Mas Module 4

DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.
1
MODULE 4 ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS
i
a
r
T
f
o
(DCAM PART
66 CAT B1.1)
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
g
n
i
n
MODULE 4 : ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS
For Training Purposes Only
Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011
DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.1

WARNING
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
This document is intended for the purposes of training only. The information contained herein is as accurate as
possible at the time of issue, and is subject to ongoing amendments where necessary according to any
regulatory journals and documents. Where the information contained in this document is in variation with other
official journals and/or documents, the latter must be taken as the overriding document. The contents herein
shall not be reproduced in any form without the expressed permission of ETD.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1 SEMICONDUCTORS.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
4.1.1(A) DIODES .........................................................................................................................................................................................................1
4.1.1(B) DIODES .........................................................................................................................................................................................................3
4.1.2(A) TRANSISTORS ..............................................................................................................................................................................................31
4.1.2(B) TRANSISTORS ..............................................................................................................................................................................................32
4.1.3(A) INTEGRATED CIRCUITS ..................................................................................................................................................................................55
4.1.3(B) INTEGRATED CIRCUITS ..................................................................................................................................................................................59
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
4.2 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS .......................................................................................................................................................................... 68
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
4.3 SERVOMECHANISM ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 72

4.3(A) SERVOMECHANISM ..........................................................................................................................................................................................72
4.3(B) SERVOMECHANISM ..........................................................................................................................................................................................73
Page i

SEMICONDUCTORS (DCAM 4.1 L2)
4.1 Semiconductors (DCAM Ref. 4.1) Level 2

4.1.1(a) Diodes
Application of Semi-conductor P-N Junction Diodes Diodes in Series
Diodes in Parallel
Where current supplied by one rectifier would exceed its maximum forward
current, or exceed its maximum operating temperature, it is possible to connect
two or more diodes in parallel. The current, therefore, will be divided between the
diodes.
g
n
i
n
The voltage across each diode will be the same and the current distribution
between the diodes will depend on the characteristics of the diodes (again, for
further information on rectifiers see later notes in this series).
Figure 1: DIODES IN SERIES
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
When diodes are connected in series to a known load then it must be remembered
that the current will be the same and the maximum forward current must not be
exceeded for each diode. Because each diode has a small forward resistance
there will be a volts drop across each diode, which will depend on each diode's
characteristics. These individual volts drops will subtract from the supply voltage to
leave a certain voltage across the load (see later notes on rectifiers).
i
a
r
T
Figure 2: DIODES IN PARALLEL

Page 1

TESTING OF DIODES
It is essential the diode is connected the correct way round in a circuit, so a
coloured band or spot usually marks the cathode (k) end.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 3: TESTING OF DIODES
If it is necessary to verify the connections in the absence of any marking then a

test meter is used. Using the old AVO-meter it should be remembered, as with any
ohmmeter, that the BLACK (NEGATIVE) terminal becomes the positive output and
RED (POSITIVE) terminal is the negative. When a 'FLUKE' is used it has a switch
selection to test diodes.
The meter displays the forward voltage drop (VF) up to 2 volts and beeps briefly for
one diode drop (VF < 0.7V) for the forward bias test. For reverse bias or open
circuit the meter displays OL, and if there is a short circuit the meter emits a
continuous tone.

Page 2

4.1.1(b) Diodes
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Figure 4 shows the structure of the germanium and silicon atoms, two very
important elements in the manufacture of diodes and transistors
At room temperatures the atoms are vibrating sufficiently in the lattice for a few
bonds to break, setting free some valence electrons, leaving a "hole" where the
electron was. Free electrons are attracted to the hole as the atom, short of an
electron is now positively charged.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 4: ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Bear in mind that the diagrams are only two-dimensional and that in reality the
orbiting electrons do not rotate in perfect circles or rotate in a flat plane.
From figure 4 it can be seen that each atom has four electrons in its outer shell,
these electrons are called VALENCE ELECTRONS, they are farthest from the
nucleus and therefore are least tightly bound (less attractive force). It is the
valence electrons that play the active part in electrical conduction.
Silicon and germanium are crystalline substances and the valence electrons of the
individual atom link up and arrange themselves with the valence electrons in
adjacent atoms to form CO-VALENT BONDS. Every atom has a half-share in eight
valence electrons. This gives a very stable arrangement of a regularly repeating
three dimensional structure called a crystal lattice. Figure 5 shows the two
dimensional effect of the covalent bonding. Pure silicon and germanium are
therefore very good insulators.
Figure 5: CO-VALENT BONDS
If a battery is placed across a pure semiconductor, electrons are attracted to the

positive terminal. These free electrons travel through the semiconductor topping'
from one hole to another, and it therefore appears that the positive holes are
moving towards the negative terminal. This current flow is very small and is called
INTRINSIC CONDUCTION.

Page 3

To understand the concept of electrons moving one way and holes moving the
other is not easy but it can be likened to an empty seat at the end of a row in a
cinema. Assume the vacant seat to be at the right hand end of the row. If the first
person next to the seat moves into it, then he/she has moved to the right, but the
vacant seat has moved one place to the left. If each person in the row does the
same (i.e. moves to the empty seat to his/her right) as soon as it becomes empty,
the vacancy (hole) appears to have moved along the row in one direction while the
occupants (electrons) have move in the opposite direction.
If the temperature is raised more bonds break down and conduction increases i.e.,
resistance decreases, this means more heat is generated, and more conduction
occurs, resistance decreases further, more heat is generated - and so on. This is
called thermal runaway and will eventually destroy the crystal structure.
Figure 6: N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Semiconductors have a negative temperature coefficient. In other words their

resistance decreases with an increase in temperature. We need now to look at
how we can change the basic insulator into a conductor. This is achieved by
mixing (doping) a very small quantity of a selected impurity atom into the
10
semiconductor material. (Typically 1 part in 10 ) The material now becomes an
extrinsic semiconductor.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Note: Although extra electrons have been inserted, it must be remembered that
each impurity atom is itself neutral and so the whole of the N-type material is also
neutral.
MAJORITY CARRIER - ELECTRONS (NEGATIVE)
[N = N-TYPE] MINORITY CARRIER - HOLES (due to intrinsic conduction)
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors:

1. N-Type semi-conductor material.
2. P-Type semi conductor material.
N-Type Semi-conductor Material
Doping impurities such as phosphorus or arsenic are used. These have five
(pentavalent) electrons in the outermost orbit. When introduced into the basic
material, four of the electrons join up with the co-valent bonding, whilst one
electron is left 'free'. (The number of free electrons can be strictly controlled by this
doping).
The free electrons can migrate through the inter-atomic space and can therefore
act as current carriers when a (very low) voltage is applied.
Figure 7: ELECTRON FLOW IN AN N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR

Page 4

P-Type Semi-conductor Material

In this material, impurities such as Indium or Aluminium are used. These have
three (trivalent) electrons in the outermost orbit. When introduced into the basic
material, all three electrons link into the crystal structure but this leaves a 'hole' in
the structure. This hole is looking for an electron to fill it and so it is a form of
positive current carrier. If a (very small) voltage is applied, electrons will move to
fill in the holes but this forms fresh holes and so there is a general drift of holes
through the material from positive to negative (in the opposite sense to the electron
flow in the N-type material). Again, the material is neutral.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 9: ELECTRON FLOW IN A P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR
Figure 8: P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR
MAJORITY CARRIER - HOLES (POSITIVE)

[P = P-TYPE] MINORITY CARRIER - ELECTRONS (due to intrinsic conduction)

Page 5

THE P-N JUNCTION

Imagine a piece of N-type material being brought into contact with a piece of Ptype material. Both pieces are, up to the instant of contact, neutral.
Remembering that the holes are looking for electrons to complete the lattice
network, it can be seen that electrons will migrate across the junction to fill in the
holes as soon as the two materials are brought together.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 11: P-N JUNCTION
The Barrier Potential is approximately 0.2V for Germanium and 0.6V for Silicon. It
must be remembered that the barrier potential is always present at a P-N junction even if it is sitting in a storage bag on a shelf.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 10: P-N JUNCTION BEFORE CONTACT
As electrons leave the N-type material, it will become positively charged. As

electrons fill holes in the P-type material, it will become negatively charged.
If an external supply is connected +ve to the P-type material and -ve to the N-type,
it will oppose the barrier potential. If it is bigger than the barrier potential, the
barrier potential will be overcome and current will flow, electrons moving from
supply negative to positive and holes moving in the opposite direction, as shown in
figure12. This is known as FORWARD BIASING the junction.
A BARRIER POTENTIAL is built up at the boundary, forming what is known as the

Depletion Layer (figure 8). This build-up in potential will eventually be strong
enough to stop further migration of electrons across the junction.
Figure 12: FORWARD BIAS P-N JUNCTION
The intrinsic conduction, (covalent bonds breaking down at normal temperature)

produces minority carriers and thus small current flows in the same direction as the
majority carriers i.e., it adds to it.

Page 6

If the external supply is connected in the other sense, +ve to the N-type and -ve to
the P-type, it will reinforce and increase the barrier potential and therefore no
current will flow, except for any slight leakage current (see below). The depletion
layer will be enlarged as shown in figure 13. This is known as REVERSE BIASING
the junction.
RECTIFIER ACTION
If an ac supply is applied to a P-N junction then when 'P' is made positive to 'N'
then the positive half cycle will flow through the junction as it is forward biased. On
the negative half cycle of the ac 'P' is negative to 'N'.
g
n
i
n
This is the reversed bias mode and the junction will not conduct on this half of the
cycle.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 13: REVERSE BIAS P-N JUNCTION
At first sight it might appear that there is no current flow, but due to intrinsic
conduction, which produces minority carriers, which causes a tiny current to flow
across the junction this is known as the LEAKAGE CURRENT.
Raising the temperature of the P-N junction causes a rapid increase in the
generation of minority carriers, and therefore leakage current increases. At room
temperature each 10C increase roughly doubles the rate of generation for
germanium.
i
a
r
T
Figure 14: ACTION OF A DIODE
The junction passes current through R only when the P material is positive.
Therefore an output voltage is produced only on the positive input half cycle.
For silicon the doubling rate is 5C. It might appear from this that germanium would
be used for higher temperature conditions, however, although the rate of increase
is greater for silicon, its actual value is considerably less than that of germanium,
so silicon is used where high temperatures are encountered.
Figure 15: DIODE SYMBOL

Page 7

Figure 16: DIODES

The P-N junction is acting as a rectifier and is known as a SEMICONDUCTOR
DIODE. The symbol is as shown in figure 15.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
It is important to note that the arrow points in the direction of CONVENTIONAL

current flow and the two connections are known as the ANODE (A) and CATHODE
(K). The cathode (negative end) is often marked with a band as shown in figure 16.
Diode Characteristics
Typical characteristic curves for silicon and germanium diodes at 25C are shown
in figure 17. When forward biased, a voltage is required to overcome the barrier
voltage before the diode current increases; this is typically 0.2V for germanium and
0.6V for silicon. After this, current rises rapidly as the applied voltage increases.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 17: DIODE CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
The left-hand side of the origin of the characteristic curve is where the voltage is
reversed, i.e. reverse biased. As can be seen the current is extremely small, this is
the leakage current due to minority carriers. Note that the voltage scale is not
linear, with the larger divisions on the negative axes of the graph.
As the voltage is increased at a certain point the current increases rapidly to a high
value. This is known as AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN and will cause permanent
damage to the diode if it is allowed to occur.
It occurs because as the reverse voltage becomes too great, the minority carriers
are accelerated to a point where they heat up the diode and collide with atoms in
the depletion layer. This will dislodge further electrons, thus creating more minority
carriers and this effect 'avalanches' to cause a rapid rise in current. The
breakdown voltage can have any value from a few volts up to 1000V for silicon and
100V for germanium depending on the construction of the diode and the level of
doping.

Page 8

Diode Parameters
Diodes are manufactured in a wide range of voltage and current ratings. These
must be taken into account when choosing a diode for a particular circuit.
Typical parameters considered are:
1.
2.
Maximum forward current

Peak inverse voltage
Depending on its use, frequency is also a parameter to be considered, but

generally these are special diodes and will be discussed later.
Single Phase Half Wave Rectifier
Maximum operating temperature
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The diode has a small forward resistance when it is conducting, so power must be
dissipated as it conducts. This power dissipation causes heat at the junction, this
local heating must be kept down, as excessive leakage current will occur. There is
therefore a MAXIMUM FORWARD CURRENT so that the temperature is not
reached which will cause deterioration of the structure of the diode.
The PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE (PIV) is the maximum operating voltage
appearing across the terminals of the diode acting in the reverse direction, and
therefore represents the maximum reverse voltage that may be applied to the
diode without reverse breakdown occurring. This may be written as Maximum
Reverse Voltage instead of PIV.
MAXIMUM OPERATING TEMPERATURE is a maximum junction temperature
above, which the structure of the diode deteriorates. The maximum forward
current is so chosen that this temperature is not exceeded in the worst
combination of circumstances.
g
n
i
n
With reference to figure 18, when terminal A is positive with respect to B the diode
conducts, this causes a current to flow around the circuit and a voltage will be
developed across RL. When the input polarity reverses terminal A will be negative
with respect to B and the diode will switch off.
i
a
r
T
Figure 18: HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION
The voltage developed across RL is therefore half-sine-waves and is known as a

half wave rectifier. The output being DC, albeit variable. The average value being
half that of the supply, i.e. peak x 0.318. (assuming no losses). The output DC
ripples have a frequency equal to the input frequency of the AC supply, i.e. ripple
frequency - supply frequency.
However, it should be remembered that the maximum forward current will also
depend on the temperature in which the diode is operating; and maximum forward
current is usually quoted at two or more ambient temperatures.
We know as the temperature rises the leakage current increases and as a guide
the leakage current doubles in value for each 10C rise in temperature.

Page 9

Single Phase Full Wave Rectifier

As the name implies this uses both half cycles of the input wave form. Figure 19
shows diodes D1 and D2 used with a transformer, which is centre tapped at C. The
point C can be considered as neutral with terminals A and B swinging alternately
positive and negative about it.
When A is positive to C, Diode D1 conducts with D2 switched off. On the other half
cycle of input, B is positive to C and D2 conducts with D1 switched off. The output
is therefore undirectional, with both diodes alternately conducting, giving a full
wave output across RL. The average output voltage is 0.637 x peak (assuming no
losses), i.e. average of the supply.
This will act as a reverse voltage across D2 so the peak inverse voltage for the
diodes must be twice the peak voltage on either half of the secondary of the
transformer.
Bridge Rectifier
i
a
r
T
Figure 20 shows a bridge rectifier. Assume the top of the secondary winding of the
transformer to be positive (positive half cycle), trace the current flow through the
load using the arrows shown.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 19: FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION
g
n
i
n
This is also a single phase full wave rectifier, and has advantages over the
previous circuit in that the transformer does not need to produce twice the voltage
required and the secondary is in use all the time. Unlike the previous circuit where
only half the secondary winding was used at any one time.
Figure 20: BRIDGE RECTIFIER - FIRST HALF CYCLE
The output DC 'ripple is therefore twice the input supply frequency. Having to use
the double winding on the transformer makes this component more bulky in size
and therefore more expensive.
A point to note about this circuit is that when D1 is conducting, the voltage across
the load resistor RL is the peak voltage. With D2 cut off the voltage across C-B is in
series with this voltage, so these two voltages combine to give a total of twice the
peak voltage.

Page 10

Figure 21: BRIDGE RECTIFIER - SECOND HALF CYCLE

On the next half cycle (figure 21) assume the bottom of the secondary is positive
and trace the circuit through the load following the arrows. Note the direction of
current through the load is the same during each half cycle, i.e. it is DC.
Figure 23 shows the waveform of the three-phase supply and the resultant supply
voltage to the load.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Note that in this circuit the two non-conducting diodes have twice the supply
voltage across them, (load/supply voltage + supply voltage = twice supply
voltage).
However, this voltage is shared between the two non-conducting
diodes in series, therefore the peak inverse voltage per diode is the supply
voltage. As before the ripple frequency is twice the supply frequency.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 22: DELTA STAR TRANSFORMER
Typically all four diodes are available in one package.

Three Phase Half Wave Rectification
In order to obtain three-phase half wave rectification a diode must be inserted into
each of the supply lines to the load and the return from the load to the supply
MUST be to the star point of the three-phase system.
Figure 23: WAVEFORMS - THREE PHASE RECTIFIER
Therefore this form of rectification can only be used where there is a star
connection using a neutral line. Assume this star connection is the secondary of
a three phase (DELTA-STAR) transformer as shown in figure 22.
Note that the ripple frequency of this rectifier output is three times the supply
frequency, with three DC output voltage 'blips' for one sequence of the three-phase
AC supply.

Page 11

Three Phase Full Wave Rectification

This form of connection does not require a neutral line, so can be used on either
Star or Delta connected systems. Figure 24 shows the diode circuit diagram.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 25: THREE PHASE FULL WAVE WAVEFORM
Figure 24 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT
The arrows show the time in the three phase cycle when phase A is maximum and
passing peak current to the load (say 10 amps). After passing through the load,
the current splits into two, of five amps each to return to the B and C lines back to
the supply.
The output ripple frequency is six times the supply frequency. We shall now look at
some other uses of diodes.

