Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Example:- A computer program is a relatively closed system because it accepts and processes
previously defined input and provides output to in a previously defined way.
4) User Machine Systemmost of the physical system are user-machine system. It is
difficult to think of a system composed only of people who do not utilize equipment of
sometime to achieve their goals. In user-machine system, both i.e. human as well as machine
performance activity in the accomplishment of a goal. The machine elements are relatively
closed and deterministic where as the human element of the system are open and
probabilistic. The machine performs a supporting role where the human perform the
significant one.
Q). What is Conceptual system?
A conceptual system is a system that is comprised of non-physical objects, i.e. ideas or
concepts. In this context a system is taken to mean "an interrelated, interworking set of
objects".
A conceptual system is simply a model. There are no limitations on this kind of model
whatsoever except those of human imagination. If there is an experimentally verified
correspondence between a conceptual system and a physical system then that conceptual
system models the physical system. "values, ideas, and beliefs that make up every persons
view of the world": that is a model of the world; a conceptual system that is a model of a
physical system (the world). The person who has that model is a physical system.
Examples of conceptual systems are:
Entity-relationship model
Object-oriented programming: allows conceptual systems to be defined in a robust
manner.
Metalogic
Unified Modeling Language(UML)
(iii)
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Until 1960s the role of Information System was simple transaction processing, record
keeping and other electronic data processing application. Then another role was added as
the concept of Management Information System(MIS).
By the 1970s the decision support system the DSS was born. The new role for the
information system was to provide managerial end-users with add-hoc an interactive
support of their decision making process.
In 1980s several new roles of Information system appeared:(i) The rapid development of processing power, application software packages and telecommunication softwares gave birth to phenomena of end-user computing.
(ii) The concept of Executive Information System was developed.
(iii) Breakthroughs occurred in the development and application of artificial intelligence
techniques to Business Information System.
Expert system and other knowledge based system plays a new role for information
system. In 1990 the concept Strategic Information System(SIS) came into the picture.
The mid to the late 1990s saw the revolutionary emergence of enterprise Resource
Planning(ERP) systems. Finally rapid growth of internet, intranet and other
interconnected global network in the 1990s dramatically changed the capability of
information system in business at the beginning of the 21st century.
Q). Why we need a computer based information system(CBIS)?
1) The size of the organization may become larger. This is particularly true in India due to
increase in population and rapid growth of industrial development.
2) Computer based processing enable the same data to be processed in many ways based on
needs there by allowing the managers to look at the performance of an organization from a
different angle.
3) Increased volume of data variety of information and timeliness is off great importance
nowadays for this reason computer based information processing has become essential for
efficiently managing an organization.
4) Since organizations nowadays are distributed with many branches a good communication
between the branches is always needed, so good technology internet work is needed.
5) Since markets are becoming competitive to maintain a favorable balance, organizations
have to be internationally competitive.
6) The general socio economic environment demands up to date and accurate information.
Organizations have to interact with many other parties of interest such as consumer groups,
environment protection groups etc. to avoid hazards from government regulation and
statutory bodies.
It is not normally feasible to obtain all information during the course of a single interview
with the user. Usually 2 or 3 interviews are needed.
The 1st interview is normally to get to know a person and his areas of responsibilities and the
time of information. He has subsequent interviews are used to verify facts and gather more
information of relevance.
Q) What are the different types of information? Give brief description of each type.
In general all business organizations have a well defined organizational structure. All
organization consists of hierarchy of different level. Each level has a different role to play.
The top-management is involved in strategic activities, policy making and goal making.
The middle-management is involved in tactical activities while the operation level is
involved in day to day operation of the organization. The information requirements of
different levels are also different. On the basis of this classification there are three types of
information.
These are (i) Strategic Information
(ii) Tactical Information
(iii) Operational Information
N.B.-- The operational level of the business organization is involved in day to day
operations. The operational planning is oriented towards operational goals that are derived
from the strategic and tactical plans. The operational planning deals with planning horizons
which are measurable in months. These operational planning addresses short term goals such
as quarterly or monthly sales and production, monthly inventory control. The information
support required for operational planning is mainly based on inference generated from
internal sources.
Q). Define the term Management.
Koontz definition of management says that management is a art of getting things done
through and with a pebble in formally organized groups .
The basic function in an organization are listed as managerial function(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
planning;
organizing;
staffing;
directing;
controlling;
(c) leadership
Directing is important because in order to achieve predetermined goals and objective
people in the organization have to be guided, motivated and led by the managers.
v) Controlling ensures that activities are being performed as per plans. Controlling
involves fixing standards for- (a) measuring work performance;
(b) Measurement of actual performance;
(c) Comparing actual with standards and finding out
deviation if any;
(d) Taking corrective actions.
In Toyotas vehicle orders management system, the raw input consists of customer order data
including the dealer identification number, model, color, and optional features of each car
ordered. Toyotas computer stores this data and process it to locate the models with options
specified by the customer that are either in inventory or under production, to place orders to
national distributors, to consolidate the orders, and then to transmit them to factories.
