7778)Attention,openness,interaction,communication,(BirdDavid,Harvey,
Ingold,Brown,1992)andhumility(Brown)aresomeoftheskillsthatmustbedeveloped
overalifetime.
IsraelianthropologistNuritBirdDavidmadeamorerecentcontributiontothe
conceptofnewanimismwiththepublication,in1999,ofAnimismRevisited:
Personhood,Environment,andRelationalEpistemology.Afterreviewingthemajor
anthropologicalliteratureonanimism,BirdDavidintroducesDevaru,aconcept,
enigmatictopositivistthought,usedbySouthIndianNayakapeopletodescribe
beings/personswithwhomtheyregularlyrelate.Devaruisaspecificexample,according
toBirdDavid,ofHallowellsotherthanhumanpersons.Theyareneitherspiritbeings
norsupernatural(aboveoroutsidenature),butareunderstoodbytheNayakatoreally
existintheworld.
BirdDavidborrowsthetermdividual5tocointheverbtodividuate.Adividual
isonewhoisacompositeofrelationshipsandisnotaseparateentitysetagainstother
boundedentities.Nonhumanpersonsaresimplyotherdividualsdefinedanddescribed
throughtheirrelationships.

5SeeStrathern,M.TheGenderoftheGift:ProblemswithWomenandProblemswith

SocietyinMelanesia.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1988.

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WhenIindividuateahumanbeingIamconsciousofherinherself[asa
single,separateentity],whenIdividuateherIamconsciousofhowshe
relateswithme.ThisisnottosaythatIamconsciousoftherelationship
withherinitself,asathing.RatherIamconsciousoftherelatedness
withmyinterlocutorasIengagewithher,attentivetowhatshedoesin
relationtowhatIdo,tohowshetalksandlistenstomeasItalkand
listentoher,towhathappenssimultaneouslyandmutuallytome,toher,
tous.(S72,emphasisintheoriginal)

Asnotedearlier,BirdDavidconsidersecologicalperceptiontobeanimportant

avenuetoinvestigateforscholarsinterestedinanimism.Theanimistsperceptionofthe
worldreliesonthetrafficofinteractionswiththeirsurroundings(Ingold,11)from
whichmodernlifeprotectsuswithcars,largeindoorspaces,andothercontrolled
environments.Theworldlyenvironmentisconsideredadomainofentanglement
experiencedmoreorlessdirectlyandnotasaninteriorschematicwithoutward
manifestations.
BirdDavidconsidersGibsonsecologicalapproachtovisualperception6as
centraltounderstandingtheclaimmadebytheNayakathatdevaruexistintheworld.
ForGibson,ecologicalperceptionseestheworldinecologicalterms,asexistingona
scaleofchangetopermanenceinitsmultiplerespects.Somethingschangerelatively
quicklyandothers,likemountains,persistforaverylongtime.Animistperception

6SeeGibson,J.J.TheEcologicalApproachtoVisualPerception.Boston:Houghton

Mifflin,1979.

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affordstheperceiverinformationaboutchange,communication,andrelationship
based,inpart,onwhattheperceiverbringstothesituation.
Relationalaffordancesareunderstoodtomutuallyaffecttheactorsinvolved.
BirdDavidgivestheseexamplesofmutualeffects:ananimalavoidingmeinrelationto
meupsettingtheanimal,astonecomingtowardsmeinrelationtomereachingfor
thestone,arocksecuringmeinrelationtomeseekingashelter.BirdDavidcallsthis
typeofinteractiontwowayresponsiverelatednessso,forinstance,anelephantwho
makeseyecontactwithmeisconsideredDevaru,buttheelephantthatdoesntinteract
issimplyanelephant.FortheNayaka,beingsareregardedaspersons,orDevaru,as,
when,andbecausetheyinteract.
TheexamplesgivenbyBirdDavidarefromherfieldworkexperienceinSouth
India;howevershemakesitclearthatsheconsidersrelationalepistemologytobea
universalhumantendency.BirdDavidfurthertheorizesthatrelationalepistemology
enjoysauthorityasawayofknowinginsomeculturegroups,primarilyhunter
gatherers,andissecondaryinothers,suchasthemodernEuroAmericanculture.The
chapterthatfollowsbuildsonthetheorythatknowingtheworldisadirectresultof
openlyengagingwithit.

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CHAPTER2
ANTHROPOMORPHISMANDTHELITERARYIMAGINATION

INTRODUCTION
Anthropomorphism,generallyspeaking,canbeunderstoodastheattributionof
humancharacteristicstononhumanothersand,althoughbannedinthesciences,itis
ubiquitousinworldmythology,folklore,art,andliterature.(Boyd,DastonandMitman,
BirdDavid,Harvey)Particularlyinliteratureforchildren,anthropomorphictendencies
arepracticeduncriticallyinthecreationofanimalcharactersandstorieswithanimals.
Bothanthropomorphismandthecloselyrelatedfolkpsychologymaybeexpressionsofa
relationalepistemologyintheWest,acommonsenseknowingthatdevelopsfrombeing
inrelationshipwithothersandthatmayinformtheliteraryimaginationofauthorsand
readers.

ANTHROPOMORPHISM

Theexactmeaningofanthropomorphismiscurrentlyamatterofsomedebate.
Itsmeaninghaschangedovertimefromitsoriginalreligiousoneofattributinghuman
characteristicstoGod,somethingthatwasconsideredasin.(DastonandMitman,
Fisher,1996)Manyvariationsofanthropomorphismaredescribedintheliterature.For
example,LorraineDastondescribessociomorphismasanalogiesaremadeatthelevelof
society,generallyhumanandinsect.Gametheoryappliedtoanimalbehavioriscalled
coldanthropomorphismandempathybroughttobearonanalogiesiscalledhot

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anthropomorphism.GordonBurghardt(inRistau,1991)positsacritical
anthropomorphismthatmaybeusefulforgeneratingscientificideasandpredicting
outcomes.Despitebeingwidelypracticed,itsmeaningamongmanyanimalscientistsis
thefalseattributionofhumanlikecharacteristicstoanimalsandtothingslikecarsor
computers.Changingmeaningsimplythattheyarehistoricallyandculturallybound.As
furtherevidenceforthis,Fisherstatesthat,Japaneseprimatologistsaresingularly
unconcernedaboutissuesofanthropomorphismintheirstudiesofprimates.Cultural
historycannotbeignoredinexplainingthisfact.(3)
Becausethepracticeofanthropomorphicattributionisunderstood(intheWest)
asauniversal,yetultimatelyfalse,tendency,itisthereforeconsideredanentrenched
probleminwesternscience,adangerouslyunempiricalreturntomysteriouscausesand
unfoundedsuperstition,andanembarrassmenttobeavoided.(3)Anychargeof
anthropomorphisminthescientificstudyofanimalsleadstoassumptionsoflaziness,
sloppythinking,orchildishnessinthesenseofnaveinnocenceandalsointhesenseof
simpleorprimitive.(Irvine,Fisher,DastonandMitman,AllenandBekoff)

PhilosopherJohnFisherhasdevelopedabasicframeworktohelpclarifywhat

maybemeantbyanthropomorphism,andwhetherattributionsarefalseinallcases.He
beginswithtwobroadcategories,whichhelabelsInterpretiveandImaginative
Anthropomorphism.Interpretive,whichismeanttobeexplanatory,describes
inferencesofmentalisticpredicates(Mpredicates)suchasloyal,brave,orsneakyfrom
observedanimalbehavior.FisherarguesthatHardAnthropocentriccritics,whosupport
asharpdivisionbetweenhumansandotheranimals,havenotmadeaconvincingcase

15

thatanthropomorphicattributionsarecategoricallyfallaciousbecausetheaccuracyof
theattributionsdependsonthespecificpredicate,situation,andspeciesinquestion.
FisherhasconcentratedhisanalysisonInterpretiveAnthropomorphism,leavingthe
Imaginativehalfoftheframeworkundeveloped.Heconcludesinpartthat,duetothe
hardwirednatureofourperceptionsofothers,innateunderstandingacrossspeciesis
plausibleandthatcommonsensepersistentlyrefusestodrawasharplinebetween
humansandotheranimals,andpersistsinretainingsympatheticfeelingsforanimals
andinunderstandingthemalonghumanlines(1112).
FisheragreeswithIrvinethatpeopledonotattributeindiscriminatelybut
insteadresponddifferentlytodifferentanimals.Whenwespendtimewithanimals,we
perceivetheirindividualityandrelatetotheirselveswithourselves.Thiscommonsense
approachissometimescalledfolkpsychologyandisdescribedastheuseofinsightor
selfknowledgecombinedwithoutwardattentiontodescribeandpredictthebehavior
ofothers.Emotionalintelligenceandtheaccurateinterpretationofbodylanguage,
includingvitalityaffects,maycomprisesomeofthenonverbalskillsweuseto
understandanimalselves.AllenandBekoffsuggestthatfolkpsychologyisaprototheory
thatmayprovevaluableindevelopingmorerigoroustheoriesofanimalmind.Ristau
arguesforasimilarapproach;cognitiveethologistsshouldborrowwhatisneededfrom
folkpsychologyandleavetherest.
Anauthor,inordertocreateabelievableliterarycharacter,mustpractice
perspectivity;thatisheorshemustimagineaway,usinginsightsandknowledgegained
throughrelationships,intothesubjectiveexperienceofanotherpersonalitywithwhom

16

readerswillrespond.Itislikely,givenevolutionarycontinuity,someformofsharedcore
selfamongEarthsanimals,andanattitudeofopen,humbleattention,tounderstand
nonhumananimalsenoughtocreatebelievableanimalcharacters,notassymbolic
humans,butasanimalselves.

