31 2 2009

107 116

J. Geotherm.
Res.Soc.Japan
Vol.31. No.2(2009)
P.107P.116

The Gravity Anomaly of Ungaran Volcano, Indonesia:

Analysis and Interpretation
Agus SETYAWAN*, **, Sachio EHARA***, Yasuhiro FUJIMITSU***
Jun NISHIJIMA***, Hakim SAIBI*** and Essam ABOUD****

(Received 18 June 2008, Accepted 2 October 2008)

Abstract
Ungaran Volcano is located in the province of Central Java, Indonesia, and is a Quaternary volcano that consists of older
and younger volcanoes. The older Ungaran volcano formed over 500,000 years ago, and the younger volcano was active until
300,000 years ago. The younger volcano seems to have been constructed inside a caldera formed by the older Ungaran activity.
In this study, gravity data was used in an attempt to determine the exact location of the younger and older Ungaran volcanoes,
and to investigate the relationship between fault structure and geothermal manifestations.
A positive Bouguer anomaly was observed over the volcanic body. From detailed analysis of the gravity data, high
anomalies were located over the northern part of the summit that correlate with the older Ungaran volcano. Various
interpretation methods, such as horizontal gradient analysis, spectral analysis, and 2-D forward modeling, were applied to the
gravity data. The younger Quaternary volcanic rocks, which consist of hornblende-augite-andesite (andesite lava) of the
Gajahmungkur volcanics, have an average density of 2,390 120 kg/m3, while the older Quaternary volcanic rocks, consisting
of augite-olivine basalt flows (basaltic lava) from the Kaligesik formation, have an average density of 2,640 100 kg/m3. The
structural setting of the Ungaran volcano has characterized by circular structure where most geothermal manifestations are
located. The result of gravity analysis shows that Ungaran volcano seems to have occurred in tectonic depression, and prominent
caldera depression has not formed within Ungaran volcano without surficial caldera rim. The horizontal gradient analysis
indicates that geothermal features at Ungaran volcano are structurally controlled and are located within the younger volcano.
Keywords: Ungaran volcano, gravity anomaly, fault, geothermal manifestations, Indonesia.

1. Introduction
Ungaran Volcano, located about 30 km southwest of
Semarang, the capital city of Central Java province, Indonesia,

is a still an undeveloped geothermal prospect (Fig.1). Ungaran

formed in a volcanic arc with three other volcanoes, namely
Merapi, Merbabu, and Telomoyo, and is situated in the northern

Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering,

Also Department of Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science

Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,

National Research Institute of Astronomy and Geophysics, P.O.Box227, 11722 Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.

Kyushu University, 744, Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan.

Diponegoro University, Jl. Prof. Soedarto SH, Tembalang, Indonesia.
Kyushu University, 744, Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan.
The Geothermal Research Society of Japan, 2009

107

of the younger and older volcanoes based on analyses of the

Bouguer gravity anomaly.

Fig. 1 Location of the study area. Ungaran is situated in

Central Java, Indonesia, about 30 km southwest of
Semarang city and located in the northern part of the
volcanic chain that combines with three other
volcanoes, namely Merapi, Merbabu and Telomoyo.
Physiographically, the line of volcanoes from Merapi to
Ungaran occupies the eastern part of the Solo Zone.
(modified from Bemmelen, 1949, based from Landsat
TM satellite image 1995).

part of this volcanic chain. The chain is believed to have been

formed by back-arc magmatism associated with subduction
(Kohno et al., 2006). Ungaran is a Quaternary volcano
comprised of younger and older volcanoes. The younger
Ungaran body seems to have formed inside a caldera within
the older volcano. Gedongsongo, located in the southern part
of Ungaran, is the volcanos main geothermal manifestation,
and includes fumaroles, hot springs, hot acid pools, and an
acidic surface of hydrothermally altered rocks. Unfortunately,
there is a lack of published studies on Ungaran volcano. A
geochemical model developed by Phuong et al. (2005) showed
that the thermal water in the Ungaran volcanic area is made up
of two distinct types: sulphate water (Ca-(Na)-Mg-SO4-HCO3)
in Gedongsongo and bicarbonate waters (Ca-Mg-HCO3 and
Na-(Ca)-HCO3-Cl) in the surrounding areas of Banaran,
Kendalisodo, Diwak, and Kaliulo. Widarto et al. (2005)
suggested that the subsurface temperature of the reservoir
system ranges from 120oC to 290oC, and that a hot water
dominated hydrothermal system has developed in the study
area. However, the deep structure was not clarified. Therefore,
a gravity study was carried out to determine the subsurface
structural geology of Ungaran and to deduce the exact location

