GLOSSARY

OF TERMS USED IN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE: Style, Form, Language

STYLE
ALLEGORY The presentation of an idea or subject, not directly, but by means of symbol. This means allegory can be
understood at two levels: the obvious one where a story is told, and the deeper one where the meaning lies. An examples of
allegory is Orwells Animal Farm, which on the surface is a story about power struggles between animals in a farmyard, but at
a deeper level in concerned with the abuse of power by totalitarian governments. (Usually context behind it).
AMBIGUITY A situation where a statement could have more than one possible meaning. This occurs because of poor
grammatical structure, vague expression, or misplaced words.

Ambiguous

She told her sister she had passed the exam.

(Its not clear which person passed.)

Unambiguous

She congratulated her sister on passing the exam.

ANALOGY The drawing of a comparison between things between things that are partially similar; for example, comparing
the human brain to the computer, or the heart to a mechanical pump.
ATMOSPHERE The creation of a particular environment in which feelings, actions, and descriptions all combine to convey a
definite impression which can usually be summed up from one word, such as eerie suspenseful, happy, shocking
BATHOS A failed attempt to arouse feelings of the audience by an extravagant appeal to the emotions of pity, sympathy,
and grief. Bathos usually causes laughter, where the author plainly intended the audience to be deeply moved.
BIAS The tendency to present one side of an argument unfairly or to be so prejudiced that valid points on the other side are
ignored or dismissed without fair consideration.
BLANK VERSE Poetry containing rhythm pattern but no rhyme. It is often written in Iambic Pentameter. Blank verse is used
in Shakespeares plays.
COMEDY A television programme, film or stage drama of a happy, cheerful and humorous type, which aims to entertain
and amuse the audience. Sometimes a basically serious or traffic work will include passages of comedy. When these passages
relieve the tension or give the audience breathing space from the dramatic events they are said to provide comic relief.
(See also Farce, Melodrama, Theatre of the absurd and Tragi-Comedy)
CONTRAST The setting of one idea or image against another is order to emphasise some particular quality, as in this
example: I turned from the rough, harsh glare of the noonday sun to enter the cool, soft darkness of the cave.
DRAMA Words written to be interpreted by actors under the control of director. This drama may be performed on stage in
a theatre, appear on television, or be shown on the screen in a cinema. Drama is usually constructed in a series of scenes, an
in the theatre these are broken into one or more acts. The writers only have life when they are performed, so drama is one
of the performing arts.
EMPATHY -- The close understanding and sharing of another persons feeling and experience. In colloquial terms, to
empathise is to pt. oneself in someone elses shows. Empathy is not to be confused with sympathy, which is feeling sorrow
or compassion for someone else.
FARCE The presentation of drama with situations and characters that are ridiculous mockeries of real life, so that the
audience laughs at the utter absurdity and unreality created.
FEELING An emotional response created in audience. It is closely related to mood and atmosphere.
FICTION An imaginary and creative piece of prose writing. The longest form of fiction is the novel.
FORMULA WRITING Also called genre writing, is writing with a set framework where certain conventions of plot,
characterisation, and setting must be followed. Categories of formula writing include romance novels, westerns, mysteries
science fiction and thrillers.
GENERALISATION An all-inclusive statement made about an entire category of people or things, where no allowance is
made for any exceptions to the rule, although these exceptions may exist. These sweeping statements are often presented as
facts during argument. Examples are: all students hate exams; every small dog will yap.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE: Style, Form, Language