REALISTICANIMALSINCHILDRENSLITERATURE

AssociationsbetweenchildrenandanimalsrundeepinEuroAmericanculture.

Aswehaveseen,originsofanthropomorphictendenciesandanimistattributionsare
sometimessaidtoexistinchildhoodorinchildishunderstandingsoftheworld.(Irvine,
AllenandBekoff,Harvey,BirdDavid,Boyd,Morgenstern,2000)Animalsandchildren
areoftenportrayedtogetherinvisualimages,especiallythoseappealingtonostalgia
andinnocence.Animalsarecentralinchildrensliteraturetoo,providingsimplicity
(Morgenstern),neutrality(BurkeandCopenhaver,2004),andchallenge(Marchant,
2005).
Animalsinchildrensstorieswhowalkandtalklikepeopleareconsideredtobe
symbolichumansdelightinguswiththeirsimultaneoussimilaritiestoanddifferences
fromus(Morgenstern).Symbolichumancharactersprovidetheneededemotional
distancethatallowschildrentosafelytryonrolesandwrestlewithdifficultlife
situations(BurkeandCopenhaver).Verylittlehasbeendiscussed,however,aboutthe
realisticportrayalsofanimalsascharacters,althoughtheyhavebeenwithussincethe
Britishchildrensbookpublishingindustrybegantoflourishinthemideighteenth
century.

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Animalprotagonistnarratorsmaybeconsideredanimalselvestellingthestory
fromtheirownperspective,justashumannarratorsare.Earlystoriesofthistypewere
oftengenerallifehistories,commentaryonhumanbehavior,oranticrueltytales.An
earlyexampleisDorothyKilnersTheLifeandPerambulationofaMouse,publishedin
1783.AnnaSewellcombinedtheseelementsintoherclassicBlackBeauty(1877).
Towardtheendofthenineteenthcenturyandintothetwentieth,astyleboth
dramaticandrealisticwasbeingdevelopedinNorthAmerica.Examplesofthisnewstyle
includeWildAnimalsIHaveKnownbyCanadianE.T.Seton(1899)andstoriessuchas
CalloftheWild(1903)andWhiteFang(1906)byAmericanJackLondon.Manybooks
werebeingwrittenthatfeaturedanimalrelationships(bothwithandwithouthumans),
dramaticanddangerousplots,andnaturalisticsettings.TheYearling(MarjorieKinnan
Rawlings,1938),MyFriendFlicka(MaryOHara,1941),andIncredibleJourney(Sheila
Burnford,1961)areclassicexamples.EnglishmanRichardAdamswroteWatershipDown
(1972),arecentmodernclassicthatappealsequallytochildrenandadults.
Inadditiontotheirnaturalisticcharacterportrayalsandsettings,thesebooks
featurerelationshipsamongtheanimalsorbetweenanimalsandhumansthatarerich,
important,andrecognizablefromtheperspectiveofthereader.Theanimaloranimals
arethecenter,however,andtheconcernsoftheanimalcharactersareanimal
concerns.Assuchtheyarequitedistinctfromstoriesinwhichanimalswalkandtalklike
peoplewehaveknown.

18

CHAPTER3
CASESTUDY:ANIMALSELVESINCHILDRENSLITERATURE

SURVEYDESCRIPTION
BurkeandCopenhaverdiscussfunctionsofwrittentextsinliterateculture
includingthatofmirroringtheworldaswehaveperceivedit.Howdoauthorsofrecent
childrensliteratureperceiveanimals?Whataresomeofthecharacteristicsofrealistic
portrayalsandoftheinteractionsbetweenhumanandanimalcharacters?Thefollowing
studywasconductedtoexploreanimalcharacterizationinmodernchildrensliterature.
Iaminterestedinunderstandingwhethertheimaginationmaybeinformedbyaccurate
perceptionsofanimalsintheworldandhowthoseperceptionsaremanifestedin
naturalandrecognizablecharacterizationsofnonhumananimals.
Adescriptiveexploratorysurveyquestionnairewasdevelopedtoassessthe
animalcharactersinasmallsampleofrecentlypublishedchildrensliterature.Three
bibliographiesofchildrensbookswithdomesticanimal(usuallypet)characters
publishedbetween2000and2007providedtheinitialsampleof51booksforthecase
study.ThebrieflyannotatedbibliographiesarepublishedonthewebsiteofUniversityof
IllinoisCenterforChildrensBooks;allthebookshavebeenfavorablyreviewedinthe
prestigiousBulletinoftheCenterforChildrensBooks.Duplicatetitlesandoneyoung
adultnovelthatfeaturedananimalonlyinthetitlewereremovedfromthefinalsample
of46.(SeeAPPENDIX1)Thewiderangingsampleincludesfiction,nonfiction,and
poetryforpreschoolersthroughhighschoolteenagers.

19

Eachbookwasreadandthensurveyedonaseparateform.Descriptive
informationaboutthecharacters,andaboutspecificinteractionsandcommunication
modesbetweenhumanandanimalcharacters,evidenceofIrvinesselfhoodelements,
andanycognitiveskillsattributedtoordemonstratedbytheanimalswererecorded.A
spreadsheetwasthencreatedtocollecttogetherdemographicdataoneachtitleand
thedescriptivedatagatheredinitially.Thespecificdetailsemergingfromthegeneral
surveywereusedtocreatesomegranularityinthespreadsheet.Patternsin
characterization,activities,species,targetreaderage,wereassessed.Muchmore
rigorousanalysiswithlargersamplesareneededbeforeconclusionscanbedrawnwith
confidence.However,afewinterestingresultsemerged,asshowninthetablesand
discussioninthenextsection.

FINDINGSANDDISCUSSION

Table1comparestwomaintypesofanimalcharacters,bipedal/clothedand

natural,intermsofvoiceandactivity.Talkingvoiceisdefinedasspeakingoutloudin
humanwordsandsentences.Novoiceissilenceorsimplythekindsofsoundsnormally
madebythespeciesinvolvedsuchasbarks,meows,chirps,andsoon.Innarrated
stories,theanimalprotagonisttalksdirectlytothereader;theanimaldoesnottalk
withinthestoryitself.Asshowninthetable,animalcharactersthatareportrayed
naturallyareoverwhelminglynarratorsorhavenovoiceandthosewhoarebipedal,
clothed,orbothspeakoutloudover50percentofthetime.Activitiesengagedinbythe

20

naturalcharactersarerecognizablythoseweseeinanimalsaroundusincontrasttothe
veryhumanactivitiesoftheclothedcharacters.

Bothfictionandnonfictionbooksarenarratedbyanimals.Forexample,Murphy

thedognarratesthefictionalADayintheLifeofMurphy(2003)inwhichhetellsthe
readerabouthisdaywithJohnthehounddogandTomFoolthecat.Thebarnanimals
aredumbandthehumanfamilyisthey.Harry,alonghaireddachshund,introduces
tothereadertheproperwaytogreetdogsinthenonfictionbookMayIPetYourDog?
(2007).

Table 1. Comparing the voice and activities of bipedal/clothed and natural animal
characters.

Type

Bipedal/
clothes

Natural

37

Talking

Narration

13

No
Voice

HumanActivities

Naturalistic
Activities

Cooking,dressup,
goingtoschool,
usingcarpenters
toolsand
paintbrushes,
superhero
adventuring

Beingheldin
lap,climbinga
tree

Singing

Gettinginto
stuff,eating,
playing,going
tothevet,
greeting,
working,
training,
hunting,
barking,
runningaway,
ridingincar

18

21

ThetwobroadcharacterizationsshowninTable1canbelabeledSymbolic

HumanandAnimalSelf.Animalcharacterswhoaresymbolichumanstendtospeakout
loudusinghumanlanguage.Theyarebipedalandoftenwearclothing.Thesecharacters
engageoverwhelminglyinhumanactivitieslikecooking,usingcarpenterstools,and
superheroadventuring.AnimalSelfcharactersoftennarratestoriesdirectlytothe
reader,butdonotspeakwithinthem.Theymovewithanaturalgait,dontwear
clothing,andtheiractivitiesarerecognizableasnaturaltotheirspecies.