2. General Geological Setting

2-(1) Tectonic Setting
The active volcanoes of the Indonesian archipelago are
related to several distinct subduction-zone systems, namely the
Sunda, Banda, Sangihe, and Halmahera arc systems (Gertisser
and Keller, 2003). The tectonic evolution of the Indonesian
archipelago from the Late Paleozoic until the Pliocene
occurred with subduction and accompanying volcanism
spreading systematically in an ever-widening area from the
continent towards the ocean.
The Java arc-trench system was formed by subduction of
an oceanic plate beneath the continental crust. The crust is thin
and relatively young, as it consists mostly of a Tertiary age
volcano-plutonic arc (Hamilton, 1979). The Quaternary
volcanism of the Sunda arc is related to the northward
subduction of the Indo-Australian plate beneath the Eurasian
plate at a rate of 6 cm/year near Sumatra and 7 cm/year near
Java (Hamilton, 1979; Jarrad, 1986; Widiyantoro and Van der
Hilst, 1997; Kohno et al. , 2006).
Physiographically, Bemmelen (1949) mentioned that the
row of volcanoes from Merapi to Ungaran occupies the
western part of the Solo Zone. This zone is a depression that is
filled with the Quartenary products of much of the volcanism
in Central to East Java.
2-(2) Structural Geology
Gertisser and Keller (2003) summarized the geology of
Central Java as being divided into several structural units: the
southern coast including the Karangbolong Mountains, the
southern Serayu chains, and the western Progo Mountains, the
southern mountains, the western foothills of the Solo Zone, the
northern Serayu, and the northern coastline.
Geothermal areas in Central Java, including Ungaran
volcano, are located in the Quaternary Volcanic Belt (Solo
Zone). This belt is located between the North Serayu
Mountains and the Kendeng Zone, and contains young
Quaternary centers of eruption, including Dieng, Sindoro,
Sumbing, Ungaran, Soropati, Telomoyo, Merapi, Muria, and
Lawu (Bemmelen, 1949).
Ungaran is a complex volcano consisting of a younger
body, which was formed by the most recent volcanic activity,
and an older body formed by prior volcanic activity. The
Young Ungaran body seems to have been constructed inside a
caldera formed during the older Ungaran activity. According
to Kohno et al. (2006), the Old Ungaran body formed prior to

108

Fig.2

SiO2-total alkali elements (Na2O+K2O) in Ungaran

(modified from Kohno et al., 2006). From Old to Young
Ungaran, the silica content increases in volcanic rocks.

500,000 years ago, and the Young Ungaran volcano did not
form until 300,000 years ago. The volcanic rocks are rich in
alkali elements and are classified as trachyandesite to
trachybasaltic andesite. Moreover, the abundance of alkali
elements affecting the mineralogy suggests the magma genesis
as back-arc side volcanism. The silica content increases in

volcanic rocks from old to young, as shown in Fig. 2.

Ungaran volcanic area is composed of andesitic lava,
perlitic lava, and volcanic breccia from the post Ungaran
caldera stages, as shown in Fig. 3 (Thanden et al., 1996). There
are geothermal manifestations at the piedmont of Ungaran,
namely Gedongsongo, Banaran, Kendalisodo, Diwak, Kaliulo,
and Nglimut. Gedongsongo is the main geothermal feature
associated with the Quaternary Ungaran andesitic volcanic
complex.
Budiardjo et al. (1997) presented a structural analysis of
this area and revealed that the Ungaran volcanic system is
controlled primarily by the occurrence of the Ungaran collapse
structure running from the northwest to the southeast. Fault
systems trending northwest to southeast and northeast to
southwest control the old volcanic rocks of the pre-caldera
formation. The post-caldera volcanic rocks appear to be less
structurally controlled by the regional fault systems.

3. Gravity study
3-(1) Data

Fig. 3 Geologic map of the Ungaran area (modified from Thanden et al., 1996). The stratigraphy of the Ungaran volcanic area was
composed of andesitic lava, perlitic lava, and volcanic breccia during the post Ungaran caldera stages.

109

Fig. 4 Ungaran can be divided into two bodies: Old

Ungaran and Young Ungaran (Kohno et al., 2006).
The white circles show the locations of rock
samples.