IRONY Subtle mockery or humour that implies the opposite to the normal or apparent meaning. Irony is not meant to be
taken at face value: the audience is expected to realise that there is another, opposing meaning under the surface of words.
An example is the opening paragraph in Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice. (See Sarcasm)
JARGON The technical words of a field or subject, also referred to as a metalanguage or technical language. Jargon is
particularly used when writers and speakers are conveying specialised information to specific audiences.
LEVELS OF LANGUAGE also referred to as register, this classifies he formality of language used in a text. The register may be
formal, informal, slang, or colloquial. We can determine the level of language by examining the vocabulary chose and the
style of syntax.
MELODRAMA A dramatic production similar to farce with sensational and exaggerated actions, characters and events.
Melodrama follows a formula that demands stock characters such as the evil villain, the pure heroine, and the brave hero.
MOOD A state of mind made up of certain feelings and emotions created in the audience by the words of a writer or, in
case of drama, the interaction of words and actions presented by actors. Mood is closely related to atmosphere and feeling.
For example, an atmosphere of hopelessness and a feeling of sadness may create a mood of despair.
OBJECTIVE VIEWPOINT -- A stance/point of view which is neutral. Thus, ab argument is presented from two sides with a
balanced perspective.
PATHOS -- A quality which arouses feelings of strong pity and sympathy for someone or setting.
PROPAGANDA A concentrate and one sided presentation o facts, ideas, and opinions to persuade people to accept a
particular point of view held by an organisation or movement. Propaganda selects only the evidence that supports one
viewpoint, and ignores or distorts any opposing arguments.
REGISTER The selection of appropriate language to suit particular purpose of communication, the situation and the
audience.
SATIRE A poem, novel, play or film in which a sustained attack is made upon some wickedness, fault, or pretension in
society. The folly or abuse is held up to ridicule, the aim being not only to reveal it, but to cause changes in attitudes and
action against it. Examples of satire include The Loved One by Evelyn Waugh and Catch 22 by Joseph Heller.
STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS A technique in writing where the thoughts of characters are reported, not as a logical
sequence, but as they occur in real life a stream of impressions, stray thoughts, reminiscences, and associations. Writers
such as James Joyce and Virginia Wolf have used this technique.
STYLE The term applies to two areas; (1) individual style a persons personal and distinctive way of writing and speaking;
(2) literary style a particular form of writing used for a specific purpose, audience, and literary form. Novels written in the
th
18 century, for example use a different style to those written today. The style of romance novel will be different to that of a
serious exploration of society. Some of the words that can be used to describe styles are: dignified, ornate, elaborate, clear,
elegant, animated humorous, witty, terse abrupt, simple.
SUBJECTIVE VIEWPOINT A point of view which is biased because it presents ideas about the subject from one
perspective/argument.
TONE (1) in spoken language the pattern of pitch and stress that provides the listener with information as to speakers
attitude and feelings. For example, spoken tone can be sarcastic, pitiful, angry, bored, enthusiastic, doubtful, ect; (2) in
written language the reader must rely on style, vocabulary and structure to establish the writers attitude to subject. It
sometimes helps to imagine the writer is reading the word aloud, and to ask yourself what tone of voice would be used.
TRAGEDY A serious and sombre exploration of human life with an unhappy ending, where either fate or personal failing
brings about the destruction of the main characters or character. This term is usually taken as referring to drama, but can
include other forms of literature. Examples of tragedies Julius Caesar and Death of a Salesman.
TRAGI-COMEDY A drama where the characters undergo tragic events, usually ending with death or disaster, but the
construction of the play contains approximately equal proportions of tragic and comic scenes, the juxtaposing of which
creates strong contrasts. A Tragi-comedy can also be a potentially tragic story that has an unexpected happy ending.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE: Style, Form, Language