Table2.Animalnarrationinallbooksandinpicturebooks.
BookSample

Animalnarration

Percentof
books

AllBooks

46

14

30%

PictureBooks

24

10

42%

Animalnarratorsappeardemographicallyacrossthesample,although,asshown

inTable2,most(70%)arefoundinpicturebooksforyoungerchildren,includingthe
twoexamplesdescribedabove.OneveryinterestingexampleofanimalnarrationisI,
Jack(2000),afictionaljuvenilechapterbookinwhichaheroicyellowLabradorretriever
tellsacomplexstory.InanInterpretersNoteattheback,PatriciaFinney
acknowledgestheinfluenceofbothRudyardKiplingsThyServant,ADog(1930)and
booksondogpsychologyincreatingJacksvoice.Finneyusesvariationintextfontto
effectivelyrelaynonverbalcommunicationbetweenJackandhisApedogpack(italic

22

style)andJacksstrengthoffeeling(fontsize).Thecommunicationitselfisusually,but
notalwayssuccessful;however,itisrecognizableasthatbetweenadogandahuman.
Forinstance,afterJackiscaughtraidingtherefrigeratorforhispregnantPackLady
Petra,thedogsrunawaytofindanearbysafeplaceforPetratohaveherpuppies.On
thewayhome,JackmeetshishumanPackleader:
Hithere,Packleader!Areyoubetter?Whyareyououtofyournestand
walkingalongthepath,goingPhhheeeweeet!betweenyourteeth...
Youshouldberestinginyounest,gettingbetterfromyournastycold.

Oh.Thatsnice,youwerelookingforme.ShallwegoseePetra?

Sheisveryunfriendly,though.Canyousmellher?ThereisSpecialness
happeninginhertummy.Itsallverystrange...

Packleaderputsmyleashon.Heisbarkinglotsnow,veryquickly.

HeissayingBadBad.Heiscallingmestrangenames.Whatisvandal?
Whatisfiend?(8485)

InJoyceSidmansTheWorldAccordingtoDog:PoemsandTeenVoices(2003),

poeticattemptsaremadetodescribetheinteriorworldanddognessofdogs.For
example,inDogLoreSidmanwrites,Patienceandintensity/openthemostdoors.
(56)Shealsoincludesshortprosenarrativeswrittenbyteensaboutdogstheyhave
known.Manyofthesepiecesdescribeveryimportantrelationshipsbetweenthemselves
ortheirfamilyandanindividualdog.SarahMiller(age13)honorsthememoryofBandy,
anabandonedpuppyfoundbySarahsunhappyteenagedmother.Bandyhelpedmy

23

motherunderstandtheimportanceoflifeandaffection.Sheguidedmymotherto
appreciatingeverythingandeveryoneasmuchaspossible.(13)

Inourrelationshipsovertimewithotherselves,whetherthoseselvesarehuman

oranimal,wegrowanddevelop,andintheprocesscometounderstandtheotherself
betteraswell.Theknowledgegainedaboutothersandourselvesisusedbywritersin
imaginativelycreatingcharactersandsituationsforthemtoactin.

CONCLUSION

Recentscholarshipinsociology,anthropology,andcognitiveethologyconverge

topointtodirectrelationshipasawaytoapprehendtothelargestdegreethe
subjectiveselfofnonhumanothers,particularlynonhumananimals.
Anthropomorphism,commonsense,andfolkpsychologymayallbe,moreorless,
expressionsofthisrelationalwayofknowingwhich,inWesterncivilization,enjoysthe
greatestauthorityinworksoftheimagination.

Historically,animalshavebeenportrayedintwobroadwaysinchildrens

literature.Assymbolichumans,animalsareneutralstandinswhohelpyoungreaders
navigatelifeissues.Asrealisticanimalcharacters,animalselves,theyprovideglimpses
intoamorethanhumanworld.Authorsmay,inimaginativelydevelopingrealistic
animalcharacters,justastheydowhencreatinghumancharacters,employtheinsights
andknowledgegainedthroughrelationshipand,intheprocess,mirrortheworldaswe
perceiveit.

24

ANNOTATEDBIBLIOGRAPHYOFCORESOURCES

Allen,Colin,andMarkBekoff.SpeciesofMind:ThePhilosophyandBiologyofCognitive
Ethology.Cambridge:MITPress,1997.

AllenandBekoffbeginbydescribingthisvolumeasasynthesisoftheoreticaland

empiricalapproachestothestudyofnonhumananimalminds.Theydescribecognitive
ethologyasthesystematicstudyoftheinformationprocessing,beliefs,and
consciousnessofanimalsfromcomparative,evolutionary,andecologicalperspectives.
CharlesDarwinsmentalcontinuityconceptiscentral;answerstoquestionsabout
sharedcognitiveandemotionalcharacteristicsacrossspecieswillshedlightonthe
natureandevolutionarydevelopmentofmentalandpsychologicalcapacities.

Animalbehaviorresearchthroughmostofthetwentiethcenturyhasbeen

guidedbythephilosophyofempiricismandpositivisminwhichmeaningisdependent
onreducingobservable,verifiableexperiencestologicalconstructions.Thegoalof
psychologicalbehaviorismistocontrolbehaviorandexplainbehaviorpatternsinaone
toonecorrespondencewithphysiologicalprocesses.Asanoverviewofthe
developmentofcognitiveethology,AllenandBekoffbroadlydescribethephilosophyof
naturalism,modernneobehaviorists,andclassicalethologists,particularlyKonrad
LorenzandNikolaasTinbergen,whosharedthe1973NobelPrize.

DonaldGriffin,whose1976bookTheQuestionofAnimalAwarenesshelpedto

establishthecurrentfieldofcognitiveethology,wasmainlyconcernedwithanimal
consciousnessandwithcreativeandversatilebehaviorinanimalsasevidencefor
cognitiveprocessing.AccordingtoGriffin,consciousnesslogicallyconfersanenormous

25

adaptiveadvantageofbehavioralchoicetoindividuals.Mostcognitiveethologistshave
concentratedtheirresearchonfindingevidenceofanimalintentionalityreasoningthat
behaviorwhichimpliesintentionalityandgoals,forinstanceplayorinjuryfeinting,also
impliessomeformofmemoryorplanning.

Criticismsingeneraldirectedatcognitiveethologyincludetheaccusationof

fallingbackoncausationbyinvisibleagents(thereligioncard),thebeliefthatanimal
mindsarepermanentlyclosedtous,andthedenialofevidenceforstimulusfree
behavior(whichimpliesinternalmotivation).Inresponse,cognitiveethologistsjustify
mentalattributionsbecausetheyareoftenthemostparsimoniousexplanationfor
observations.Theypointtolaboratoryevidenceofstimulusfreebehavior,especiallyin
observationallearningexperiments.AllenandBekoffclaimthatbehavioristsoften
privilegethegeneraloverthespecificasaconsequenceofthepressureforstatistical
averaging,thusignoringsignificantbehavioralvariations.Thematerialemphasisof
empiricalscienceisconsideredproblematicaswellbecausenaturalselectionactson
functional,notmaterial,properties.

Althoughgenerallyverycontroversial,theconceptoffolkpsychologycanbe

definedinamannerthatisuncontroversial.Folkpsychologyconsistsofloose
generalizationsaboutmindandbehaviorthatarereflectedinwhatpeoplesayabout
mentalstatesandactions.(65)Recognizingthatthementalisticterminologyusedin
folkpsychologicalexplanationsisoftennotclearlydefinedandthatnoadequate
frameworkformentalattributionexists,AllenandBekoffproposereconceptualizing
folkpsychology.Theyseeitasaprototheorythataddressesconsciousnessandthe

26

semanticpropertiesofitscontentwithanevolutionaryemphasis.Folkpsychology
shareswithallcognitiveapproachestheideathatmentalstateshavepropositional
content.

Casestudiesincanidsocialplaybehaviorandtheantipredatorybehaviorof

birdsarediscussedinwhichemphasisisplacedtheimportanceofcommunication,
changeovertime,andthecorrectinterpretationoftheintentionsofothers.
InChapter8,AllenandBekoffdiscussanimalconsciousness.Theauthorsadvise
fellowcognitiveethologiststomoveawayfromThomasNagelsquestion,Whatisit
liketobe...?andfocusinsteadonwhichspeciespossessesconsciouscapacitiesby
targetingbehaviorsthatindicateconsciousness.

BirdDavid,Nurit.AnimismRevisited:Personhood,Environment,andRelational
Epistemology.CurrentAnthropology4(1999):S67S91.

BirdDavidrevisitstheanthropologicalconceptofanimism,notingthatbasic

assumptionshavechangedverylittlesincetheintroductionoftheconceptinthe
nineteenthcenturybyEdwardTylor.Tracingtheideafromitsinception,BirdDavid
discussesTylorandhisinterestintheoriginsofreligion,andsubsequenttreatmentsof
animismbyEmileDurkheim,ClaudeLviStrauss,andS.Guthrie.Aspartofher
reevaluation,BirdDavidfocusesontheconceptofpersonhoodandonecological
perception,presentingevidencefromherfieldworkwiththeSouthIndianNayaka
people,inparticulartheirdescriptionofdevaruasnonhumanpeoplewhointeractwith
theNayakaindailylifeandduringsocialevents.