Toyotas production system then tell its how many vehicle to manufacture for each model,
color and option package, how much to bill for each vehicle, and where to ship the vehicle.
The output consists of shipping instructions, invoices and production reports. The system
provides meaningful information, such as which models and colors, and options are selling in
which locations, the most popular models and colors, and which dealers sell the most cars.
Although computer-based information system use computer technology to process raw data
into meaningful information, there is a sharp distinction between a computer and a computer
program on one hand, and an information system on the other. Electronic computers and
related software programs are the technical foundation, the tools and materials, of modern
information system programs are the technical foundation, the tools and materials, of modern
information systems. Computers provide the equipment for storing and processing
information. Computer programs or software are set of operating instruction that direct and
control computer processing. Knowing how computers and computer programs work is
important in designing solutions to organizational problems, but computers are only a part of
an information system.
various input, output and storage devices; and telecommunication devices that link the
computers together.
Computer software consists of detailed, preprogrammed instructions that control and coordinate the computer hardware components in an information system.
Data management technology consists of the software governing the organization of data and
physical storage media.
Networking and telecommunication technology, consisting of both physical devices and
software, links the various pieces of hardware and transfers data from one physical location
to another. Computers and communication equipments can be connected in networks for
sharing voice, data, images, sound and video. A network links two or more computers to
share data or resources, such as a printer.
The worlds largest and most widely used network is the Internet.
The internet has created a new universal technology platform on which to build new
products, services, strategies and business models. This same technology platform has
internal uses, providing the connectivity to link different systems and networks within the
firm. Internal corporate networks based on Internet technology are called intranets. Private
intranets extended to authorized users outside the organization are called extranets, and firms
use such networks to co-ordinate their activities with other firms for making purchases,
collaborating on design, and other inter organizational work.
The world wide web(www) is a service provided by the internet that uses universally
accepted standards for storing, retrieving, formatting, and displaying information in an page
format of the internet. Web pages contain text, graphics, animations, sound, and video and are
links to other web pages. By clicking on highlighted words or buttons on a web page, you can
link to related pages to find additional information and links to other location on the Web.
. Q). What do you mean by Information System Department?
The information system department consists of specialists, such as programmers, system
analyst, project leaders, and information systems managers. Programmers are highly trained
technical specialists who write the software instruction for the computers. System analyst
constitute the principal liaison between the information system groups and the rest of the
organization. It is system analysts job to translate business problems and requirements into
information requirements and system. Information system managers are leaders of teams of
programmers and analyst, project managers, physical facility managers , telecommunication
managers or database specialists. They are also managers of computer operations and data
entry staff. Also, external specialists, such as hardware vendors and manufacturers, software
firms, and consultants, frequently participate in the day-to-day operations and long term
planning of information systems.
In many companies, the information system department is headed by a chief information
officer (CIO). The CIO is a senior manager who overseas the use of information technology
in the firm.
End users are representatives of departments outside of the information system group for
whom applications are developed. These users are playing an increasingly large role in the
design and development of information systems.
In the early years of computing, the information system group was composed mostly of
programmers who performed very highly but specialized but limited technical functions.
Today, a growing proportion of staff members are system analysts and network specialists,
with the information system department acting as a powerful change agent in the
organization. The information systems department suggests new business strategies and new
information-based products and services, and co-ordinates both the development of the
technology and the planned changes in the organization.
Q) Define and describe business processes and their relationship to information systems.
A business process is logically related set of activities that define how specific business tasks
can be viewed as a collection of business processes. Business processes are concrete
workflows of material, information and knowledge, and the way in which management
chooses to co-ordinate work. Managers need to pay attention to business processes because
they determine how well the organization can execute its business, and thus be a potential
source of strategic success or failure.
Although each of the major business function has its own set of business processes, many
other business processes are cross-functional, such as order fulfillment. Information systems
help organizations to achieve great efficiencies by automating parts of these processes or by
helping organizations redesign and streamline them. Firma can become more flexible and
efficient by coordinating their processes closely, and, in some cases, integrating these
processes so they are focused on efficient management of resources and customer service.
Q) Describe the information system supporting the major business functions.
The major business functions that are supported by any IS areSales and Marketing, Manufacturing and Production, Finance and Accounting, and Human
Resources.
At each level of organization, information system support the major fundamental areas of the
business. Sales and marketing sytems help the firm identify customers for the firms products
or services, develop products and services to meet customers needs, promote the products and
services, sell the product and services, and provide ongoing customer support. Manufacturing
and production system deal with the planning, production and development of the products
and services, and control the flow of production. Finance and accounting systems keep tracks
of the firms financial assets and fun flows. Human resources systems maintain employee
records; track employee skills, job performance, and training; and support planning for
employee compensation and career development.
Q) Evaluate the role played by systems serving the various levels of management in a
business and their relationships to each other.