FORM
ANACHRONISM Placing an event, a person or a thing out of the correct historical meaning; for example, having J. Caesar
use a phone.
ANTITHESIS A form of contrast, where opposing ideas are balanced against each other; for example, many are called by few
are chosen.
ARGUMENT The marshalling a series of points with supporting evidence with the intention of convincing the audience of
the truth of some statement or idea.
AUDIENCE The person or persons to whom the speaker or writer addresses his or her communication. For example, the
audience for a personal diary is the person who writes it; the audience for a sermon is a congregation; the audience for the
newspaper is the general public.
AUTOBIOGRAPHY Taken from the Greek auto (self), bio (life) and graph (drawn or written), it is an account of ones own
life, usually published in book form. The author may receive further unacknowledged help in the writing from a ghost writer.
BIOGRAPHY A written account of a persons life. This individual is usually of some importance or interest because of his or
her role in society, history, politics, financial affairs, culture, etc.
BALLAD A narrative poem composed of short verses telling the story of some person or romantic historical event.
CHATHARSIS Taken from Greek word meaning cleansing, it is a term from ancient Greek tragedy referring to the effect that
occurs when an audience is so overwhelmed by pity and fear that the very intensity of the emotions ultimately causes a
feeling of relief.
CHARACTERISATION The creation and presentation of characters who appear as believable personalities capable of sae
development and changes as real people.
CLIMAX The peak to which ideas and actions build in a play, novel or poem. A series of events builds up to a climax, which is
the most exciting, important or tense point, and should occur near the end. A climax can generate into an anti-climax if
details are added that weaken the climax and allow it to slide to a disappointing conclusion.
CONFLICT The clash of ideas and/or personalities which provides tension and interest in a drama, novel, or film. Inner
conflict describes the fight between a persons conscience and desires. A person may also be in conflict with the
environment; for example, he or she may be dying of thirst in a desert, or freezing in a snowstorm. Conflict is an essential
component, as without it there is very little to hold an audiences attention.
CONTEXT The surrounding words and circumstances of a written or spoken message. Words do not exist in a vacuum, but
are connected to the situation in which they occur; for example, the exclamation help would mean one thing if used by
someone trying to untangle a piece of string, but something else if the person was rapidly sinking in quicksand.
CRITICISM A systematic examination and analysis of any form of communication to discover its strength, weaknesses and
achievements.
DENOUEMENT Literally meaning unite a knot, it is the term given to the unravelling of the motivations and actions of
characters after the principal climax of play, novel or film had occurred. The denouement can also be referred to as the
resolution. An examples would be Arthur Millers The Crucible, in which the denouement is within the title as an allegory for
the burning of metals to its natural elements.
DRAMATIC IRONY A situation where the words and actions of the character in a pay have more significance for the
audience than for the players on the stage because the audience has a special knowledge of some significant fact. For
example, in Shakespeares Macbeth King Duncan comments on the warm and welcoming atmosphere of Macbeths castle,
unaware that his murder is planned for that very night.
DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE A form of poetry where the writer creates a personality, who in direct speech, reveals his or her
character, motivations, and actions. An examples is Robert Brownings poem My Last Duchess. (See also Persona)
ELEGY A poem with a serious and dignified tone expressing mourning and sad reflection on death. One of the most famous
in English literature is Thomas Grays Elegy Written in a Country Courtyard.
GHOST WRITER The unacknowledged, bit actual, author who writes are manuscript, but whose name does not appear on
the book The person apparently does not exist, so is therefore a ghost. Ghost writers are often used to write the auto

GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE: Style, Form, Language

biographers of popular entertainers, who have neither the skill nor the time to do it themselves. A good example is Sense
and Sensibility where the original copy had By a Girl. As the composer where we know now it is Jane Austen.
LYRIC POETRY Poetry that expresses thoughts and emotions. Lyric is a word derived from the Greek word Lyre, an
instrument played as an accompaniment to recited verse, so lyric poetry is associated with rhythm and music. Forms of lyric
poetry include a sonnet, ode, and elegy
NON DE PLUME Taken from French and literally meaning name of the pen, it is a pen-name taken by a writer. Rather than
use his or her real name, the author invents a name for publication.
NOVEL A long fictional prose narrative with a structure that examines in detail the actions, thoughts, motivations and life
experiences of one or more characters, in process developing the writers theme or themes.
ODE -- Originally ( in ancient Greece) a poem intended to be sung the term now refers to lyric poem written in a series
(verses) of stanzas (verses) that follow a set rhyming pattern.
PERSONA Taken from the Greek word meaning mask, it is the personality that a writer or speaker pretends to be, especially
in poetry, where the poet will assume the personality of an imaginary character in order to create convincing images of a
certain time and place. An example is T.S Elliots The Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock. (See also Dramatic Monologue).
PLOT The main story of a play, novel, short story, or poem. The plot is made up of the sequence of events that provides the
frame work of the story.
POERTY Written or spoken English that has a regular pattern of rhythm and/or rhyme. Poetry is usually presented in
stanzas or verses.
PROSE - Ordinary written or spoken English, without any particular pattern of meter or rhyme.
PROTAGONIST A term used to describe the principle character or character in a play or novel through whom the action and
theme are expressed.
PURPOSE - The intention behind written or spoken communication. The purpose may be to inform, explain, persuade,
entertain, etc.
RESOLUTION see Denouement
SHORT STORY A concise and concentrated form of fictional writing, usually centred around one character, event, or theme.
Within the constraints set by length, a short story must concisely develop the plot to a climax and then provide an acceptable
resolution.
SOLILOQUY A technique used in drama to allow the audience to know a characters thoughts by having the person, who is
alone on the stage, put them into words as though he or she were thinking out loud. A famous example is To be or not to
be from Shakespeares Hamlet.
SONNET A form of lyric poetry set in a fourteen-line framework, which is generally made up of the octave (first eight lines)
followed by a break of thought as the sestet (last six lines) begin. The last two line usually contain a surprise or twist to the
ideas expressed in the body of the poem.
THEME The main idea behind a poem, film, play speech, or address. The theme may not be apparent immediately, but
should be absolutely clear by the end. Different people may have different ideas about the theme of any particular work, and
this will depend upon each persons life experiences, age, social background, anything else forming individuals values and
opinions.
THEATRE OF THE ABSURD A school of theatre that works on the premise that life is essentially absurd, and that any
attempt to impose some meaning or existence by use or routines, goals, beliefs, etc. is laughable and lacking in any purpose.
One od the most famous examples of this genre is Becketts Waiting for Godot, where the audience is puzzled, often amused,
but eventually baffled.


LANGUAGE

GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE: Style, Form, Language

ALLITERATION The repetition of consonants sounds in consecutive, or nearly consecutive words. An example is: naughty
Neville knocked over Nancys new nardoo. Alliteration is commonly used in poetry to create patters of sound and rhythm.
ALLUSION An indirect reference; it is assumed that the audience is familiar with the reference, which might be to
something or someone in mythology, history, religion and literature. For examples, an allusion to the Sword of Damocles
refers to a Greek legend where the unfortunate Damocles was forced to sit under a sword suspended by a single hair; hence
this allusion implies a situation where there is an immediate threat or danger.
APOSTROPHE As well as being a term for a punctuation mark, this word also refers to a literary techniques where the
speaker or writer suddenly addresses the person or thing no present, the purpose being to concentrate the attention on a
particular idea or emotion. An example is: O death, where is thy sting? O grace where is thy victory?
ASSONANCE The use of similar vowels sounds in words occurring in the same sentence or phrase. The sounds do not have
to be identical but must be close. An example is: How now, brown cow?
CIRCUMLOCUTION A serious fault in expression, where the person goes round and round in circles, either never getting to
the point of communication, or confusing and boring audience so much that the point is not recognised when it is reached.
Circumlocution comes from two Latin words meaning round about and to speak about.
CLICH A tired, worn-out phase or expression that when first used was arresting and effective, but through overuse has
become almost meaningless. Examples include: Dont judge a book by its cover; Better safe than sorry; Actions speak louder
than words.
COLLOCATION The expected pattern or arrangement of words, as is green as grass; how do you do?; point of view. This
habitual grouping of words facilitates rapid reading and removes the necessity to listen carefully to every spoken word.
COLLOQUIAL LANGUAGE The everyday, spoken language used by the majority of people in ordinary communications,
characterised by an informal use of vocabulary and structure. Example Gday mate hows the barbie cookin?. Are Australian
slang terms.
COLOURED LANGUAGE - Also known as persuasive language and emotive language, coloured language uses the resources of
English expression to create emotions in the audience, usually with the intention of changing attitudes and opinions, or to
modify behaviour. Advertising, for examples, uses coloured language to persuade to persuade the audience to buy a product.
CONNOTATION A shade of extra meaning collected by a word as it used n language over a period of time. For example, bad
connotations surround the word reckless, whereas good connotations are suggested by daring. Words can have negative
(bad) connotations, positive (good) connotations or neutral (neither good nor bad) connotations.
CUMULATION The accumulation of images or ideas, one after the other, so that each reinforces the overall effect, thus
achievements. More than if any part were taken by itself.
ELIIPS Often found in poetry, where the structures of rhythm and compressed imagery may demand it, ellipsis is a
construction which omits a word or words necessary to complete a grammatical structure. The context allows the audience
to understand the meaning. In this example from Shakespeares Macbeth the character Macduff has just heard that his wife
and children has been murdered. His exclamation of horror omits several words, but the meaning is clear.