27

Inordertodescribewhatdevaruare,BirdDavidbuildsonanthropologistA.

IrvingHallowellsotherthanhumanpersons(usinginsteadhertermsuperpersons)
andM.Strathernsdividual.Otherthanhumanpersonsarepersonswhoarenot
humanbeings;theyareconsideredpersonsasandbecausetheyaresocialandwillful
beings,notbecausetheylookortalklikehumans.Adividualisapersonmadeupof
relationships,andisnotaboundedsingularitysetagainstothers.Duringregularlyheld
festivalsorsocialevents,localdevaruappearthroughNayakaperformerstotalkand
interactwiththeothersthere.Devaruarealsounderstoodtobespecificanimals,plants,
andotherenvironmentalfeatureswhointeractwiththeNayaka.Devaruareunderstood
toexistintheworld.

Inordertomakethismorecomprehensible,BirdDaviddrawsonJ.J.Gibsons

ecologicalapproachtovisualperceptioninwhichthingsareperceivedintermsofwhat
theyaffordtheactorperceiverbecauseofwhattheyareforhim.(Gibson,S74)Forthe
Nayaka,theenvironmentisconstantlychangingasaresultofinteractions.What
happenstoanimals,orotherdevarucharacters(orhowtheychange)canaffectorbe
affectedbywhathappenstopeople(orhowtheychange).(S77)Thesechanges
confirmtheexistenceofdevaru.Theskillofattentionmustbedeveloped;inthisway,
theenvironmentaffordsinformationthatcanbemoreandmoresubtle,elaborate,and
precise.Knowingisdevelopingthisskill.(Gibson,S78)BirdDavidcallscommunication
ofthiskindtwowayresponsiverelatedness.

Shegoesontotheorizethatrelationalwaysofknowing(knowingconnected

withbeing)isauniversalhumancapacitythatenjoysprimaryauthorityinmosthunter

28

gatherersocietiesandoftensecondaryauthorityelsewhere.Asawayofknowing,
relationalepistemologyiscomplementarywithobjectivist;BirdDavidconsidersbothto
berealandvalidandbothtohavelimits.

Commentsfromsevenscholarsinanthropologyappearattheendofthearticle

proper,mostinagreementingeneraloronmajorspecificpoints.TimIngoldoffersan
alternativeexplanationtothatofBirdDavidsontheoriginsofrelationalwaysof
knowing.TheoriesoftheevolutionofsocialintelligenceofferedbyBirdDavid,according
toIngold,restfairandsquareonamodernistconceptionofmindandbehavior
(Ingold,S82)thatfunctionstoundermineanimisticperceptionbydividingtheworldinto
naturalandsocialandbyassumingthatlifeandmindareinteriorpropertiesof
individuals.Humanbeingseverywhereperceivetheirenvironmentsintheresponsive
modenotbecauseofinnatecognitivepredispositionbutbecausetoperceiveatallthey
mustalreadybesituatedinaworldandcommittedtotherelationshipsthisentails.
(Ingold,S82)

Boyd,Brian.TailsWithinTales.InKnowingAnimals,editedbyLaurenceSimmonsand
PhilipArmstrong,21743.Boston:KoninklijkeBrillNV,2007.

Boydaskswhywearesofascinatedbytailswithintales.Afterlistingwide

rangingexamplesofanimalsinartthroughtimeandcurrentlypopularnonhuman
literaryothers,BoydtellsthestoryofGeorgeHerrimanscelebratedcomicKrazyKat.
Originallyoccupyingjustthebottomstripsinthepanelsofaploddinghumanstory,
TheDingbats,Krazy,IgnatztheMouse,andOffissaPupp,brokeawaythreeyearslater
tobecomeawildlysurrealandpoeticseriesofscratchynonsequiturs...astoryof

29

animalsliberatingtheimagination.(219)BoydthencomparesthetwoGenesis
accountsintheOldTestamentcallingthefirstarationalistsaccountthatreflectsthe
GreatChainofBeingandthesecondamuchmoreearthyworldemphasizing
companionshipwithanimalsallaroundthehumancouple.
Employinganevolutionarypsychologicalexplanationforthisfascination,Boyd
notesthatanimals(includinghumans)mustbeabletorecognizeandinterpretother
animalsandfurther,thatmotionisimmediatelyorinitiallyinterpretedasagency,thus
consideredthebasicmodelofcausality.Insupport,Boyddescribesaclassic1944
psychologicalstudyinwhichstudentswereshownashortsilentfilmwithmoving
geometricshapesandaskedtodescribewhattheyhadseen.ResearchersFritzHeidler
andMarianneSimmelreportedthatonlyonerespondentspokeofgeometricshapes;all
theotherrespondentsanthropomorphizedthemovingfigures.Significantly,thistook
theformofstoryinwhichaimsandmoodswereassignedaswellasgendersand
voices.

Becausechildrenareoftenconsideredtobegrowingthroughearlierstagesof

humandevelopmentwhen,itissupposed,humanswereclosertootheranimals,they
areespeciallydrawntoanimals.Theyunderstandanimalsasfictitiouslystandinginfor
themandforotherpeople.Yetwhenamenagerieofabsurdlydifferentspeciesspeak
tooneanother,inDr.SeussorDr.Doolittle,childrenalsoacceptthatasinonesense
perfectlynatural,sincetheycanseethatanimalsdohavetotakeaccountofthe
purposesofothercreaturesaroundthem.(225)

30

Animalscontinuetoappearsignificantlyinseriousadultfictionaswell.Boyd

describesseveralreasonsforthis:Theyaresimilartoanddifferentfromusandalso
differentfromeachother,stimulatingtheimagination;theyplaymanyrolesinourlives
withthem;andtheyevokemanystrongfeelings.Becauseforustheyaremuteunable
toexplainthemselves...wehaveattributedtothemawholerangeofproperties.
(227)

IntheWesterntradition,animalshavebeenunderstoodassubsoulssince

Heraclitus,Plato,andDescartes.Livingunderamonotheisticandanthropocentric
religionandincitieswherewerelyonmechanicalratherthanbiologicalpower,
Westernershavetendedmoreandmoretostressthedistinctionbetweenhumanand
animal,todefinehumaneasopposedtobestial...andevenandinthetwentieth
century,too!todespisesavagesfortheirreverencetowardanimals.(228)
Inthelastseveralpagesofthisarticle,Boyddiscussesmanyexamplesofserious
adultliteratureincludingTheTempest,JoycesUlysses,AnnaKarenina,andMobyDick;
authorslikeJonathanSwift,H.G.Wells,FranzKafka,JulioCortzar,AngelaCarter,and
WillSelf;andeventhecomicstripsFarSideandCalvinandHobbestoillustratehow
pervasivelyinliteratureanimalsareusedtohelpusdefinewhoweareandtowrestle
withtheambiguousborderlandbetweenourselvesandotheranimals.

Brown,JosephEpes.AnimalsoftheSoul:SacredAnimalsoftheOglalaSioux.Rockport,
MA:Element,Inc.,1992.

BrownfocusesontheimportanceofanimalsfortheLakotainhisdescriptionof

traditionalLakotametaphysicsofnature.Brownwritesthatthemetaphysicsare

31

definedseparatelybyeachgroupingreatdetailandarespecifictothelocal
geographicalfeaturesandspecies.Responsibilitiesandinterrelationshipsarespelledout
clearly.Relationshipswiththevastwebofbeingareestablishedandstrengthened
throughspecificritesandprayers,throughtheformandmaterialsofthebuiltlodge,
andthroughtheuseofthepipe.Anymanifestationofthespirit,especiallyanimals,can
teachorotherwisecommunicatewithpeople;theywanttocommunicate,buthuman
beingsmustdothegreaterparttoensureanunderstanding.(22)

Communicationoftencomesduringdreamsandvisions,whenadifferentlevel
ofcognitionisaccessed,consideredmorerealthanthatofregularwaking
consciousness.Bothsleepingdreamsandwakingvisions,suchasthosereceivedduring
theVisionQuest(Hanblecheyapi)areconsideredequallypowerful.Mostdreamsand
visionsincludeencounterswitharangeofanimalrepresentativesandtutelaryspirits.
Theseareunderstoodashypotheticalanimalsorthespiritoftheanimalthatlives
behindthemanifestedworldandispartoftheGreatSpiritofcreation.Onceonehas
receivedavision,thesubjectiveexperienceofthatvisionmustthenberelayedtoaholy
personorhealerwhointerpretsitandprescribesaction.Therecipientisobligedto
sharetheexperience,generallythroughperformance,withtherestofthepeoplein
ordertoactivateanypowertransmitted.

