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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 1, JANUARY 2006

An Open-System Approach to Power System

Protection and Control Integration
Elemer Demeter, Member, IEEE, Tarlochan S. Sidhu, Fellow, IEEE, and Sherif O. Faried, Senior Member, IEEE

AbstractData packets based high-speed digital communications have opened the door for new types of applications in power
system protection and control. The main obstacle in adopting
Ethernet-type networks for time-sensitive communications was
the data transfer characteristic of these networks. With baud
rates in the gigabit-per-second range, the industry has started
adopting the Ethernet networks as a viable alternative, not only
because of their lower cost. This paper presents an open-system
approach in which protective hardware equipment is designed
to work in a clustered environment, sharing resources, data, and
diagnostic functions with similar units. The Ethernet network,
being capable to accommodate transparently a wide range of
protocols, is used to connect the protective hardware. A model
was developed for the Ethernet network to be incorporated into
the power system simulation. The characteristics required from a
digital relaying algorithm to be able to work with signal samples
sent across data packets based networks are described in this
paper. The proposed solution is implemented using a modified
adaptive least-square-error algorithm and tested on a protection
system that was integrated into the power system model.
Index TermsData communication, open systems, power
system protection, power system relaying, protective relaying,
sampled data systems.

I. INTRODUCTION

ITH power systems operated ever closer to their stability

margins, real-time, wide-area monitoring is becoming
the solution of choice in predicting and preventing unrecoverable system disturbances. The U.S.-Canada Power System
Outage Task Force, created to investigate the causes of the
August 14, 2003 blackout in the U.S. and Canada, in their
recommendations to prevent or minimize the scope of future
blackouts, identified the development of practical real-time
applications for wide-area system monitoring using phasor
measurements as an important research area [1].
Wide-area, phasor-based protection systems require the continuous transfer of large quantities of data across communications channels between substations. A direct correlation can be
made between the speed and performance of the communications channels and the specific protection application to which
synchrophasor-based systems can be used. Regardless how the
data transmission is done, the delays have to be accounted for

Manuscript received January 24, 2005; revised March 16, 2005. Paper no.
TPWRD-00049-2005.
E. Demeter is with SaskPower, Regina, SK, S4P 0S1, Canada (e-mail:
edemeter@ieee.org).
T. S. Sidhu is with the University of Western Ontario, London, ON, N6A 5B9,
Canada.
S. O. Faried is with the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N
5A9, Canada.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2005.855628

to have a reliable protection scheme. Various types of synchronized phasor measurements have been proposed to solve the
communication delay problem. The requirements and performance of synchronized phasor measurement schemes have been
outlined in [2].
Microprocessor-based digital protection and control relays
offer a multitude of advantages over their analog counterparts.
Besides being able to perform a full range of protective and control functions, they offer numerous monitoring, analyzing, and
recording capabilities. The fact that the information is processed
and stored digitally makes their interconnection a natural next
step. Market forces and the lack of coordination between manufacturers in the past have resulted in numerous proprietary applications aimed at interconnecting digital protection, control,
and monitoring apparatus.
Until recently, communication with and between digital apparatus in substations was limited mainly to remote configuration and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
applications. The solutions that have emerged required dedicated lines of communication. For limited functionality, slow
RS-232 and RS-485 are used to exchange SCADA data between substation monitoring and control equipment. Intelligent
electronic devices (IED) have started adopting peer-to-peer and
process-bus communications over Ethernet networks with limited real-time data-sharing capabilities [3], [4].
Small changes to the substation configuration usually result
in extensive changes to the communication infrastructure and
in configuration software. Present practices have resulted in a
pyramidal structure with a multitude of data concentrators, remote terminal units (RTUs), protocol converters, data archiving
computers controlling, and monitoring field devices connected
through a web of cables. Such a structure makes high-speed
monitoring and control practically impossible.
The reasons why Ethernet applications in power system
protection and control have experienced a slower acceptance
curve include the data delivery characteristics, lack of industrial
components, physical media, security concerns, and lack of an
application layer standard. Recent developments have started
addressing these issues, making Ethernet the solution of choice
in many monitoring and control applications [5].
The networks best-effort data transmission was a significant drawback to adopting the Ethernet for real-time applications. A solution for obtaining synchronized phasors when signal
samples arrive across these networks is proposed. The solution
can be applied for remote data acquisition applications in the
protection, monitoring, and control of power systems. The proposed digital relaying algorithm takes into account the delays and
quality of service issues experienced during the transmission.

