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Equal Treatment

Bench Book
2013

Equal Treatment Bench Book 2013

Contents

In this document
In this document you will find the separate pieces of guidance on equality and diversity
brought together for ease of reading. However, it is not a single document in reality and
will be updated regularly.

The Legal Framework including the Equality Act 2010


General judgecraft principles
Social exclusion and poverty
Litigants in Person
Age, including children and vulnerable adults
Physical disability
Mental disability, including mental illness
Gender reassignment
Race, including interpreters and travellers
Religion or belief
Gender
Sexual orientation

EqualityAct2010

1.EqualityAct2010
Keypoints

Thestatutorytortsprohibitingdiscriminationandrelatedconductarenowcodified
intheEqualityAct2010whichisnowinforce.

TheEqualityAct2010setsoutaclearframeworkforallformsofdiscrimination
bothdirectandindirectdiscriminationandvictimisationandharassment.Inaddition
thereareobligationstomakereasonableadjustmentsfordisabledpeopleand
disabledpeoplehavetherightnottobetreatedunfavourablybecauseofsomething
arisinginconsequenceoftheirdisability,unlessitcanbejustified.

TheEqualityAct2010encompassestherangeofintrinsicaspectsofhumandignity,
knownasprotectedcharacteristics:age,disability,genderreassignment,marriage
andcivilpartnership,race,religionorbelief,sexandsexualorientation.

Thecontextsinwhichdiscriminationandotherconductisprohibitedbyreferenceto
aprotectedcharacteristicisalsosetoutcomprehensivelyintheEqualityAct2010
fromhousing,toeducation,employmentandservicesandpublicfunctions.

Considerationofequalityissuesarealsobroughtintotheheartofpublicsector
decisionmakingprocessesbythePublicSectorEqualityDutywhichseekstotackle
institutionaliseddiscriminationthatcanbehardtochallengethroughindividual
rightsbasedlitigation.

1.

TheEqualityAct2010heraldedasthesinglemostsignificantdevelopmentinequality
lawfor40yearsisnowinforce.TheActnotonlyharmonisesandconsolidates
previousantidiscriminationlegislation;italsostrengthenslegalrightstoequalityand
increasestherangeofunlawfulactsofdiscriminationoutsidetheemploymentfield.In
additionitplacesanewsetofstatutoryequalitydutiesonpublicauthorities.The
equalityduty(s.149)requirespublicauthorities,intheexerciseoftheirpublic
functions,tohavedueregardtoeliminateprohibiteddiscrimination,harassmentand
victimisation;toadvanceequalityofopportunity;andtofostergoodrelations
betweendifferentgroupsofpeople.

2.

TheEqualityActspurposewastoreplaceamassofdisparatemassoflegislationwith
moreuniform,accessibleandcomprehensiverights.Ithasalreadysucceededin
settingstandardsandraisingawarenessofrightstoequality,theimportanceof
tacklingdiscriminationandtheroleofthepublicsectorinachievingequality.

3.

Whilstthejudicialfunctionisexemptfromtheprohibitionondiscriminationinthe
exerciseofpublicfunctions,thisexemptionislikelytobelimitedtothecore,
adjudicativeandlistingfunctions.Ancillaryfunctions,e.g.training,mentoring,
conductingappraisals,managerialorcommitteefunctionsandconducttowards
colleaguesorcourtstaffwillnotbeexempt1.

SeeEngelvJointCommitteeforParkingandTrafficRegulationsOutsideLondon(PATROL)0520/12EAT13
May2013.

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4.

Thischapterisintendedasanintroductiontotheconceptsandframeworkofthe
EqualityAct2010.WhilstthereareotherstatutoryprovisionssuchastheMental
CapacityAct2005andthespecialmeasuresprovisionsforvulnerablewitnessesthat
addressissuesofequalitywhicharediscussedinotherchapters,itistheEqualityAct
2010whichsetsoutthestatutorytortsofdiscrimination,victimisationand
harassment.Therearealsostatutorycodesofpractice2whicharewordybuthelpful.

5.

AclaimundertheEqualityActwillhavethreecomponents:
a. Itwillallegethatthediscriminationoccurredinaproscribedcontextandmanner
bringingthematterwithinthejurisdictionofacourtortribunalforexample
jurisdictionfordiscriminationintheworkplaceisconferredonEmployment
Tribunals.
b. Itwillidentifytheparticularallegedtypeofprohibitedconduct,suchasdirect
discriminationorfailuretomakereasonableadjustmentsforadisabledperson.
c. Itwillcomplainofsuchconductbyreferencetoaprotectedcharacteristic.

Protectedcharacteristics
6.

TheEqualityActidentifiesnineprotectedcharacteristics,orspecificaspectsofour
humanity,whichareintrinsictoanindividualsdignityandautonomy:partofour
equalworthashumanbeings.

7.

Theprotectedcharacteristicsare:
a. Age.Ageisaprotectedcharacteristicandtheconceptincludesagegroup,that
is,agroupofpersonsdefinedbyreferencetoaparticularageorarangeofages,
orcohortsuchasbabyboomers.Agegroupsmaybelinkedtophysical
appearance,suchastermsgreyhairedoryouthful.
b. Disability.Apersonhasadisabilityifheorshehas(1)aphysicalormental
impairmentwhich(2)hasasubstantialand(3)longtermadverseeffecton(4)his
orherabilitytocarryoutnormaldaytodayactivities,whichistobeconsideredin
interactionwiththevariousbarrierswhichmayhindertheirfullandeffective
participationinsocietyonanequalbasiswithothers.Thedefinitionwillinclude
thosewithsuchanimpairmentfor12monthsormoreunlike,forexampleashort
termillnessoraconditionwheretheeffectsareminorortrivial.Thedefinitionis
importantsinceapersonmustestablishthatheorsheisadisabledpersonto
accessprotectionunderthedisabilitystrandoftheAct.
TherearedetailedprovisionsinSchedule1totheActaswellasstatutoryguidance
onmatterstobetakenintoaccountinestablishingwhetherapersonisdisabled
withinthemeaningoftheAct.TheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsof
PersonswithDisabilitiesisdirectlyapplicableintheUKandprovidesthatpersons
withdisabilitiesincludethosewhohavelongtermphysical,mental,intellectualor

EHRCCodeofPracticeonEmployment(2011),EHRCCodeofPracticeonServices,PublicFunctionsand
Associations(2011),EHRCCodeofPracticeonEqualPay(2011),statutoryGuidanceonmatterstobetaken
intoaccountindeterminingdisability,andthepreexistingEHRCDisabilityDiscriminationAct1995revised
CodeofPractice:tradeorganisations,qualificationsbodiesandgeneralqualificationsbodies2008remainsin
force.Seewww.equalityhumanrights.com

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sensoryimpairmentswhichininteractionwithvariousbarriersmayhindertheir
fullandeffectiveparticipationinsocietyonanequalbasiswithothers3.The
causeoftheimpairmentisirrelevantandmayevenbeunidentified,aslongasthe
evidencedemonstratesthattheimpairmentexists.Certainspecifiedconditionsare
deemeddisabilities,suchasHIVandcancer,whilstotherssuchasalcoholismand
voyeurismareexcluded.Progressiveandfluctuatingconditionsareconsideredas
disablingiftheyarelikelytobecomesointhefuture.
Pastdisabilitiesarealsocovered.
c. Genderreassignment.Genderreassignmentismovingfromone'sbirthsextothe
preferredgender.Atranssexualpersonisapersonwhohastheprotected
characteristicofgenderreassignment.
Thischaracteristiccoversthoseproposingtoundergoorundergoingaprocess,as
wellasthosewhohavedoneso.Thereisnoneedforthepersontobeunder
medicalsupervisionortohaveagenderrecognitioncertificate.
d. Maritalorcivilpartnershipstatus.Apersonhastheprotectedcharacteristicof
marriageandcivilpartnershipifthepersonismarriedorisacivilpartner.Itdoes
notextendtothoseengagedtobemarried.Howeverbroadlyspeaking,outside
thecontextofwork,discrimination,harassmentandvictimisationbyreferenceto
marital/civilpartnershipstatusisnotprohibited.
e. Pregnancyandmaternity.Awomanhastheprotectedcharacteristicofpregnancy
ifsheispregnant(and,inthecaseofIVFtreatmentwhenthefertilizedeggis
transferredtoheruterus),andmaternitystatusuntil26weeksafterthebirthofa
livingchild,orastillbirth(after24weeksofpregnancy).Afterthe26weekperiod
thereisalsoprotectioninrelationtobreastfeeding.
f. Race.Theprotectedcharacteristicofraceisdefinedasincludingcolour;
nationality;andethnicornationalorigins.Thenonexhaustivedefinitionmayalso
extendtoothercharacteristics,suchascaste4,andmaycomprisetwoormore
distinctracialgroupssuchasEastAfricanAsian.
g. Religion.Religionmeansanyreligionandareferencetoreligionincludesa
referencetoalackofreligion.Beliefmeansanyreligiousorphilosophicalbelief
andareferencetobeliefincludesareferencetoalackofbelief.Areligionneed
notbemainstreamorwellknowntogainprotectionasareligion.However,it
musthaveaclearstructureandbeliefsystem.Denominationsorsectswithin
religions,suchasMethodistswithinChristianityorSunniswithinIslam,maybe
consideredareligion.
Aphilosophicalbeliefmustbeabelief(ratherthananopinionorviewpoint)astoa
weightyandsubstantialaspectofhumanlife,whichisgenuinelyheldthatattains
acertainlevelofcogency,seriousness,cohesionandimportance;andisworthyof
respectinademocraticsociety.

Article 1

The Equality Act 2010 confers regulation making power to the Secretary of State to outlaw caste
discrimination, which have not yet been utilised.

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h. Sex.Inrelationtotheprotectedcharacteristicofsex,areferencetoapersonwho
hasaparticularprotectedcharacteristicisareferencetoamanortoawoman.
i. Sexualorientation.Theprotectedcharacteristicofsexualorientationmeansa
person'ssexualorientationtowardspersonsofthesame,oropposite,orboth
sexes.

TypesofdiscriminationandotherprohibitedconductasdefinedintheAct
DirectDiscrimination
8.

Directdiscriminationislessfavourabletreatmentofsomeonebecauseofaprotected
characteristic.Itmaybehelpfultomakeacomparisonwiththetreatmentofany
actualcomparatoridentifiedbytheClaimantand/orahypotheticalcomparator,
althoughitfollowsthatifapersonhasbeentreatedlessfavourablybecauseofa
protectedcharacteristictheywouldhavebeentreateddifferentlyiftheydidnothave
thatprotectedcharacteristicandwere,forexample,ofadifferentrace.

9.

Motiveisirrelevantinconsideringwhethertherehasbeendirectdiscriminationitis
necessarytoaddresssimplythequestionofthefactualcriteriathatdeterminedthe
decisionmadebytheallegeddiscriminator.

10.

ThedefinitioncoverscaseswheretheClaimanthastheprotectedcharacteristic,butis
alsointendedtoapplywheretheClaimantisperceivedtohaveit,oristreatedless
favourablybecauseofanassociationwithsomeoneelsewhohasit.Forexamplea
judgeofIraqiorigin,unlikehercolleagues,isnotinvitedtothecathedralcourtservice
atthestartofthelegalyearbecausesheisMuslim.InfactsheisnotMuslim,butis
perceivedassuchandtreatedlessfavourablybecauseofthisperception.

11.

Directdiscrimination,iffound,ordinarilycannotbejustified.However,uniquely,
directdiscriminationongroundsofageisopentothejustificationthatthetreatment
wasaproportionatemeansofachievingalegitimateaim.Forexample,todismissan
employeebecausesheorhehasreached70isselfevidentlytreatmentbecauseof
age.Ifhowevertheemployercanprove,forexample,thatthepurposewasto
facilitateaccesstoemploymentforyoungerworkers,ortopreservetheolderworker
fromtheindignityofpoorperformanceprocedures,theymayestablishalegitimate
aim.Iftheemployercanalsoprovethatthedecisiontocompulsorilyretirethe
employeewasbothanappropriateandnecessarywayofavoidingsuchhumiliationor
achievingintergenerationalfairness,thentheywillhavejustifiedthetreatmentandit
willnotamounttounlawfuldirectagediscrimination.

12.

Lessfavourabletreatmentofthenondisabledinotherwords,positive
discriminationinfavourofthedisabledisnotunlawful.

Indirectdiscrimination
13.

Theaimofindirectdiscriminationistoaddresshiddenand/orinadvertent
discrimination,wherethereisadiscriminatoryoutcome,withoutdirect
discrimination.Itiswhereunjustifiedpracticesprovisionsorcriteriadisadvantagea
groupwithaprotectedcharacteristiccomparedtoagroupwhichdoesnothavethis
characteristic.Therearefourelementsofthedefinition.TheClaimantmustshow:

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a. thattheDefendanthasapplied,orwouldapply,aprovision,criterionorpractice
(PCP)regardlessoftheprotectedcharacteristicreliedupon;but
b. whichputs,orwouldput,personswhosharetheClaimantscharacteristicata
particulardisadvantage;and
c. whichputs,orwouldput,theClaimantatthatdisadvantage.
d. Ifso,theclaimismadeout,subjecttoajustificationdefence:thatthePCPisa
proportionatemeansofachievingalegitimateaim.InorderforthePCPtobea
proportionatemeansofachievingalegitimateaim,itmustcorrespondtoa'real
need'andbean'appropriate'meansofachievingtheobjectivepursuedand
'necessary'tothatend.Thecourtmustfollowastructuredapproachtothis
proportionalitytestinthat:
i. theaimmustbesufficientlyimportanttojustifythemeasurewhich
disadvantagessomegroups,
ii. themeasuresdesignedtomeettheobjectivemustberationallyconnectedto
thataim,
iii. themeansmustbenomorethanisnecessarytoaccomplishtheobjective,and
iv. theinterestsoftheaffectedindividualandthewidercommunitymustbefairly
balanced.
14.

Indirectdiscriminationhasbeenusedsuccessfullytochallengetheprohibitionofthe
wearingofculturalandreligiousartefacts,suchasacrossorbangle(Kara)inschools
andworkplaces,anddresscodessuchasabanoncornrowsordreadlocks,veilsand
turbansandusedtoobtainrightsforparttimeworkerswhoarepredominantly
female.

15.

Costaloneisnotsufficienttojustifyindirectdiscrimination.

16.

Forexamplearuleismadethataparticulartrainingsessionwillbeheldbetween6
and8p.m.onaFridayevening.Althoughtheruleisappliedacrosstheworkplace,it
placesthoseofsomereligionsataparticulardisadvantageiftheyneedtobeathome
oraplaceofworshipbeforedark.Thetrainingorganiserswouldberequiredto
demonstratethattheindirectlydiscriminatorytimingofthisparticularsessionwasa
proportionatemeansofachievingthelegitimateaimoftrainingonthistopic.

17.

Indirectdiscriminationnowapplesindisabilitycasestodisabledpersons,whichitdid
notunderthepreviouslegislation.

18.

Indirectdiscriminationonlyprotectspersonswithaprotectedcharacteristic,notthose
whoareorperceivedashaving,orareassociatedwithapersonwithaprotected
characteristic.Forexample,afamilymemberandcarerforadisabledpersonwhois
unabletoworkanemployersshiftpattern,willnotbeabletoclaimindirect
discriminationbyreferencetothedisabilitystrandoftheEqualityAct2010.

19.

Indirectdiscriminationdoesnotapplytopregnancy/maternityperse,butislikelyto
amounttoindirectsexdiscrimination.

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Harassment
20.

HarassmentforthepurposesoftheEqualityAct2010hasaquitedifferentdefinition
totheProtectionfromHarassmentAct1997.Itisdefinedasconductthatis
a. unwanted;and
b. relatedtoaprotectedcharacteristic;and
c. hasthepurposeoreffect
d. ofviolatingtheClaimantsdignityorcreatinganintimidating,hostile,degrading,
humiliatingoroffensiveenvironmentfortheClaimant.

21.

Indeterminingtheeffectoftheconduct,theClaimantsperceptionmustbetakeninto
accountaswellaswhetheritisreasonabletoviewtheconductashavingthateffect.A
oneoffincidentmaybesufficientforexamplesuggestingtoafemaleAsian
employeethatshemightbemarriedoffinIndiawasfoundtoconstituteunlawful
harassmentintheemploymentsphere.Sincethetestiswhethertheconductis
relatedtoaprotectedcharacteristicitisalessstrictcausationtestthandirect
discrimination.Itincludes,forexamplehomophobicbanterandinnuendomadetoa
workcolleaguewhentheperpetratorsknewthattheircolleaguewasnotgay.
Homophobicbanterinthemistakenbeliefthatsomeonewasgaywouldalsofall
withinthedefinitionofharassment.

22.

Unwantedconductofasexualnaturewhichhasthesamedegradingpurposeoreffect
asaboveisalsoaformofharassment,regardlessofanyprotectedcharacteristic.Less
favourabletreatmentbecausethevictimhaseithersubmittedorrefusedtosubmitto
sexualharassmentorharassmentrelatedtosexorgenderreassignmentalsoamounts
toharassment.

23.

IntheCountyCourtjurisdictionsdiscussedbelow,thereisnoprotectionagainst
harassmentongroundsofsexualorientationorreligionandbelief(nor,inrelationto
schools,genderreassignment);butwhatmaycolloquiallybedescribedasharassment
couldoftenamounttodirectdiscriminationinlaw.Forexample,racistabuseis,byits
verynaturelessfavourabletreatmentbecauseofrace.Itisalsointrinsicallyrelatedto
raceandislikelytobeunwantedandhavethepurposeoreffectofviolatingthe
recipientsdignity.

Disabilitydiscrimination
24.

Specialprovisionsgovernthedifferentformsofdisabilitydiscrimination.TheEquality
Act2010recognisesthatmorethanformalequalityisrequiredtoenabledisabled
peopletoparticipateasfullyaspossibleinsociety.AsacknowledgedintheUN
ConventionontheRightsofPersonswithDisabilities,itcanbetheinteractionwith
variousbarriersinsocietythathinderthefullandeffectiveparticipationofdisabled
peopleonanequalbasiswithothers.5Inadditiontoprotectionfromdirectand
indirectdiscrimination,reasonableadjustmentsmayberequiredtoassistadisabled
personwho,becauseofhisorherdisability,isplacedatasubstantialdisadvantagein
comparisontootherswithoutthatdisability(s.20).Thesemaybe,forexample,by

Article 1

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adaptationsormodificationstopremises,physicalfeaturesordifferentarrangements,
suchassittingtimesorprovisionofasignlanguageinterpreter,orprovisionofan
auxiliaryaidorservice.
25.

Thegistofthedutyisthatitistotakereasonablesteps,atnocosttothedisabled
person,toavoidthedisadvantageorprovidetheaidorservice.

26.

Theresponsibility,whenitarises,istotakesuchstepsasitisreasonable,inallthe
circumstancesofthecase,tohavetotakeinordertomakeadjustments.TheActdoes
notspecifythatanyparticularfactorsshouldbetakenintoaccount.Whatisa
reasonablestepdependsonallthecircumstancesofthecase.Thefollowingaresome
ofthefactorswhichmightbetakenintoaccountwhenconsideringwhatis
reasonable:
a. whethertakinganyparticularstepswouldbeeffectiveinovercomingthe
substantialdisadvantagethatdisabledpeoplefaceinaccessingtheservicesin
question;
b. theextenttowhichitispracticablefortheserviceprovidertotakethesteps;
c. thefinancialandothercostsofmakingtheadjustment;
d. theextentofanydisruptionwhichtakingthestepswouldcause;
e. theextentoftheserviceprovidersfinancialandotherresources;
f. theamountofanyresourcesalreadyspentonmakingadjustments;and
g. theavailabilityoffinancialorotherassistance.

27.

Thepreciseframingofthereasonableadjustmentdutyismodifiedaccordingtothe
particularcontextinwhichtheclaimarisesforexampleifitoccursintheworkplace
orinthesphereofeducation.TheEqualityAct2010hasdifferentscheduleswhichset
outthedetailsrelevanttoeachcontext.

28.

Unlawfuldiscriminationmayalsooccurifadisabledpersonistreatedunfavourably
becauseofsomethingarisinginconsequenceofhisorherdisability,whichcannotbe
showntobeaproportionatemeansofachievingalegitimateaimprovidedthe
defendantkneworoughtreasonablytohaveknownthatthepersonwasdisabled.
(s.15).Forexample,adisabledpersonisrefusedserviceatabarbecausetheyare
slurringtheirwords,asaresultofhavinghadastroke.Inthesecircumstances,the
disabledpersonhasbeentreatedunfavourablybecauseofsomethingarisingasa
consequenceoftheirdisability.Itisnotdirectdiscriminationsincethereasonforthe
treatmentistheslurringofwords,notbecauseofdisabilityperse,anditistherefore
irrelevantwhetherotherpotentialcustomerswouldberefusedserviceiftheyslurred
theirwords.Thiswillamounttodiscriminationarisingfromdisability,unlessitcanbe
justifiedorthebarmanagerdidnotknoworcouldnotreasonablybeexpectedto
knowthepersonwasdisabled.

29.

Theredoesnotneedtobeadirectcausallinkbetweenthedisabilityandthe
unfavourabletreatment.Discriminationarisingfromdisabilityonlyrequiresthe
disabledpersontoshows/hehasexperiencedunfavourabletreatmentbecauseof
somethingconnectedwithhisorherdisability:theremustbeaconnectionbetween
whateverledtotheunfavourabletreatment,suchastheslurringofwords,andthe

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disability.Ifthepersonisslurringhisorherwordsbecauseofdrinkingtoomuchandit
isunconnectedwithanydisability,thelandlordsrefusaltoservemoredrinkswillnot
ariseinconsequenceofthedisability.
30.

Ifthedefendantfailstomakereasonableadjustmentswhichwouldhavepreventedor
minimisedtheunfavourabletreatment,itwillbedifficultforAtoshowthetreatment
wasobjectivelyjustified.However,makingreasonableadjustmentsdoesnotmean
thereisnodiscriminationarisingfromdisability.Inpractice,itisoftenappropriateto
considerwhetherthereisanybreachofthedutytomakereasonableadjustments
beforeconsiderings15.

Victimisation
31.

Victimisationisdetrimentaltreatmentbecauseofaprotectedact(orthebeliefthat
theclaimanthasdoneormaydoaprotectedact).

32.

ProtectedactsincludemakingallegationsofbreachoftheEqualityAct2010,bringing
proceedingsunderit,orgivingevidenceorinformationinconnectionwithsuch
proceedings.Theallegationsdonothavetobetrue,butmakingafalseallegationin
badfaithisnotaprotectedact.

33.

Forexampleamagistratemakesacomplaintofracediscriminationagainstanother
magistrate.Whenshemakesenquiriesaboutapplyingtositintheyouthcourtsheis
toldthatherapplicationwillprobablyfail.Ifthisisbecauseofhercomplaintabout
herfellowmagistrate,itislikelytoconstituteunlawfulvictimisation.

34.

Theclaimantneednothavetheprotectedcharacteristic,butonlytohaveengagedin
aprotectedact:e.g.awhitepersoncomplainstothedoormanforexcludingblack
peoplefromanightclubandishimselfthenrefusedentryfromtheclub.

Pregnancy/maternitydiscrimination
35.

Lessfavourabletreatmentofawomanbecausesheisbreastfeedingisspecifically
deemedtobesuchtreatmentongroundsofsex.

36.

Itisalsodiscriminationtotreatawomanunfavourablybecauseofapregnancyand,
fortwentysixweeksafterabirth,becauseshehasgivenbirthorisbreastfeeding.

ContextsfallingwiththejurisdictionoftheEqualityAct2010
37.

DiscriminationisprohibitedinthecontextsandcircumstancesspecifiedintheEquality
Act2010.

38.

However,thereareanumberofimportantgeneralexceptionsandsomeexceptions
specifictotheparticularcontext.Forexamplecharitiesmayprovideassistanceonlyto
theelderlyorwomen,orthosefromaparticularcommunity,butareprohibitedfrom
treatingpeopledifferentlybecauseofcolour(althoughdiscriminatingonethnicor
nationaloriginswouldbepermissible).Specificexceptionsincludegenderaffected
sportingactivity,andsinglesexcommunalaccommodation.Insomecircumstances
thereareexceptionsforreligiousorganisationsinrelationtodiscriminationinrespect
ofsexualorientation.Thebroadareasofprotectionareoutlinedbelow,butthedetail
oftheprecisescopeoftheEqualityAct2010isoutsidetheremitofthischapter.

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Theworkplace
39.

DiscriminationintheworkplaceisgenerallyprohibitedbyPart5oftheEqualityAct
2010.Asexequalityclauseisimpliedintoemploymentcontractstoprovideequalpay
andtermsandconditionsbetweenmenandwomenwhoperformthesame,or
comparableworkandworkofequalvalue.

40.

Employmentiswidelydefinedtoencompassworkersandofficeholdersandallbut
thegenuinelyselfemployed,butvolunteersareoutsidethescopeofprotection.Job
applicantsarecoveredaswellasformeremployeeswherethediscriminationarises
outofandiscloselyconnectedtotheemploymentrelationship.

41.

JurisdictionisconferredonEmploymentTribunalsbutthecivilcourtsmayalsohear
equalpayclaimsinsomecircumstances.

Servicesandpublicfunctions
42.

Part3oftheEqualityAct2010coverstheprovisionofservicestothepublicora
sectionofthepublic,whetherforpaymentornot.Italsocoversprovidersofgoods
andfacilitiesandthoseundertakingnonservicepublicfunctions.Forexample,a
restaurantcannotrefusetoservedinersbecausetheyareAsianandabankmayneed
tomakereasonableadjustmentstoitsbuildingstoenableaccesstowheelchairuser
customers.

43.

Thetypesofconductcoveredarewideranging:notonlyinrelationtotheprovisionor
nonprovisionoftheservice,butalsothequality,manner,termsofprovision,
terminationoftheserviceandanyotherdetriment.Adetrimentcanbebyactor
omission.Thetestiswhethertheclaimantreasonablyconsideredhimorherselftobe
atdisadvantageandissubjecttoademinimusrule.

44.

Thereisnoprotectionbyreferencetoageforthoseunder18.

45.

Jurisdictionisconferredonthecountyandhighcourt.

Premises
46.

ThereiswideprotectioninthehousingfieldsetoutinPart4.Protectiongenerally
appliesinrelationtodisposalsandmanagement,andcoversdecisionsonsuch
mattersaswhethertodisposeofthepremises,thetermsofdisposal,grantsof
permissionandtreatmentofoccupiersincludingevictions.

47.

Protectioninthiscontextdoesnotapplyinrespectofthecharacteristicofage.

Education
48.

Thecoverageextendstoschools,furtherandhighereducationandgeneral
qualificationsbodies.Onceagainitiswideranging,includinginrelationtoadmissions
andexclusions,termsofprovisionandotherdetrimentaltreatment.

49.

Inrelationtoschools,protectiondoesnotapplyinrespectofagediscrimination.

Associations
50.

TheprovisionsregardingscopearecomplexandaresetoutinPart7.Broadly,the
EqualityAct2010appliestoanyassociationoftwentyfiveormorememberswhich

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hasselectiveadmissionrules.However,singlecharacteristicassociationsare
permittedbyschedule16,forexampletheGarrickClubsprohibitiononwomen
members,solongasthatcharacteristicisnotcolourandtheassociationisnota
politicalparty.
51.

Whereacluborassociationdoesnotrestrictmembershipundertheexemption,itis
nonethelessunlawfultoprovideadifferentleveloffacilitiesordifferenttiersof
membershiprightsbyreferencetoaprotectedcharacteristic.Soitwouldthusbe
unlawfultoexcludewomengolfclubmembersfromthebarintheclubhouseornot
allowwomenmemberstostandforelectionaschairofthegolfclub.

52.

Specialprovisionsapplyinrelationtopoliticalparties,inparticularwithregardto
singlesexshortlists.

53.

Onceagaintheprotectionaffordediswiderangingandextendstoadmissions,terms
ofmembership,inrelationtobenefitsandservices,expulsionsandotherdetrimental
treatment.

Transportandbuildingregulations
54.

Therearespecificregulationsgoverningtransportmatters,suchaswheelchair
accessiblevehiclesinthelicensedtaxitradeandrailvehicleaccessibilitywithapenalty
regime,witharightofappealtotheCountyCourt.

55.

Specificbuildingregulationsconcerningaccessibilityareenforcedthroughlocal
authorityandplanningauthoritiesandtheSecretaryofState.

Remedies
56.

TheCountyCourthaspowertograntanyremedywhichcouldbegrantedbytheHigh
Courtinproceedingsfortortoronajudicialreviewclaim.Compensationforinjuryto
feelingsmaybeawarded,assessedinthreebands,dependingontheextenttowhich
theClaimantsfeelingshavebeeninjured,andinappropriatecasesmayinclude
aggravatedandexemplarydamages.

PublicSectorEqualityDuty
57.

Thepublicsectorequalitydutywasfirstintroducedtoaddressinstitutionalracism
followingtheStephenLawrenceinquiryinordertotacklethecollectivefailureofan
organisationtoprovideanappropriateandprofessionalservicetopeoplebecauseof
theircolour,cultureandethnicorigin.Itcanbeseenordetectedinprocesses,
attitudesandbehaviourwhichamounttodiscriminationthroughunwittingprejudice,
ignorance,thoughtlessness,andraciststereotypingwhichdisadvantageminority
ethnicpeople.6

58.

Itnowcoverseveryprotectedcharacteristicapartfrommarriageandcivilpartnership.
Theaimistoensurethatequalityissuesareconsideredearlyandtoimprovethe
strategicdecisionmakingprocess.Inspiteof40yearsofindividualantidiscrimination
rights,inequalityremainsstubbornlypersistentfromthesmallnumberofwomenin

6.TheStephenLawrenceInquiry,ReportofaninquirybySirWilliamMacPhersonofCluny(TheMacPherson
Report):Chapter6.TheStationeryOffice.February1999.Retrieved6January2011.

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10

EqualityAct2010

UKboardrooms,totheeducationalperformanceofAfricanCaribbeanboys,tolow
levelsofparticipationofdisabledpeopleintheworkplace.Whenmakingdecisionsof
astrategicnatureabouthowtoexercisetheirfunctions,thePublicSectorEquality
Duty(PSED)requirespublicauthoritiestohavedueregardtothreeneeds:
a. toeliminatediscrimination,harassmentandvictimisationandanyotherconduct
prohibitedbytheEqualityAct2010;
b. toadvanceequalityofopportunitybetweenpersonswhosharearelevant
protectedcharacteristicandpersonswhodonotshareit;and
c. tofostergoodrelationsbetweenpersonswhosharearelevantprotected
characteristicandpersonswhodonotshareit.
Thedutyappliestopublicauthoritiesandhybridauthoritiesapersonwhoisnota
publicauthoritybutwhoexercisespublicfunctions,intheexerciseofthosefunctions.
Forexamplethedutycouldleadanacademyschooltoreviewitsantibullyingstrategy
toensurethatitaddressestheissueofhomophobicbullying,withtheaimoffostering
goodrelations,andinparticulartacklingprejudiceagainstgayandlesbianpeople.
Publicauthoritiesalsohavespecificdutiesimposeduponthempursuanttostatutory
instrument,whichinEnglandaretopublishequalityobjectivesatleasteveryfour
yearsandinformationtodemonstratecompliancewiththedutyatleastannually,
withmorespecificobligationsineachofWalesandScotlandbydevolvedpower.
BreachofthePSEDisactionablebyjudicialreviewandthereisastatutorycodeof
practicepublishedbytheEqualityandHumanRightsCommission.

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Judgecraft

2.Judgecraft
Introduction
1.

Judgecraftistheartofjudging.Itencompasseseverythingthatyouwillnotfindina
bookonlaw,evidenceorprocedure.Judgecraftisabouthowwedothejobandfair
treatmentandequalityareattheheartofit.Mostjudicialofficeholdersunderstand
theseconceptsverywellsothisintroductorychapterdoesnotseektolectureor
patronise,simplytoinform,assistandguide.

2.

Thereisofcourseplentyofotherguidance,themostcompellingofwhichisthe
judicialoath:
.Iwilldorighttoallmannerofpeopleafterthelawsandusagesofthisrealm,
withoutfearorfavour,affectionorillwill.

3.

InalecturegiveninSeptember1993LordBinghamattemptedamodernparaphrase,
neverbettered:
Ajudgemustfreehimselfofprejudiceandpartialityandsoconducthimself,incourt
and out of it, as to give no ground for doubting his ability and willingness to decide
casescomingbeforehimsolelyontheirlegalandfactualmerits,astheyappeartohim
intheexerciseofanobjective,independentandimpartialjudgment.

4.

TheGuidetoJudicialConducthasnowbeenupdatedtoMarch2013.TheGuideis
widerangingbutatitsheartarethesixcorejudicialvaluesderivedfromthe
BangalorePrinciplesofJudicialConduct,namelyindependence,impartiality,integrity,
propriety,ensuringequalityoftreatment,andcompetenceanddiligence7.

5.

TheGuideincludestheEqualityandDiversityPolicyfortheJudiciary,publishedbythe
LordChiefJusticeandtheSeniorPresidentofTribunalsinOctober2012.This
comprisesaDignityatWorkstatementandabriefguidetotheEqualityAct2010.
Theserecognisethattheprinciplesoffairtreatmentandequalityarefundamentalto
thejudicialroleandapplybothinandoutsidethecourtortribunal.

6.

Bytheirverynature,however,thesedocumentsprovideonlygenericguidance.The
followingsectionsdealbrieflywithaspectsofjudgecraftthatarisedailyinthecourtor
tribunal.

Goodcommunication
7.

Effectivecommunicationunderliestheentirelegalprocess:ensuringthateveryone
involvedunderstandsandisunderstood;otherwisethelegalprocesswillbeimpeded
orderailed.

8.

Understandingmeansunderstandingtheevidence,thematerials,themeaningof
questionsandtheanswerstothem.

9.

Ifsomeoneremainssilentitdoesnotnecessarilymeanthattheyunderstand;itmay
equallywellmeanthattheydonotunderstand,thattheyareunabletounderstand,

Guide to Judicial Conduct (March 2013)

EqualTreatmentBenchBookNovember2013

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Judgecraft

thattheyfeelintimidatedorinadequate,thattheyaretooinarticulatetospeakup,or
thattheyareotherwiseunabletocommunicateproperly.
10.

Itispossibletotestunderstandingbyaskingasupplementaryquestionorreiterating
whatyouunderstandthepositiontobeandaskingifthepartyorwitnessagrees.

11.

Litigantsinpersonmaynothavethecouragetotesttheunderstandingofothersorto
admitthattheydonotfullyunderstandapoint.

12.

Peopleperceivethewordsandbehaviourofothersintermsofthecultural
conventionswithwhichtheyaremostfamiliar;ouroutlookisbasedonourown
knowledgeandexperienceandthismayleadtomisinterpretationorafailureto
understandthosewhoaredifferentorhavedifferentperspectivesfromus.

13.

Effectivecommunicationrequiresanawarenessofwhereapersoniscomingfromin
termsofbackground,cultureandspecialneeds,andofthepotentialimpactofthose
factorsonthepersonsparticipationintheproceedings;itappliestowitnesses,
advocates,membersofthecourtortribunalstaffandevenmembersofthepublic
whointervenewhentheyshouldnot.

14.

Trytoputyourselfinthepositionofthoseappearingbeforeyou;anappearance
beforeacourtortribunalisadauntingandunnervingexperience;asaresultparties
andwitnessesmayappearbelligerent,hostile,rude,confusedoremotional;alikely
resultisthattheywillnotgiveagoodaccountofthemselvesandthecourtortribunal
shouldputthemattheireasetoenablethemtodoso;themoreinformationand
advicethatisavailablebeforethehearing,theeasierthiswillbetoachieve.

15.

Manyparticipantsareconcernedabouthowtoaddressthejudge;othersworryabout
wheretheyshouldsitandwhethertheyshouldsitorstand;theseconcernsaddto
theirlikelyanxietyandcanbedispelledbyahelpfulintroductionandatactful
explanation.

16.

Laypeopledonotunderstandlegaljargonandtechnicalterms(disclosure,
directions,applicationforpermissiontoapply),sokeeplanguageassimpleas
possibleandgiveclearexplanationswhererequired.

17.

Inappropriatelanguageorbehaviourislikelytoresultintheperceptionofunfairness
(evenwherethereisnone),lossofauthority,lossofconfidenceinthesystemandthe
givingofoffence.

18.

Athoughtlesscomment,throwawayremark,unwisejokeorevenafacialexpression
mayconfirmorcreateanimpressionofprejudice;itishowothersinterpretyour
wordsoractionsthatmatters,particularlyinasituationwheretheywillbeacutely
sensitivetoboth.

Demonstratingfairness
19.

Fairtreatmentdoesnotmeantreatingeveryoneinthesameway:itmeanstreating
peopleequallyincomparablesituations.Forexample,alitigantinpersonwithlittle
understandingoflawandprocedureisnotinacomparablesituationtoaQC.Itis
substantiveequalitythatcounts.

20.

Whenpartiesdonotgetwhattheywouldlikeorexpect,itisparticularlyimportant
thattheyfeeltheywerefairlytreated,fullyheardandfullyunderstood.

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Judgecraft

21.

Peoplewhohavedifficultycopingwiththelanguageorproceduresofthecourtor
tribunal,andareperhapslessengaginglitigantsasaresult,areentitledtojusticein
thesamewayasthosewhoknowhowtousethelegalsystemtotheiradvantage;any
disadvantagethatapersonfacesinsocietyshouldnotbereinforcedbythelegal
system.

22.

Judicialofficeholdersshouldbeabletoidentifyasituationinwhichapersonmaybe
atadisadvantageowingtosomepersonalattributeofnodirectrelevancetothe
proceedings,andtakestepstoremedythedisadvantagewithoutprejudicinganother
party.

23.

Thesoonerthedisadvantageisidentified,theeasieritistoremedyit;wherepossible,
ensurethatinformationisobtainedinadvanceofahearingaboutanydisabilityor
medicalorothercircumstanceaffectingapersonsothatindividualneedscanbe
accommodated;forexample,accesstointerpreters,signers,largeprint,audiotape,
oathtakinginaccordancewithdifferentbeliefsystems(includingnonreligious
systems),morefrequentbreaksandspecialmeasuresforvulnerablewitnessescan
andshouldbeconsidered.

24.

Litigantsinpersonshouldnotbeseenasanunwelcomeproblemforthecourtor
tribunal;youmaynotbeabletoassistthemwiththeircasebutyoucanensurethey
haveeveryreasonableopportunitytopresentit.

25.

Thedisadvantagetolitigantsfrompoorrepresentationisachallengingissue;consider
howtherepresentativecanbemanagedtoassistthemtorepresenttheirclient
effectively.

26.

Peoplewhoaresociallyandeconomicallydisadvantagedmaywellassumethatthey
willalsobeatadisadvantagewhentheyappearinacourtortribunal.

27.

Thoseataparticulardisadvantagemayincludepeoplefromminorityethnic
communities,thosefromminorityfaithcommunities,thosewhodonotspeakor
understandthelanguageofthecourtortribunal,individualswithdisabilities(physical,
mentalorsensory),women,children,olderpeople,thosewhosesexualorientationis
notheterosexual,transgenderpeople,thosewhohavebeentraffickedandthosewho
throughpovertyoranyotherreasonaresociallyoreconomicallymarginalised.

28.

Itisforjudicialofficeholderstoensurethatallthesecanparticipatefullyinthe
proceedings;youcandisplayanunderstandingofdifferenceanddifficultieswitha
welltimedandsensitiveinterventionwhereappropriate.

29.

Recognisingandeliminatingprejudices,includingyourownprejudices,isessentialto
preventwrongdecisionsandtopreventerroneousassumptionsbeingmadeaboutthe
credibilityoractionsofthosewithbackgroundsdifferentfromourown.

30.

Unconsciousprejudicedemonstratingprejudicewithoutrealisingitismore
difficulttotackleandmaybetheresultofignoranceorlackofawareness.

31.

Ignoranceofthecultures,beliefsanddisadvantagesofothersencouragesprejudice;it
isforjudicialofficeholderstoensurethattheyareproperlyinformedandawareof
suchmatters,bothingeneralandwheretheneedarisesinaspecificcase.

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Judgecraft

32.

Stereotypesaresimplisticmentalshortcutswhichareoftengrosslyinaccurate,
generatemisleadingperceptionsandcancauseyoutomakeamistake;itisimportant
notto:
a. assumethat,becausepeoplemeetparticularcriteria(e.g.theyareofSouthAsian
originorwheelchairusers),theywillbehaveinaparticularwayorhaveparticular
limitations;
b. attachlabelstopeople(e.g.learningdisabledoryouths)andthenusethelabelto
underminetheirrights(e.g.assumetheyareincapableofgivingevidenceorthat
theywilllieorbedisrespectful).

Complaints
33.

Judicialofficeholdersareaccountablefortheirbehaviourandthosewhodonottake
thetroubletoavoidorpreventinsensitivebehaviourinthecourtortribunalare
vulnerabletocomplaints.ThefunctionoftheOfficeforJudicialComplaintsistodeal
withcomplaintsaboutthepersonalconductofjudicialofficeholders.

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Socialexclusionandpoverty

3.Socialexclusionandpoverty
Keypoints

Adisproportionatenumberofthoseappearingbeforecourtsandtribunalsarefrom
sociallyexcludedbackgrounds.

Thismayleadtoproblemsinaccessingthelimitedprofessionaladvicewhichis
available,andaffectthewayindividualspresentandunderstandevidence,andhow
theyrespondtocrossexaminationorquestionsfromthebench.

Alackofeducationalattainmentandpovertyareintrinsicallylinked,andbothwillbe
relevantinmanysphereswherethereisjudicialintervention.

Socialexclusion
1.

Thereisevidencethatadisproportionatenumberofpersonsdrawnintothejustice
systemarefromwhatmaybedescribedassociallyexcludedbackgrounds.Atthe
sametime,thosewhooperatethatsystemjudgesandlawyersarerarelyfrom
suchbackgrounds.Itisnecessarythereforetoattempttobridgeanyknowledgeand
understandinggapsbetweenjudgesandthosewhoappearbeforethem.