Withtheproperattitudeofhumility,onecanrequestspecificpowersoraskfor

guidanceonaspecificproblemduringaquest.Individualdreamersmayreceivesongs,
rituals,orotherteachings;personalnames;orpowerstoheal,amongothergifts.Much
dependsonthepersistence,receptivity,orcapabilitiesoftheindividual.(56)The

32

animalspiritsarenotunderstoodascontrollinghumandestiny,butmoreaswitnesses
toit.
BrowndiscussesLakotaanimalcategoriesandtraditionalsystemsofassociation
thatlinkcertainanimalsandotherpowersorforcestogether,oftenbasedonbehavior
oreffect.Forexample,Whirlwindisassociatedwiththepowertoconfuseordisorient
and,beingtwoleggeds,birdsandhumansarecloselyassociated.

Traditionallyanimalsareobservedcloselyindailylife,theirpowersand

behaviorssometimesbecomingmodelsforidealhumanbehavior.Forexample,bison
areobservedtotakegreatcareoftheyoung,andsoprovideamodelforhuman
parenting.Duetothisanimistapproachshapingtheirworldviewovermanycenturies,
manyLakotapeoplehaveaprofoundunderstandingoftheirnaturalenvironmentasa
physicalaswellasspiritreality.

Burke,CarolynA.,andJobyG.Copenhaver.AnimalsasPeopleinChildrensLiterature.
LanguageArts81,no.3(January2004):20513.

BurkeandCopenhaverarguethatchildhoodstories,especiallythosepersonally

significantfavoritesthattouchedemotionalchordsandwerereadoverandover,
addressedneedsthatmaynothavebeenclearlyunderstood.Theauthorsare
concernedwithchildrensliteratureasathinkingdevice,helpingchildrentomake
sense,understandvalues,andgeneratequestionsaboutlife.Thinkingdevicefunctions
inchildrensliteratureareamoderntrend,reflectingmodernconceptionsofthe
meaningofchildhoodasatimetoadapt,contributetochange,andcriticallyexplore
issuesandoptions.(211)

33

Thehighfrequencyofanimalcharactersinthesestoriesfunctiontoprovide
somedistance,abufferedengagementthatallowschildrentocriticallyexplorethat
which(they)wouldnotbecomfortableexploringdirectly.(207)
Asahighlyliteraryculture,wemakeuseoftextsregularlytoorganizeour
thoughts,relayvalues,anddialoguewitheachother.Inmanycases,foradultsaswellas
forchildren,animalcharactersaretheretohelpuswrestlewithcomplexand
emotionallydifficultsituations.Theauthorsurgeteachersandparentstoconsiderthis
functionofchildrensliteratureandtousetheappealinganthropomorphicdeviceof
animalcharactersindevelopingcurriculumandopeningdialoguewithchildrenabout
issuesofculturalsignificance.

Burton,Lloyd.WorshipandWilderness:Culture,Religion,andLawinPublicLands
Management.Madison:UniversityofWisconsinPress,2002.

BurtonexaminesthelargerissueofreligioususeofU.S.publiclandsby

examiningandcomparingreligiouspracticesofNativeAmericansandEuroAmericans
andhowthepracticesandbeliefsaffectactivism,law,andinterculturalconflict.
Throughout,Burtonfocusesonwildanimals,particularlyBison,connectingthese
animalstolaw,spirituality,andculturalconflictforbothNativepeopleandEuro
Americans.Indescribingcurrentconflictsovercontrolofbuffaloherdsonpubliclands,
Burtonstatesthat,Environmentalconservationgroupsandwesternranchinginterests
experiencepoliticalandlegalconflictinpartbecausetheyareproceedingfrom
profoundlydifferentunderstandingsofwhattheappropriaterelationshipbetween
humankindandotherlivingcreaturesoughttobe.(183)EuroAmericanconservation

34

groups,accordingtoBurton,oftenhavemoreincommonwithNativeworldviewsthan
withranching,fishing,loggingoranyotherindustrialscaleharvestinginterests.
Inattemptingtoconstructivelyaddressconflict,inwhichoneperspectivemust
winout,Burtondiscussesthepossibilityofmorethanonecorrectperspective.Burton
arguesforsimultaneouslyoccurringrealmsofknowing(9)andstatesfurtherthat
twometaphorsmaycombinetoformaperspectivebroadenoughtomeettheneedsof
bothgroups.(27)

Burtonlinkshistoricalandmodernreligiousmovementsinthiscountrytoanew

rediscoveryofthesacred.Duringthewestwardexpansionera,explorersintovast
pristinewildernessareasexperiencedaweandreverence.Theinfluenceofnineteenth
centurytranscendentalism,authentictwentiethcenturytransmissionteachingsofAsian
traditions,andagrowingappreciationandrespectfortraditionalindigenouswayshas
setthestageforaseriousreevaluationandgreeningofmainstreamChristianand
Jewishpolicyandinterpretation.Sparkedbyconcernsforenvironmentalintegrityand
byLynnWhites1967article(seebelow),manydenominationsandcoalitionshave
issuedpolicystatementsproducedasaresultoftheologicalinquiry...(inwhich)the
stewardshipinterpretation...seemstohavecarriedtheday.(259)

Daston,Lorraine,andGreggMitman,ed.ThinkingWithAnimals:NewPerspectiveson
Anthropomorphism.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2005.

Inthiseditedvolume,anthropologists,philosophers,ethologists,historians,and

artistsexaminehowandwhywethinkwithanimalsandhowhumansandanimalsare
transformedbytheserelationships.Intheintroduction,theeditorsdescribethetitleas

35

ahavingadoublemeaning.Humansbothassumeacommunityofthoughtand
feelingswithawidevarietyofanimalsandrecruitanimalstosymbolize,dramatize,
andilluminateexperiencesandfantasies.

Citingthewidelyacknowledgedlinkbetweentheriseofmodernsciencewith

thewaningofanthropomorphicattitudestowardthenaturalworld(3),theeditorslist
thetypesofreasonsoftengivenforavoidinganthropomorphicattributionsincluding
methodological(Howcanweknow?),historical(attributionsunsubstantiatedinthelab),
andevenmoral(narcissisticprojectionsorlaziness).Whydowecontinuetouniversally
anthropomorphize?Because,sayDastonandMitman,itisusefulforliterarysymbolism,
forsellingproducts,forwonderingwhatbeingananimalislike.
Inherchapter,Intelligences,Angelic,Animal,Human,LorraineDaston
comparesthirteenthcenturyrationaltheologiansattemptstounderstandthemindsof
nonhumanangelswiththatofanimalbehavioristsnineteenthcenturyattemptsto
understandnonhumananimalminds.Inbothcasesanthropomorphismisconsidereda
problem,asthescholarsnecessarilyreliedonanalogy.Thetermanthropomorphism
beganasadesignationforfalseattributionofhumancharacteristicstoGodandwas
consideredasin,whichmayhelptoexplainsomeofthemoralcondemnationthatstill
existsinthecharge.Bothtraditionswereprimarilyinterestedinthethoughtsand
feelingsofnonhumanothersandbothattempts,Dastonstates,arguablystretchedthe
understandingofthenatureandlimitsofthehumanmind.(39)

AccordingtoPaulWhite,inhiscontributingchapterTheExperimentalAnimalin

VictorianBritain,thenineteenthcenturysawadramaticriseinbothmiddleclasspet

36

keepingandinlaboratorybasedinvestigationofcomparativephysiologyusinglive
animalsubjects.Whitediscussessomeofthetensionsthiscombinationproduced.For
example,althoughtheuseoffrogsinsuchexperimentswentunremarked,theuseof
domesticanimalssuchasdogs,thenpresentinmanyhouseholds,triggeredprotests
andclaimsthatitwastreacherousandinsensitivetocommitsuchanimals,whohad
beenbredandtrainedupsoastoplacetheirconfidenceinhumanstoscientificuse(and
whosewayswere)morewinning...morereallyandintenselyhuman...thanthe
artificial,coldandselfishcharactersonemeetstoooftenintheguiseofladiesand
gentlemen.(68)
Manyoftheopponentsofvivisectionandotherpainfulexperimentsworried
aboutthebrutalizingeffectsonthescientiststhemselveswhodesignedandcarriedout
proceduresthatcausedrepeatedandprolongedinflictionofpainonhelplesscreatures
(70)...(witha)disciplineddisregardforthefeelingsorperspectiveoftheanimalunder
study.(75)
CharlesDarwin,DarwinsdiscipleGeorgeRomanes,andotherswere,atthis
sametime,collectingandclassifyinganecdotalevidenceformentalandemotional
continuityacrossspecies.Thisevidence,althoughdismissedbyexperimentalscientists
assentimentalnonsense,waseffectivelyusedtogathersupportbyearlyanimalrights
andanticrueltyactivists.

