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his chapter is an introduction to circuits in which the applied voltage or current are sinusoidal.
The time and frequency domains are defined and phasor relationships are developed for resistive, inductive and capacitive circuits. Reactance, susceptance, impedance and admittance are
also defined. It is assumed that the reader is familiar with sinusoids and complex numbers. If not, it
is strongly recommended that Appendix B is reviewed thoroughly before reading this chapter.
6-1
i( t)
vC ( t )
v S = V p cos t
Solution:
By KVL,
(6.1)
vR + vC = vS
where
v R = Ri = Ri C
and
dv C
i C = C --------dt
Then,
dv C
v R = RC --------dt
(6.2)
(6.3)
where the amplitude A and phase angle are constants to be determined from the circuit parameters of V p , R , C , and . Substitution of (6.3) into (6.2) yields
ARC sin ( t + ) + A cos ( t + ) = V p cos t
(6.4)
and
cos ( x + y ) = cos x cos y sin x sin y
6-2
Collecting sine and cosine terms, equating like terms and, after some more tedious work, solving for
amplitude A and phase angle we get:
Vp
1
v C ( t ) = --------------------------------- cos ( t tan ( RC ) )
2
1 + ( RC )
(6.5)
Obviously, analyzing circuits with sinusoidal excitations when they contain capacitors and/or inductors, using the above procedure is impractical. We will see on the next section that the complex excitation function greatly simplifies the procedure of analyzing such circuits. Complex numbers are discussed in Appendix B.
The complex excitation function does not imply complexity of a circuit; it just entails the use of
complex numbers. We should remember also that when we say that the imaginary part of a complex
number is some value, there is nothing imaginary about this value. In other words, the imaginary
part is just as real as the real part of the complex number but it is defined on a different axis. Thus
we display the real part of a complex function on the axis of the reals (usually the x-axis), and the
imaginary part on the imaginary axis or the y-axis.
and if
i ( t ) = B sin ( t + )
then
di
= B cos ( t + )
dt
Let us consider the network of Figure 6.2 which consists of resistors, inductors and capacitors, and
it is driven (excited) by a sinusoidal voltage source v S ( t ) .
6-3
vS ( t )
LOAD
Linear Network
Consisting of
Resistors,
Inductors and
Capacitors
Excitation
Let us also define the voltage across the load as v LOAD ( t ) * as the response. As we know from Chapter 5, the nodal and mesh equations for such circuits are integrodifferential equations, and it is shown
in differential equations textbooks that the forced response or particular solution of these circuits have the
form
v LD ( t ) = A cos ( t ) + B sin ( t )
We also know from Eulers identity that
A cos t + jA sin t = Ae
jt
(6.6)
and therefore, the real component is the response due to cos t and the imaginary component is the
response to sin t We will use Example 6.2 to illustrate the ease by which we can obtain the
response of a circuit, which is excited by a sinusoidal source, using the complex function
jt
Ae
tion.
approach. In this text, we will represent all sinusoidal variations in terms of the cosine func-
Example 6.2
Repeat Example 6.1, that is, find the capacitor voltage v C ( t ) for the circuit of Figure 6.3 using the
complex excitation method.
R
i( t)
v S = V p cos t
vC ( t )
6-4
jt
jt
j ( t + )
As in Example 6.1,
dv C
jt
RC --------- + v C = V p e
dt
(6.7)
or
d
j ( t + )
j ( t + )
jt
RC ----- ( V C e
) + VC e
= Vp e
dt
or
( j RC + 1 )V C e
j ( t + )
= Vp e
jt
The last expression above shows that radian frequency is the same for the response as it is for the
excitation; therefore we only need to be concerned with the magnitude and the phase angle of the
response. Accordingly, we can eliminate the radian frequency by dividing both sides of that
expression by e
jt
= Vp
from which
VC e
1
Vp
Vp
Vp
j [ tan ( RC ) ]
-------------------------------- = --------------------------------------------------------------= ---------------------=
e
1
j RC + 1
2 2 2
2 2 2 j [ tan ( RC ) ]
1+ R C
1+ R C e
This expression above shows the response as a function of the maximum value of the excitation, its
radian frequency and the circuit constants R and C .