Theconceptofsocialexclusion
2.

Thetermsocialexclusionreferstoasituationofeconomicorsocialdisadvantage.It
incorporates,butisbroaderthan,conceptslikepovertyordeprivation,andincludes
disadvantagewhicharisesfromdiscrimination,illhealthorlackofeducation,aswell
asthatwhicharisesfromalackofmaterialresources.

3.

Anunderstandingofsocialexclusionisrelevanttotheadministrationofjustice
becausemanyindividualsdrawnintoallaspectsofthejusticesystemwillcomefrom
sociallyexcludedbackgrounds.Theobviousareasareinthecriminalandfamilycourts
andintribunals,particularlybutnotexclusivelythosedealingwithsocialwelfarelaw.
Tounderstandthecircumstanceswhichhaveledtoeachindividualcaseitisnecessary
tohavesomeunderstandingofhowprocessesofsocialexclusionoperate.

4.

Importantlythesocialexclusionexperiencedbythosewhocomebeforeusmayaffect
thewaythatpeoplerespondtoauthorityfigures,aswellashowtheypresentand
understandevidence.

5.

Inthecriminalsphere,sentencesmaycreateorexacerbatesocialexclusionfor
offenders.Thesentencesmaybenecessaryandjustified,butitisimportantto
understandthefullimplications,whichmayincludetheadditionoffinestoexisting
debtandtherealriskofthesociallyexcludedpersonengaginginfurthercriminal
activitytosolvetheproblem.

6.

Thereisnolegaldefinitionofsocialexclusion.Arangeofdefinitionsisusedby
academicsandpoliticians,accordingtotheirdisciplinaryandideologicalperspectives.
However,thereareanumberofcorefeatureswhichmostdefinitionsshare.However,
forpracticalpurposes,anindividualwhoisunabletoparticipateinkeyactivitiesin
societyissociallyexcluded.

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Socialexclusionandpoverty

7.

Keyactivitiesmightinclude:
a. consumptionbeingabletopurchasegoodsandserviceswhicharecustomaryin
thatsociety;
b. productionbeingabletocontributetosociety,whetherthroughpaidorunpaid
work;
c. socialinteractionhavingaccesstoemotionalsupport,beingabletosocialisewith
friends,havingavenuesforculturalexpression;
d. politicalengagementexperiencingadegreeofindividualautonomy,beingable
totakecollectiveaction,havingasayinlocalornationaldecisionmaking.

8.

Socialexclusionisamatterofdegree,ratherthanadichotomybetweenusand
them.

9.

Complexchainsofcauseandeffectleadtosocialexclusion.Thecausesoperateat
manylevels:individualpersonality,familybackground,neighbourhoodorpeergroup
effects,thelocaleconomyandservices,nationalpolicyandeconomicsystems,and
internationalandglobaltrends.

10.

Giventhebreadthofthetermsocialexclusion,itisdifficulttoquantifyhowmany
peopleintheUKareaffected,butrecentresearch8hasindicatedthat18million
peoplecannotaffordadequatehousingconditions,and12millionaretoopoorto
engageincommonsocialactivitiesthoughtnecessarybythemajority,essentiallythe
abilitytovisitfamilyorfriendsinhospital,tocelebrateimportanteventssuchas
familybirthdaysandtohaveahobby.

11.

Experiencingexclusioninonerespectisassociatedwithanincreasedlikelihoodof
experiencingexclusioninotherrespects,eithersimultaneouslyoratsomepointinthe
future.

12.

Thereisnoevidenceofafixedstockofsociallyexcludedindividuals,cutofffrom
mainstreamsocietyoverthelongterm(sometimesreferredtoasanunderclass).
Rather,individualsmovefrombeingmoretolessexcluded,andviceversa,overtime.

13.

Riskfactorsincludehavinghadadisadvantagedchildhood,havingloworno
educationalqualifications,beinginpoorhealth,livingonalowincome,having
inadequatehousingandbeingamemberofagroupthatisdiscriminatedagainst.

Somefacts
14.

Relativeincomepovertyisgrowing.Thisclassificationisbaseduponpeoplebeing
unabletoreachanacceptablestandardoflivingasdefinedbythegeneralpublic9.
Surveyevidenceshowsthatthenumberofpeoplefallingbelowtheminimum
standardsofthedayhasdoubledsince198310.

TheImpoverishmentoftheUK(March2013)
http://www.poverty.ac.uk/system/files/attachments/The_Impoverishment_of_the_UK_PSE_UK_first_resul
ts_summary_report_March_28.pdf
9
JRF(JosephRowntreeFoundation)InspiringSocialChange(June2013)
10
1983BreadlineBritain

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Socialexclusionandpoverty

15.

Thepoorest10%ofthepopulationreceivemorethanonefifthoftheirgross
householdincomefrommeanstestedbenefits.Thisbenefitreliantgroupcomprises
8.3millionpeoplein3.8millionhouseholds,including3millionchildren.11

16.

Despitetheimpressiongiveninsomepresscoverageonthetopic,meanstested
subsistencebenefitratesarelow.WeeklyJobSeekersAllowanceis56.80forthose
under25and71.70forothers.EmploymentandSupportAllowance(paidtothose
notabletoworkthroughillhealth)rangesfrom101.15to106.50dependingupon
theseverityofthedisability.Althoughthoseinreceiptofsubsistencemeanstested
benefitswillnotbefundingtheirbasichousingcosts(HousingBenefitwillbeavailable
tocoverrentpaymentsuptoacappedlimit,andforhomeownersmortgageinterest
ispayableuptoacapof100,000)othercostsassociatedwithheatandlightremain,
andfuelcostsincludingthesehavemorethandoubled(risenby234%)since200012.

17.

Counciltaxusedtobecoveredbybenefitforthoseonmeanstestedbenefitsand
thosewhohavelowincome,forexamplemanypensioners.However,recentwelfare
reformhasmadethepaymentofthissomethingofapostcodelotteryandmanywill
nowbeexpectedtocontributetoorcoverthisexpense.

18.

Around13millionpeopleintheUKwerelivinginhouseholdsbelowthelowincome
thresholdof60%medianincome.Thisisaroundafifth(22%)ofthepopulation13.

19.

At30%,disabledadultsaretwiceaslikelytoliveinlowincomehouseholdsasnon
disabledadults.(Refertothesectionondisabilityforfurtherinformationastothese
aspects.)

Health
20.

Healthinequalitiesassociatedwithclass,incomeordeprivationarepervasiveandcan
befoundinallaspectsofhealth,frominfantdeathtotheriskofmentalillhealth.The
limitedinformationonprogressovertime(infantdeath,lowbirthweight)showsno
signthattheyareshrinking.

Characteristicsofsocialexclusion
21.

Inordertounderstandsocialexclusionwithinthejusticesystemitisimportanttobe
awareofthewidercontextofpeopleslivesandthewaysthatdifferentaspectsmay
impactontheirexperienceofthelegalprocess.Thenextsectionstrytohighlight
somecharacteristicsofsociallyexcludedlivesandconsidertheirpotentialimpact.
Howeveritisimportantnottoperceivesociallyexcludedpopulationsasa
homogenousunderclasswithawhollyalternativesetofnorms,valuesand
behavioursfromthoseofmainstreamsociety.Whilstsomecommentatorsattemptto
paintthispicture,thereisnopersuasiveevidenceforit.

Lowincome
22.

Therealitiesandpracticalitiesoflifeonalowincomeforextendedperiodscanbevery
hard.Attemptingtomakeendsmeetthroughacombinationofthebenefitsystem

11

JRFpublicationibid
TheImpoverishmentoftheUK(March2013)(ibid)
13
SqueezedBritainTheResolutionFoundation(2013)
12

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Socialexclusionandpoverty

andlowpaidinflexibleandinformalworkischallenging.Relianceonbenefitcreates
greatpressuresespeciallywhenmovingintoandoutofemployment.Forsome,so
calledpovertytrapsmakethemoveintoworkaverydifficultonetotake;forothers,
latepaymentsoroverpaymentsofbenefit(whichmaynotbeperceivedas
overpaymentsatthetime,butarelaterclaimedback)createfinancialpressureswith
severeknockoneffects.
a. Certainelementsthathaverisenfasterthanoverallaveragecostschildcare,
socialrents,publictransportfoodandenergyareparticularlyapplicabletothose
onlowincomes.
b. Manypeopleonlowincomes,whetherintheformalorinformallabourmarket,
arepaidbythehouranddonotreceivethefullrangeofemploymentbenefits
eveniftheyareentitledtothem.
c. Lackofflexibilityintheirworkcreatesproblemsmaintainingtheirincomewhile
dealingwithemergencies,whetherrelatingtochildren,illnessoracourtor
tribunalhearing.
d. Onepracticalproblemofacourtortribunalhearingistheanxietyastowhether
theyhavesomethingappropriatetowear;about5.5millionadultsgowithout
essentialclothing,adefinitionwhichincludes,aswellasawintercoatandshoes,
clothingappropriateforajobinterview.

Financialexclusion
23.

Thishitshardestwhenthereisashortfallofincometomeetoneoffcostsfor
emergencies14.
a. 16.5millionpeoplecannotpayunexpectedcostsof500.
b. 14millioncannotsave20permonthforrainydays.
c. 12millioncannotaffordhouseholdinsurance.Manystruggletoopenbank
accountsorsecureloansatreasonableinterest.
d. 21%,some18millionpeople,borrowedintheyeartoMarch2013topaydayto
daylivingexpenses.Forthispeopleareoftenreliantonveryhighinterestlenders
onthehighstreetorvialoansharksorpaydayloans;themajorityoftheseare
rolledoverfrommonthtomonthdespitemassiveAPRsandpenaltyclausesas
recentpresscoverageandParliamentaryinteresthashighlighted.

Separatedparents
24.

Formanythechildsupportsystemisanadditionalsourceofdifficulty.Thisbrings
themintocontactwiththetribunalsystemtoappealthedecisionsoftheAgency15
thatdecidesbothupontheamountofmaintenanceandenforcementwhichhasbeen
characterisedbyalackoffitnessforpurpose;theerrorrateandbureaucracyhave
createdbothpracticalfinancialandemotionalproblemsforparentssinceitsinception
in1991.

14

TheImpoverishmentoftheUK(March2013)(ibid)
TheoriginalChildSupportAgencyhasbeenrebrandedtwiceduetoperceivedpublicdifficultieswithits
performance

15

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Socialexclusionandpoverty

Lackofchoiceandcontrol
25.

Sociallyexcludedpeoplemayhaveconstantcontactwithstatebureaucracy.Housing
officers,DWPofficers,communityworkers,socialworkers,healthvisitors,probation
officersandadviceworkersareamongstthemanypeoplewhosomesociallyexcluded
individualscomeacrossonaweeklyorevendailybasis,ontopofwhatwemayexpect
inourownlivesbywayofcontactwithteachers,thepoliceandothers.Someofthese
relationshipscanbepositivebutthereisalsoafearfactorformany.

26.

Thismayaffectviewsonauthorityfiguressuchasjudges.Additionallytheelementsof
choiceandpersonalcontrol,takenforgrantedbypeoplewithresources,aremissing.

27.

Sociallyexcludedpeoplemaybereliantonthisarrayofindividualswhoevaluate,
adjudicateuponandconsequentlysanction(orcensure)manyaspectsoftheirlives.
Theyarealsousedtohavingimportantdecisionsabouttheirlivesmadebyothers.

28.

Thislackofpersonalautonomyisafeatureofsocialexclusionthatthoseoutsideit
maystruggletounderstand.Itmayleadtoalackofindependenceofthoughtwhich
canbeconstruedasapathyoralackofability,butthispositionneedstobelookedat
incontext.

29.

Afailuretoattendahearing,forexample,maybeduetoachaoticlifestylebutitmay
alsobelinkedtothefactthatmanyimportantdecisionsinthatpersonslife,suchas
entitlementtobenefitorcontactwithchildrenthroughSocialServices,aremade
withouttheiractiveinput,andtheymaylackwhat,asjudges,wefeelisthenatural
wishtocomealongandputtheircase.

Familylife
30.

Whilstlesssettledfamilylivesarewidespreadacrosssociety,theyaremorefrequently
foundandoftenmoreextremeamongstsociallyexcludedpopulations.

31.

Withintheprisonpopulation,forexample,thereisasignificantoverrepresentationof
thosewhowereincare(nowreferredtoaslookedafterchildren).

32.

Theirentryintothecaresystemwillhavefollowedproblemsortraumawithinthe
familyunit.Commonreasonsforadmissiontocareincludeillnessordeathofthe
caringparent,abuse,eitherofthechilddirectlyordomesticviolencewithinthefamily
leadingtoanunstableordangerousenvironment,anddrugoralcoholproblemswhich
createachaoticlifestylefordependentchildren.Care,whilstsecuringasafe
environmentmaymeanseparationfromsiblingsorthewiderfamily.

33.

Thesedifficultearlyissuesmayresonatethroughoutlife.

34.

Thesematters,alongsidethestrainsofmanagingonalowincome,andthelackof
controloveroneslife,maycontributetothegreaterlevelsofstressanddepression
whichisfoundamongsociallyexcludedpeople.

Education
35.

Thelackofagoodeducationisacharacteristicstronglyassociatedwithsocial
exclusion;alargeproportionoftheUKpopulationcontinuestohaveverylowliteracy
levels.

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Socialexclusionandpoverty

a. AccordingtotheLiteracyTrust:OneinsixpeopleintheUKstruggletoreadand
write.Thisfeedsintoveryloweducationlevels,particularlyamongsttheprison
populationincomparisontothegeneralpopulation.
b. NewspaperssuchasTheSunareaimedatareadingageofaroundeight.Tackling
andunderstandingdocumentsinlegalproceedings,howeverhardwetrytouse
plainandsimpleEnglish,willbeaproblemformany.
36.

Aswellasthesignificanteffectthatlackofeducationalqualificationshasontheability
togetdecentlypaidworkandtomanageinasocietythatrequirescertainlevelsof
functionalliteracy,thismaybeoneofthefactorsthatcontributestolowselfesteem,
whichhasbeenshowntohaveamajorimpactonthechoice,effectivenessand
persistenceofpeoplesbehavioursacrossarangeofsettings,andhasbeenshownto
beaparticularproblemamongstmanypeoplewhomightbedescribedassocially
excluded.

Discrimination
37.

Inmanyinstances,amajoraspectofpeoplesexclusionmaybedueto,orexacerbated
by,discriminationonthegroundsofethnicity,religion,language,disabilityor
sexuality.TheseissuesarecoveredelsewhereinthisBenchBook.

Socialexclusionandthejusticesystem
38.

Althoughitisbeyondthescopeofthisbooktodeterminewhy,ortheextenttowhich,
thesefactorsbringindividualsintocontactwiththejusticesystem,theirimplications
fortheactualprocessaresubstantial.

39.

Itisnecessarytounderstandthatthesocialandeducationalnorms,aswellasthe
rulesandformalitiesofthelegalprocessinconnectionwithaspectsoflanguage,
dress,communication,procedureandbehaviourmaybenotbeknown,understoodor
sharedbyeveryone;knowledgeandskillsshouldnotbeassumed.Sensitivityis
requiredtobothavoidunconsciousprejudiceandallowtheindividualthebest
opportunitytomaketheircase.
a. Forthoseinhourlypaidemployment,timeouttoattendatribunalorcourt
especiallyiftherearedelaysmaybeparticularlystressful,aspeoplemaybe
concernedaboutmissingnecessarywork,thusexacerbatingtheirfinancial
situation.Theymayneedtopicktheirchildrenupfromschoolyetbeunableto
payfororrelyonhelpfromothers;thenetworkswhichmightbeassumedby
manyofusonthebasisofourownexperienceareoftenabsentwherepeopleare
sociallyexcluded.
b. Judgesandthelegalprocessmaybeseenasjustanotherinthelonglistof
authorityfiguresgettinginvolvedwithsomeoneslife,andtheremaybea
fundamentalmistrust.Thiscanhavemanyimplications,butcouldresultin
frustrationleadingtoangerforsomeindividuals.Judgesneedtounderstandthat
thisresponsemaynotbeborneoutofalackofrespectforthelaw,butoutofthe
helplessnessstemmingfromlackofchoiceandcontrol.
c. Researchhasshownthatmanypeoplefindcourtsortribunalstobeintimidating
placesandthiscanbeexacerbatedbyissuessuchasdress.Thismaybeespecially

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Socialexclusionandpoverty

soforpeoplewhomaylackconfidenceinaformalenvironment.Attemptstoput
peopleateaseareanimportantpartofallowingthemtoexpressthemselves,and
assuchpartofafairhearing.Whilstmanytribunalsadoptasignificantlyless
formalapproachtocourts,theactualenvironmentmaybeunknowntotheperson
appearing,andthethoughtofalegalsettingofanysortmayengenderworry
abouttheeventandthereforesimilaranxiety.
d. Peopleonalowincome,orwhosesocialnetworkdoesnotincludeprofessionals,
arelesslikelythanthoseinamoreprivilegedpositiontogainaccesstotimely,high
qualitylegaladviceandrepresentation.Thiswillaffectthepresentationoftheir
caseincourt.Thisislikelytobeanincreasinglypressingissueforthejustice
systemasawholewhentheimpactoftherecentlegalaidreformsisknown.
e. Wherepaperworkhasbeenprovidedthatshouldhavebeenseenpriortoor
duringahearingitcannotbeassumedthattheindividualdefendantorlitigantis
abletounderstandit,evenifEnglishappearstobetheirfirstlanguage.Itishard
forlawyerstounderstandthelimitedliteracylevelsofthemajority,butthe
vocabularyandsyntaxinnewspaperssuchasTheSun,andincreasingly
governmentauthorisedwebsitesarepitchedtoreflecttheaverage,deemedtobe
areadingageofabouteighttonine.Bearingthisinminditiseasytoseethatlegal
documents,evenwherecarehasbeentakentoavoidlegalese,maybe
complicated;theymayalsobedauntingtoreadsimplybyvirtueoftheir
importance.
40.

Problemsofunderstandingmaynotbeconfinedtothewrittenword.
a. Explanationsorcommentsfromlawyersandjudges,especiallyifusinglegalistic
language,maynotbeproperlyunderstood.Individualsmaynotbeusedto
expressingthemselvespubliclyorwithstrangers,andmaystruggletogettheir
pointacross.Allofthismayleadtomiscommunication,discussionatcross
purposes,frustrationandannoyanceforallinvolved,judgesincluded.Itisso
importantthateverythingsaidisunderstoodonallsidesthattimetakentocheck
understandingisrarelywasted.Reflectivelistening,thesummarisingbythejudge
ofwhattheyhaveunderstood,isausefulstrategy.
b. Peoplemaycometoacourtortribunalnotreallyunderstandingwhytheyare
there.Insometribunals,evenwhereitistheirownappeal,theymayonlyhavea
hazyunderstandingofwhatthecaseisabout,particularlyiftheyhavebeen
advisedtoappealbyanorganisationthattheyconsultedatanearlystagefor
advice,butwhichhasnotbeenabletofollowthecasethroughtoaconclusion,a
commonsituationfollowingcutsinfunding.

Decisionsofthecourtortribunal
41.

Withinthecourtsthereareclearlycaseswhereitisnecessaryordesirablefor
individualswhohavebeenconvictedofacrimetobesenttoprisonandexcluded
fromsociety.Sentencingmayhaveotherobjectives,suchaspunishment,deterrence
orredressfortheinjuredparty.Whatevertheintention,itisimportanttoconsiderthe
impactsentencingmayhaveonthesocialexclusionoftheoffenderandonothers.

EqualTreatmentBenchBookNovember2013

22

Socialexclusionandpoverty

42.

Intribunalcases,inparticularthosewhichrestrictaccesstowelfarebenefitsorto
fundedhousingthereissimilarimpact;althoughdiscretioninthejudgemaybe
restricted,thepotentialsocialexclusionaryimpactofadecisionmayneedtobe
consideredinrelationtoaspectsofthehearingwhichbearuponArticle6rights.

Custodialsentences
43.

Forthosewithalreadyprecariousemploymentand/orloweducationalqualifications,
acustodialsentencecanreducethechanceofsubsequentlegalemploymentto
almostzero.

44.

Privateorsocialhousingtenanciesmaybeterminated,creatingariskofaperiodof
homelessnessonreleasefromprison.

45.

Anysupportiverelationshipsorsocialnetworkstheoffenderhadinthecommunityat
largemaybreakdownandbereplacedbyconnectionsamongtheprisonpopulation
(sometimesreferredtoasnegativesocialcapital).

46.

Loneparentsareoverrepresentedamongthoseatriskofsocialexclusion;custodial
sentencesforthisgrouparelikelytohavesignificantadverseimpactsonthechildren,
whateveralternativearrangementsaremadefortheircare.

Communitysentencesandtreatmentorders
47.

Noncustodialsentencescanalsohaveanegativeimpactonthechancesofretaining
employment.Again,thisimpactislikelytobemagnifiedbyalackofeducational
qualificationsoranalreadydisruptedworkhistory.

48.

Inaddition,peopleatriskofsocialexclusionoftenhavecomplexandevenchaotic
lives,asaresultofjugglingthedemandsoflivingonalowincomeandnegotiating
witharangeofdifferentserviceprovidersandauthorities.Thiscanmakeitmore
difficulttokeepappointmentsorattendregularly.

Financialpenalties/overpaymentsofbenefit
49.

Selfevidently,theimpactofa100fineisgreaterforsomeonewhoseweeklyincome
is60thanforsomeonewhoseweeklyincomeis600.Themajorityofpeopleonlow
incomeshavenosavingsoraccesstocheapcredit,neitheraretheylikelytobe
assistedbyfriendsorfamily.

50.

Attemptingtopayfines,legalcosts,compensationoroverpaymentsfromlimited
resourcescanresultinproblematiclevelsofdebt,afailuretomeetotherfinancial
commitmentssuchasrent(resultinginariskofhomelessness),utilitybills(withthe
attendantriskofdisconnection),orchildsupportpayments(increasingchildpoverty).

51.

Paymentmayalsocreatepressuretoacquireresourcesbyillegalmeans.Financial
hardshipislikelytoaffectnotonlytheoffenderbutalsoanychildrenorother
dependants.

EqualTreatmentBenchBookNovember2013

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Socialexclusionandpoverty

Possessionorders
52.

Wherepossessionordersforresidentialaccommodationaremade,theriskof
subsequenthomelessness,lossofassetsandpotentialimpactonchildrenshouldbe
takenintoaccount.

53.

Timingmayalsobeimportant,togivemaximumopportunityforotherarrangements
tobemade,ortotakeaccountofotherimpendingeventsintheindividualslife(e.g.
childbirth).

54.

Theimpactofanydecisiononthepropertyownershouldalso,ofcourse,betakeninto
account.

Publicviews
55.

Researchhasindicatedthatthemajorityofpeoplesharesimilarfundamentalviews
aboutjusticeandconsiderthatthosewhohavecommittedanoffenceorerroneously
receivedstatefundingshouldbepunished,orrequiredtorepaymoneywrongfully
received.However,thisbeliefinthejusticesystemdependsonaperceptionofhaving
beenfairlytreated.Asdiscussedintheprevioussection,thisrequiresthattheprocess
isperceivedtobefairandtransparent.Italsorequiresthatthepersonfeelstheyhave
beenjudgedfairlyandthatthedecisionisproportionate.

Conclusions
56.

Theremaybeapredispositiontofeelunfairlytreatedandmisunderstoodamong
somepeopleatriskofsocialexclusion,sincethisisoftentheirexperienceofdealings
withauthorityinthepast.Judgesmaybeinapositiontopreventthisperceptionby
activelisteningandattentiontoproblemsduringthehearing,andbyexplainingtheir
decisionsfullyandcarefully,intermswhichareeasilyunderstoodandwhichshow
thattheyhavetakenintoaccountallthecircumstances;afailuretodothesethings
mayserveonlytofurtherentrenchalienationfromauthority.

57.

Theargumentinthissectionhasnotbeenthatpeopleatriskofsocialexclusionshould
betreatedmorefavourablythanothers,butthat,inrelationtoproceduralaspectsin
allcases,and,wherelegallypossibleinrelationtodiscretionarymatters,judges
shouldtakeintoaccountthelikelyimpactonanindividualslifechancesandtheeffect
uponthelivesofanydependantsbothimmediatelyandinthelongerterm.

EqualTreatmentBenchBookNovember2013

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LitigantsinPerson

4.LitigantsinPerson
Keypoints
Thelitigantinperson
InMarch2013theMasteroftheRollsissuedaPracticeGuidance16whichdeterminedthatthe
termLitigantinPersonshouldcontinuetobethesoletermusedtodescribeindividualswho
exercisetheirrighttoconductlegalproceedingsontheirownbehalf.ThePracticeGuidance
appliestoallproceedingsinallcriminal,civilandfamilycourts(thoughnotcuriouslytotribunal
proceedings),Forthepurposesofclarity,thetermlitigantinperson(asopposedtoself
representedlitigantorunrepresentedparty)isusedinthischapterinlinewiththePractice
Guidancebothtothoseappearingunrepresentedincourtsandalsointribunals.Theterm
encompassesthosepreparingacasefortrialorhearing,thoseconductingtheirowncaseatatrial
orhearingandthosewishingtoenforceajudgmentortoappeal.

Mostlitigantsinpersonarestressedandworried,operatinginanalienenvironmentinwhat
forthemisaforeignlanguage.Theyaretryingtograspconceptsoflawandprocedureabout
whichtheymaybetotallyignorant.

Theymaywellbeexperiencingfeelingsoffear,ignorance,frustration,bewildermentand
disadvantage,especiallyifappearingagainstarepresentedparty.Theoutcomeofthecase
mayhaveaprofoundeffectandlongtermconsequencesupontheirlife.

Theymayhaveagonisedoverwhetherthecasewasworththerisktotheirhealthand
finances,andthereforefeelpassionatelyabouttheirsituation.

Roleofthejudge

Judgesmustbeawareofthefeelingsanddifficultiesexperiencedbylitigantsinpersonandbe
readyandabletohelpthem,especiallyifarepresentedpartyisbeingoppressiveor
aggressive.

Maintainingpatienceandanevenhandedapproachisalsoimportantwherethelitigantin
personisbeingoppressiveoraggressivetowardsanotherpartyoritsrepresentativeor
towardsthecourtortribunal.Thejudgeshould,however,remainunderstandingsofaras
possibleastowhatmightliebehindtheirbehaviour.

Maintainingabalancebetweenassistingandunderstandingwhatthelitigantinperson
requires,whileprotectingtheirrepresentedopponentagainsttheproblemsthatcanbe
causedbythelitigantinpersonslackoflegalandproceduralknowledge,isthekey.

Introduction
1.

Thereareanumberofreasonswhyindividualsmaychoosetorepresentthemselvesrather
thaninstructalawyer.

2.

Manydonotqualifyforpublicfunding,eitherfinanciallyorbecauseofthenatureoftheir
case.

3.

Somecannotaffordasolicitorandevendistrustlawyers.

16PracticeGuidance(TerminologyforLitigantsinPerson)11March2013[2013]2AllER624

EqualTreatmentBenchBookNovember2013

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LitigantsinPerson

4.

Othersbelievethattheywillbebetteratputtingtheirowncaseacross.

5.

InDecember2012,followingadiscussionattheJudgesCouncilabouttheimplicationsof
theexpectedriseinthenumberoflitigantsinpersonaftertheimplementationofthe
GovernmentsLegalAidReformson1April201317,aJudicialWorkingGroup18wasformed
underthechairmanshipofMrJusticeHickinbottomtoconsiderthisissueinthecontextof
thecivilandfamilycourts,andthetribunals.

6.

ThereportoftheJudicialWorkingGroupwaspublishedinJuly2013.19Thereportcontainsa
numberofrecommendations.Theseincludethetrainingofjudicialofficeholdersondealing
withlitigantsinpersonandtheprovisionofcoherent,effectiveanduptodateguidance.
Twoexamplesofsuchguidanceareannexedtothereport,namelydraftguidanceforjudges
conductingcivilproceedingspreparedbyHisHonourJudgeBailey20anddraftguidancefor
familyjudgespreparedbyAlisonRussellQC21.

7.

Thischapteraimstoidentifythedifficultiesfaced(andcaused)bylitigantsinpersonbefore,
duringandafterthelitigationprocess,andtoprovideguidancetojudgeswithaviewto
ensuringthatbothpartiesreceiveafairhearingwhereoneorbothisnotrepresentedbya
lawyer.Thischaptershouldbereadinconjunctionwiththedraftguidanceannexedtothe
reportoftheJudicialWorkingGroup.

8.

Subjecttothelawrelatingtovexatiouslitigants,everybodyoffullageandcapacityis
entitledtobeheardinpersonbyanycourtortribunalwhichisconcernedtoadjudicatein
proceedingsinwhichthatpersonisaparty.Butonthewholethosewhoexercisethis
personalrightfindthattheyareoperatinginanalienenvironment.Thecourtsandtribunals
havenotalwaysbeenreceptivetotheirneeds.

9.

Alltoooftenthelitigantinpersonisregardedasaproblemforjudgesandforthecourt
systemratherthanapersonforwhomthesystemofciviljusticeexists.
LordWoolf,AccesstoJustice,InterimReportJune1995

10.

Itiscuriousthatlaylitigantshavebeenregardedasproblems,almostasnuisancesforthe
courtsystem.Thishasmeantthatthefocushasgenerallybeenuponthedifficultiesthat
litigantsinpersonposeforthecourtsratherthantheotherwayaround.
Prof.JohnBaldwin,MonitoringtheRiseoftheSmallClaimsLimit

11.

Litigantsinpersonarelikelytoexperiencefeelingsoffear,ignorance,anger,frustrationand
bewilderment.Theywillfeelataprofounddisadvantage,despitethefactthattheoutcome
mayhaveaprofoundeffectwithlongtermconsequencesfortheirlives.Theaimofthe
judgeshouldbetoensurethatthepartiesleavewiththesensethattheyhavebeenlistened
toandhadafairhearingwhatevertheoutcome.

Disadvantagesfaced
12.

Thedisadvantagesfacedbylitigantsinpersonstemfromtheirlackofknowledgeofthelaw
andcourtortribunalprocedure.Formanytheirperceptionofthecourtortribunal
environmentwillbebasedonwhattheyhaveseenonthetelevisionandinfilms.Theytend
to:

17LegalAid,SentencingandPunishmentofOffendersAct2012
18TheJudicialWorkingGrouponLitigantsinPerson
19Thereportisavailableathttp://www.judiciary.gov.uk/Resources/JCO/Documents/Reports/lip_2013.pdf
20AnnexA
21AnnexB

EqualTreatmentBenchBookNovember2013

26

LitigantsinPerson

a. beunfamiliarwiththelanguageandspecialistvocabularyoflegalproceedings;
b. havelittleknowledgeoftheproceduresinvolvedandfinditdifficulttoapplytherules
eveniftheydoreadthem;
c. lackobjectivityandemotionaldistancefromtheircase;
d. beunskilledinadvocacyandunabletoundertakecrossexaminationortesttheevidence
ofanopponent;
e. beillinformedaboutthepresentationofevidence;
f. beunabletounderstandtherelevanceoflawandregulationstotheirownproblem,or
toknowhowtochallengeadecisionthattheybelieveiswrong.
13.

Allthesefactorshaveanadverseeffectonthepreparationandpresentationoftheircase.
Equally,thereareotherlitigantsinpersonwhoarefamiliarwiththerequirementsofthe
process.

Numbers
14.

Thenumbersoflitigantsinpersonhaverisensignificantlyinrecentyears.Financial
constraintsandtheconsequencesoftheLegalAidreformswill,inevitably,increasethe
numbersevenfurther.

15.

Thesmallclaimsprocedureinthecountycourtisdesignedspecificallytoassistthepublicto
pursueclaimswithoutrecoursetolegalrepresentationandhascreatedahugeincreasein
thenumberoflitigantsinperson.Thevastmajorityofdefendedcivilactionsinthecounty
courtaredealtwithunderthisprocedure.Witheffectfrom1April2013thesmallclaims
jurisdictionwasincreased(subjecttocertainexceptionsinpersonalinjurycases)fromclaims
ofupto5,000,toclaimsofupto10,000.Publicfundinghasneverbeenavailableforsmall
claims.

16.

OneoftheconsequencesoftheLegalAid,SentencingandOffendersAct2012isthatpublic
fundingincivilandfamilycasesisnowavailableinonlyexceptionalcircumstances.

17.

LitigantsinpersonalsoappearwithincreasingfrequencyintheCourtofAppealincriminal,
civilandfamilycases.Somehaverepresentedthemselvesatfirstinstance.Others,having
hadlawyersappearfortheminthecourtbelow,taketheirowncasesonappeal,often
throughawithdrawalofpublicfundingafterthefirstinstancehearing.

18.

Thegreatmajorityofpeopleappearingintribunalsareunrepresented.
Waystohelp

19.

Theaimistoensurethatlitigantsinpersonunderstandwhatisgoingonandwhatis
expectedofthematallstagesoftheproceedingsbefore,duringandafteranyattendances
atahearing.

20.

Thismeansensuringthat:
a. theprocessis(orhasbeen)explainedtotheminamannerthattheycanunderstand;
b. theyhaveaccesstoappropriateinformation(e.g.therules,practicedirectionsand
guidelineswhetherfrompublicationsorwebsites);
c. theyareinformedaboutwhatisexpectedoftheminampletimeforthemtocomply;
d. whereverpossibletheyaregivensufficienttimeaccordingtotheirownneeds.

EqualTreatmentBenchBookNovember2013

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LitigantsinPerson

Particularareasofdifficulty
21.

Litigantsinpersonmayfaceadauntingrangeofproblemsofbothknowledgeand
understanding.

Language
22.

EnglishorWelshmaynotbethefirstlanguageofthelitigantinpersoninthecourtsand
tribunalsofEnglandandWalesandtheymayhaveparticulardifficultieswithwrittenEnglish
orWelsh.Anypapersreceivedfromthecourtortribunalfromtheothersidemayneedtobe
translated.Thecourtortribunalmayneedtoadjourninordertoensurethatamutually
acceptableinterpretercanattendtheproceedingstoexplaintothelitigantinpersonintheir
ownlanguagewhatistakingplace,andtoassistinthetranslationofevidenceand
submissions.

23.

Itisworthnotingthattherearefreetoolsavailableontheinternetthatprovideinstant
translations,freeofcharge,inmostlanguagessee,forexample,
www.google.com/language_tools,thoughthesewillnotadequatelytaketheplaceofan
interpreter/intermediarywhereoneisneeded.

Intellectualrange
24.

Litigantsinpersoncomefromavarietyofsocialandeducationalbackgrounds.Somemay
havedifficultywithreading,writingandspelling.Judgesshould:
a. besensitivetoliteracyproblemsandbepreparedwherepossibletooffershort
adjournmentstoallowalitigantmoretimetoreadortoaskanyoneaccompanyingthe
litiganttohelpthemtoreadandunderstanddocuments;
b. exerciseandbeseentoexerciseconsiderablepatiencewhenlitigantsinperson
demonstratetheirscantknowledgeoflawandprocedure;
c. notinterrupt,engageindialogue,indicateapreliminaryvieworcutshortanargumentin
thesamewaythattheymightwithaqualifiedlawyer.

25.

Litigantsinpersonoftenbelievethatbecausetheyareaggrievedinsomewaythey
automaticallyhaveagoodcase.Whenexplainingthatthereisnocase,bearinmindthatthis
willcomeasagreatdisappointmenttoalitigantwhowillhavewaitedfortheirdayincourt
forsometime.

Information
26.

Somelitigantsinpersonareunawareoftheexplanatoryleafletsavailableatthecourtorof
thelistsofadviceagencies.CitizensAdvicemaybeabletoofferassistancewithcase
preparation.22

27.

Manylitigantsinpersonbelievethatcourtortribunalstaffaretheretogivelegaladvice.
UndertheCourtsChartercourtstaffcanonlygiveinformationonhowacasemaybe
pursued;theycannotgivelegaladviceunderanycircumstances.Thismayhavetobe
explainedtoalitigantinperson.

22TheCitizensAdviceBureauestimatesthatasaresultoftheLegalAidreformslocaladviceandcommunitybased
serviceswillloseover77%oftheirpublicfunding.

EqualTreatmentBenchBookNovember2013

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LitigantsinPerson

Beforethecourtortribunalappearance
Statementsofcaseandwitnessstatements
28.

Litigantsinpersonmaymakebasicerrorsinthepreparationofcivilcasesincourtsor
tribunalsby:
a. failingtochoosethebestcauseofactionordefence;
b. overlookinglimitationperiods;
c. notappreciatingthattheyarewitnessesintheirowncases;
d. failingtofileorservetheirownwitnessstatementsinadvanceoftrial(andnot
understandingthatinconsequencetheymaynotbeabletogiveevidence).

29.

ThepotentiallyconsiderableimpactonlitigantsinpersonofthereformstotheCivil
ProcedureRules(effectivefrom1April2013)hasbeenacknowledgedinthereportofthe
JudicialWorkingGroupinthefollowingterms:
a. 3.34OneofthetwinphilosophiesunderpinningthereformstotheCivilProcedure
Rules(CPR)istheneedtoenforcecompliancewithrules,practicedirectionsandorders.
TheoverridingobjectiveinCPR1.1andtherulegoverningrelieffromsanctionsinCPR
3.9havebeenamendedtoembedthisobjective.
b. 3.35Judgesarebeingencouragedtoberigorousandrobustintheirapplicationofthe
rules,emulatingtheexperienceofSingapore;andsuchanapproachneedstobe
uniformlyappliedtoallparties,whetherrepresentedornot.23Courtswillexpect
complianceandwillbeslowtograntreliefintheeventofadefault.
c. 3.36Thechallengeis,therefore,toensurethatlitigantsinpersonaremadefully
awareofwhatisrequiredoftheminorderthattheyareabletomeetthose
requirements;andaremadeequallyawareofthelikelyconsequencesofnon
compliance.

Directionsandcourtorders
30.

Litigantsinpersonoftendonotunderstandprehearingdirections(inparticularthose
imposingtimedeadlinesandunlessorders)ortheeffectofcourtortribunalordersso:
a. ensurethattheyleaveadirectionshearingappreciatingexactlywhatisrequiredofthem;
b. involvethemintheprocessofgivingthosedirections(e.g.askingthemhowmuchtime
theyneedtotakeaparticularstepandwhy)sothattheyrealisethatthedirectionsrelate
totheconductoftheirowncase;
c. explainfullytheprecisemeaningofanyparticulardirectionorcourtorder.

31.

Sometimeslitigantsinpersonbelievethatiftheothersidehasfailedtocomplywithsuch
directionsthenthatinitselfisevidenceinsupportoftheirowncase,ortheopponentshould
bepreventedfromdefendingorproceedingfurther.Theyoftenfeelupsetatwhatthey
regardasanovertolerantattitudebythecourtortribunaltodelaysbysolicitors.The
reasonsforanydecision,therefore,concerningafailuretocomplywithadirectionshouldbe
carefullyexplained.

23AsstressedbytheCourtofAppealinTinklervElliott,[2012]EWCACiv1289at[32]

EqualTreatmentBenchBookNovember2013

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LitigantsinPerson

Documentaryevidence
32.

Acommonproblemislackofunderstandingabouttheuseandapplicationofdocuments
andbundles.Experienceshowsthatlitigantsinperson:
a. tendnottomakesufficientuseofdocumentaryorphotographicevidenceintheircases;
b. failtoappreciatetheneedformapsandplansofanylocationrelevanttothecase.

33.

Casemanagementhearingsrepresentanopportunitytogiveguidanceonthesematters.

Disclosureofdocuments
34.

Thedutytodisclosedocumentsisfrequentlyneglectedbylitigantsinperson
a. Somewillhavelittleornoappreciationthattheyshouldadoptacardsonthetable
approach.Consequentlytherecanbedelay,eitherbecauseoftheneedtoadjournor
becausethejudgeortheothersiderequirestimeatthehearingtoreadrecently
discloseddocuments.
b. Whenapretrialorcasemanagementhearingtakesplace,ashortclearexplanationof
thedutyofdisclosureandthetestastowhetherornotadocumentneedstobe
disclosedhelpsbothpartiesandthecourtintermsoftimesaved.

Preparingbundles
35.

Manylitigantsinpersondonothaveaccesstoofficefacilitiesandhavedifficultiesin
photocopyingdocuments,preparingbundlesandtypingwitnessstatements.Theyhavelittle
conceptoftheneedfordocumentstobeinchronologicalorderandpaginated.Clear
explanationsattowhatisrequiredatcasemanagementhearingsshouldhelpwiththis.
However,puttingthecasebackisoftenthesensiblecoursetotake,intheeventoflitigants
comingtocourtwiththeirbundlesinotherthanproperorder.

Producingdocuments
36.

Alltoooftenlitigantsinpersondonotbringrelevantdocumentswiththemtothehearing.
Thecourtortribunalisfacedwiththecomment:Icanproduceititisathome,butitis
thentoolateandanadjournmentislikelytobeexpensiveandwillusuallyberefused.

37.

Thepartyshouldhavebeenwarnedinadvancenotonlytodiscloserelevantdocumentsto
theothersidebuttobringtheoriginalstothehearing.

Sourcesoflaw
38.

Mostlitigantsinpersondonothaveaccesstolegaltextbooksorlibrarieswheresuch
textbooksareavailableandmaynotbeabletodownloadinformationfromalegalwebsite.
Insomecircumstancesitwillbesensibletoletanindividual,accompaniedbyamemberof
thecourtortribunalstaff,haveaccesstothecourtortribunallibrary(whereitexists)orto
aparticularbook.

39.

Sometimeslitigantsinpersondonotunderstandtheroleofcaselawandareconfusedby
thefactthatthejudgeortribunalappearstobereferringtosomeoneelsescase.
a. Abriefexplanationofthedoctrineofprecedentwillenablealitigantinpersonto
appreciatewhatisgoingonandwhy.