All my pretty ones!

Did you say all? O Hell-kite All?

EMOTIVE LANGUAGE See Coloured Language

EMPHASIS To give increased important or significance to a word, image, or idea so that it stand out in relation to others. In
spoken language this can be achieved by stress, loudness, or intonation. In written language, techniques such as repetition or
juxtaposition can create the emphasis.
ENJAMBMENT A technique in poetry where one line runs over and finishes on the next, as used by the poet Gerard Manly
Hopkins:

It gathers to a greatness, like the ooze of oil.

Crushed

EPIGRAM A small poem or verse containing a wise or witty statement or an ingenious thought.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE: Style, Form, Language

EUPHEMISM A mild, indirect, or vague expression which is used instead of an embarrassing, hard, or upsetting one.
Subjects such as death, excretion, and sex have many euphemisms associated with them. Examples include passing away and
pushing up daises for dying.
FIGURATIVE LANGAUGE The use of words, not with their literal, straightforward meaning, but with another meaning
suggested by the imagination. This extension of meaning occurs with poetic devices such as metaphors, similes, and
personifications. Another term for figurative language is metaphorical language.
HYPERBOLE A deliberately exaggerated statement used to emphasis, but not meant to be taken literally, for example: Ive
told you a million times not to exaggerate!
IAMBI PENTAMETER A pattern of stress or emphasis in poetry where five main accents occur in each line. The word iambi
refer to the most common meter us English poetry, where the second of each two syllables is stressed. Pentameter refers to
the fact that there are five such accents in any one line. Shakespeares plays are written in iambic pentameter. This example
is taken from Fitzgeralds translation of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam:

A book of verses underneath the bough,

A jug of wine, a loaf of bread and thou

IMAGERY - The creation in the imagination of powerful impressions involving the senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell, or
taste. For example, a poet could use language to create un the readers imagination the impression of being in a small yacht
in rough weather, tossed by waves.
INVERSION A change in the normal, expected word order to emphasise or give particular importance to an idea or image,
for example: Not weak am, the force is strong in you, is it not? (Yoda Talk)
JUXTAPOSITION The deliberate placing of two contrasting things (words, scenes, characters, situations) next to each other, so
that the comparison will give strong emphasis. For example a bomb and baby being placed right next to each other.
MALAPROPISM A word taken from the name of a character (Mrs Malaprop) in Sheridans play the Rivals, it applies to the
unintentional, and often humorous, confusion of similar words:

I never forget anything because I have a photogenic memory.

My optimist says I need spectacles.

METAPHOR A comparison in which two things are identified with each other, the intention being to highlight in a particular
quality the two share. In the metaphor he is a lion in battle a comparison is drawn between the bravery of the person and the
behaviour of a lion. An extended metaphor (also called a sustained metaphor) occurs when the comparison is continued with
associated comparisons. In the following example of an extended metaphor the comparison is between the sea and crowd.