If we wish to express the response in complete form, we simply multiply both sides by e
we get
VC e
j ( t + )
jt
and
1
Vp
j [ t tan ( RC ) ]
= --------------------------------- e
2 2 2
1+ R C
Finally, since the excitation is the real part of the complex excitation, we use Eulers identity on both
Circuit Analysis I with MATLAB Applications
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6-5
The first part of the above procedure where the excitation-response relation is simplified to amplitude and phase relationship is known as time-domain to frequency-domain transformation; the second part
where the excitation-response is put back to its sinusoidal form is known as frequency-domain to timedomain transformation. For brevity, we will denote the time domain as the t domain , and the frequency domain as the j domain .
If a sinusoid is given in terms of the sine function, we must first convert it to a cosine function.
Thus,
m ( t ) = A sin ( t + ) = A cos ( t + 90 )
(6.8)
M = Ae
j ( 90 )
= A ( 90 )
(6.9)
j ( 100t 150 )
v ( t ) = 10 cos ( 100t 150 ) = Re 10e
6-6
j150
= 10 150
j90
Next, adding the radian frequency multiplied by t to the exponent of the above expression we
get
i ( t ) = 120e
j ( t 90 )
j ( t 90 )
i ( t ) = Re 120e
= 120 cos ( t 90 ) = 120 sin t
We can add, subtract, multiply and divide sinusoids of the same frequency using phasors as illustrated by the following example.
Example 6.5
It is given that i 1 ( t ) = 10 cos ( 120 t + 45 ) and i 2 ( t ) = 5 sin ( 120 t 45 ) . Compute the sum
i ( t ) = i1 ( t ) + i2 ( t ) .
6-7
Next, we perform the t domain to j domain transformation and we obtain the phasors
I 1 = 10 45 and I 2 = 5 135
and by addition,
2
2
2
2
I = I 1 + I 2 = 10 45 + 5 135 = 10 ------- + j ------- + 5 ------- j -------
2
2
2
2
or
2
I = 5 ------2- + j ------- = 5 45
2
2
and finally transforming the phasor I into the t domain , we get
i ( t ) = 5 cos ( 120 t + 45 )
Also, for brevity, in our subsequent discussion we will designate resistive, inductive and capacitive
circuits as R , L , and C respectively.
Proof:
In circuit 6.4 (a) we let v R ( t ) be a complex voltage, that is,
6-8
vR ( t )
iR ( t )
VS
+
IR
VR
v R ( t ) = Ri R ( t ) = V p cos ( t + )
( a ) t domain network
V R = RI R
( b ) j domain ( phasor ) network
Vp e
j ( t + )
= V p cos ( t + ) + jV p sin ( t + )
(6.10)
and since R is a constant, it will produce a current of the same frequency and the same phase *
whose form will be
Ip e
j ( t + )
= I p cos ( t + ) + jI p sin ( t + )
j ( t + )
= RI p e
j ( t + )
(6.11)
= RI p e
or V p = RI p
Since the phasor current I is in-phase with the voltage V (both I and V have the same phase ), we
let
V p = V R and I p = I R
(6.12)
Therefore, the phasor V and I relationship in resistors, obeys Ohms law also, and the current
through a resistor is always inphase with the voltage across that resistor.
Example 6.6
For the network of Figure 6.5, find i R ( t ) when v R ( t ) = 40 sin ( 377t 75 ) .
* The phase will be the same since neither differentiation nor integration is performed here.