Page 12

CLIPPING OR LIMITING
As the name implies it is the limiting' or 'clipping off of part of the voltage waveform
that lies above or below a certain chosen level. This level is called the bias, or
reference level. Some examples are shown in figure 26.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 27: SERIES NEGATIVE LIMITER
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
In figure 28, assume the input is a sinewave of (say) +20 to -20 volts. When the
diode is conducting (assuming negligible resistance) the voltage across it is
negligible and the output voltage (VOUT) will be equal to VIN. When the diode is cut
off the output voltage is practically zero. The circuit therefore clips the portion of
the waveform, which goes negative.
Figure 28 WAVEFORM OF SERIES NEGATIVE LIMITER
If the diode was to be turned round we then have a series positive limiter and the
diode only conducts on the negative going cycles and so the positive going portion
of the input waveform is clipped.
Figure 26: EXAMPLES OF LIMITING

Page 13

The resistance R must be some value intermediate between the two diode
extremes of resistance. This means R is very large compared to the conducting
resistance (almost zero ohms) and very small compared with the cut-off resistance
(which is almost infinite). A typical value for R in practice will be between 10k
and 100k. Figure 29 shows a shunt positive limiter with the diode in shunt
(parallel) with the component (VOUT) and the resistor is in series.
below some reference voltage other than zero. This can be done using slightly
modified versions of the basic limiting circuits already shown.
Figure 31 shows a shunt negative limiter to -10V.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 29: SHUNT POSITIVE LIMITER
Figure 31: SHUNT NEGATIVE LIMITER
During the positive half cycles, with the diode conducting the voltage developed
across it is practically zero, so output voltage is zero. When the diode is cut off on
the negative half-cycles, practically the whole of the input voltage is across the
diode and therefore VOUT = VIN. This circuit therefore clips the portion of the input
waveform, which goes positive.
The waveform may be limited to any positive or negative value by holding the
appropriate electrode of the diode at the required bias or reference level.
Figure 30: WAVEFORM OF POSITIVE LIMITER
If we wish to remove the negative cycles of the waveform all that is required us to
turn the diode around; the circuit now becomes a shunt negative limiter.
The circuits so far discussed have all 'clipped' or limited the waveform above zero
volts. In practice it is often necessary to clip the portion of the waveform above or

Page 14

On one half cycle of the input, the diode is cut off and practically the whole of the
input voltage appears as VOUT. On the other half cycle the diode is cut off until it
reaches above the bias level, up to this point VIN = VOUT, when the diode conducts
the VOUT is equal to the bias level and clips the negative half cycle as shown in
figure 32.
If the diodes are turned round then the reverse outputs will occur. The same
principle can be applied to series limiters. Figure 34 shows a series positive limiter
to -10V and figure 35 shows its waveform.
If the polarity of the bias was turned around the other way then the output would be
as shown in figure 33.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 34: SERIES POSITIVE LIMITER
Figure 32: WAVEFORM OF SHUNT NEGATIVE LIMITER
Figure 33: REVERSE POLARITY WAVEFORM OF SHUNT NEGATIVE LIMITER
Figure 35: WAVEFORM OF SERIES POSITIVE LIMITER

Page 15

If the (10V) battery at the bottom of the resistor was reversed then the output
waveform would be as shown in figure 36.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 38: WAVEFORM OF COMBINED LIMITER
In practice, reference or bias levels are not provided by batteries, but by a

potentiometer connected across a dc supply line.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 36: WAVEFORM OF SERIES POSITIVE LIMITER WITH REVERSE

POLARITY BATTERY
Again if the diodes were turned around the reverse outputs will occur.
Figure 37 shows the circuit where the two are combined. This 'combined limiter'
can be used to take a 'slice' out of an input waveform, as shown in figure 38.
Figure 37: COMBINED LIMITER

Page 16

Clamping
These circuits are widely used in radar and communications equipment to change
the reference level of a waveform without reducing its amplitude. Circuits which
move waveforms up or down in this way are known as Clamping Circuits because
their effect is to fix or clamp the top or bottom level of the waveform. Figure 39
shows the difference between a limiter/clipping circuit and a clamping circuit. The
limiter circuit simply 'cuts off a part of the waveform, whilst a clamping circuit
moves the whole waveform up or down.
The voltage to which the bottom ends of the resistor or diode are returned is again
known as the bias or reference level. It may be of either polarity including zero
volts.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 40: CLAMPING CIRCUIT
The circuit is clamped to this bias level. In the previous drawing the output
waveform is clamped to zero volts. The two types of clamping circuits are:
1.
2.
Positive clamping - the bottom of the output waveform is clamped to the bias
voltage, so the output waveform is positive to the bias level.
Negative clamping - the top of the waveform is clamped to the bias voltage,
so the output waveform is negative to the bias level.
Figure 39: LIMITING/CLAMPING
The simplest form of clamping circuit is a diode circuit that consists of a capacitor
and resistor, forming a long CR circuit to the input waveform.

Page 17

Figure 41 shows a circuit with positive clamping to zero volts and figure 42 shows
the waveforms.
A to B
The input rises to 100V from zero. The capacitor is initially
uncharged and cannot charge immediately. VR therefore rises instantly to 100V
and since this voltage is applied to the cathode of the diode, the diode is cut-off.
B to C
With the diode cut-off, C charges on a long time constant CR
seconds and VC (voltage across the capacitor) rises by a small amount. Thus VR
falls by the same amount.
C to D
The input falls by 100V to zero and since VC cannot change
immediately VR also falls to 100V to a small negative potential which causes the
diode to conduct.
D to E
With the diode conducting, C discharges on a short time constant
CRD seconds. RD is diode resistance. Both VC and VR quickly return to zero volts
and the diode is cut off.
E to F
The input rises again by 100V and the cycle is repeated.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 41: POSITIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Except for small negative 'pips' the output VR is clamped to a base level of zero
volts and is positive going from this level.
A similar action takes place with a negative going square wave.
Figure 43 shows a negative clamping circuit and figure 42 shows the waveforms.
Figure 42: WAVEFORM - POSITIVE CLAMPING
With reference to figure 41, since R and the diode are in parallel the output voltage
always equals the voltage developed across R. In any CR circuit the input voltage
VIN = VC+ VR at all times.
Figure 43: NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT TO ZERO VOLTS
The description of the waveforms (figure 42) is as follows:

Page 18

C to D
VIN changes instantaneously from +100v to zero volts and this
step appears in full across R. Thus vr becomes immediately -100V, the diode is
non-conducting and VC is unchanged.
D to E
The circuit is now a long CR and C discharges slowly, VR rises
slowly towards zero volts. (In a very long CR circuit the change of D to E is only a
very small proportion of the input waveform amplitude).
g
n
i
n
E to F
VIN instantly becomes 100V again, and this rise causes VR jump
from -98V (say) to +2V, which causes the diode to conduct.
i
a
r
T
After F C quickly charges back to +100V on the short CR circuit and the process
repeats itself.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Thus after the initial spike is over, the waveform VOUT is a very slightly distorted
version of the input waveform, but negatively clamped to zero volts.
Figure 44: WAVEFORM OF NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT TO ZERO VOLTS

Assuming a square wave of 0V and +100V (figure 44).
Prior to A - the capacitor is initially uncharged and since VIN equals zero volts,
VOUT equals zero volts.
A to B
The input voltage rises from zero, and since C cannot change its
state of charge instantaneously, the rise appears in full across R (VOUT). Since VR
is the same as the voltage across the diode the diode conducts.
B to C
Capacitor C and the conducting diode form a short CR circuit and
so the capacitor quickly charges to +100v. VOUT falls to zero volts.

Page 19

i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 47 POSITIVE CLAMPING TO POSITIVE BIAS

Figure 45: NEGATIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE BIAS
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
In the examples shown the output waveform is clamped to either positively or

negatively to zero volts. If it was necessary, as in some radar circuits, to clamp to
a level other than zero, then the bias voltage is placed in the resistor rectifier line
as shown in figures 45, 47 and 49. The waveforms produced are shown
respectively in figures 46, 48 and 50.
Figure 48: WAVEFORM OF POSITIVE CLAMPING TO POSITIVE
Figure 46: WAVEFORM OF NEGATIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE

BIAS
BIAS
Figure 49: POSITIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE BIAS

Page 20

VOLTAGE DOUBLER
Another application of a diode is in a voltage doubler circuit, which is typically used
in a High Energy Ignition Unit, (HEIU). Figure 51 shows the basic principle of a
voltage doubler circuit.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 50: WAVEFORM OF POSITIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE BIAS
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 51: VOLTAGE DOUBLING CIRCUIT - 1
On one half cycle of the supply capacitor C1 will charge up to V volts, on the other
half cycle C2 will charge up to V volts. As the two capacitors are in series then the
output is approximately 2V volts. Figure 52 shows another type of voltage doubling
circuit.

Page 21

FLY WHEEL DIODE

Sometimes a diode is connected across a relay coil. When the supply is switched
off the collapse of current causes a self-induced emf in the coil which by Lenz's
Law tries to keep the current flowing and may cause arcing across the control
switch contacts. The diode allows a path for the dissipation of this voltage and
prevents this possible arcing. This may also be called a free-wheel diode.
Figure 52 VOLTAGE DOUBLING CIRCUIT - 2
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
With reference to figure 52, C3 is charged to V volts during the negative half cycle
of the supply voltage. The potential between C3 now acts as a battery in series
with the supply. In the positive half cycle of the supply, C4 is charged to a voltage
equal to the sum of the peak supply voltage and the voltage across C3, i.e.
approximately 2V.
By connecting the output of one multiplying circuit onto the input of the next
(cascading) the dc voltage output can be four times the ac input.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 53: FREE-WHEEL DIODE
ZENER DIODE
You will remember that, with a P-N diode under reverse bias conditions, the only
current flowing is due to the minority carriers passing across the depletion layer.
As can be seen from the graph if the reverse bias is increased, there is little effect
on the flow at the minority carriers, if the reverse bias is continually increased the
point of breakdown is reached and the current increases rapidly. In the rectifier
diodes discussed so far we make sure we do not get anywhere near this value of
reverse voltage because the diode would be destroyed. However, the zener diode
makes use of this breakdown or avalanche condition.
Just to look at the breakdown mechanism in a little more detail. As the reverse bias
increases the acceleration of the electrons increases and they dislodge other
electrons as they collide with the atoms.

Page 22

The zener diode symbol is shown in figure 55.
g
n
i
n
Figure 55: ZENER DIODE SYMBOL
The zener diode can be used as a voltage stabilizer, i.e. to keep the voltage
constant across a circuit irrespective of load current or supply voltage variations.
With reference to figure 56:
a)
b)
More electrons are now created to cause more collisions and so on, and a
situation is reached which is uncontrollable (avalanche) and the diode is
destroyed. However, if a resistor of a suitable value is placed in series with the
diode the current can be limited which ensures no overheating and does not cause
damage to the diode.
i
a
r
T
If the load current IL increases, the zener current decreases by the amount, if
IL decreases then the zener current increases by the same amount thus
maintaining a constant voltage across the load at all times.
If the supply voltage should increase, then the current through the zener
increases while the increase in voltage appears across rd not across the
zener. The zener voltage remains at breakdown value irrespective of the
increase in current through it.
If the input voltage falls, zener current
decreases and the voltage across rd falls, but again the voltage across the
zener and the load remains constant.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 54: GRAPH OF REVERSE BIAS
The zener diode is always connected in REVERSE BIAS, i.e. cathode to positive,
anode to negative. At the required breakdown voltage, determined by the doping
levels the zener will breakdown, but if the reverse voltage is reduced then the
zener will again become a blocking diode.
If you look at the graph again you will see that the Voltage across the diode
remains virtually constant at the breakdown voltage value even though the current
through it can increase. The zener is therefore a CONSTANT VOLTAGE,
VARIABLE CURRENT device. They are made in a wide range of breakdown
voltages 2 - 200v being a typical and also a wide range of power ratings from half
a watt to many watts.
Figure 56: VOLTAGE STABILISER CIRCUIT
The property of the zener means it can also be used as a reverse voltage switch,
i.e. it can be arranged to breakdown at a certain reverse voltage to activate a
switch, as used in aircraft transistorized regulators and protection systems.

Page 23

SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (THYRISTOR)

The SCR is a P-N-P-N semiconductor switching device, which has three terminals
ANODE, CATHODE and GATE.
If the two centre regions of the SCR are regarded as being split, diagonally as
shown in figure 58. It becomes two interconnected transistors TR1 and TR2. TR1
is a PNP transistor and TR2 is an NPN transistor. With the anode positive to the
cathode, the base collector junctions' (J2) are reverse biased and apart from a
small leakage current no current flows.
g
n
i
n
If a pulse of current is injected into the gate terminal this turns TR2 on, this base
current produces a larger collector current in TR2 which also forms the conduction
path for the base current of TR1, which increases its collector current and forms
the base current of TR2. The SCR is now self-sustaining and the gate supply can
be removed. Typically a few microseconds of a small current applied to the gate
will turn the SCR 'ON'.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
The device will remain in its conducting state until:
Figure 57: SCR SYMBOL & CONSTRUCTION
An explanation of the operation of the SCR can be carried out using the twotransistor analogy.
1.
2.
3.
The device is reverse biased, i.e. positive to cathode, negative to anode.

The supply is removed.
The voltage across the device is reduced so that the current falls below its
"holding value" (see characteristic).
Figure 58: SCR OPERATION

Page 24

The SCR can be made to carry a wide range of currents from 1A to 1000A. Figure
60 shows different types of SCR.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 59: GRAPH OF SCR CHARACTERISTICS
Figure 59 shows a graph of the characteristics for an SCR for different values of
gate voltage. The points a, b and c represent values at which the junction reverse
bias is overcome and the SCR conducts, known as 'breakover', 'a' represents the
highest voltage and 'c' the lowest gate voltage. Once the SCR is conducting the
voltage across it is typically 1 volt.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 60: SCRs
In aircraft systems, the SCR would be typically used in firewire control,

windscreen-heating control, etc. In windscreen heat control, the SCR can be
gated at the beginning or at any point through out the half cycle. The earlier it is
gated then more current will flow to the windscreen, the later it is gated then less
current will flow.

Page 25

An LED consists of a junction diode made from the semiconductor compound

gallium arsenide phosphide. It emits light when forward biased, the colour of the
light emitted is in direct proportion to the current flow. Light emission in the red,
orange, green and yellow regions of the spectrum is obtained depending on the
composition and impurity content of the compound.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 61: GRAPHS OF SCR INPUTS & OUTPUTS
The basic SCR, when fed with ac, will switch off after- one half cycle as the other
half cycle will reverse bias the SCR. So it only allows half power through.
A TRIAC consists of two SCR's connected in parallel but in opposition and
controlled by the same gate. It is triggered on both half cycles and therefore one
conducts on one half cycle and the other one conducts on the other half cycle.
Figure 62 shows the symbol.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 63: LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
When a P-N junction is forward biased electrons move across the junction from the
N-type side to the P-type side where they recombine with holes near the junction.
The same occurs with holes going across the junction from the P-type side. Every
recombination results in the release of a certain amount of energy, causing, in
most semiconductors, a temperature rise. In gallium arsenide phosphide some of
the energy is emitted as light that gets out of the LED because the junction is
formed very close to the surface of the material.
In applying this to aircraft displays either the 7 segment or dot matrix
configurations may be used.
Figure 62: TRIAC SYMBOL
The TRIAC is therefore used in windscreen heat control and domestically as a

lamp dimmer or motor speed control for an electric drill.
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

Page 26

SCHOTTKY DIODE
This diode is a rectifying metal to semiconductor junction. Several metals may be
used, including gold and aluminum, which are fused directly to a semiconductor
material.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 64: SEVEN SEGMENT LED DISPLAY
In the 7 segment display for numerical indication as shown in figure 64, each
segment is an LED mounted within a reflective cavity with a plastic overlay.
When used on with an ac supply should be protected against reverse breakdown,

this can be done with a conventional diode connected in shunt across the LED. On
reverse voltage the diode will conduct at about 0.4v protecting the LED which
would breakdown at about 3-11 volt reverse voltage.
g
n
i
n
Since the mobility of electrons is greater than holes an N-type semi-conductor is

used. Current flow in this diode differs from current flow in conventional P-N
junction diodes in that the minority carriers do not take any part in the process. The
diode has very low capacitance and high switching speeds, produces less noise
and has a smaller forward conducting voltage (0.2 to 0.4v) then conventional P-N
diodes.
i
a
r
T
Figure 65: SCHOTTKY DIODE SYMBOL
The basic construction, as already mentioned, is a piece of aluminium fused to an

N type semiconductor. Some of the aluminium atoms diffuse into the silicon
because aluminium has a valency of 3. This makes a very small P region. The
current carrier is almost 100% electrons due to free electrons in the N type
semiconductor and the metal.
The Schottky diode is used in the making of logic gates as the switching time is
high.

Page 27

VARACTOR DIODE
VARISTOR
Under reverse bias conditions, a junction diode can be regarded as a parallel plate
capacitor having two plates (the P and N regions) that are separated by a dielectric
(depletion layer). The capacitance will vary according to the area and width of the
depletion layer. The narrow depletion layer gives a higher capacitance than a
wider depletion layer.
The metal oxide varistor (MOV) is a semiconductor resistor made of zinc oxide
semiconductor crystals. When the voltage across this specialised resistor becomes
two high, the resistor breaks down and becomes a conductor. The action of the
varistor can be compared to a pair of zener diodes wired back to back in series.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 66: SYMBOL - VARACTOR DIODE
If this reverse bias can be varied then we have a variable capacitor typically
between 2-10pf. These diodes are used to tune TV and VHP radio sets in special
circuits, which allow the set to lock on to the desired station automatically. Figure
66 shows the symbol for the varactor (varicap) diode.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 67: TYPICAL MOV VOLT-AMPERE CHARACTERISTIC GRAPH
They are used for transient voltage suppression, voltage stabilisation and switch
contact protection.
Figure 68 shows the symbol used in drawings and figure 69 shows how a varistor
reduces noise spikes in an ac voltage.
Figure 68: MOV SYMBOL

Page 28

f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 69: VARISTOR NOISE SPIKE CLIPPING ACTION
The varistor is connected across the secondary of the transformer and at normal
voltage has a very high resistance and takes a very small current. However when
the voltage spikes exceed the breakdown voltage, it conducts and clips off the
noise spikes. The varistor switches extremely fast, unlike zener diodes that are
slow switching. The principle described here could also be used for switch contact
protection.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n

Page 29

PHOTO CONDUCTIVE DIODE

The photodiode is a P-N junction that is reversed biased in normal operation. Its
case has a transparent window through which light can enter.
As it operates in reverse bias there will be leakage current (minority carriers) which
increases in proportion to the amount of light falling on the junction. The light
energy breaks the bonding in the crystal lattice of the semiconductor and produces
electrons and holes to increase the leakage current. Figure 70 shows the drawing
symbol and figure 71 shows the characteristics of the photodiode.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 70: SYMBOL - PHOTO CONDUCTIVE DIODE
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 71: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PHOTODIODE
Typically silicon diodes are used, as their leakage current with no light (dark
current) is much lower than germanium. The sensitivity lies between 10mA/lm to
about 50mA/lm (lm = lumen which is the amount of light emitted from a light source
1 candela strong) and the spectral response covers the visible to the infrared
range. Photodiodes used with laser systems can operate at very high frequencies.
They are very fast operating and are used in laser gyros and as an optical receiver
for laser systems.