There are four major types information systems in contemporary organizations serving
operational, middle, and senior management. Systems serving operational management are
transaction processing system (TPS), such as payroll or order processing, that track the flow
of the daily routine transactions to conduct the business. MIS and DSS provide middle
management reports and access to the organizations currents performance and historical
records. Most MIS reports condense information from TPS and are not highly analytical.
DSS supports management decisions when these decisions are unique, rapidly changing, and
not specified easily in advance. They have more advanced analytical models and data
analysis capabilities than MIS and often draw on information from external as well as internal
sources. ESS supports senior management by providing data of greatest importance to senior
management decision makers, often in the form of graphs and charts delivered via portals.
They have limited analytical capabilities but can draw on sophisticated graphics software and
many sources of internal and external information.
Q) Explain how enterprise applications and intranets promote business process
integration and improve organizational performance.
Enterprise applications, such as enterprise systems, supply chain management systems,
customer relationship management systems, are designed to support organization-wide
process coordination and integration so that the organization can operate efficiently. They
span multiple functions and business processes and may be tied to the business processes of
other organizations.
Enterprise systems integrate the key internal business processes of a firm into a single
software system so that information can flow throughout the organization, improving
coordination, efficiency, and decision-making. Supply chain management systems help the
firm to manage its relationship with suppliers to optimize the planning, sourcing,
manufacturing, and delivery of products and services.
Customer relationship management uses information systems to coordinate all the business
processes surrounding the firms interaction with its customers to optimize firm revenue and
customer satisfaction. Knowledge management systems enable to optimize the creation,
sharing, and distribution of knowledge to improve business processes and management
decisions.
Intranets and extranets use Internet technology and standards to assemble information from
various systems and present it to the user in a web page format. Extranets make portions of
private corporate intranets available to outsiders.
Q) Assess the role of the information systems function in a business.
The information systems department is the formal organizational unit responsible for
information technology services. The information systems department is responsible for
maintaining the hardware, software, data storage, and networks the comprise the firms IT
infrastructure. The information systems department consists of specialists, such as
programmers, system analyst, project leaders and information system managers, and is often
headed by a CIO.
There are alternative ways of organizing the IT function within the firm. A very small
company will not have a formal information system group. Larger companies will have a
separate information systems department, which may be organized along several different
lines, depending on nature and interests of the firm. Each functional area of the business mat
have its own information systems department, overseen by a corporate CIO. The information
system may be run as a separate department similar to the other functional departments. A
third arrangement found in very large firms with multiple divisions and product lines is to
have an information systems department for each division reporting to a high level central
information systems group and CIO.
Q) Identify and describe important features of organizations that managers need to
know about in order to build and use information systems successfully.
Managers need to understand certain features of organizations to build and use information
systems successfully. All modern organizations are hierarchical, specialized, and impartial,
using explicit routines to maximize efficiency. All organizations have their own cultures and
politics arising from differences in interest groups, and their surrounding environment affects
them. Organizations differ in goals, groups served, social roles, leadership styles, incentives,
types of tasks performed, and type of structure. These features help explain differences in
organizations use of information systems.
Q) Evaluate the impact of information systems on organizations.
Information systems and the organizations in which they are used interact with and influence
each other. The introduction of a new information system will affect the organizational
structure, goals, work designs, values, competition between interest groups, decision making
and day-to-day behavior.
At the same time, information systems have be designed to serve the needs of important
organizational groups and will be shaped by the organizations structure, tasks, goals, culture,
politics, and management. Information technology can reduce transaction and agency costs,
and such changes have been accentuated in organizations using the Internet.
Information systems are closely intertwined with an organizations structure, culture, and
business processes. New systems disrupt established patterns of work and power
relationships, so there is often considerable resistance to them when they are introduced. The
complex relationship between information systems, organizational performance, and decision
making must be carefully managed.
Q).What do you mean by IT infrastructure?
IT infrastructure consists of a set of physical devices and software applications that are
required to operate the entire enterprise. But IT infrastructure is also a set of firmware
services budgeted by management and comprising both human and technical capabilities.
These services include the following:
Data management services that store and manage corporate data and provide
capabilities for analyzing the data.
Application software services that provide enterprise-wide capabilities such as
enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, supply chain
management, and knowledge management systems that are shared by all business
units.
Physical facilities management services that develop and manage the physical
installations required for computing, telecommunications, and data management
services.
IT management services that plan and develop the infrastructure, coordinate with
business units for IT services, manage accounting for the IT expenditure, and provide
project management services.
IT standards services that provide the firm and its business units with policies that
determine which information technology will be used, when and how.
IT education services that provide training in system use to employees and offer
manager s training in how to plan for and manage IT investments.
IT search and developments services that provide the firm with research on potential
future IT projects and investments that could help the firm differentiate itself in the
marketplace.