0885-8977/$20.00 2006 IEEE

DEMETER et al.: OPEN-SYSTEM APPROACH TO POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND CONTROL INTEGRATION

31

Fig. 1. OSI networking model.

Fig. 2.

Latency of a data packet.

II. PERFORMANCE OF THE ETHERNET NETWORKS

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) created a simple model for networking, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), grouped in layers, one layer upon the other.
The OSI model for networking, shown in Fig. 1, can be used to
present how latency occurs in the Ethernet networks [6].
For transmission, data are passed from the top of the networking model, starting with the Application Layer, to the base
of the model. The direction of data in the stack for receiving
purposes is from the lower end to the top of the stack.
At the base of the model stands the networks Physical Layer,
which gets packets to and from the network. The Data Link
Layer determines how data are grouped. When Ethernet is utilized, it represents the Physical and Data Link layers.
The Network Layer is responsible for getting the packets from
point A to point B. The internet protocol (IP) can represent the
Network Layer.
The Transport Layer will provide the transmission control.
It will make sure that data are packed in properly sized data
packets, and that packets arrive to the destination. Most commonly, the transmission control protocol (TCP) will monitor the
receiving of the packets, and in case that a packet did not arrive,
the Transport Layer will make sure that the missing packet is
sent again. A frequently used protocol for data dissemination
across Ethernet networks, the user datagram protocol (UDP)
does not monitor the receiving of the packets, and it is up to the
Application Layer at the receiving end to request a new transmission of the missing packet. The Session and the Presentation
Layers will control the creation and the lifetime of connections
and data formats.
The Application Layer resides at the top of the network
model. It is the application that requests and sends the data
across the network. Typical applications at this level of the
network model include the file transfer protocol (FTP), hypertext transport protocol (HTTP), network file system (NFS),
etc. The enormous advantage of this type of networking over
communications routinely used by power utilities is that a
multitude of devices, protocols, and applications can share the
same communications channels on a need basis.
Each of the above-discussed layers will introduce a specific
delay or latency in the data transmission. For the purpose of
this discussion, the focus is on the total latency introduced by
the communication process, and how to overcome this delay in
protective relaying.

When instantaneous information regarding currents and

voltages is required at remote location, the electrical signals
are sampled and transmitted via communication channels.
Regardless of the medium of choice, the data transmission
will experience delays. These delays are caused by the time
required to process the information and by the communication
path characteristics.
The latency between having information ready for transmission and the use of information at the destination can be separepresents
rated in different time intervals. In Fig. 2,
the time required to format and prepare the data packet for transmission plus the time required by the hardware to get network
access. The latency experienced during the process of transmis. During the transmission
sion is accounted for by
process, the packet will go through a number of devices that
process the packet at different speeds, and will add various delays to the total time. The processing of data at the receiving end
, after reception. The total latency is
will require
given by the sum of all the previous time intervals (as seen in
Fig. 2)
(1)
also includes the time required by
The total latency
various protocols to communicate. For example, the TCP/IP
is using the address resolution protocol (ARP) to obtain the
Ethernet address of other devices. Also, the media acces control
protocol will introduce delays such as the time required by possible data packets collision resolution when using half-duplex
mode.
When transferring samples from point-to-point, protection
applications that utilize networking protocols such as IP can experience several network topologies that may help or not the
quality of service (QoS). The designer of the communication
system has to maximize the advantages offered by the full-duplex and switched communication in order to reduce the latency
in transmitting the data.
Reasons that can cause excessive latency in data transmission
include: congested message queues; unauthorized hosts or devices; unnecessary protocols; excessive collisions; transmission
errors and delays; and excessive broadcast or multicast traffic
from switches, routers, and other devices. It is therefore expected that operational data traffic to be kept separate from corporate networking, possibly as an operational network sharing

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 1, JANUARY 2006

Fig. 3. Typical operating times of protection and control systems.