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LitigantsinPerson

b. Arepresentedpartyslawyershouldbetoldtoproduceanyauthoritiestobereliedonat
thelatestattheoutsetofahearingandpreferably,iftherehasbeenacasemanagement
hearingatwhichappropriatedirectionscanbegiven,inadvanceofthehearing.
c. Alitigantinpersonmustbegivenproperopportunitytoreadsuchauthoritiesandmake
submissionsinrelationtothem.

Liveevidence
40.

Judgesareoftentold:AllyouhavetodoistoringMrXandhewillconfirmwhatIam
saying.Whenitisexplainedthatthisisnotpossible,litigantsinpersonmaybecome
aggrievedandfailtounderstandthatitisforthemtoprovetheircase.
a. Theyshouldbeinformedatanearlystagethattheymustprovewhattheysaybywitness
evidencesomayneedtoapproachwitnessesinadvanceandaskthemtocometocourt.
b. Theneedforexpertevidenceshouldalsobeexplainedandthefactthatnopartycancall
anexpertwitnessunlesspermissionhasbeengivenbythecourt,generallyinadvance.

41.

Whenthereisanapplicationtoadjourn,bearinmindthatlitigantsinpersonmaygenuinely
nothaverealisedjusthowimportanttheattendanceofsuchwitnessesis.Iftheapplication
isrefusedaclearexplanationshouldbegiven.

Adjournments
42.

Litigantsinpersonmaynotappreciatetheneedtoobtainanadjournmentifahearingdate
presentsthemwithdifficulties.
a. Itisacommonmisconceptionthatitissufficienttowritetothecourtortribunalwithout
consultingtheotherside,merelyaskingforthecasetobeputofftoanotherdate,orthat
nomorethanadaysnoticeofsucharequestisrequired
b. Conversely,litigantsinpersonmayfinditdifficulttounderstandwhycasesneedtobe
adjournediftheyoverrunbecauseofthewayinwhichtheyorothershavepresented
theircases,orwhytheircaseshavenotstartedatthetimeatwhichtheywerelisted.

Guiltypleas
43.

Atthepleastage,whereanunrepresenteddefendantpleadsguilty,takegreatcareto
ensurethatthedefendantunderstandstheelementsoftheoffencewithwhichtheyare
charged,especiallyifthereis,onthefaceofit,potentialevidencesuggestingthatthe
defendantmayhaveadefencetothecharge.

Thehearing
44.

Thejudgeisafacilitatorofjusticeandmayneedtoassistthelitigantinpersoninwaysthat
arenotappropriateforapartywhohasemployedskilledlegaladvisersandanexperienced
advocate.Thismayinclude:
a. attemptingtoelicittheextentoftheunderstandingofthatpartyattheoutsetandgiving
explanationsineverydaylanguage;
b. makingclearinadvancethedifferencebetweenjusticeandajusttrialontheevidence
(i.e.thatthecasewillbedecidedonthebasisoftheevidencepresentedandthe
truthfulnessandaccuracyofthewitnessescalled).

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LitigantsinPerson

Explanationsbythejudge
45.

Basicconventionsandrulesneedtobestatedatthestartofahearing.
a. Thejudgesnameandthecorrectmodeofaddressshouldbeclarified.
b. Individualspresentneedtobeintroducedandtheirrolesexplained.
c. Mobilephonesmustbeswitchedoff,oratleastinsilentmode.
d. Alitigantinpersonwhodoesnotunderstandsomethingorhasaproblemwithany
aspectofthecaseshouldbetoldtoinformthejudgeimmediatelysothattheproblem
canbeaddressed.
e. Thepurposeofthehearingandtheparticularmatterorissueonwhichadecisionistobe
mademustbeclearlystated.
f. Apartymaytakenotesbutthelawforbidsthemakingofpersonaltaperecordings
(withouttheexpressconsentofthejudge)..
g. Ifthelitigantinpersonneedsashortbreakforpersonalreasons,theyonlyhavetoask.
h. Thegoldenruleisthatonlyonepersonmayspeakatatimeandeachsidewillhaveafull
opportunitytopresentitscase.

Particulardifficulties
46.

Difficultiesoftenariseforlitigantsinpersoningettingtothecourt,beingnervousand
incoherent,copingwiththejargonusedandformsofaddress.Alltheseissuesareaddressed
inthesectiononchildrenandvulnerableadultsandthoseondisability.

Purposeofhearing
47.

Thepurposeofaparticularhearingmaynotbeunderstood.Forexample,thehearingofan
applicationtosetasideajudgmentmaybethoughttobeoneinwhichthefullmeritsofthe
casewillbeargued.Theprocedurefollowingasuccessfulapplicationshouldbeclearly
explained,suchastheneedtoservetheproceedingsonthedefendant,forafulldefenceto
befiledanddirectionswhichmaybegiventhereaftersothatthepartiesknowwhatisgoing
tohappennext.

Thejudgesrole
48.

Itcanbehardtostrikeabalanceinassistingalitigantinpersoninanadversarialsystem.A
litigantinpersonmayeasilygettheimpressionthatthejudgedoesnotpaysufficient
attentiontothemortheircase,especiallyiftheothersideisrepresentedandthejudgeasks
theadvocateontheothersidetosummarisetheissuesbetweentheparties.
a. Explainthejudgesroleduringthehearing.
b. Ifyouaredoingsomethingwhichmightbeperceivedtobeunfairorcontroversialinthe
mindofthelitigantinperson,explainpreciselywhatyouaredoingandwhy.
c. Adopttotheextentnecessaryaninquisitorialroletoenablethelitigantinpersonfullyto
presenttheircase(butnotinsuchawayastoappeartogivethelitigantinpersonan
undueadvantage).

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LitigantsinPerson

Therealissues
49.

Manylitigantsinpersonwillnotappreciatetherealissuesinthecase.Forexample,alitigant
mightcometothecourtortribunalbelievingthattheyarenotliableunderacontract
becauseitisnotinwriting,orthattheycanwinthecaseuponestablishingthatthe
defendantfailedtotakecarewhentherealissueinthecaseiswhetherornotthe
defendantsnegligencecausedtheloss.

50.

Atthestartofanyhearingitisvitaltoidentifyandifpossibleestablishagreementastothe
issuestobetriedsothatallpartiesproceedonthisbasis.Timespentinthiswaycanshorten
thelengthofproceedingsconsiderably.

Compromise
51.

Litigantsinpersonmaynotknowhowtocompromiseoreventhattheyareallowedtospeak
totheothersidewithaviewtotryingtoreachacompromise.
a. Tellthem,particularlyincivilproceedings,thattheroleofthecourtisdisputeresolution
explanationsastoformsofalternativedisputeresolution(ADR)maybeappropriate.
b. Askthemwhethertheyhavetriedtoresolvetheirdifferencesbynegotiationand,if
possible,spelloutthebestandworstpossibleoutcomesattheoutset.Thiscanleadto
movementawayfromtheideathattonegotiateisasignofweakness.
c. Remindthemtotellthecourtinadvanceiftheircasehasbeensettled.

Advocacy
52.

Oftenlitigantsinpersonphrasequestionswronglyandsomefindithardnottomakea
statementwhentheyshouldbecrossexamining.Explainthedifferencebetweenevidence
andsubmissions,andhelpthemputacrossapointinquestionform.

53.

Litigantsinpersonfrequentlyhavedifficultyinunderstandingthatmerelybecausethereisa
differentversionofeventstotheirown,thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthattheothersideis
lying.Similarly,theymayconstrueanysuggestionfromtheothersidethattheirownversion
isnottrueasanaccusationoflying.Bereadytoexplainthatthisisnotautomaticallyso.

54.

Whereonepartyisrepresented,invitethisadvocatetomakefinalsubmissionsfirst,sothat
alitigantinpersoncanseehowitshouldbedone.

Criminalcases
55.

UnderArticle6(3)oftheEuropeanConventionofHumanRights(Sch1,HumanRightsAct
1998),everyonechargedwithacriminaloffencehastherighttodefendhimorherselfin
personorthroughlegalassistanceofhisorherownchoosingor,ifheorshehasnot
sufficientmeanstopayforlegalassistance,tobegivenitfreewheretheinterestsofjustice
sorequire.

56.

Thosewhodispensewithlegalassistancedosousuallybecausetheydeclinetoacceptthe
advicewhichtheyhavebeengiven,whetherastopleaortheconductofthetrial.This,a
defendantisentitledtodo.However,guidanceastothevalueofrepresentationmay
persuadesuchdefendantsthattheyarebetteradvisedtoretaintheirrepresentatives.Ifa
defendantdecides,notwithstandingadviceandguidance,torepresenthisorherself,then
thejudgemustexplaintheprocessandensurepropercontrolovertheproceedingsis
maintained.

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Crossexamination
57.

Throughoutatrialajudgemustbereadytoassistadefendantintheconductoftheircase.
Thisisparticularlysowhenthedefendantisexaminingorcrossexaminingwitnessesand
givingevidence:
a. Alwaysaskthedefendantwhethertheywishtocallanywitnesses.
b. Bereadytorestrainunnecessary,intimidatingorhumiliatingcrossexamination.
c. Bepreparedtodiscussthecourseofproceedingswiththedefendantintheabsenceof
thejurybeforetheyembarkonanycrossexamination.
d. Notethestatutoryprohibitionsoncrossexaminationbyanunrepresenteddefendant.

Conductofthedefence
58.

ParagraphIV.44.5oftheConsolidatedCriminalPracticeDirection2011putsadutyona
judgetoaddressanunrepresenteddefendantattheconclusionoftheevidenceforthe
prosecutionandinthepresenceofthejuryasfollows:
Youhaveheardtheevidenceagainstyou.Nowisthetimeforyoutomakeyour
defence.Youmaygiveevidenceonoath,andbecrossexaminedlikeanyotherwitness.
Ifyoudonotgiveevidenceor,havingbeensworn,withoutgoodcauserefusetoanswer
anyquestionthejurymaydrawsuchinferencesasappearproper.Thatmeanstheymay
holditagainstyou.Youmayalsocallanywitnessorwitnesseswhomyouhavearranged
toattendcourt.Afterwardsyoumayalso,ifyouwish,addressthejurybyarguingyour
casefromthedock.Butyoucannotatthatstagegiveevidence.Doyounowintendto
giveevidence?

Summingup
59.

Inthecourseofsummingupacasetoajuryinwhichthedefendantisunrepresented,tell
thejurythatitwasalwaysopentodefendantstorepresentthemselvesandthatthejury
shouldbearinmindthedifficultyfordefendantsinproperlypresentingtheircase.Insome
cases,suchcommentsmaybemoreappropriateattheoutset.

Adjournments
60.

Sometimesadefendantinacriminalcasebecomesanunrepresentedpartyduringthecase
eitherbyreasonofthedefendantsrepresentativeswithdrawingorbecausetheyare
dismissedbythedefendant.
a. Bearinmindthatyoumayexerciseyourdiscretionindecidingwhetherornottograntan
adjournmenttoenablefreshlegalrepresentativestobeinstructed.
b. Thatdecisionshouldbebasedonwhatisintheinterestsofjusticehavingregardtothe
interestsofthewitnesses,thepublicandthedefendant,thestagereachedinthetrial
andthelikelyabilityofthedefendanttoconductthedefencecaseproperly.
c. Bearinmindalsothedutytowarnadefendantagainstanycoursethatmightnotbein
thatdefendantsbestinterests,butifthedefendantdecidestogoonalone,allowthem
todoso.

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Assistance,representationandMcKenziefriends
61.

ThetermMcKenziefriend24referstoanindividual(whetherlawyerornot)whoassistsin
presentingthecaseinacourtroombytakingnotes,quietlymakingsuggestionsorgiving
advice.TherolediffersfromthatofadvocateinthattheMcKenziefrienddoesnotaddress
thecourtorexamineanywitnessesandisgenerallypermittedattrialsorfullhearings
althoughthefriendmaynotbepermittedtoperformthatroleifunsuitable(e.g.someone
whoispursuingtheirownoranunsuitableagenda).Itmaybelessappropriatetoallowsuch
assistanceinprivate(chambers)hearingsbecausethejudgegenerallythenprovidesmore
assistancetoalitigantinperson.

62.

AMcKenziefriendmaynotactastheagentofthelitigantinrelationtotheproceedingsnor
managethecaseoutsidecourt(e.g.bysigningcourtdocuments).Apartytocivilorfamily
proceedingsmaywishtobeassistedbyafriendatahearingorevenrepresentedbya
personwithoutrightsofaudience.Inseveraltribunals,layandunqualifiedrepresentatives
mayrepresentpeoplein,forexample,EmploymentTribunals.

63.

Inaclimatewherelegalaidisvirtuallyunobtainableandlawyersdisproportionately
expensive,theMcKenziefriendandlayrepresentativesmakeasignificantcontributionto
accesstojustice.Butreportedcasestendtoconcentrateuponreasonswhytheyshouldnot
beallowedratherthancircumstanceswheretheymaybeofassistancetoapartyandthe
court.Thejudgehastoidentifythosesituationswheresuchsupportisbeneficialand
distinguishcircumstanceswhereitshouldnotbeallowed.

64.

GuidanceastothecircumstancesinwhichpermittingaMcKenziefriendincivilandfamily
proceedingswillbeappropriate,andrelatedadvice,canbefoundinthePracticeGuidance
(McKenzieFriends:CivilandFamilyCourts)issuedbytheMasteroftheRollsandthe
PresidentoftheFamilyDivisionon12July2010.25Thisissetoutinfullbelow.
1) ThisGuidanceappliestocivilandfamilyproceedingsintheCourtofAppeal(Civil
Division),theHighCourtofJustice,theCountyCourtsandtheFamilyProceedingsCourt
intheMagistrates'Courts.26Itisissuedasguidance(notasaPracticeDirection)bythe
MasteroftheRolls,asHeadofCivilJustice,andthePresidentoftheFamilyDivision,as
HeadofFamilyJustice.Itisintendedtoremindcourtsandlitigantsoftheprinciplesset
outintheauthoritiesandsupersedestheguidancecontainedinPracticeNote(Family
Courts:McKenzieFriends)(No2)[2008]1WLR2757,whichisnowwithdrawn.27Itis

24ThetermMcKenzieFriendderivesfromMcKenzievMcKenzie[1971]P33,adecisionbytheCourtofAppeal.
LevineMcKenzie,apetitionerindivorceproceedings,lodgedanappealonthebasisthatthetrialjudgehaddenied
himtheopportunitytoreceivelimitedassistancefromanAustralianbarrister,IanHanger,whowasnotqualifiedto
practiceintheUK.ThejudgeruledthatMrHangarmustsitinthepublicgalleryduringthehearing,andthathe
couldonlyadviseMrMcKenzieduringadjournments.TheCourtofAppealsubsequentlyruledthatthetrialjudges
decisionhaddeniedMrMcKenzierightfulassistance,intheformoftakingnotes,andquietlymakingsuggestions
andadviceasthehearingproceeded.
24Paragraph1(2)ofschedule3totheLegalServicesAct2007.
25[2010]1WLR1881
26ReferencestothejudgeorcourtshouldbereadwhereproceedingsaretakingplaceundertheFamilyProceedings
Courts(MatrimonialProceedingsetc)Rules1991,asareferencetoajustices'clerkorassistantjustices'clerkwhois
specificallyauthorisedbyajustices'clerktoexercisethefunctionsofthecourtattherelevanthearing.Wherethey
aretakingplaceundertheFamilyProceedingsCourts(ChildrensAct1989)Rules1991theyshouldberead
consistentlywiththeprovisionsofthoseRules,specificallyrule16A(5A).
27RvLeicesterCityJustices,expBarrow[1991]260;ChauhanvChauhan[1997]2FCR206,CA;RvBowCountyCourt,
expPelling[1999]1WLR1807;AttorneyGeneralvPurvis[2003]EWHC3190(Admin);ClarksonvGilbert[2000]CP
Rep58;Uhbi(t/aUnitedBuilding&PlumbingContractors)vKajla[2002]EWCACiv628;ReO(Children)(Hearingin
Private:Assistance)[2005]EWCACiv759,[2005]3WLR1191;WestlandHelicoptersLtdvSheikhSalahAlHejailan

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issuedinlightoftheincreaseinlitigantsinperson(litigants)inalllevelsoftheciviland
familycourts.
TheRighttoReasonableAssistance
2) Litigantshavetherighttohavereasonableassistancefromalayperson,sometimes
calledaMcKenzieFriend(MF).LitigantsassistedbyMFsremainlitigantsinperson.MFs
havenoindependentrighttoprovideassistance.Theyhavenorighttoactasadvocates
ortocarryouttheconductoflitigation.
WhatMcKenzieFriendsmaydo
3) MFsmay:i)providemoralsupportforlitigants;ii)takenotes;iii)helpwithcasepapers;
iv)quietlygiveadviceonanyaspectoftheconductofthecase.
WhatMcKenzieFriendsmaynotdo
4) MFsmaynot:i)actasthelitigants'agentinrelationtotheproceedings;ii)manage
litigants'casesoutsidecourt,forexamplebysigningcourtdocuments;oriii)addressthe
court,makeoralsubmissionsorexaminewitnesses.
ExercisingtheRighttoReasonableAssistance
5) WhilelitigantsordinarilyhavearighttoreceivereasonableassistancefromMFsthe
courtretainsthepowertorefusetopermitsuchassistance.Thecourtmaydosowhere
itissatisfiedthat,inthatcase,theinterestsofjusticeandfairnessdonotrequirethe
litiganttoreceivesuchassistance.
6) Alitigantwhowishestoexercisethisrightshouldinformthejudgeassoonaspossible
indicatingwhotheMFwillbe.TheproposedMFshouldproduceashortcurriculumvitae
orotherstatementsettingoutrelevantexperience,confirmingthatheorshehasno
interestinthecaseandunderstandstheMF'sroleandthedutyofconfidentiality.
7) Ifthecourtconsidersthattheremightbegroundsforcircumscribingtherighttoreceive
suchassistance,orapartyobjectstothepresenceof,orassistancegivenbyaMF,itis
notforthelitiganttojustifytheexerciseoftheright.Itisforthecourtortheobjecting
partytoprovidesufficientreasonswhythelitigantshouldnotreceivesuchassistance.
8) WhenconsideringwhethertocircumscribetherighttoassistanceorrefuseaMF
permissiontoattendtherighttoafairtrialisengaged.Themattershouldbeconsidered
carefully.Thelitigantshouldbegivenareasonableopportunitytoarguethepoint.The
proposedMFshouldnotbeexcludedfromthathearingandshouldnormallybeallowed
tohelpthelitigant.
9) Whereproceedingsareinclosedcourt,i.e.thehearingisinchambers,isinprivate,or
theproceedingsrelatetoachild,thelitigantisrequiredtojustifytheMF'spresencein
court.ThepresumptioninfavourofpermittingaMFtoattendsuchhearings,and
therebyenablelitigantstoexercisetherighttoassistance,isastrongone.
10) Thecourtmayrefusetoallowalitiganttoexercisetherighttoreceiveassistanceatthe
startofahearing.Thecourtcanalsocircumscribetherightduringthecourseofa
hearing.Itmayberefusedatthestartofahearingorlatercircumscribedwherethe
courtformstheviewthataMFmaygive,hasgiven,orisgiving,assistancewhich

(No2)[2004]EWHC1688(Comm),[2004]2Lloyd'sRep535;AgassivRobinson(InspectorofTaxes)(No2)[2005]
EWCACiv1507,[2006]1WLR2126;ReN(AChild)(McKenzieFriend:RightsofAudience)PracticeNote[2008]
EWHC2042(Fam),[2008]1WLR2743.

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impedestheefficientadministrationofjustice.However,thecourtshouldalsoconsider
whetherafirmandunequivocalwarningtothelitigantand/orMFmightsufficeinthe
firstinstance.
11) AdecisionbythecourtnottocurtailassistancefromaMFshouldberegardedasfinal,
saveonthegroundofsubsequentmisconductbytheMForonthegroundthattheMF's
continuingpresencewillimpedetheefficientadministrationofjustice.Insucheventthe
courtshouldgiveashortjudgmentsettingoutthereasonswhyithascurtailedtheright
toassistance.Litigantsmayappealsuchdecisions.MFshavenostandingtodoso.
12) Thefollowingfactorsshouldnotbetakentojustifythecourtrefusingtopermitalitigant
receivingsuchassistance:
(i) Thecaseorapplicationissimpleorstraightforward,oris,forinstance,adirectionsor
casemanagementhearing.
(ii) Thelitigantappearscapableofconductingthecasewithoutassistance.
(iii) Thelitigantisunrepresentedthroughchoice.
(iv) Theotherpartyisnotrepresented.
(v) TheproposedMFbelongstoanorganisationthatpromotesaparticularcause.
(vi) Theproceedingsareconfidentialandthecourtpaperscontainsensitiveinformation
relatingtoafamily'saffairs.
13) AlitigantmaybedeniedtheassistanceofaMFbecauseitsprovisionmightundermineor
hasunderminedtheefficientadministrationofjustice.Examplesofcircumstanceswhere
thismightariseare:i)theassistanceisbeingprovidedforanimproperpurpose;ii)the
assistanceisunreasonableinnatureordegree;iii)theMFissubjecttoacivilproceedings
orderoracivilrestraintorder;iv)theMFisusingthelitigantasapuppet;v)theMFis
directlyorindirectlyconductingthelitigation;vi)thecourtisnotsatisfiedthattheMF
fullyunderstandsthedutyofconfidentiality.
14) WherealitigantisreceivingassistancefromaMFincareproceedings,thecourtshould
considertheMF'sattendanceatanyadvocates'meetingsdirectedbythecourt,and,
withregardtocasescommencedafter1.4.08,considerdirectionsinaccordancewith
paragraph13.2ofthePracticeDirectionGuidetoCaseManagementinPublicLaw
Proceedings.28
15) Litigantsarepermittedtocommunicateanyinformation,includingfiledevidence,
relatingtotheproceedingstoMFsforthepurposeofobtainingadviceorassistancein
relationtotheproceedings.
16) Legalrepresentativesshouldensurethatdocumentsareservedonlitigantsingoodtime
toenablethemtoseekassistanceregardingtheircontentfromMFsinadvanceofany
hearingoradvocates'meeting.
17) TheHighCourtcan,underitsinherentjurisdiction,imposeacivilrestraintorderonMFs
whorepeatedlyactinwaysthatunderminetheefficientadministrationofjustice.
Rightsofaudienceandrightstoconductlitigation

28ThePracticeDirectionGuidetoCaseManagementinPublicLawProceedingsdatedApril2008wasreplacedby
PracticeDirection12APublicLawProceedingsGuidetoCaseManagement:April2010whichsupplementsPart
12oftheFamilyProcedureRules2010.On6June2013thePresidentoftheFamilyDivisionalsoissuedaPilot
PracticeDirection12A(PublicLawOutline).

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18) MFsdonothavearightofaudienceorarighttoconductlitigation.Itisacriminal
offencetoexerciserightsofaudienceortoconductlitigationunlessproperlyqualified
andauthorisedtodosobyanappropriateregulatorybodyor,inthecaseofan
otherwiseunqualifiedorunauthorisedindividual(i.e.alayindividualincludingaMF),the
courtgrantssuchrightsonacasebycasebasis.29
19) Courtsshouldbeslowtograntanyapplicationfromalitigantforarightofaudienceora
righttoconductlitigationtoanylayperson,includingaMF.Thisisbecauseaperson
exercisingsuchrightsmustordinarilybeproperlytrained,beunderprofessional
discipline(includinganobligationtoinsureagainstliabilityfornegligence)andbesubject
toanoverridingdutytothecourt.Theserequirementsarenecessaryfortheprotection
ofallpartiestolitigationandareessentialtotheproperadministrationofjustice.
20) Anyapplicationforarightofaudienceorarighttoconductlitigationtobegrantedto
anylaypersonshouldthereforebeconsideredverycarefully.Thecourtshouldonlybe
preparedtograntsuchrightswherethereisgoodreasontodosotakingintoaccountall
thecircumstancesofthecase,whicharelikelytovarygreatly.Suchgrantsshouldnotbe
extendedtolaypersonsautomaticallyorwithoutdueconsideration.Theyshouldnotbe
grantedformereconvenience.
21) Examplesofthetypeofspecialcircumstanceswhichhavebeenheldtojustifythegrant
ofarightofaudiencetoalayperson,includingaMF,are:i)thatpersonisacloserelative
ofthelitigant;ii)healthproblemsprecludethelitigantfromaddressingthecourt,or
conductinglitigation,andthelitigantcannotaffordtopayforaqualifiedlegal
representative;iii)thelitigantisrelativelyinarticulateandpromptingbythatpersonmay
unnecessarilyprolongtheproceedings.
22) Itisforthelitiganttopersuadethecourtthatthecircumstancesofthecasearesuchthat
itisintheinterestsofjusticeforthecourttograntalaypersonarightofaudienceora
righttoconductlitigation.
23) Thegrantofarightofaudienceorarighttoconductlitigationtolaypersonswhohold
themselvesoutasprofessionaladvocatesorprofessionalMFsorwhoseektoexercise
suchrightsonaregularbasis,whetherforrewardornot,willhoweveronlybegrantedin
exceptionalcircumstances.TodootherwisewouldtendtosubvertthewillofParliament.
24) Ifalitigantwantsalaypersontobegrantedarightofaudience,anapplicationmustbe
madeatthestartofthehearing.Ifarighttoconductlitigationissoughtsuchan
applicationmustbemadeattheearliestpossibletimeandmustbemade,inanyevent,
beforethelaypersondoesanythingwhichamountstotheconductoflitigation.Itisfor
litigantstopersuadethecourt,onacasebycasebasis,thatthegrantofsuchrightsis
justified.
25) Rightsofaudienceandtherighttoconductlitigationareseparaterights.Thegrantof
onerighttoalaypersondoesnotmeanthatagrantoftheotherrighthasbeenmade.If
bothrightsaresoughttheirgrantmustbeappliedforindividuallyandjustified
separately.
26) Havinggrantedeitherarightofaudienceorarighttoconductlitigation,thecourthas
thepowertoremoveeitherright.Thegrantofsuchrightsinonesetofproceedings
cannotbereliedonasaprecedentsupportingtheirgrantinfutureproceedings.

29LegalServicesAct2007,ss1219andSch3.
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Remuneration
27) LitigantscanenterintolawfulagreementstopayfeestoMFsfortheprovisionof
reasonableassistanceincourtoroutofcourtby,forinstance,carryingoutclericalor
mechanicalactivities,suchasphotocopyingdocuments,preparingbundles,delivering
documentstoopposingpartiesorthecourt,ortheprovisionoflegaladvicein
connectionwithcourtproceedings.Suchfeescannotbelawfullyrecoveredfromthe
opposingparty.
28) FeessaidtobeincurredbyMFsforcarryingouttheconductoflitigation,wherethe
courthasnotgrantedsucharight,cannotlawfullyberecoveredfromeitherthelitigant
forwhomtheycarryoutsuchworkortheopposingparty.
29) FeessaidtobeincurredbyMFsforcarryingouttheconductoflitigationafterthecourt
hasgrantedsucharightareinprinciplerecoverablefromthelitigantforwhomthework
iscarriedout.Suchfeescannotbelawfullyrecoveredfromtheopposingparty.
30) FeessaidtobeincurredbyMFsforexercisingarightofaudiencefollowingthegrantof
sucharightbythecourtareinprinciplerecoverablefromthelitigantonwhosebehalf
therightisexercised.Suchfeesarealsorecoverable,inprinciple,fromtheopposing
partyasarecoverabledisbursement:CPR48.6(2)and48(6)(3)(ii).
PersonalSupportUnit&Citizen'sAdviceBureau
31) LitigantsshouldalsobeawareoftheservicesprovidedbylocalPersonalSupportUnits
andCitizens'AdviceBureaux.ThePSUattheRoyalCourtsofJusticeinLondoncanbe
contactedon02079477701,byemailatmailto://cbps@bello.co.ukorattheenquiry
desk.TheCABattheRoyalCourtsofJusticeinLondoncanbecontactedon0207947
6564orattheenquirydesk.

Rightsofaudience
65.

RightsofaudiencearegovernedbyPart3oftheLegalServicesAct2007whichcameinto
forceon1January2010.Thecurrentpositionishelpfullysummarisedinthereportofthe
JudicialWorkingGrouponLitigantsinPersoninthefollowingterms:
6.5 Wherethelitigantinpersonwishesalaypersontoconductthelitigation,oractastheir
advocate,differentissuesarise.Therightstoconductlitigationandtoactasan
advocatearegovernedbytheLegalServicesAct2007.UnderthatAct,bothrightsare
restrictedtoprofessionallawyerswhoseprofessionalbodyauthorisesthemtoactas
advocates.Otherthanlitigantsinpersonthemselves(whoarethesubjectofaspecific
exemption),undertheParliamentaryschemelaypersonscanneitherconductlitigation
noractasadvocatesforlitigantsinperson;norhasalitigantinpersonanyrightto
receivesuchassistanceortoauthorisesuchalaypersontoactinsuchawayundera
powerofattorney.30
6.6 However,priortostatutoryinterventioninthisfield,thecourthadinherentpowerto
allowanyindividualtoactasanadvocatebeforeitinrelationtoaparticularcase.That
powerismaintainedinthe2007Act,byexemptingtherigorousrequirementsofthe
statutoryschemeforapersonwhohasarightofaudiencegrantedbythatcourtin
relationtothoseproceedings".31

30Gregory&AnothervTurner&Another[2003]1WLR1149
31Paragraph1(2)ofschedule3totheLegalServicesAct2007.

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6.7 Nevertheless,asitisclearfromthe2007ActanditspredecessorsthatParliament
wishes,ordinarily,torestricttherighttoactasanadvocatetoprofessionals,thecourts
haveadoptedacautiousapproachtoallowinglayassistantstobeadvocatesinanycase,
althoughtheyhaveinpracticebeenmoreflexiblesincetheadventoftheCPR.
6.8 Generally,thepracticehasbeenthatwhereitwillbebeneficialtothefairandjust
determinationofacasetohavealaypersonconductahearingonbehalfofalitigantin
person,thentherightisgrantedintheinterestsofjustice.However,therehasinrecent
yearsbeenasubstantialincreaseinprofessionallayadvocateswho,withoutthe
requisitetrainingorregulationofaprofessionallawyer,seektoactasadvocatesfor
litigantsinpersonincourtonthepaymentofafee.Someoftheserepresentatives
chargefeeswhicharesimilarifnotmorethanthoseofaprofessionallawyer.Someare
unableeffectivelytorepresentthelitigant.Somearepositivelydisruptivetothe
proceedings.
6.9 Thecourtshaveasimilarpowertoallowlaypersonstoconductlitigationforlitigantsin
person.Although,undoubtedly,litigantsinperson,withoutdoubt,oftenhave
assistanceinpreparingtheircase,thepowertoallowalaypersontoconductlitigation
isveryinfrequentlyexercised,forobviousgoodreason;suchindividualsarenotlegally
trained,theyowenoobligationsderivedfromprofessionalregulation,andtheydonot
oweanyobligationtothecourt.32Theserequirementsaregenerallyessentialforthe
protectionofotherpartiesandtotheproperadministrationofjustice.
6.10 Therepresentationofthoseactinginpersonhasdevelopeddifferentlyinthetribunal
system,wherethestatutoryconstraintsdonotapply.Generally,layrepresentativesare
farmorefrequent,oftenspeakingforandevenactingforanindividual.Theselay
representativesareoftenfromacharityorothervoluntaryorganisation,whichprovide
avitalresourcetoindividualsinthetribunalsystemwhowouldotherwisebewithout
anysupportinoftentechnicalareas.
66.

Thefollowinghelpfulguidanceastothepracticalapproachtoapplicationsbylitigantsin
persontobeallowedalayadvocate,includinginformationacourtmayrequiretoenableit
tomakeaproperlyinformeddecisiononwhethertograntalaypersontherighttospeak,is
setoutinthejudgmentofMrJusticeHickinbottominGrahamvElthamConservative&
UnionistClubandOrs33:
31. Inexercisingthediscretiontograntalaypersontherightofaudience,theauthorities
stresstheneedforthecourtstorespectthewillofParliament,whichisthat,ordinarily,
leavingasidelitigantsinpersonwhohavearighttorepresentthemselves,advocateswill
berestrictedtothosewhoaresubjecttothestatutoryschemeofregulation(Clarksonv
Gilbert[2000]2FLR839,DvSespeciallyatpage728FperLordWoolfMR,andParagon
FinanceplcvNoueri(PracticeNote)[2001]EWCACiv1402;[2001]1WLR2357at[53]
andfollowingperBrookeLJ).TheintentionofParliamentisfirmandclear.Section1(1)
ofthe2007Actsetsoutaseriesofstatutoryobjectiveswhichincludesensuringthat
thoseconductingadvocacyadheretovariousprofessionalprinciples,maintainedbythe
rigoursoftheregulatoryschemeforwhichtheActprovides,andwithoutwhichitis
consideredlayindividualsshouldnotordinarilybeallowedtobeadvocatesforothers,
appoint[sic]alsoemphasisedbythePracticeGuidance(atparagraph19).Thisstrength
ofthisinterestandwillisenforcedby(i)legislativeprovisionsallowinglayrepresentation

32ThishasbeenunderlinedbytheCourtofAppealsrecentdecisioninReH(Children)[2012].EWCACiv1797
33[2013]EWHC979(QB)

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intypesofclaiminwhichsuchrepresentationisconsideredappropriate,e.g.insmall
claimsinthecountycourt(section11ofthe1990Actwhichisunaffectedbythe2007
Act,andtheLayRepresentatives(RightsofAudience)Order1999(SI1999No1225),and
(ii)thefactthattodoanyactinpurportedexerciseofarightofaudiencewhennonehas
beenconferredisbothacontemptofcourtandacriminaloffence(seesections1417of
the2007Act).
32. Consequently,ithasbeensaidbythehighercourtsthatthediscretiontograntrightsof
audiencetoindividualswhodidnotmeetthestringentrequirementsoftheActshould
onlybeexercisedinexceptionalcircumstances,and,inparticular,thecourtsshould
pauselongbeforegrantingrightstoindividualswho[make]apracticeofseekingto
representotherwiseunrepresentedlitigants(ParagonFinanceat[54]perBrookeLJ,
paraphrasingcommentsofLordWoolfinDvS).InDvS,LordWoolfindicated(atpage
728F)thatitwouldbemonstrouslyinappropriateandtotallyoutofaccordwiththe
spiritofthelegislationhabituallytoallowlayadvocates.ThePracticeGuidance,inmore
measuredterms,statesthat:
Courtsshouldbeslowtograntanapplicationfromalitigantforarightofaudienceto
anylayperson.Anyapplicationshouldbeconsideredverycarefully.Suchgrants
shouldnotbeextendedtolaypersonsautomaticallyorwithoutdueconsideration.They
shouldnotbegrantedformereconvenience.
33. Ofcourse,inlinewiththeoverridingobjectiveofdealingwithcasesjustly(CPRRule1.1),
thecourtwillbemoreopentoexercisingitsdiscretionandgrantingarightofaudiencein
aparticularcasewhenitispersuadeditwillbeofassistancetothecaseasawholeifa
litigantinpersonweretohavesomeonewhoisnotanauthorisedadvocatetospeakfor
himorher.Thatwillespeciallybesoifthelitigantinpersonisvulnerable,unacquainted
withlegalproceedingsorsufferingfromparticularanxietyaboutthecaseheorsheis
conducting.Asaresult,courtshaveinpracticebecomemoreflexibleaboutallowing
litigantsinpersontohaveassistanceatahearing.Inparticular,theydonotinfrequently
allowarelativeorfriendtospeakonapartysbehalf.Often,thatrelativeorfriendis
wellattunedtothepartyscaseandwishes,andputsthemattermorearticulatelyand
coherentlythanthepartycouldhimselforherself.Asaresult,thehearingcanbecome
morefocused,moreefficientandshorter.Suchflexibilityhasbecomemoreimportantas
theresultoflegalaidreforms(includingthoseintheLegalAid,Sentencingand
PunishmentofOffendersAct2012,effectivefrom1April2013),whichhaveresultedina
verysubstantialreductioninthoseentitledtopublicassistanceandhenceasubstantial
increaseinlitigantsinpersonwhonowappearbeforethecourts.
34. However,eventhoughthelegalworldhasinmanywaysmovedonsincethetimeofthe
authoritiestowhichIhavereferred,inmyview,asthoseauthoritiesandthePractice
Guidancestress,duedeferencetothewillofParliament,andgeneralcaution,arestill
required.
35. Therefore,asrequiredbythePracticeGuidance(paragraph24),withoutundue
formality,whenalitigantinpersonwishestobeheardbywayofalayadvocate,he
shouldmakeanappropriateapplicationtothecourtatthefirstinterparteshearing.The
applicationshouldbemadebythelitigantinperson,andnotbythepersonwhoheor
shewishestobetheadvocate:although,often,inpracticethatotherpersonmayinfact
beheardontheapplication.Theapplicationshouldbeinterpartes,toenableany
opponentwhomayhaveobjectionstoraisethem.Generally,oncetherighttoappearas
anadvocatehasbeengiventolayperson,thatrightwillextendtoallhearingsinthat
claim,unlessspecificallydirectedotherwiseortherightisrevoked.Thecourtmay
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alwaysrevoketheright,anydecisiontorevokebeinginformedbythesameprinciples
thatapplytothegrantoftheright.Itmay,forexample,beappropriatetorevokethe
rightif,contrarytohopesandexpectations,thelayadvocateprovesunhelpfuloreven
positivelydisruptive.
36. TheauthoritiesandPracticeGuidanceprovidelittleassistancewithregardtohowthe
courtsdiscretionshouldbeexercised;andthisisanareainrespectofwhichtheHeadof
CivilJusticemaywishtoconsidergivingfurtherguidanceinduecourse.
37. However,inthemeantime,itseemstomethatatanyapplication,toputthecourtintoa
positiontomakeaninformeddecision,thecourtwillwishtoprovided[sic]with
informationasto(i)therelationship,ifany,betweenthelitigantinpersonandthe
proposedadvocate,includingwhethertherelationshipisacommercialone;(ii)the
reasonswhythelitigantwishestheproposedadvocatetospeakonhisbehalf,including
anyparticulardifficultiesthelitigantinpersonmighthaveinpresentinghisowncase;(iii)
theexperience,ifany,theproposedadvocatehashadinpresentingcasestoacourt;and
(iv)anycourtordersthatmightberelevanttotheappropriatenessoftheproposed
advocate(e.g.ordersmadeagainsthimorheractinginpersonorasanadvocatein
previousproceedings,includinganyordersrestraininghimorherfromconducting
litigationorfromactingasanadvocate).Giventheimportanceoftheroleofadvocate,
thereisadutyoffranknessonboththelitigantinpersonandtheproposedadvocatein
relationtotheseissues.Suchenquirieswillusuallytakeonlyashorttime,buttheyare
essentialtoensurethatproperrespectisgiventotheprinciplethat,ordinarily,
advocatesshouldberestrictedtoregulatedadvocatesandlitigantsinperson.
38. Aswiththeexerciseofanypower,whetheralaypersonisgiventherighttobean
advocateinaparticularcaseorforaparticularhearingwilldependuponallofthe
circumstances.However,asIhaveindicated,giventheoverridingobjective,thecourt
willtakeparticularaccountoftheextenttowhichallowingtheindividualtospeakwill
assistthefairandjustdisposalofthecase.ThePracticeGuidancestresses(atparagraph
22)thattheburdenofshowingthatitisintheinterestsofjusticeforalaypersontobe
grantedtherighttobeanadvocateatahearingliesuponthelitigantwhowisheshimto
doso.Itwillonlybegrantedinspecialcircumstances.Paragraph21ofthePractice
Guidancegivesexamplesofthetypeofspecialcircumstanceswhichinthepasthave
beenheldtojustifythegrantofarightofaudiencetoalayperson,asfollows:(i)that
personisacloserelativeofthelitigant;(ii)healthproblemswhichprecludethelitigant
fromaddressingthecourtorfromconductinglitigation,andthelitigantcannotaffordto
payforprofessionalrepresentation,and(iii)thelitigantisrelativelyinarticulateand
promptingbythatpersonmayunnecessarilyprolongtheproceedings.Thoseexamples
arehelpfulinindicatingthesortofexceptionalcircumstancesinwhichagrantwillbe
made.TheGuidancemakesclearthatthosewhorepresentlitigantsprofessionallyor
regularlywillonlybegrantedtherightinexceptionalcircumstances(paragraph23).

SmallClaims
67.

Undersection11oftheCourtsandLegalServicesAct1990theLordChancellorauthorised
theLayRepresentatives[RightsofAudience]Order1999.34ThisisalsosetoutinCPR27PD
3.2(2).ThisOrdersurvivesthe2007Actcomingintoforce.Itauthoriseslayrepresentatives
toappearinsmallclaims.Itprovidesthatalayrepresentativemaynotexerciseanyrightof

34SI1999/1225

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audience(1).wherethepartyfailstoattendthehearing,(2)atanystageafterjudgment,or
(3)onanyappeal.Thecourthasdiscretiontohearalayrepresentativeeveninanyofthese
circumstancesbutgrantingarighttoappearinanexcludedcasewouldrequirereasons.A
layrepresentativeexercisingthisrightmayberestrictedifunruly,misleadsthecourtor
demonstratesunsuitability.

HousingAuthorityOfficersandEmployeesofArmsLengthManagementOrganisations
[ALMOs]
68.

Sections60and60AoftheCountyCourtsAct1984givearightofaudience,where
proceedingsarebroughtbyalocalauthority,toanauthorisedofficerofthatauthority.This
isrestrictedtohousingclaimsintheCountyCourt.

69.

EmployeesofALMOsdonotfallunderthesesections.Theynowcomewithins.191ofthe
2007Act.Section191(3)definesthespecifichousingproceedingsandappearanceisonly
allowedbeforeaDistrictJudge.Anemployeemusthavewrittenauthorisationtoappear.
Theemployeehasarightofaudienceandarighttoconductlitigation.

Companies
70.

Anemployeemayrepresentthecompanyatafasttrackormultitrackinterlocutoryorfinal
hearing,providedtheemployeehasbeenauthorisedbythecompanytoappearandthe
courtgivespermission:CPR39.6

71.