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6-9
vR ( t )
iR ( t )
R=5
v R ( t ) = 40 sin ( 377t 75 )
Solution:
We first perform the t domain to j domain i.e., v R ( t ) V R transformation as follows:
v R ( t ) = 40 sin ( 377t 75 ) = 40 cos ( 377t 165 ) V R = 40 165
Then,
V
40 165
I R = ------R- = ------------------------- = 8 165 A
R
5
Therefore,
I R = 8 165 A
j domain
t domain
Alternately, since the resistance R is a constant, we can compute i R ( t ) directly from the t domain
expression for v R ( t ) , that is,
vR ( t )
40 sin ( 377t 75 ) = 8 sin ( 377t 75 ) A
i R ( t ) = ----------- = -------------------------------------------5
R
iL ( t )
di L
v L ( t ) = L ------dt
( a ) t domain network
vL ( t )
VS
vS ( t )
IL
`V
V L = j LI L
( b ) j domain ( phasor ) network
We will prove that the relationship between the phasors V L and I L shown in circuit 6.6 (b) is
6-10
(6.13)
Proof:
In circuit 6.6 (a) we let v L ( t ) be a complex voltage, that is,
Vp e
j ( t + )
= V p cos ( t + ) + jV p sin ( t + )
(6.14)
and recalling that if x ( t ) = sin ( t + ) then dx dt = cos ( t + ) , that is, differentiation (or integration) does not change the radian frequency or the phase angle , the current through the
inductor will have the form
Ip e
j ( t + )
= I p cos ( t + ) + jI p sin ( t + )
(6.15)
and since
di L
v L ( t ) = L ------dt
then,
Vp e
j ( t + )
j ( t + )
j ( t + )
d
= L ----- ( I p e
) = jLI p e
dt
(6.16)
= j LI p e
or V p = j LI p
and letting
V p = V L and I p = I L
we get
V L = j LI L
(6.17)
The presence of the j operator in (6.17) indicates that the voltage across an inductor leads the current through it by 90 .
Example 6.7
For the network of Figure 6.7, find i L ( t ) when v L ( t ) = 40 sin ( 2t 75 ) .
Solution:
We first perform the t domain to j domain i.e., v L ( t ) V L transformation as follows:
6-11
iL ( t )
vL ( t )
L = 5 mH
v L ( t ) = 40 sin ( 2t 75 )
Figure 6.7. Voltage across the inductive load of Example 6.7
v L ( t ) = 40 sin ( 2t 75 ) = 40 cos ( 2t 165 ) V L = 40 165 mV
and
3
VL
40 165 ) 10 - = 40
165 = 4 255 = 4 105 A
= (----------------------------------------------------------------------I L = --------3
10
90
jL
j10 10
Therefore,
I L = 4 105 A
j domain
t domain
+
iC ( t )
vC ( t )
VS
vS ( t )
dv C
i C ( t ) = C --------dt
( a ) t domain network
IC
VC
I C = j CV C
( b ) j domain ( phasor ) network
We will prove that the relationship between the phasors V C and I C shown in the network of Figure
6.8 (b) is
(6.18)
I C = jCV C
Proof:
In circuit 6.8 (a) we let v C ( t ) be a complex voltage, that is,
6-12
j ( t + )
= V p cos ( t + ) + jV p sin ( t + )
then the current through the capacitor will have the form
Ip e
j ( t + )
= I p cos ( t + ) + jI p sin ( t + )
and since
dv
i C ( t ) = --------Cdt
then
Ip e
j ( t + )
j ( t + )
j ( t + )
d
= C ----- ( V p e
) = j CV p e
dt
(6.19)
= jCV p e
or I p = j CV p
and letting
I p = I C and V p = V C
we get
(6.20)
I C = j CV C
The presence of the j operator in (6.26) indicates that the current through a capacitor leads the voltage across it by 90 .