Page 30

4.1.2(a) Transistors
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 72: TYPICAL TRANSISTORS
The transistor can be used as an AMPLIFIER circuit and also as a SWITCH. The
amplifier action is based on applying a low current to the base-emitter with a higher
current flowing through the collector-emitter.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
The switching action is the effect of applying a small current to the base for the unit
(NPN) to 'switch on' allowing current to flow between the collector-emitter.
Removing the base-emitter current will cause the unit to switch off. These
switching times can be very fast (say 2ns or 2 x 10-9 seconds or 0.000000002
seconds) (ns = nano seconds). Fast switching times are needed in computing.

Page 31

4.1.2(b) Transistors
TRANSISTORS Construction and Theory of Operation
The bi-polar or junction transistor consists of two P-N junctions in the same crystal.
If two P-N junctions were fused together so that the two 'N' regions form a very thin
(0.1 to 1mm thick) lightly doped layer between the two more heavily doped 'P'
regions a P N P transistor is formed. Figure 73 shows the layout of the transistor
and its symbol. Note the electrodes are called COLLECTOR, BASE and
EMITTER (emitter - the one with the arrow in the symbol). The emitter is more
heavily doped than the collector.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 74: NPN TRANSISTOR
Note. For both the PNP and NPN transistors the arrows show the direction of
conventional current flow.
Figure 73: PNP TRANSISTOR
Similarly if two heavily doped 'N' regions are separated by a very thin lightly doped
'P' region then an N P N transistor is formed. Figure 74 shows the layout and its
symbol. The emitter is again more heavily doped than the collector.

Page 32

Action of NPN Transistor

For transistor action to occur the BASE-EMITTER junction must be forward biased
(POSITIVE to 'P', NEGATIVE to 'N') and the COLLECTOR-BASE junction must be
reverse biased (POSITIVE to 'N', NEGATIVE to 'P').
It should be noted that the battery Ee is much smaller than the battery Ec, it must
also be of sufficient voltage to overcome the barrier potential of 0.6v for silicon.
The small amount of electron-hole combination in the base gives it a momentary

negative charge, which is immediately corrected by battery Ee supply holes, or can
be considered as electron flow. Remember conventional current flow is in the
opposite direction.
g
n
i
n
So transistor action is the controlling of a large current in the high resistance

(reverse biased) collector-base junction by a small current through the low
resistance (forward biased) base-emitter junction.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
Figure 76: CONVENTIONAL CURRENT FLOW NPN TRANSISTOR
Figure 75: NPN OPERATION
Under the influence of the electric field due to battery Ee electrons cross the
junction into the base. Only a small proportion (about 1 to 2%) of the electrons
combine with holes in the base due to it being very thin and lightly doped. Most of
the electrons (98 to 99%), under the very strong positive influence of the battery
Ec, are swept through the base to the collector to Ec to form the collector current in
the external circuit.
Electrons are the majority carriers in the NPN transistor.

Page 33

Action of P N P Transistor
Again the base-emitter junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is
reverse biased.
Under the influence of the electric field due to battery Ee, holes cross the junction
into the base. Only 1 to 2% of holes recombine with free electrons in the base due
to it being very thin and lightly doped. The majority of the holes 98 to 99% are
accelerated towards the very strong negative influence of battery Ec. Holes are the
majority carriers in the P N P transistor.
g
n
i
n
Figure 78: CONVENTIONAL CURRENT FLOW PNP TRANSISTOR
i
a
r
T
Since the carriers in the NPN and PNP transistors originate at the emitter and
distribute themselves between base and collector, the sum of the base and
collector currents must always be equal to the emitter current, therefore:
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Ie Ic Ib
Figure 77: PNP OPERATION
Due to recombination of holes and electrons in the base, the base loses free
electrons and will therefore exhibit a positive charge. The electrons will be
attracted by battery Ec into the base to 'make-up' for those lost by recombining with
holes. Figure 78 shows the conventional current flow through the transistor.

Page 34

Testing Transistors
Using an analogue multimeter switched to the ohms range. On most analogue
multimeters on the ohms range the negative (-) terminal has a positive polarity and
the positive terminal (+) has a negative polarity. This is an important point with
regards to identifying NPN and PNP transistors. If a digital multimeter is used then
check the polarities of the terminals on the ohms range.
TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER
First of all we need to look at how the bias is applied in a practical circuit. In our
previous discussions batteries were used for the bias.
Figure 79 shows the readings you would expect using an analogue multimeter.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 80: AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT - 1
If DC only is applied to the circuit shown figure 81 then R1 and R2 will divide the
supply voltage into the same ratio as that of the resistors. So if the resistor values
were 80k and 20k then with a supply voltage of 10V the voltages across R1 and
R2 would be 8v and 2v respectively.
Figure 79: TESTING TRANSISTORS USING A MULTIMETER
LINEAR circuits are amplifying-type circuits. They will have analogue inputs and
the output will vary continuously and be more or less an exact but amplified copy
of the input, i.e. the output is a linear representation of the input. Many class A
transistor amplifiers, e.g. audio frequency and radio frequency amplifiers, are linear
circuits.
The voltage across must be 0.6V to overcome the barrier potential. This could be
achieved by removing RE and making R2 of such a value so that 0.6V is dropped
across it, however, the problem here would be R2 would have to be quite low and
the amplification would be restricted.

Page 35

The voltage across the base emitter junction (VBE) must be 0.6V and is the
difference between the voltage across R2 and RE. VBE = VR2-VRE.
We now need to look at applying a signal to the amplifier. This will be a small ac
signal (which may be superimposed on a dc level), so only ac must be applied to
the amplifier. Capacitor C1 will block any DC component, and also the output
amplified AC value must only be passed onto the next stage if again C2 blocks a
DC component. These capacitors are known as COUPLING CAPACITORS.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
So RE must be of a value that when the standing dc current is flowing 1.4v will be
dropped across RE leaving VBE to be 0.6v.
So in the static condition, i.e. DC only applied, a standing current (quiescent
current) flows through the circuit and TR1, R1, R2 and RE provide the bias
necessary to operate TR1 and allow current to flow.
g
n
i
n
It is also essential that the voltage across RE remains constant, and therefore VBE
remains constant so that the AC input signal adds to and subtracts from the steady
VBE bias.
i
a
r
T
Figure 84: AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT WITH COUPLING/ DECOUPLING

CAPACITORS
To ensure this, a capacitor is connected across RE. This capacitor will have a
capacitive reactance at the operating frequency very much lower than re This
means that if the ac "bypasses" RE it will leave a steady DC across RE. This
capacitor C3 is known as a DECOUPLING CAPACITOR.
With current flow through RL and TR1 there will be a voltage drop across RL. Let us
assume this voltage drop is 5v so that the standing voltage is 10 5 = 5V. This is
the condition that when DC is applied to the amplifier, all bias voltages are applied
and a standing voltage is at the collector of TR1.
Please note the figures quoted are purely explanatory, and actual values will
depend on the individual circuits. Also, the transistor used is an NPN but
everything applies equally as well when using a PNP transistor except the positive
rail would be at the bottom.

Page 36

Action with an AC Signal
So you can see with an input voltage of 2.5mV we get an output swing of 0.25V so
Assume that with DC applied the voltage at the collector is 5V. If a 2.5mV signal is
applied as the input then when the AC signal goes positive it will add to the DC
bias. The transistor will switch on more and the current through the transistor will
increase and the voltage drop across RL will increase, so the collector voltage will
fall. Assume if falls to by 0.25V.
therefore there is a gain
output 0.25V
input 2.5mV
100
g
n
i
n
Please note again the values used are for explanatory purposes only.
Also note the function of RL (load resistor) without it there would be no voltage
changes at the collector and no amplification.
i
a
r
T
Another purpose, (probably its more well known one) for RE, the resistor in the
emitter lead, is as a temperature compensating resistor.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
If the temperature increases, the resistance of the transistor decreases, this

causes greater current through the transistor and therefore a greater voltage drop
across re. If you remember the voltage across the base-emitter junction is VR2
VBE and this will decrease thus reducing the forward bias, reducing the current,
compensating for the original increase.
Figure 85: AMPLIFIER ACTION 1
When the AC voltage goes negative, it opposes the bias and the transistor
conducts less, the current through RL is less so the volts drop is less and the
collector voltage rises.
This amplifier configuration is known as a COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER. As

you have seen it has a VOLTAGE GAIN
It also has a CURRENT GAIN
Vout
typically 100 600.
Vin
I out I c
typically 50 300.
I in
Ib
So it is a current amplifier as well as a voltage amplifier.
Figure 86: AMPLIFIER ACTION 2

Page 37

If there is a current gain and voltage gain then there must be a power gain.
Power out typically several thousands.

Power in
The input impedance is Z in
Power gain
V
in typically 600 2000
I in
And the output impedance is Z out
Vout
typically 10 50 k.
I out
Current gain I e I c
Voltage gain
medium
Input impedance
Output impedance
less than 1, typically 0.98

typically 500 800
compared to common emitter
low
typically 50 to 200
high
typically 100k to 1M
Also note the phase relationship between the input and the output is 180.
i
a
r
T
Common Collector Amplifier (Emitter Follower)
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The COMMON EMITTER amplifier is used for the majority of amplifier

applications. There are two other amplifier configurations, the COMMON BASE
and the COMMON COLLECTOR.
Common Base Amplifier
g
n
i
n
Input and Output signals are in phase. Because of their very low input impedance
and high output impedance they are used as impedance matching devices.
When the input goes positive this will increase the bias, the transistor will conduct
more and the volts drop across RE will increase and the top of RE will go more
positive. When the signal goes negative the bias will decrease, the transistor will
conduct less the voltage across RE will decrease and the top of R goes more
negative.
With reference to figure 88; If the input goes positive then the emitter is positive to
the base and this reduces the bias voltage and the current through the transistor
falls. The volts drop across RL falls and the voltage at the collector rises When the
input goes negative the emitter is negative with respect to the base and the bias
increases, the current increases and the volts drop across RL will increase and the
collector voltage falls.
Figure 88: COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER
Figure 87: COMMON BASE AMPLIFIER

Other characteristics of the common base amplifier are:

Page 38

Other characteristics are:

Current gain I e I c
Voltage gain
Power gain
Input impedance
Output impedance
typically 20 200
low
high
low
less than 1
compared to CB and CE
20k to 100k
20 to 500
Each amplifier has the word common in front. This means that the input and output
signals are common to whichever electrode is stated.
INPUT BETWEEN BASE & EMITTER OUTPUT BETWEEN COLLECTOR &
EMITTER
INPUT BETWEEN EMITTER & BASE
OUTPUT BETWEEN COLLECTOR & BASE
INPUT BETWEEN BASE & COLLECTOR
OUTPUT BETWEEN EMITTER & FOLLOWER
Identify SIGNAL OUT
WHATS LEFT IS WHAT ITS ALL ABOUT!!

e.g.
SIGNAL IN on base
Whats left is emitter
SIGNAL OUT on collector
i
a
r
COMMON BASE
COMMON
COLLECTOR
CURRENT
GAIN
20 to 200
<1
(0.95 to 0.995)
20 to 200
VOLTAGE
GAIN
100 to 600
500 to 800
<1
POWER GAIN
High
Medium
Low
INPUT
IMPEDANCE
500 to 2000
50 to 200
20k to 100k
OUTPUT
IMPEDANCE
10k to 50k
100k to 1M
20 to 500
INPUT
OUTPUT
PHASE
RELATIONSHIP
180 out of phase
In phase
In phase
TYPICAL USE
Normal amplifier
f
T
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 89 shows the comparison between the three amplifiers.
g
n
i
n
COMMON
EMITTER
The input and output signals are in phase. Because of its high input impedance
and low output impedance it again is used for impedance matching.
Impedance
matching (low to
high)
Figure 89 TABLE OF COMPARISONS
Impedance
matching (high to
low)
Hence COMMON EMITTER

Page 39

In many cases the amplifications of a single stage amplifier is insufficient and

several stages have to be used. If this is so the output at one stage is the input to
the next, i.e. they are connected in cascade.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 91: TRANSFORMER & RC COUPLED RESPONSE CURVES
Figure 91: TWO STAGE RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER
Figure 90 shows a resistor (R3) and a capacitor (C2) coupled two stage common
emitter amplifier.
Another method of coupling stages of an amplifier is by using transformers. Using

the correct turns ratio the high output impedance of stage 1 can be matched to the
low input impedance of stage 2, thus giving a considerable increase in gain over
RC coupled stages. However, due to the change in impedance with frequency, its
frequency response is poor compared with the RC coupled amplifier. The uneven
response that is shown in figure 91 causes distortion.
However, they are often used between the output stage and a loudspeaker load.
(High to low impedance matching)
Figure 92: TWO STAGE TRANSFORMER COUPLED AMPLIFIER
If the gain of stage 1 is 5 and the gain of stage 2 is 20 then the overall gain is 100
(5 x 20). The overall gain is the product of the individual gains.

Page 40

DIRECTLY-COUPLED AMPLIFIERS
Direct Coupling with Zener Diode Bias
Coupling amplifier stages to one another via capacitors or transformers makes it

easy to couple together points with differing DC voltage levels. However, this
form of amplifier will only amplify an alternating signal, completely ignoring dc
voltages and will respond poorly to signals of very low frequencies.
A Zener diode in the emitter circuit of TR2 (figure 94) maintains a constant voltage
at the emitter and thus increases the overall gain of the amplifier. It also goes
some way towards decreasing the effects of any variation in supply voltage.
Many control systems found in aircraft produce signals that vary only infrequently
and this makes it necessary to use directly-coupled amplifiers in order to amplify
those variations. Careful matching of transistors and associated components is
essential if these amplifiers are to perform correctly. They are particularly sensitive
to voltage and temperature variations.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Simple Direct Coupling of two Bi-polar Transistor Amplifiers
The emitter bias resistor in TR2's circuit (R) produces a series current negative
feedback, reducing the overall gain of the amplifier to a minimum. (Figure 93)
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 94: DIRECT COUPLING WITH ZENER DIODE BIAS
DIFFERENTIALLY CONNECTED AMPLIFIERS

If two identical directly-coupled amplifiers have the same power source, then a
change in supply voltage will not cause a change in the difference of their outputs.
There is similarly no change in the difference of their outputs if the ambient
temperature changes.
Figure 93: DIRECT COUPLED BI-POLAR TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER
The only thing that will produce a change in the difference at their output is a
variation in their signal inputs.

Page 41

The 'Long-Tailed Pair' Differential Amplifier
The Darlington Pair
Figure 95 shows the arrangement of the 'long tailed pair'. Note the output is across
the collectors of the two transistors, and that they have a common emitter via a
resister (R).
This arrangement (figure 96) gives a high current gain. It can also be used in the
Common Collector or Emitter Follower configuration with currents in the order of
milliamps, in which case its main benefit is the increase in input impedance due to
the reduction of current taken by the first transistor.
Classes of Amplification
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
When a transistor is used as an amplifier the input circuit is normally biased to

some particular working point. There are three basic classes of bias, named
according to the working point chosen.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Class A
The amplitude of the input signal and bias are such that there is an output current
for the full cycle of the input signal. This is the most commonly used class of bias
in amplifier circuits.
Figure 95: THE LONG TAILED DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
Class B
The bias is such that current flows for only half of the cycle of input signal, for the
other half of the input cycle the transistor is "cut off. This is usually employed in
power amplifiers.
Class C
The bias and amplitude of input signal are such that current flows for less than half
of each cycle. Used in oscillators and selective amplifiers.
Efficiency
This is defined by
Figure 96: THE DARLINGTON PAIR
AC power output to load

100%
DC power taken from supply
Page 42

An amplifier which produces low power output has an efficiency which is no

greater than 50%. This is because it is working under Class A conditions and the
DC standing (no input) current is large and produces wasted DC power.
To overcome this problem in power amplifiers the push-pull amplifier was
introduced.
Push-Pull Amplifier
Figure 98 shows a simple push-pull power amplifier using an NPN type and PNP
type transistors. The load is a loudspeaker and is connected to both emitters via a
dc blocking capacitor.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 98: PUSH PULL AMPLIFIER
Operation
When an input is applied, assuming at this moment in time that the input at A is
positive to B (positive half cycle), the base emitter junction of TR1 is forward
biased. There is therefore an output to the loudspeaker (positive half cycles).
During this time TR2 is reverse biased (base negative with respect to emitter).
Figure 97: GRAPHS OF INPUTS AND OUTPUTS FOR CLASSES A, B, & C

AMPLIFIERS
Negative half cycles of the input (B positive to A) will reverse bias TR1 and it will
cut off and forward bias TR2, this time there is again an output; this time on the
negative half cycles.
As each transistor conducts for one half of each complete input cycle, the amplifier
is working in Class B conditions.

Page 43

When there is no input, neither transistor conducts, therefore no DC power is

wasted. The maximum efficiency of a Class B power amplifier is high (78%) when
compared with a Class A amplifier (50%).
This is overcome by forward biasing the base-emitter junctions of both transistors.