GuidanceastotheexerciseofthispowerissetoutinCPRPD39A5.3.Therewouldhaveto
begoodreasontorefuse.Adecisiontoalloworrefuseshouldberecordedinwriting.

72.

Thisdoesnotapplytosmallclaims,anyofficeroremployeemayrepresentthecompanyon
asmallclaim:CPR27PD3.2(4).

OfficialReceivers
73.

Rule7.52oftheInsolvencyRules1986givesOfficialReceiversarightofaudienceinboththe
HighCourtandacountycourt.

EuropeanLawyers
74.

Paragraph1ofSchedule3totheLegalServicesAct2007isexpressedasbeingsubjectto
paragraph7.Paragraph7statesthataEuropeanlawyer[asdefinedbytheEuropean
Communities[ServicesofLawyers]Order197835isanexemptpersonforthepurposesof
carryingonanactivitywhichisareservedlegalactivity.

OfficialSolicitor
75.

TheOfficialSolicitorrepresentspartiestoproceedingswholackcapacitytoconduct
litigation(protectedparties)orwhoaredeceasedorunascertainedwhennoothersuitable
personoragencyisableandwillingtodosoincivilcourts.Thepurposeistopreventa
possibledenialofjusticeandsafeguardthewelfare,propertyorstatusoftheparty.

76.

HeusuallybecomesformallyinvolvedwhenappointedbytheCourt,andmayactashisown
solicitor,orinstructaprivatefirmofsolicitorstoactforhim.

35SI1978/1910

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Representingadultswholackcapacity
77.

AnorderdirectingtheOfficialSolicitortoactasalegalrepresentativeinacivilcourtfora
protectedpartywilleitherbemadewithhispriorconsentoronlytakeeffectifhisconsentis
obtained.

78.

BeforetheOfficialSolicitorwillagreetoactonbehalfofaprotectedpartyinproceedings
threerequirementsmustbemet:
a. Evidencethattheadultlackscapacity(thisdoesnotofcourseapplyinthecaseofa
child).
b. Theremustbenobodyelsesuitableandwillingtoact.
TheOfficialSolicitoristhelitigationfriendoflastresortsohecanonlyactwherethereis
nooneelsesuitableandwillingtoact.Itisbetterforapersonwhoknowstheprotected
party,suchasarelativeorfriend,toactaslitigationfriend.Thereforeallpossible
candidatesshouldbeconsideredandapproachedifsuitable.
c. CoverfortheOfficialSolicitorscosts.
TheOfficialSolicitordoesnotchargeforactingaslitigationfriend,butdoesrequire
fundingforthecostsofinstructingsolicitorstoactinthelitigation,orforhisowncharges
wherehealsoactsassolicitor.TheOfficialSolicitorisnotfundedtosubsidiseprivate
litigationandwillonlyconsenttoactinaparticularcaseifhiscostsareguaranteedfrom
theoutset.WheretheOfficialSolicitorisaskedtoactforadefendantandthereisno
othermethodoffundinghiscostsofobtaininglegalrepresentation,hewillrequirean
undertakingfromtheclaimanttomeethiscosts.

ContactingtheOfficialSolicitor
Enquiriesandrequestsforassistancearefrequentlymadebythejudiciaryandmembersofthe
legalprofession.TheOfficialSolicitorcanbecontactedat:
81ChanceryLane
LondonWC2A1DD
DX0012London/ChanceryLaneWC2
Tel.:02079117127Fax.:02079117105
Email:enquiries@offsol.gsi.gov.uk

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5.Childrenandvulnerableadults
Keypoints

Accommodatingavulnerablepersonsneeds(asrequiredbycaselaw,theEqualityAct
2010,theEuropeanConventiononHumanRights,theUNConventionontheRightsof
theChild,theUNConventionontheRightsofPersonswithDisabilitiesandtheEuropean
Directiveestablishingminimumstandardsontherights,supportandprotectionof
victimsofcrime)requiresthecourtortribunaltoadoptamoreflexibleapproach.

Courtshavesafeguardingresponsibilitiesinrespectofchildrenandvulnerableadults.
Theexerciseofjudicialdiscretionoftenhasasafeguardingdimension.

TheInspectorateshavehighlightedlocalpracticesinrespectofvulnerablewitnesses
whichfailtocomplywithexistingnational,evidencebasedpolicies.

Allwitnesses,regardlessofage,arepresumedcompetent.

Childrenanddefendantshavebeenshowntoexperiencemuchhigherlevelsof
communicationdifficultyinthejusticesystemthanwaspreviouslyrecognised.Thisis
alsolikelytobethecaseforvulnerableadultwitnessesandtheelderly.

Childrenandvulnerableadultsunderstresscanfunctionatalowerlevel,makingit
harderforthemtorememberaccuratelyandthinkclearly.

Thejudiciaryshouldbealerttovulnerability,evenifnotpreviouslyflaggedup.
Indicatorsmayarise,forexample,fromsomeonesdemeanourandlanguage;age;the
circumstancesoftheallegedoffence;achildbeinglookedafterbythelocalauthority;
orbecauseawitnesscomesfromagroupwithmoralorreligiousproscriptionson
speakingaboutsexualactivities.

Assessmentbyanintermediaryshouldbeconsideredifthepersonseemsunlikelytobe
abletorecogniseaproblematicquestionor,evenifabletodoso,maybereluctantto
saysotoaquestionerinapositionofauthority.

Judgesandmagistratesshouldaskforrelevantinformation,ifnotprovided(inthecase
ofvulnerableprosecutionwitnesses,bythepoliceandWitnessCareUnits);information
mayalsobeprovidedbyparentsorguardians,socialworkersorotherprofessional
assessments.

1Overarchingprinciples
1.

Thischapterfocusesprimarilyonwaystoadaptcriminalproceedingstoaccommodate
childrenandothervulnerablewitnessesanddefendants,butmuchofitisalso
relevanttocivilandfamilycasesandtribunalhearingswithavulnerablewitness,party
orlitigantinperson.PracticeDirection12APublicLawProceedingsGuidetoCase
Management,providesthatthecourtwillidentifyanyspecialmeasuressuchasthe
needforaccessforthedisabledorprovisionforvulnerablewitnesses(para15.3(7)
2010).TheSupremeCourthasruledthatthefamilycourtmayhearevidencefrom
childrenincertaincircumstances:Therearethingsthatthecourtcando[tofacilitate
thechildsevidence]buttheyarenotthingsthatitisusedtodoingatpresent(ReW

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[2010]UKSC12)andhasconsideredadaptationstoenableavulnerableadultwitness
togiveevidence(InthematterofA(AChild)[2012]UKSC60).

Aflexibleapproachtofacilitatebestevidence
2.

Courtsandtribunalsareexpectedtoadaptnormaltrialproceduretofacilitatethe
effectiveparticipationofwitnesses,defendantsandlitigants:
givingeffecttosection20oftheEqualityAct2010bymakingreasonableadjustments
toremovebarriersforpeoplewithdisabilities
takingeveryreasonablesteptofacilitatetheparticipationofanyperson,including
thedefendantinpreparationfortrial(Rule3.8(4)(b),CriminalProcedure
(Amendment)Rules2012).

3.

Inthe2013ToulminLecture,theLordChiefJusticesaidthat:
Justbecauseachangedoesnotcoincidewiththewaywehavealwaysdonethings
doesnotmeanthatitshouldberejected.Doproposedchangescauseunfair
prejudicetothedefendant?:ifso,ofcourse,theycannothappen.Ifhoweverthey
makeitmorelikelytoenablethetruthtoemerge,whetherfavourableor
unfavourabletothedefendant,thenletitbedone.Thetruthistheobjective(Halfa
CenturyofChange:TheEvidenceofChildVictims,KingsCollegeLondon).

4.

Theseprincipleshavealsobeenreflectedincriminalandfamilyappellatedecisions.
Forexample:
Whennecessary,theprocesseshavetobeadaptedtoensurethataparticular
individual[inthiscase,adefendantwithcomplexneeds]isnotdisadvantagedasa
resultofpersonaldifficulties,whateverformtheymaytake(LordChiefJustice,para
29,RvCox[2012]EWCACrim549;seealsoRvB[2010]EWCACrim4).
Ajudge'sgeneraldutytomanageallcasestoachievetargetscannotinany
circumstanceoverridethedutytoensurethatanylitigantreceivesafairtrialandis
guaranteedwhatsupportisnecessarytocompensatefordisability(LordJustice
Thorpe,para21,IntheMatterofM(AChild)[2012]EWCACiv1905).Inthiscase,the
CourtofAppealfoundabreachofArticle6rightswhere,despiteareport
recommendingspecialmeasures,afatheroflimitedcapacitygaveevidenceinfamily
proceedingswithonlyunsatisfactorymakeshiftarrangements.

5.

Decisionsabouthowproceduresshouldbeadaptedshouldbemadeasearlyas
possible.

Examplesofamoreflexibleapproach

Helpingvulnerablewitnessestobegincrossexaminationwhiletheyarefreshbynot
requiringthemtowatchtheirDVDinterviewatthesametimeasthejury.Thereisno
legalrequirementtodoso.Watchingatadifferenttimehastheadvantagethatbreaks
canbetakenasneeded.Itisthepolicesresponsibilitytoarrangethis,withthe
permissionofthecourt.Anintermediarymayneedtobepresentbutshouldnotbethe
persondesignatedtorecordanythingsaidattheviewing(section4.51AchievingBest
EvidenceinCriminalProceedingsMarch2011,MinistryofJustice
http://www.justice.gov.uk/downloads/victimsandwitnesses/vulnerable
witnesses/achievingbestevidencecriminalproceedings.pdf).Ifitisappropriateto

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swearthewitness,dosojustbeforecrossexamination,askingif(s)hehaswatchedthe
DVDandifitscontentsaretrue,inwordstailoredtothewitnesssunderstanding.

TurningofforcoveringthepictureinpictureonthewitnesssTVscreen,wherethis
maybeadistractiontothewitness.

Usingcombinedspecialmeasures.Forexample,ifawitnesswhoistogiveevidencebylive
linkwishes,screenscanbeusedtoshieldthelivelinkscreenfromthedefendantandthe
public,aswouldoccurifscreenswerebeingusedforawitnessgivingevidenceinthecourt
room(para29A.2,CriminalPracticeDirections2013).

Lettingwitnesseswriteanddrawtoclarifyanswers.

Permittingwitnessesunabletogiveevidence(e.g.becauseofdistressduetoadelayed
startorasaresultofinappropriatequestioning)tocomebackthenextday(ifnecessary,
followingafurthergroundrulesdiscussionbetweenthejudgeandadvocates),rather
thandismissingthecaseimmediately.

6.

7.

Flexiblearrangementsinrespectofchildreninclude:

movingtheprosecutionanddefenceadvocatestothelivelinkroomforcross
examinationofafiveyearoldwhostruggledtocommunicateacrossthelivelink
atapracticesession.TheRegisteredIntermediaryrecommendedthissolutionand
thejudgeruledthatthelivelinkroomwasanextensionofthecourtroom

allowingchildrentobrieflypausecrossexaminationtorelievetheirstress,without
leavingthelivelinkroom,bygoingunderatable,behindacurtainorundera
blanket,and(inthecaseofachildwithurinaryurgency)beingpermittedtoleave
theroomwithoutpriorpermissiontousethetoilet

allowingafearfuleightyearoldtocalmherselfquicklybytakingherselfoutof
sightofthemainlivelinkcamera(butstillvisibletothejudgeontheoverview
camera).Thechildandintermediarypractisedtheseinroombreaksbeforehand,
usingalarge30secondeggtimer.Thejudgerequestedeveryonetowait,rather
thanadjourningthecourt.Thechildtookaround15briefbreaks(twoorthreeegg
timerintervalslastingaround6090seconds)acrosstwohoursofevidence.Only
onecompletebreakandadjournmentwasrequired

schedulingchildrenwithlearningdisabilitiestogiveevidenceforshortperiods,
withbreaks,inthemorningoverseveraldays.

Flexiblearrangementsinrespectofvulnerableadultwitnessesinclude:

allocatingafemalejudgeandcounseltoatrialwithawitnesswhorefusedto
speaktoamanabouttheallegedoffence

allowingaRegisteredIntermediarytorelaytheanswersofawitnesswithautism
spectrumdisorderandbehaviouralproblemswhogaveevidencewithherbackto
thelivelinkcamera;andinothercasestorelaytherepliesofwitnesseswhowould
onlywhispertheiranswers

lettingamanwithautismspectrumdisordergiveevidencewearingalionstail,his
comfortobjectindailylife

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8.

seatingtheadvocateattheendoftheclerkstable,withinametreofalipreading
witnesswhogaveevidencebehindascreenwiththeassistanceofaRegistered
Intermediary,asevenaskilledlipreadermayclearlyunderstandlessthanhalfof
whatissaid

thejudgesappointmentofanadvocatewithrelevantexperienceforayoung
womanwhorefusedtotestifyinasexualassaultcase,toadviseheraboutthe
consequencesofnotgivingevidence.Thewitnesswaspersuadedtoproceedand
wasallowedtopausehertestimonytospeaktotheadvocate,onconditionthat
shedidnotdiscussherevidence.

Flexiblearrangementsinrespectofvulnerabledefendantsinclude:

seatingadefendantwithimpairedvisionnearthejurywhiletheywere
empanelled,toenablehimtoobjecttojurorsifnecessary;andseatinga
defendantwithahearingprobleminthebodyofthecourt(suchdefendantshave
particulardifficultyfollowingproceedingsfromthedockbecauseadvocatesspeak
withtheirbackstothem)

permittinganintermediarytoworkalongsideadefendantinthedocktohelphim
tounderstandproceedings

requestingthatallwitnessesbeaskedverysimplyphrasedquestionsandto
expresstheiranswersinshortsentences,tomakeiteasierforadefendant(who
hadcomplexneedsbutnointermediary)tofollowproceedings(RvCox[2012]
EWCACrim549)

agreeingthatadefendantwithmentalhealthissuesbegivenbriefpausesduring
crossexaminationtomanagehisemotionalstateandremaincalmenoughto
respondtoquestions

allowingadefendantwithautismtohavequiet,calmingobjectsinthedockto
helphimtopayattention.

Safeguardingchildrenandvulnerableadults
9.

Safeguardingisdefinedastheactionwetaketopromotethewelfareofchildrenand
protectthemfromharmandthekeyprinciplesthatshouldunderpinthem(Working
TogethertoSafeguardChildren:Aguidetointeragencyworkingtosafeguardand
promotethewelfareofchildrenHMGovernment2013).Someaspectsofsafeguarding
policyhavebeenextendedtoprotectvulnerableadults(e.g.requiringthose
supervisingthemtohaveanenhancedcriminalrecordcheck:section115(4),Police
Act1997).Thesafeguardingofavulnerableadultasawitnessinfamilyproceedingsis
discussedinA(AChild)[2012]UKSC60.

10.

Individualsmayhavedevastatingexperiencesatcourtasaresultofanaccumulation
ofproceduralfailuresandthewaytheyarequestioned.Insafeguardingandother
thematicreportsonchildren,victimsandvulnerablewitnesses,theInspectorates
highlighttheriskofsecondaryabusefromthecriminalcourtprocess.Forexample,a
2012reportstressedthatvictimsandwitnesses,particularlythosewhoareyoungand
vulnerable:
continuetobeadverselyaffectedbyanabsenceofrealfocusontheirneedsthe

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[CJS]systemitselfappearstobeunabletomaintainaconsistentandacceptablelevel
ofcareascasespassthroughit(HMCPSInspectorateandHMInspectorateof
Constabulary,Jointinspectionreportontheexperienceofyoungvictimsandwitnesses
intheCJS).
11.

TheInspectorateshaverecommendedthatcourtsexistingsafeguardingpolicyand
practicebebroughttogetherintooverarchingstrategies.Asafeguardingpolicyfor
courtstaff(addressing,forexample,listingstrategyandtheneedforushersworking
withvulnerablewitnessestohavepolicechecks)isindraftbuthasnotyetbeen
published.

Thejudiciarysroleinsafeguarding
12.

Judgesandmagistrateshavearoleinsafeguardingvulnerablepeopleatcourtinways
whichfurthertheoverridingobjectiveanddonotinterferewithjudicial
independence.

13.

TheGovernmentssafeguardingpolicyWorkingtogethertosafeguardchildren(2013)
emphasisesthat:
safeguardingiseveryonesresponsibility,requiringeachprofessionaland
organisationtoplaytheirfullpart
achildcentredapproachisneeded,basedonaclearunderstandingofchildrens
needsandviews.

14.

Waysinwhichtodischargethisresponsibilityinclude:
beingalerttosafeguardingconcernswhendealingwithachild(orvulnerableadult)
andaddressingthemthrougheffectiveplanningandproactiveenquiries
ensuringthatanamedindividualhasresponsibilityforthevulnerablepersonswelfare
atthehearing,withalineofcommunicationtoalertyoutodifficulties.Traditional
hierarchiestendtohindercommunicationincomplexorganisedactivities
(Gawande,TheChecklistManifesto2009)
havingcontingencyplans(e.g.regardingthetimingofthevulnerablewitnesss
evidence)ifthingsgowronginwaysaffectingthewitnessswelfare.

15.

Safeguardingconcernsshouldnotbeoverriddenbecauseofpressuresarising
elsewhereinthejusticesystemprocess.Forexample,despiteclearpolicytothe
contrary,somewitnessesarestilladvisednottoseekpretrialtherapybecauseof
fearsthatitcouldjeopardisetheprosecution.Reaffirmthecorrectpositionwhenthe
questionarises:whetherthewitnessshouldseekpretrialtherapyisnotadecisionfor
thepolice,prosecutororcourt,andthebestinterestsofthewitnessarethe
paramountconsideration(Provisionoftherapyforchildwitnessespriortoacriminal
trialandProvisionoftherapyforvulnerableorintimidatedadultwitnessespriortoa
criminaltrial,CPS,DepartmentofHealthandHomeOffice2001).

16.

Safeguardingismostatriskwhenresponsibilitiesareunclearandthereisa
breakdownofcommunication.Forexample,when:
twoteenagewitnesses,knowntobeconfinedtowheelchairs,spentalldayatcourt
withoutanyhoistbeingprovidedtoenablethemtouseatoilet

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ajudgewasnotifiedofthepropensityforselfharmingofawitnessproducedfrom
custodybutsecuritypersonnelwereunaware.Thewitnessselfharmedduringa
breakwhileinthecellsandwasunabletocompletehisevidence
achildwasleftaloneinthelivelinkroomoverthelunchperiodfor75minutes,
withoutfoodorsupport.

Competency
17.

Competenceisassumedifawitnessofanyageiscapableofgivingintelligible
testimony(section53,YouthJusticeandCriminalEvidenceAct1999).Thismayrequire
theassistanceofanintermediary(seebelow).Thetestdoesnotrequirethewitnessto
understandeveryquestionorgiveareadilyunderstoodanswertoeveryquestion;the
testisnotfailedbecausetheforensictechniquesoftheadvocateorcourtprocesses
havetobeadaptedtoenablewitnessestogivethebestevidenceofwhichtheyare
capable(RvB[2010]EWCACrim4).

18.

Evenifcompetencyisassumed,orruleduponinfavourofthewitnessbythejudge,
thejudgeisunderacontinuingdutytokeepthematterunderreviewandapartyis
notprecludedfromraisingitduringthecourseofthetrialifjustified.However,when
thereismaterialindicatingthatthewitnesssatisfiesthecompetencytest(suchasan
ABEinterviewandanintermediaryreport):
thecourtandthepartiesshouldcarefullyconsiderwhetheracompetencyhearingis,
infact,necessaryattheinitialstageofthecase.Insomecircumstancessuchahearing
mayservetodonomorethancausedelay,increaseexpenseandputunnecessary
strainonthewitness(RvF[2013]EWCACrim424).

19.

Inthatcase,theproblemofcommunicativecompetencewasnotthatofthewitness
butofthequestioners:thecourtfoundthattheproblemaroseoveranissueofability
tocommunicatewithHinanonleadingway,ratherthananissueofH's
comprehensionandthushercompetence...whatwasintendedtobeatestof
competencywasseriouslyflawed.

2Activecasemanagementfromfirstappearance
20.

Seealso:

CriminalPracticeDirectionsSection3A,Casemanagement(2013)

TheAdvocatesGateway(www.theadvocatesgateway.org)casemanagement
toolkit

JudicialCollegeBenchChecklist:YoungWitnessCases(2012)

PracticeDirection12A,PublicLawProceedingsGuidetoCaseManagement,
incorporatingthePublicLawOutline(2010).Thisaddressesparallelcareand
criminalproceedings(PD12Apara3.9).Disclosureofcriminalmaterialtofamily
courtsisaddressedinCPSonlinepolicy.

Timetabling
21.

Trialmanagementpowersshouldbeexercisedtothefullwhereavulnerablewitness
ordefendantisinvolved.Forexample,despitemanypoliciestogiveyoungwitness

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casespriority,studiesshowthatthesecasesusuallytakelongerthanthenational
averagetoreachtrial.Thismayalsoapplytoothercasesinvolvingvulnerablepeople,
whoareoftenmoreadverselyaffectedbydelay,bothintermsoftheirrecallandtheir
emotionalwellbeing.Timetablingisthereforeanissuethatimpactsuponbest
evidenceandsafeguarding.Further,theInspectorateswarnthatpoliceandWitness
CareUnitneedsassessmentsareofteninadequate,withadetrimentaleffectin
criminalcaseswhichprogresstotrial.Bealerttothepossibilitythatneedshavenot
beenconsideredoridentifiedandaskforinformationtobeupdatedifnecessary.
22.

Scheduleresponsesandmakeordersasnecessaryatthefirstappearancein
magistratescourtorpreliminaryhearingorpleaandcasemanagementhearinginthe
CrownCourt:

Prioritisevulnerablewitnesscases(section4.83,AchievingBestEvidenceinCriminal
ProceedingsMarch2011,MinistryofJustice).Delayinacaseinvolvingachildcomplainant
shouldbekepttoanirreducibleminimum(RvB[2010]EWCACrim4).
Obtainavailabilitydatesnotjustforwitnessesbutforanyintermediaryornamed
supporter,anddatestoavoidforexamsorotherimportantevents.
Fixyoungwitnesstrials,notbehindanothertrialorasafloater.Inexceptional
circumstances,floatingthetrialmaybeappropriate:theInspectoratesdescribeas
goodpracticeofferingayoungwitnessanearlierfloatingdatetotrytoensurethat
herevidencewasgivenbeforeherschoolexaminationsstarted.
Ifnecessary,fixthecourtroomforalivelinktrial.Inanintermediarycase,plasma
screenswillgiveabetterviewofintermediary/witnessinteraction.
TimetableanyeditingoftheDVDinterview,allowingtimeforthewitnesstoseethe
editedversion.Considertheneedforatranscript.Whereimportantnonverbal
communicationisomittedorkeypassagesaremarkedinaudiblebecausethe
witnesssspeechishardtohearordecipher,intermediarieshavebeenaskedto
revisethetranscript.
Ensurethatapplicationsfordisclosureofthirdpartymaterial/PIIhearingsaremade
anddealtwithatanearlystage.
Addressspecialmeasuresandanyothernecessarymodificationstotrialprocedureto
providegreatercertaintytothewitness.Whilespecialmeasuresapplications
shouldbemadewithin28daysofentryofanotguiltypleainmagistratescourt
and14daysintheCrownCourt,alateapplicationshouldnotberejectedsolely
becauseitismadeoutoftime.

Avoidingadjournments
23.

Atrialdateinvolvingayoungorvulnerableadultwitnessshouldonlybechangedin
exceptionalcircumstances.Byexertingtightcontrolatanearlystage,itwillbeless
likelythatanadjournmentwillbenecessarytosafeguardtherightsofthedefendant.
Researchindicatesthatatleastonethirdofyoungwitnesstrialsareadjourned,many
ofthemmorethanonce.Thiscanhaveadetrimentalimpactuponwitnessrecalland
emotionalwellbeingaswellasonthefairnessofoutcomes.

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24.

Ifanapplicationforanadjournmentissought,considertheadverseeffectofdelayon
thevulnerablepersonandconsiderwhether:
anotherjudgecantakethetrialontheoriginaldate
thetrialcanbeheardelsewhere,takingaccountofwitness/defendantviews
atrialwithalesserprioritycanbevacatedinstead.

25.

Ifpostponementisunavoidable,atrialinvolvingavulnerablewitnessshouldbere
listedintheshortestpossibletime.

Schedulingacleanstarttowitnesstestimony
26.

Thecapacityofavulnerablewitnesstogiveevidenceislikelytodeteriorateiftheyare
keptwaiting.TheInspectoratesexpressconcernthatmanyvulnerablewitnesses
experiencelengthydelays,exceedingcourtwaitingtimetargets,evenwhenaclean
startisscheduledfortheirtestimony.Thiscanbedevastatingbothforthewitness
andthequalityofthetestimony.Problemsresultfrom:
thejudgehavingtodealwithothermattersfirst.TheConsolidatedCriminalPractice
Directionstatesfirmlythatonnoaccountshouldshorthearingsbelistedthat
maydelaythestartorcontinuationofatrial(AnnexF,Listing,section5.4(f),2010).
Reasonsforthispolicy,particularlyinrespectofvulnerablewitnesses,shouldbe
broughttotheattentionoftheListingOfficer
witnesswaitingtimesartificiallyextendedbyadvicetoarriveatthehearingearly,in
ordertoavoidseeingorbeingseenbythedefendant.Otherwaystoavoid
confrontationshouldbe;e.g.ajudgeorderedthedefendantstobeseatedinthe
dockfortenminutesatthestartandendofeachcourtdaytoensurethatyoung
witnessescouldenterandleavethebuildingcalmly
discussionswhichdonot,intheend,resultinaguiltyplea.

27.

Lastminutelegaldiscussionsshouldnotbeallowedtohavetheknockoneffectof
prejudicingtheeffectivenessofavulnerablewitnesssevidencethroughtirednessand
stress.Itisgoodpracticetoschedulethestartofavulnerablewitnesstrialinthe
afternoon(enablingthetrialjudgetodealwithanyoutstandingissues),withthefirst
vulnerablewitnesslistedpromptlyatthestartofthesecondday(withfurther
directionsforothervulnerablewitnesses).Evenifthecourthastoriseearly,itisa
smallpricetopaytomaximisethequalityofevidenceofthevulnerablewitnessthe
nextmorning.Ifthereisanyriskthattheirevidencewillnotstartontime,theyshould
beadvisedtowaitonstandby.Itisvitalto:
agreestaggeredwitnessstarttimes,ensuringopening/preliminarypointswillbe
finishedwhenthefirstwitnesssevidenceisduetostart
scheduletestimonytostartwhilethewitnessisfresh(usuallyatthestartoftheday
thoughforsomevulnerablewitnessesthismaybedifferent),takingaccountof
concentrationspanandtheeffectofanymedication
scheduleeachstageofthewitnesssevidence,includingbreaks.Durationshouldbe
developmentallyappropriateandlimitsmaybeimposed(Rule3(10)(d),Criminal

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ProcedureRules2012).Asageneralrule,ayoungchildwillloseconcentration
afterabout15minutes,whetherornotthisbecomesobvious
scheduleagroundruleshearing.Ifdeferreduntilthedayofthewitnessstestimony,
ensurethatthehearingdoesnotaddtothewitnessswaitingtime
allowtimeforintroductionsandtakeaccountofthewitnessswishes.Prosecutorsare
expectedtomeetthewitnessanddefenceadvocatesmayfinditusefultodoso.It
isuptoyouwhethertoaccompanytheadvocatesbutitcanbeauseful
opportunitytotuneintothewitnessslevelofcommunication.Wherejustified
bythecircumstances,sometrialjudgeshavemetthevulnerablewitnesswiththe
advocatesbeforethedayofthewitnesssevidence.

3Effectiveuseofspecialmeasures
28.

Thissectiondiscusseswaystoensurethatspecialmeasuresandrelateddirections
achievetheirobjectiveofhelpingthewitnesstogiveevidence.

Avoidingconfrontation
29.

Standard23,WitnessCharter(2008)requiresthecourttohaveseparatewaitingareas
andadvisesthatvulnerableorintimidatedwitnessesmaybeallowedtowaiton
standbynearthecourt.Nevertheless,standbyarrangementsareunderusedandat
manycourts,itisquitecommonforprosecutionwitnessestoencounterdefendantsin
oraroundthebuilding.Enquireabouttheeffectivenessofprocedurestokeepthem
separateatyourcourt,includingwhethervulnerablewitnessesareabletousean
alternativeentrance.

Remotelivelinks
30.

TheInspectoratesrecommendgreateruseofremotelivelinkswherethereisariskof
confrontation(MinistryofJusticeLiveLinksProtocol;section4.6,Registered
IntermediariesinAction2011;PartsC1,C2,ApplicationforaSpecialMeasures
Direction).Manycourtscannowconnecttoothercourtbuildings;somehave
routinelylinkedtoanoncourtfacility(withgoodexperiencesreportedbyjudgesand
witnesses)orhaveusedmobilepoliceequipmentatschoolsandhospitals.Decide
whatevidenceneedstobetakentotheremotesite.

Screens
31.

Wherethewitnessanddefendantarescreenedfromoneanotherincourt,ifitisnot
feasiblealsotoshieldthewitnessfromthedockandpublicgallerywhileentering
court,(s)heshouldbebehindthescreenbeforethedefendantandmembersofthe
publicareseatedandleaveatadifferenttimeduringadjournments.

Witnessviewsaboutspecialmeasures
32.

Emphasisisnowgiventothewitnesssviewpointbecausewitnessesarelikelytogive
betterevidencewhentheychoosehowitisgiven.Thus,witnesseseligibleforspecial
measuresandnotwishingtobeseenbythedefendantmaypreferscreens.Ayoung
witness(oroneover18towhomsections21or22YouthJusticeandCriminal
EvidenceAct1999apply)maywishtooptoutoftheprimaryrule(recordedevidence

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inchiefandlivelink)andsecondaryrequirement(screens)(section100Coronersand
JusticeAct2009).
Perceptionsabouttheimpactoftechnologyoncaseoutcomes
33.

TheInspectorateshaveexpressedconcernthatpresumptionsarebeingmadeabout
thebestmethodforvulnerablewitnessestogiveevidenceandthatsomefeel
pressurednottousethelivelink:
Studieshereandinothercountriesoveraperiodof20yearshavefoundnosignificant
differenceinconvictionrateswhenwitnessesuselivelinks(seeoverview,Hoyano
andKeenan,ChildAbuse:LawandPolicyAcrossBoundaries2010).
EllisonandMunrosstudyfoundthatspecialmeasureshadnoconsistentimpactupon
jurorevaluationofthetestimonyoffemaleadultrapecomplainants,juror
perceptionsofcredibilityortrialfairness(Specialmeasuresinrapetrials:
Exploringtheimpactofscreens,livelinksandvideorecordedevidenceonmock
jurordeliberation2012).

34.

However,thesizeofjurorsTVscreensmaymakeadifferencetooutcomes.Inan
unpublishedexercise,the(then)ResidentJudgeofLiverpoolCrownCourtmonitored
theoutcomesofvulnerablewitnesstrials:thoseinwhichlargeplasmascreenswere
usedhadahigherrateofconvictionthanthosewherethejurywatchedoutdated
smallTVscreens.EllisonandMunrosstudyusedalarge,50inchplasmascreen.They
acknowledgedthatsmallscreensinrealcourtroomsmayadverselyaffectjurors
assessmentsinwaysnotevidencedintheirstudy.

Witnessentitlementtopractiseonthelivelink
35.

Witnessesareentitledtopractisespeakingandlisteningonthelivelink(Standard17,
WitnessCharter2008)andshouldbeshownscreensinplace.However,notall
witnessesareofferedafamiliarisationvisit;somecannotattendbecauseofrestricted
hoursforcourtvisits;andsomecourtsdonotallowwitnessestopractiseonthelive
link.Everycourtshouldfacilitatesuchpracticesessions.Thisisessentialtohelp
identifywhetheruseofthelivelinkinterferessignificantlywiththequalityofwitness
communication.

36.

Itishelpful(thoughnotareplacementforavisit)ifcourtsprovidesupportersand
intermediarieswithphotosoflivelinkroomsandscreens,orallowthemtotake
photosforthepurposeofpreparingthewitness.TheResidentJudgeorsenior
magistrateshouldensurethereisauniformpolicyateachcourt,andshouldtendto
supportthetakingofphotographsforthispurpose(subjecttowhateverrestrictions
areconsideredappropriate,havingregardtocourtsecurityrequirements).

Emotionalsupport
37.

Potentialbenefitstowitnessrecallandstressreductionflowfromthepresenceofa
knownandtrustedsupporterwhocanprovideemotionalsupport:
courtsmayspecifywhoaccompaniesawitnessinthelivelinkroomandmusttakethe
witnessswishesintoaccount(section102,CoronersandJusticeAct2009,

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amendingsection24,YouthJusticeandCriminalEvidenceAct1999;partC3,
Applicationforaspecialmeasuresdirection)
thiscanbeanyonewhoisnotaparty/hasnodetailedknowledgeofevidence;ideally,
thepersonpreparingthewitnessforcourt.Othersmaybeappropriate.
38.

However,somecourtscontinuetopreferwitnessesinthelivelinkroomtobe
accompaniedonlybytheusher,ratherthanalsobyanamedsupporter.Usherscannot
offeremotionalsupporttothewitnessandreceivenegligibleappropriatetraining
(HMCPSInspectorateandHMInspectorateofConstabulary,Jointinspectionreport
ontheexperienceofyoungvictimsandwitnessesinthecriminaljusticesystem2012).

Refreshingwitnessmemory
39.

Witnesseswhogiverecordedevidenceinchiefarealsoentitledtorefreshtheir
memorybeforetrialbutmanywhomakeaDVDstatementarenotgiventhe
opportunity.Thefirstviewingisoftendistressingordistractingandshouldbe
scheduledbeforethedayoftestimony(thewitnessneednotwatchtheDVDatthe
sametimeasthejuryseepage2above).Decisionsabouthow,whenandwhere
refreshingshouldtakeplaceshouldbemadeonacasebycasebasis.Thereisarisk
thataviewingcombinedwiththecourtfamiliarisationvisitwillresultininformation
overload.Formoredetailedguidance,seesection29C,CriminalPracticeDirections
2013).TheInspectoratesrecommendthatmemoryrefreshingbethesubjectofaclear
localinteragencyagreement.

40.

Arrangementsshouldbejudiciallyled.Someone(usuallyapoliceofficer,notan
intermediary)shouldbedesignatedtotakeanoteandreporttothejudgeifanything
issaid.Inthecaseofaveryyoungchild,itmaybeappropriatetorecordtheviewing.If
theDVDisruledinadmissible,identifyanalternativemethodofrefreshing.

Intermediaries:facilitatingcomplete,coherentandaccuratecommunication
41.

Seealso:
TheAdvocatesGateway(www.theadvocatesgateway.org)Intermediariessection
(RegisteredIntermediariesforprosecutionanddefencewitnesses,andnon
registeredintermediariesfordefendants).
ThetoolkitEffectiveparticipationofyoungdefendantsonthesamewebsite,which
describestheappointmentprocessfornonregisteredintermediaries;AnnexAlists
waysinwhichthesehavebeenusedinthepretrialperiodandattrial.

Thefunction
42.

Intermediariesareoneofthestatutoryspecialmeasuresforprosecutionanddefence
witnesses(section29,YouthJusticeandCriminalEvidenceAct1999).Theyare
communicationspecialistswhoseprimaryresponsibilityistoenablecomplete,
coherentandaccuratecommunication(section16).Theyareexpectedtoprevent
miscommunicationfromarisingand'activelytointervenewhenmiscommunication
mayorislikelytohaveoccurredortobeoccurring'(RvCox[2012]EWCACrim549).

43.

Intermediariescanassistthejudiciarytomonitorthequestioningofvulnerable
witnessesanddefendantsbutresponsibilitytocontrolquestioningremainswiththe

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judgeormagistrates.Intermediariesareimpartial,neutralofficersofthecourt.They
arenotexpertwitnesses.Theirassessmentreportsarevaluedasaguidetohow
questioningcanbestbeadaptedtotheindividualsneeds.Inaddition,advocatesmay
requestintermediaryadviceaheadoftrialaboutadaptingtheirquestions.Wherethe
assessmentindicatesthatsomerestrictionsoncrossexaminationmaybenecessary,
somejudgesreviewspecificquestionsinadvancewiththeintermediary.
44.

RegisteredIntermediariesforprosecutionanddefencewitnessesareappointed
throughtheMinistryofJusticeWitnessIntermediarySchemeinvolvingregulation,
policechecks,accreditationtraining,supportandstandardsformatchingskillsto
witnessneeds(seeRegisteredIntermediaryProceduralGuidanceManualMinistryof
Justice,2012)Fortheuseofintermediariesfordefendants,seebelow.

Whenappointmentshouldbeconsidered
45.

TheInspectorateshighlightpoorlevelsofawarenessaboutthebenefitsof
intermediaryuse.Forexample,intermediariesappointedpostinterviewoftenfind
thatawrittenstatementhasbeentakenfromwitnesseswhodonotunderstandthem
andcannotreadthem.Sometimesthishasnecessitatedtakinganotherstatement.
EvenwherenoapplicationforaRegisteredIntermediaryhasbeenmade,youmay
alwaysrequestassessmentofavulnerableprosecutionordefencewitnesswhose
communicationneedsmayhavebeenoverlooked(section19(1)(b),YouthJusticeand
CriminalEvidenceAct1999).

46.

Assessmentbyanintermediaryshouldbeconsideredifthepersonseemsunlikelyto
beabletorecogniseaproblematicquestionor,evenifabletodoso,maybereluctant
tosaysotoaquestionerinapositionofauthority.Studiessuggestthatthemajorityof
youngwitnesses,acrossallages,fallintooneorotherorbothcategories.Adeaf
personshouldalwaysbeassessedbyanexpertindeafnessand/orasuitablyqualified
andexperiencedintermediary.

Iftheapplicationiscontested
47.

Theintermediaryshouldalwaysattendthehearingtoexplaintheirrecommendations
andinwhatwaytheirpresencewillfacilitatecomplete,coherentandaccurate
communication.Itmaybesuggestedthattheintermediaryisnotneededattrial
because:
theinterviewwasconductedwithouttheneedforanintermediary.Communication
duringthetrialprocessismorechallengingthantheinvestigativeinterview,
leadingtogreaterstressandpotentiallymoreopportunitiesformiscommunication
anintermediarywaspresentattheinterviewbutapparentlytooknoactivepart.This
isoftenbecausetheintermediaryhadalreadyprovidedadvicetotheinterviewer
abouthowtoadapthisorherquestionsandthereforedidnotneedtointervene
theadvocateswillcomplywithguidanceintheintermediarysreport.Inpractice,many
advocatesfinditmoredifficulttoadaptkeyquestionsthantheyanticipate.Itcan
alsobedifficulttokeepinmindallaspectsofquestioningthatmaybeproblematic
fortheindividualwitness.Anintermediarywhohasalreadyassessedthewitnesss
communicationisabletoalertthecourttoanyproblemsorlossofconcentration.

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Intermediariesinfamilycases
48.

Intermediarieshaveoccasionallybeenappointedbyfamilycourtsandtheiruseis
discussedinFamilyJusticeCouncilGuidelinesinrelationtochildrengivingevidencein
familyproceedings(2011).TheMinistryofJusticewillprovideaRegistered
Intermediaryonlywherethereisadirectlinktoacriminalcaseinwhichthewitnessis
involvedandwhereonehasalreadybeenprovidedthroughtheWitnessIntermediary
Scheme.Thisisjustifiedonthebasisofcontinuityofcareforthewitnesswhoalready
hasrapportwiththeintermediary.Eveninthesecircumstances,assistancewillonlybe
providedwheretheintermediaryusedinthecriminalcaseisavailableandwhere
thereisnoimpactonavailabilityofintermediariesforwitnessescoveredbysection
29.

Nonregisteredintermediariesforvulnerabledefendants
49.

Section104,CoronersandJusticeAct2009createsanewsection33BA,YouthJustice
andCriminalEvidenceAct1999,providinganintermediarytoaneligibledefendant
whilegivingevidence.Thishasnotbeenimplemented.However,courtshave
exercisedtheirinherentdiscretiontoappointintermediariesforavulnerable
defendantstestimony,orforthewholetrial(R(AS)vGreatYarmouthYouthCourt
[2011]EWHC2059(Admin)).Inatrialwhichlasted12weeks,thejudgeappointedtwo
nonregisteredintermediarieswhotookturnstoattend.

50.

Anyintermediaryappointedtoassistadefendantisconsideredtobenonregistered
eventhoughtheindividualcarryingoutthisrolemaybeaRegisteredIntermediaryin
respectofwitnesses.

51.

Nonregisteredintermediaryappointmentsarenotroutine:
Adaptingthetrialprocessmaybesufficientwherethetrialjudgeconducts
proceedingswithappropriateandnecessarycaution(RvCox[2012]EWCACrim
549).
However,appointmentsshouldbeconsideredinobviouscases[suchas]thosein
whichthedefendantwasayoungchildorapersonwithcomplexproblemsofthe
sortthatdefendantsinthereportedcaseshavesufferedfrom(RecorderofLeeds,
RvGPand4Others(2012)T20120409,Guidanceforfutureapplications).
Appointmentofanintermediarybyitselfmaynotbeasufficientadjustment:inRv
JordanDixon[2013]EWCA465)anintermediarywasappointedtoassista
vulnerabledefendantduringthetrial,butfailurestoholdagroundruleshearing
andtomodifythelanguageusedduringtheproceedingsweredescribedas
regrettablebytheCourtofAppeal.
Evenwhereajudgeconcludesthathehasacommonlawpowertodirectthe
appointmentofanintermediary,thedirectionwillbeineffectiveifnointermediary
canbeidentifiedforwhomfundingwouldbeavailable(RvCox[2012]EWCACrim
549).

52.