the same SONET optical backbone, but utilizing separate, dedicated cards [7].
The performance of Ethernet-based and TCP/IP-based networks under typical power systems applications traffic have
been investigated in the industry. The performance of ten IED
devices that were connected both in single shared collision domain and in switched full-duplex collision-free domains show
that in both 10 Mbps and 100 Mbps operations latency can vary
depending on numerous factors [8]. The results showed that
with a properly designed transmission system, on average, data
sampled at 1 kHz can be transmitted with minimum delay using
IP over Ethernet networks. Other studies and projects proved
that values sampled at a frequency of 4 kHz can be transmitted
over an Ethernet-based process-control bus [9].
III. COMMUNICATION-BASED PROTECTION AND CONTROL
Depending on their performance, the protection and control
applications response time can range from very fast, for local
protective relays, to relatively slow, for SCADA applications,
as depicted in Fig. 3.
A widely utilized solution to transmission delay problems is
to desensitize the protective device to a level that can accommodate the transmission delay without causing maloperations.
Such an approach can be tolerated in systems such as the differential protection of transmission lines, but is not applicable
to solutions where precise phase angle differences are to be accounted for between remote sites. A complete standard is presented in [10] that deals with the synchronized measurement and
transmission of phasor information.
A. Implied Sequential Sampling
When using sequential communications, the data samples
that arrive from the remote end are presumed to be in proper
sequence. The protection and control applications that are
using such communication channels do not time-stamp the
samples, but imply that the samples are in sequential order:
every sample is considered to have been obtained after the
previously received value and before the sample that will arrive
next. Any communication breakdown, even for the duration of
one sample, results in losing the functions of the relays.
B. Time-Stamped Sampling
A different set of applications are the ones that attach a time
stamp to every sample taken. These solutions are extremely sensitive to deviations of their internal clocks. Keeping the internal
clocks of the devices utilized in such applications synchronized

was one of the main challenges in developing solutions based

on time-stamping. The availability of a common time reference
source has solved this problem.
A variety of time reference sources are available. The most
utilized is a byproduct of the global positioning system (GPS),
which can also be used as a source of common time [11].
Recently, the GPS clocks have become financially more and
more accessible. Time sampling with a precision of 1 s can be
achieved using this approach.
When trying to align time-stamped phasors, several problems
can influence the precision of the measurement. Previous solutions suggested to keep track of the methods used to obtain
the specific phasor, such as the sample windows, and other information that may influence the results. Such an approach can
create other problems, where for example, the specific digital
algorithm used to obtain the phasor is not known to the computer or digital relay where the information received is to be
employed for analysis or other protective functions. Another
significant effect on the precision of the measurement can be
represented by the locations where the time-stamp is placed in
the filter window. The effect of placing the time information at
the end, at the middle, or at the front of the data window was
compared to the phase shift experienced in analog filtering [10].
In the proposed solution, the above concerns are eliminated
by transmitting the time-stamped sample instead of the calculated phasor. If all the incoming different data streams are processed at the same location, by known algorithms, the data about
how the phasors were calculated, which otherwise would be
needed for the synchronization, are not required.
IV. ETHERNET IN THE SUBSTATION
Possible Ethernet-based communication applications that can
be applied in the modern substations include data acquisition,
protection, operational data monitoring, and supervisory control
of transmission and generation facilities [12].
Ethernet was developed for the office environment, and as
such the components were not industrial hardened. Recently, a
large number of suppliers offer special industrial-hardened substation-ready networking equipment that is shielded from electromagnetic interference and environmental concerns.
Security issues have also delayed the acceptance of Ethernet
networking in power systems control and protection. Since most
of the solutions that utilize Ethernet and TCP/IP are developed
at the application layer level, security features can be built into
the networking equipment and also into the protocols employed.
These include switches, routers, firewalls, and various levels
of encrypted communications. For the most sensitive applications, separate from the corporate office networking, operational
local area networks (oLANs) and operational wide area networks (oWANs) can provide the extra security required for industrial operations and control.
With the introduction of packet-switched technology and fullduplex transmission, data collisions on the network are theoretically eliminated. The Ethernet-based control and automation
technology is reaching a point where it can be considered as a
possible communication medium for power systems protection
applications. The performance of this type of communication

DEMETER et al.: OPEN-SYSTEM APPROACH TO POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND CONTROL INTEGRATION

33

Fig. 4. Open-system protection and control integration into the power system.
Fig. 6.

Filter window with complete samples set.