Figure 100 shows a push-pull amplifier with this biasing to the two transistors being
provided by resistors R1, R2 and R3 via the secondary winding of transformer T1.
One disadvantage of the simple circuit is that each transistor does not turn on until
the input is about 0.6V. As a result there is a dead zone producing 'cross-over'
distortion (see figure 99).
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 100: PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIER
Operation
Under static (no input signal) conditions, equal currents will flow through the two
halves of T2's primary winding and through the two transistors and R3 to the -ve
rail. There will therefore be no resultant flux in T2 from this DC source. Therefore
no dc power is wasted and its efficiency is high (78%).
Transformer T1 is a phase-splitter, providing inputs to the transistors which are
equal but in anti-phase.
Figure 99: CROSSOVER DISTORTION
When the top of T1's secondary winding is positive, TR1 will be switched ON
(circuit via base-emitter - Cl) and TR2 will be switched OFF. As the collector
current of TR1 increases, that of TR2 decreases. More current will flow from the
+ve rail through the top half of T2's primary winding, collector - emitter TR1 and R3
to the -ve rail.

Page 44

When the bottom of T1's secondary is positive, TR2 will be switched ON (circuit via
base-emitter C1) and TR1 will be switched OFF. As the collector current of TR2
increases, that of TR1 decreases.
Current will flow from the +ve rail through the bottom half of T2's primary winding,
collector - emitter of TR2 and R3 to the -ve rail.
The changing currents in the primary of T2 results in an output which is an
amplification of each half of the input signal.
This is then operating in Class AB conditions, being a compromise between the
low distortion, low efficiency Class A amplifier and the higher efficiency, higher
distortion Class B amplifier.
Figure 101: BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Operation
MULTIVIBRATORS
These are transistor switching circuits of two stages with the output of one stage
being fed back to the input of the other by coupling resistors or capacitors. The
output of one is 'high' the other is low' and this occurs alternatively producing a
square wave output. There are three basic types:
1. Astable or free running multivibrator
2. Bistable or flip-flop
3. Monostable or 'one shot'
Figure 102 shows the basic circuit of a Bistable Multivibrator.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
When the DC supply is switched on then, because of the slight differences in

manufacture, one transistor will conduct more than the other. This causes say, TR1
to switch fully on while TR2 switches off.
At this point TR1 collector voltage is low (high voltage drop across R3), there is
therefore "insufficient voltage to drive current through R1 to the base of TR2. TR2
remains off and its collector voltage being high there is current flow through R2 to
maintain TR1 switched on. The output at Q is high (logic state 1) and the output at
Q is low (logic state 0).
By applying a positive signal to the base of TR2 via R6 (shown on the diagram as a
switch but in a practical circuit would be a temporary input signal) TR2 would
conduct, causing its collector voltage to fall to a low value (lower than 0.6v). TR1
base current ceases and TR1 switches off, its collector voltage rises to a high value
and this is fed through R1 to the base of TR2 keeping it switched on. Q is therefore
low (logic 0) and Q is high and therefore at logic state 1.

Page 45

Each transistor can be made to flip to a high collector voltage or 'flop' to a low
collector voltage changing the outputs on Q and Q . The switching can also be
achieved by applying a negative voltage to the base of the transistor that is
conducting.
The inputs R & S would be supplied by a trigger pulse and this circuit is the basis
of the SR flip-flop Q = 0, Q = 1 = reset condition; Q = 1 Q = 0 set condition.
These are used in memory circuits and binary counters in digital computers.
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
g
n
i
n
Therefore the fall of collector voltage at TR1 causes TR2 base to fall by the same
amount causing TR2 to cut off, causing TR2 collector voltage to rise.
This multivibrator produces a continuous stream of almost square wave pulses, i.e.
it is a square wave oscillator. It requires no input trigger and is sometimes called a
relaxation oscillator.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
When the supply is connected as before one transistor conducts faster than the
other (due to slight manufacturing differences) and cuts the other one off. In this
multivibrator each transistor then switches automatically to its other state and then
back to its first state, producing an output of square wave pulses.
Action
When TR1 conducts, its collector voltage falls to a low value and since capacitor C1
cannot change its charge instantaneously there is no change of capacitor voltage
during the rise of conduction of TR1.
i
a
r
T
It is extensively used for producing timing (clock) pulses for digital systems.
Remember, everything in computing works in synchronisation with a (very fast)
electronic clock.
With reference to figure 102. Assume that TR2 ON and TR1 OFF. The base of TR1
is negative at the moment, but is approaching cut on (base voltage going positive)
on a time constant determined by C2R2.
Figure 102: ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

Page 46

MONOSTABLE VIBRATOR
The JK Flip-Flop
Figure 103 refers. Again, when the supply is switched on the circuit settles into the
state TR1 OFF and TR2 ON, therefore Q = 0.
Figure 104 shows the JK flip-flop. Study it for a few minutes and note the layout of
the system including the inputs at J and K.
A positive trigger pulse, represented by the switch in the diagram will switch TR1
ON, C1 right hand plate falls rapidly switching off TR2 making the output Q go high.
Now the capacitor charges up through R1 making the right hand plate go low TR2
is switched on again and the Q output goes low.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 103: MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
This multivibrator has one stable state and one unstable state. It can be switched
into its unstable state for a certain time (determined by the values of C and R) and
then returns to its stable state. It can be used to create a pulse of known timing to
act as a delay circuit in digital systems.
The Multivibrators we have seen are using junction transistors, however, they can
be constructed using Field Effect Transistors (FET's) logic gates and operational
amplifiers (to be discussed later).
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 104: JK FLIP-FLOP
Operation
Suppose that TR4 is conducting and that TR3 is cut off. Q is at logic 0. If logic 1 is
applied to J and logic 0 to K, there would be no effect because there would be no
change to the diodes D1 and D2. A falling (1-0) signal at T will cause the
transistors to change over in the usual way, so Q now goes to logic 1. However, a
further falling pulse at T will have no effect on the circuit if J is still at logic 1. It
follows, therefore, that a trigger pulse at T will only change the state if the logic
levels at J and K are reversed. From this it can be seen that A TRIGGER PULSE
AT T' WILL ONLY CHANGE THE STATE IF THE LOGIC LEVELS AT 'J' AND 'Q'
ARE DIFFERENT. It also follows that a Logic 0 or a Logic 1 can be stored at J
until a trigger pulse arrives at T, when it will be released at Q.
FLIP-FLOPS

Page 47

R S FLIP FLOP Operation

With reference to figure 105 (circuit and symbol). When power is applied, currentbiasing will be applied to each transistor base-emitter by way of R2-R4 to T1 and
R1-R3 to T2. Although the two 'sides' are identical, mis-matching will mean that
one transistor will start to conduct before the other. If silicon transistors are being
used, 0.6 volts is needed across the base-emitter for switching ON.
Q zero volts (Logic 0) and Q six volts (Logic 1).

A positive pulse at R (RESET) will send the outputs back again to the original
condition. So, a pulse at S sets Q at Logic 1 and a pulse at R sets Q at Logic Q.
g
n
i
n
These devices are widely used in storage and timing device circuits.
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS
i
a
r
T
There are two basic types of Field Effect Transistors (FET's). A Junction Gate FET
(JUGFET) and a Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
JUGFET
Figure 105: RS FLIP-FLOP CIRCUIT & SYMBOL
With reference to figure 106. The bar of N-type material provides the medium
through which the majority carriers (electrons) pass. In doing so, they have to pass
between the two sections of P-type material, known as the Gate. The two P-type
sections are usually connected together electrically (so are at the same potential)
and are used as the Control electrode. Current enters at the SOURCE electrode
and leaves at the DRAIN electrode.
Suppose that T2 reaches the point of switch-on before T1. When T2 conducts, the
volts drop across R2 becomes almost 6 volts and the T2 collector voltage now
applied via R4 to the base of T1 becomes almost zero, forcing T1 into a 'cut-off
non-conducting condition.
The volts drop across R1 is almost zero and so 6 volts is applied via R3 to the
base of T2, keeping it switched hard-on. Under these conditions, the two outputs
are:
Q six volts (Logic 1) and Q zero volts (Logic 0).
A positive pulse at S (SET) will cause T1 to conduct and the ensuing volts drop
across R1 will switch T2 off. The two outputs will now be:
Figure 106: JUGFET

Page 48

As in any semiconductor device containing P-N junctions, depletion zones exist at

these junctions. In this device, the P-type gate sections are more heavily doped
than the N-type channel. This results in the depletion zone extending further into the channel than it does into the gate.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 107: JUGFET SYMBOLS
Note: The opposite arrangement of a P-type channel and N-type gate is also
available.
Operation
With reference to figure 108. The Drain-Source voltage VDS sets up a current flow
of majority carriers through the channel. The Gate-Source voltage VGS reversebiases the gate-channel junction, thus increasing the width of the depletion zones.
As can be seen in the diagram, these zones are not uniform in shape. This is
because the potential gradient between drain and source produces a greater
potential difference between the gate and the channel towards the drain than it
does towards the source. Thus we have characteristic wedge' shaped depletion
zones.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 108: JUGFET SCHEMATIC
Since no majority carriers exist in the depletion zones, the width of the channel
through which they can flow is dependent on the size of these zones and hence on
the value of VGS. It is in this way that VGS controls the current flow. Under normal
operating conditions, the gate-channel junction is reverse-biased so that only a
very small leakage current flows in the gate-source circuit. It has, therefore, got
very high input impedance.

Page 49

Uses
The JUGFET can be used as an amplifier or a switch and the next diagram shows
it connected as an amplifier. Its input resistance is very high compared with that of
a transistor (1 x 1010 compared to 1 to 5k for a transistor). Its output impedance
is 50k to 1M compared to a transistors output impedance of 10 50k.
The main difference between this device and the JUGFET is that there is no direct
electrical connection between the gate terminal and the semiconductor material.
Instead they are insulated from one another by a very thin layer of highly insulative
silicon oxide.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 111: OUTPUT CURVE - MOSFET (N CHANNEL DEPLETION)
Figure 109: JUGFET AMPLIFIER
MOSFET
The voltage between the gate and the source (VGS) controls the electron
concentration in the channel. If the drain (D) is made positive to the Source (S) and
VGS is zero a current will flow. If VGS is made negative, positive holes are attracted
into the channel so reducing the number of free electrons in the channel and
therefore channel current decreases. This is known as the DEPLETION MODE. If
VGS is positive, electrons are attracted into the channel from the P substrate
increasing current flow - this is known as the ENHANCEMENT MODE. If a Pchannel FET (figure 112) was used in the enhancement mode, the conduction is
by holes.
Also called an Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor IGFET. The basic
construction of an n-channel MOSFET and symbol is shown in figure 110.
Figure 112: MOSFET & SYMBOL (N CHANNEL ENHANCEMENT)
Figure 110: MOSFET & SYMBOL (N CHANNEL DEPLETION)

Page 50

The MOSFET has a higher input impedance than the JUGFET > 1X1012,
however its output impedance is similar to that of a bi-polar transistor 10 to 50k.
When used as a switch its switching time is very fast.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 113: OUTPUT CURVE - MOSFET (N CHANNEL ENHANCEMENT)
MOSFET structure is very compact and is widely used in integrated circuits. Great
care has to be taken to protect MOSFETS from electrostatic charges, which could
break down the insulated oxide layer. They are supplied with a metal clip short
circuiting the leads, which should be left in place until connected in the circuit.
CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
This is one of the most important families of logic gates which uses a P-channel
and an N-channel MOSFET to create all the relevant logic gates. An example of an
invertor gate is shown in figure 114. The great advantage of CMOS is that in both
-9
the HIGH and LOW states the current consumption is very small (1 x 10 A).
Power consumption is therefore low and the fan out is high (typically 50). The
speed of operation is poorer than TTL.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 114: CMOS INVERTOR GATE
FEEDBACK IN AMPLIFIERS
Feedback is the return of a portion of the output signal of an amplifier back into the
input signal of the same system. There are many variations on this but the
following deals with the broader principles.
Figure 115: FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

Page 51

There are generally two types of feedback - which, incidentally, occurs in all forms
of control systems whether mechanical, electrical, electronic etc., these are
Positive Feedback and Negative feedback.
Positive Feedback
a) Improve the stability of the gain. It is less affected by changes in transistor

parameters and temperature changes.
b) Effectively change the input and output impedances.
c) Reduce 'noise' and distortion.
d) Increase bandwidth (see below)
When the returned portion of the output signal assists the input signal, it is called
Positive Feedback. This causes an increase in the overall gain. It can be many
times larger than the gain without feedback, but can also lead to instability and
oscillation.
The Gain of an amplifier with Positive feedback is given by:
Af
A
1 A
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Where,
Af
A
=
=
Gain with feedback

Gain without feedback
Feedback fraction
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Feedback
Output
It can be seen that, if A equals unity, the gain is infinite and oscillation occurs.
Negative Feedback
When the returned portion of the output signal opposes or tries to cancel the input
signal, it is called Negative Feedback. This is the most common form of feedback
(in all control systems), having several advantages and uses.
Figure 116: FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVE
The Gain of an amplifier with Negative feedback is given by:
Af
A
1 A which gives a reduction in overall gain.
Negative Feedback is used to:

Page 52

Frequency Response and Bandwidth

The GAIN of an electronic amplifier is determined by such things as the type of
amplifying device being used and by its associated circuit components. Any
particular circuit arrangement will provide maximum gain at a single frequency (or
over a narrow band of frequencies) and less gain at all other frequencies. Since
many amplifiers are required to provide amplification over a wide range of
frequencies it is common practice to provide each amplifier with a graph showing
how its gain varies with frequency. This is known as the amplifier's Frequency
Response Curve. Figure 116 shows an example.
The Effects of Negative Feedback on Bandwidth
electrical energy have been transferred to the coil. At this time the magnetic field
begins to collapse, current now flows to charge up the capacitor, lower plate +ve.
Once charged the capacitor discharges in the opposite sense creating a magnetic
field of opposite polarity.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
An amplifier's Gain is generally considered to be adequate as long as it is equal to,

or greater than, half the Maximum Power Gain.
(OR)
An amplifier's Gain is generally considered to be adequate as long as it is equal to,
or greater than, 0.707 of the Maximum Voltage Gain
The range of frequencies over which this requirement is satisfied is known as the
amplifier's BANDWIDTH.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 117: SIMPLE OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT
This oscillation would continue indefinitely if the circuit had no resistance, but the
coil has resistance, so the oscillations gradually decrease. To maintain the
oscillation some energy must be continuously fed into the LC circuit. Most
oscillators are amplifiers with positive feedback which means the feedback is in
phase with the input and makes good the energy losses in the oscillatory circuit.
As stated above, negative feedback has the effect of reducing the gain of an
amplifier but it also has the very valuable effect of increasing its bandwidth. Figure
116 shows graphs of an amplifier's gain and associated bandwidth, both with and
without negative feedback.
OSCILLATORS
With reference to figure 117 assume the capacitor is charged from an external
supply.
When the switch is closed the capacitor will discharge, thus changing magnetic
field causes an induced voltage into the coil, the back emf opposes this discharge
and this therefore takes some time. Eventually the capacitor discharges and its

Page 53

Radio Frequency Oscillators

The transistor has no moving parts and can switch at very high speeds.
With reference to figure 118, the basic operation of this circuit is as follows.
Switching on the power supply charges up the capacitor and starts the oscillations.
Feedback is obtained by the changing magnetic field in L1 inducing an emf into L2.
Thus emf is applied between the base and emitter, which causes more collector
current and therefore more current in L1, this continues until oscillation is
maintained.
In switching applications the transistor is treated as a two state device, ie the

transistor is either fully conducting or cut-off.
g
n
i
n
In figure 119, when the input voltage reverse biases the base-emitter junction and
the transistor is cut-off and acts as an open switch. If the input voltage switches to
a large forward bias the transistor will conduct and act as a closed switch.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
Figure 118: OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT
The feedback from L2 being enough to draw DC from the supply to make good the
energy losses and keep the oscillation going. So the oscillator converts DC to AC.
For very high frequency stability crystal oscillators are used in the range 1 to 10
MHz.
Audio frequency oscillators using resistors and capacitors are used up to 50 MHz.
You have already seen the commonest square wave type oscillator, that is the
Astable Multivibrator.
Figure 119: THE TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
Fast switching is desirable and NPN types are preferred because their majority
carriers, which are electrons, travel faster than the majority carriers (holes) in PNP
types.
MOSFETS can be used as switches, their switching speed being about ten times
faster than a transistor.
THE TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

Page 54

4.1.3(a) Integrated Circuits

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
An integrated circuit (IC) is a complete electronic circuit on a chip of silicon about
5mm square and 0.5mm thick.
Figure 120 shows a typical IC cutaway so you can see the silicon chip and the
leads radiating from it to the pins. The diagram shows a dual in-line package, but
circular packages are available.
ICs are assembled this way to allow their fitment to PCBs (Printed Circuit Boards)
etc. Otherwise they would be too small for handling and connection purposes.
Silicon is the base material used, as it has a high degree of purity and a
continuous regular monocrystalline structure. A silicon wafer (about 10cm in
diameter) is produced onto which hundreds of IC's can be formed.
Figure 122 shows how areas of silicon oxide deposited on the silicon are
selectively removed. It is basically a photographic process where areas of the chip
are masked and then the surface is subject to UV light. The unmasked areas are
'eaten' away using a solvent leaving those areas that are required. Finally the
unmasked silicon oxide area is removed by etching.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 120: IC PACKAGE
Figure 122: IC PRODUCTION 1
Figure 121: SILICON WAFER

Page 55

Figure 123 shows how a transistor is made using the diffusion process, i.e.
exposing the wafer at high temperature to the vapour of boron or phosphorus so
their atoms diffuse through the window producing a 'P' or 'N' type area.
Linear Circuits
Most linear IC's are based on bi-polar transistors but in some cases FET's are
used exclusively or in addition to bi-polar types. The majority of today's linear
integrated circuits use operational amplifiers (op-amps).
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
g
n
i
n
A typical op-amp contains twenty transistors as well as resistors and small

capacitors.
i
a
r
T
The chief properties of op-amps are:
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
1.
2.
3.
Very high open loop gain