He looked down at the sea of faces in the square. Suddenly a current ran through the crowd, and a tide a of humanity
swept up the steps of the building. Waves of screaming people flowed into the hall below.
METONYMY The substitution of one single word to stand for an idea, as in the saying: the pen is mightier than the sword.
Taken literally, the statement is nonsense, but the audience understand that the pen and sword stand for concepts. (See
Symbolism.)
METER Also spelt metre, this term applies to any regular division of verse into units of stressed and unstressed syllables.
Each unit may be referred to as a foot, so a line is made up several feet. The most common meters in English are iambi,
trochaic, anapaestic, and dactylic.
NON VERBAL CUES Signal/cues, which arent spoken, that extend, accentuate or contradict the words of a speaker. These
include facial expressions, hand gestures, body language and symbols in the setting.
ONOMATOPOEIA The creation or use of words that attempt to sound like the thing they represent, for example purr, buzz
and tinkle. Onomatopoeic words are sometimes called echoic words because they attempt to echo a sound.
OXYMORON A statement which makes an apparently contradictory assertion, as in more haste, less speed, the effect being to
catch and concentrate attention.
PARADOX A statement which seems to be absurd, but, upon closer examination, proves to be logical; for example; you have
to be cruel to be kind.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE: Style, Form, Language

PARODY A close but mocking imitation of a writers work or style. It is an obvious send-up.
PERSONIFICATION A form of metaphor where abstract ideas or inanimate objects are treated as if they were people, each
with separate personality and all the qualities of a real character. A capital letter is often used to indicate personification, as in:

Now it is Loneliness who comes at night

Instead of sleep, to sit beside my bed.

PUN A deliberate play on words for humorous reasons, as in; life depends on the liver. Puns rely on the fact that English words
often have more than one meaning.
REDUNDANCY An error in expression where unnecessary words are used, as in: she ascended up the mountain while he
descended down. The words up and down are redundant. (See Tautology)
REPETITION The deliberate use of a word, idea, phrase, or image over and over again, the aim being to increase the impact or
to reinforce the overall impression. Repetition is a serious fault if not used carefully and sparingly. This example is by Coleridge:

Alone, alone, all, all alone,

Alone on a wide, wide sea!

RHETORICAL QUESTION A question that is posed to evoke thought, rather than for a direct response.
RHYME Words or syllables that have the same, or very similar, sounds; for example, gun, shun, one, run.
RHYTHM A regular patterns of stresses and pauses in language, where words and syllables receive more emphasis than others.
SARCASM The use of sneering or cutting remarks to indicate disapproved or condemnation. Sarcasm is spoken and is indicated
by tone of voice and supported by non-verbal cues, such as a raised eyebrow or bitter smile. An example would be to say, That
was very smart! when someone has done something particularly stupid. It is important not to confuse sarcasm with irony.
SMILE Comparison where the words like or as appear, as in: he is as mischievous as a monkey and she moved like lightning.
STEREOTYPE An oversimplified and conventional idea or image, used to label or define people while ignoring individual
differences. In advertising the stereotypes include the typical family made up of standard models of father, mother, two
children (one of each sex), a cat, and a dog. In literature, formula writing often uses standard characters to fit into the rigid plot
outline. In drama, the characters in melodrama are the stereotyped heroine, hero, and villain.
SYMBOLISM - The representation of an idea by one image, which actually stands for more than the word itself means. Examples
include a dove standing for peace, a cross standing for Christianity, and a skull and crossbones indicating danger. (See Metonymy)
TAUTOLOGY The unintentional and useless repetition of ideas, using different words. Tautology often causes irritation or
sometimes amusement in the audience. Examples are : I will reiterate again, she advanced forward, Todays Contemporary society.
UNDERSTATEMENT The deliberate presentation of something as being less important than is, in fact, the case. The effect of
understatement can be to emphasise something; in context, this low-key presentation can focus attention upon the subjects.
Extreme modesty, such as when a conspicuously heroic person says It was nothing, really is an example of understatement.
VERBOSITY From a Latin words meaning Full of words, verbosity is a serious fault in expression where far too many words are
used. Verbose expression is the opposite of concise, brief, and clear communication. (See also Circumlocution and Tautology.