A. Data Packet
The data samples taken from voltages and currents are timestamped and tagged. The attached time-stamp represents the
moment at which the sample was taken, as obtained through
GPS. The GPS is used in the proposed application as the source
of a synchronized time reference.
The data packet that is transmitted on the high-speed network
can include information relating to the quality of the sample. In
fact, a wide range of information such as tags, limit violations,
and quality of data can and are included in the packet.
B. Adaptive Filtering
Fig. 5. Measured and received signals.

has been investigated for transmitting protection control functions [13]. Ethernet-based process-bus applications based on the
IEC standard 61850 have been proposed and tested.
Integrating several protective functions into a single relay is
becoming common practice. The proposed digital relaying algorithm allows a new level of integration of protective equipment
and functions into a comprehensive open-system application, as
represented in Fig. 4, which is an example of station-level integration. By making use of existing information technology solutions, such as clustered processing hardware, redundant networking, etc., the system components can share operational and
diagnostic functions, providing a new level of redundancy and
security.

Let the sampled data stream at the source of sampling be represented by

, with
. Each sample will get a
time tag that will uniquely identify it by the time instance when
it was taken. It can be considered that identifies mathematically the position of the sample in the data stream.
In case that the data stream arrives in proper sequence to the
relay location, as seen in Fig. 6, the response of the applied filter
can be represented as
(2)
is the length of the digital
where are the coefficients and
filter. The output can also be written as the convolution of the
of the
input signal with the unit sample impulse response
filter, as
(3)

V. SYNCHRONIZED PHASOR MEASUREMENT

ACROSS AN ETHERNET NETWORK
In power systems applications with sensitive timing, a single
data sample received later than anticipated can result in damaged equipment. The performance of the network can have significant effect on the accuracy of the received signal, as can
be seen in Fig. 5, where the first plot represents the measured
values, while the second plot is the received signal using an
Ethernet-type communications channel. To use such an environment to transmit values obtained from sequentially sampled
signals, care must be taken not to lose information that could
bring the measurement error above the acceptable limits.

for
Therefore
also be described by its system function

. The filter can

(4)
, with the coefficients
which represents a polynomial in
.
In case that a sample does not arrive when it is expected, the
first element of the filter (as seen in Fig. 7) will be undefined;
therefore the output will yield incorrect results. On the other

34

Fig. 7.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 1, JANUARY 2006

The above rationale can be applied for multiple delayed or

for
missing samples, by selecting filters that have
the unknown samples. The phase characteristics of these filters
are such that the resulting phase angle is properly aligned with
for each sample.
It should be noted that with a properly designed system, data
packet delays are minimal. Inside a network segment, data transmitted in broadcast mode are available to all listening devices
simultaneously; therefore, with digital instrumentation in place,
the sampled values of currents and voltages can be made simultaneously available to any field device on the network segment.
The procedure is general in nature, and can be applied to digital filtering techniques that allow presetting of various order
filter coefficients. With the proposed algorithm, a set of filters
can be developed that can be utilized to solve the problem of
possible unsequential and missing data samples.

Filter window with missing sample.

VI. IMPLEMENTATION
In order to test the procedure described in the previous section, the least-square-errors algorithm was used to develop the
required set of filters [14].
Decaying dc components and a reasonable number of harmonics can be calculated using this algorithm. The general form
of a measured signal is
(7)
Fig. 8.

Missing sample inside filter window.

hand, due to the time-stamps embedded in the data packets, the

system knows that a sample is missing. Using an adaptive filtering scheme, the system will replace the filter coefficients with
a new set, so that the first coefficient of the polynomial repre, i.e.,
senting the system function is zero:

where
is the magnitude of the harmonic .
The Taylor series expansion of a complex function around a
number is defined by
(8)
Starting from (8) and using as center
series expansion of the complex function

, the Maclaurin
can be written as
(9)

(5)
When the filter window shifts to get the new sample, during the
.
convolution, the missing value would be multiplied with
In case that the sample has not arrived (as seen in Fig. 8), a
is employed to
new set of filter coefficients for which
obtain the correct result. The system function of the new filter is
(6)
By applying the above steps, a new set of coefficients can
be obtained for each position of the missing sample inside the
filter window. Once the sample arrives and is recognized by the
system as being covered by the filter window, the sample is inserted into its proper position in the convolution sum, and the
original coefficients are reloaded.

For power system protection applications the two-term approximation is considered sufficient; therefore (7) can be written
as
(10)
When the data stream delay is within the acceptable limits
and no samples are missing from the filter window, each of the
samples will satisfy (10).
for
. If the sampling rate
It can be considered that
is set, then the previous sample before the moment
was
, where
taken at
(11)
with

being the sampling frequency.

DEMETER et al.: OPEN-SYSTEM APPROACH TO POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND CONTROL INTEGRATION

35

For each sample that is covered by the filter window, it can

be successively written

..
.