6
12
High input impedance (1 x 10 to 1 x 10 )
Low output impedance (typically 1000)
Figure 123: IC PRODUCTION - 2
Monolithic integrated circuits are manufactured by an extension of the planar

diffusion process. The active elements (transistors), and the passive elements
(diodes, resistors and capacitors) are all created by modifying the conductive
properties of the silicon.
Integrated diodes are made by forming a P-N junction similar to that previously
described. Integrated resistors are thin layers, the resistance being defined by the
length and width of the layer. Integrated capacitors are made by using the
capacitance of reverse biased P-N junctions.
There are two broad types of IC
1. Linear (analogue)
2. Digital (logic)
Figure 124: CIRCUIT - OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

Page 56

i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 127: SYMBOL
Figure 125: SYMBOL
With the I input grounded and an input at N1, causes a voltage of the same polarity
to appear at the output.
With reference to figure 126, the basic op-amp has one output and two inputs. The
NON-INVERTING (NI) input is marked + and the INVERTING (I) input is marked -.
In the diagram point E is the common reference for the input and output volts. The
DC power supply is typically 5V to 15V with 0V being the reference level.
When signals are applied to both input terminals the output is the difference
between to the two inputs, i.e. two identical signals will produce zero output. The
op-amp is basically a differential amplifier.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
With the Nl input grounded (chassis potential), an input at I, causes a voltage of

opposite polarity to appear at the output.
Figure 128: OP-AMP SYMBOL
Although the power supplies positive and negative are shown in the basic op-amp
symbol they are usually omitted on wiring diagrams.
Figure 126: BASIC OP-AMP CIRCUIT

Page 57

Most op-amps use negative feedback, i.e. feeding some of the output back to the
inverting input. The coupling between the stages is direct coupling. In practice
even when dc bias conditions are met and no input signal is applied, there may be
a small voltage at the input, called the differential input offset voltage. It may be
caused by different manufacturing tolerances of the components of the op-amp.
This offset voltage produces a voltage at the output (with no input signal
remember) and in certain applications is undesirable. For the 741 op-amp this is
achieved by placing a variable resistor across the offset null pins (1 and 5) and
adjusting it until the output is zero when the input is zero.
In AC operation a coupling capacitor at the output removes any DC component
caused by the offset voltage. Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of large
amplitude output voltages that an op-amp can allow before it behaves non-linearly,
it is measured in volts per micro-second (V/s).
The circuit shown produces an output which is proportional to the difference

between the two inputs. If RS = RF then Vout is equal to the difference in input
voltages. If RF and RS have different values then the circuit gain (A0) = RF/RS
In general the output is
V0 = A0(V2 V1)
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
As previously stated the op-amp is basically a differential amplifier so it is useful to

look at its operation.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 129: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

Page 58

4.1.3(b) Integrated Circuits

LOGIC CIRCUITS
There are two main types of logic circuit:
a) TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic)
b) CMOS (Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
The following shows the scales of integration which refer to the number of gates
contained in a single package:
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Small scale integration (SSI)

Medium scale integration (MSI)
Large scale integration (LSI)
Very large scale integration (VLSI)
containing not more than 11 gates

-containing up to 100 gates
-containing between 100 - 1000 gates
containing over 1000 gates
The following diagrams show some TTL and CMOS gates.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 131: TTL 'NAND' GATE
Figure 131 shows a two input NAND gate which uses a multiple emitter NPN
transistor. If both inputs to T1 are high, then no current flows from the base to the
emitter. Current does flow through the base collector circuit to switch on T2. The
output F is near zero volts. If either input A or B go low then T1 conducts, this
causes current flow from collector of T2 (positive charges) through T1 to ground
which switches T2 off and the output goes high.
Figure 132: CMOS 'NOR' GATE
Figure 130: TTL 'AND' GATE

Page 59

Speed of operation - the time that elapses between the application of a signal to an
input terminal and the resulting change in the logical state at the output terminals.
Fan in - number of inputs coming from similar circuits that can be connected to the
gate without adversely affecting its performance.
g
n
i
n
Fan out - the maximum number of similar circuits that can be connected to it's
output terminals without the output falling outside the limits at which logic levels 1
and 0 are specified.
Figure 133: CMOS 'NAND' GATE
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Properties of TTL and CMOS
TTL uses bi-polar transistors along with diodes and transistors formed to
microscopic dimensions on a slice of silicon (chip). TTL must have a steady 5V DC
supply, while CMOS will work on DC voltages between 3 and 15V and usually
requires much less power. CMOS uses uni-polar Field Effect Transistors (FET)
with metal-oxide-silicon technology; this lends itself to VLSI as they take up less
room on a chip, compared to the TTL. CMOS has much higher input impedance.
One important point with CMOS is that if static electric charges are allowed to build
up on it's input pins, these voltages can break down the thin layer of silicon oxide
insulation between the gate and the other electrodes of MOSFET's and this will
destroy the 1C. So antistatic protection is important.
Gate operating parameters include:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
i
a
r
T
Noise margin - this is maximum noise voltage (unwanted voltage) that can appear
at it's input terminals without producing a change in output state.
Power dissipation - as in any circuit, supply voltage multiplied by the current
(Power = V x I) gives the power in the circuit and this heat must be dissipated.
Typical figures for TTL and CMOS are shown below.
Standard
TTL
CMOS
Speed of
Operation
Fan
in
Fan
out
Noise
margin
Power
dissipation
9nS
10
0.4V
40mW
30nS
50
1.5V
0.001mW
If you look back at the diagrams for the TTL AND gate and the TTL NAND gate
you will see that the NAND gate uses fewer components and is therefore cheaper
to produce.
This also applies to the NOR gate, i.e. it is cheaper to produce than the OR gate.
Speed of operation
Fan in
Fan out
Noise margin
Power dissipation

Page 60

NAND gates can be connected together to form any of the other basic gates - thus
reducing production costs by manufacturing one gate only. The following drawings
show how these gates can be formed.
Figure 135 shows the pin connections of IC's for different gate configurations.
There is no need to remember them but it does give a good idea of how the chip
(with the gates in) is connected - although the chip itself is so small that it looks like
a piece of silver metal 4 or 5mm square.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 134: USE OF NAND GATES
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 135: IC PIN CONNECTIONS

Page 61

IC's are made which also perform the function of encoding, decoding, performing
binary addition (adders) and multiplexers.
In sequential logic circuits flip-flops are extensively used all of which are
manufactured on IC's.
The SR Flip-Flop
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
Depends on state before inputs applied
Indeterminate
g
n
i
n
So basically the flip-flop can exist in two stable states:
The SR flip-flop has two output terminals Q and Q. Figure 136 shows the SR flipflop using NAND gates.
Q = 0 ( Q = 1)
Q = 1 ( Q = 0) or
Clocks
In sequential logic circuits where there may be a large number of flip-flops, it is
important they all act at the same time, so no circuit operates out of sequence.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
This is achieved by a CLOCK pulse from a high frequency pulse generator. The
circuits may be triggered when the clock pulse changes from 1 to 0 or when it
changes from 0 to 1 (edge triggered) or when the level is 1 or 0. Figures 137 and
138 shows a clocked SR flip-flop and its truth table.
Figure 136 THE SR FLIP-FLOP
With reference to figure 136:

When S =1
R=0
Q=1
Q = 0 the flip-flop is SET
When S = 0
R=1
Q=0
Q = 1 the flip-flop is RESET
When S = 0
before.
R=0
then no change occurs Q and
Q will be what they were
Figure 137: CLOCKED SR FLIP-FLOP
When S = 1 and R = 1 then Q = 1 and Q equals 1. The circuit is stable while S =

R = 1, but if they are changed simultaneously from 1 to 0 then due to different
switching times of the gates we cannot predict whether Q or Q will be 1.
The output state is said to be indeterminate so S = R = 1 should not be allowed to
occur. The truth table is shown.

Page 62

INPUTS
DURING
CLOCK
PULSE
OUTPUTS
BEFORE
CLOCK
PULSE
OUTPUTS
AFTER
CLOCK
PULSE
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
COMMENTS
NO CHANGE IN OUTPUTS
FLIP-FLOP SETS WITH Q = 1
&Q=0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
FLIP-FLOP RESETS WITH Q

=1&Q=0
THIS INPUT IS NOT
ALLOWED
Figure 138: TRUTH TABLE - CLOCKED SR FLIP-FLOP

D Type SR Flip-flop
This is a modified SR flip-flop. The D stands for Delay. If you look at the truth table,
when the clock pulse changes (rises), whatever is at D is transferred to Q, when
clock pulse falls Q stays at that level. NO MATTER WHAT IS APPLIED TO D, Q
will only change state at the next clock pulse. The truth table shows that the output
equals the input one clock pulse earlier, i.e. the data is held back until the clock
pulse = 1.
i
a
r
T
Figure 139: CLOCKED D TYPE FLIP-FLOP
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
0
g
n
i
n
INPUT
OUTPUTS BEFORE
CLOCK PULSE
OUTPUTS AFTER
CLOCK PULSE
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
Figure 140: TRUTH TABLE CLOCKED D TYPE FLIP-FLOP

Page 63

JK Flip-flop
Figures 141 and 142 show the layout and truth table of the JK flip-flop using NAND
gates.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 141: JK FLIP-FLOP
INPUTS
OUTPUTS
BEFORE
CLOCK
PULSE
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
The two inputs are called J and K and the operation is described in the truth table.
J = K = 1 is allowed (unlike S = R = 1 in a SR flip-flop) and toggles (changes state)
when this input is applied.
DURING
CLOCK
PULSE
OUTPUTS
AFTER
CLOCK
PULSE
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
COMMENTS
NO CHANGE IN OUTPUTS
STAYS AT OR SET TO Q = 1
&Q=0
STAYS AT OR SET TO Q = 1
&Q=0
TOGGLES
Figure 142: TRUTH TABLE JK FLIP-FLOP

Page 64

Shift Registers, which store a binary number and shifts it out when required usually
consist of a number of flip-flops and manufactured in IC's as are counters and
memories.
The Astable, Monostable and Bistable multivibrators are also manufactured on IC's
using op-amps as the diagrams below.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 143: ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 144: MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
Figure 145: BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

Page 65

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Op-amp as an Inverting Amplifier
With reference to figure 146, the input voltage V1 is applied to the inverting
terminal via resistor R1. The non-inverting input is grounded. Feedback is applied
from the inverting input via R2 which because of the inversion of the amplifier acts
as negative feedback. Output is of opposite polarity to input.
With reference to figure 148 the op-amp compares V1 to Vref. When V1 is slightly
greater than Vref the op-amp saturates in one direction and when Vref is greater
than V1 it saturates in the other direction. It is therefore behaving as a two-state
digital device with V0 switching from high to low, i.e. comparing voltages. When fed
with an ac input the op-amp in its saturated condition is converting a continuously
varying analogue signal into a two-state digital one, i.e. converting a sine wave into
a square wave.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 146: OP-AMP INVERTING AMPLIFIER
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 148: SIMPLE COMPARATOR
Figure 147: OP-AMP NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER

Op-amp as a Non-inverting Amplifier
Figure 149: OP-AMP INTEGRATOR
Figure 147 shows a non-inverting op-amp. The input voltage is applied to the noninverting input (+) with the inverting input grounded. The feedback resistor is still
connected to the inverting input to obtain negative feedback. Output is the same
polarity as the input.
Op-amp as a Simple Voltage Comparator

Page 66

Op-amp as an Integrator
Op-amp as a Summing Amplifier (Figure 152). The output voltage V0 is equal to

the inverted sum of the inputs V0 = (V1 + V2 + V3)
The circuit shown (figure 149) is similar to an inverting amplifier but feedback is via
a capacitor. It therefore inverts, amplifies the input signal over a period of time
determined by the values of R1 and C1.
Op-amp as a Differentiator (Figure 150)
This circuit responds only to changes of input Vi. It is only during these input
changes that current flows through C1 and Rf. The output is the inversion of the
input rate of change.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 152: SUMMING OP-AMP
Other uses of Op-amps
Figure 150: DIFFERENTIATING OP-AMP
Op-amp as a Voltage Follower (Figure 151)
Linear IC's are used in audio amplifiers, radio frequency amplifiers and video
amplifiers, but are of specialised types and require a small number of external
components. Figure 153 shows a radio frequency amplifier.
This is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier in which 100% negative

feedback is applied by connecting the output directly back to the inverting terminal.
This effectively gives a situation where the output voltage follows the input and
almost exactly equals it. It has extremely high input impedance and low output
impedance and its main application is for impedance matching, i.e. to act as a
buffer amplifier.
Figure 153: RADIO FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER

Figure 151: VOLTAGE FOLLOWING OP-AMP

Page 67

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (DCAM 4.2 L1)
4.2 Printed Circuit Boards (DCAM Ref. 4.2) Level 1

In this technique metallic foil is bonded onto a base board made from insulating
material, and a pattern is printed onto the foil and chemical etching on to the foil
forms a series of current conducting paths. The components are then mounted to
the board and soldered to the appropriate points to make-up the circuit required.
The boards are usually made-up of layers of phenolic resin impregnated paper, or
epoxy resin impregnated glass-fibre cloth.
The thickness of the boards depends in the strength and stiffness required. The
boards are manufactured in three basic configurations:
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
These boards contain all printed conducting

paths on one side with the components mounted
on the opposite side
These have printed conducting paths on both
sides and the components may also be mounted
on both sides
These boards are many thin boardslaminated
together with the components mounted on one
or both external sides
The layered sheets are bonded in a hot press. The heat during the pressing
operation melts the resin in the base material so that it flows and fully wets the
material and the copper foil. As polymerisation of the resin mix proceeds, each
layer of base material reaches the fully cured state with the copper foil is bonded to
it. When cooled each board is trimmed to the required size, inspected and packed
in polythene bags.
The most commonly used conducting material is copper foil. To bond the copper to
the board, copper foil sheets are cut to the size of the board and steel separate
plates are interposed between the layers as shown in figure 154.
Next a master diagram must be produced to show clearly the conductor pattern (a
sort of wiring pattern) required and where the components are to be located. This
is usually done by computer aided design techniques.
1.
Single layer
2.
Multilayer
3.
Multilayer sandwich
Figure 154: MAKE UP OF PCBs

Page 68

The printing process may be by the etching or additive process. In the etching
process the copper foil is cleaned and coated with a photo-sensitive solution
known as a 'resist', this solution has the property of becoming soluble when
exposed to strong light. The master diagram is then placed over the board and
exposed for a time in a printing machine. The resist is washed away to leave the
resist etched away around the circuit pattern. The board is then placed in a bath of
ferric chloride to etch away all the unprotected copper.
In mass soldering all joints are soldered simultaneously by bringing the board into
contact with an oxide free surface of molten solder, which is contained in a special
bath. The solder specification for mass soldering is 60/40 tin/lead. To prevent
oxidation a flux is used and in the automated mass soldering system a fluxer unit is
incorporated, removal of any flux residue is by solvents.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 155 ETCHING PROCESS
An alternative process is the additive method. In this process the copper is

deposited only in the areas where conductors are required. Again the board is
coated with a photo resist solution. A negative of the master diagram is then
screen printed onto the board, exposing the areas for the conductor layout. These
exposed areas are chemically activated and the whole board is immersed in a
copper plating solution, when the required thickness is obtained the board is
withdrawn from the solution.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 157: TYPICAL DOUBLE SIDED PCS
Figure 156: ADDITIVE PROCESS
The components are soldered to the board by two main methods (a) by hand, (b)
mass soldering.
Figure 158: BOARD COMPONENTS

Page 69

Flexible printed wiring circuits are available and usually serve as a means of
interconnecting units and are basically copper foil conductors bonded to a base of
thin flexible insulator (polyester, epoxy glass cloth and polyimide) and covered with
the same material.
Printed circuit boards are widely used in components on a modern large transport
aircraft. When removing or replacing these boards strict precautions must be
observed.
The reason for this is that the static electricity or charge that we have in our body
can cause serious damage to the software of the components on the boards. The
table shows typical electrostatic voltages that may be developed.
TYPE OF DEVICE
MOSFET
CMOS
BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
(SCR)
THIN FILM RESISTORS
WALKING ON CARPET
WALKING ON VYNIL FLOOR
WORKING AT BENCH
VINYL (PLASTIC) DOCUMENT
ENVELOPES
POLY BAG PICKED FROM BENCH
CHAIR PADDED WITH
POLYURETHANE FOAM
7,000
600
20,000
1,200
18,000
1,500
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
4,000 TO 15,000
150 TO 1,000
Figure 160: TABLE OF VOLTAGE SENSITIVITY
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
MEANS OF STATIC GENERATION
ELECTROSTATIC VOLTAGES
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%)
10 TO 20
65 TO 90
35,000
1,500
12,000
250
6,000
100
RANGE WHERE DAMAGE CAN

OCCUR (V)
150 TO 1,000
250 TO 1,000
4,000 TO 15,000
To identify components fitted with ESD's a symbol is used on the line replacement
unit (LRU) and associated documentation, transport bags etc.
To overcome the static discharge problem the person removing the PCB must use
a conducting wrist strap which is connected to a convenient grounding point on the
aircraft and the person, to initially discharge any energy within the body.
Figure 159: TABLE OF TYPICAL ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES
If we were to touch the edge connectors or some other exposed metal part then a
surge of current due to the difference in potential between our body and the PCB
would cause damage to the components. The following table lists static sensitive
devices and voltages that can cause damage. These devices are often referred to
as ESD's (electrostatic sensitive devices).

Page 70

If you are removing the complete LRU then it is important you do not touch the
connector pins and place dust caps on all connectors.
REMEMBER STATIC DISCHARGE CAN CAUSE DAMAGE!
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 161: BSD DECALS AND WARNINGS
When removing an BSD PCB (or any PCB for that matter) electrical power is
removed, the wrist strap is connected to the ground (there is usually a convenient
point nearby on the aircraft), attach strap to your wrist and remove the PCB using
the extractors provided. Place the PCB immediately into a special conductive bag
(designed for ESD components) and identify with a label, do NOT use staples or
adhesive tape. Remove wrist strap if not immediately refitting a new PCB. Do not
forget any documentation such as JAA form 1 etc.