Any decision involves a choice selected from a number of alternatives, directed toward an
organizational goal or subgoal. Realistic options will have real consequences consisting of
personnel actions or non-actions modified by environmental facts and values. In actual
practice, some of the alternatives may be conscious or unconscious; some of the
consequences may be unintended as well as intended; and some of the means and ends may
be imperfectly differentiated, incompletely related, or poorly detailed.
The task of rational decision making is to select the alternative that results in the more
preferred set of all the possible consequences. This task can be divided into three required
steps: (1) the identification and listing of all the alternatives; (2) the determination of all the
consequences resulting from each of the alternatives; and (3) the comparison of the accuracy
and efficiency of each of these sets of consequences. Any given individual or organization
attempting to implement this model in a real situation would be unable to comply with the
three requirements. It is highly improbable that one could know all the alternatives, or all the
consequences that follow each alternative.
The question here is: given the inevitable limits on rational decision making, what other
techniques or behavioral processes can a person or organization bring to bear to achieve
approximately the best result? Simon writes:The human being striving for rationality and
restricted within the limits of his knowledge has developed some working procedures that
partially overcome these difficulties. These procedures consist in assuming that he can isolate
from the rest of the world a closed system containing a limited number of variables and a
limited range of consequences.
Administrative Behavior, as a text, addresses a wide range of human behaviors, cognitive
abilities, management techniques, personnel policies, training goals and procedures,
specialized roles, criteria for evaluation of accuracy and efficiency, and all of the
ramifications of communication processes. Simon is particularly interested in how these
factors directly and indirectly influence the making of decisions.
Weaving in and out of the practical functioning of all of these organizational factors are two
universal elements of human social behavior that Simon addresses are The Role of
Authority, and Loyalties, and Organizational Identification.
Authority is a well studied, primary mark of organizational behavior, and is straightforwardly
defined in the organizational context as the ability and right of an individual of higher rank to
determine the decision of an individual of lower rank. The actions, attitudes, and relationships
of the dominant and subordinate individuals constitute components of role behavior that can
vary widely in form, style, and content, but do not vary in the expectation of obedience by the
one of superior status, and willingness to obey from the subordinate. Authority is highly
influential on the formal structure of the organization, including patterns of communication,
sanctions, and rewards, as well as on the establishment of goals, objectives, and values of the
organization.
Decisions can be complex admixtures of facts and values. Information about facts, especially
empirically proven facts or facts derived from specialized experience, are more easily
transmitted in the exercise of authority than are the expressions of values. Simon is primarily
interested in seeking identification of the individual employee with the organizational goals
and values. Following Lasswell he states that a person identifies himself with a group when,
Q). Assess how information systems support the activities of managers and management
derision.
Several different models of what managers actually do in organizations show how
information systems can be used for managerial support. Early classical models of
managerial activities stress the functions of planning, organizing, coordinating, deciding, and
controlling. Contemporary research looking at the actual behavior of managers has found that
managers' real activities are highly fragmented, variegated, and brief in duration, with
managers moving rapidly and intensely from one issue to another.
Managers spend considerable time pursuing personal agendas and goals, and contemporary
managers shy away from making grand, sweeping policy decisions.
Information technology provides new tools for managers to carry out both their traditional
newer roles, enabling them to monitor, plan, and forecast with more precision and speed than
ever before and to respond more rapidly to the changing business environment. Information
systems have been most helpful to managers by providing support for their roles in
disseminating information, providing liaisons between organizational levels, and allocating
resources. However, some managerial roles cannot be supported by information systems, and
information systems are less successful at supporting unstructured decisions.
(viii) Long Term PlanningMIS is developed over relatively long periods, such systems do
not develop overnight. A heavy element of planning is involved.
(ix) Sub-system conceptThe process of MIS development is quite complex. Thus the
system though viewed as a single entity, must be broken down into digestible sub-system,
which are more meaningful at the planning stage.
Q) What are the functions of MIS?
The MIS must perform the following function in order to meet its objective
(i) Data capturingMIS captures data from various internal and external sources of an
organization.
(ii) Processing of dataThe captured data is processed to convert into the required
management information using statistical, mathematical operations and research model.
(iii) Storage of informationMIS stores processed or unprocessed data for future use. If any
information is not immediate required it is saved as an organizational record.
(iv)Retrieval of informationMIS retrieved information from its stores as and when
requires by various users as per the requirement of management, the retrieved
information is either disseminated as such or it is processed again to meet the exact
management information needs.
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Previously TPS was known as MIS. In many organization TPS is also known as data
processing system. Data processing is mainly done with the help of computers its domain is
at the lowest level of management hierarchy of the organization.
Operational managers need systems that keep track of the elementary activities and
transactions of the organizations, such as sales, receipts, cash deposits, payroll, credit
decisions, and the flow of materials in a factory. Transactions process system provide this
kind of information. A transaction processing system is a computerized system that performs
and records the daily routine transactions necessary to conduct business, such as sales order
entry, hotel reservations, payroll, employee record keeping, and shipping.