The gravity data for this study is comprised of public

domain data provided by Gadjah Mada University. The data
were taken for two periods: February 14-22, 2001 and March
19-25, 2001, and come from 163 gravity stations covering
143.85 km2.
3-(2) Methodology
3-(2)-1) Rock density measurement in laboratory
Additionally, to obtain the density contrast between the
younger and older Ungaran rocks, samples were collected
from both areas. The sampling locations are shown in Fig. 4.
The density of each rock, in wet and dry conditions, was
measured by applying the following equations.
(1)
FDD = WD / (Ww-Wwat),
FWD = Ww / (Ww-Wwat),
(2)
where FDD is the forced dry density (kg m-3), FWD is the
forced wet density (kg m-3), WD is the rock weight in dry
conditions (kg), Ww is the rock weight in wet conditions (kg),
and Wwat is the rock weight measured in water (kg).
3-(2)-2) Gravity data processing
The gravity method is used to search for changes in
geological conditions based on variations in g (gravitational
acceleration) (Grant and West, 1965). On the other hand,
Olhoeft and Johnson (1989) defined density as a physical
property that changes significantly among various rock types
owing to differences in mineralogy and porosity. If the
distribution of subsurface rock densities is known, much
information about the subsurface structure can be gained.
The Bouguer density of 2,470 kg/m3 for the Ungaran
volcanic rocks is given by Muratas (1993) method using:
(3)
g = gobs -+h - 2Gh + T,
(4)
g = F - H,

where gobs is the observed gravity (mGal), is the normal

gravity (mGal), is the vertical gradient of the normal gravity,
h is the observation height (m), G is Newtons gravitational
constant (kg-1m3s-2), is the Bouguer density (mGal), T is the
terrain correction per unit density, and F is the free-air anomaly
expressed by:
F = gobs +h.
(5)
H is a coefficient of the Bouguer density, such that:
H=2G h - T.
(6)
There are many techniques for interpreting potential field
data, and they can be divided into two categories: forward
methods and inverse methods. In our study, forward methods
were employed, including spectral analysis, filtering, the
Horizontal Gradient Method (HGM), and 2-D forward
modeling using Talwanis algorithm (Talwani et al.,1959) for
gravity data.
The power spectral analysis yields the depths of
significant density contrasts in the crust. Spector and
Bhattacharya (1966) studied the energy spectrum calculated
from different 3-D model configurations. Spector and Grant
(1970) studied the statistical ensemble of 3-D maps. They
concluded the general form of the spectrum displaying
contributions from different factors can be expressed as:
(7)
E(r) = H(h,r) S(a,b,r,) C(t,,r),
where E is the total energy (frequency Hz), r is the radial wave
number (cycles/m),is the azimuth of the radial wave number
(degree), expresses the ensemble average, h is the depth (m),
H is the depth factor, S is the horizontal size (width) factor, C is
the vertical size (thickness or depth extent) factor, a and b are
parameters related to the horizontal dimensions of the sources,
and t and are parameters related to the vertical depth extent
of the source. Only three factors (H, S, and C) are functions of
the radial frequency r, thus Equation (7) can be written in the
profile form as:
ln E (q) = ln H (h, q) + ln S (a, q) + ln C (t , , q) +Constant,

(8)
where h, a, t are the average depth, half width, and thickness of
the source ensemble, respectively. This equation demonstrates
that contributions from the depths, widths, and thicknesses of
the source ensemble can affect the shape of the energy spectral
decay curve. According to the result of the power spectral
analysis using a bandpass filter, anomalies were separated into
regional and residual gravity anomalies.
The HGM, which involves mapping local maxima of the
gravity or pseudogravity (Baranov, 1957), has commonly been

110

Table 1 Density of rock samples of Ungaran volcano.

used to locate the steepest gradients associated with

near-vertical physical-property boundaries such as faults
(Cordell, 1979; Cordell and Grauch, 1985; Blakely and
Simpson, 1986).
Phillips (1998) suggested that the greatest advantage of
the HGM is that it is least susceptible to noise in the data,
because it only requires the calculations of the two first-order
horizontal derivatives of the field. The method is also robust in
delineating both shallow and deep sources, in comparison with
the vertical gradient method, which is useful only in
identifying shallower structures. The amplitude of the
horizontal gradient (Cordell and Grauch, 1985) is expressed as:
(9)
HGM(x,y) =[(g/x)2 +(g/y)2]1/2,
where(g/x) and (g/y) are the horizontal derivatives of the
gravity field in the x and y directions, respectively.
In the 2-D forward method, an initial model for the source
body is constructed based on geologic and geophysical
information. The models anomaly is calculated and compared
with the observed anomaly, and model parameters are adjusted
to improve the fit between the two anomalies. This three-step
process of body adjustment, anomaly calculation, and anomaly
comparison is repeated until the calculated and observed
anomalies are sufficiently alike.