Page 71

SERVOMECHANISM (DCAM 4.3 L1)
4.3 Servomechanism (DCAM Ref. 4.3) Level 1
Closed Loop Control System
4.3(a) Servomechanism
If we observe what the load is doing and make appropriate corrections at the input,
the system is no longer open loop; it is now, in effect, a closed loop system, the
human operator completing the loop between output and input. He/she compares
the desired effect with the actual effect and adjusts the system so as to reduce the
error between them. He/she is thus, in this connection, an 'error detector, and the
amount of error which the person observes determines how adjustments are made
to the input to produce the desired results.
Open Loop Control System

Suppose that we wish to control the position of a radar scanner. Suppose also that
we have a motor capable of driving the scanner and some means of controlling the
motor. Such an arrangement is illustrated in figure 164.
However, to measure the error and take the necessary correcting action, we have
'built in' the human operator as an essential element. A more effective and efficient
control can be obtained by replacing the human operator with an automatic control
system. The response of the automatic system is generally quicker and more
accurate than that of a human operator, and the automatic arrangement is not
subject to fatigue. In addition, of course, the automatic system gives a saving in
manpower.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 162: OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
The control element controls the magnitude and direction of the input to a power
amplifier, whose output drives the motor at the desired speed in the required
direction. The motor, in turn, moves the load in accordance with the input demand.
The control element could be calibrated with a scale indicating the required
position of the load. Then when we set the control dial for the required position, we
hope that the load (possibly unseen) is doing what we are telling it to do.
In practice, however, the accuracy of control is limited because there are several
factors, other than the input, that affect the output (e.g. variations in the output
load, in the amplifier characteristics or in the motor circuit). We have no means of
controlling these variations in the open loop system and, because of the resulting
inaccuracy; open loop systems are hardly ever used.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
The essential features of the closed loop system are as follows:

The feedback of information concerning the behaviour of the load.
The comparison of this information with the behaviour demanded by the input.
The production of an error signal proportional to the difference between the
desired behaviour and the actual behaviour.
The amplification of the error signal to control the power into a servomotor.
The movement of the load by the servomotor in such a direction as to reduce
the error signal to zero, at which point the output is the same as that
demanded by the input.

Page 72

The block schematic diagram of a basic closed loop control system is illustrated
below. In this arrangement:
4.3(b) Servomechanism
Practical Closed Loop Control System
I is the input demand, which in this case is in the form of a shaft angle.
0 is the output shaft angle of the load.
The control element converts the demand I into some form suitable for
operation of the error detector, e.g. produces a voltage proportional to i.
The feedback element does the same for the output angle 0, e.g. produces a
voltage proportional to 0.
The input demand I sets the angle of the transmitter (CX) rotor. The resulting
alternating field in the control transformer stator induces a voltage in the
transformer rotor and this voltage is fed as an error or misalignment signal to the
amplifier. The amplifier output is used to drive an ac servomotor that turns the
output shaft and also the rotor of the control transformer through output angle 0.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 163: CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
The error detector has two inputs applied to it, one due to I and the other due
to 0; it produces an error signal e proportional to the difference between the
two inputs, i.e. (I - 0).
The error signal operates the amplifier which, in turn, causes the motor to
rotate until 0 equals I (output equals demand); at this point the error signal is
zero and the drive from the motor ceases, the output load having taken up the
position demanded by the input.
Figure 164: PRACTICAL CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
When the output shaft is turned into alignment with the setting of the input shaft (0
= I) the transformer rotor is at right angles to the transmitter rotor and its own
stator field. In this position there is no error signal induced in the transformer rotor,
there is no input to the amplifier or servomotor, and the motor stops. The output
has now taken up the position demanded by the input.

Page 73

Servomechanisms
To be classed as a servomechanism, an automatic control system must have:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Error actuation.
Power amplification.
Closed loop control.
Continuous operation, or 'follow-up' properties, i.e. if the load is disturbed from
the
demanded
position,
it
always
tends
to
return
to it.
Types of Servo
There are two main classes of servomechanism - remote position control (rpc)
servos and speed control servos.
a) RPC servos These are used to control the angular or linear position of a
load.
b) Speed Control Servos These are used to control the speed of a load. In this
case, the speed of the driving motor is made proportional to the input demand
usually a voltage).
i
a
r
T
Two types of input to a servo are:

The system is said to be error-actuated because it is the error between the output
demanded by the input and the actual output which starts the action. The final net
input to the amplifier is the error signal and not the input demand.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
1.
2.
We must have torque amplification to be able to drive heavy loads. The servo
therefore contains an amplifier that supplies the necessary driving power to the
servomotor; the motor provides the required torque.
g
n
i
n
STEP INPUT
created when the input shaft is suddenly
rotated from one angular position to another.
RAMP INPUT
created when the input shaft is rotated at a
constant angular velocity.
The servo also has a closed loop system;
Error detector - amplifier - motor and load - error detector...
Finally, continuous operation is assured in a servomechanism because any

variation in the output from that demanded by the input automatically produces a
difference between output and input, and hence an error signal. The error signal
again starts the correcting action.
Figure 165: STEP INPUT
A servomechanism has many applications, covering a wide range of power

requirements.
Figure 166: RAMP INPUT

Page 74

PERFORMANCE OF SERVOMECHANISMS
require it to be stationary. Further, since there is nothing to stop it, it keeps moving
past the required position.
Response
The response of a servo is the pattern of behaviour of the load when a change is
made to the input condition. It has so far been assumed that if the input moves to
i the load will simply follow, its response being a reproduction of the input
movement.
The paragraphs that follow will show that matters are not as simple as this.
The error signal produced, and, therefore, the torque applied to the load, now
reverses in sense to slow down the load. Since, however, the components operate
symmetrically about the null, the pattern of deceleration is a mirror image of the
original acceleration.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 167: SIMPLE SERVOMECHANISM
Step Input - No Friction
For this discussion we will assume that the input and output were aligned at 0,
until the input suddenly changes to i. An error signal proportional to 0 - i
appears at the amplifier input and the motor is energised to null the error.
One important point must now be emphasised. The torque delivered by the motor
to the load is directly proportional to the error; it acts only on the inertia of the load,
which therefore accelerates at a rate proportional to the error. As the error
reduces so the acceleration reduces, until it reaches zero with zero error.
But this is not a satisfactory state of affairs, for the load acceleration is in one
sense only and that to increase its velocity. Saying that the acceleration is zero at
zero error simply means that the load has reached a steady speed when we
g
n
i
n
The load stops when it has overshot by the initial error, and from there the
performance is repeated. The resulting load oscillation about the demanded
position is illustrated graphically in figure 168.
i
a
r
T
Figure 168: RESPONSE TO A STEP INPUT - NO FRICTION
Ramp Input - No Friction

The description of the response can be followed in the diagram. In the early states
of the ramp, while the error signal is small, the load accelerates slowly and lags
behind the input.
The error signal grows as the lag increases, building up the acceleration.
Eventually the load speed equals the input speed but since a substantial position
error exists it continues to accelerate.
When its speed exceeds that of the input the position error starts to decrease; the
acceleration reduces and the load reaches a constant speed at zero position error
with no error signal.

Page 75

The load speed, however, exceeds the input speed and an overshoot results. That
the outcome is a continuous oscillation can be easily imagined from this point.
Steady State Errors

Examination of the various restraints present would show that their effect is in part
due to a small constant magnitude force known as coulomb friction and in part to
viscous friction that increases with speed.
g
n
i
n
Coulomb friction is that part of the frictional force that is independent of speed, e.g.
a shoe on a brake drum.
Figure 169: RESPONSE TO A RAMP INPUT - NO FRICTION
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Effect of Restraints
The oscillatory responses are obviously not desirable, and luckily, restraints on the
load have a stabilising effect. Various inherent factors are to oppose the load
movement; they include static friction, kinetic friction, eddy currents, air resistance,
viscous lubricants and many others.
i
a
r
T
The resistance due to coulomb friction tends to degrade the sensitivity of a servo,
for a torque that overcomes it must: be generated before any movement of the
load takes place. To provide this torque the load error must reach some finite size,
and any errors less than this will not be corrected. Figure 170 shows the effect of
coulomb friction on the response to a step input.
The load comes to rest somewhere within a band of error, known as the dead
space, the width of which depends on the amount of coulomb friction. For most
modern servos the coulomb friction is very small, and its effect is often neglected.
Lumping them all together for the moment the general effect is to reduce the
amplitude of each successive swing until gradually the output becomes steady.
The oscillations are known as transients and they are effective during the transient
response period, or settling time. Once the .output has settled it has reached the
steady state.
While restraints are beneficial in stabilising, or damping, the response, they do
have certain detrimental effects. One of these is that power is wasted; another is
the introduction of error in the steady state.
Figure 170: RESPONSE WITH COULOMB FRICTION TO A STEP INPUT

Page 76

Viscous friction does not produce a dead space in the step input case since it has
no value when the speed is zero. It does however produce a similar effect when
the ramp input is considered.
In the steady state the load is moving with constant speed; it is therefore being
resisted by viscous friction. An error signal must be produced to overcome this
therefore an error must exist.
Let us assume that the output shaft is driving a load, and that it has taken up a
position which agrees with that demanded by the input shaft (0 = i).
The error signal is therefore zero, and the servo is stationary in a steady state
condition.
The response is illustrated in figure 171 and the error necessary to overcome the
friction is known as velocity lag.
The output shaft rotates at the same speed as the input shaft but lags behind it by
some constant angle. This positional error is velocity lag.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Coulomb friction may be considered small compared with viscous friction during a
ramp input, but, of course, it also contributes to this error. However, the greater
part is due to viscous friction, and since this increases with speed the error is
generally reckoned to vary directly with speed.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 172: BASIC RPC SERVO
Figure 171: RESPONSE WITH VISCOUS FRICTION TO A RAMP INPUT

Response of a RFC Servo to a Step Input (Negligible Coulomb Friction)
Figure 172 shows a basic rpc servo system.

Page 77

(e)
(f)
The error signal now increases in the opposite direction ((0 greater than i)
and the motor applies a reverse torque which eventually stops the load and
brings it back to the required position at point e.
Once again, however, the momentum of the load carries it past the required
position and another overshoot occurs at f.
g
n
i
n
The load may thus oscillate about its final required position many times before it
comes to rest; a servomechanism that does this is said to be 'hunting'.
i
a
r
T
IMPROVEMENT OF TRANSIENT RESPONSE
For many applications the simple servo using its inherent friction for damping is
perfectly adequate. This is usually the case for small position servos, but when
large loads are involved the transient response is unsatisfactory.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 173: RESPONSE CURVE
Now suppose that the input shaft is suddenly turned through a certain angle in
order to bring the load into a new position, i.e. an input known as a 'step input' is
applied. The sequence of events is illustrated in figure 173.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Time and energy is wasted during this period, and bearing wear is increased. It is
evidently desirable to reduce the number of oscillations, and also the response
time. Two methods commonly employed are described.
The input demand i is suddenly change to a new value at point a. The

output shaft cannot immediately follow this change in demand because of
the inertia of the load. Therefore there is now a difference between 0 and
i and an error signal is produced.
The error signal, after amplification, causes the motor to accelerate in an
attempt to bring the output shaft to the new demanded position. Because of
the inertia of the load this takes time; there is therefore a time lag during
which the output angle 0 is changing in response to the change in demand
(b in figure (b) above).
As the motor turns the load, the output angle 0 approaches the demand i.
The error signal, which is proportional to (i - 0) therefore decreases but the
driving force remains until 0 equals i at point c; this is the required load
position.
By the time 0 has reached the demanded position, the load has acquired
considerable momentum and consequently overshoots (point d).

Page 78

Viscous Damping
This method is simply a controlled increase of the inherent viscous damping to
achieve the required response. One device in use is the eddy current damper as
shown in figure 174.
Too much extra viscous friction will produce a very sluggish response and the
system is over damped. The degree of damping which just prevents any overshoot
is known as critical damping.
Slightly less damping than this, to allow one small overshoot, is optimum damping
which gives the smallest settling time.
Most designs are aimed at this condition.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 174: EDDY CURRENT DAMPER
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
This simple device consists of a thin disc of metal with high electrical conductivity
(usually aluminium), which is attached to the output shaft. It spins between the
poles of electromagnets mounted round its periphery.
Figure 175: DEGREES OF DAMPING - STEP INPUT
Eddy currents are induced of magnitude proportional to the field strength and to
the disc velocity. These eddy currents set up magnetic fields that act against the
inducing fields and forces opposing the disc rotation are created.
The effect on the transients for a ramp input can be similarly adjusted to reduce
optimum damping. A snag arises, however, for any increase in viscous friction also
increases the velocity lag.
These forces are closely proportional to the disc velocity, and therefore provide
parallels to the inherent viscous forces. Adjusting the current flow to the
electromagnets can control them.
Thus to remove the transient oscillations completely a considerable velocity lag

must be expected. Figure 178 illustrates the response for two degrees of damping
for a ramp input.
Varying degrees of damping can be applied. The next diagram shows some of the
stages, coulomb friction being ignored for simplicity. Using only inherent friction
under damping is achieved.

Page 79

Velocity Feedback Damping

This form of damping is similar to viscous friction damping in one respect; the
compensation produced is proportional to the velocity, or rate of movement, of the
output shaft. Velocity feedback damping has the advantage, however, that it
consumes very little power.
For a servomechanism, this arrangement is achieved by attaching a tachogenerator to the output shaft. A tacho-generator is a small ac or dc generator that
produces a voltage proportional to the angular velocity of the output shaft.
A suitable fraction of this voltage is fed back to the input of the amplifier in
opposition to the error signal (negative feedback) to provide the necessary
compensation; this is known as velocity feedback damping, because the voltage
fed back is proportional to the velocity of the output shaft.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
The aim with velocity feedback is to reduce the net input to the amplifier to zero
and then to reverse it before the output shaft reaches its required position.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
If the amount of feedback is correctly adjusted - and this can be done fairly easily
by means of a potentiometer - the forward momentum of the load, acting against
the reversed torque, causes the load to come to rest just as it reaches the required
position.
Figure 176: DEGREES OF DAMPING - RAMP INPUT
In an rpc servo we are required to move the load from one position to another as
quickly as possible without causing instability (i.e. hunting) or wasting power.
We have already seen that a step input applied to a servo causes the servomotor
to apply a torque, which accelerates the load. As the load gathers speed and
approaches the desired position we require some arrangement that will 'anticipate'
that the load is going to overshoot and so reverse the motor torque before the
desired position is reached.
If the arrangement is adjusted correctly the result is that the load comes to rest just
as it reaches the required position; overshooting and hunting are therefore
prevented.

Page 80

The motor accelerates the load and as the input and output shafts come into
alignment, the error falls; at the same time, because the load is now moving
rapidly, a large velocity feedback voltage is applied in opposition to the error
voltage.
g
n
i
n
The net input to the amplifier therefore drops rapidly and then increases in the
opposite direction as the velocity feedback voltage becomes larger than the error
signal. A decelerating torque is thus applied to the load before it reaches the
demanded position. As the motor slows down, the velocity feedback voltage falls;
so also does the error signal because the output and input shafts are coming more
into alignment.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
When the required position is reached, the motor stops; velocity feedback is then
zero and so also is the error signal, the input and output shafts being aligned.
So transient response can be improved in two ways, by applying extra viscous
friction or by velocity feedback. Both increase velocity lag in response to ramp
inputs, but of the two, velocity feedback is preferred since power is not wasted.
Just a re-cap on velocity lag on a servomechanism with a ramp input and velocity
feedback damping.
The feedback voltage from the tacho-generator to the amplifier is in opposition to
the error signal.
Figure 177: VELOCITY FEEDBACK DAMPING
The action is illustrated by the graph (figure 177). Initially, when the step input is
applied, the output shaft does not move and the full amplified error is applied to the
motor (no velocity feedback since the load is at rest).
In a servo that is being driven at a constant speed there must always be an error
signal to keep the load moving, however this error signal will have to be larger than
required as it has to be greater than the velocity feedback voltage. Therefore,
velocity lag is greater than required, i.e. greater positional error between input and
output shafts.
We shall now look at common methods to reduce velocity lag in step input and
ramp input systems.