Example 6.8
For the circuit shown below, find i C ( t ) when v C ( t ) = 170 cos ( 60 t 45 ) .
vS ( t )
+
iC ( t )
vC ( t )
C=106 nF
v C ( t ) = 170 cos ( 60 t 45 )
Figure 6.9. Voltage across the capacitive load of Example 6.8
Solution:
We first perform the t domain to j domain i.e., v C ( t ) V C transformation as follows:
Circuit Analysis I with MATLAB Applications
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6-13
Then,
I C = jCV C = j 60 106 10
170 45 = 1 90 3.4 10
1 45
= 3.4 10 45 = 3.4 45 mA
Therefore,
i C ( t ) = 3.4 cos ( 60 + 45 ) mA
I C = 3.4 45 mA
j domain
t domain
6.5 Impedance
Consider the t domain circuit in Figure 6.10 (a) and its equivalent phasor circuit shown in Figure
6.10 (b).
L
V
+ v (t) + v (t) C
+ v (t) S
R
L
C
i (t)
( a ) t domain network
VR
vS ( t )
VL
VC
v R ( t ) = Ri R ( t )
V R = IR
di
v L ( t ) = L ----dt
V L = jLI
1
V C = ---------- I
jC
1 t
v C ( t ) = ---- i dt
C
VR + VL + VC = VS
di 1 t
Ri ( t ) + L ----- + ---- i dt = v S ( t )
dt C
1
RI + jLI + ---------- I = V S
jC
vR ( t ) + vL ( t ) + vC ( t ) = vS ( t )
Integrodifferential Equation
Algebraic Equation
Figure 6.10. The t domain and j domain relationships in a series RLC circuit
jC
6-14
Impedance
and dividing both sides of (6.26) by I we obtain the impedance which, by definition, is
V
Phasor Voltage
1
Impedance = Z = --------------------------------------- = ------S = R + jL + ---------Phasor Current
I
jC
(6.21)
then
1
1
---------- = j -------
C
jC
and thus
1 -
Z = R + j L ------
C
(6.22)
2
1
R + L -------- tan
1
L ------- R
(6.23)
We must remember that the impedance is not a phasor; it is a complex quantity whose real part is the
resistance R and the imaginary part is L 1 C , that is,
1
Re { Z } = R and Im { Z } = L -------C
(6.24)
The imaginary part of the impedance Z is called reactance and it is denoted with the letter X . The
two components of reactance are the inductive reactance X L and the capacitive reactance X C , i.e.,
X = X L + X C = L 1 C
(6.25)
XL = L
(6.26)
XC = 1 C
(6.27)
The unit of the inductive and capacitive reactances is also the Ohm ().
6-15
R + ( X L X C ) tan [ ( X L X C ) R ]
Z = R + jX = R + j ( X L X C ) =
(6.28)
By a procedure similar to that of Chapter 2, we can show that impedances combine as resistances do.
Example 6.9
For the circuit below, find the current i ( t ) given that v S ( t ) = 100 cos ( 100t 30 ) .
L
+ 5 +
100 mH C +
vS ( t )
i (t)
100 F
Solution:
If we attempt to solve this problem in the time-domain directly, we will need to solve an integrodifferential equation. But as we now know, a much easier solution is with the transformation of the
given circuit to a phasor circuit. Here, = 100 rad s and thus
j L = jX L = j100 0.1 = j10
and
11
1 - = j ------- = j100
= jX C = j -----------------------------------------------2
2
6
C
jC
10 10 10
Also,
V S = 100 30
VS
+
5
V S = ZI S
j10
j100
6-16
Admittance
Z = 5 + j10 j100 = 5 j90 =
and
V
100 30
= 1.11 [ 30 ( 86.82 ) ]
I = ------S = ------------------------------------90.14 86.82
Z
Therefore,
I = 1.11 56.82 i ( t ) = 1.11 cos ( 100t + 56.82 )
6.6 Admittance
Consider the t domain circuit in Figure 6.13 (a) and its equivalent phasor circuit shown in Figure
6.13 (b).