Managers need TPS to monitor the status of internal operations and the firms relations with
the external environment. TPS are also major producers of information for the other types of
systems.
TPSs are often so central to a business that TPS failure for a few hours can lead to a firms
demise perhaps that of other firms linked to it.
Transaction may be internal to the organization or it may be external to the organization.
Externally generated transactions are from customers, suppliers and other groups.
Any internal event, which is recorded by the information system, is considered to be a
transaction.
For ex: Transforming working process from one stop of production.
Routine file changes such as adding deleting records or changing an employees address and
correcting error in previous input data are all examples of internal transaction. The output of
every data processing system or TPS way be in several form.
M.I.S uses TPS for its data inputs. The information generated are used for control of
information, strategic and long range planning, management control and other managerial
problem solving.(The Possible question may be-How TPS & DSS are related to each
other?)
In contrast TPS a MIS is more comprehensiveit encompasses processing in support of a
wide range of organizational functions and management process.
Secondly MIS is capable of providing analysis, planning and decision making support an
M.I.S can be defined as integrated system. Integration of information may be:a) Horizontal
b) Hierarchical
c) Cross functional
(1) Horizontalintegration refers to the integration of information system within a functional
area or chain of command. Ex: a product may pass through several production processes in a
production department.
2) Hierarchicalin hierarchical integration operational control level systems feed data to a
higher level system, i.e. to the management control level (middle level) and the strategic
planning level (top level).
(3) Cross Functionalas the name indicates, these type of systems associate with different
functional areas. Ex: a marketing information system may transmit information regarding loss
of sells, because inventory shortage to inventory control information system.
In business organization information system or generally developed to cater to information
needs of managers of each of the functional area of the business.
The functional areas of a business may be marketing, production, human resource, finance,
accounting etc and subsequently the information system supporting these functions are
known as marketing information system, production or manufacturing information system,
human resource information system etc.
3) Decision Support System(DSS)a DSS in an information system application that assists
decision making. DSS tends to be used in planning, alternating analysis, trial and error search
solutions, these type systems are generally operated through terminal based interactive
dialogues with users. DSS although created and used by managers are the less a part of the
organization MIS.
As DSS is tailored to a specific managerial task or a specific problem its use is limited to that
task or problem.
DSS a design primarily to serve management control level and strategic planning level
managers the elements of a DSS include a data base, a model base and a software providing
interactive dialogue facility for the managers.
Another element of DSS is a library of models to manipulate to analyze data in the desired
way.
The 3rd element is the user inter face. Though this the user can communicate with the DSS.
DSS goes one step further to a MIS as DSS supports decision making. DSS uses MIS as
follows:( The question may be- How DSS & MIS are related to each other?)
DSS can be differentiated from MIS in term of its processing capability. Whereas MIS
process data to convert it to information, DSS process information to support the decision
making.
Whereas MIS primarily address structured problems, DSS support semistructured and
unstructured problem analysis. The earliest DSS were heavily model-driven, using some type
of model to perform "what-if and other kinds of analyses. Their analysis capabilities were
based on a strong theory or model combined with a good user- interface that made the system
easy to use.
The main application areas of DSS are production, finance and marketing. For example DSS
supports decision making in procurement analysis, production planning and scheduling,
inventive planning and control, financial planning and analysis, tax planning financial
performance analysis, marketing mix decisions. Presently DSS is also used in developing
special purpose computer packages.
A typical DSS consists of 3 major components, these are(i)
DSS tools
(ii)
DSS generator
We can also say that softwares that help users to build DSS are turned as DSS generator.
Spread sheet packages like MS EXCEL, LOTUS 123 are good examples of DSS.
Q). What are the characteristics of DSS?
1. decision aid
2. semi-structured decision support
3. what if analysis
4. effectiveness vs. efficiency
5. satisfactory principle
6. heuristic problem solving
7. individual preferences and decision style
8. trade of analysis
4) Executive Support SystemESS is an extension of the MIS which is a special kind of
DSS and ESS is tailored for the organization to support his or her decision making. Thus ESS
is a comprehensive information system which includes various types of DSS, but it is more
specific and person oriented.
As ESS is designed to cater the information of a chief executive keeping in views not only
his or her requirement but also taking into account his or her personality and style of
functioning.
5) Office Automation System(OAS)OAS requires to the application of the computers and
communication technology for office functioning. OAS system meant to improve the
productivity of managers at various levels of management by providing secretarial and better
communication facilities.
OAS are the combination of hardware, software, and people in information system that
process office transactions and support office activities at all levels of the organization. These
systems include a wide range of support facilities which include word processing, electronic
mail, message switching, data storage, data and voice communications.
Office activities may be grouped under 2 classes
(i) Activities performed by clerical personnel(clerks, secretaries, typists etc).
(ii) Activities performed by the executives(managers, engineers, other professionals like
economists, researches).