Page 81

Transient Velocity Feedback

This type of damping is often referred to as 'acceleration feedback damping' and is
used in an angular velocity system to reduce velocity lag.
As you can see inserted between the tacho-generator and the amplifier is a
differentiating network.
When the speed changes, i.e. damping required, the capacitor charges or
discharges through R to give an output to the amplifier to provide the necessary
damping.
The tacho-generator output is therefore differentiated by CR giving damping only
when the load speed is changing.
Phase Advance Damping
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Stabilisation of a servomechanism to obtain a good transient response in rpc

system and a good steady state response in a velocity system, reducing velocity
lag can also be achieved by inserting a suitable network in the input to the
amplifier.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
A typical arrangement using a correction network, known as a phase-advance

network is shown in figure 179.
Figure 178 TRANSIENT VELOCITY FEEDBACK
In a speed control servo, the velocity feedback provides damping when transient
speed changes occur, however when the speed is constant no damping is
required, however the signal is still being fed to the amplifier and causing
excessive velocity lag.
The transient velocity feedback system is designed therefore to provide damping
during changes in speed, but when the speed is constant, provide no damping and
therefore reduce velocity lag to a minimum.
When the speed of the output shaft is constant, the tacho-generator voltage is
constant, after the initial charging current the voltage across R falls to zero, no
output from the network, no damping to the system, velocity lag reduced.
Figure 179: PHASE ADVANCE CORRECTION NETWORK

Page 82

In an rpc system when a step input is applied, there is a large error signal, the
current through R and the charging current through C are in the same direction.
The input to the amplifier is therefore IR + IC (modified error signal), this causes the
servomotor to accelerate rapidly. As the error signal decreases, C commences to
discharge through R, the total current therefore into the servo amplifier is then IR IC.
By suitable choices of C and R, ie controlling the time constant of the network, it
can be arranged that the signal itself becomes zero, before the error signal is zero,
providing a retarding torque before the load reaches the required position,
overshooting is prevented and stability during the transient period improved.
Velocity feedback damping is omitted, the network is doing the same job but is not
introducing velocity lag.
the error plus a voltage proportional to the input speed minus a voltage
proportional to the output speed.
If you remember in a velocity feedback system in the steady state i.e. input and
output shafts rotating at the same speed, the velocity lag was mainly caused by
the signal from the output tacho-generator.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
For a velocity control system (ramp input), the network provides damping on the
initial switch 'on' and for any speed change as described for the step input system.
However, at steady state the error is very small indeed and velocity lag is greatly
reduced. So this system by removing velocity feedback damping has reduced
velocity lag, the correction network providing the necessary damping.
Other types of correct network are used, depending upon the response required.
Some rpc servos require only a rapid response velocity lag being unimportant; in
other rpc servos, velocity lag must be taken into consideration. In systems
required to rotate at a constant angular velocity, velocity lag must be reduced to a
minimum. Different combinations of C and R in the network may be used to
produce the desired response.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 180: ERROR RATE DAMPING
Error Rate Damping
Another method used to reduce velocity lag in am angular velocity control system
is error rate damping. One possible arrangement is shown in figure 180.
One tacho-generator is mounted on the output shaft and produces a voltage

proportional to the speed of the shaft. A second tacho-generator is mounted on the
input shaft produces a voltage proportional to the input speed. There are therefore
three input signals to the amplifier. The combined input is a voltage proportional to

Page 83

In this system the input tacho-generator is cancelling this signal in the steady state,
so velocity lag is reduced to a minimum. The position error reducing any velocity
lag that does exist.
In principle, this arrangement seems fine but it is very difficult to get two tachogenerators to give exactly the same output, especially with time.
However a simplification of this arrangement is possible. The two tachogenerators are producing voltage outputs proportional to input minus output speed,
or proportional to the speed of the error signal. The velocity of this error is equal to
rate of change of error with respect to time. This can be achieved by using a
differentiator, i.e. differentiating the error with respect to time.
state the system has very low velocity lag. In the transient state the differentiator
will provide the necessary damping signals.
At start up rate of change of error signal is high and the input to the amplifier will
be high to accelerate the load. As the input and output shaft speeds come into line
the output of the differentiator opposes the position error signal to provide a
retarding torque before the load reaches the required speed. At steady state the
differentiator output is zero, position error signal reduces velocity lag.
Integral Control
The methods so far described reduce velocity lag, but have no effect on lag and
dead space caused by inherent friction. A common method of dealing with these
residual steady state errors is known as Integral Control.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 181 ERROR RATE DAMPING WITH DIFFERENTIATOR
Therefore by combining the derivative of the error signal and combining it with the
actual error, the net input to the amplifier is a voltage proportional to the error plus
a voltage proportional to speed (input minus output). So therefore in the steady
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 182: INTEGRAL CONTROL
The differentiator D (figure 182) acts as previously described for error are
damping. The integrator is connected as shown, ie integrating the error signal and
feeding into the amplifier. An integrator is a device that takes on input signal and
slowly builds up that input signal on its output.

Page 84

When the servo system reaches its steady state with a small residual error, the
integrator output will have built up to provide an additional signal to drive the load
to the alignment position.
Adjustment of the integrator output can be made to ensure that when the error
signal is zero its output is just sufficient to counter inherent friction.
Summary
Most servos in aircraft systems are damped by inherent friction, extra viscous
friction or velocity feedback. However in some application, improved sensitivity
and reduction of velocity lag are required. The diagram below shows a comparison
of damping methods.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 183: COMPARISON OF DAMPING METHODS

Page 85

SERVOMECHANISM COMPONENTS
directly proportional to the speed at which it is driven and whose polarity depends
upon the direction of rotation.
Servomechanisms may be ac or dc operated.

AC Servo Components
DC Servo Components
The positional feedback signal would be from a potentiometer in most cases. The
error detector would be potentiometer circuits or electronic circuits producing an
error signal proportional to the difference between input and output shaft rotations.
The servo amplifiers must produce sufficient power to drive the servomotor; this
power requirement will depend on the system. The power amplifiers used in
conjunction with voltage amplifiers (to provide gain) will thus vary in power output.
i
a
r
T
AC servomotors capable of producing moderately high torque are usually induction

motors. Induction motors run at a constant speed (related to the frequency of the
ac supply), but their torque and their direction of rotation can be controlled fairly
easily by the amplified error signal, without the use of complex circuitry.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
DC servomotors must be capable of being reversed and the torque developed

must be proportional to the error signal input. As torque is proportional to the
product of the armature current and the field current, the armature current is kept
constant, and the torque can be controlled by varying the field current (error
signal).
g
n
i
n
The positional feedback signal may be from potentiometers, synchros, LVDT's,

RVDT's. The servo amplifier is a conventional transistorised amplifier with voltage
and power amplifiers.
Two-phase and three-phase induction motors are in common use in ac servo

systems; the two-phase type is more usual.
So separate supplies are used, the armature current being fed from a constant
current source and the field being fed from the servo amplifier. The diagram shows
a de-operated servomotor. Attached to the motor is a servo amplifier, feedback is
provided by a potentiometer, the wiper of which is driven by the motor.
Figure 185: TWO-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Figure 184: DC OPERATED SERVOMOTOR

The dc tacho-generator mounted on the output shaft of the servomechanism. It is
small, separately excited dc generator. It will therefore produce a dc voltage that is

Page 86

The two-phase induction motor (figure 185) requires two ac supply voltages 90
out of phase with each other. One phase is fed to the control system and then
through the servo amplifier to one stator winding of the motor; this supply is
controlled by the error signal. The other phase, known as the 'reference phase', is
fed directly to the other phase winding of the motor.
Since a torque is being exerted on the rotor it will turn to follow the rotating
magnetic field and will continue to do so until the error signal falls to zero. The
direction of rotation depends upon the phase of the error-controlled voltage relative
to the reference voltage and this, in turn, depends upon the sense of the error. The
torque developed depends upon the magnitude of the error.
When the reference phase to one stator winding and the error-controlled phase to
the other winding are both present, a rotating magnetic field is produced; the
squirrel-cage rotor follows this field and so rotates.
The direction of rotation depends upon the sense of the error signal, i.e. on the
direction of misalignment between input and output shafts of the servo.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
As the misalignment signal passes through the zero error signal position, the
phase of the error-controlled voltage reverses and this reverses the direction of
rotation of the motor. When the error is zero, the error-controlled phase voltage is
zero also and no rotating magnetic field is produced; the motor thus stops.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
The torque developed by the motor depends upon the magnitude of the error
signal; the greater the error, the larger is the torque.
FIGURE 186: HYSTERESIS SERVOMOTOR
Hysteresis motors may also be used as ac servomotors. A typical arrangement is

shown in figure 186. A two-phase supply is required, the reference phase voltage
being applied to phase windings AA1, and the error-controlled voltage to BB1. At
one instant, A will act as a N-pole and A1 as a S-pole; B and B1 will be neutral.
The rotor - a cobalt steel ring - will therefore have a S-pole induced at X and a Npole at Y. A quarter of a cycle later, B will act as a N-pole and B1 as a S-pole, A
and A1 will be neutral. However, the rotor, which is made of a large hysteresis loop
material, will have retained its S-pole at X and its N-pole at Y. So point X on the
rotor is attracted to the B stator winding and Y is attracted to B1.

Page 87

Servomotor Construction
The diagram shows a two-phase induction motor, the two phase winding
accommodated in slots in the stator. The rotor is of the squirrel cage construction
generally with aluminium conductors.
The stator and rotor slots are skewed, this prevents the reluctance of the rotor to
move away from one of a number of positions where the slots in the rotor and
stator are aligned and so ensures smooth torque output.
The ac tacho-generator is used to provide velocity feedback damping in ac servo
systems, is mounted on the output shaft so that it rotates at the same speed as the
load.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The ac tacho-generator is usually a drag-cup generator that produces an

alternating voltage of the same frequency as the ac supply. However, the
amplitude of the voltage depends upon the speed of rotation; and the phase of the
voltage leads or lags the ac supply depending upon the direction of rotation.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
FIGURE 187: SERVOMOTOR CONSTRUCTION
The drag-cup generator has a two-coil stator whose axes are at right angles, as in
a two-phase induction motor. The rotor, however, is a copper or brass cup with a
stationary iron cylinder fitted inside it to complete the magnetic path for the stator.
AC is applied to only one stator coil - the primary coil. As the output shaft drives
the rotor, voltages are induced in it by interaction with the field produced by the
current in the primary stator. At any instant, maximum voltage is induced in that
part of the cup passing through the primary axis.
Figure 188: AC TACHOGENERATOR DETAILS
Maximum circulating (eddy) currents are therefore in this axis, and these currents
produce a secondary magnetic field that is at right angles to the axis of the primary
field.
This secondary field alternates at the frequency of the supply current but its
magnitude depends upon the amplitude of the circulating eddy currents induced in
the rotor by the primary field; this, in turn, depends upon the speed or rotation.

Page 88

SYNCHROS
The secondary stator winding of the tacho-generator is at right angles to the

primary axis and so has a voltage induced in it by the secondary field only.
In many cases on modern aircraft it is necessary to transmit information from a

remote point and transfer this data to control box or instrument. A typical data
transmission system used to do this uses 'synchros'.
This is the output voltage whose amplitude is proportional to the speed of rotation
and whose phase relative to the reference ac supply depends upon the direction of
rotation. A typical ac tacho-generator provides a velocity feedback voltage of 0.5V
per 1,000 rpm of the rotor.
There are four basic types are:

a)
b)
c)
d)
Resolver synchros
Differential synchros
Control synchros
Torque synchros
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
RESOLVER SYNCHROS
g
n
i
n
An alternating voltage can be represented by a phasor length r and the angle it

makes with the x-axis.
Figure 190: PHASOR
This is called the POLAR co-ordinates
We can split this phasor into its two component parts as shown in figure 191.
Figure 189: DRAG CUP ROTATION

Page 89

Figure 191 COMPONENTS OF PHASOR

Where x = r cos and y = r sin
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
These are called the CARTESIAN co-ordinates of the phasor.
A resolver synchro can convert from polar to Cartesian i.e. feed in an AC voltage
and rotate the shaft

and it will give two outputs r sin and r cos . It can
also convert Cartesian to polar i.e. feed in a sine and cosine voltage and it
resolves them into a voltage and shaft rotation.
The resolver synchro as shown in next diagram has two windings on the stator at
90 to one another and two windings on the rotor at 90 to one another.
We shall now look at the resolver synchro operation in both modes.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 192: RESOLVER SYNCHRO - TWO STATOR & TWO ROTOR

WINDINGS
Polar to Cartesian
In this mode the rotor winding R3R4 is shorted and we feed our alternating voltage r
onto R1R2. With the system stationary, S1S2 winding is directly opposite so
maximum voltage is induced into it, while stator winding S3S4 is at right angles to
this supply and no voltage is induced.
If the rotor is now moved angle then the voltage in S1S2 will fall and that in S3S4
will begin to rise and at 90 rotation the emf induced into S1S2 will be zero and that
induced into S3S4 will be maximum. If this rotation continued than a S1S2 = r cos
(cosine waveform) and S3S4 = r sin (sine waveform) will be formed.

Page 90

The amplifier output is fed to a servomotor that is mechanically coupled to a load

and the rotor of the synchro. So the rotor and load are turned, when the rotor
winding R1R2 is at 90 to the stator field there is no emf induced into R1R2 and the
servomotor stops.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 193: INPUT SIGNAL
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 195: CARTESIAN TO POLAR SYSTEM
The rotor winding R3R4 at this time is aligned with the stator field and the voltage
induced will be the resultant of the input voltages Vx and Vy
Figure 194: COS & SIN OUTPUT SIGNALS
So by rotating the rotor an angle we have split the input voltage into its two
Cartesian components.
Cartesian to Polar
Note here the cosine voltage (r cos ) is applied to the stator winding S1S2 while
the sine voltage (r sin ) is applied to the stator winding S3S4. These two voltages
produce fields in the stator that combine to form one field that cuts the rotor
windings R1R2 and R3R4. The emf induced into R1R2 is fed to an amplifier.
Figure 196: PHASOR DIAGRAM
The voltage output and the angle the rotor has turned through represent the polar
co-ordinates.
The resolver synchros are used in aircraft instruments and navigation systems.

Page 91

DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHROS
These are used as an additional synchro (TDX or CDX) inserted between a TX
and TR in a torque differential system and between a CX and CT in a control
differential system. They give an output proportional to the sum or difference of two
inputs.
The torque differential transmitter (TDX) is similar in construction to the control
differential transmitter (CDX).
The rotors have three windings instead of the usual single winding, spaced 120
wound on a slotted core connected in the star configuration. One end of each
winding is connected to a slip ring on the rotor shaft.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 198: STATOR/ROTOR COILS & SYMBOL
The stator windings are the normal star connected windings at 120 to one
another. The next diagrams show the basic construction with electrical and
schematic diagrams. The CDX has higher impedance windings than the TDX.
Figure 197: ROTOR DETAILS

Page 92

TORQUE DIFFERENTAIL SYNCHO SYSTEM

With reference to figure 199 note the input shaft 1 is attached to the TX rotor and
input shaft 2 is connected to the rotor of the TDX. The TR rotor is connected to a
pointer, giving the sum of difference between the input shaft angles 1 and 2.
Power supply is connected to the TX and TR rotor.
the TR stator that causes the field produced to rotate 15 anti-clockwise and the
TR rotor will line up with this, indicating the movement of input shaft 2.
If now input shaft 1 in rotated 45 clockwise and input shaft 2 is rotated 15
clockwise then the output will be the difference between the two inputs i.e. 30
clockwise output of TR.
If input shaft 1 is rotated, say 15 clockwise and input shaft 2 is kept still, the
voltage changes in TX stator windings to cause current to flow in the TDX stator.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 200: SYMMETRICAL CONNECTION
If the stator windings between TX and TDX are crossed (S1-S3, S3-S1) and TDX to
TR (R1-S3, R3-S1) are crossed then 45 clockwise rotation of the TX rotor and 15
clockwise rotation of the TDX rotor will give the sum of the two inputs.
Figure 199: TORQUE DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO SYSTEM
This produces a field which cuts the TDX rotor and this induced emf drives
currents through the TR stator windings, producing a field which has moved 15
clockwise and the rotor, free to move, will line up with this field, indicating the
movement of input shaft 1. So in this condition the TDX is acting as a transformer.
Assume input shaft 1 is kept still and input shaft 2 is rotated 15 clockwise.
Moving the TDC rotor clockwise is equivalent to moving the field 15 anticlockwise. The induced emf in rotor produces voltages that drive currents through
Figure 201: TWO INPUT & OUTPUT LEADS INTERCHANGED

Page 93

Crossing over (S1-S3, S3-S1) between TX and TDX produces an output that is the
reverse of the sum of the two inputs, see next diagram.
CONTROL DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO SYSTEM

As can be seen this is very similar to the torque differential system with the CDX
between the CX and CT. AC supply being fed to the CX only, the output being an
error signal proportional to the sum or difference of the two shaft rotations.
g
n
i
n
The operation is similar to that of the torque synchro system.
Figure 202: TWO INPUT LEADS INTERCHANGED
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Just crossing over (R1-S3, R3-S1) between TDX and TR produces the reverse
difference between the two inputs.
i
a
r
T
Figure 203: TWO OUTPUT LEADS INTERCHANGED
Figure 204: CONTROL DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO SYSTEM

Page 94

Frequency and Supply Voltages
Torque Synchros
The supply frequency will be 400Hz and input voltages are 115 volts or 26 volts
giving induced line voltages of 90 volts and 11.8v respectively and control
transformer maximum outputs of 57.3v and 22.5v respectively.
The basic construction of this type of synchro is shown in figure 205.

The stator is star connected with the windings 120 apart, the rotor has a single
winding which is fed with single-phase ac via slip rings.
The following table gives a list of the possible faults and subsequent actions.
SYMPTOM
No Movement of receiver
CAUSE
Power
Failure /
OFF
One pair of
Rotor
Connections
reversed
2
connections
between
stators
reversed
3
connections
between
stators
crossed
Short circuit
between 2
stator lines
Open circuit
on one
stator line
REMEDY
Check appropriate fuse.
Switch ON
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Receiver displaced 180 from

transmitter. Rotation correct.
Reverse rotation of receiver
Receiver displaced 120 or 240

clockwise from transmitter. Rotation
correct
Receiver displaced 0, 60, 120,

180, 240, 300 and moves in 180
steps
Receiver oscillates between 2
points approximately 75 apart
Check rotors for correct

wiring
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Check stators for correct

wiring
Check stators for correct

wiring
Figure 205: TYPICAL SYNCHRO DETAILS
Carry out insulation

resistance check between
stator lines
Carry out continuity check
on stator lines

Page 95

The torque synchro circuit is shown in figure 206. It consists of a torque (T)
transmitter (X) and a torque (T) receiver (R).
The TX and TR are similar but the TR has some form of damper mechanism to
prevent oscillation. The TR can be used as a TX but the TX cannot be used as a
TR as it has no damping. Note the circuit symbol in figure 207.
Operation of Torque Synchro System

In this system AC is fed to both synchro rotors, assuming the rotors are in identical
position then the ac applied to the rotor is acting like the primary of a transformer
and emfs will be induced into the stator windings.
These emfs will depend on rotor position.
g
n
i
n
If the rotors are in identical position then the emfs in the TX and TR stator
windings are identical and no current flows between the two-synchro stators. This
is known as the 'NULL' position.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
Figure 206: SYNCHRO CIRCUIT
Figure 207: CIRCUIT SYMBOL

Page 96

f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 208: EFFECT OF VARIOUS INTERCONNECTIONS IN THE TORQUE SYNCHRO SYSTEM

Page 97

The TX is usually mechanically coupled to an input shaft and the rotor of the TR is
coupled to a pointer of an instrument. A typical application on older aircraft would
be flap position indication. The TX being in the flap transmitter near the flap and
the TR being in the flap indicator on the flight deck.
If the flap is now moved (TX input shaft moves, say 20) then the emfs in the TX
stator will change due to change of rotor position. These emfs are no longer equal
to the TR stator voltages, therefore current must flow between the two stators. This
causes a resultant magnetic field in the TX and TR stator's.
The TX rotor cannot move as it is mechanically coupled to the flap. The TR rotor is
free to move and lines up with this resultant field (which is 20 from the NULL
position). As the rotor lines up with this field, the two rotors are again in the same
position, the emfs induced in the stators are the same, no current flows and the
flap position indicator now shows the new flap position.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The effect of interchanging the rotor and stator connections are shown in Figure
208, particularly notice that reversal of rotor connections (b) produces an output
that is 180 out from the input rotation and changing over any two stator
connections gives reversed direction of rotation of TR.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
It should be noted that the output of the TR produces a very low torque, enough
only to drive a light pointer mechanism.