InPeopleinDisguise:AnthropomorphismandtheHumanPetRelationship,

JamesA.Serpellcomparestheeffectsonpeopleandonanimalsofthehumanpet
relationship.Forpeople,thebenefitsarewelldocumented;theyincludeincreased

37

physicalhealthandfeelingsofbeinglovedandofbelonging.Someoftheeffectson
animalsarenotsoclearlybeneficial.Populationsofdomesticanimalshaveboomed(as
theirwildcounterpartspopulationshavedwindled)anddogs,cats,andothercommon
petsnowoccupyanovelecologicalniche.Perhapsmoredisturbingare
anthropomorphicbreedingselectionpracticesthatattempttocreateanimalstocater
tohumanwhimsandexpectations.TheEnglishbulldog,forexample,hasbeenbredto
havesuchaflatfacethatbreathingproblemsoccur,oftenresultinginprematuredeath.
Otherexamplesincludedockinganddeclawingprocedures,overdependenceon
humanstosolveproblems,anxietyanddistressonbeingleftalone,andhuman
rejectionoftheanimalforbehaviorthatmaybenatural,butnotinlinewith
expectations.Serpellcommentsthatanthropomorphismmaybeeasy,butthat
appreciatingdognessorcatnessarespecialskillsthatneedtobelearned.

Fisher,JohnAndrew.TheMythofAnthropomorphism.InReadingsinAnimal
Cognition,editedbyMarcBekoffandDaleJamieson,316.Cambridge,Mass:
MITPress,1996.

Thechargeofanthropomorphism,withitsimplicationoflaziness,sloppiness,

andsentimentality,isgenerallyregardedasanembarrassmentandanobstacleinthe
studyofanimalconsciousness.Fisherarguesthatthefallacyofanthropomorphismis
neitherwelldefinednorclearlyfallacious.(3)Forexample,Fisherasks,whatarethe
uniquelyhumancharacteristicsthataremistakenlyattributedtononhumans?There
areindicationstheconceptitselfmaybehistoricallyandculturallybound.Theoriginal
theologicalmeaningofattributinghumancharacteristicstoGodhascometomean

38

attributinghumancharacteristicstononhumananimalsandobjects.Thereisevidence
thatJapaneseprimatologistsareunconcernedaboutanthropomorphicattributions.
Fisherclaimsthattheoristshavedifferentconceptionsofanthropomorphism
withoutbeingawareofit.Asanattempttodisambiguateanthropomorphism,Fisher
outlinesatheoreticalframeworkwithtwobroadcategorieshelabelsInterpretiveand
ImaginativeAnthropomorphism.Interpretiveismeanttobeexplanatory,inferringthat
ananimalisbraveorsweetnatured,forinstance,fromobservingbehavior.This
categoryissubdividedintoCategorical(inferenceiscategoricallyinapplicable)and
Situational(inferenceisinapplicableinthissituation).Afurthersubdivisionof
Categoricaldesignatesaninferenceanthropomorphicdependingonspeciesoron
predicate(quality).

Arangeofpositionscriticaltoanthropomorphismmaybetakenfromthatof

disallowinganyinferencesatalltodisallowingcertainspeciesfromconsiderationor
certainpredicates.Mostcriticsviewtheuniversalhumantendencyto
anthropomorphizeaschildishandoverlyimaginative,evendangerous,areturnto
unfoundedsuperstitionandinvisible,immeasurablecauses.

Fisherrepliesthatpeopledomakedistinctionsamongvariousspeciesandthat
evenchildrenrecognizethefictitiousnatureofhumanizedportrayals.Commonsense
persistentlyrefusestodrawasharplinebetweenhumansandotheranimals,and
persistsinretainingsympatheticfeelingsforanimalsandinunderstandingthemalong
humanlines.(1112)Itisentirelyplausible,accordingtoFisher,thatunderstanding

39

oneanotherusinghardwiredperceptionsisaninnateabilityprovidingaccurate
informationaboutotherhumansandnonhumananimalsatleastsomeofthetime.

Harvey,Graham.Animism.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2006.

AsHarveystates,themainpurposeofhisbookistotakeseriouslyintimations

thatthetermpersonappliesnotonlytohumans...buttoafarwidercommunity(xii)
whichmayenrichdebatesabouttheenvironmentandaboutconsciousness.Harvey
outlinesanddiscussesoldanimism,coveringatsomelengthTylorsspirits,
Durkheimstotems,andGuthriesanthropomorphism,beforeintroducingnew
animistconcepts.Thenewanimism,accordingtoHarvey,islessaboutattributing
lifeand/orhumanlikeness,thanitisaboutseekingbetterformsofpersonhoodin
relationships.(16)ThenewanimismbeginswithA.IrvingHallowellsinfluential1960
articleOjibweOntology,Behavior,andWorldView.

Hallowellsotherthanhumanpersons,aconceptbasedonhisfieldworkwith

theOjibwapeople,arethosenonhumansdefinedbytheirinteractions,theirwillfulness,
andtheirsociability,ratherthantheirphysicalorverballikenesstohumanbeings.The
skillsoneneedsinordertoactasaperson,thatisrespectfully,arelearnedovertime
andareseenmoreofteningrownandelderlyhumansthaninchildren.Foraspecific
exampleofthistypeofcategory,HallowellusestheOjibwadesignationgrandfather,
whichisreservedforthose,humanandotherwise,whoactlikethegrandfatherideal.
Grandfathersarethosewhoarelistenedto,whocommunicatemattersofsignificance,
whoinculcaterespectfulliving,andteachskills.Grandfathersarepersonswithpower

40

andgiftstobestow.(18)ThecategoriesofpersonhooddescribedbyHallowell
challengemodern,Westernnotionsofwhatconstitutesaperson.

Harveypresentsfourcasestudiesthatillustratethediversityofanimisttype

beliefsandpractices,lookinginturnatOjibwelanguage,Maoriarts,Aboriginallawand
land,andEcoPaganactivism.Animistissuesregardinglifeevents,ceremonialevents,
andethicsarecoverednext.Ofparticularinterestarethechaptersonpersonhoodand
consciousness.

Asalreadymentioned,animistsconsiderpersonstobesobasedon

communicationandrelationship.Theyarealsosignificantintheirparticularity.Itiswith
particularbeings,whetherasingledeer,badger,rock,ortree,thatengagement
happens.Animistbeliefsandpracticesareparticularaswellfromonesocietytothe
next.

Harveyarguesforthedevelopmentofnewtermstoexpressnewandnewly

discoveredideas.Forexampleknowingbodiescanbeusedtoindicatetheembodied
natureofbrains,selves,andconsciousness.Manyoftheseanimistideasarecurrently
reflectedbymodernWesternsocietyinartandotherworksoftheimagination.The
authorsandreadersofmodernliterarymovementssuchasmagicalrealismandanimist
realism,emanatingfromrecentlycolonizedpartsoftheworld,resistdisenchantment
andcontinuetoenjoylivinginaworldthatisnotreducedtobeingahumanartefact.
(207)

41

Ingold,Tim.RethinkingtheAnimate,ReAnimatingThought.Ethnos71,no.1(2006):
920.

Animism(is)traditionallyunderstoodastheimputationoflifetoinertobjects

thatdescribesatypicallywesternhabit,thoughusuallyappliedtoindigenouspeoples.
Ingoldarguesthattheconventionalunderstandingismisleadingbecauseanimismisa
conditionofbeingandnotasystemofbeliefsandthat,duetothefluidnatureofreality,
animacyisalsoaconditionwithrootspriortoanymaterialdifferentiation.Animistic
ontologycanbemoreaccuratelyunderstoodasawayofbeingthatisaliveandopento
aworldincontinuousbirth.(9)

IngolddiscussesevidencethatWesternartistssuchasPaulKleeandMerleau
Pontyintheirjournalssometimesdescribeasimilaropenness.
Thepaintersrelationtotheworld,MerleauPontywrites,isnota
simple,physicalopticalone.Thatis,hedoesnotgazeuponaworldthat
isfiniteandcomplete,andproceedtofashionarepresentationofit.
Rather,therelationisoneofcontinuedbirththeseareMerleau
Pontysverywordsasthoughateverymomentthepainteropenedhis
eyestotheworldforthefirsttime.Hisvisionisnotofthingsinaworld,
butofthingsbecomingthings,andoftheworldbecomingaworld.(12)
Ingoldgoesontodescribeanimicrelationsasoccurringontrailalongwhichlife
islivedandnotassomethingthatoccursbetweentheorganismhereandthe
environmentthere.(13)Movementinthiscaseisprimary.Knowingisrelatedto
being,embeddedintheveryexperienceofbeingalive.Bywayofcontrast,Ingoldstates
thatempiricalscienceasawayofknowingrestsuponanimpossiblefoundation

42

(becauseitsmethodsattempttoplaceinquiry)aboveandbeyondtheveryworldit
claimstounderstand.(19)

Irvine,Leslie.IfYouTameMe:UnderstandingOurConnectionWithAnimals.
Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,2004.

Irvinesbookbeginswiththepremisethatanimalsareemotionalandfeeling

beingsandmakestheargumentthatanimalshelpshapeouridentitiesinrelationship
becausetheyhaveselveswithwhichourselvesrelate.Thedimensionsofthisselfhood
aremutuallyapprehendedandstrengthenedduringintersubjectiveinteractionthat
exercisesandchallengesourrelationshipandemotionalskills.Irvinearguesthatanimals
areconsciousindividuals;theyarenotinterchangeableandtheyareselfawareina
differentwaythanweare.