+
v (t)
iS ( t )
iR ( t )
`i ( t )
( a ) t domain network
iC ( t )
V
IR
IS
IL
IC
i G ( t ) = Gv ( t )
I G = GV
dv
i C ( t ) = C -----dt
I C = jCV
1
I L = --------- V
jL
1 t
i L ( t ) = --- v dt
L
IR + IL + IC = IS
dv 1 t
Gv ( t ) + C ------ + --- v dt = i S ( t )
dt L
iG ( t ) + iL ( t ) + iC ( t ) = iS ( t )
Integrodifferential Equation
Algebraic Equation
1
GV + jCV + --------- V = I S
jL
Figure 6.13. The t domain and j domain relationships in a parallel RLC circuit
jL
(6.29)
Dividing both sides of (6.29) by V , we obtain the admittance, that is, by definition
6-17
(6.30)
Here we observe that the admittance Y is the reciprocal of the impedance Z as conductance G is
the reciprocal of the resistance R .
1
(6.31)
2
1
G + C ------- tan
1
C ------ G
(6.32)
Like the impedance Z , the admittance Y it is not a phasor; it is a complex quantity whose real part is the
1
- , that is,
conductance G and the imaginary part is C -----L
1
Re { Y } = G and Im { Y } = C ------L
(6.33)
The imaginary part of the admittance Y is called susceptance and it is denoted with the letter B . The
two components of susceptance are the capacitive susceptance B C and the inductive susceptance B L , that is,
B = BC + BL = C 1 L
(6.34)
BC = C
(6.35)
BL = 1 L
(6.36)
1
G + ( B C B L ) tan [ ( B C B L ) G ]
(6.37)
By a procedure similar to that of Chapter 2, we can show that admittances combine as conductances
do.
6-18
Admittance
Duality is a term meaning that there is a similarity in which some quantities are related to others.
The dual quantities we have encountered thus far are listed in Table 6.1.
TABLE 6.1 Dual quantities
Series
Voltage
Resistance
Thevenin
Inductance
Reactance
Impedance
Parallel
Current
Conductance
Norton
Capacitance
Susceptance
Admittance
Example 6.10
Consider the series and parallel networks shown in Figure 6.14. How should their real and imaginary
terms be related so that they will be equivalent?
R
`L
Solution:
For these circuits to be equivalent, their impedances Z or admittances Y must be equal. Therefore,
R
X
1
R jX
R jX
1
1
Y = --- = --------------- = G + jB = --------------- --------------- = ------------------- = ------------------- j ------------------2
2
2
2
2
2
R
+
jX
R
jX
Z
R + jX
R +X R +X
R +X
and
X B = -----------------2
2
R +X
(6.38)
6-19
` Lj2
Z, Y
C
1
j5
Solution:
Since this is a parallel network, it is easier to compute the admittance Y first. Thus,
1 + jC = 4 j2 + j5 = 4 + j3 = 5 36.9
Y = G + --------jL
Example 6.12
Compute Z and Y for the circuit shown below. Verify your answers with MATLAB.
C1
L1
j13
Z, Y
j8
R1
L2
10
20
R2
` j5 C
j16
Solution:
Let the given network be represented as shown in Figure 6.17 where Z 1 = j13 j8 = j5 ,
Z 2 = 10 + j5 , and Z 3 = 20 j16
Then,
Z2 Z3
( 10 + j5 ) ( 20 j16 )
( 11.18 26.6 ) ( 25.61 38.7 )
Z = Z 1 + ----------------= j5 + ----------------------------------------------- = j5 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------------Z2 + Z3
10 + j5 + 20 j16
31.95 20.1
= j5 + 8.96 8 = j5 + 8.87 + j1.25 = 8.87 + j6.25 = 10.85 35.2
6-20
Summary
Z1
Z, Y
Z2
Z3
and
1
1
Y = --- = ------------------------------- = 0.092 35.2 = 0.0754 j0.531
Z
10.85 35.2
z =
8.8737+ 6.2537i
y=1/z
% Find admittance y
y =
0.0753- 0.0531i
6.7 Summary
Excitations or driving functions refer to the applied voltages and currents in electric circuits.
A response is anything we define it as a response. Typically response is the voltage or current in
with the same frequency but with different amplitude and phase.