Page 98

CONTROL SYNCHROS
The control synchro system provides an error voltage signal in the receiving
element. This error signal is an indication of the displacement of the two rotor
windings relative to each other. The control synchro system comprises two
synchros the control (C) transmitter (X) and the control (C) transformer (T).
The control transmitter (CX) is similar in construction to the TX except the windings
are of high impedance.
The control transformer (CT) also has windings of high impedance; the rotor
winding is wound on a laminated cylindrical former and distributed in slots that are
skewed to prevent lock-on effect.
One of the two important things to note is that the AC supply is fed only to the CX
rotor and the discriminator amplifier, and the other is that in the NULL (no error
signal) position the rotors are at 90 to one another.
In the null position the AC voltage applied to the CX rotor acts like the primary of a
transformer and voltages are induced in the CX stator windings. These voltages
will be different, and this difference in potential will drive a current through the CT
stator windings.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The control synchro can be used to indicate control surface position with the CT in
the indicator, or used in a servo system to provide a signal to a control surface
servomotor.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 210: CONTROL SYNCHRO - APPLIED & OUTPUT VOLTAGE
These currents produce magnetic fields around each coil; the fields combine to
form one resultant field. In this null position this resultant field cuts the CT rotor at
90 so no emf is induced into the CT rotor winding.
If the CX rotor input shaft is moved the voltages in the CT rotor will change, due to
change of rotor position. These new voltages will change the currents flowing
through the CT stator windings and therefore the position of the resultant magnetic
field.
Figure 209: CONTROL SYNCHRO

Page 99

Whatever angle the CX rotor had been turned, the resultant magnetic field across
the CT will also have moved that amount. As this resultant field is no longer at 90
in the rotor but at an angle to it, then an emfis induced in the rotor winding.
This induced emf is fed to the discriminator amplifier where its phase relationship
is compared with that of the supply to provide the correct error voltage and phase
relationship to the two phase induction control phase and drive the motor in the
correct sense.
The motor drives through a gearbox to the indicator (in this example) and also to
the rotor of the CT. When the motor has driven the CT rotor until it is 90 to the
new field, no voltage will be induced, motor stops, and indicator shows the
movement of the CX input shaft. The two-synchro rotors are once again in the
NULL position i.e. 90 to one another.
What would be the effect of swapping the rotor leads R1 and R2 on the
CX rotor?
CT rotor?
These are synchros consisting of wound stators and rotors; typical uses are in
gyroscopic instruments where the rotor is connected to one component and the
stator on another. For example to measure roll movement in a vertical gyroscope,
where the stator is mounted on the case and the rotor on the outer gimbal, so any
roll movement moves case relative to outer gimbal.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Again in this system if two of the stator windings between the CX and CT are
swapped then for a clockwise input to the CX rotor the output signal to indicator
will be anti-clockwise, i.e. the indicator will show reverse indication.
a)
b)
SLAB SYNCHROS
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 211: TYPICAL SLAB SYNCHRO

Page 100

THE SYNCHROTEL
This can be used as a low torque control transformer or transmitter. The next
diagram shows the quite unusual construction.
The stationary rotor coil fits into the highly permeable case over the central core.
The conventional three-phase stator also fits over the core. The rotor is an
aluminium hollow cylinder with an oblique section that rotates in the air gap
between the stator and the coil. The rotor shaft is supported in jewelled bearings.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 213: SYNCHROTEL CUT-AWAY
Figure 212: SYNCHROTEL - EXPLODED VIEW
Because of the low torque required to operate the synchrotel they are ideal for
connection to capsule operated devices e.g. Pitot-static capsules. When used as a
control transformer it will be connected to a control transmitter as shown in figure
214.
Figure 214 SYNCHROTEL PRINCIPLE

Page 101

The transmitter (CX) is typically fed with a 26v 400Hz supply, the induced voltages
in its stator are connected to the synchrotel stator and the current flow through the
windings produces a magnetic field that cuts the rotor. The rotor position has been
determined by the capsule movement.
In the following diagram the I bar is parallel to the E bar and the AC fed to the
central limb creates a magnetic flux which will flow as shown. The flux in the top
and bottom limbs will be the same as the air gaps between the I bar and E core
are equal. The emf induced into the two coils B and C will be the same but of
opposite phase, so the output will be zero.
As the rotor is around the core then a component of the flux cutting the rotor will
flow along the core and cut the rotor winding. The output from this winding is fed to
the servo-amplifier where it feeds the control winding of a 2-phase servomotor that
drives the indicator and also the CX rotor.
This changes the CX stator voltages and therefore synchrotel stator current and
flux. This will continue until the synchrotel stator flux is no longer producing an
output from the rotor winding ie NULL position. The indicator now shows a position
of the pressure applied at that instant.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
When used as a transmitter the rotor winding is energised producing an axial flux
along the core, this causes a current flow in the rotor. This rotor current produces a
radial flux that cuts the stator coils and induces an emf into them. The emf
induced is a function of rotor position determined by input pressure measurement.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 215: I BAR NEUTRAL
INDUCTANCE TRANSMITTERS
The 'E' and I Bar
This type of sensor is used in older servo instruments acceleration sensors, air
data computers.
The fixed laminated E shaped core has an alternating supply connected to its
central limb; the outer two limbs are wound with coils connected in series
opposition. The laminated I shaped core sits parallel to the E core and is attached
to whatever we are trying to measure the movement of, e.g. in a servo altimeter
the I bar is connected to the capsules.
Figure 216: I BAR - POSITION 1

Page 102

When the I bar is moved by the sensing element, the air gaps are now unequal,
there is now more flux cutting coil B (less air gap) and less flux cutting coil C
(larger air gap). The emf induced in coil B is greater than that in coil C, the output
is therefore the difference between these two giving an output that is 'in phase'
with the input. The amplitude of the output will depend on the amount of
movement of the I bar.
THE LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

The LVDT consists of a primary coil of a transformer; the secondary has two coils
connected in series opposition. In between the two coils is an iron core that can
be moved in a linear manner by the system whose displacement is to be
measured.
The next diagram shows the I bar moved in the opposite direction, in this case the
emf induced coil C is greater than coil B and the output will be 'anti-phase' to the
input, again the amplitude will depend on the amount of movement of the I bar.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 218: LVDT - CORE CENRAL POSITION
Figure 219 shows the LVDT with the core central, the outputs of the two coils A
and B will be equal but of opposite phase, the output of the LVDT is therefore zero.
If the core is displaced as shown in the next diagram, the output of coil A increases
(iron core full in line) and that of coil B decreases (air gap only). The output is
therefore the difference and is 'in phase' with the input, the amplitude depends on
the amount of displacement.
Figure 217: I BAR - POSITION 2
Figure 219: LVDT - CORE POSITION 1

Page 103

If the core is displaced downwards, as shown in the next diagram, then coil B
output increases (iron core fully in line) and that of coil A decreases (air gap only),
once again the output is the difference between the two and is 'anti-phase' to the
input, the amplitude depends on the amount of displacement.
Figure 220: LVDT - CORE POSITION 2
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The LVDT is used extensively for control surface position indication, being
attached to the servo actuator. They are also used in Engine Pressure Ratio
Transmitters, accelerometers and some older fuel flow transmitters.
There is another version of this transformer called the ROTARY VARIABLE

DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (RVDT) that works on the same principle, but as
the name implies the central core moves in a circular movement.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 221: TYPICAL RVDT FITMENT
One of the uses is to measure control column movement. With reference to figure
221, as the control column is moved a cable assembly is attached to the RVDT
input drum and therefore rotates the central core of the RVDT's to give an output
to, for example, a spoiler control module.

Page 104

CAPACITANCE TRANSMITTERS
The most common use of capacitance transmitters is in fuel quantity indication
systems. The sensor being in principle two concentric tubes with the fuel being the
dielectric. The capacitance of a capacitor depends on, the distance between the
plates, the area of the plates and the dielectric constant of the material between
the plates. As the distance between the plates and the area of the plates is set the
only variable is the dielectric constant of the material between the plates.
Air has a dielectric constant of one and aircraft fuel has a dielectric constant of
approximately two. This means whatever the capacitance was with air as the
dielectric, when fuel replaces the air the capacitance will approximately double e.g.
100pF to 200pF. So this is therefore a good way of measuring fuel quantity as the
tank is filled with fuel the dielectric changes gradually from air to fuel increasing the
capacitance as fuel level increases.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 222: CAPACITANCE TRANSMITTER
This same principle is used for measurement of hydraulic fluid level in a hydraulic
reservoir.
Another type of transmitter used in digital air data systems is the formation of a
capacitor by depositing a metallic film on a small area in the centre of a diaphragm
to form a capacitor (figure 222).
As pressure is applied to the diaphragm the two metallic films come closer
together changing the distance between the 'plates' and changing the capacitance.
This forms part of a capacitive bridge network that will change its output depending
on pressure applied. These are used as pressure transducers in some digital air
data computers.

Page 105

SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMITTERS
The Desynn System
The Desynn is a DC system of transmission that indicates continuous variation of
shaft position. It is a relatively simple system, which because it produces a low
torque, is useful only for remote indication of angular position; as such it is ideal
where a simple pointer and scale indicator is adequate.
As in all electrical remote indication systems, the input shaft is connected to a
transmitter element that is connected to the receiver unit by wires. The receiver
unit drives the output shaft that operates the remote indicator.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
In the Desynn system (figure 223), the transmitter is a circular potentiometer which
has three fixed tapings (a, b and c) spaced 120 apart, connected to the receiver
unit. A rotating spring loaded mechanism (to take up backlash/) mounted on the
input shaft carried two sliding contacts or wipers that are arranged exactly opposite
one another. The wipers are fed, via slip rings and brushes, from the positive and
negative terminals of a DC supply.
The receiver has three coils (a, b and c) with axes 120 apart (connected in star).
Within them is a permanent magnet rotor which is capable of rotation through 360
and which carries a pointer over a calibrated scale. The three air-cored coils in the
receiver are connected to the tapping points a, b and c on the transmitter by the
three lines shown in figure 223.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 223 THE DESYNN SYSTEM

Page 106

A weak circular magnet which plays no part in the normal operation of the indicator
will return the points to an "OFF SCALE" position if the power supply fails or is
switched 'OFF' (See figure 225).
When a DC supply is connected to the transmitter wipers, the voltages at the
tapping points a, b and c in the transmitter cause currents to flow through the three
stator coils in the receiver, a resultant magnetic field is produced and the rotor
magnet aligns itself with this field. For example, with the input shaft in the position
shown at a in figure 32 point a is at 24V with respect to supply negative, while b
and c are both +8V.
With a positive by the same amount to both b and c, current flows from a through
coil a in the receiver; it then divides equally and half the total current goes through
coil b and half through coil c back to the transmitter. The magnetic fields fa, fb and
fc associated with these currents and also the resultant magnetic field are shown
by vectors and the rotor magnet aligns itself with this field.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
If the input shaft is rotated 120 clockwise, as at b in figure 226 the voltage
distribution is such that the total current flows through coil b, it then divides equally
through a and c and flows back to the transmitter. The vectors show that the
resultant magnetic field has also rotated 120 clockwise from its initial position and
the rotor magnet aligns along itself this new axis.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
The magnitude and polarity of the voltage at each tapping point on the transmitter
therefore vary according to the position of the wipers.
Thus, if the input shaft is rotated, the variation of voltage at a, b and c produces
changes in the currents flowing in the stator coils, and a magnetic field rotating in
sympathy with the input shaft is produced.
The rotor magnet remains aligned with this field at all times and so rotates in
synchronism with the input shaft. A pointer, moving over a calibrated scale, is
attached to the rotor so that a remote indication of the position of the input shaft is
immediately available.
A typical example of the use of the Desynn is remote indication of wing flap angle,
the flap shaft acting as the 'input' shaft.
FIGURE 224: POSITION INDICATOR TRANSMITTER

Page 107

FIGURE 225: INDICATOR - EXPLODED VIEW
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The Desynn is said to be self-synchronous because the output shaft continuously

moves in sympathy, or in synchronism, with the input shaft.
Any change in the position of the input shaft results in an immediate and
corresponding change in the position of the output shaft; this synchronous
movement is inherent in the system, ie it is self-synchronous.
The Desynn also gives a continuous indication of change of position through 360.
It is, however, only a low power device, the current being limited by the resistance
of the transmitter potentiometer. The desynn is therefore only suitable for operating
indicating pointers and similar light loads.
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 226: DESYNN SYSTEM - THEORY
Figures 225 and 226 show a Desynn system used to indicate flap position on a
small passenger carrying jet aircraft. Note the linkage between the flap and the
transmitter and the available adjustments.

Page 108

Typical Desynn Faults

The table below shows some of the possible faults and subsequent actions.
SYMPTOM
CAUSE
Power Supply Failure /
OFF
REMEDY
Check appropriate fuse.
Switch ON
Pointer displaced 180.

Rotation correct.
Power supply reversed
Check transmitter for correct

wiring
Pointer rotation
reversed
2 connections crossed
Check wiring connections

between transmitter and
indicator
Pointer displaced 120

or 240 clockwise.
Rotation correct.
3 connections crossed
Check wiring connections

between transmitter and
indicator
Pointer displaced and

moves in 180 steps
Open circuit or short

circuit
Carry out insulation

resistance check and
continuity checks
Pointer OFF SCALE
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 227: DESYNN TYPICAL COMPONENT LOCATION

Page 109

f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
Figure 228: TYPICAL TRANSMITTER SET-UP
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 229: PRINCIPLE OF LEVER LENGTH ADJUSTMENT

Page 110

Maintenance Checks on Adjustment of Transmitter

On the desynn system there will usually be two forms of adjustment, one adjusts
lever length and the other lever angle. It may be useful now to discuss these two
adjustments in a bit more detail.
Lever length on the transmitter is the distance between the lever pivot point X and
the connection to the link at Y; this arm is adjustable as shown in detail A-A figure
230. It should be noted that making the extension arm longer would increase lever
length and decrease indicator pointer movement. Making the extension arm
smaller will decrease lever length and increase indicator pointer movement.
f
o
g
y
n
r
i
r
a
t
e
e
e
i
n
r
i
p
g
o
n
r
E
P S
A
M
The basic adjustment then of this type of system is to set the flap to various
positions and checking pointer indication and adjusting the lever length as required
ensuring correct pointer indication at all flap positions.
It should be noted that adjusting lever length generally only counteracts a regularly
increasing or decreasing error, e.g. for each 1 unit movement it only moves 0.8. In
other systems, adjustment of lever angle may be possible. This is the angle
between the adjustable link arm and the extension arm. (Note: It cannot be
adjusted on this system).
i
a
r
T
g
n
i
n
Figure 230: PRINCIPLE OF LEVER ANGLE ADJUSTMENT
Unlike lever length adjustment, lever angle adjustment is not a constant value, i.e.
for each adjustment the pointer deflection becomes progressively greater for each
indication position.
Therefore on systems with both types of adjustments, it will be necessary to adjust
each in turn to obtain the desired pointer indications.

Page 111

Mas Module 4

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mas Module 4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.

MODULE 4 : ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS

For Training Purposes Only

Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.1

For Training Purposes Only

Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.1

4.2 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS .......................................................................................................................................................................... 68

4.3 SERVOMECHANISM ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 72

For Training Purposes Only

Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.1

4.1 Semiconductors (DCAM Ref. 4.1) Level 2

Figure 2: DIODES IN PARALLEL

For Training Purposes Only

Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.1

Figure 3: TESTING OF DIODES

If it is necessary to verify the connections in the absence of any marking then a

For Training Purposes Only

Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.1

Figure 4: ATOMIC STRUCTURE

For Training Purposes Only

Figure 5: CO-VALENT BONDS

If a battery is placed across a pure semiconductor, electrons are attracted to the

Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.1

Figure 6: N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR

Semiconductors have a negative temperature coefficient. In other words their

There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors:

For Training Purposes Only

Figure 7: ELECTRON FLOW IN AN N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR

Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.1

P-Type Semi-conductor Material

Figure 9: ELECTRON FLOW IN A P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR

Figure 8: P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR

MAJORITY CARRIER - HOLES (POSITIVE)

For Training Purposes Only

Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.1

THE P-N JUNCTION

Figure 11: P-N JUNCTION

As electrons leave the N-type material, it will become positively charged. As

A BARRIER POTENTIAL is built up at the boundary, forming what is known as the

Figure 12: FORWARD BIAS P-N JUNCTION

The intrinsic conduction, (covalent bonds breaking down at normal temperature)

For Training Purposes Only

Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.1

Figure 14: ACTION OF A DIODE

For Training Purposes Only

Figure 15: DIODE SYMBOL

Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.1

Figure 16: DIODES

It is important to note that the arrow points in the direction of CONVENTIONAL

Figure 17: DIODE CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

For Training Purposes Only

Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

DCAM PART 66 CAT B1.1