TheLegalServicesCommissionpaysforanonregisteredintermediarysassessment
andpretrialinvolvement,subjecttopriorauthority;hisorherattendanceattrialis
paidforbyHMCourtsandTribunalsService(agreementbetweentheLegalServices
Commission,MinistryofJusticeandHMCourtsandTribunalsService).Thematching

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serviceforRegisteredIntermediariesrunbytheMinistryofJusticeandNationalCrime
Agencycannotassistinobtaininganonregisteredintermediary.

Communicationaids
53.

Intermediariescanalsoassistinrecommendingappropriatecommunicationaids.
Courtshavepermittedawiderange(e.g.penandpaper,models,picturecards,signal
boards,visualtimetables,humanfiguredrawingsandtechnology)toaugmentor
replaceoraltestimony.Aidshavehelpedimprovethequalityofevidenceandgiven
accesstojusticetosomewitnessespreviouslyexcluded.Intermediarieswill,withthe
approvalofthecourt:
adviseontheselectionofappropriateaidse.g.abodymapforawitnessaskedto
clarifyintimatetouching(foranexampleofagenderneutralchildbodyoutline,
seehttp://lexiconlimited.co.uk/bodyoutline).Thefailuretoaskanonverbal
witnesstoidentifybodypartsbyreferencetopictureswascriticisedinRvF[2013]
EWCACrim424
developaidsspecificallytailoredtotheneedsofthewitnessandtheadvocates
questions(e.g.developmentofavisualtimelinetosupportquestionsabout
severalincidentsovertime).

4Groundruleshearings:planningtoquestionsomeonewithcommunication
needs
54.

Seealso:
CriminalPracticeDirectionsSection3E,Groundruleshearingstoplanthequestioning
ofavulnerablewitnessordefendant(2013)
TheAdvocatesGatewaytoolkitonGroundruleshearingsandothersaddressinga
rangeofcommunicationissues(www.theadvocatesgateway.org)
FamilyJusticeCouncilGuidelinesinrelationtochildrengivingevidenceinfamily
proceedings(2011).

Akeyingredientoftrialmanagement
55.

Judicialinterventionsinquestioningcanbeminimisediftheapproachtoquestioning
isdiscussedatagroundruleshearingbeforethewitnessstestimonyandgroundrules
areagreedandadheredto.Discussionshavebeenheldincourt,inchambersandover
aremotelivelinkwhentheintermediaryisatadifferentlocationwiththewitness.
Thegroundruleshearingistheopportunityforthetrialjudgeandadvocatestoplan
anyadaptationstoquestioningthatmaybenecessarytofacilitatetheevidenceofa
vulnerableperson.Whereanintermediaryisappointed,thepurposeofthehearingis
toestablishhowquestionsshouldbeputtohelpthewitnessunderstandthemand
howtheintermediarywillalertthecourtifthewitnesshasnotunderstoodorneedsa
break(partF.1,Applicationforaspecialmeasuresdirection).

56.

Judgesandmagistrateshaveaparamountdutytocontrolquestioning,asrequiredby
theoverridingobjective.Witnesstestimonymustbeadducedaseffectivelyandfairly

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aspossible.Youareencouragedtointerveneifneeded,evenifanintermediaryif
anydoesnot:
Witnessesmustbeabletounderstandthequestionsandenabledtogiveanswersthey
believetobecorrect.Ifthewitnessdoesnotunderstandthequestion,theanswer
willnotfurthertheoverridingobjective.
Themanner,tenor,tone,languageanddurationofquestioningshouldbeappropriate
tothewitnesssdevelopmentalageandcommunicationabilities.

Whentoholdagroundruleshearing
57.

Groundruleshearingsshouldtakeplaceinthepresenceofthetrialjudgeor
magistrates,advocatesandintermediary,ifany.Thehearingsare:
mandatoryinallintermediarytrials,andtheyremainvitalevenwhereparticipants
havepreviouslyworkedwithanintermediary,asarrangementsneedtobeagreed
thatarespecifictotheindividualbeforethecourt.Theintermediarymustbe
presentbutneednottaketheoath
goodpracticeinallyoungwitnesscasesandothercaseswithavulnerablewitnessor
vulnerabledefendantwithcommunicationneeds
desirablebeforethedayofthewitnessstestimony,wherepossible,givingadvocates
moretimetoadapttheirquestionsandensuringthewitnesscanbepreparedon
thebasisofagreedspecialmeasures
alsoappropriatewherethedefendantisunrepresented.Sections34to40,Youth
JusticeandCriminalEvidenceAct1999prohibitunrepresenteddefendantsfrom
crossexaminingyoungwitnessesforcertainoffencesandgiveawiderdiscretion
tojudgestoprohibitcrossexaminationofwitnessesbyunrepresenteddefendants
inothercircumstances.Section105,CoronersandJusticeAct2009extendssection
35,preventingcrossexaminationbyanaccusedinpersonofaprotectedwitness
i.e.undertheageof18.

Topicsfordiscussion
Thirdpartymaterial
58.

Itiswithinthejudgespowerstorequiretheadvocatetoexplaintothejurythenature
ofthedefenceandtojustifywhyquestionsarisingfromthirdpartymaterialarebeing
asked,beforesuchquestionsareasked.

59.

Awitnesswhodoesnotanticipatebeingaskedquestionsarisingfromthirdparty
disclosuremaybecomeverydistressed.Wheresuchquestionswereaskedatthestart
ofcrossexamination,insomeinstancesthewitnesswasunabletogoontoanswer
questionsrelatingtothecurrentallegedoffence.Considerationshouldbegiventothe
placeincrossexaminationwhenquestionsaboutthirdpartymaterialshouldbeputto
thewitness.

Limitsoncrossexamination
60.

Thegroundruleshearingshouldconsiderwhetheradeparturemaybenecessaryfrom
normalcrossexaminationpracticeinwhichleadingquestionsareasked,puttingthe

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casetothewitness.TheCourtofAppealhasobservedthatsomeofthemost
effectivecrossexaminationisconductedwithoutlongandcomplicatedquestions
beingposedinaleadingortaggedmanner(RvWills[2011]EWCACrim1938).It
hasendorsedlimitationofcrossexaminationincertaincircumstances,including
requiringadvocatesto:
askdirect,notleading,questions(RvEdwards[2011]EWCACrim3028)
notputthedefendantscasedirectlytothewitness,buttotellthejuryofchallenges
tothewitnesssevidence,inaformandatatimeagreedwiththejudgeandthe
partycallingthewitness(Wills,above).Inthisway,failuretocrossexaminein
suchcircumstancesisnottakenastacitacceptanceofthewitnesssevidence.
Limitsoncrossexamination
61.

Thegroundruleshearingshouldconsiderwhetheradeparturemaybenecessaryfrom
normalcrossexaminationrelevanttotheirclientscase,withoutrepeatingthe
questioningthathasalreadytakenplaceonbehalfoftheotherdefendant(s).

62.

WherelimitationsonquestioningarenecessaryandappropriateWillsstatedthat:
thelimitsmustbeclearlydefined
thejudgeshouldexplainthemtothejuryandthereasonsforthem
thejudgeoradvocatemaypointoutimportantinconsistenciesafterinsteadof
duringthewitnesssevidence,followingdiscussionwiththeadvocates.(Bealert
toallegedinconsistenciesthatarenot,infact,inconsistentoraretrivial.Remind
thejuryofimportantinconsistenciesduringsummingup)
thejudgehasadutytoensurethatlimitationsarecompliedwith.Iftheadvocatefails
tocomply,thejudgeshouldgiverelevantdirectionstothejurywhenthatoccurs
andpreventfurtherquestioningthatdoesnotcomplywiththegroundrules
settleduponinadvance.

Limitingthelengthofcrossexamination
63.

Judgesarefullyentitledtoimposereasonabletimelimitsoncrossexamination(Rule
3(10)d,CriminalProcedureRules2013).Theyareexpectedtochallengeunrealistic
estimatesinthepleaandcasemanagementhearingquestionnaireandtokeep
durationunderreviewattrial.Thejudgemaydirectthatsomemattersbedealtwith
brieflyinjustafewquestions.Durationofcrossexaminationmustnotexceedwhat
thevulnerablewitnesscanreasonablycopewith,takingaccountofhisorherage/
intellectualdevelopment,withatotaloftwohoursasthenormandhalfacourtdayat
theoutside.Thewitnesssneedsmayrequirequestioningtotakeplaceovermore
thanoneday.

Questionslikelytoproduceunreliableanswers
64.

Thegroundruleshearingmustdiscussquestionslikelytocausedifficultyforthe
individualwitness.Crossexaminationtechniquessuchascomplexvocabularyand
syntaxandleading,multipartquestionshavebeendemonstratedtomisleadand
confuseordinaryadultwitnesses,underminingtheaccuracyandcompletenessof
theirevidence(Exploringtheinfluenceofcourtroomquestioningandpretrial

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preparationonadultwitnessaccuracyEllisonandWheatcroft,2010).Questions
provingparticularlyproblematicforchildrenandadultwitnesseswithcommunication
needsincludethefollowing:
Tagquestions(e.g.Jimdidnttouchyouwithhiswilly,didhe?).Theseare
powerfullysuggestiveandcomplex:torespondaccurately,thewitnesshastobe
abletojudgewhetherthestatementpartofthequestionistrue;understandthat
thetagexpressestheadvocatespointofview,andisnotnecessarilytrue;beable
tocounterthatpointofview;and(ifthequestioncombinesbothapositiveanda
negative)understandthatapositivestatementtakesanegativetagandviceversa.
LordJudge,whenLordChiefJustice,describedtagquestionsasunacceptablefor
childrenandindicatestheneedforfulljudicialinsistencethatquestionsofa
youngwitnessshouldbeopenended(HalfaCenturyofChange:TheEvidenceof
ChildVictims,2013ToulminLecture,KingsCollegeLondon).Byanalogy,tag
questionsshouldalsobeavoidedwithadultswhoseintellectualdevelopment
equatestothatofachildoryoungperson.Moredirectquestionsshouldbeput:
e.g.DidJimtouchyou?(answer)followedbyHowdidJimtouchyou?.Thename
oftheallegedperpetratorshouldbeused,asthewitnessmaynotalways
immediatelyconnecthewiththisperson.
OtherassertionssuchasIsntitafactthat.Isthatright?,giveundueemphasisto
thesuggestion.Alternativesinclude:Areyousure?;orIsittrueJimhityou?.
Questionsintheformofstatementse.g.Youwenttohishousethatnightmay
notbeunderstoodasrequiringaresponse.LordJudge(seeabove)criticisedthe
technique,particularlydamaginginyoungwitnesscases,ofaskingalong
assertion,followedbydidhe?ordidyou?orsometimesnotevenaquestion,
butraisingthevoiceinaninflexivequestioningtone.
Doyouremember?questions.Thesearecomplex,particularlywherethewitnessis
asked,notaboutanevent,butaboutwhat(s)hetoldsomeoneelse.
Questionscontainingnegatives,whicharehardertouncode.Judgesareusuallyalert
todoublenegativesbutdifficultiescanarisefromsinglenegatives,negativeforms
(e.g.incorrect,unhappy)andconcealednegatives(egunless).
Forcedchoicequestions.Thesemayomitthecorrectanswersoitispreferableto
offeranopenendedoptionaswell.
Questionsusingfiguresofspeech(e.g.Imgoingtojogyourmemory)andthepresent
tense(e.g.Areyouatschool?)whichmaybeinterpretedliterally.
Questionsrepeatedbyanauthorityfigure,suchasanadvocate,asthesemaycause
thewitnesstoconcludethatthefirstanswerwaswrong(evenifcorrect)andto
changeit.Ifaquestionmustberepeatedbecauseananswerwasunclear,this
shouldbeexplainedtothewitness.
SeriesofleadingquestionsinvitingrepetitionofeitherYesorNoanswers.An
acquiescentwitnessmayadoptapatternofrepliescuedbythequestionerand
ceasetorespondtoindividualquestions.
Achallengethatthewitnessislyingorconfused.Ifthisisdevelopmentallyappropriate
forthewitnessitshouldbeaddressedseparately,insimplelanguage,attheendof

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crossexamination.Repeatedassertionstoayoungorvulnerablewitnessthat
(s)heislyingarelikelytocausethewitnessseriousdistress.Theydonotserveany
properevidentialpurposeandshouldnotbepermitted.
Informationforthejury
65.

Thegroundruleshearingshoulddiscusswhatinformationshouldbegiventothejury
inrespectofanyrestrictionsonquestioningandtheroleoftheintermediary.InRv
Edwards[2011]EWCACrim3028,thejudgeruledatthegroundruleshearingthat
defencecounselshouldnotputleadingquestionstoasixyearoldwitness.He
thereforeadvisedthejuryasfollows(andremindedthembeforethechildgave
evidence):
ThedirectionsthatIhavegiventoMrXinthiscasearethathecanandshouldask
anyquestiontowhichheactuallywantsanswers,butheshouldnotinvolvehimselfin
anycrossexaminationof[thewitness]bychallengingherinadifficultway.Inthiscase
thedefendanthasalreadysetoutinsomedetailwhathisdefenceis.Itisnota
questionofputtingittoawitnessandchallengingheraboutit,soyouwon'thearthe
traditionalformofcrossexamination.Ithoughtyououghttoknowthatfromthe
outset.

66.

Whenintermediariesareappointedtofacilitatecommunicationofwitnessesor
defendantsatCrownCourt,itiscustomaryforthejudgetoexplaintheirpresenceto
thejury.Theintermediarymayalsobeaskedtoexplaintothejuryhisorherroleand
qualificationsandthepurposeofanycommunicationaids.Anexampleofajudicial
directiontothejuryisasfollows:
Membersofthejury,youwillseetwopeople[inthelivelinkroom/dock].Oneisthe
witness[ordefendant].Theother,Mrs.X,istheretoassistthecourt;thetechnical
termforherpositionisanintermediary.Thewitnesssuffersfromlearning
difficulties.BecauseofthisIhaveruled,followingrepresentationsfromboththe
prosecutionandthedefence,thatthereshouldbeanintermediarytoassist
communication.Anintermediaryisnotanexpertanddoesnotgiveevidence.Sheis
anindependentperson,acommunicationspecialistheretoassistwithtwoway
communicationincourt.Shewillonlyinterveneifacommunicationissueisidentified.
Questionswillbeshort,simpleandstraightforwardanditislikelywewilltakebreaks.I
muststressthatgivingevidencewithanintermediarytoassistcommunicationis
perfectlynormalinacasesuchasthis.Itmustnotinanywaybeconsideredbyyouas
prejudicialtotheaccused.[Additionally,inthecaseofanintermediaryappointedto
assistadefendantthroughoutthetrial:Allthisisinordertoenablethedefendantto
understandfullytheevidenceinthiscaseandtheproceedings.]

Trialpracticenoteofboundaries
67.

TheAdvocacyTrainingCouncilrecommendsthatadvocatescreateatrialpracticenote
ofboundaries,withanindicationthatallpartiesexpectthejudgetoensureagreed
groundrulesarecompliedwith(RaisingtheBar2011,anapproachendorsedinRv
Wills[2011]EWCACrim1938).

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5Reportingrestrictions
68.

Evenwhenassuredaboutreportingrestrictions,childrenandvulnerableadult
witnessesremainconcernedthatenoughdetailwillbepublishedtomakethem
identifiable,especiallyinsmallcommunities.Keyguidanceincludes:
Reportingrestrictions:childrenandyoungpeopleasvictims,witnessesand
defendants.ThesearesetoutinCPSonlinepolicy.Section39,ChildrenandYoung
PersonsAct1933andenablecourtstorestrictreportingtheidentityofvictims,
witnessesanddefendantsunder18inmagistrates'courtsandtheCrownCourt.
Section44requiresallcourtstohaveregardtothewelfareofsuchchildren.The
childswelfareislikelytofavourarestrictiononpublication.
PressAssociation,R(ontheapplicationof)vCambridgeCrownCourt[2012]EWCA
Crim2434.TheCourtofAppealallowedanappealagainstatrialjudgesimposition
ofanindefiniteprohibitiononthepublicationofanythingrelatingtothenameof
thedefendantwhichcouldleadtotheidentificationofthecomplainant[anadult
rapevictim]whichcouldhaveseriousconsequencesforthecourseofjustice.The
LordChiefJusticesaidthatitwasforthepresstodecidehowappropriatelyto
reportthecasesoastoensuretheanonymityofthecomplainant.However:
thejudgeisentitledtoexpressconcernsastothepossibleconsequencesof
publication,andindeedtoengageinadiscussionwithrepresentativesofthepress
presentincourtabouttheseissues,whetheronhisowninitiative,orinaresponse
toarequestfromthem.Thejudgeisinchargeofthecourt,andifhethinksit
appropriatetooffercomment,weanticipatethataresponsibleeditorwould
carefullyconsideritbeforedecidingwhatshouldbepublished.Theessentialpoint
isthatwhateverdiscussionsmaytakeplace,thejudicialobservationscannot
constituteanorderbindingontheeditororthereporter.
ReportingonCourtCasesinvolvingSexualOffence(PressComplaintsCommission
2011).Thiswarnseditorstotakeaccountofinformationaboutthecasethatis
alreadyinthepublicdomaininordertoavoidjigsawidentificationofthevictim.
Theguidanceincludesexamplesofwherepublicationofsuchinformationledtoa
complaintbeingmadeandupheld.
TheFamilyCourts:MediaAccess&Reporting(PresidentoftheFamilyDivision,Judicial
CollegeandSocietyofEditors2011).Thissummarisesthecurrentposition.
Theviewsofchildrenandyoungpeopleregardingmediaaccesstothefamilycourts
(ChildrensCommissionerforEngland2010).Thisfoundthat96percentof
childrenwhohadbeeninvolvedinfamilyproceedingswouldhavebeenunwilling
totalktoaclinicianifadvisedthatareportermightbeincourt.Thereport
expressedconcernthatfamilycourtsmaybefacedwithmakingdifficultdecisions
withincompleteevidencefromchildrenandlimitedornoinformationfrom
cliniciansaboutchildrenswishesandfeelings.

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6Attrial
Beforethevulnerablepersongivesevidence
69.

Takeaccountofthepersonsactualarrivaltimeatcourtandasktobeupdatedabout
thetimetheyhavewaitedandtheimpactofanydelayonhimorher.

70.

Confirmthetimetableandthatthefollowingcheckshavealreadybeenmade:
Alldirectionsareinplaceandthepersonsneedsarecateredfor.
TheequipmentisworkingandifaDVDistobeused,thatitiscompatiblewith
equipmentinthecourtroomwherethetrialislisted.
Inthecaseofavulnerablewitness,thatthedefendantcannotbeseenoverlivelink
(checkedbeforethewitnessentersthelivelinkroom).

71.

Earlysignsofthepersonslossofconcentrationmaynotbeapparenttothecourt,
especiallyoverthelivelink.Asktheintermediaryorsupporteraccompanyingthe
witnessordefendanttoalertyou.

Simplifiedinstructions
72.

Effortstosimplifylanguageshouldnotbeconfinedtocrossexamination.Any
instructionsshouldavoidcourtjargonandfiguresofspeech.Usesimplelanguagewith
whichthepersonisfamiliar.Thisincludesadvicetoawitnessabouttogiveevidence,
whichshouldbetailoredtotheirneedsandunderstanding,forexample:
Tellthetruth.Dontguess.Telleverythingyouremember.
Sayifyoudontknowtheanswer.
Sayifyoudontunderstand(butdonotrelyonwitnessestodoso.Theyoftentryto
answeranyway.Bealerttononverbalcluestomiscommunication,e.g.puzzled
looks,knittedeyebrows,downcasteyesandlongpauses).
Youshouldsayifsomeonesayssomethingwrong.(Researchshowsthattellingeven
ordinaryadultwitnessesthattheydonothavetoagreewithquestionersifwhat
theysayisnotcorrecthelpsthemgivemoreaccurateresponses).
WewilltakearestinaboutXminutes.Ifyouneedarestbeforethen,tellme(but
witnessesmaynotaskforabreakevenifneeded,togetthingsoverwith).
Tellmeifyouhaveaproblem.Icanalwaysseeyouoverthelivelinkevenwhenyou
cantseeme.(Somewitnessesfailtotellthejudgeaboutaproblembecausethey
cannotseethejudgeandbelievethejudgecannotseethem.Givingthewitnessa
colouredsignalcardinthelivelinkroommayhelpthemtoindicateaproblemor
theneedforabreak).

Whilethevulnerablepersonisgivingevidence
73. Ensurethatsomeoneusingthelivelinkcanalwaysseethequestionersface.
74. Donotallowthewitnesstogivehisorheraddressaloudwithoutgoodreason.
75. Ensuredurationofquestioningisappropriatetothewitnesssneedsandattentionspan.
Donotexceedtheestimatedtimewithoutgoodreason.Monitorthetimeapproaching
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plannedbreaks,asotherwisetheagreedtimeisoftenexceeded.Bealerttotheneedfor
unscheduledbreaks(theneedmaybeurgent).Givingthewitnessabriefrestis
sometimessufficient,withoutsendingoutthejury.Questioningmaybecurbedifthe
witnessbecomesseriouslydistressedorill.
76. Bealertforpossiblemiscommunicationandasktheadvocatetorephrase.Donotask
Doyouunderstand?asmanyvulnerablepeopledonotrecognisewhendifficulties
occurorwouldbeembarrassedtoadmitthis.Ifappropriate,checkdirectlyon
understandingbyaskingthepersontoexplainthequestion.
77. Preventquestioningthatlacksrelevanceorisrepetitive,oppressiveorintimidating.
78. Wheregroundrulesoncrossexaminationarenecessary,youhaveadutytoensurethat
limitationsarecompliedwith.Giverelevantdirectionstothejuryatthetimewhenthe
failuretocomplyoccurs(RvWills[2011]EWCACrim1938).
79. Iftheadvocateisunableorunwillingtoadapthisorherquestionsappropriatelydespite
repeatedinterventions,somejudgesexercisetheirdutytoensuredirectionsare
compliedwithbytakingoverandaskingtheadvocatesquestionsinasimplifiedway.
80. Bepreparedtoaddressthejuryaboutanadvocatespersistentfailuretocomplywith
directionswhenthatoccursandtopreventfurtherquestioningthatdoesnotcomply
withthegroundrulessetinadvance.

7Theimportanceofroutinefeedback
81. Judgesandmagistratesshouldrequestregularfeedbackfromthoseresponsibleforthe
welfareofvulnerablewitnessesanddefendantsaboutwhatlocalarrangementswork
wellandwhatcouldbeimproved,andencouragetheuseoflocalsurveysforthis
purpose.

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6.PhysicalDisabilityOverview
Keypoints

Disabilityhastwokeyelements.Thefirstisthelimitationimposedupontheindividual
byreasonoftheirphysical,mentalorsensoryimpairment.Thisisthemedicalmodel
ofdisability.Thesecondisthedisadvantageordifficultywhichsocietyimposesonthe
individualintheirenvironment,essentiallythelackofadjustmentthatmayallowthe
disabledpersontoaccessthesamefacilitiesasthosewithoutdisability.Thisisthe
socialmodelofdisability.TheUNConventionoftheRightsofPeoplewithDisabilities
2006definespersonswithdisabilitiesasincludingthosewhohavelongtermphysical,
mental,intellectualorsensoryimpairmentswhich,ininteractionwithvariousbarriers
mayhindertheirfullandeffectiveparticipationinsocietyonanequalbasiswith
others.36

Anydisadvantagethatadisabledpersonhasinsocietyshouldnotbereinforcedbythe
legalsystem;theindividualwhocannotcopewiththefacilitiesandproceduresofthe
courtsortribunalsisasentitledtojusticeasthosewithoutthisdisadvantage.

Itisnotsimplyaquestionofjudgesbeingpoliteandunderstandingwhenfacedwith
peoplewhosedisabilitiesareclearlyapparent.Allmembersofthejudiciaryshouldbe
abletorecognisedisabilitieswhentheyexist,identifytheimplications,knowwhat
powerstheyhavetocompensatefortheresultingdisadvantageandunderstandhow
tousethesepowerswithoutcausingprejudicetootherparties.

Ifanyoftheparties,witnessesoradvocatesinvolvedincourtortribunalproceedings
hasadisabilitywhichmayimpairtheirabilitytoparticipate,itisimportantthatthisis
identifiedatasearlyastageaspossible.Stepscanthenbetakentoensurethatany
hearingstakeplaceinaccessibleroomsandsuitablefacilitiesareavailable.

Alitigantincivilorfamilyproceedingsistreatedinadifferentmannerunderthecourt
rulesonlyinthecaseoflegalincapacity.Theproceduresthenensurethata
representativeisappointed,compromisesandsettlementsareapprovedbythecourt,
andthereissupervisionofmoneyrecovered.Therewillbeothercases,however,
beforecourtsandtribunalsinwhichdisabilitymanifestsitselfasahurdleforalitigant
thatrequirescompensatorytreatment.Itisthosemattersthatarecoveredinthis
section.

InadditiontothisBenchBookthereaderwillfindassistanceat
www.theadvocatesgateway.orgwhichisanimportantresourceonallaspectsofdealing
withdisabilityandothervulnerabilities.

Introduction
1.

TheintentionofDisabilityistoprovidepracticalinformationthatmaybeusedwhen
consideringtheneedsofindividualswithawiderangeofdisabilitiesandimpairments,
bothobviousandhidden,physicalandmental.Theaimistoenablelitigants,

36

Article 1. UNCRPD entered into force on 3 May 2008 and both UK and the EU are signatories to the
Convention. www.un.org/disabilities

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defendantsandwitnesses(and,whereappropriate,advocates,jurorsandothers
involvedinthecourtprocess)withdisabilitiestoparticipatefullyintheprocessof
justice.Makingreasonableadjustmentsoraccommodatingtheneedsofdisabled
peopleisnotaformoffavouritismorbiastowardsdisabledpeoplebutmaybe
necessarytohelpprovidealevelplayingfieldbygivingdisabledpeoplethe
opportunitytoparticipateincourtandtribunalhearingsinwhatevercapacity.
Disabledpeopleneedtobegiventheopportunitytoexpressthemselvesproperlyand,
ifawitness,togivetheirevidencetothecourtortribunal.Toachievethisaimeach
personwithadisabilitymustbeassessedandtreatedbythejudgeortribunalpanelas
anindividualsothattheirspecificneedscanbeconsideredandappropriateaction
taken.Failuretodothismayresultinadecisionbeingoverturnedonappeal.
2.

TheadviceintheEqualTreatmentBenchBookasregardsdealingwithpartiesto
proceedingswithdisabilitiesisimportantadvicewhicheveryjudgeandjusticeisunder
adutytotakeintoaccountwhendealingwithsuchparties.
R(ontheapplicationofKing)vIsleworthCrownCourt[2001]AllER(D)48(Jan),CA

3.

Anyneedforanadjustmenttocourtortribunalprocedurecanusuallybeassessed
quitequicklybutthejudgemustbalancethisagainsttheneedforafairtrialtoensure
thatjusticeisdonetobothsides.

Incidenceofdisability
4.

Theincidenceofdisabilitymaybemorefrequentthanisgenerallyimaginedandmany
peoplehavemorethanonedisability.AreportbythePapworthTrust37showedthat:
a. 10.4millionpeoplehavealongtermillness,healthproblemordisabilitythis
includes770,000childrenunder16
b. Only17%arebornwithdisabilitiesmostareacquiredlaterinlife.
c. Sometwomillionpeoplehavesignificantsightloss
d. Mostimpairmentisinvisiblelessthan8%ofdisabledpeopleuseawheelchair,
approximately750,000intheUK
e. 1.5millionhavelearningdifficulties3in100.About20%aresevere.
f. 1in5adultsintheUKisfunctionallyilliteratemeaningtheycouldnot,for
example,useatelephonedirectoryorinternetsearchengine.
g. 1in200peoplehavediagnosedpsychosesforexampleschizophrenia
h. 1in6havediagnosedneurosisanxiety/depression.

5.

Itmustbeunderstoodthat,althoughinrecentyearsmentalhealthproblemsbearless
stigmathantheyoncehad,therewillbethosewhomaynotwishtoacknowledgethe
problem.

Empoweringdisabledpeople
6.

Wenowadoptasocialmodelofdisabilitywhichseestheproblemasarisingfromthe
barriersconstructedbysocietyratherthaninthephysicalormentalimpairmentof

37

Disability in the UK 2011

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theindividualthesocalledmedicalmodel.Thus,tothewheelchairusertheproblem
isthatthebuildinghasstepsbutnorampandtothehearingimpairedpersonthe
problemisthatthevenuedoesnothavetheloopsystem.TheUNConventionofthe
RightsofPeoplewithDisabilities2006,whichisbindingonUKcourtsandtribunals,
definespersonswithdisabilitiesasincludingthosewhohavelongtermphysical,
mental,intellectualorsensoryimpairmentswhich,ininteractionwithvariousbarriers
mayhindertheirfullandeffectiveparticipationinsocietyonanequalbasiswith
others.
7.

Careinthecommunitypoliciesmeanthatmorepeoplewithseriousdisabilities
encounterthejusticesysteminoneformoranotherandwithcutbacksinpublic
fundingfewerhaveasolicitororwelfarerightsrepresentativetoassistthem.This
pointstoanincreasedroleforthosesittinginjudgement,whomayneedtotake
positivestepstoamelioratetheeffectsofthedisability.Itishelpfultorememberthat
itisthestrongestcasethatshouldwin,notthestrongestlitigant.

Ageneralapproach
8.

Astartisforthejudgeortribunalpaneltolookaroundthecourtortribunalroomand
considerwhethereveryonepresentcanparticipateasrequired.Ifthereisdoubt,such
aswhereapartyorwitnessiselderlyorotherwisedisabled,asimpleenquirycanbe
madedirectlyorthroughanusher:Areyoucomfortablesittingthere?Canyou
see/hear?Areyouwarmenough?Itshouldbemadeclearthatitisacceptablefor
anyonepresenttosayifaproblemdevelopsduringthehearing.

9.

Simplytohaveshownconcernbyaskingquestionswillhavereassuredthepersonof
whomenquiryismadethattheyareafullparticipantintheproceedingsand
establishedpositiveexpectationsthatjusticeistobedone.Italsosendsthemessage
tootherspresentthatthisisnotapersonwhomaybesidelined.Ifanegativeanswer
isreceiveditmaybepossibletoresolvetheproblembytakingrelativelysimple
measuressuchasmovingthepersontoadifferentposition.Whenachairisprovided
foradisabledpersonitisimportanttoensurethatthisisofasuitableheightandtype;
theanxietythatoftenaccompaniesparticipationinthelegalprocessshouldnotbe
madeworsebyphysicaldiscomfort.

10.

InhisarticleEqualAccesstoJusticeforDisabledPeople,DistrictJudgeAshton
highlightsapositiveapproachtopeoplewithdisabilitiesorimpairments:
Itisnotsufficienttoensurethatwheelchairuserscangainaccesstothecourtroom;
physicaldisabilitiescomeinmanyotherforms.Defectivevision,hearingimpairment
andspeechdefectsmayallaffectanindividual'sabilitytoparticipateinthe
proceedingsunlesscompensatedforbyasympatheticapproachandtheuseof
availableaids.

11.

Hegoesontoreferspecificallytotheissuessurroundingtheobtainingofevidence
fromthosewithmentalimpairmentwhoarethemselvesthevictimsofcrimes,andthe
concerninthecriminaljusticesystemattheapparentinabilitytopunishthosewho
mistreatthosewithlearningdisabilitiesbecauseoftheproblemsinhearingand
acceptingtheirevidence.Hiswordsremainatouchstone:
Asimpleassessmentofsomeonesabilitytotakeanoathinthewitnessboxandfacea
confrontationinacourtroomisnolongeranacceptableapproachtotheprotectionof

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thosewithsuchdisabilities;allavailableevidenceshouldbeevaluatedandalearning
disabledwitnesstreatedwiththesamecareasachild,anindividualapproachbeing
tailoredtothespecificneedorneedsidentified.

Apositiveapproach
12.

Donotbeginwithanyassumptionsbeyondthosethatareclearlyjustifiedbywhatis
immediatelyandincontrovertiblyevident.Thepersoninvolvedshouldbeaddressed
directlyandinanormalmannerunlessanduntilitisclearthatsomeotherapproach
shouldbeadopted.Thenenquireastospecialneedsratherthanthenatureofthe
disability:Doyouneedassistancetoreadthis?ratherthanIsyoursightimpaired?
Ascertainasfaraspossiblewhatfunctionsareaffectedsothatyoucandecidewhat
adjustmentsneedtobemade.Iftheconditionisknown,ordiscloseddoremember
thatwithinanyconditiontheremaybevaryinglevelsofimpairment,soageneral
knowledgeoftheconditionanditseffectsmaybeinadequatetodealwiththe
particularindividualappropriately,althoughitisastart.

13.

Peoplevaryintheirsensitivityaboutdisclosingtheirimpairmentandthosewith
disabilitiesareoftenreluctanttomakeafussaboutthem,soanyquestioningneeds
tobesensitive.Thedisabledpersonmaybeembarrassedorselfconscious,yetthe
judiciaryneedstobeawareofhowtheyarecopingifwearetoensurethatfurther
stepsaretakenasandwhenrequired.Wemustascertainthiswithoutappearing
patronising.

WitnessesorParties
14.

Aperson'sphysicalandmentalhealthmayinfluencetheirexperienceasawitnessor
theirabilitytoparticipateasaparty.Whilstdiscussionsoftenfocusuponlearning
disabilities,physicalimpairmentandmentalhealthproblemsmayalsomakeitdifficult
forsomepeopletoparticipateorgiveevidence.Theseconditionsarenotmutually
exclusive.Physicalandintellectualdisabilitiescanbeassociated,suchasmayoccur
withanacquiredbraininjurywheremotorskillsarealsoaffected,orwherethereare
knowncomorbiditiessuchaslearningdisabilityandepilepsy.Additionallyphysical
disabilitymaybeaccompaniedbymentalillness;forexample,reactivedepression.A
witnesswhohasmorethanoneconditionislikelytobeespeciallyvulnerable.

ApproachtopotentialDisabilityissues
15.

Enquireastowhatisneededratherthanthenatureandextentoftheimpairment.

16.

Talkdirectlytothedisabledpersonevenifthereisaninterpreter,carerorpersonal
assistantandfacethispersonifyoucanwithlipreadingthisisparticularly
important.

17.

Avoiddisclosureofmedicalhistorieswherepossible.

18.

Whereaconditionmayrequireregularbreakstorestorusethelavatoryforexample,
indicatehowthedisabledpersonwillindicatetheneedforabreaktoavoidthem
appearingtoneedtoaskpermissiononeachoccasion.

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Terminology
19.

Inrecommendingtheterminologytobeusedinrelationtodisability,itisimportantto
acknowledgethatsomeActsofParliament,particularlyolderones,useterminology
thatwouldnowbeconsideredoutofdateandinsomecasesinappropriate.Judicial
officeholderswillcontinuetoworkwiththosestatutorydefinitionsandtestsuntil
suchtimeasthelegislationisupdated.Whilstlegalfindingsmustcontinuetobe
phrasedwithinthetechnicaldefinitions,thisdoesnotjustifythewideruseof
languagethatmayoffendandjudgesshouldbeencouragedtoconversein
appropriateterms.

20.

Adisabilityisnotthesameasanillness.Itisapersonalqualityinthesameway,for
example,asisbeingtall,White,Blackorshortsighted.

21.

Thetermsimpairmentanddisabilityarefrequentlytreatedasiftheymeanthesame
thing,buttheydonot.Forexampleapersonbornwithjustonekidneyclearlyhas
impairment,buttheyhavenodisabilityfromitunlessthatkidneyisnotfunctioning.

22.

Itmaybenecessarytodistinguishthesedifferentialaspectsofanillnessorcondition.
Itissuggestedthatacorrectuseofsomecommontermsisasinparagraph29.

23.

Anindividualmayhaveimpairment,acondition,anillnessordisorder;thismayresult
inadisabilitywhichcomprises:
a. Thefunctionalorpracticallimitationimposedupontheindividualbyreasonof
theirphysical,mentalorsensoryimpairment,oracombinationofthose,and
b. Thedisadvantagewhichthisimposesonanindividualintheirenvironment.

24.

Ifthedisabilityisofasufficientdegreetheindividualmaybetreatedaslegally
incapacitated(orincompetent)andthismaybedueto:
a. Mentalincapacity,or
b. Physicalinability,or
c. Both

25.

Handicapisanoutmodedtermanditsuseistobeavoided.

26.

Thereareavarietyofdefinitionsorteststhatmaybeusedindifferentcontextsandit
maybeimportantinalegalcontexttoidentifytheappropriateone.Forexampleina
countycourtclaimofdisabilitydiscriminationthedefinitioniscontainedinthe
EqualityAct2010.

Useofterms
27.

Tousetermsaslabels,especiallyinthewrongcontext,isstigmatisinganddemeaning
tothepersonsconcerned.Italsoleadstoassumptionsthatmaybefalse,orjust
stereotyping.

28.

Thereisnot,however,agreementastoalluseofterminology.Forexample,the
phrasepersonwithadisabilityisthechoiceofsomeorganisationsbecauseit
emphasisesthepersonratherthanthedisability,butdisabledpersonwaspreferred
bytheDisabilityRightsCommissionbecauseitreflectsthesocialmodeloftheperson
whoisdisabledbysociety.

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29.

Thereareexpressionsandtermswhichshouldnotbeusedastheymaycauseoffence
a. Avoid:
i. Comparisonswithnormalandreferringtothedisabledasiftheywerea
distinctclass;
ii. Referringtosomeoneashandicappeduseinsteaddisabledperson;
iii. Talkingaboutpeopleasiftheyaremedicalconditions:epilepticorarthritic
useinsteadpersonwithepilepsy.
b. Termstoavoid:
i. wheelchairbounduseinsteadwheelchairuser;
ii. suffersfromuseinsteadhasorothermoreneutralterminology;
iii. mentalhandicapuseinsteadlearningdisabilitiesorlearningdifficulties;
iv. mentalillnessuseinsteadmentalhealthissuesormentalhealthproblem;
v. theblinduseinsteadblindpeopleorpeoplewhoarevisuallyimpaired;
vi. thedeafuseinsteaddeafpeopleorpeoplewhoarehearingimpaired.
c. OtherTermstouse:
i. physicaldisability,sensoryimpairments,partiallysighted,visuallyimpaired
ii. deafwithoutspeechprelinguallydeaf,hearingimpaired.

Trialmanagementanddisability
30.

Trialmanagementisconcernedwithhowahearingmaybestbemanagedwherea
party,witness,defendant,jurororadvocatehasadisabilitywhichmightbecomea
consideration.Itisbasedoncommonsenseandcommoncourtesywhichshouldin
anyevent,beappliedtothemanagementofthehearing.Moredetailedguidanceon
stepsthatmustorcanbetakenisofferedinthefollowingchapters.HMCTS
administrationhasexperienceandsomeexpertiseastofacilitieswhichmaybe
necessaryandtheiravailability;askyourvenuemanager.

31.

Theoverallaimmustbetoensurethatnodisabilityamountstoahandicaptothe
attainmentofjustice.Thepersonwhohasdifficultyincopingwiththefacilitiesand
proceduresofthecourtsisasentitledtojusticeasthosewhoknowhowtousethe
legalsystemtotheiradvantage.Therearemanypotentialsourcesofdiscrimination
andnotbeingheardorbeingmisunderstoodbythejudgeisasdiscriminatoryasan
inabilitytoaccessacourtortribunalbuilding.

32.

ThereisaPracticeDirectionforTribunalsissuedbytheSeniorPresidentofTribunals
inNovember2008.Itisdiscussedbelow.

Keyelementsforpeoplewithdisabilities
33.

Likelytoneedmoretimesoalongertimeestimatemayberequiredforahearing

34.

Maynotbeabletohear,read,beunderstoodorfullycomprehendwhatistaking
place.

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35.

Maybeusingupmuchoftheirenergytocopewiththedisabilityandthereforetire
moreeasily.

36.

Thestressofattendingmayexacerbatesymptoms

37.

Somedisabilitiesmaymakeitimpossibletoattendahearingatall.

Prehearingplanning
38.

Althoughthosewithdisabilitiesarefrequentlyencounteredinthelegalprocessthere
hashistoricallybeenatendencytotreateachinstanceasaoneoffandthereisno
coordinatedapproach.

39.

Makinganyspecialarrangementsinadvancewillsavetimeand,asimportantly
embarrassmentatthehearing.Thereisscopeinboththecivil,criminalandtribunal
processestoidentifyatanearlystagewhetheranyoneinvolvedhasspecialneeds.
Theformscompletedbythepartiesshouldmakeenquirysothattheadministration
knowwhenfacilitiestoaccommodatedisabilitiesarerequiredandthejudiciarymust
bealerttowhenspecialdirectionsareneeded.Advisersshouldbeencouragedtotell
thecourtortribunalthatalitigantorwitnesshasparticularrequirements.

40.

Itisofteneasytocompensateforadisability,butinsomeinstancesspecialfacilitiesor
proceduresareneededwhichrequireadvanceplanningorspecialistknowledge.
Accessibilityconsultantsshouldbeavailableforthispurpose.Ifindoubtastowhatis
required,askthedisabledpersondirectlyandinadvancetoindicatewhatmayassist
theirparticipation.Thiswillnotonlyensureamorejustoutcomebutalsoresultin
moreefficientuseoftime.

Criminalproceedings
41.

Incriminalcasesthepreliminaryhearingorthepleaandcasemanagementhearingis
thebestplacetoaddresspotentialproblems.Theproformaformusedbythecourt
containsadedicatedspecialmeasuresboxinwhichpartiescanidentifyandaddress
suchquestions,givinganindicationofwhatsupportwouldbeuseful.Itisatthisstage
thattheprovisionsoftheYouthJusticeandCriminalEvidenceAct1999shouldbe
consideredandappropriatedirectionsgiveninanticipation(e.g.Specialmeasures
directions).

Civiljusticeinbothcourtsandtribunals
42.