(12)
The set of equations represented in (12) can be written in
matrix form as
(13)
where

..
.
The first row of matrix

..
.

..
.

Fig. 9. Received signal together with the phase angle and magnitude of the
sent signal obtained at the receiving end.

is

while the last row can be written as

The above relationships can be written for any value of .

Equation (13) can be solved for
using the pseudoinverse of
the matrix to minimize the errors. Multiplying both sides of
, the transpose of , it can be subsequently written
(13) with

Using a similar procedure, the values of the magnitude and

phase angle of the harmonics included in (10) can be obtained
using the corresponding elements of matrix .
The above-described algorithm can be applied for a complete
set of samples, i.e., when all samples are present as in Fig. 6.
When one of the samples is late, as in Fig. 7, the filters obtained in (14) would yield incorrect results; therefore, a new
set of filter coefficients will be obtained by removing the row
representing the missing sample in the previously described algorithm. Without the missing sample, will become

..
.

(14)
The matrix
can be calculated offline. The
values can also be obtained by using an online processing procedure. From numerical stability point of view, it is safer to use
the singular value decomposition of matrix , together with
the GramSchmidt orthogonalization, to obtain the optimum
solution of (13).
are obtained, the elements describing
Once the values of
(10) can be calculated. For example, the two elements of matrix
that will give information on the real and imaginary parts of
and . Therefore, it
the fundamental frequency signal are
can be written that
(15)
(16)

(17)

row will be dropped from matrix ,

The corresponding
and the new filter coefficients can be calculated using the procedure described in (14). For other missing samples in the filter
window, the new set of filter coefficients is obtained using the
matrix with the row removed, where represents the posi.
tion of the missing sample relative to
The designer of the system will have to determine the limit
where the communication link is considered defective because
of the excessive number of delayed or missing samples. Using
the above digital relaying algorithm, the magnitude and phase
angle of the source signal can be reconstructed at the receiving
end, as seen in Fig. 9.
VII. PERFORMANCE TESTS
A model was developed in Matlab to simulate the performance of the Ethernet network. The network model allows a
wide range of data transfer characteristics to be reproduced [6].

36

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 1, JANUARY 2006

Fig. 13.
control.
Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

Typical operating times of the proposed open-system protection and

Power system used for testing.

System model used for testing.

The system performed well under various fault and communication media conditions, confirming the viability of the proposed solution. The first two plots of Fig. 12 represent the current signal magnitude and phase angle measured at Station A
during a line-to-ground fault at location F. The next two plots
are the magnitude and phase angle of the current signal measured at Station B, and calculated at Station A, using samples
received across the Ethernet network.
The output of two differential protective functions are shown
in the last two plots of Fig. 12. Both the alpha-plane differential(87-A) and the percentage differential (87-D) protective functions performed well with the proposed relaying algorithm [15].
The length of the designed filters can vary depending on the
performance of the transmission network. The test results shown
in Fig. 12 were obtained with a digital relaying algorithm that
was designed for 16 samples and less, over one half period of
the fundamental frequency.
With proper analog filtering and antialiasing in place at the
location where the samples are taken, the target length of the
filter can be reduced for faster response, or the number of filter
sets increased, to accommodate less performant communication
channels.
VIII. CONCLUSION

Fig. 12.

Differential protection performance using the proposed algorithm.

The digital relaying algorithm, together with the data transmission subsystem, was integrated into the test power system shown
in Fig. 10. The overall integrated model used to test the performance of the algorithm is presented in Fig. 11.

Inside the substation, monitoring and controlling apparatus

are communicating with similar devices mostly on dedicated
cables. Modern applications should allow multiple protocols to
coexist on the same media. Ethernet networking inside the substation is providing the solution to this problem.
The Ethernet-based communication channel is becoming
more and more the medium of choice when it comes to transferring data between power systems applications. This paper
presents a solution to applying this type of communication to
digital relaying algorithms at data sample level.
The described solution is proposed as part of the Application
Layer of the networking model, offering maximum flexibility
in setting up hardware resources. The proposed solution can
process data samples when the data are not received in chronological sequence or data samples are received with delay. The
results show that the algorithm is able to overcome the deterministic data delivery.
The proposed solution is not limited to one station, as it can
provide the required data and information across any number
of locations, expanding the applicability over a wide range of
protective and control applications, as depicted in Fig. 13. The
amount of data transmission is dependent on the protection and
control application for which it will be employed. Simulations