If the excitation is a time-varying function such as a sinusoid, inductors and capacitors do not
behave like short circuits and open circuits respectively as they do when the excitation is a constant and steady-state conditions are reached. They behave entirely different.
Circuit analysis in circuits where the excitation is a time-varying quantity such as a sinusoid is very
difficult and thus impractical in the t domain .
The complex excitation function greatly simplifies the procedure of analyzing such circuits when
6-21
sources, is considerably simplified with the use of phasor voltages and phasor currents which we
represent by the boldface capital letters V and I respectively.
Phasor quantities exist only in the j domain
In the j domain the current through a resistor is always inphase with the voltage across that
resistor
In the j domain the current through an inductor lags the voltage across that inductor by 90
In the j domain the current through a capacitor leads the voltage across that capacitor by 90
In the j domain the impedance Z is defined as
V
Phasor Voltage
1
Impedance = Z = --------------------------------------- = ------S = R + jL + ---------Phasor Current
I
jC
Like resistance, the unit of impedance is the Ohm ().
Impedance is a complex quantity whose real part is the resistance R , and the imaginary part is
L 1 C , that is,
6-22
Summary
1
Re { Z } = R and Im { Z } = L -------C
In polar form the impedance is expressed as
Z =
1
2
1 2
1
R + L -------- tan L -------- R
C
C
The imaginary part of the impedance Z is called reactance and it is denoted with the letter X . The
two components of reactance are the inductive reactance X L and the capacitive reactance X C , i.e.,
1
X = X L X C = L -------C
The unit of the inductive and capacitive reactances is also the Ohm ().
In the j domain the admittance Y is defined as
I
Phasor Current
1
1
Admit tan ce = Y = --------------------------------------- = ----S- = G + --------- + jC = --Phasor Voltage
V
jL
Z
The admittance Y is the reciprocal of the impedance Z as conductance G is the reciprocal of the
resistance R .
1
1
Re { Y } = G and Im { Y } = C ------L
The imaginary part of the admittance Y is called susceptance and it is denoted with the letter B .
The two components of susceptance are the capacitive susceptance B C and the inductive suscep-
2
1
G + C ------- tan
1
C ------ G
L
1
6-23
tance is not the negative reciprocal of reactance. Whenever we deal with resistance and reactance
we must think of devices in series, and when we deal with conductance and susceptance we must
think of devices in parallel. However, the admittance is always the reciprocal of the impedance
The ratio V I of the phasor voltage to the phasor current exists only in the j domain and it is
not the ratio v ( t ) i ( t ) in the t domain . Although the ratio v ( t ) i ( t ) could yield some value, this
value is not impedance. Similarly, the ratio i ( t ) v ( t ) is not admittance.
Duality is a term meaning that there is a similarity in which some quantities are related to others.
6-24
Exercises
6.8 Exercises
Multiple Choice
1. Phasor voltages and phasor currents can be used in the t domain if a circuit contains
A. independent and dependent sources with resistors only
B. independent and dependent sources with resistors and inductors only
C. independent and dependent sources with resistors and capacitors only
D. independent and dependent sources with resistors, inductors, and capacitors
E. none of the above
2. If the excitation in a circuit is a single sinusoidal source with amplitude A , radian frequency ,
and phase angle , and the circuit contains resistors, inductors, and capacitors, all voltages and all
currents in that circuit will be of the same
A. amplitude A but different radian frequency and different phase angle
B. radian frequency but different amplitude A and different phase angle
C. phase angle but different amplitude A and different radian frequency
D. amplitude A same radian frequency and same phase angle
E. none of the above
3. The sinusoid v ( t ) = 120 sin ( t + 90 ) in the j domain is expressed as
A. V = 120e
j ( t + 90 )
B. V = 120e
jt
C. V = 120e
j90
D. V = 120e
j0
rent by first replacing these with a single voltage source v ( t ) = v 1 ( t ) + v 2 ( t ) whose value is
A. v ( t ) = 300 cos ( 15t 15 )
B. v ( t ) = 100 cos ( 5t + 105 )
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6-25