Proceedingsaregovernedbytheoverridingobjectiveofenablingthecourtortribunal
todealwithcasesjustly.Thedetailsoftheoverridingobjectivevaryaccordingtothe
jurisdictionbutusuallyincludes:

a. Ensuringthatthepartiesareonanequalfooting
b. Savingexpense
c.Dealingwithcasesinwayswhichareproportionatetotheissuesinvolved,
importanceofthecase,complexityoftheissuesandfinancialpositionofeachparty;

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d.Ensuringthatcasesaredealtwithexpeditiouslyandfairly;
e.Allottingtocasesanappropriateshareofavailableresources.
43.

Thecourtortribunalmustseektogiveeffecttotheoverridingobjectiveandthe
partiesarerequiredtohelp.Insteadofleavingthemtoprogresslitigation,thejudge
nowactsascasemanager,oftenadoptinganinterventionistrole.Thismayinclude
encouragingthepartiestocooperate,decidinghowtheissuescanbestberesolved
andfixingtimetables.Inadditioncourthearingsshouldbedealtwithwithouttheneed
forthepartiestoattendatcourtifpossible.

44.

Astheintentionistoensurethatthepartiesareonanequalfootingthereismuchof
potentialbenefittopeoplewithdisabilitiesorotherdisadvantages.Whilstthereisno
specificmentionofadutytoaddressthepersonalneedsoflitigantsandtheemphasis
mayappeartobeuponfinancialinequality,theoverridingobjectiveiswideenoughto
encompassdisabilityissuesandthejudgeinmanagingcasesshouldtaketheseinto
account.

Implications
45.

Thebestoutcomeisforanyspecialneedstobeidentifiedatthepreliminarystages
andforprocedurestomeetanydifficultiesordisadvantagetobeinplaceatthe
commencementofthehearing.Thecourtortribunalstaffshouldcheckwithany
personwithadiscloseddisability(ortheirsolicitororotherrepresentative)whatis
required,orwhetherwhatisbeingproposedisappropriate.Oftenattendingcourtor
atribunalvenuecanimposeconsiderablestressonapersonwithadisabilityand
considerationshouldbegiventothenumberofpretrialhearingswhichareheldand
howthesemightbemanagedorlimited.Thismayespeciallyapplyinfamilycases
wherereviewsareheldmorefrequentlythaninotherformsoflitigation.Optionsnow
availableincludetelephoneconferencesortheuseofvideolinks.Consideration
shouldbegivenastowhetheradisabledpersonmightaccessavideolinkfroma
local/communityfacility.HMCTSshouldbeabletoinvestigateonthedirectionofthe
judge.

Thehearing
46.

Measureswhichcanbetakenatthehearingtoensurethatvulnerablelitigantsand
witnessesarefairlyheardhavetwomainaims:
a. Toreducethefearandtraumaofattending;
b. Toensurethatthequalityofevidenceispreservedasfaraspossible.

47.

Listedintheboxbelowaresomegeneralpoints.Theyareonlybroadindications
owingtotheneedtotreateachpersonasanindividual.Itisimportanttobeawareof
theimpactoftheproceedingsgenerallyonthepersonwiththedisability.Thismeans
lookingoutforsignsofstress,discomfort,fatigueorlackofconcentration.Ifpossible,
thoughwithintheconfinesoftheneedtobefairtobothsidesandtherequirements
ofafairtrial,actionshouldbetakentoalleviatethesituationafteranenquiryofthe
personwithadisability.Supportcannotbeforcedonpeoplehowever,anditmustbe
borneinmindthatapersonwithadisabilitymayrefuseanofferofassistance.

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Disability

Measuresthatcanbetakenatthehearing
48.

Positionacarerneartothedisabledperson

49.

Havefrequentbreaks.Concentrationmaybeimpairedortheremaybeaneedtoeat
ordrinkmorefrequentlyperhapstorestorebloodsugarlevelsortakemedicationand
thenallowtimeforthistowork.Askifapersonwithphysicaldisabilityneedsaperiod
ofmovementtorelievediscomfort.

50.

Ensurethatthosewithmentalhealthproblemsorlearningdisabilitieshavethings
explainedtothemslowlyormorethanonce.Theymaybeparticularlynervousand
understress.

51.

Considertheorderinwhichevidenceisheardsothattheyarenotkeptwaitinglonger
thannecessary.

52.

Ifapplicable,itmaybehelpfulifwigsandgownsareremoved.

53.

Considerthelayoutoftheroomandwhetherthisislikelytocausediscomfort.

54.

Permitapersonwithvisualimpairmenttobeaccompaniedbyaguidedog.Remember
thatthedogwillneedacomfortbreak,waterandperhapsawalk.

55.

Considerthestressplacedonpersonswithahearingimpairmentofconcentratingand
communicatinginadifferentenvironmentthroughaninterpreter,andthelengthof
timethatitisreasonabletoexpectasigninginterpretertoworkwithoutabreak,
generallyconsideredtobeabout20minutesowingtothephysicalnatureofthisform
ofinterpretation.

56.

Considerhowtocopewiththevarioustypesofequipmentthatapersonmayneedto
useinordertocommunicate.Thismaybeslowerandmoretiringthanotherformsof
communication.

57.

Beawareofthepowerstopreventinappropriatequestioning,andusethemwhere
appropriate.

58.

Ensurethatfreshdrinkingwaterisavailableandtheroomisnottoocrowdedor
stuffy.

Adjournments
59.

Ifahearingbeforeacourtortribunalneedstogopartheardorbeadjournedasa
resultoftheneedtomakereasonableadjustmentsforapersonwithadisability,itis
goodpracticetorecordthatthisisthereasonfortheextendedhearingor
adjournmentandensuretheiravailabilitypriortotherecommencementofthecase.

Jurorsanddisability
60.

Therewillbeoccasionswhenadisabledpersoniscalledforjuryservice.Guidanceis
providedins.9BoftheJuriesAct1974whichstatesthatitisforthejudgeto
determinewhetherornotapersonshouldactasajuror.Thepresumptionisthatthey
shouldsoactunlessthejudgeisoftheopinionthatthepersonwillnot,onaccountof
disability,becapableofactingeffectivelyasajuror,inwhichcasethatpersonshould
bedischarged.

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Disability

61.

Therehavebeenmanycasesinwhichpersonswhoareblindhaveservedonjuries.In
ReOsman[1996]1CrAppR126,itwasheldthatapersonwhoisprofoundlydeafand
unabletofollowtheproceedingsincourt,ordeliberationsinthejuryroom,without
theassistanceofaninterpreterinsignlanguageshouldbedischargedfromjury
servicepursuanttos.9Bbecausesuchapersoncouldnotacteffectivelyasajurorand
itwouldbeanincurableirregularityintheproceedingsfortheinterpretertoretire
withthejurytothejuryroom.Thesamereasoningmightapplyifapersoncalledfor
juryservicerequiredthefulltimeattendanceofacarer.InacaseinLiverpool,a
disabledperson'scarerwasallowedtositneartothispersoninthecourtroombut
whenitcametoretiringthecarerremainedoutsidethejuryroomandtheother
membersofthejuryattendedtotheircolleague'sneeds.

62.

Thefundamentalproblemappearstobethepresenceofathirteenthpersoninthe
juryroom,becausenoevidencehaseverbeenpresentedthatadeafjurorislessable
toassessthedemeanourofawitness.Legislationmayberequiredtoovercomethis
obstacle.TherehasasyetbeennochallengeundertheEqualityAct2010orUN
ConventionontheRightsofPersonswithDisabilities.

Thestatutoryenvironment
63.

Themainstatutoryprovisionsdirectlybearingupondisabilityinthecourtroomare:
a. theEqualityAct2010(theEA);
b. theHumanRightsAct1998(theHRA);
c. theYouthJusticeandCriminalEvidenceAct1999.

64.

Seebelowforamoredetaileddescriptionofthelegislationregulatingdiscrimination
againstdisabledpeople.

TheEqualityActduties:compliancebyHMCTS
65.

WhilstthecorejudicialfunctionsareexemptedadministrationofCourtsandTribunal
venueswill,asundertheDisabilityDiscriminationAct1995(repealedbytheEquality
Act2010),requirecomplianceastotheprovisionofappropriatefacilities,andlegal
actionmayfollowfailureinthatregard.Howeveritistheroleofthejudiciarytoassist
theadministrationtocomplywithitslegalobligations.

66.

Thoseissuesarereallyoutsidethepurviewofthisbook,asmostjudicialofficeholders
willnotbeconcernedwiththepracticalaspects.

67.

Irrespectiveofanystatutoryobligationtheethosofthisvolumeisthatthelegal
processoverwhichthejudiciaryhascontrolorinfluenceshouldasfaraspossible
assistthoseinapositionofvulnerabilitytoaccessjusticeequallywithothersin
society.

EqualityActClaimsdealtwithbythecourts
68.

Mostcivilclaimsaredealtwithinthecountycourtsbecauseofthelevelofdamages.
Employmenttribunalsdealwiththecasesthatariseinanemploymentcontext.

69.

TherehasbeenasuccessfulclaimagainstHMCourtsServicewhereajudgeproceeded
withahearingafterapartycomplainedthattheloopsystemdidnotworkandhe

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couldnothear.Otherpracticalexamplesincludethatitmaybeanunlawfulactnotto
provideaninterpreterforadeafwitnessorlargeprintorBrailleifrequestedfora
personwhosesightisimpaired.
70.

Throughthesecases,judgesarebecomingawareoftherealitiesoflifeforpeoplewith
disabilitiesandthestandardsthatarebeingsetareopentocriticalcommentinthe
publicdomain.

TheHumanRightsAct1998(theHRA)
71.

TheHRAhasalsohadanimpactonboththeworkofthecourtsandtribunalsandthe
wayinwhichtheyareconducted.Itprovidesconsiderablesupportforlitigantswith
disabilitiesandthisislikelytoproducemanynewargumentsandchallengestothe
traditionalwaysofdoingthings.UKlaw,wheneverpossible,istobeinterpretedina
waythatiscompatiblewiththerightscontainedintheEuropeanConventionon
HumanRights.Inaddition,unders.6oftheHRA,itisunlawfulforapublicauthorityto
actinawaywhichisincompatiblewiththeConvention.

72.

Article14oftheConventionprohibitsdiscriminationintheenjoymentofallother
rightsonanyground.

73.

TherighttoafairtrialcontainedinArticle6islikelytohavethesinglelargestimpact
intheareaofdisabilityandtheadministrationofjustice.Itisinthiscontextthat
awarenessoftheissueswhichdisabilitymayraiseinthemanagementofatrial
becomesimportant.Proceedingshavenotonlytobefair,buttobeseentobefairby
allconcerned.

74.

InsofarasispossibletheUKlawalsohastoreadinaccordancewiththeUN
ConventionoftheRightsofPersonswithDisabilitieswhichaimstopromote,protect
andensurethefullandequalenjoymentofallhumanrightsandfundamental
freedomsbyallpersonswithdisabilities,andtopromoterespectfortheirinherent
dignity.

TheYouthJusticeandCriminalEvidenceAct1999
75.

Part11ofthisActdealswiththegivingofevidenceorinformationforthepurposes
ofcriminalproceedingsandmakesprovisionforspecialmeasurestobetakenin
respectofeligiblewitnesseswhoaredefinedaswitnessesthequalityofwhose
evidenceislikelytobediminishedbyreasonofdefinedcircumstances.These
circumstancesare:
a. Thatthewitness:
i. SuffersfrommentaldisorderwithinthemeaningoftheMentalHealthAct
1983,or
ii. Otherwisehasasignificantimpairmentofintelligenceandsocialfunctioning;
b. thatthewitnesshasaphysicaldisabilityorissufferingfromaphysicaldisorder.

76.

Thespecialmeasureswhichmaybetakeninclude:
a. Thegivingofevidencebymeansofalivelinkorbymeansofavideorecording;

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b. Theexaminationofawitnessthroughaninterpreterorotherpersonapprovedby
thecourtasanintermediary;
c. theprovisionofsuchdeviceasthecourtconsidersappropriatewithaviewto
enablingquestionsoranswerstobecommunicatedtoorbythewitnessdespite
anydisability,disorderorotherimpairmentwhichthewitnesshasorsuffersfrom.

Tribunals
77.

TheSeniorPresidentofTribunalsissuedaPracticeDirectionin200838,applyingtothe
FirstTierandUpperTribunalinrespectofchild,vulnerableadultandsensitive
witnesses,childrenbeingthoseunder18,thevulnerableadultdefinitionbeingthat
setoutintheSafeguardingVulnerableGroupsAct2006,andsensitivewitnessesbeing
definedasanadultwitnesswherethequalityofevidencegivenbythewitnessislikely
tobediminishedbyreasonoffearordistressonthepartofthewitnessinconnection
withgivingevidenceinthecase.Awitnessfallingwithinanycategorywillonlybe
requiredtoattendasawitnessandgiveevidenceatahearingwherethetribunal
determinesthattheevidenceisnecessarytoenablethefairhearingofthecaseand
theirwelfarewouldnotbeprejudicedbydoingso.Thetribunal,havingheard
representationsfromthepartiesandothersaffectedsuchastheparentsofachild,
mustconsiderhowtofacilitatethegivingofanyevidencefromsuchawitness.Itmay
beappropriateforthetribunaltodirectthattheevidenceshouldbegivenby
telephone,videolinkorothermeansortodirectthatapersonbeappointedforthe
purposeofthehearingwhohastheappropriateskillsorexperienceinfacilitatingthe
givingofevidencebyachild,vulnerableadultorsensitivewitness.

78.

Itmaybepossibletoadoptthesemeasuresinsomeothertypesofproceedings.

38

Child, Vulnerable Adult and Sensitive Witnesess Practice Direction (2008)

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PhysicalDisability

Physicaldisability
Keypoints

Physicaldisabilitiescomeinmanyforms.

Anyphysicaldisabilitymayaffecttheabilityoftheindividualtoparticipateinacourt
hearingwhetheraslitigant,defendant,jurorwitnessoradvocate.

Thejudgeisresponsiblefortheconductofthehearingandshouldensure,sofarasis
possiblewithintheconstraintsofthelawandtheenvironment,thatthosewith
physicalimpairmentsareabletoparticipatetothefullextentrequiredofthemwhilst
avoidingprejudicetootherparties.Ifenvironmentalconstraintsareseverely
restrictingparticipationalternativesmayneedtobesought;thisisdiscussed
elsewhere.

Introduction
1.

Physicaldisabilitymaycompriseimpairedmobilityanddexterity,sensoryimpairment
(poorsightorhearing)orimpairedabilitytocommunicate.Anyassociatedpainmay
beaggravatedbythestressoftheproceedings.Therearemanychronicand
degenerativeconditionsthataffectinparticularelderlypeople.

Implicationsforthehearing
2.

Theabilityofanindividualtoparticipateincourtortribunalproceedingsmaybe
affectedinmanyways.
a. Impairedmobilitymaymakeitdifficulttoenterthebuildingorcopeinaparticular
hearingroom.
b. Impairedhearingmakesitdifficulttoidentifywhatisgoingon.
c. Impairedvisionmaymakeitdifficulttoreaddocumentsoridentifywhois
speaking.
d. Communicationlimitationsmaypreventothersfromunderstandingtheindividual.
e. Limitedconcentrationspansortheneedforregularmedicationmaymakeregular
breaksappropriate.
f. Somedisabilitiesmaymakeitimpossibleforadisabledpersontoattendatall.In
extremecircumstancestheCourtorTribunalmayconveneattheirhomeora
hospital39

3.

Stepsshouldbetakenatanearlystagetoensurethatsuitableadjustmentstothe
normalarrangementsaremadesoastoavoidanadjournmentwhentheimpairment
becomesapparent.Notalloftheseadjustmentscanbemadebytheadministration
andinsomeinstancesdirectionswillberequiredfromajudge.Ideallytheformsused
andenquiriesmadewouldprovideaspecificopportunityforpartiestodiscloseany
relevantdisabilityatanearlystagebutthisisnotalwaysthecase.

39

Re B (Consent to Treatment:Capacity) 2002 EWHC 429

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PhysicalDisability

Vulnerabilityofwitnesses
4.

Witnesseswithphysicaldisabilitieswillfeelvulnerableinvariousways.
a. Pain,discomfortandstress.
i. Thismaywellbeincreasedbythepressuresofcourtortribunalproceduresand
theneedtoconcentrateforlongperiods.
b. Anunfamiliarenvironment.
i. Theneedtoadjusttothehearingenvironmentandthepublicnatureofthe
proceedingsmayhaveanadverseeffect.
c. Fatigue.
i. Tryingtocopewithimpairmentinanewsituationcanbestressfulandtiring.

Information
5.

HMCTSmaintainsadirectoryofdisabledfacilitiesavailableincourtsandhearing
centres.Referencemaybemadetothisatacourtortribunaloffice.Thekeepingof
suchinformationwillvarybetweencourtsandtribunalsorjudicialregions;yourcourt
managerorjudicialleaderwillbeabletoassistastohowitmaybeaccessed.

Practicalmeasures
6.

Whenthesituationisunderstoodtherearemanyimaginativewaysinwhichsteps
maybetakentocopewithaphysicalorsensoryimpairment.Examplesaresetout
belowbutnotallwillapplytocriminaltrials,andcaremustbetakenwithpartyand
partyproceedingsparticularlyinthefamilycontextthatafairtrialisnotcompromised
bythehearingbeingperceivedtobeonterritorywhichisnotneutral.Domiciliary
hearingsalsocreateaHealthandSafetyrisk,whichmayneedassessing.Insome
tribunals40thedecisiontodirectadomiciliaryhearingisreferredtoaDistrictTribunal
Judge,whohasmanagementresponsibility.

Stepsthatcanbetaken
7.

Facilitationbyvideolinkmaybepossible

8.

Transferthecasetoavenueintheareawherethedisabledpartyresidesortoavenue
withbetterdisabledaccessorarrangeforittotakeplaceotherthaninacourtor
tribunalroom,perhapsthelitigantshomeoranursinghome.

9.

Beawareoftheproblemsforapersonusingawheelchairiftheyareconstantly
requiredtolookup.

10.

Ensurethattherearefacilitiesforthehearingimpaired,inparticulartheloopsystem
whereitmayassist,orasignerinthecorrectsignlanguage.BSLmaynotassistwhere
thedeafpersonhasnotbeenbroughtupwithEnglish;evenAmericanSignLanguageis
different.

11.

Permitacarertobepresent.

40

SSCS where that person will be able to access health and safety advice and information as to other local
facilities which may be preferable, eg a doctors surgery.

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PhysicalDisability

12.

Facilitaterepresentationinaformthatmightnototherwisehavebeenpermitted.

13.

ProducealldocumentsinlargeprintorBraille.Adirectionmaybegivenatanearly
stageintheproceedingsthatanydocumentsorcommunicationsbesenttothe
disabledpartyinalargefontproducedonawordprocessororafterenlargementona
photocopier.

14.

Allowalongertimeestimate,shorterhearingsormorefrequentbreaks.

15.

Arrangefortheevidenceofadisabledwitnesstobetakenpriortothehearingorby
telephoneorvideolink.

16.

Introduceyourselftoapersonwhohasavisualimpairmentandmakesurethey
understandthelayoutofthehearingroomandwhereeveryoneissitting.

17.

Ifthepersonhasaspeechorlanguageimpairment,concentrateonwhattheyare
sayingandtrynottoguesswhattheywanttosay.Ifnecessary,askthemtorepeat
thesentenceandthenrepeatwhatyouunderstandtogainconfirmation.

Placeofhearing
Access
18.

Clearlyitissensibletoensurethatanyhearingtakesplaceatavenuetowhichthe
partiesandanywitnesses(oradvocates)cangainaccess.Thisshouldnotoverlook,
wherenecessary,theabilityofsuchpersonstoparkavehicleandbeconveyedtoand
enterthebuilding.Difficultjourneysandtheneedtostayovernightshouldalsobe
takenintoaccount,andsuchfactorsmaydictatetiming,orthatthehearingtakeplace
inthelocalityofanelderly,infirmordisabledpartyorwitness.

Facilities
19.

Thefacilitytoaccommodatetheindividualinthehearingroomitselfisalsoimportant
anditmaybenecessarytorepositionpeopleintheroom.Apartyusingawheelchair
willfeelmarginalisedifnotabletoseeeveryoneintheroomandwillsufferprejudice
ifnotabletoreachdocumentsandmakenotes.

Attendancebynonparties
20.

Aphysicallydisabledpersonwhoisneitherapartynorawitnessmaywishtoattenda
particularhearing,perhapsinvolvingamemberofthefamilyorafriend,butbeunable
togainaccesstotheusualvenue.Ifapartytotheproceedingshasnotraisedthe
matterwithaviewtotransfertoanaccessiblevenue,itmaybethatadirectapproach
tothejudgeshouldreceiveconsideration,althoughthepartiesviewsshouldbe
sought.

Carers
21.

Haveinmindthatfamilycarersmayhavedifficultyfindingsomeoneelsetotakeover
thecaringrole.Ithelpsiftheycanbegivensettimesforthebeginningandendofthe
hearingand,wherechildcareisanissue,timingduringtheschooltermmaybe
preferable.

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PhysicalDisability

Needtoattendahearing
22.

Incivilproceedingsthecourtnowcontrolstheissuesonwhichitrequiresevidence
andthewaythatevidenceisgiven(seeCivilProcedureRules).Astatementor
pleadingverifiedbyastatementoftruthmaybetreatedasevidenceofthefacts
statedifithasbeendulyservedontheotherparties.Itmayonlybenecessaryforthe
partyorwitnesstoattendahearingtogiveevidenceifcrossexaminationisrequired.
Itfollowsthatthecourtmaytakeintoaccountthedisabilityorinfirmityofapotential
witnesswhendecidingwhetheroralevidenceisrequiredfromthatsource.Seealso
theSeniorPresidentofTribunalsdirectiontoTribunalsinrelationtothetreatmentof
childandvulnerableadultsreferredtoabove.

Takingevidenceelsewhere
23.

Whereitappearsnecessaryforthepurposesofjustice,thecourtmayorderthe
examinationonoathofanypersonatanyplaceinEnglandandWales(CPRr.34.8
34.12orinfamilyproceedingsRSCOrder39r.1andCCROrder20r.13aswellasRule
24.7FamilyProcedureRules2010).Thisprocedure,whichisknownastaking
depositions,allowstheevidenceofapartyorwitnesswhoisunabletoattendthetrial
tobetakeninadvanceand,ifnecessary,elsewhere.Thepersonbeingexaminedcan,
ifnecessary,beassistedbyaninterpreter.Thepowerisdiscretionarybutanorderwill
usuallybemade(andisoftenmadebyconsent)wherethewitness:
a. Istoooldtoattendatrial;
b. Issoillorinfirmthatthereisnoprospectofbeingabletoattendthetrial;
c. mightdiebeforethetrial.

24.

Itfollowsthatwhenawitnessistooinfirmtoattendthehearing,arrangementsmay
bemadeforthatpersonsevidencetobetakeninadvanceinamannerthatsuitsthe
circumstances.Thiscouldbeinalocalcourtbeforethedistrictjudge,orinthe
individualsownhomeoranursinghomebeforeanindependentsolicitorappointed
forthepurpose.Thereshouldbelittledifficultyinarrangingthisbecausethereare
manyfeepaidtribunaljudgesordeputydistrictjudgeswhopractiseassolicitors
throughoutthecountryandonecouldbeappointedforthepurpose,although
professionalfeeswouldhavetobepaid.

Communication
Facilities
25.

Somehearingroomshavetheloopsystemforhearingimpairedpeople.Personswho
haveahearingimpairmentmaybebetterabletocopeatahearinginthejudges
chambersratherthanalargecourtroom.Backgroundnoisecanexacerbatehearing
problemssoitmaybenecessarytoconsiderchangingrooms.

Timeestimates
26.

Itisoftenthecasethatanyhearingmustproceedataslowerpace,orwithmore
regularadjournments,whenapersonwithdisabilitiesisinvolved.Theneedfor
regularmedicationorattentiontobodilyfunctions,orshorterconcentrationspans,

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PhysicalDisability

mayalonedictatethis.Examplesoftreatmentmaybetestingbloodsugarfor
someonewithdiabetes,usinganinhalerinCOPDoraGTNspraytocombatangina.
Thelattertwomayresultinsomedizzinessforashortperiodafterbeing
administered.Notonlyshouldthemodifiedpaceberecognisedbyallconcerned
duringthehearing,buttheadvancerecognitionofasignaltobeusedbytheperson
affectedwhenabreakisrequiredwillpreservetheirdignity.Longertimeestimates
shouldbeallowedinadvancesothatsufficienttimeisavailable.Abalanceshouldbe
maintainedbecausethisincreasescostsandmaydenyallocationtothefasttrackin
civilproceedings.Inallcasestheoverridingobjectivewillbethetouchstone.
Interpreters
27.

Thelegalsystemisadeptintheuseofforeignlanguageinterpreters,butadditional
considerationneedstobegivenwhenthereissomeotherformofcommunication
difficulty.Signlanguageinterpreting,forexample,canbeveryphysical,andthese
interpreterswillrequireregularbreaks.Judgesshouldbealerttotheuseofnew
methodsofcommunicatingthroughacomputer.Theshortageoftrainedinterpreters
andPalantypistsfordeaflitigantsmakesitnecessarytobookthemwellinadvanceof
ahearing,anddirectionsgivenifadjourningshouldreflectthis.Usefulexamplesand
approachesappearintheMedicalGlossary.

28.

Itisnotimpossibletocontemplateasituationwhereanelderlypersonwhowas
competenttogiveevidencecouldneitherreadanaffidavitnorhearitbeingread,and
othermethodsofcommunicationshouldthenbeinvestigatedsuchaswhetherclose
familymembersareabletounderstandthepersonandexplainmatterstothem.See
paragraph31.

Representation
29.

Partieswithsensoryimpairmentsorphysicaldisabilitieswhoarenotlegally
representedmayneedtobesupportedwhenpresentingtheircases.Tribunalsare
generallymoreflexiblethanthecourtsinthisregardandinmanythereisanabsolute
righttoberepresentedbyanypersonofthepartyschoosing.

McKenziefriends
30.

Duringahearingofcivilorfamilyproceedingsanypersonmayaccompanyan
unrepresentedpartyasafriendtotakenotes,quietlymakesuggestionsandgive
advice,butthisdoesnotextendtoactingasanadvocate.Thefriendcanbeexcluded
ifunsuitable,suchassomeonepursuingtheirownoranunsuitableagenda.

31.

Whereapartyiselderly,disabledorinarticulateitisalwaysopentothejudgetoseek
assistancefromanysuchpersonpresentincourtwhoclearlyhastheconfidenceof
theparty.Thisisnotthesameasallowingsuchapersontoactasarepresentativein
theproceedings;thatpersonmaybelookeduponmoreinthelightofaninterpreter
andwherethedisabilityordisadvantagedoesnotfallintoarecognisedcategoryit
mayonlybeaclosefamilymemberwhoisabletoassist.

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Layrepresentatives
32.

Thesearepermittedinmosttribunals.Therewillgenerallybewrittenconfirmationof
thepartyswishthatthelaypersonactforthem.Ifthepartyispresentoralassent
maybegiven.

33.

Itmaybeappropriateforpartieswhohavedifficultyrepresentingthemselvestobe
permittedtohavetheircaseconductedbyarepresentativeoftheirchoice.This
personmayhavenorightofaudienceinacourt,butthejudgemayconfersuchright,
althoughonlyinexceptionalcasesintheabsenceoftheparty.Inthesmallclaims
trackundertheCivilProcedureRulesalayrepresentativehasarightofaudiencein
thepresenceoftheparty.Theimportantpointistoensurethatthepartydesiresthe
representativetobeheardandthattherepresentativeisactinginthebestinterestsof
thepartytherearethosewhoseektopursuetheirownagenda.

34.

Forfurtherguidanceonunrepresentedparties,seethesectiononLitigantsinPerson.

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Glossary:Disability

Glossary:Disability
Acquiredbraininjury
Thisisanonprogressiveinjurytothebrainwhichisacquiredafterbirth.Traumaisjustone
cause.Itcanresultfromavarietyofcausessuchasstroke,braintumour,infectionssuchas
meningitisormetabolicconditionssuchasseverehypoglycaemia(lowbloodsugar).
Theconsequencescanvaryenormouslybetweenindividualsandrangefromcognitive
impairmenttobehaviouralandmoodchangesinadditiontophysicalproblemssuchas
seizures,incontinenceandheadaches.
Cognitiveeffectstheseaffectthewayapersonthinks,learnsandremembers.Theremay
beproblemswithmemory,theabilitytoconcentrateandtopayattentiontomorethanone
taskatatime,particularlywhentiredorunderstress,speedofprocessinginformation,
includingunderstandingfastspeech,difficultiesinplanningandproblemsolvingandwith
languageskills.
Emotionalandbehaviouraleffectsmayresultinagitation,angerandirritability,lackof
awarenessandinsight,impulsivity,depressionandanxiety.
Formoreinformation,seethewebsiteforHeadway,thebraininjuryassociationat
www.headway.org.uk.

AttentionDeficitHyperactivityDisorder(ADHD)
ThedefinitionofADHD(andhyperkineticdisorder)isbasedonmaladaptivelyhighlevelsof
threemainbehaviourswhicharetypicallypresentfrombeforetheageofsevenyearsand
maycontinueintoadulthood.
Inattention/distractibilitydifficultyfocusingontasksorlisteningforasustainedperiodof
timeandbecomingeasilydistractedbyexternalstimulioronesownthoughts.
Impulsivityalackofinhibitionwhichcouldshowitselfastheneedforinstantgratification,
blurtingoutinappropriatecomments,interruptingexcessivelyorhavingdifficultyawaiting
turn,togetherwitherraticandunpredictablebehaviour.Traitsalsoincludefailingtoforesee
outcomesofonesactionsandlackofforwardplanning.
Hyperactivitycomprisingexcessiveactivitybothphysicalandmental.
Commoncharacteristicsalsoincludefailingtopayattentiontodetail,notlisteningwhen
spokento;failuretorespondtofeedback;havingdifficultyorganisingtasksandactivities;
difficultygettingstartedonorfinishingtasks;frequentlylosingorforgettingthings;fidgeting
andmovingaroundincessantly;oftentalkingexcessivelyorintrudingonothers.
ADHDhasbeencalledattentiondeficitdisorder(ADD)inthepastandthistermisstill
occasionallyusedforthoseindividualswherethereislesshyperactivitybutthetermisno
longerformallyused.

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Glossary:Disability

AlzheimersDisease
Thisisthemostcommonformofdementia.Themostcommonlyencounteredsymptomsof
thisprogressivediseaseinvolvelapsesofmemory,difficultyinfindingthecorrectwordsfor
everydayobjectsandmoodswings.
Initslaterstages,thediseasecanalsoinvolvealossofinhibitions,withindividualsadopting
anunsettlingbehaviourpatternsuchasbecominglost,undressinginpublicormaking
inappropriatesexualadvances.
Perhapsthebehaviourthatismostlikelytoaffectcourtortribunalappearancesisthatof
repetition.Thismaytaketheformofrepetitivequestioning,phrasesormovementsand
otherrepetitivebehaviour.Thestressofacourtortribunalenvironmentmayproducea
catastrophicreaction,whenthepersonbecomesextremelyupsetordistressed.The
majorityofindividualsareover60yearsofageandmayalsobeaffectedbysomeofthe
commoninfirmitiesassociatedwitholdage.Acloserelativeorcarerislikelytoaccompany
theindividual.

AutisticSpectrumDisorder(ASD)
AutisticSpectrumDisorder(ASD)isusedasanumbrellatermforarangeoflifelong
neurodevelopmentaldisabilitiesandincludespeoplewitharangeofdiagnosessuchas
autism,AspergerSyndrome,andpervasivedevelopmentaldisorder.Aspergersyndromeis
currentlydistinguishedbyanabsenceofspecificlanguagedelayandgeneralintellectual
skillsinthenormalrange.Thenumberofmalesaffectedfaroutnumbersfemales.
Peoplewithautisticspectrumdisordershavedifficultyinthreekeyareas:
1. Poorcommunicationskills:includingdifficultyunderstandinginstructionsorretellingan
incident;wordsandphrasesmaybetakenliterallysuchaskeepyoureartothe
ground.
2. Impairedsocialskills:difficultyunderstandingsociallyacceptablebehaviourandtaking
accountoftheneedsofothers,littleornoempathy,inabilitytoreadbodylanguage.
3. Inflexiblethinking:difficultycopingwithchange,overrelianceonroutinesdifficulty
followingrules(exceptthosetheyhaveadopted,whichwillbefollowedunswervingly).
OneresultofthiswayofthinkingisthatpeoplewithASDarenotgoodatcreating,telling
andstickingtolies.SomepeoplewithASDhavedifficultyinsensoryperception;thismight
affecttheirsenseoftouch,smell,vision,hearing,proprioception(theabilitytosensethe
positionandlocationandorientationandmovementofthebodyanditsparts)and
vestibular(balanceandbodyposture)sensations.Theunusualbehavioursseeninautism,
suchasaversiontotextures,motorplanningdifficultiesandselfstimulatorybehaviourare
duetodifficultiesinsensoryperception.Lackofeyecontactiscommon.Moreseriously,an
obsessiveinterestmayleadthemintotrouble.
PeoplewithAspergerSyndromedonothavetheaccompanyinglearningdifficultiesoften
associatedwithautism;theirspeechmaybefluentandtheymayhavelearnedtolargely
concealtheirproblems.Howeversocialinteractionalwaysremainsverychallengingand
theylivewithaveryhighlevelofstress.Beingslowtoprocessspokeninformation,they
mayproduceapanicreactionwhenpushedtorespond,suchasverbalorevenphysical
abuse.IndividualswithASDwillrequirefrequentbreaksandtheservicesofaspecialist

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(suchasamentortrainedbytheNationalAutisticSociety)tofacilitatecommunication.
Closedquestionsareeasiertocopewiththanopenonesbutquestionswrittenand
submittedinadvancewouldbeevenbetter.

Cerebralpalsy
Thisisdefinedasapersistentdisorderofmovementandposture,astheresultofoneor
morenonprogressiveabnormalitiesinthebrainbeforeitsgrowthanddevelopmentare
complete.Itisgenerallycausedbyinsufficientoxygengettingtothebrainatbirthbutcan
becausedbytoxinsorgeneticfactors.
Peoplewithcerebralpalsymayexperienceawidespectrumofdisordersofmovement,
postureandcommunicationproblems,aswellashearingandsightdifficulties.Itis
frequentlyassociatedwithepilepsy.Insomecases,theirspeechcannotbereadily
understoodandaspeechandlanguagetherapistorsomeonefamiliarwiththespeech
patternsoftheindividualmaybeneededtointerpretresponses.Acommunicationaid,
suchasaspeechsynthesiserorwordboard,mayberequired.
Individualswithcerebralpalsymayhavehadlimitedaccesstothecommunity,particularly
thosewithlearningdisabilitiesandseverephysicaldisabilities,anditisimportanttotake
thatintoaccountwhenevidenceisbeinggiven.Thosewithlearningdifficultiescanbecome
easilyconfusedwithcomplexquestionsandanysimplificationofproceedingsisan
advantage.Fatiguewillaffectconcentrationandthecoordinationofmovement,so
frequentbreaksmayberequired.

Cerebralvascularaccident(CVA)commonlycalledastroke
ACVAiscausedbyaclotorhaemorrhageinanareaofthebrainwhichcanaffectan
apparentlypreviouslyhealthyindividualinmanydifferentways.Thesecaninclude
weaknessorparalysisofanarmand/orlegononesideofthebody,twistingoftheface,loss
ofbalance,disturbanceofvision,difficultyinswallowing,disturbanceofspeech,difficultyin
understandingandinusingappropriatewords,andlossofcontrolofthebladderand/or
bowels.Recoveryfromtheeffectsofastrokevariesenormouslybetweenindividuals.
Forsomeindividualscommunicationcanbeagreatproblemandcantaketheformofnot
beingabletopronouncewords,rememberthecorrectwordorputthemintheright
contextororder.Individualsmayalsobeunabletounderstandwhatisbeingsaid.Stress
andfatiguecanmakeallsymptomsworse.Frequentshortbreaksshouldbetaken,
especiallywhenincontinenceisaproblem.Someindividualsrequireawheelchairand
othersmayneedacarer.Carersmayneedtohelpwithinterpretation.Theindividualneeds
tobetreatedwithdignityandrespectdespitephysicallyembarrassingcircumstances.

Chronicobstructivepulmonarydisease(COPD)
COPDiscommonandisanumbrellatermforpeoplewithchronicbronchitis,emphysemaor
both.Itisprogressiveandnonreversible(unlikeasthma).Itisusuallycausedbysmoking
andthecommonestsymptomsarecough,wheezeandbreathlessness.
Individualsmayneedtouseinhalersatregularintervalstorelievediscomfort,particularlyif
understress.Inhalerstakealittletimetoworkandsomecancausepalpitations(a
sensationoftheheartbeatingfast)andslightdizzinesssoashortbreakmaybeneeded.

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ThoseindividualswithseveresymptomsorendstageCOPDmayuseportableoxygenwhich
isdeliveredthroughlittletubesunderthenostrilsorviaafacemask.

Diabetes
Diabetesisaconditionthatcausesbloodsugartobecometoohigh.Therearetwomain
typesofdiabetesreferredtoasType1andType2.Type2diabetesisthemorecommon
andisassociatedwithincreasingageandobesity.Themainstayoftreatmentisdietand
exercisebuttabletsandeventuallyeveninsulinmayberequiredtotreatit.Type1diabetes
tendstooccurinyoungerpeopleanditisassociatedwithalackofinsulin.Itissometimes
calledinsulindependentdiabetesaswithoutinsulintheseindividualswoulddie.The
amountofmedicationorinsulintakenwillvarywitheachindividual.
Itmaybenecessaryforthediabeticpersoninthecourtortribunaltotesttheirbloodsugar
levelasfrequentlyaseverytwohours.Occasionallyitisdifficulttoachieveaperfect
balance,andthebloodsugarlevelsmayfallbelowthenormallevel.Thepersonconcerned
thenhaswhatiscalledahypoglycaemicattackorhypo.Thesesymptomscommonlyinclude
palpitationsandprofusesweating,aswellasadisplayofirritability.Inextremecases,the
speechmaybecomeslurredandtheindividualmayappeardrunk.Ahypodevelopsquickly
andistreatedbytakingsugarinordertorestorethebloodsugarlevelsasfastaspossible.
Mostpeoplewithdiabetescarrysomeformofsugaronthemforthispurpose(glucose
tablets,fizzydrinksorchocolate).Somecarryasmallbottleofgel(Glucogel)whichcanbe
squeezedintothesideofthemouthandwhichactsimmediately.Ifextrasugarisnottaken
quickly,lossofconsciousnesscanoccurand,inthosecircumstancesanambulanceshould
becalledimmediately.
Diabetescanbeacauseoflongtermcomplications,suchasvisualimpairmentorblindness,
orphysicaldisabilityresultingfromdamagetothenervesoramputationofpartofthelower
limbs.

Downssyndrome
Downssyndromeisacommongeneticdisorder.Theconditionisassociatedwithlearning
disabilitieswhichrangefromseveretothosewithabelownormalIQandindividualsmay
notbeabletounderstandcourtproceedingswithoutsimpleexplanationsand,possibly,the
useofdiagrams.Individualsmaybeaccompaniedbyacloserelativeorcarerusedto
interpretingneeds,ascommunicationabilitiesvarywidely.

Dyscalculia
Dyscalculiaisaninabilitytounderstandsimplenumberconceptsandtogainbasicnumber
skills.Researchindicatesthatthisisduetoadeficitinthecognitivesystemthatdealswith
numericalrepresentation.Therearelikelytobedifficultiesdealingwithnumbersatvery
elementarylevelsandconsequentlywithlearningnumberfactsandprocedures,tellingthe
timeanddealingwithmoneyandfinancialmatters.
Dyscalculiamayexistindependentlyasaspecificcognitivedeficit,oritmaycoexistwith
otherSpecificLearningDifficulties.Numericalprocessingiscomplexandthedeficitsof
dyslexiaanddyspraxia(shorttermmemory,sequentialabilities,retrievalofbasicfacts,
languageprocessing,speedofprocessingandvisualspatialability)commonlyaffectthe
acquisitionofnumeracyskills.
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Dyslexia
Dyslexiaoftenmanifestsitselfasadifficultywithreading,writingandspelling.Evenwhere
literacyskillshavebeenmastered,problemsremainwithskimmingthroughorscanning
overtextandretainingwhathasbeenread.Spellingislikelytoremainerratic.
Thecorechallenges,however,aretherapidprocessingoflanguagebasedinformationand
weaknessesintheshorttermandworkingmemory.Questionsshouldthereforebeasked
singly,andthinkingtimeallowedtoassimilatetheinformationandproduceaconsidered
response.Associatedproblemareasareorganisation,timemanagement,visualperception
(seeVisualStress),sequencingideas,retrievingwordsefficiently,sustainingattention,and
numeracy.Byadulthoodmanydyslexicpeoplehaveequippedthemselveswithanarrayof
copingstrategies,divertingsomeoftheirenergyandabilityintotheoperationofthese
systems,buttherebyleavingthemselvesfewextraresourcestocalluponwhentheyhaveto
dealwithsituationsthatfallwithintheirareasofweakness.Inconsistenciesand
inaccuraciesmayoccurintheirevidenceandtheywouldbenefitfromreceivingquestionsin
advance.Shortbreakswouldalsobejustifiable.
Dyslexiacanalsobelinkedtoarangeofskillsincludinginnovativethinking,
entrepreneurship,creativityandhighlevelvisualspatialabilities.