In the 1st category following is the list of activities
(i) typing;
(ii) mailing;
(iii) scheduling of meetings and conferences;
(iv) calendar keeping;
(v) retrieving document;
The following is the list of activities in the second category
(i) conferencing;
(ii) production of information;
(iii) controlling performance;
Information Technology facilitates both type of activity, a wide variety of Office Automation
Devices like fax machines, copiers, phones are used in offices.
Moreover nowadays computer based automation systems are gaining popularity among
managers and office staffs.
6) Business Expert System(BES)These systems are one of the main type of knowledge
based on artificial information system(KBIS). BES which are based on artificial intelligence
are advanced information system.
A knowledge based information system adds a knowledge base to the main components
found in other types of information system.
Artificial Intelligence may be referred to as the capability that makes computer intelligent and
acts as a human alike.
A BES is a knowledge based information system that uses its knowledge about a specific
complex application to act as an expert. Thus expert system provide decision support to
managers in the form of advice from an expert in a specific problem area.
The main advantages of using an expert system are:(i) The knowledge/capabilities of many experts can be used to build a single expert system.
(ii) Decision making of critical types can be more reliable as these systems are not affected
by emotional factor or fatigue.
(iii) Multiple hypotheses can be considered simultaneously.
The expert systems are interactive in nature, which enable it to ask questions to this user on
the basis of these questions an expert system searches its knowledge base for facts and rules,
explains the reasoning process when asked and comes out with expert advice to the end user.
The main components of BES are:(i) knowledge base
(ii) inference engine
(iii) user interface
Knowledge base contains the fact about the specific expert area and heuristic that describes
the reasoning produces of that subject.
Inference engine contains the logic of reaching an inference from the stored data and
rules(knowledge base).
Expert System may be developed by using either programming languages like LISP(list
processing) and PROLOG or C or by using expert system shells.
In this convection one should keep in mind that a system is not a set of randomly assembled
element rather it consists of element which can be identified as related to each other because
of a common purpose or a goal.
The ideal DSS generator may be a special purpose language. The special purpose language
may be used to build a DSS application easily or as an integrated software system,
constructed around spread sheet technology.
PHASE-10: Documentation and maintenance produce the document and maintain the
DSS.
PHASE-11: Adaptation adopt DSS to suit user needs.
Q). Custom-made versus Ready-made DSS.
When a problem is non-routine and not structured, DSS needs to be custom made for the
organization.
When similar functional problem exists in different functional organization, a generic DSS
can be build with the options of some modification. Such a DSS is called Ready-made DSS.
Most of the DSS are custom made DSS.
It also must include some electronic hardware, such as electronic display boards, as well as
audiovisual, computer; and networking equipment.
GDSS software tools were originally developed for meetings in which all participants are in
the same room, but they also can be used for networked meetings in which participants are in
different locations. Specific GDSS software tools include the following:
Electronic questioners aid the organizations in pre-meeting planning by identifying issues
of concern and by helping to ensure that key planning information in not overlooked.
Electronic brainstorming tools enable individuals, simultaneously and anonymously, to
contribute ideas on the topics of the meeting.
Idea organizers facilitate the organized integration and synthesis of ideas generated during
brainstorming.
Questionnaire tools support the facilitators and group leaders as they gather information
before and during the process of setting priorities.
Tools for voting or setting priorities make available a range of methods from simple
voting, to rank in order, to a range of weighted techniques for setting priorities or voting.
Stakeholder identification and analysis tools use structured approaches to evaluate the
impact of an emerging proposal on the organization and to identify stakeholders and evaluate
the potential impact of those stakeholders on the proposed project.
Policy formation tools provide structured support for developing agreement on the
wording of policy statements.
Group dictionaries document group agreement on definitions of words and terms to the
project.
People refers not only to the participants but also to a trained facilitator and often to a stall
that supports the hardware and software. Together, these elements have led to the creation of
a range of different kinds of GDSS, from simple electronic boardrooms to elaborate
collaboration laboratories.
Q). Discuss about the business value of GDSS?
Studios show flint in traditional decision-making meetings without GDSS support, the
optimal meeting size is three to live attendees. Beyond that size, the meeting process begins
to break down. Using GDSS software, studies show the number of attendees in a meeting can
increase while productivity also increases. One reason for this is that attendees contribute
simultaneously rather than one at a time, which make more efficient use of meeting time.
A GDSS contributes to a more collaborative atmosphere by guaranteeing contributors
anonymity. Attendees can contribute without fear of personally being criticized or of having
their ideas rejected because of the identity of the contributor. GDSS software tools follow
structured methods for organizing and evaluating ideas and for preserving the results of
meetings, enabling non-attendees to locate needed information after the meeting. The
documentation of a meeting by one group at one site can also be used as input to another
meeting on the same project at another site.
Q).Demonstrate how decision-support systems (DSS) differ from MIS and how they
provide value to the business.
ESS can increase the span of control of senior management, allowing them to oversee more
people with fewer resources.
managers have access to news services, financial market databases, economic information,
and whatever other public data they may require.