Irvineborrowsthespecificelementsofacoreselfthatwesharewithother

animalsfromWilliamJamesfourfeaturesofI,refinedwithpreverbalinfantstudies.
Theelementsareagency(selfcontrol),coherence(integrity),affectivity(emotional
capacity),andcontinuity(selfhistory).Thelastelement,continuity,connects,through
memory,theotherthreeintoanindividualsubjectivityorindividualselfthat
intersubjectivelyinteractswithotherselves.Noticethatnoneofthisreliesonspoken
language;ourabilitytotalkaboutitdoes,butnotourabilitytohavetheinteractive
relationships,sharingintentions,feelings,andthoughtswithnonhumanothers.
AccordingtoIrvine,intentionscanbeindividualorshared,feelingsareemotional
states,andthoughtsinthiscontextcanbeunderstoodasthefocusofattention.

43

Irvinediscussesexamplesofthesesharedexperiences.Playbehavior,for

instance,isahighlycomplexandcoordinatedactivityinwhichcommunicating
intentionsandinterpretingtheintentionsofothersiscrucial.Amoodorcontextmust
beestablishedthatcreatesaprotectiveframe,oftenwithsignalssuchasthecanine
playbow.ThefamouscountinghorseCleverHanswasdiscoveredtobeaccurately
readingtheemotionalsignalsfromthepeoplewhocametoseehimperform.Inthis
way,heknewwhenthecorrectanswerwasreached.Wesharethefocusofattention
withdogswhenwemakeeyecontactinordertocheckin.Dogsguidethefocusof
humanattentiontothedoororafooddish,indicatingclearlywhatisonthedogsmind
orwhatthedoghopeswillhappen.

OthertopicsdiscussedbyIrvineincludeanimaldomestication,thetwentieth

centurytransitionfrompettocompanionanimal,animalrelationshipsasresources
forhumanselfconstruction,andsomeofthedeepimplicationsforsocietyin
consideringanimalsasotherselves.

Marchant,Jennifer.AnAdvocate,aDefender,anIntimate:KristevasImaginary
FatherinFictionalGirlAnimalRelationships.ChildrensLiteratureAssociation
Quarterly30.1(2005):315.

Inthisarticle,Marchantdiscussesfictionalbondsbetweenadolescentgirl

protagonistsandanimalsasavitalpartofthepsychicdevelopmentforthehuman
protagonist,providingamodelfortheadolescentreadernavigatingthesamecurrents.
Duringthisperiodofadolescentdevelopment,calledabjection,boundariesare

44

redefined,astheyounggirlismovingfromtheperiodofunitywithhermotherto
greaterautonomyandintegrationintheadultsocialorder.
AccordingtoMarchant,theanimals(dogs,horses,andadragon)appearingin
hersamplebooksareKristevanImaginaryFatherfigures,fathermotherconglomerates
withwhomadirectandimmediateidentificationismade,whoprovideadeeply
satisfyinglovewithboundaries,andwhoreflectandsupportegoidealsandadult
standards.Althoughaddressingarealneedintheyoungreaderslife,itseemslikely
that,forsomereaders,atleast,muchoftheattractionisintheprotagonistanimalbond
itself.(14)

Morgenstern,John.ChildrenandOtherTalkingAnimals.TheLionandtheUnicorn24
(2000):110127.

Childrensliteratureiswidelyconsideredtobesimple.Inordertounderstand

whatconstitutesthissimplicity,MorgensterncomparesC.S.Lewisuseoftalking
animalsinhischildrensbooks(ChroniclesofNarnia,19501956)andhisadultscience
fictionSpaceTrilogyincludingOutoftheSilentPlanet(1938).Heconcludesfromthe
textsandfromLewisownstatementsininterviews,thatLewisdeliberatelyremoved
uncomfortableambiguitiesabouttalkinganimalsfromhischildrensbooks,andthatthis
itselfsimplifiesthestory.Theambiguousfeelingsthemselvesaredescribedasdisgust
aboutembodimentanduneasinessabouttheunclearboundariesbetweenhumansand
animals.

Morgensterndistinguishesbetweenananimalthattalks,aflatcharacterization

thatevokesdelight,andanalientalker,whomoneistemptedtothinkofasaman,and

45

whothereforebecomesabominable.Thedifferencesaresubtle.Whatisbeing
assertedhereisadifferencethatisnotreallyadifferenceintheanimalthattalksbut,as
Lewispointsout,adifferenceinthepointofviewoftheobserver.(112)Lewismakes
another,relatedpoint:ifoneisaccustomedtomorethanonerationalspecies(112)
thenthereisnoproblem.

Nagel,Thomas.Whatisitliketobeabat?ThePhilosophicalReview,LXXXIII,4
(October1974):435450.

Nageldescribesconsciousexperienceasawidespreadphenomenon,

attributingittomanylevelsofanimallifeandyet,asheacknowledges,itishardto
knowwhatevidencetocaptureormeasureobjectivelyinsupportofitsexistence.
Certainlyawakingconsciousexperiencethroughanorganismssenseperceptions
meansthatitissomethingitisliketobethatorganism.Nagelusestheexampleofa
bat;theyaremammalsandyettheirexperienceisverydifferentfromahumanonedue
toitssensoryapparatusanddailyactivities.Thisproblemofaccuratelyapprehending
anothersexperienceappearsintractable;thatis,wecannotcapturetheexperienceof
anotherwithcurrentmethodsofobjectivescience.

Theproblemisnotjustspeciestospecies,butindividualtoindividual.Because

weareunabletoseparateourselvesfromourownsubjectivity,wecannotobjectively
approachanothers.Everysubjectivephenomenonisessentiallyconnectedwitha
singlepointofview,anditseemsinevitablethatanobjective,physicaltheorywill
abandonthatpointofview.(38)Nagelconcludeshisinfluentialarticlebypredicting
thatwemayneverbesatisfiedthatweknowanotherorganismspointofviewfully,and

46

that,sincewearerestrictedtotheresourcesofourownmind,wemustrelyonour
imaginationatpresenttodescribeanotherssubjectivepointofview.

Ristau,CarolynA.ed.CognitiveEthology:TheMindsofOtherAnimals:essaysinhonorof
DonaldR.Griffin.Hillsdale,NewJersey:LawrenceErlbaumAssoc.,1991.

PartofaseriescalledComparativeCognitionandNeuroscience;thepapers

collectedherearefroma1987symposiuminanimalcognition,authoredbyresearchers
andphilosophersincognitiveethology.ColinG.Beeraddressesfolkpsychologicalterms
andconcepts,pointingoutthatthephilosophicaldefinitionofintentionalityisbroader
thanthatusedbycognitiveethologists.Hewondersiflanguagebasedcriteriaare
anthropocentricandwhethertheycanbetranslatedintononlinguisticterms.Jonathan
Bennettalsodiscussestheintentionalanalysisofbehavior,advocatingmultiple
approachesasawayofdevelopingaricherpicture.GeorgF.Michelcoversmanyofthe
concernsabouttheoverrichnessoffolkpsychologicalterminologyanditsfailureto
predicthumanbehavior.EchoingThomasNagel,SonjaI.YoergandAlanC.Kamilremind
usthatonecannothavedirectevidenceofanothersconsciousness.Theauthorsdrawa
lineofinfluencefromCharlesDarwintoDonaldGriffin;bothargueforthelikelihoodof
mentalcontinuityacrossanimalspeciesgiventheevolutionarycontinuityofsomany
otherprocessesandstructures.
Othercontributorsdiscussspecificstudiesofconsciouschimpanzeebehavior
(AllisonJolly),artificiallanguageacquisitioninparrots(IrenePepperberg),andfalse
signalingbehavior(DorothyL.CheneyandRobetM.Seyfarth;PeterMarler,Stephen
Karakashian,andMarcelGyger;W.JohnSmith).CarolynA.RistauandGordonM.

47

Burghardteachapplythefolkpsychologicaltermintentionalstancetotheanti
predatorfeintingbehaviorofshorebirds(Ristau)andhognosesnakes(Burghardt),
pointingoutthepurposefulorfunctionalqualityofthebehaviorandarguingthat
successfuloutcomesleadtoreinforcementthat,overevolutionarytime,maysupport
morevoluntarycontrol.
DonaldGriffinsurveystheprimarycriticismsofcognitiveethology,includingfluid
termdefinitionsandunevencriticalstandards,thebeliefthatconsciousthinkinghasno
effectonbehavior,thecommondismissalofanyevidenceofconsciousthinkingin
nonhumananimals,andtheaprioriassumptionthatsubjectivitycanneverbeknown.
Thesediscouragingpositionsshouldbeignored,arguesGriffin.Instead,cognitive
ethologistsshouldworktoclarifyelementarydefinitionsofconsciousnessappliedto
animalsbyworkingonsimplecasesandaskingwhatfunctionsareservedbybehaviors.
Inparticular,findingsofcognitivecreativityandenterprisesupporttheviewthat
animalshaveatleastanelementaryconsciousness.