DEMETER et al.: OPEN-SYSTEM APPROACH TO POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND CONTROL INTEGRATION

have confirmed that the solution is able to accommodate a wide

range of transfer rates and sampling intervals. The proposed
open system takes the process-bus approach to a system level,
where functions specific to unit protection are processed centrally. Adaptive relaying, substation automation, wide-area protection and control can be integrated building on the proposed
digital relaying algorithm.
REFERENCES
[1] U.S.-Canada Power System Outage Task Force. (2004) Final Report on
the August 14, 2003 blackout in the United States and Canada: Causes
and recommendations. U.S. Dept. Energy, Washington, DC. [Online].
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[2] A. G. Phadke et al., Synchronized sampling and phasor measurements
for relaying and control, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 9, no. 1, pp.
442452, Jan. 1994.
[3] M. Yalla et al., Application of peer-to-peer communication for protective relaying, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 446451, Apr.
2002.
[4] E. Udren and J. Deliyannides, Integrated system for substation relaying
and control shows benefits, IEEE Comput. Appl. Power, vol. 2, no. 1,
pp. 2127, Jan. 1989.
[5] G. Brunello, R. Smith, and C. Campbell, An application of a protective relaying scheme over an ethernet LAN/WAN, in Transmission and
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[6] C. E. Spurgeon, Ethernet: The Definitive Guide. Sebastopol, CA:
OReilly, 2000.
[7] V. Ramamurti, J. Siwko, G. Young, and M. Pepe, Initial implementations of point-to-point ethernet over SONET/SDH transport, IEEE
Commun. Mag., vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 6470, Mar. 2004.
[8] Schneider Electric, Optimizing Ethernet networks. Rueil-Malmaison,
France: Schneider Electric, Nov. 2001.
[9] The ABBSIEMENS IEC 61 850 Interoperability Projects, C. Brunner
and H. Schubert. (2002, Jan.). [Online]. Available: http://www.nettedautomation.com/download/KEMA_ABB-SIEMENS_slides_R0- 2.pdf.
[10] K. E. Martin et al., IEEE standard for synchrophasors for power systems, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 7377, Jan. 1998.
[11] B. Ryan and J. Littman, Synchronized, end-to-end tests on protective
relay schemes, IEEE Comput. Appl. Power, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 2025,
Apr. 1995.
[12] IEEE PES PSRC H5 Working Group, IEEE PES. (2001) Report to
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[13] Test methodologies, setup, and result documentation for EPRI sponsored
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37

[14] M. S. Sachdev and M. A. Baribeau, A new algorithm for digital

impedance relays, IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. TPAS-98, no. 6,
pp. 22322240, 1979.
[15] A. R. van C. Warrington, Protective Relays: Their Theory and Practice. New York: Chapman and Hall, 1977.

Elemer Demeter (M99) received the Dipl.Ing. degree in electrical engineering

from the Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania, and the
M.Sc. degree from the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada, in
1995 and 1998, respectively. He is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree at the
University of Saskatchewan.
He is Supervisor of the Communications, Protection and Control Development Department of SaskPower, Regina, SK.
Mr. Demeter is Professional Engineer registered in the Province of
Saskatchewan.

Tarlochan S. Sidhu (SM94F04) received the B.E. (Hons.) degree from the
Punjabi University, Patiala, India, and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from the
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada, in 1979, 1985, and 1989,
respectively.
He is currently Chair of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Professor and Hydro One Chair in Power Systems Engineering,
University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada. From July 1990 to June
2002, he was a Professor and Graduate Chair of the Department of Electrical
Engineering, University of Saskatchewan. He worked also with the Regional
Computer Center, Chandigarh, India; Punjab State Electricity Board, India; and
Bell-Northern Research Ltd., Ottawa, ON. His areas of research interest include
power system protection, monitoring, and control.
Dr. Sidhu is a Fellow of the Institution of Electrical Engineers of the U.K.,
Fellow of the Institution of Engineers, India, a Professional Engineer registered
in the Province of Ontario, and a Chartered Engineer in the U.K.

Sherif O. Faried (SM00) received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in electrical
engineering from Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, and the M.Sc. and Ph.D.
degrees in electrical engineering from the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
He is currently a Professor of Electrical Engineering, Graduate Chair, and
the Coordinator of the Power Systems Research Group at the University of
Saskatchewan. His research interest includes power system dynamics, reliability, and electrical machines.