4. Results and Discussions

The rock samples from the older Ungaran unit had a
slightly more basaltic composition than those from the Young
Ungaran volcanic unit, which is composed of andesitic
volcanic rocks. Table 1 shows the results of the rock density
measurements. The average densities in the forced dry state of
the Young and Old Ungaran rocks are 2,300 150 kg/m3 and
2,570 120 kg/m3, respectively. In the wet state, the densities
of the young and old rocks are 2,390 120 kg/m3 and 2,640
100 kg/m3, respectively. The density of the rock in the wet
condition was used to determine the density contrast because
the rock in the natural state is generally wet. Finally, the
density contrast () between the Young and Old Ungaran
rocks is taken as 250 kg/m3.
The Bouguer gravity map is shown in Fig. 5, and shows a
positive Bouguer ranging from 20.5 mGals to 56 mGals. A
high Bouguer anomaly was found in the northern part of
Ungaran volcano. Considering the geologic data, the high
Bouguer anomaly correlates with the older Ungaran volcano.
Moreover, based on the results of a geochronology
investigation by Kohno et al. (2006). the growth of the volcano
was from north to south. This correlates well with the locations
of the younger and older Ungaran bodies. According to

() All rock samples were divided into several parts for density measurement except
rock sample No.8.
() The geologic units are based on the geologic map by Kohno et al. ( 2006).

Reynolds (1997, page 40), the density increases with

decreasing silica content. The Bouguer anomalies in the region
of Ungaran volcano have a good correlation with the silica
contents of the older and younger volcanic rocks, as depicted
in Fig. 2; thus, high silica content indicates low density and a
low Bouguer anomaly.
The spectral analysis of the Bouguer gravity data is
shown in Fig. 6-A. The distinguishing feature of the
logarithmic decay of the energy curve is the rapid decrease in
the curve at low wavenumbers, which is indicative of the

111

Fig. 5 Bouguer gravity map of Ungaran volcano. The black

square shows gravity measurement station. Two
profiles A-A and B-B are used for 2-D modeling. The
boundaries of Old and Young Ungaran rocks are
overlapped on the Bouguer gravity map.

Fig. 6 A) Radially averaged power spectrum of the Bouguer

anomalies of Ungaran.
B) Gravity depth estimation based on five point averages
of the slope of the energy spectrum. Layer 1 indicates the
Young Ungaran, layer 2 indicates the Old Ungaran and
layer 3 indicates Tertiary volcanic rocks.

response to deeper sources. The gentler decline of the

remainder of the curve is related to near-surface sources. The
spectrum consists essentially of three components: a very steep
gradient at low wavenumbers (0 km-1 wavenumber
0.18 km-1), moderate gradient (0.18 km-1 wavenumber
0.54 km-1), and a less steep gradient at high wavenumbers
(0.54 km-1 wavenumber 1.79 km-1). The negative
asymptotic character shows that the gravity data has two
components: a regional component from deep-seated sources
and a local component caused by sources at shallow depths.
Between 0 km-1 and 0.5 km-1, the contribution of the regional
component decreases as the wavenumber value increases for
the near surface components. At a wavenumber equal to 1.79
km-1, the curve approaches the Nyquist frequency that
describes the noise produced by the digitization errors and
finite sample interval as fluctuations about a constant level of
energy.
The depth of the gravity sources can be estimated by
band-pass filtering. In this paper, the point average calculation
from the slope of the energy curve was used. Five point
moving average window triangular filters with weighting
factors of 1/9, 2/9, 3/9, 2/9, and 1/9 were used to trace the
gravity depths for the Ungaran area. The gravity source depth
estimated from the power spectral analysis can also be seen in

Fig. 7 The horizontal gradient map of the gravity data for

Ungaran. The black square shows gravity measurement
station. Solid black bold lines indicate the maxima of the
horizontal gradient which are interpreted as faults, the
yellow lines indicate faults from geologic map, and the
yellow circles show the locations of the geothermal
manifestations.