WhiteJr.,Lynn.TheHistoricalRootsofOurEcologicCrisis.Science155,no.3767
(1967):12031207.

Infoursuccinctpages,historianLynnWhitediscussesthetremendousimpact

humanshavehadonthenaturalenvironmentthroughtime,particularlyinNorthern
andWesternEurope.AccordingtoWhite,Christianaxioms,suchasthatofdominion,
createdanattitudeofindifferencetothedestructionofthenaturalworld,and
combinedwiththeIndustrialAgefusionofscienceandtechnology,acceleratedthat
destruction,producingthecurrentenvironmentalcrisis.

48

Fromthemedievalinventionofheavierandmoredestructiveplowsthat

resultedinchanginglanddistributionsystemstothetechnicalsuperioritythatmade
possibletheplunderingoftheknownworldbythesmall,mutuallyhostilenationsof
Europe,Westernskillsinthedevelopmentofpowermachinery,laborsavingdevices,
andautomationremainedconsistent,continuingintothepresentday.

Forthesedeeplyentrenchedreasons,Whiteargues,theapplicationofmore

scienceandtechnologywillnotavertfurthercrises;rootcausesforourbeliefsand
actionsmustbeunderstood.WhitedeclaresthatthetriumphofChristianityover
paganismwasthegreatestpsychicrevolutioninthehistoryofourcultureand
Christianbeliefs,profoundlyconditioningourviewsonhumannatureanddestiny,must
bereexamined.

Wynne,CliveD.L.DoAnimalsThink?Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2004.

Wynnesbookcontainschaptersdetailinganimalstudiesinavarietyofareas,

includingprimatelearning,languageexperiments,andproblemsolving;sensory
perceptionsofbats;insectcommunication;thesymbolicmeaningsandrolesofpigeons
invariouscultures;artificiallanguageacquisitioninbirds;anddolphinperceptionand
intelligence.Heusesmanyexamplesthroughouttosupporthiscontentionthat
nonhumananimalsarenotintelligentorconsciousintheuniquewaythathumansare,
butthatmuchcanbeobjectivelyunderstoodaboutthenatureandrealityofanimals
andthatmuchissharedbetweenhumansandotheranimals.

49

Manyofthedisagreementsaboutanimalawareness,cognition,andintelligence

revolvearoundwhichqualitiesandcapacitiesaresharedandwhichdistinctfrom
speciestospecies,andinparticular,whatcharacteristicsareuniquetohumanbeings.
Tohelpinclarifyingthisimportantquestion,Wynneintroduceswhathecallsthe
SimilaritySandwich,athreelayerframeworkforunderstandingsimilaritiesand
differences.Thebottom(bread)layerasksthequestion,whatisdifferent?Allspecies
aredifferent,generallybasedonvarietyinanatomyandsenseperceptions.Themiddle,
orfixins,layerasks,whatisshared?Someinstinctsandcertaincognitivecapacitieslike
basicmemoryandconceptformationseemtobesimilaracrossawidespectrumof
animallife.Thetop(bread)asks,whatisnearlyuniqueinhumans?Here,Wynne
suggests,canbeplacedtheuseofcomplexlanguageandanindependentself
awareness.

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APPENDIXA:SURVEYSAMPLE

Thefollowingisachronologicallistofthe46titlessurveyed.Theyweretaken
fromthreebibliographiesofrecommendedbooksaboutpetspublishedonthewebsite
oftheUniversityofIllinoisCenterforChildrensBooks.Theoriginalbibliographieswere
accessedinFebruary2010athttp://ccb.lis.illinois.edu/bibliographies.html.

George,JeanCraighead.HowtoTalktoYourCat.NewYork:HarperCollinsPublishers,
2000.

George,JeanCraighead.HowtoTalktoYourDog.NewYork:HarperCollinsPublishers,
2000.

Adoff,Arnold.DaringDogandCaptainCat.NewYork:Simon&SchusterBooksfor
YoungReaders,2001.

Cowley,Joy.AgapanthusHumandMajorBark.NewYork:PhilomelBooks,2001.

Graham,Bob.LetsGetaPup!SaidKate.Cambridge,Mass.:CandlewickPress,2001.

Holub,Joan.WhyDoCatsMeow?NewYork:DialBooksforYoungReaders,2001.

Holub,Joan.WhyDoDogsBark?NewYork:DialBooksforYoungReaders,2001.

Simont,Marc.TheStrayDog.NewYork:HarperCollins,2001.

Harvey,Amanda.DogEared.NewYork:DoubledayBookforYoungReaders,2002.

Collicott,Sharleen.ToestomperandtheBadButterflies.Boston:HoughtonMifflin,2003.

Cullen,Lynn.LittleScragglyHair:ADogonNoahsArk.NewYork:HolidayHouse,2003.

Farish,Terry.TheCatWhoLikedPotatoSoup.Cambridge,Mass.:CandlewickPress,
2003.

Florian,Douglas.BowWowMeowMeow:ItsRhymingCatsandDogs.SanDiego:
Harcourt,2003.

Lee,HoBaek.WhileWeWereOut.LaJolla,Calif.:Kane/Miller,2003.

51

Little,Jean.Emma'sStrangePet.NewYork:HarperCollins,2003.

Luthardt,Kevin.Peep!Atlanta:Peachtree,2003.

Palatini,Margie.ThePerfectPet.NewYork:HarperCollinsPublishers,2003.

Provensen,Alice.ADayintheLifeofMurphy.NewYork:Simon&SchusterBooksfor
YoungReaders,2003.

Sidman,Joyce.TheWorldaccordingtoDog:PoemsandTeenVoices.Boston,Mass.:
HoughtonMifflin,2003.

Finney,Patricia.I,Jack.NewYork:HarperCollins,2004.

Horowitz,Ruth.BigSurpriseintheBugTank.NewYork:DialBooksforYoungReaders,
2004.

Joosse,BarbaraM.BadDogSchool.NewYork:ClarionBooks,2004.

Nolan,Lucy.DownGirlandSit:SmarterThanSquirrels.NewYork:MarshallCavendish,
2004.

So,Meilo.Gobble,Gobble,Slip,Slop:ATaleofaVeryGreedyCat.NewYork:AlfredA.
Knopf,2004.

Turner,PamelaS.Hachiko:TheTrueStoryofaLoyalDog.Boston:HoughtonMifflin,
2004.

Gretz,Susanna.RileyandRoseinthePicture.Cambridge,Mass.:CandlewickPress,2005.

Kuskin,Karla.So,WhatsItLiketobeaCat?NewYork:AtheneumBooksforYoung
Readers,2005.

Nolan,Lucy.DownGirlandSit:OntheRoad.NewYork:MarshallCavendish,2005.

Rodowsky,Colby.TheNextDoorDog.NewYork:FarrarStrausandGiroux,2005.

Shyer,MarleneFanta.FleabiscuitSings!NewYork:MarshallCavendish,2005.

Fine,Anne.TheDiaryofaKillerCat.NewYork:FarrarStrausandGiroux,2006.

Howe,James.HoundsleyandCatinaandtheBirthdaySurprise.Cambridge,Mass.:
CandlewickPress,2006.

52

Kelleher,Victor.Dogboy.Asheville,N.C.:FrontStreet,2006.

MacLachlan,Patricia.OnceIAteaPie.NewYork:Cotler/HarperCollins,2006.

Sidman,Joyce.MeowRuff:AStoryinConcretePoetry.Boston:HoughtonMifflin,2006.

Smith,D.James.ProbablytheWorld'sBestStoryaboutaDogandtheGirlWhoLoved
Me.NewYork:AtheneumBooksforYoungReaders,2006.

Calmenson,Stephanie.MayIPetYourDog?TheHowtoGuideforKidsMeetingDogs
(andDogsMeetingKids).NewYork:ClarionBooks,2007.

Friend,Catherine.ThePerfectNest.Cambridge,Mass.:CandlewickPress,2007.

Harper,ChariseMericle.FashionKittyversustheFashionQueen.NewYork:Hyperion
PaperbacksforChildren,2007.

Hicks,BarbaraJean.TheSecretLifeofWalterKitty.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2007.

Jenkins,Steve.DogsandCats.Boston:HoughtonMifflinCo.,2007.

O'Connor,Barbara.HowtoStealaDog.NewYork:FarrarStrausandGiroux,2007.

Straight,Susan.TheFriskativeDog.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2007.

Umansky,Kaye.IDon'tLikeGloria!Cambridge,Mass.:CandlewickPress,2007.

VanFleet,Matthew.Dog.NewYork:Simon&SchusterBooksforYoungReaders,2007.

Ward,Helen.LittleMoonDog.NewYork:DuttonChildrensBooks,2007.

53