Contemporary ESS include tools for modeling and analysis. With only a
minimum of experience, most managers find they can use these tools to create graphic
comparisons of data by time, region, product, price range, and so on.
ESS needs to have some facility for environmental scanning. A key information requirement
of managers at the strategic level is the ability to detect signals of problems in the
organizational environment that indicate strategic threats and opportunities (Walls et al.,
1992). The ESS need to be designed so that both external and internal sources of information
can be used for environmental scanning purposes.
Q). What is the business value of executive support systems ?
Much of the value of ESS is found in their flexibility and their ability to analyze, compare,
and highlight trends. The easy use of graphics enables the user to look at more data in less
time with greater clarity and insight than paper-based systems provide.
Executives are using ESS to monitor key performance indicators for the entire firm and to
measure firm performance against changes in the external environment. The timeliness and
availability of the data result in needed actions being identified and carried out earlier than
previously could have been done. Problems can be handled before they become they become
too damaging; opportunities can also be identified earlier. These systems can thus help
business move towards a sense-and-respond strategy.
A well-designed ESS could dramatically improve management performance
and increase upper management's span of control. Immediate access to so much data
increases executives' ability to monitor activities of lower units reporting to them. That very
monitoring ability could enable decision making to be decentralized and to take place at
lower operating levels. Executives are often willing to push decision making further down
into the organization as long as they can be assured that all is going well.
Alternatively, executive support systems based on enterprise-wide data could potentially
increase management centralization, enabling senior executives to monitor the performance
of subordinates across the company and to take appropriate action when conditions change.
A software life cycle model(or process model) is a descriptive and diagrammatic model of a
software life cycle. A life cycle model identifies all the activities required to develop and
maintain a software product, and establishes a precedence ordering among the different
activities. Several different activities are carried out in each life cycle phase.
The primary advantage of adhering to a life cycle model is that it encourages development of
software in a systematic and disciplines manner.
A life cycle model defines entry and exit criteria for every phase. A phase is considered to be
complete only if the corresponding exit criteria are satisfied. Similarly, a phase can start only
if the corresponding phase entry criteria are satisfied.
Q).What is 99% complete syndrome?
When a life cycle model is adhered to, the project manager can easily tellat which stage of
development the project currently is. If no life cycle model is adhered to, it becomes very
difficult to chart the progress of the project and the project manager would have to depend on
the estimation of the team members. This usually lead to a problem known as the 99%
complete syndrome. In this syndrome, which appears when there is no definite way to assess
the progress of a project, the optimistic team members feel that the project is 99% complete
even when the project is far from its completion, making all projections about the completion
highly inaccurate.
Q). Discuss about Classical Waterfall Model.
The classical waterfall model divides the life cycle of a software development process into
the phases shown in the below figure. This life cycle model is named waterfall model
because its diagrammatic representation resembles a cascade of waterfalls. The different
phases
of this model are feasibility study, requirements analysis and specification, design, coding
and unit testing, integration and system testing are known as the development phases.
During each phase of the life cycle, a set of well-defined activities are carried out. The
important activities in each phase are discussed here. Each phase typically requires relatively
different amounts of effort.
Each phase of the life cycle has a well-defined starting and ending point. Therefore, he
development engineers know precisely when to stop a phase and start the next phase.
Feasibility Study
The main aim of feasibility study is to determine whether developing the product is
financially and technically feasible. The feasibility study involves analysis of the problem and
collection of data which would be input to the system, the processing required to be carried
out on these data, the output data required to be produced by the system, as well as study of
various constraints on the behavior of the system. The collected data are analyzed to arrive at
the following:
An abstract definition of the problem.
Formulation of the different solution strategies.
Examination of alternative solution strategies and their benefits, indicating resources
required, development, cost and time in respect of each of the alternative solutions.
A cost/benefit analysis is performed to determine which solution is the best. At this
stage, it may be also be determined whether any of the solutions is not feasible due to
high cost, resources constraints, or extraordinary technical reasons.
Requirements Analysis and Specification
The aim of the requirements analysis and specification phase is to understand the exact
requirements of the customer and to document the properly. This phase consists of two
distinct activities: requirements analysis and requirements specifications.
The goal of the requirements analysis is to collect and analyze all related data and
information with a view to understanding the customer requirements clearly and weeding out
inconsistencies and incompleteness in these requirements. Note that an inconsistent
requirement is one in which some part of the requirement may contradict some other parts.
An incomplete requirement is one in which some parts of the requirement may have been
omitted inadvertently.
Requirements analysis starts with the collection of all relevant data regarding the product
from the users through interviews and discussions. For example, to perform the requirements
analysis of a business accounting software of an organization, the analyst has to interview all
the accountants of the organization to ascertain their requirements. The data collected from a
group of users usually contain several contradictions and ambiguities because each user
typically has only a partial and incomplete view of the system. Therefore, all such
ambiguities and contradictions must be identified and then resolved by further discussions
with the customer. After all ambiguities, inconsistencies, and incompleteness have been
resolved and all the requirements properly understood, the requirements are systematically
organized into a Software Requirements Specification (SRS) document.