Dyspraxia/DevelopmentalCoordinationDisorder
Dyspraxiaisanimpairmentorimmaturityoftheorganisationofmovement.Associatedwith
thismaybeproblemsofplanningandexecutingactions.Thisisevidentwhenworkingwith
languagetasksaswellasinpracticalspheressuchasorganisationandmultitasking.People
withdyspraxiamaybeslowandhesitant,poorlycoordinatedwithpoorpostureand
balance,evengivingtheimpressionthattheycouldbedrunk.Theycanappearanxious,
easilydistractedandhavedifficultywithsocialinteractionandjudginghowtobehavein
company.Findingtheirwaytoanunfamiliarvenuemaybechallenging.
Theremayalsobeproblemswiththefollowing:
Speechandlanguage:speechmaybeunclear,duetopoorcontrolofmouthmuscles;pace
andvolumeofspeechmayalsobeaffected.
Communication:includingincorrectperceptionsanddifficultyconveyingideas;laborious,
immatureandawkwardhandwriting.
Socialskills:difficultiesincludejudgingsociallyacceptablebehaviour,understandingothers
needs,atendencytotakethingsliterally.
Shorttermmemory,sequencingskills:weaknessesintheseareasaffectorganisational
ability,decisionmaking,retrievinginformationfromthemindonthespot.
Timemanagement:poorunderstandingoftimeortheurgencyofsituations.
Managingchangeandnewroutines:peoplewithdyspraxialacktheflexibilityandtheability
toreorganiseandrescheduletasks.
Dyspraxiaalsoaffectssensoryintegration,withtheresultthatitmaybedifficultcopingina
busyenvironmentwithtoomuchsensorystimulation;theremaybeafeelingofbeing
overwhelmedbythecomplexityofinformationandtasksthathavetobeprocessed

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simultaneously.Atendencytoreacttoallstimuliwithoutdiscriminationleadstooverload
and,insomecases,oversensitivitytonoise,touchandlight.
Receivinglikelytopicsforcrossexaminationinadvancewouldbehelpful,togetherwith
cleardirections,acontactphonenumberandapointofcontactonarrival.

Epilepsy
Epilepsyisatendencytohaveseizures(fits).Therearemanydifferenttypesofseizureand
eachpersonwillexperienceepilepsyinawaythatisuniquetothemasitdependsonthe
areaofthebrainaffected.Duringaseizuresomeindividualsmaycompletelyblackout,
whilstothersexperienceanumberofunusualsensationsormovementswithorwithouta
stateofalteredconsciousness.Seizuresaffectingthefrontallobeforexamplecanbe
associatedwithwhatappearstobedisinhibitedinappropriatebehaviours.Seizurescanlast
forafewseconds(petitmalorabsenceseizures)orafewminutes(grandmalortonic
clonicseizures).Theformercausestheindividualtostopwhattheyaredoing,stare,blink
orlookvaguebeforecarryingon.Thelattercausesunconsciousnessand,uponcoming
around,aperiodofdrowsiness,confusionandheadaches.Inbothcasesindividualswill
havenorecallofwhathashappened.Absencescanoccurhundredsorthousandsoftimesa
day.Medicationissuccessfulincontrollingseizuresinabout70%ofcasesbutsometypesof
epilepsies,particularlythoseassociatedwithcongenitaldefectsandlearningdisabilities,
mayberefractorytotreatment.Learningdisabilitiesandepilepsycoexistfrequently.
Seizurescanimpairthememoryofpastevents.Allowancemayneedtobemadeforthis
difficultyparticularlyifarecentseizurehasoccurred.
Stresscanprovokeseizuresinsomeindividualsand,therefore,thestressofacourtor
tribunalenvironmentmayhaveanadverseeffectonapersonwithepilepsy.

HearingImpairment
Hearingimpairmentordeafnessiscommon.ActiononHearingLoss(formerlytheRoyal
NationalInstitutefortheDeaf)estimatesthattherearemorethan10millionpeopleinthe
UKwithsomeformofhearingloss.
Thelevelofdeafnessisdefinedasmild,moderate,severeorprofoundandisdefined
bythequietestsoundmeasuredindecibelsthatcanbeheard.Thequietestsoundsthatcan
beheardbypeoplewithmilddeafnessare2539dB,forpeoplewithmoderatedeafnessitis
4069dB.Itis7094dBforpeoplewhoareseverelydeafandmorethan95dBforthosewho
areprofoundlydeaf.Togiveyouanideaofhowloudeverydaysoundsare:anaeroplane
takingoffisabout140dB;aloudrockbandisaround100120dB;amotorbikeabout100dB;
normalconversationaround6065dB;andleavesrustlingabout10dB.
Thosepeoplewithmilddeafnesswillfinditdifficulttofollowspeechinnoisysituations.
Peoplewithmoderatehearinglossmayneedtousehearingaids.Severelyorprofoundly
deafpeoplemayuseacombinationofhearingaids,lipreadingandBSL(BritishSign
Language).
Deafnessalsoaffectstheextenttowhichpeoplecanusetheirvoicesparticularlyinthose
whoarebornwithahearingimpairmentorbecomedeafbeforespeechisestablished(often
referredtoasprelingualdeafness)andmayresultinspeechwhichisdifficulttofollow.It
canleadtoanemotionalstateofsocialisolation.Deafpeoplemayappeartobeblunteror

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moredemonstrativethanhearingpeopleanddemonstrativegesturesshouldnotbe
misinterpretedasovertheatricalorassignsofrudeness.Backgroundnoiseisverystressful
forapersonwhoishardofhearing.
Hearingroomsshouldbefittedwithaninductionloop,whichshouldalsobefittedinthe
receptionareas.Theuseofsigninterpreters,lipspeakersandpalantypists,alongwitha
combinationofcommunicationmethodssuchashearingaidsshouldallbeconsidered.It
shouldberememberedthatanythingsaidinopencourtwillneedtobeinterpreted.
BritishSignLanguage(BSL)istheindigenouslanguageofpeopleinGreatBritainwhowere
borndeaforwhobecamedeafearlyinlife.Ithasitsownsyntaxandgrammar,sodonot
assumethatsomeonewhousesBSLcanreaddocumentsasEnglishmaynotbetheirfirst
language.SignSupportedEnglish(SSE)isusedbysomedeafpeopleforwhomBSLisnotthe
firstlanguage.ItisnotanindependentlanguagebutusesEnglishwordorderwithBSL
manualsigns.Lipspeakersaretrainedhearingpeoplewhorepeatwhataspeakerissaying
withoutusingtheirvoicesothatlipreaderscanlipreadthem.Theyaremainlyusedby
deafenedpeople.Palantypeisaspeechtotextsystemthatgivesawordforwordrecordof
whatisbeingsaidusingaphonetickeyboard.

Heartdisease
Heartdiseasecanaffectanypartoftheheartbutpredominantlyaffectstheheartmuscle,
theheartvalvesorthebloodvesselsoftheheart.Examplesofheartdiseaseinclude
congenitalheartdisease,cardiomyopathy(adiseaseoftheheartmuscle)andcoronary
arterydisease.Anginaisthesymptomofcentralchestpainwhichsometimesradiatesinto
thearmorjawandiscausedbytoolittlebloodflowingtotheheartbecauseofanarrowing
ofthecoronarybloodvessels(alsocalledischaemicheartdisease).Aheartattack(also
calledamyocardialinfarction)iscausedbyacompleteblockageofoneofthecoronary
arteriesleadingtothedeathofheartmuscle).Highbloodpressure(hypertension)in
isolationcausesnosymptomsunlessveryhighbutcaneventuallyleadtoheartdisease.
Heartfailureisatermusedwhentheheartstrugglestoworkasanefficientpumpcausing
symptomsofbreathlessness,fatigueandankleswelling.Activityorstressfulsituationscan
aggravateanginaandshortnessofbreath,andindividualsmayneedtouseaGTNsprayor
tabletswhichtheyputundertheirtongue.Afteruseashortbreakmaybeneededasitcan
causepalpitationsandheadache.

HIVandAIDS
PeoplelivingwithHIV(humanimmunodeficiencyvirus)oftenfacemultipleformsof
discriminationasHIVisoverrepresentedinthegayandbisexualcommunityandamongst
BlackAfricans.However,themajorityofprosecutionsfortherecklesstransmissionofHIV
haveconcernedheterosexualtransmission.Worldwidethenumberofpeopleinfectedwith
HIVexceeds33million.

MeaningofthetermsHIVandAIDS
ThetermsHIVandAIDS(AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndrome)areoftenuse
synonymously.Thisiswrong;theydonotmeanthesamething.

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HIVisaviruswhichattackstheimmunesystemandweakensthebodysabilitytofight
infections.AIDSisthefinalstageofHIVinfectionwhenthebodycannolongerfightcertain
infectionsanddiseasessuchasTBorcancer.
TheNationalAIDSTrust(nat.org.uk)foundthatsomepeopleincludingjudgesarenotaware
ofthedifferencebetweenHIVandAIDSandarenotawareofmedicaldevelopmentsover
thelasttenyearswhichenablethosewhoareHIVpositivetoleadnormallives.Somemyth
bustersaresetoutbelow:

AnindividualcannotbeinfectedbyAIDS.

ThereisnocureforHIVbuttreatmentcankeepthevirusundercontrolandthe
immunesystemhealthy.Treatmentwithantiretroviralsdoesnotmerelyalleviate
symptomsbutitrestoresandmaintainstheimmunesystem,suppressesthe
replicationofHIVinthebodyandoftenenablestheindividualtolivealongand
relativelynormallife.AIDSrelatedillnesshasbecomemuchlesscommonintheUK
duetoadvancementsinHIVtreatments.Antiretroviralscanbeassociatedwithside
effectssuchasfatigue,depression,nightmaresanddiarrhoea.

HIVcannowbetreatedwithAtriplawhichisthefirstonepilldailyregimelicensed
forthetreatmentofHIV.

ResearchshowsthatHIVpositiveindividualsoneffectiveantiretroviraltherapy(with
asuppressedviralloadforsixmonths)andwithoutsexuallytransmittedinfectionsare
sexuallynoninfectious.

TherearecommonmisconceptionsabouthowHIVispassedbetweenpeople.Itis
transmittedthroughinfectedblood,semen,vaginalfluidsorbreastmilk.

Itcannotbepassedonthroughkissingortouching,bitingcoughingorspittingandis
nottransmittedviatoiletseatsorswimmingpools.

Incontinence
Theinabilitytocontrolnaturalfunctionsortorelyonbagsandpadsmaybesuggestedby
fidgetybehaviour,inattentionandageneralunease.Stresscanmakemattersconsiderably
worseandcauseembarrassment.Arrangementscouldusefullybemadefortheindividual
togiveanagreedsignalwhenabreakisrequired.

Inflammatoryboweldisease
ThisisatermwhichcoversCrohnsdiseaseandulcerativecolitiswhicharebothchronic
inflammatoryconditionsofthebowel.Crohnsdiseaseaffectstheentiregutfrommouthto
anuswhereasulcerativecolitisjustaffectsthelargeintestine.Bothcancauseabdominal
pain,bloodydiarrhoeaandgeneralillhealthsuchasfatigue.Theconditionsare
characterisedbyepisodicflareupsandalthougheffectivetreatmentisavailablemany
peoplefollowachroniccourseculminatinginsurgicalremovalofthediseasedbowel.A
typeofarthritiscanalsobeassociatedwithbothtypesofinflammatoryboweldisease.
Generalillhealth,thefrequencyandurgencyofbowelactionandnaggingabdominalpains
maysometimesleadtoshorttemper,anxietyanddespondency.Itwould,therefore,be
necessaryforaprearrangedsignaltobeagreedwiththecourtortribunalofficialsifan
urgenttriptothetoiletwasnecessary.

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Laryngectomy
Laryngectomyistheremovalofthelarynx(voicebox),usuallyasaresultofcancer.
Individualshavetorelearnhowtospeakandthisprocessusuallystartswithinafewdaysof
theoperation.Therearethreemainwaysofassistingwithspeech:avoiceprosthesisor
tracheooesophagealpuncture,oesophagealspeechoranelectrolarynx.
Itmaybeeasieratahearingifquestionsandanswersarekepttoaminimumand,if
necessary,forwritingfacilitiestobemadeavailable.

Mentalhealthproblems
Oneinfourpeopleinthecourseofayearhavementalhealthproblems.Theseoften
becomechronicandsevereandleadtoconsiderabledisability.Manyoftheseconditions
aremadeworsebystress.Mentalhealthdisorderscoverabroadspectrumofconditions
suchasdepression,bipolardisorder(whichusedtobeknownasmanicdepression),post
traumaticstressdisorder,anxietyandschizophrenia.Peoplediagnosedashavingmental
healthproblemsmayhavefeelingsorbehaveinwayswhicharedistressingtothemselvesor
others.Theymayhavehallucinations,delusionsandthoughtdisorders.
Itisamyththatpeoplewithmentalhealthproblemsaredangerousandviolent;theyarefar
morelikelytoharmthemselvesthanotherpeople.
Theeffectofgoingtocourtandtribunalcouldcausetheindividualtogoblank,panicorcry.
Inthemostextremecases,acourtappearanceforcertainindividualscouldbeextremely
harmful,causingthemtocommitsuicide.Mostmentalhealthproblemsarelikelytohave
aneffectongivingevidenceasawitnessinacourtortribunal.Becauseofthevarietyof
patternsofbehaviour,andtheirimpactontheveracityoftheevidence,thisisasituation
wherethejudgeneedstomakeaparticularlycarefulassessmentoftheindividualandhow
besttodealwiththemingivingevidence.Manypeoplewithmentalhealthproblemsare
reliantonacaringandstableenvironmentformaintainingtheirstabilityandcaneasilybe
thrownoffbalancebymedicationchangesorsuddendistressingexperiences.Theyare
highlysensitiveandneedspecialcareandprotectiontofeelsafe.Theirmedicationmay
leadtoembarrassingsideeffects(e.g.sweatingortics).

Motorneuronedisease
Thisisarareprogressivedegenerativediseaseaffectingspecialisednervecellscalledthe
motorneuronescausingthemusclestowasteaway.Inthevastmajorityofcases,intellect
andmemoryremainintact.Motorneuronescontrolimportantmuscleactivitysuchas
walking,speaking,breathingandswallowing.Theclassicsymptomsofthediseaseinits
earlystagesincludestumbling,weakenedgrip,musclecrampsandahoarsevoicewhichcan
soundextremelyslurred.Inappropriateorexcessivelaughingorcryingcanalsooccur,
conditionsoverwhichtheindividualhasnocontrol.Thisiscalledemotionallability.The
individualmayalsosufferwithexcessinvoluntaryyawningordrooling.Atanadvanced
stage,therewillbealossoffunctionofthelimbsandaweaknessandwastingofthe
musclesofthetrunkandneck.Eventuallythereistotalbodyparalysisandsignificant
breathingdifficulties.Suchaconditionwillleadindividualstoeventualtotaldependence
onothers.Fatigueiscommon,especiallyifmuchefforthastobeputintocommunication.

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Multiplesclerosis(MS)
Thisisadiseaseaffectingnervesinthebrainandspinalcordcausingproblemswithmuscle
movement,balanceandvision.Thustherecanbevisualdamagewheretheopticalnerves
areaffectedandmovementcanberestrictedwherepartsofthebrainormotornervesare
affected.MSaffectingthesensorynervescanresultinnumbnessortingling.Thereare
differenttypesofMSaffectingindividualsinverydifferentways.Themostcommontypeis
therelapsingremittingtypewithperiodswhentheyaresymptomfree.Somepeoplewith
thisdiagnosishaveoneshortlivedepisodeandarethensymptomfreewhereasotherswith
thesecondaryprogressivetypecandeterioraterapidly.Fatigueisaverycommonsymptom.
Anindividualwhoisrequiredtogotoacourtortribunalwillneedfrequentbreaks.Asthe
symptomsvarywidely,thecourtortribunalshouldbemadeawareoftheindividuals
specificneedssothatanyextraaidsorassistancecanbeorganised.Ifnotawheelchair
user,anindividualmayneedsomewheretositdownandrest.Insomecases,extremeheat
cancausearelapsesotheuseofafanorairconditioninginthecourtroomduringsummer
wouldbebeneficial.
Visitstothetoiletmayneedtobefrequentanddrinksofwatershouldbeavailable.

MyalgicEncephalomyelitis/ChronicFatigueSyndrome
Thisisarelativelycommonillnessofunknowncause,classifiedbytheWHOasa
neurologicaldisease.Itcomprisesavarietyofsymptomsincludingfatigue,malaise,
headaches,sleepdisturbances,difficultywithconcentrationandmusclepain.Apersons
symptomsmayfluctuateinintensityandseverityandthereisalsogreatvariabilityinthe
symptomsandtheirseveritybetweendifferentindividuals.Itischaracterisedby
debilitatingfatiguewhichcanbetriggeredbyminimalactivity.Thoseseverelyaffectedmay
bewheelchairusers.ManypeoplewithME/CFSsufferwithimpairedconcentrationand
shorttermmemory,difficultieswithinformationprocessingandwordretrieval,
hypersensitivitytolightandnoise.AlthoughpeoplewithMEmaynotappearunwell,travel
toatribunalorcourtvenuewillhavebeentaxingandsittinginanordinarychairisoften
uncomfortable.Limitedmentalstaminawillalsobeafactorwhenparticipatingin
proceedings;breaksmaybenecessarytorestoreconcentration.

Panicattacksandpanicdisorder
Everyoneexperiencesfeelingsofanxietyandpanicatsometimeduringtheirlife.Itshould
notbeforgottenthatattendingacourtortribunalisstressfulformostpeople.
Apanicattackisasuddenepisodewherethesuffererexperiencesintensepsychologicaland
physicalsymptoms.Theymayfeelanoverwhelmingsenseoffearandanxietyaccompanied
bynausea,sweating,breathlessness,tremblingandpalpitationsorchestpain.Theymay
feelthattheyaregoingtodie.Theymayhyperventilatetotheextentthattheywilllose
consciousness.Atleast1personin10intheUKexperiencesoccasionalpanicattackswhich
aretriggeredbyastressfulevent.
Howeverabout1in100peoplesufferwithpanicdisorderandhaverepeated,often
unprovokedpanicattacks.Forpanicdisordertobediagnosedtheremustbeevidenceof
panicattacksbutnoteveryonewhohaspanicattackssufferswithpanicdisorder.

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Oneofthedifficultiesisthattheseattacksmaylastforafewminutesor,veryrarely,afew
hours,duringwhichtimetheindividualwillfinditdifficulttoconcentrateandmaybe
incoherent.Theindividualmaybeonmedicationormayhaveothermethodsofcontrolling
theirproblem.Thejudgewillneedtodiscusstheissuewiththeindividualtodecide
whetherabreakwouldassistthesituation.

Parkinsonsdisease
Thisdiseaseresultswhenthebrainnolongerproducesenoughofasubstancecalled
dopaminewhichisnecessaryformovement.Itdoesnotoccuronlyinolderpeople;the
averageageofdiagnosisis56.Symptomsvaryfrompersontopersonbuttheclassictriadis
tremor,especiallyinthehands,slownessofmovement(bradyknesia)andmusclestiffness
orrigidity.Fatigue,drooling,constrainedhandwritingandsoftnessofvoicearetypical.
OverhalfofpeoplewithParkinsonsdevelopdepressionandmanydevelopcognitive
impairmentwhichinsomeissevere.Bradykinesiamaycausealackoffacialexpressionand
occasionallyapersoncanbecometotallyfrozen.Sideeffectsofmedicationcaninclude
confusionandinsomecasescancauseproblemswithimpulsiveandcompulsivebehaviours.
Breaksmaybenecessaryduringacourtroomortribunalappearance.

Spinabifidaandhydrocephalus
Spinabifidaisatermusedtodescribespecificcongenitalabnormalitiesaffectingthespine
andcentralnervoussystem.Therearethreedifferenttypesofspinabifida:spinabifida
occulta,spinabifidameningocoeleandspinabifidamyelomeningocoele.Disability
associatedwiththedifferenttypesishighlyvariablefromnoneinspinabifidaoccultato
massiveinmyelomeningocoele,whichisthemostsevere.Thiscanresultinpartialortotal
paralysisofthelowerlimbsaccompaniedbyincontinence.Mostpeoplebornwiththistype
willhavehydrocephalus(wateronthebrain).Thisexcessfluidcancausedamagetothe
brainandsoashuntisinsertedtodivertthefluidintotheabdomen.
Manypeoplebornwithhydrocephalushavepermanentbraindamagewhichcauses:
learningdisabilities,impairedspeech,memoryproblems,shortattentionspan,problems
withorganisationalskills,visualproblems,problemswithphysicalcoordinationand
epilepsy.
Theevidenceofbrainimpairmentliesinslowthoughtprocessesanddelayinanswering
questions.Memoryprocessesmaytakelongertorecordinformation,sothatstatements
andfactshavetoberepeated.Theremaybeagreateagernesstopleaseandagree,which
mayleadtoincorrectdecisionsbeingmade.
Theremaybeatendencytotakethingsabsolutelyliterally,sothatstatementsand
questionsmustbeclearandunambiguous.Despiteaseeminglyconfidentflowofspeech,
responsesmaynotnecessarilybebywayoforiginalthought.Changecanprovoke
considerablestressforsomeindividuals.

Spinalcordinjury
Spinalcordinjuriesareveryvariabledependingonwhethertheyarecompleteor
incomplete.Someincompleteinjurieswillallowalmostcompleterecovery.Othersevere
spinalinjuriescanresultincompleteparalysisbelowthepointofinjuryandinadditionmay

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havemedicalcomplicationssuchasbladderandboweldysfunctionandincreased
susceptibilitytorespiratoryandheartproblems.
Somepeoplewithtetraplegiamayhaveimpairedbreathingandmaybeventilator
dependent.Theycanshrugtheirshouldersandtheyhaveneckmotionwhichpermitsthe
operationofspeciallyadaptedpowerwheelchairsandequipmentsuchasphonesandlap
tops.Theymayuseotherenvironmentalcontrolunitswithmouthcontrol(sipandpuff)
voiceactivation,chincontrol,headcontrol,eyebrowcontroloreyeblink.
Frequentcomplicationsarepressuresoresandspasticityofthelimbssoindividualsmay
fidgetagreatdeal,mainlytorelievepressureontheskin.Whilstmostindividualsare
wheelchairusers,manyareindependent.Prearrangedsignalsreduceembarrassment
whereabreakisrequired.

Stroke
SeeunderCerebralvascularaccidents(above).

DisabilitiescausedbyThalidomide
ThemainimpairmentscausedbyThalidomideaffectedthelimbs.Themostsevereisa
conditioncalledphocomeliawherethelongbonesofsomeorallofthelimbsaremis
shapenandwherethehandsandfeetarisealmostonthetrunk.Someindividualswith
lowerlimbdisabilitiesmaybewheelchairusers.Someindividualshavehearingorvisual
impairments.

Visualimpairment
AsmanyastwomillionpeopleintheUKmaybelivingwithsomedegreeofvisual
impairmentandmostcasesarecausedbyageing.
Visualimpairmentisdefinedassightlossthatcannotbecorrectedusingglassesorcontact
lenses.Therearetwocategories:

Partiallysightedorsightimpaired.

Severesightimpairment(blindness).Adefinitionofblindnessiswhenapersonisso
blindthattheycannotdoanyworkforwhicheyesightisessential.

Somepeoplewithimpairedvisioncanseeenoughtoreadslowlyandhesitantly,though
theymayhavedifficultycrossingtheroad.
Theappropriatemethodofcommunicatingwithavisuallyimpairedpersoninacourtor
tribunalroomshouldbeestablishedattheoutset.Variousmethodsareavailable,including
Braille,largeprint,audiotape,screenreadersanddisk.Itisgoodpracticeforpersonswhen
speakingtoidentifythemselves.Onarrivalatahearing,thelayoutoftheroomshouldbe
explained.Ifaguidedogisaccompanyingthevisuallyimpairedpersonitmustbeallowedto
enterthehearingroomandhaveaccesstowaterandbeallowedtohaveashortcomfort
breakatregularintervals.Manypeoplemayalsocomewithapersonalassistantorsupport
worker.

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Visualstress
Thetermvisualstressdescribesaclusterofdifficultieswithreadingowingtovisual
perceptualdysfunction.Itisoftendescribedasadiscomfortwithreading.Theconditionis
associatedwithdyslexia(and,toalesserextent,dyspraxia),migrainesandepilepsy.
Initsmoreextremeformitismarkedbysensitivitytobrightlightcausedbytheglarefrom
whitepaper.Wordsmayappeartomovearoundonthepage,orbecomeblurredand
distorted.
Commonsymptomsalsoincludefrequentlylosingtheplace,omittingandmisreading
words,togetherwithfatigueand/orheadacheswhenreading.Treatmentwithcoloured
overlayscanusuallyalleviatetheeffectstosomeextent.Inadditionthefollowingpointsof
goodpracticearehelpful:useoftintedpaper,adequatespacing,leftjustificationoftext,
fontsizenolessthanpoint12andavoidanceofcapitalisationforwholewordsandphrases.

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7.Mentaldisabilities,specificlearningdifficultiesand
mentalcapacity
Mentaldisabilities
Keypoints

Amentaldisabilitymayariseduetomentalillhealth,learningdisabilityorbrain
damage.

Onlymentalincapacitywillgenerallyhavelegalsignificanceincivil,familyandtribunal
hearings.Lackofmentalcapacitymayalsobesignificantincriminalproceedings(i.e.
whethertheaccusedisfittoplead)andsentencingoptionsmaybeaffectedbythe
mentalstateofthedefendant.

Adjustmentstocourtandtribunalproceduresmayberequiredtoaccommodatethe
needsofpersonswiththesementaldisabilitieswhetheraswitnesses,partiesin
civil/family/tribunalsproceedingsordefendantsincriminalproceedings.

Judgesareresponsiblefortheconductofhearingsandshouldensurethatpeoplewith
mentaldisabilitiescanparticipatetothefullestextentpossiblewhilstavoidingprejudice
tootherparties.

Introduction
1.

Mentaldisabilityshouldbeconsideredinthesamewayasphysicaldisabilitywhenit
doesnotrenderapersonincapableofplayingtheirpart.Judgesshouldbeableto
recognizetheexistenceofamentaldisabilityifnotinformedofit,identifyits
implicationsinthecourtortribunalsettingandunderstandwhatshouldbedoneto
compensateforareasofdisadvantagewithoutprejudicingotherparties.

2.

Inpractice,itcanbemuchmoredifficulttounderstandtheproblemsexperiencedby
theindividualinaccessingthecourtsortribunalsorparticipatingintheproceedings,
althoughageneralenquirymaybemadeincasereasonableadjustmentsarerequired.
Thismayleadtoerroneousperceptions,suchasthatthepersonisbeingawkwardor
untruthfulandinconsistent.Infact,theproblemmaycomedowntoadifficultyin
communicationorunderstanding.

Categoriesofmentaldisability
3.

Amentaldisabilitymayarisedueto:
a. mentalillhealth;
b. learningdisability;or
c. braindamage.

4.

Therearefundamentaldifferencesbetweentheseconditions.Beingdiagnosedas
beingwithinoneormoreofthemdoesnotnecessarilyresultinlackofmental
capacity.Forexample,noteveryonewithcerebralpalsywilllackcapacitytomake

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decisionsandanindividualmaybesectionedundertheMentalHealthActyetnota
protectedparty(seebelowunderMentalcapacity)becausethecriteriaaredifferent.
Mentalillhealth
5.

Peoplecanbecomementallyillthroughtheirlifeexperiences,theirgenetic
backgroundoracombinationofthetwo.Mostrespondtomedicaltreatmentand
recoverfromtheirsymptomswiththerighttreatment.Mentalillhealthtakesmany
formsincludingneurosis(afunctionalderangement,e.g.phobias)andpsychosis(a
severementalderangementinvolvingthewholepersonality,e.g.paranoia,
schizophrenia).Thereareincreasingnumbersofelderlypeoplewhoaremedically
classifiedashavinganacquiredorganicbrainsyndrome,suchasdementia,causedby
Alzheimer'sdiseaseorvasculardisease.

Learningdisability
6.

Peoplecanbelearningdisabledwhentheyhaveabrainthatwillnotdevelopor
functionnormally.Thereisnocure,althougheducationandtraining,coupledwitha
disabilityawarenessculture,assiststhemtobecomeindependentmembersofsociety
abletofulfiltheirpersonalpotential.Thecausesarevariedandinmanycases
unknown,butfallintothefollowinggeneralcategories.

Genetic
7.

ThebestknownexampleisDownsSyndromebuttherearemanyothers.Medical
interventionatanearlystagemayassistandtherightadjustmentsineducational
methodsandadultworkinglifecanenableindividualstousetheirabilitiesmorefully.

Externalcauses
8.

Theseincludematernaldisease(e.g.Germanmeasles),toxins(substancestaken
duringpregnancy,vaccinedamageorfoodallergies)andtrauma(birthinjuryor
accidentinchildhood).

Nonspecific
9.

Thelargestcategorycomprisesconditionswhosecauseshavenotyetbeen
recognised.Thesearepeopleatthelowerendofthenormalrangeofintelligence,but
manyareneartheborderlineandmaynotrequireanygreatamountofspecialist
services,andsomegounrecognised.Environmentalandsocialfactorsmayplayapart.

10.

Untilrecently,identificationtendedtobebaseduponlevelofintelligenceasidentified
bytheIQscore(intelligencequotient).Suchassessmentisoflittleusetocareworkers
whoprefertoclassifypeopleaccordingtotheirdegreeofindependence,which
involvesconsiderationoflevelsofcompetenceinperformingskillssuchaseating,
dressing,communicationandsocialskills.Norshoulditberelieduponbylawyerswho
wishtoestablishwhethertheindividuallackscapacity(seebelow).

Braininjury
11.

Thethirdgeneralcategoryisthosewhohavebraininjury(seeGlossary).Theircare
andtreatmentdiffersfromthatforadultswithamentalhealthproblemorlearning
disability.Traumaticoracquiredbraininjuryiscausedatleastinitiallybyoutside
force,butincludesthecomplicationswhichcanfollow,suchasdamagecausedbylack

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ofoxygenandrisingpressureandswellinginthebrain.Roadtrafficaccidentsaccount
forhalfofallheadinjuries,withdomesticandindustrialaccidents,sportsand
recreationmakinguptheotherhalf.
12.

Thephysical,observableeffectsofbraininjurymaybelimited;manypeople,
particularlychildrenandyoungpeople,willnotexperienceanyphysicalconsequences.
However,damagetothefrontallobeofthebrainmaygiverisetoimpairmentsof
variouscognitivefunctionsthatmayneedparticularaccommodationinthecontextof
courtsandtribunalsbecauseofproblemsrelatedtomemory,concentration,and
understandingfastspeech,amongotherthings.Damagecausedduringthe
developmentalyears(e.g.duringchildbirth)isgenerallyclassifiedasalearning
disability.

Terminology
13.

Wordsusedbysocietytodescribementalconditionsorlimitationshavechangedin
theirusageandmeaningsincetheearlyActsofParliamentintendedtoprotectthe
individualsinvolved.Forthisreason,termssuchasmoron,idiotandimbecileareno
longerusedbythecaringprofessionsandarenotacceptableinmodernsociety.There
isaconstantsearchforappropriatetermsthatdonotcarryajudgmentalstigma,but
therehasbeennoconsistencyintheterminologyadopted.

Learningdisability
14.

InEnglandandWalesthelegaltermforthisconditionusedtobemental
subnormalityandlatermentalhandicap,whereasinScotlanditwasmental
deficiencyandintheUSAmentalretardation.Learningdisabilityorlearning
difficultiesandintellectualimpairmentareincreasinglybeingused.Inaneducational
contexttheexpressionlearningdifficultiesismoreoftenused.

15.

Therearemanyvoluntarygroupsthatconcentrateuponparticulartypesoflearning
disabilityanditisconvenient(andreassuringtotheparents)toidentifyanimpairment
bymeansofanameorlabelwhichisimmediatelyrecognisedbythepublicand
enablespeopletoofferthemostappropriatesupport.Itisthereforehelpfultobe
awareofthemorecommonnames,althoughtheymaynotrepresentaprecise
medicalclassificationandhavenolegalsignificance.Identifiedmedicalconditions
includeDown'sSyndrome,cerebralpalsy,autism,hydrocephalusandtheeffectsof
meningitisandencephalitis(seetheGlossary).Somechildrenarereferredtoasbeing
hyperactivealthoughthisconditionfrequentlysubsidesastheygrowup.Each
identifiedconditionexhibitsitsownfeatures,whethertheseareintheformof
behaviouralorphysicalmanifestationsmostofuscanidentifyachildwithDown's
Syndrome.

Mentaldisorder
16.

ThetermmentaldisorderisdefinedbytheMentalHealthAct1983s.1(2)asany
disorderordisabilityofthemind.ForthepurposesoftheActapersonwitha
learningdisabilityisnotbeconsideredbyreasonofthatdisabilitysufferingfrom
mentaldisorder.unlessthatdisabilityisassociatedwithabnormallyaggressiveor
seriouslyirresponsibleconductonhisparts1(2)(A).Althoughthisdefinitionis

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exclusivetothecompulsorydetentionprocedure,itdoesprovideusefulguidancefor
widerpurposes.
17.

Dependenceonalcoholordrugsisnot(perse)consideredtobeadisorderor
disabilityoftheminds.1(3).

Theconductofcourtandtribunalhearings
18.

Mostsolicitorsareunlikelytoprovidedocumentationontheneedsofaclientwitha
mentaldisability,togetherwithinformationonhowthesymptomsarelikelyto
disadvantagehimorher.Hearingmanagementaimstorecogniseandaccommodate
anyaspectsofdisabilitythatcouldplacetheaffectedindividualatanunfair
disadvantagesoageneralenquirycouldbepartoftheroutine.

Prehearingplanning
19.

Ifadisabilityisindicatedoncourtortribunalproformasboththeadministrationand
thejudiciaryshouldactonthisinformation,requestingfurtherdocumentationor
arrangingadirectionshearingtoconsiderrequirementsarisingoutofspecialneeds.
TheremaybeadutytomakereasonableadjustmentsundertheEqualityAct2010

20.

Ratherthanmakingassumptionsbasedongenericinformationorknowledgeof
previouscases,decisionsconcerningcaseandhearingmanagementshouldaddress
theparticularneedsoftheindividualconcernedinsofarasthesearereasonable.The
individualshouldbeconsultedorgivenanopportunitytoexpresstheirneeds.Expert
evidencemayberequired.

Practicalmeasures
21.

Insomeinstancestheimpairmentwillcompriseacombinationofmentalandphysical
disabilities.Bothshouldthenbeaddressed,separatelyortogether,asappropriate.

Placeoftrial
22.

Theneedtoarrangeforevidencetobetakenbydepositionsorforthetrialtotake
placeotherthaninacourtroommaybelessevidentasaccessisunlikelytobea
problem,althoughtheindividualmaybebetterabletogiveevidenceinafamiliar
environment.Alongertimeestimatemayberequiredbecauseoftheneedtotake
evidencemoreslowlyandwithmorebreaks.

Communication
23.

Amodifiedapproachmayberequiredwhenseekingtoobtainreliableevidencefroma
personwithmentalhealthproblems,especiallythosewhoarementallyfrail,andthe
judgewillwishtocontrolanyformofharassmentbyanoverzealousadvocate.Itis
necessarytoascertainwhetheranycommunicationdifficultiesaretheresultofmental
impairmentorcausedbyphysicallimitationswhichcanbeovercomebytheuseof
physicalaidsorothertechniques.Aninterpretermaybeabletoassistwithstrangeor
distortedspeech.

Facilities

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24.

Theenvironmentmaybeunsuitabletotheindividualforreasonsthatarenot
apparent(e.g.certainkindsoflightingcanaffectthosewithepilepsy).Appropriate
changesmaythenneedtobemade.

Rightsofaudience
25.

Itisdifficultforalmostanyonetorepresentthemselvesincourtortribunalhearing
andifapersonhasalearningdisabilityormentalhealthconditionthatisworsenedby
stress,forexample,thenitbecomesmuchmoredifficult.Representingoneselfmaybe
inadvisableforpeoplewithmentaldisabilities,sothedifficultiesofdoingsoshouldbe
madeclearandinformationonlegaladviceprovided.Iftheindividualstilldecidesto
goahead,clearwrittenguidelinesshouldbeprovidedoncourtandtribunal
proceduresandterminology.ThepresenceofaMcKenziefriendincivilorfamily
proceedingsoranindependentmentalhealthadvocateinatribunalshouldbe
encouragedinordertohelplocateinformation,promptasnecessaryduringthe
questioningofwitnessesandprovidetheopportunityforbriefdiscussionofissuesas
theyarise.Amoretolerantapproachtotheuseofalayrepresentativemayassist.

Witnesseswithmentaldisability
Evidence
26.

Incivil,tribunalandfamilyproceedingsevidencemayonlybegivenbyanindividual
whoisconsideredbythejudgetobecompetenttogiveevidence.Thereisnoreason
toassumethatawitnesswhohasalearningdisabilityormentalhealthconditionis
notcompetenttogiveevidence.Theremaybesomeinstancesacrosstherangeof
mentaldisabilitieswhereaparticularwitnessmayhavedifficultyrecallingor
recountinginformation.

27.

Evidencemaybeadmittedastothecapacityofthewitnessingeneralterms,butnot
astothelikelihoodofthewitnessbeingabletogiveatruthfulaccount.Unlikecriminal
proceedings,theoathisnotobligatorysothereisnorequirementofabilityto
understandthenatureandconsequencesoftakingtheoath.Muchmaydependupon
theapproachoftheindividualjudge,andthismaydependuponunderstandingof
mentaldisability,toleranceandprejudices.WitnessIntermediariesmayalsoassist;
thisserviceisnolongerrestrictedtocriminalcasesbutafeemaybechargedinfamily
andcivilcases.

Vulnerability
28.

Healthandabilitiescanaffectpeople'sexperienceofcontactswiththejusticeprocess
andtheirperformanceaswitnesses.Researchhasidentifiedthefollowingthreemain
areasofpersonalfunctioningwhichcanbeaffectedbymentalimpairmentorlearning
disabilities.

Memory
29.

Thismaytaketheformoftakinglongertoabsorb,comprehendandrecall
information.Recallofdetailssuchaschronologicalordermaybeparticularlyaffected
andrecallofsignificanteventsmaybeblockediftheyweretraumatic.Questionsmay
needtoberepeatedorrephrased.

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Communicationskills
30.

Havingalimitedvocabularyresultsinrememberingthingsinpicturesratherthan
words,leadingtodifficultiesinunderstandingandansweringquestions.Theremay
alsobedifficultyinexplainingthingsinawayotherpeoplefindeasytofollow,or
understandingsubtletiesoflanguageorsocialetiquette.

Responsetoperceivedaggression
31.

Somepeoplewithmentaldisabilitiesareespeciallysensitivetonegativeemotionand
maybesuggestible.Theymayrespondtoroughorpersistentquestioningbytryingto
pleasethequestioner.Othersmayrespondwithtearfulnessorpanicandbe
traumatisedbythelegalprocessofcrossexamination.Forresponsestobereliable,
questionsshouldbekeptsimpleandnonthreatening.

Takingevidencefromawitnesswithamentaldisability
32.

Speakmoreslowlywhereappropriate,allowpausesforassimilation,usesimplewords
andsentences,anddonotgoontoolongwithoutabreak.

33.

Avoidyes/noanswersandquestionssuggestingtheanswerorcontainingachoiceof
answerswhichmaynotincludethecorrectone.

34.

Donotkeeprepeatingquestionsasthismaysuggestthattheanswersarenotbelieved
andbyitselfencourageachange,butthesamequestionmaybeaskedatalaterstage
tocheckthatconsistentanswersarebeinggiven.

35.

Dealwithissuesinchronologicalorderanddonotmovetonewtopicswithout
explanation(e.g.canwenowtalkabout)oraskabstractquestions(e.g.askwasit
afterbreakfastratherthanwasitafter9.00am).

36.

Donotmakeassumptionsabouttimingandlifestylesatagtolinkthequestionmay
behelpful(e.g.aTVprogrammeorphonecall).

37.

Allowawitnesstotelltheirownstoryanddonotignoreinformationwhichdoesnot
fitinwithassumptionsastheremaybeavalidexplanationforanyapparentconfusion
(e.g.thewitnessmaybetellingthecorrectstorybutusingoneormorewordsina
differentcontextatadifferentlevelofunderstanding).

38.

Advocatesoftendonothavethenecessaryunderstandingofparticularmental
impairments(e.g.learningdisabilities)toformulatequestionsinawaythatthe
witnesscanunderstanditmaybenecessarytoexplainsomethingmorethanonce
usingsimplelanguage.

39.

Alwaysensurethatwitnessesaretreatedwithduerespectandarenotridiculedif
theyareunabletounderstandthewayquestionsarebeingasked.

MINDsreportAchievingjusticeforvictimsandwitnesseswithmentaldistress
[www.mind.org.uk/assets/0000/9950/Prosecutors__toolkit.pdf]setsoutsuggestions
includinguseofscreenstohelpwitnessestofocus,allowingcompanionsinthewitnessbox,
removalofwigsandgownsandtakingregularbreaks.

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SpecificLearningDifficulties(SpLDs)
Keypoints

Specificlearningdifficultiessuchasdyslexiaareafamilyofrelatedconditionsandmust
notbeconfusedwithlearningdisabilitieswhichaffectallareasofdailylivingand
correlatewithlowintelligence.

Manypeoplewithspecificlearningdifficultiesshowsignsofmorethanoneprofileand
somedevelopamentalillnessaswell(typicallydepressionoranxiety).

Someofthereasonableadjustmentsrequiredforpeoplewithmentaldisabilitiesmay
alsobeappropriateforthosewithspecificlearningdifficultiesbutothermorespecific
adjustmentsmayberequired.

OverviewofSpLDs
40.

Theseareafamilyofinterrelatedneurologicalconditionsaffecting10%ofthe
populationtoalesserorgreaterextent.Thewordspecificisusefulbecauseit
conveysthefactthatonlysomeareasoffunctioningareaffected,whereasotherareas
operatenormally.

Terminology
41.

Specificlearningdifficultiesisgenerallyusedasanumbrellatermtocoverdyslexia,
dyspraxia/developmentalcoordinationdisorder,dyscalculiaandattentiondeficit
(hyperactivity)disorder.Dyslexiaisthebestknown;itwasinitiallyreferredtoasword
blindnessbuthasimplicationsbeyondliteracy.

42.