112

Fig. 6-B. Three different layers can be distinguished. Layer 1

corresponds to the Young Ungaran units, with depths from the
surface to 500 m, layer 2 and layer 3 correspond to the older
Ungaran rocks, with depths from 500 m to 3,500 m.
The amplitude of the horizontal gradient was calculated
in the frequency domain. Grauch and Cordell (1987) discussed
the limitations of the horizontal gradient method for gravity
data. They concluded that the horizontal gradient magnitude
maxima could be offset from a position directly over the
boundaries if the boundaries are not nearly vertical and are
close to each other. The horizontal gradient map of gravity data
for Ungaran volcano is presented in Fig. 7. The high gradient
values were observed between highs and lows of the Bouguer
gravity. There are two possible interpretations; one is to
correlate the high gradients with the body of the mountain or
intrusions of rock, and the other is to correlate them with the
fault structure. The study area may be dissected by circular
structure. The most interesting result is that almost all of the
hot springs are located on the high gradient value of HG
forming the circular structure.
The interpretation of the maxima of the HG representing
faults is not in agreement with the mapped faults. This is due
to: 1) the mapped faults are at the surface, and the locations of
most of them are approximated (using visual interpretation); 2)
The faults interpreted from the HG could be deeper than the
geological ones due to the differences in depths. One
interpreted fault matches with a mapped fault near the center of
the map.
The gravity data was interpreted using Talwanis 2-D
forward modeling method. Two profiles (A-A and B-B) were
selected, as labeled in Fig. 5. Based on the measured rock
samples, as presented in Table 1, we constructed the 2D model
using only 2 layers (Old and Young Ungaran rocks). The
density contrast between the two modeled layers is 250 kg/m3,
and the calculated density structures along A-A and B-B are
presented in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively. Layer 1 has an average
density of 2,390 kg/m3,which is composed of andesitic lava,
and correlates with the Young Ungaran volcano, while layer 2
has an average density of 2,640 kg/m3 and is composed of
basaltic lava that correlates with the old volcano in the
northeastern part of Ungaran volcano.
The interpretation presented for the gravity anomalies in
the region of Ungaran volcano is based on the distribution of
subsurface geological formations and their structures. An
interesting result is that the geothermal features (e.g.
Gedongsongo, Banaran, Diwak, Kendalisodo, and Nglimut)
are located on the younger Ungaran volcano and are well

correlated with the horizontal gradient anomalies that are

113

Fig. 8 Two dimensional density model using Talwanis

algorithm for cross-section A-A. The patterned line
represents a caldera rim deduced from geological
information.

Fig. 9 Two dimensional density model using Talwanis

algorithm for cross-section B-B. The patterned
line represents a caldera rim deduced from
geological information.

Quaternary older Ungaran volcanic rocks, consisting of

augite-olivine basalt flows (basaltic lava) from the Kaligesik
formation, is 2,640 100 kg/m3. Horizontal gradient analysis
indicates that the existing geothermal features in the Ungaran
region are structurally controlled by circular structure and
located in the Young Ungaran volcano. As a result, the
horizontal gradient of the regional component of gravity is
useful in locating the structure that controls the geothermal
manifestations.

Fig. 10 The conceptual structural model of Ungaran. The

patterned line represents a caldera rim deduced from
geological information.

interpreted as circular structures. This indicates that the

geothermal features at Ungaran volcano are structurally
controlled, especially by the deep gravity sources.
Finally, a conceptual structural model of Ungaran volcano
is presented in Fig. 10. The model includes two periods of
volcanism that have been responsible for the Quaternary
volcanoes in the Ungaran region recognized from gravity
analysis. The first stage is Old Ungaran that widely distributed
in the northern and western regions of the present caldera. The
second stage of volcanism is the Young Ungaran volcano,
which covered Old Ungaran volcano.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express deep gratitude to Dr.
Wahyudi (Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia) for providing
valuable gravity data. The authors would like to thank Dr. K.
Fukuoka (Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, Japan) for
suggestions and comments. The authors would like to thank Y.
Kohno, M.Sc., for lending rock samples in order to measure rock
densities. The authors also would like to thank D.H. Barianto,
M.T (graduate student at laboratory of Economy Geology,
Kyushu University) for suggestions and comments on the
geology of Ungaran volcano. The first author gratefully
acknowledges the financial support of the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Science and Technology, Government of Japan in the
form of a scholarship. This study was also supported by a Grant-in
aid for Scientific Research (B) No.17404024 from the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan,
which is acknowledged.
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