During requirements specification, the user requirements are properly organized and
documented in a SRS document. The SRS document addresses the functional requirements,
the nonfunctional requirements, and the special requirements on the maintenance and
development of the software product, if any. It must be remembered that the requirements
analysis and specification phase concentrates on what needs to be done and carefully avoids
the solution {how to do) aspects.
Design
The goal of the design phase is to transform the requirements specification into a structure
that is suitable for implementation in some programming language. Currently, two distinct
design approaches are being followed in different industries: traditional design approach and
object-oriented design approach, which we now discuss below:
Traditional design approach: The traditional design approach currently used by many
industries requires two different activities to be performed. First, a structured analysis of the
requirements specification is carried out and then this structured analysis is transformed into
software design (also called software architecture).
Structured analysis involves preparing a detailed analysis of the different functions to be
carried out by the system and identification of the data flow among the different functions.
Each function required by the user is studied carefully and then recursively decomposed into
various sub functions (processing activities).After structured analysis, architectural design (or
the high-level design) and detailed design (or the low-level design) are carried out. High-level
design involves decomposing the system into modules, and representing the invocation
relationships among the modules. During detailed design, the different modules are designed
in greater detail, e.g. the data structures and algorithms for the modules are designed and
documented. Several well-known methodologies are available for implementing the
architectural and low-level designs.
Object-oriented design: Object-oriented design is a relatively new technique. In this
technique, various objects that occur in the problem domain and the solution domain are first
identified and different kinds of relationships that exist among these objects are identified.
This object structure is further refined to obtain the detailed design. This approach has several
advantages such as less development effort, and time, and better maintainability.
Coding and Unit Testing
The purpose of this phase (also called the implementation phase) of software development is
to translate the software design into source code. During the implementation phase, each
component of the design is implemented as a program module, and each of these program
modules is unit tested (i.e. tested independently as a stand alone unit), debugged, and
documented. The purpose of unit testing is to determine the correct working of the individual
modules. Unit testing involves a precise definition of the test cases, testing criteria, and
management of test cases.
The end-product of the implementation phase is a set of program modules that have been
individually tested. Usually, every company formulates its own coding standards such as
layout of programs, contents and formats of the headers, commenting guidelines, variable and
function naming conventions and maximum number of source lines permitted in each
module.
Integration and System Testing
During this phase the different modules are integrated in a planned manner. The different
modules making up a system are almost never integrated in a single shot. Integration is
normally carried out through a number of steps. During each integration step, the partially
integrated system is tested. Finally, when all the modules have been successfully integrated
and tested, system testing is carried out. The goal of system testing is to ensure that the
developed system functions according to its requirements as specified in the SRS document.
The system testing usually consists of three different kinds of testing activities:
testing,
testing, and
acceptance testing.
Usually, testing is carried out according to a system test plan document. The system test plan
identifies all the testing-related activities that must be performed, specifies the schedule, and
allocates resources. Also, the system test plan prepared during the requirements specification
phase lists all the different test cases and the expected outputs. The final output of the testing
phase is the test report.
Maintenance
It has been estimated that maintenance of any software product usually requires much
more effort than the effort necessary to develop The product. Many studies indicate that the
relative effort of development of a typical system to its maintenance effort is roughly in the
40:60 ratio. Maintenance involves performing any one or more of the following three kinds
of activities:
1. Correcting errors that were not discovered during the product development phase.
This is called corrective maintenance.
2. Improving the implementation of the system and enhancing the functionalities of
the system according to the customer's its. This is called perfective maintenance.
3.Porting the software to a new environment, e.g. to a new computer or to a new
operating system. This is called adaptive maintenance.
Q). Discuss about Iterative Waterfall Model.
The classical waterfall model is an idealistic one since it assumes that no defect is introduced
during any of the phase of life cycle. However, in practical development
environments, defects do get introduced in almost every phase of the life cycle.
These defect usually get detected much later in the life cycle. Once a defect is
detected, we need to go back to the phase where it got introduced and redo some of
the work done during this phase and subsequent phases. Thus, for almost any
practical software development work, we need to modify the classical waterfall
model to incorporate feedback paths as shown in the following figure:
Feasibility
Study
Requirements analysis
and specification
Design
Coding and
unit testing
Integration and
system testing
Maintenance
In any practical software development effort though errors can get introduced in almost every
phase of development, it is preferable to detect these errors in the same phase in which they
got introduced. Even though all the errors may not get detected in the same phase in which
they got introduced, they should nevertheless be detected as soon as possible. For example, if
a design error is detected during the design phase itself, it can be taken care of much more
easily than if identified, say, at the end of the integration and system testing phase. In the
latter case, rework would need to be carried out not only to the design but also to the code
and the system test. This principle of detecting errors, as close to its point of introduction as
possible, is known as phase containment of errors.