Inthemorepositiveclimateofrecentyears,peoplewithSpLDsnowtendtoreferto
themselvesashavingspecificlearningdifferences.Someadultsregardalabel
containingthewordlearningasinappropriatesincetheyarenolongerinschoolor
collegeandfavourprocessingdifferencesorneurodiversity.

Causes
43.

SpLDsarecongenital,largelyheritableconditionswhichmayaffectthedevelopment
ofarangeofcognitive,motorandattentionalskills.Theyarelifelongintheireffects
andcharacterisedbyweaknessesinkeyareasoffunctioningwhichcontrastwith
normaloraboveaverageabilitiesinunaffectedareas.Somepeopleareunawarethat
theyhavearecognisedconditionandstrugglewithoutunderstandingtheunderlying
reasonfortheirproblems.Acquireddyslexiafollowingbraininjury,traumaorinfection
isfarlesscommonthandevelopmentaldyslexiaandwillgenerallybedocumented
followingmedicalassessments.Howeverpsychologistsorsuitablyqualifiedtutorsare
appropriatetosupplydocumentationondevelopmentaldyslexia.

Characteristics
44.

ThebrainsofpeoplewithSpLDsoperatedifferentlyfromthoseoftherestofthe
populationandshowanatomicaldifferencesinsomecases.Thisdifferenceoften
manifestsitselfasanunexpectedcombinationofcompetenceandincompetence.In

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thecaseofdyslexiaareasofskillcanincludecreativethinkingandintuitive
understandingofhowthingswork,goodspatialskillsandentrepreneurship.
45.

Theoverallprofileofdifficultiesvariesconsiderablyfrompersontopersonasdoesthe
extenttowhichtheyareaffected.Onlythosewhoexperienceasubstantialandlong
termadverseeffectarecoveredbythedisabilitydiscriminationprovisionsofthe
EqualityAct2010,buttheneedsofmanymoreshouldbeconsideredintheconductof
courtproceedings.

46.

SinceanumberofkeyproblemareasareassociatedwithmorethanoneSpLDitis
nowgoodpracticenottoconsidertheseconditionsinisolationbuttobeawareofthe
possibleoverlap.Therangeofdifficultiesinclude:
a. aweakshorttermmemory;
b. apoorworkingmemorythisshowsitselfastheinabilitytoholdontoseveral
piecesofinformationatthesametime;
c. poororganisationandtimemanagementwithparticulardifficultiesestimatingthe
passageoftime;
d. inefficientprocessingofinformationwhichcouldrelatetowrittentexts,oral
responsesorlisteningskillstheremaybeadelaybetweenhearingsomething
andunderstandingit;
e. difficultypresentinginformationinalogicalsequentialway;
f. wordfindingproblems,lackofprecisioninspeech,misunderstandingsand
misinterpretations;
g. latenessinacquiringreadingandwritingskillseventhoughthesemaybecome
adequatethereareresidualproblems,suchasthestruggletoextractthesense
fromwrittenmaterialandaninabilitytoscanorskimthroughtext;
h. problemsretainingsequencesofnumbersorlettersandmuddlingleftandright;
i. limitedawarenessoftheconsequencesoftheirspeechoractionsthisrelatesin
particulartopeoplewithattentiondeficit(hyperactivity)disorder.

47.

Inadditiontotheabove,manypeoplewithSpLDsexperiencevisualstress.Symptoms
includecontinuallylosingtheirplace,perceiveddistortionswhenreadingsothatthe
lettersappeartomoveorbecomeblurred,andadazzlingglarefromwhitepaper.

48.

AutisticcharacteristicscancoexistwithSpLDs,whilstAspergerSyndromerequires
particularconsiderationduetoacutedifficultieswithsocialinteraction,whicharenot
alwaysapparent.

Copingstrategies
49.

ByadulthoodmostindividualswithSpLDshavedevelopedanarrayofcompensatory
andcopingstrategieswhichrequiresustainedeffortandenergy.Thesearelikelyto
breakdowninstressfulsituations,leavingtheindividualstrugglingtoprocessspoken
orwrittenlanguage(e.g.anindividualwithdyslexiamayappearcompletely
incompetentinsituationsofstress).

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50.

SomepeoplewithSpLDshavecometorelysoheavilyontechnologyformanyaspects
oftheirdailylivesthattheyfeelquitedisabledwhentheyarenotallowedtouseit,for
exampleincourt.Othersreportthattheyexperiencementaloverloadandareunable
torecallwhathastranspiredortheoutcomeofthehearingsotheymayneed,yet
cannotalwaysobtainorafford,atranscript.

ImpactofSpLDsinacourtsetting
Problemsencountered
51.

ThefollowingproblemareasarereportedbypeoplewithSpLDswhohaveexperience
ofcourtortribunalproceedings:
a. abuildupofstress,duetolongdelaysatthehearing;
b. impossibilityoffollowingthecutandthrustofcourtexchanges;
c. difficultycopingwithoblique,impliedandcompoundquestions;
d. failuretograspnuances,allusionsandmetaphoricallanguage;
e. difficultiesgivingaccurateanswersrelatingtodates,timesorplacenames;
f. problemsprovidingconsistentinformationonsequencesofactions;
g. inabilitytofindtheplaceinamassofdocumentation,asdirected;
h. impossibilityofassimilatinganynewdocumentationatshortnotice;
i. copingwitharoomfullofstrangersinunfamiliarsettings;
j. maintainingconcentrationandfocus,mentaloverload;
k. feelingsofpanic,resultingintheurgetoprovideanyanswerinordertogetthe
proceedingsoverwithasquicklyaspossible;
l. anxietythatuseofinappropriatetonemaycreateamisleadingimpression;
m. anexperienceofsensoryoverloadfromthelights,bustleanddistractionsthisisa
majorfactorforpeoplewithAspergerSyndrome.

52.

PeoplewithSpLDswillbeconcernedabouthowtheirbehaviourmightbeperceived:
inconsistenciescouldimplyuntruthfulness;failuretograspthepointofaquestion
couldcomeacrossasevasive;lackofeyecontactcouldbemisinterpretedasbeing
shiftyandanoverloudvoicemightberegardedasaggressive.Theoverridingworry
isthatalossofcredibilityoccurswhentheydonotperformasexpected.

53.

CommunicationskillsareoftenpoorinpeoplewithSpLDs.Theymaymissthepoint,
gooffonatangent,appeargarrulousandimpreciseorfindthatwordsfailthem
altogethersothattheyareunabletoproceed.Despitetheireffortstheymayonly
respondtothelastpartofaquestionormayunintentionallymisleadthecourt
throughincorrectwordusage.

TakingevidencefromadultswithSpLDs
54.

Thereasonableadjustmentsrequiredforpeoplewithmentaldisabilitiesmayalsobe
relevantforthosewithSpLDsbutothermorespecificadjustmentsmayberequired.It
isofparamountimportancethatadultswithSpLDsarereassuredthat:

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a. theymayseekclarificationatanystagebyaskingforaquestiontoberepeatedor
rephrasingittocheckunderstanding;
b. theycantaketheirtimewhenconsideringresponsesandcaninformthejudge
whentheyarenolongerabletomaintainconcentration;
c. misunderstandingsontheirpartwillnotbetreatedasevasivenessand
inconsistencieswillnotberegardedasindicationsofuntruthfulness;
d. theyarenotexpectedtorelyontheirmemoryalonefordetailsofdates,times
locationsandsequencesofevents;
e. theywillnotbeexpectedtoskimthroughandabsorbnewdocumentationor
locatespecificpiecesofinformationinthecourtbundle.
55.

Insomecaseslightingandtemperaturewillbeanissue.Somepeoplewillalso
encountervisualstressandbeunabletoreadeasily(ifatall)fromblacktextona
whitebackground.Oncementaloverloadhasbeenreachedtheindividualisunable
toparticipateintheprocessandrequiresanopportunitytorecover.Inordertocope
withthesetypesofproblems,advocatesandjudgesmustshowpatience,
understandingandflexibility.

56.

WrittencommunicationshouldbeinplainEnglishandfontsizeshouldbeatleast12
point.Courtandtribunallocationdetailsshouldincludelocallandmarks,public
transportinformationandacontactphonenumber.Electroniccommunicationhelps
thosewhorelyonspeechrecognitionsoftware.

MentalCapacity
Keypoints

Anadultwholacksmentalcapacity(inthelegalsense)willnotbeabletomakedecisions
thatothersshouldactupon,somaybeunabletoenterintocontracts,administertheir
ownaffairs,conductlitigationorevenchoosetheirownlifestyle.

Thereisnouniversaltestofmentalcapacitythelegaltesttobeappliedrelatestothe
decisionmadeortobemade.

Capacitydependsupontheindividualsunderstandingratherthanstatusorthe
outcomeofanydecisionsmade.

Capacityisaquestionoffacttobedeterminedbythecourtonalltheavailableevidence
ofwhichtheviewsofadoctorasanexpertonlycompriseapart.

Courtrulesidentifypartieswhoareincapableofconductinglitigationwithouta
representative.

Introduction
57.

Thelegalsystemreliesontheassumptionthatpeoplearecapableofmaking,andthus
responsiblefor,theirowndecisionsandactions.Itisthereforenecessarytobeableto
recognisealackofmentalcapacity(orincapacity)whenitexistsandtocopewiththe
legalimplications.

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58.

Whilstatfirstglanceinmightseemconvenientifpeoplecouldbelegallycategorised
aseithercapableorincapableaccordingtoasimpletestbaseduponageneral
assessment,thisisoversimplisticandwouldbeinappropriate.Thetestofcapacityto
driveisclearlydifferentfromthattogetmarried,andthecapacityrequiredtosigna
willdiffersfromthatforanenduringpowerofattorney.Itwouldbediscriminatoryto
applyastandardtestforallpurposes,asmostindividualshavesomelevelofcapacity
andthisshouldbeidentifiedandrespected.

Approaches
59.

Therearethreepossibleapproachestothequestionofmentalincapacity:
a. Outcome
Determinedbythecontentofthedecision(e.g.ifitisillogicalorfoolishthemaker
mustlackcapacity).Thisapproachisflawedbecauseweareallentitledtobe
eccentricandajudgmentastowhatisfoolishissubjective.
b. Status
Judgedaccordingtothestatusoftheindividualsuchasage(e.g.over90years),a
medicaldiagnosis(e.g.seniledementia)orplaceofresidence(e.g.beingina
mentalhospital).Exceptinthecaseofchildrenthisapproachwasabandonedlong
ago(atonetimewomenlackedcapacity).DetentionundertheMentalHealthAct
1983doesnotnecessarilydeprivethepatientofdecisionmakingcapacity.
c. Understanding
Theabilityoftheindividualtounderstandthenatureandeffectoftheparticular
decisionandtoactonthatunderstandingisassessed.Atestbasedon
understandingisgenerallyappropriate,althoughtheoutcomeofdecisionsorthe
individualsstatusmayresultincapacitybeingquestionedandtheappropriatetest
shouldthenbeapplied.

Appearance
60.

Whilstthelawisconcernedwithwhatisgoingoninthemind,societytendstobe
concernedwiththeoutwardmanifestationsbutweshouldnevermakeassumptions
basedonappearance.
a. Thedifferencebetweenabilityandcapacitymustberecognised,asitisnot
unusualforcommunicationdifficultiestocreateafalseimpressionoflackof
mentalcapacity.
b. Apersonsappearance(perhapstheconsequenceofphysicaldisabilities)can
createanimpressionoflackofmentalcapacitywhichisnotjustified.
c. Observanceoftheconventionsofsocietyorcommunicationskillscandisguiselack
ofcapacity(e.g.alearntbehaviourpattern).

Criteria
61.

Whenmakingassessmentsdifferentprofessionsapplydifferentcriteria.

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a. Themedicalprofessionisconcernedwithdiagnosisandprognosis,andhealth
authoritiesareincreasinglybeingrelievedoftheresponsibilitytocareforthose
withmentaldisabilitieswhodonotrespondtoconventionalmedicaltreatment.
b. Careprofessionalsclassifypeopleaccordingtotheirdegreeofindependence,
whichinvolvesconsiderationoflevelsofcompetenceinperformingskillssuchas
eating,dressing,communicationandsocialskills.
c. Thelawyerisconcernedwithlegalcapacity,namelywhethertheindividualis
capableofmakingareasonedandinformeddecision,andabletocommunicate
thatdecision.
62.

Thisshouldbeborneinmindwhenseekingopinionsaboutcapacity.Amulti
disciplinaryapproachisusuallybestindifficultordisputedcases,andtheassessment
shouldnotthenbeleftentirelytothedoctor.Alawyerwhogathersevidenceand
expertopinionfromavarietyofsourcesmaybeinthebestpositiontomakean
assessmentofcapacity,andindisputedcasesthatistheroleofthecourt.

Assessmentofcapacity
63.

Legaltestsvaryaccordingtotheparticulartransactionoractinvolved,butgenerally
relatetothematterswhichtheindividualisrequiredtounderstand.Ithasbeenstated
(inregardtomedicaltreatment,thoughthetestisnodoubtuniversal)thatthe
individualmustbeableto(a)understandandretaininformationand(b)weighthat
informationinthebalancetoarriveatachoice(perButlerSlossLJinReMB[1997]2
FCR541,CA).

Presumptions
64.

Thereisapresumptionthatanadultiscapablebutthismayberebuttedbyaspecific
findingofincapacity.
a. Ifapersonisprovedincapableofenteringintocontractsgenerally,thelawmay
presumesuchconditiontocontinueuntilitisprovedtohaveceased,although
theremaybealucidinterval.
b. Ifanactandthemannerinwhichitwascarriedoutarerational,thereisastrong
presumptionthattheindividualwasmentallycapableatthetime.
c. Eccentricityofbehaviourisnotnecessarilyasignofincapacityandcareshouldbe
exercisedbeforeanyassumptionismade.

Determiningcapacity
65.

WheredoubtisraisedastomentalcapacitythequestiontoaskisnotIshe(orshe)
capable?orevenIshe(orshe)incapable?butratherIshe(orshe)incapableofthis
particularactordecisionatthepresenttime?Itmaybenecessarytodeterminethe
issueofcapacityataseparatehearing.Noteinparticularthat:
a. Capacityisanissueoffact,thoughitisnecessarytoidentifyandapplythe
appropriatelegaldefinitionortest.

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b. Capacitydependsuponunderstandingratherthanwisdom,sothequalityofthe
decisionisirrelevantaslongasapersonunderstandswhattheyaredeciding.
c. Capacitymustbejudgedfortheindividualinrespectoftheparticulardecisionor
transactionatthetimeitwastakenoristobetaken.
d. Inlegalproceedings,ajudgemakesthedetermination,notasmedicalexpertbut
asalaypersoninfluencedbypersonalobservationandonthebasisofevidence
notonlyfromdoctorsbutalsofromthosewhoknowtheindividual.

Evidence
66.

Generalreputationisnotadmissibleinevidence,butthetreatmentbyfriendsand
familyofapersonallegedtolackmentalcapacitymaybeadmissible.Evidenceof
conductatothertimesisadmissible,andthegeneralpatternoflifeoftheindividual
maybeofgreatweight,althoughitisthestateofmindatthetimeofthedecisionthat
ismaterial.

67.

Medicalevidenceisadmissibleandusuallyimportant,butitmustbeconsidered
whethertheopinionofamedicalwitnessastocapacityhasbeenformedonsufficient
informationandonthebasisofthecorrectlegaltest.

68.

Apersonallegedtolackcapacityshouldbegiventheopportunitytomake
representationsunlesstheissueisbeyonddoubt,andifpresentcapacityistheissueit
willgenerallybedesirableforthejudgetoseeandattempttoconversewiththis
personbeforemakingadecision.

Implications
69.

Ingeneralterms,lackofcapacitywillmeanthatthepersonis(orwas)notcapableof
enteringintotheparticularcontractandthereforethatanycontractpurportedly
enteredintoisnotbindingiftheotherpartywasawareofthelackofcapacity.Ina
morespecificcontext,itmaybeawilloranenduringpowerofattorneythatisnot
valid.

70.

Differenttestswillbeimposedwhenconsideringtheresponsibilityofanindividual
(e.g.innegligence).Thecriminallawimposesitsownrequirementsandtheapproach
tocapacityoutlinedherewillbelessrelevant,althoughissuesofcapacitystillarisein
thecourseofcriminalproceedings(e.g.istheaccusedfittoplead?).

Guidance
71.

HelpfulguidanceisgiveninAssessmentofMentalCapacity:GuidanceforDoctorsand
LawyerspublishedjointlybytheLawSocietyandBMA(3rdedition,2009).

Civilandfamilyproceedingsprocedure
Rules
72.

Formanyyearsspecialprocedureshaveappliedinrespectofproceedingsbyand
againstapersonunderdisability(asdefined).Theseensuredthatarepresentative
wasappointed,compromisesandsettlementsofclaimswereapprovedbythecourt,
andtherewassupervisionofanymoneyrecovered.Therulesdealtwithproceedings

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involvingchildren(variouslydescribedasminorsandinfants)andpatientsas
parties.Bothcategoriesaredeemedincapableofconductingtheirownproceedings,
theformerduetoageandthelatterduetopersonalfactorsotherthanage(oldage
byitselfisnotabarriertoconductingproceedings).Weareonlyconcernedherewith
adults.
73.

Theexpressionpersonunderdisabilityisnolongerusedand,following
implementationofthenewmentalcapacityjurisdiction,apersonshouldnotbe
stigmatisedasapatientsothetermhasbeenreplacedbyprotectedpartyanda
newdefinitionintroduced.Theproceduresarenowtobefoundinthefollowingrules:
a. CivilProcedureRules1998(CPR),Part21;
b. FamilyProcedureRules2010(FPR),Part15;
c. InsolvencyRules1986,Part7,Chapter7.

Patient/protectedparty
Olddefinition
74.

Thetermpatientwasdefinedintheformerrulesas:
apersonwhobyreasonofmentaldisorderwithinthemeaningoftheMentalHealth
Act1983isincapableofmanagingandadministeringhispropertyandaffairs.

75.

AsimilardefinitionwasusedtoestablishthejurisdictionoftheoldCourtof
Protectiontoadministerthepropertyandaffairsofpatients(i.e.underPartVIIofthe
MentalHealthAct1983).

76.

Thiswasathreestagetest:(i)didthepartyhaveamentaldisorder(thetermiswidely
definedandthethresholdnothigh);(ii)wasthepartyincapable;(iii)wasthe
incapacityduetothementaldisorder?Theneedforamentaldisorderactedasa
screeningprocesstoexcludemereeccentricityandtheeffectofalcoholordrugs,but
thetermremainswidelydefined.Whilstincapacitybyitselfmightresultina
transactionbeingunenforceable,itwasonlywhenitwasbyreasonofmentaldisorder
thatthelawtookawaypersonalpowersandenabledthesetobedelegated.A
diagnosisofmentaldisorderwasrequired,butthisdidnotnecessarilyresultina
findingofincapacityanassessmentofcapacitystillhadtobemade.

77.

Recognisingthattestsofcapacityaredecisionspecific,theCourtofAppealheldthat
theruleshouldbereadasincapableofmanagingtheproceedings(i.e.giving
instructionsfortheconductoftheproceedings)inMastermanListervBrutton&Co
andJewell&HomeCountiesDairies[2002]EWCACiv1889.

Newdefinition
78.

FollowingtheMentalCapacityAct2005,thetermintheCPRandFPRhaschangedto
protectedpartyandthedefinitionhasbecome:
aparty,oranintendedparty,wholackscapacity(withinthemeaningoftheMental
CapacityAct2005)toconducttheproceedings.

79.

Section2ofthe2005Actprovidesthat:
apersonlackscapacityinrelationtoamatterifatthematerialtimeheisunableto

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makeadecisionforhimselfinrelationtothematterbecauseofanimpairmentof,ora
disturbanceinthefunctioningof,themindorbrain.
80.

Section3thenamplifiesunabletomakeadecision.Thisthusbecomesatwostage
test:(i)isthereisanimpairmentof,ordisturbanceinthefunctioningof,thepersons
mindorbrain,and(ii)isthissufficienttorenderthepersonincapableofconducting
theproceedings?

Implications
Assessmentofcapacity
81.

Courtsshouldalwaysinvestigatethequestionofcapacitywheneverthereisany
reasontosuspectthatitmaybeabsent.Thisisimportant,becauseiftheconditionis
notrecognisedanyproceedingsmaybeofnoeffectalthoughthecivilandfamilyrules
doprovidesomediscretioninthisrespectseeCPRr.21.3(2)and(4)andFPRr.15.3).
Thoserulesassumethatyouknowwhetherapartyisaprotectedpartyanddonot
makeanyspecificprovisionastohowanissueastocapacityistobedealtwith.

82.

Thesolicitorsactingforthepartiesmayhavelittleexperienceofsuchmattersand
maymakefalseassumptionsonthebasisoffactorsthatdonotrelatetothe
individual'sactualunderstanding.Evenwheretheissuedoesnotseemtobe
contentious,adistrictjudgewhoisresponsibleforcasemanagementwillrequirethe
assistanceofanexpertsreport.Thismaybeapreexistingreportorone
commissionedforthepurpose.Itnolongerneedstobebyamedicalpractitionerbut
could,whereappropriate(e.gwherethereisalearningdisability),beaclinical
psychologist.Thejudgemaybeassistedbyseeingthepersonallegedtolackcapacity.

83.

Incaseofdispute,capacityisaquestionoffactforthecourttodecideonthebalance
ofprobabilities,withapresumptionofcapacity.Evidenceshouldbeadmittednotonly
fromthosewhocanexpressanopinionasexpertsbutalsothosewhoknowthe
individual.

84.

GuidancehasbeengivenintheMastermanListercase(seeabove):
thetesttobeappliediswhetherthepartytolegalproceedingsiscapableof
understanding,withtheassistanceofsuchproperexplanationfromlegaladvisersand
expertsinotherdisciplinesasthecasemayrequire,theissuesonwhichhisconsentor
decisionislikelytobenecessaryinthecourseofthoseproceedings.Ifhehascapacity
tounderstandthatwhichheneedstounderstandinordertopursueordefenda
claim,Icanseenoreasonwhythelawwhethersubstantiveorproceduralshould
requiretheinterpositionofalitigationfriend.

85.

Accordingtothisdecisionthementalabilitiesrequiredincludetheabilityto:
a. recogniseaproblem,obtainandreceive,understandandretainrelevant
information,includingadvice;
b. weightheinformation(includingthatderivedfromadvice)inthebalancein
reachingadecision;andthen
c. communicatethatdecision.

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86.

TheOfficialSolicitormaybereferredtowhereassistanceisnotavailablefromany
othersource(seewww.officialsolicitor.gov.uk/)

Needforarepresentative
87.

Apartywhoisincapableofconductingtheparticularproceedingsmusthavea
representativetodoso,whetherbringingtheproceedingsordefendingthem.The
termforthisrepresentativeisnowlitigationfriendbutwaspreviouslynextfriend,if
bringingtheproceedings,orguardianadlitem,ifresponding.Anydoubtshouldbe
resolvedasapreliminaryissuebeforeproceedingsareallowedtocontinue.Thereis
noprocedurefortheappointmentofalitigationfriendinthemagistratescourtfor
familyproceedingsandwhenthisrequirementmayarisethecaseshouldbe
transferreduptothecountycourt.

Conductoftheproceedings
88.

Therepresentativepotentiallyhastherightsofaudienceofanunrepresentedparty
butinasubstantialclaimmaynotberegardedassuitableifhedoesnotinstructa
lawyer.ThedutyoftherepresentativewasdefinedbyaPracticeDirectiontotheCPR
(sinceremoved)as:
...fairlyandcompetentlytoconductproceedingsonbehalfof(the)patient.Hemust
havenointerestintheproceedingsadversetothatofthe...patientandallstepsand
decisionshetakesintheproceedingsmustbetakenforthebenefitofthe...patient.

89.

AnysettlementorcompromisewillhavetobeapprovedbythecourtundertheCPR
andanymoneyawardedmayonlybedealtwithpursuanttothedirectionsofthe
court.Theappointmentonlyrelatestotheproceedingsandtherepresentativehasno
authorityassuchoutsidethoseproceedings.Wheresignificantsumsareinvolvedit
willbenecessaryfortherepresentativeorsomeothersuitablepersontoapplytothe
CourtofProtectionunlessthereisanattorneyunderaregisteredenduringorlasting
powerofattorney.Theremaybecircumstanceswherethetrialjudgewillneedto
contacttheCourtofProtectionforguidanceorstaytheproceedingspendingan
applicationtothatCourt.

Appointment
90.

TheprocedurefortheappointmentistobefoundinCPRPart21andFPRPart15.The
representativewillneedtosignaCertificateofSuitabilityandgiveanundertakingas
tocostsunlessauthorisedbytheCourtofProtectiontoconductthelitigation.
Althoughtherulesdonotsoprovide,aprotectedpartyshouldbenotifiedof
proceedingsandgivenanopportunitytoexpressviewsunlesstotallyincapable.

91.

Careshouldbetakentoselectarepresentativewhohasnoactualorpotentialconflict
ofinterestwiththeprotectedparty.Wherethereisnosuitablepersonwillingand
abletoact,theOfficialSolicitorwillconsideracceptingappointmentbutgenerally
wishestohaveprovisionforpaymentofhiscosts.

Injunctions
92.

Aninjunctioncanbegrantedagainstaprotectedparty,butonlyifheorshe
understandstheproceedingsandthenatureandrequirementsoftheinjunction

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WookeyvWookey[1991]3AllER365.Thisisbecausethetestsofcapacitytolitigate
andtocomplywithaninjunctionaredifferentseePvP(Contemptofcourt:Mental
capacity)[1999]TheTimes,21July,CA.

Consequences
93.

Theconsequencesofbeingaprotectedpartytendtobedealtwithasaprocedural
matteralthoughtheymaybefundamentaltotheproceedings.Thedecisionasto
whetherproceedingsarecommenced,howtheyareconductedandwhethertheyare
settledmaydependupontheidentityoftherepresentative,yetthereislittleguidance
astohowthisrepresentativeshouldbeselectedoract.

94.

Phrasessuchasbestinterestsarecommonlyusedwithlittleunderstandingofwhat
theyactuallymean.ItisinstructivetoconsidertheinterpretationintheMental
CapacityAct2005whichincludesconsideringthepersonsviews,ifascertainable.
Judgescannotsimplyleaveanunfettereddiscretiontotherepresentativeandshould
satisfythemselvesonthesemattersduringthecourseoftheproceedings.Theneed
foranysettlementorcompromisetobejudiciallyapprovedunderlinesthisrole.

Decisionmakingandmentalincapacity
Background
95.

Formanyyearsproceduresfordelegationofdecisionmakingpowershavecomprised:
a. Agencye.g.abankmandateorordinarypowerofattorney.
b. Specifice.g.anappointeeforstatebenefitsorlitigationfriendforcourt
proceedings.
c. Statutorythejurisdictionofthe(former)CourtofProtectionandenduring
powersofattorney.
d. Trustseitherabaretrustorsettlement.

96.

Eachhasitsownlimitationsandnormalagencymethodsdonotsurvivealossof
capacity.Buttheseproceduresallrelatetofinancialdecisionsandtherewereno
proceduresavailableforothertypesofdecision(i.e.personalwelfareorhealthcare).

Thementalcapacityjurisdiction
Overview
97.

TheMentalCapacityAct2005(implementedon1October2007)establishesa
comprehensivestatutoryframework,settingouthowdecisionsshouldbemadeby
andonbehalfofthosewhosecapacitytomaketheirowndecisionsisindoubt.Italso
clarifieswhatactionscanbetakenbyothersinvolvedinthecareandmedical
treatmentofpeoplelackingcapacity.

98.

Theframeworkprovidesahierarchyofprocesses,extendingfrominformaldaytoday
care,todecisionmakingrequiringformalpowers,andultimatelytocourtdecisions.
Anindividualcananticipatefuturelackofcapacitybycompletingalastingpowerof

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attorneyforeitherfinancialaffairsorpersonalwelfaredecisions(whichincludes
healthcare).Failingthis,thenewCourtofProtectionhasjurisdictiontomake
declarationsordecisionsortoappointadeputytomakedecisionsonthe
incapacitatedpersonsbehalf.
99.

Thecommonlawrelatingtoadvancerefusalsof(medical)treatmentisalsoplaced
onastatutoryfootingandthereisanewoffenceofilltreatmentandneglectonthe
partofcarers,doneesoflastingpowersofattorneyanddeputies.

100. TheActsprovisionsapplyingeneralonlytopeoplelackingcapacitywhoareaged16
yearsorover,butthepropertyandfinancialaffairsjurisdictionmaybeexercisedin
relationtoachildwhowilllackcapacityintoadulthood.
101. ACodeofPracticeprovidesguidanceforthecourts,professionalsandthose
concernedwiththewelfareofmentallyincapacitatedadultsandaPublicGuardianis
appointedtosuperviseandpromotethenewjurisdiction.
TheCodeisavailablewithfurtherguidanceatwww.justice.gov.uk/protectingthe
vulnerable/mentalcapacityact.
Fundamentalprinciples
102. Therearefiveunderlyingprinciples:
1. Adecisionspecificapproachtocapacitybasedonunderstandingandtheabilityto
makeandcommunicateadecision.
2. Adultsarepresumedtohavecapacitysounjustifiedassumptionsareoutlawedand
thereisabalanceofprobabilitiesapproach.
3. Individualsshouldbehelpedtomaketheirowndecisionswithsimple
explanations,andtheymaymakeunwisedecisions.
4. Theremustbeparticipationindecisionmakingandconsultationwithothers.
5. Aleastrestrictiveapproachistobeappliedtointervention.

Keyconcepts
103. TherearetwonewconceptsthatapplyforthepurposesofthisAct,namelya
definitionofincapacityandclarificationofbestinterests(thebasisonwhichdecisions
mustbemade).
Incapacity
104. Section2(1)setsoutthedefinitionofapersonwholackscapacity:
Apersonlackscapacityinrelationtoamatterifatthematerialtimeheisunableto
makeadecisionforhimselfinrelationtothematterbecauseofanimpairmentof,ora
disturbanceinthefunctioningof,themindorbrain.
105. Thisisatwostagetest,becauseitmustbeestablishedfirst,thatthereisan
impairmentof,ordisturbanceinthefunctioningof,thepersonsmindorbrain(the
diagnosticcriteria);andsecondly,thattheimpairmentordisturbanceissufficientto
renderthepersonincapableofmakingthatparticulardecision.Capacityisthus
decisionspecificbutitdoesnotmatterwhethertheimpairmentordisturbanceis
permanentortemporary.
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106. Section3providesthatapersonisunabletomakeadecisionifunableto:
a. understandtheinformationrelevanttothedecision,
b. retainthatinformation,
c. useorweighthatinformationaspartoftheprocessofmakingthedecision,or
d. communicatehisdecision(whetherbytalking,usingsignlanguageoranyother
means).
107. Explanationsmustbeprovidedinwaysthatareappropriatetothepersons
circumstances.
Bestinterests
108. Allrelevantcircumstancesmustbeconsideredwhendecidingwhatisinapersons
bestinterests,buttheActsetsoutinsection4achecklistoffactorsaimedat
identifyingthoseissuesmostrelevanttotheindividualwholackscapacity(asopposed
tothedecisionmakeroranyotherpersons).Notallthefactorsinthechecklistwillbe
relevanttoalltypesofdecisionsoractionsandtheweightaccordedtothemwillvary
accordingtothecircumstances,buttheymuststillbeconsideredifonlytobe
disregardedasirrelevanttothatparticularsituation.Theyinclude:
a. whetherthepersonwillatsometimehavetherequiredcapacity,
b. encouragingthepersontoparticipateinthedecision,
c. thepersonspastandpresentwishesandfeelings,
d. thebeliefsandvaluesthatwouldbelikelytoinfluencethepersonsdecision,
e. theviewsofotherswhoshouldbeconsulted.

Decisionmaking
109. Therearetwoareasofdecisionmaking,namelypersonalwelfare(whichincludes
healthcare)andpropertyandaffairs.Therearethenprogressivelevelsofdecision
making:
a. Apersonactinginformallyundersection5whichmayberegardedasageneral
authorityregardingpersonalwelfare(althoughinrealityitisastatutorydefence).
b. Apersonexpendingtheindividualsmoneytopayfornecessarygoodsand
servicesundersection6(orpledginghiscreditundersection7).
c. Anattorneyunderalastingpowerofattorney(ortheformerenduringpowerof
attorney).
d. TheCourtofProtectionmakingdecisionsordeclarations.
e. AdeputyappointedbythatCourt.

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Thenewpublicbodies
CourtofProtection
110. ThenewCourtofProtectionisaverydifferentbodytoitspredecessorofthesame
name.ItisaSuperiorCourtofRecordadministeredbyHMCTSwithfullstatustodeal
withtheentirerangeofdecisionmakingonbehalfofincapacitatedadults.Ittakes
overthefinancialjurisdictionoftheexistingCourtofProtectionandextendsthisto
personalwelfare(whichincludeshealthcare)decisionsthusabsorbingtheexisting
declaratoryjurisdictionoftheFamilyDivision.
111. MostapplicationsaredealtwithonpaperbydistrictjudgesattheCourtsprinciple
officeinLondonbuthearingsmaybeeitherthereorbeforenominateddistrictjudges
sittinginregionalcourts,withnominatedcircuitjudgesandHighCourtjudgeshearing
themoreimportantcasesandappeals.ThenewCourtofProtectionRules2007
promoteactivecasemanagementdrawingontheCivilProcedureRules1998.
PublicGuardian
112. ThePublicGuardianhasastatutoryappointmentwithanofficeandstaffknownasthe
OfficeofthePublicGuardian(OPG).Thenewroleisbothadministrativeand
supervisoryandtherearefivekeyfunctions:
a. Tomaintainaregisteroflastingpowersofattorney(andtheformerenduring
powersthatstillremainvalid).
b. Tomaintainaregisterofdeputies.
c. Tosuperviseandreceivesecurityfromdeputies.
d. Toreceivereportsfromandhearrepresentationsaboutattorneysanddeputies.
e. ToprovidereportstotheCourtandarrangereportsfromvisitors.

Thenewjurisdiction
113. Thereisawiderrangeofcasesunderthenewjurisdictionandaconsequentincrease
inthevolumeofcases.Theunmetneedhasemergedandthereisanewvarietyof
outcomes.TheCourtandtheOfficeofthePublicGuardianhaveattainedgreater
prominencewithawiderinfluence,butthereisaconstantstruggletomaintainthe
balancebetweenprotectionandempowermentofthesepotentiallyvulnerable
people.
114. Atapersonallevelthisnewjurisdictionhasaconsiderablepotentialtoaffectallour
livesandthoseofourfamiliesinthefuture.Wemayneedtohaverecoursetoit!In
termsofourjudicialrolethefollowingimplicationsmaybeidentified:
a. Enduringpowersofattorneypreviouslyexecutedarestilleffectivebutsince1
October2007onlylastingpowersofattorneymaybecompletedandregistration
ofthesedoesnotpointtowardslackofcapacity.
b. ThenewCourtofProtectionisabletodealwiththefullrangeofdecisionmaking
onbehalfofadultswholackcapacityinaccessiblelocalcourts.

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c. SeriousmedicaltreatmentdecisionsarenowdealtwithbyFamilyDivisionJudges
intheCourtofProtectionunderthestatutoryjurisdiction.
d. ThereisacloserworkingrelationshipbetweentheCourtofProtectionandthecivil
andfamilycourtswithnominatedjudgesbecomingaresourceforotherjudges
whentheyencountermentalcapacityissues.
e. Casesinthecountycourtsinvolvingasignificantmentalcapacityelementmaybe
transferredtoasuitablenominatedjudgeasaspecialistandanominatedjudge
maysitinadualjurisdiction.
f. Adiscretebodyoflawisdevelopinginregardtotheassessmentofcapacitywitha
moreprofessionalapproachtowardsdecisionmakingissues.
g. TheinherentjurisdictionoftheHighCourtcontinuestoexistforvulnerableadults
whoarefoundtolackcapacityforreasonsnotwithintheMentalCapacityAct
2005.

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Genderreassignment

8.Genderreassignment
Keypoints

Transgenderpeople,whethertheyarepreorpostoperativetranspeopleortrans
peoplewhodonotintendtohavesurgery,shouldbereferredtointheirpreferredor
acquiredgender.Theyshouldnotbeaddressedasiftheyremainedinthegenderthat
wasassignedtothematbirth.

Incaseswheredisclosureofbirthgenderisnotessentialthisshouldbeomitted;it
shouldbepossibleinsuchcasestoaccepttheperson'schosengenderidentityfor
nearlyallcourtandtribunalpurposes.

AcquiredgenderisthedescriptionusedintheGRAtoindicatethetransitionfrom
thegenderassignedtoapersonatbirthtothatpersonsaffirmedgender.

Ahistoryofnonfetishistictransvestitedressing,oftenfromearlychildhood,forms
partofthediagnosticcriteriaofprimarygenderdysphoria,butthisisnottoequate
transgenderpeoplewithtransvestites.

Itisunlikelythatatransvestitewhocrossdressesinprivateandsometimesinpublic
willcrossdressincourt.However,thismaynotalwaysbethecaseandadesireor
needtocrossdressmaystillbearelevantandimportantissue,forexample,indivorce
orfamilyproceedings,orasthebackgroundtoanoffenceofviolenceagainstthat
person.

Section146oftheCriminalJusticeAct2003nowprovidesforsentencestobe
aggravatedforanyoffencemotivatedbyhostilitytowardsthevictimonthegrounds
thatthevictimwas(orwaspresumedtobe)atransgenderperson.

Fundamentalprinciplesofequalityandacceptanceofdiversitydemandthatno
differenceintreatmentisaccordedtotranspeopleortransvestitesduetotheir
mannerofdresssincechoiceofclothing,whetherornotitarisesthroughan
inescapableemotionalneed,shouldberespectfullytoleratedunlessthereisanaffront
topublicdecencyoraclearintentiontoinsultthejudicialprocess.

Itismisguidedandpotentiallymisleadingtomakeanyassumptionsastothesexual
orientationoftransvestitesortransgenderpeople,whichcanvaryacrossthewhole
spectrumofsexuality.

Manytranspeoplewillavoidcontactwiththecriminaljusticesystem,including
makingreportstothepoliceorpressingcharges.

PressforChangeswebsitewww.pfc.org.ukandthewebsiteoftheGenderIdentity
ResearchandEducationSocietywww.gires.org.ukhaveinformationaboutequality
issuesrelatingtotranspeople.

Introduction
1.

Transsexualpeople,alsoknownastransgenderortranspeople,sufferfromamedical
conditionknownasgenderdysphoria,GenderIdentityDisorderbeingtheformal

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diagnosis.IthasaclassificationintheInternationalClassificationofDiseases10(ICD
10),whichdefinestranssexualismasbeing:
"Adesiretoliveandbeacceptedasamemberoftheoppositesex,usually
accompaniedbyasenseofdiscomfortwith,orinappropriatenessof,one'sanatomic
sex,andawishtohavesurgeryandhormonaltreatmenttomakeone'sbodyas
congruentaspossiblewithone'spreferredsex.
2.

Thereissomecontroversyoverwhethergenderdysphoriashouldbeclassifiedasa
disorderandthenewversionoftheDiagnosticStatisticalManualofMentalDisorders
(DSM)willreplacethediagnostictermGenderIdentityDisorderwiththetermGender
Dysphoria.Accordingtothe7thversionoftheWorldProfessionalAssociationfor
TransgenderHealthsStandardsofCarefortheHealthofTranssexual,Transgender,
andGenderNonconformingPeople,beingtranssexual,transgender,orgender
nonconformingisamatterofdiversity,notpathology.

3.

Followingtreatment,whichmayinvolvecrosssexhormonetherapyand,insome
cases,genderconfirmation,surgery,(referredtointheGenderRecognitionAct2004
astreatmentforthepurposeofmodifyingsexualcharacteristics)manytranssexual
peoplearestronglyoftheviewthattheynolongersufferfromgenderdysphoria,the
treatmenthavingbeensuccessful.

4.

GenderreassignmentisaprotectedcharacteristicundertheEqualityAct2010,which
states:
Apersonhastheprotectedcharacteristicofgenderreassignmentifthepersonis
proposingtoundergo,isundergoingorhasundergoneaprocess(orpartofaprocess)
forthepurposeofreassigningtheperson'ssexbychangingphysiologicalorother
attributesofsex.

6.

Thereisnorequirementforatranspersontohaveundergoneanymedicaltreatment
tobecoveredbytheprotectedcharacteristicofgenderreassignment,nordoesa
transpersonhavetobeproposingtoundergo,beundergoingorhaveundergoneany
processofphysiologicalchange.

7.

Aswellasprohibitingdiscriminationbecauseofapersonsgenderidentityinmost
circumstances,theEqualityAct2010alsoprohibitsdiscriminationbecauseaperson
associateswithatranspersonorisperceivedtobeatransperson.

Theprocessofgenderreassignment
8.

Theprocessofgenderreassignmentiscomplexandrequiresgreatpersonal
determination.

9.

Notalltranspeopleundergogenderconfirmationsurgery,butforthosethatdo,the
surgicalstageispartofalongerandlargersequenceofeventsandprocessesthatare
intendedtohelpthepersonsphysicalidentitymatchtheirinnersenseofgender
identity.

10.

Feminising/masculinisinghormonetherapyistheadministrationofoestrogensand/or
antiandrogenstotranswomenandtheadministrationofandrogenstotransmen,in
ordertoproducechangesthatmakethemlookand/orfeelmorelikepeopleoftheir

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preferredgender.Thesetaketheformoftablets,patchesorinjectionsandthe
individualwillneedtotakethesehormonesfortherestoftheirlife.
11.

Thetransitionprocess,whichwillusuallyinvolveaperiodoflivingcontinuouslyina
genderrolethatiscongruentwiththetranspersonsgenderidentity,isknownwithin
thetranscommunityastransitioning.Atranspersonwillnotbeeligibleforsurgery
unlesstheyhavelivedcontinuouslyinagenderrolethatiscongruentwiththeir
genderidentityforatleastayear.Inmanycasesaperiodoftwoyearsisrequired.
ThisperiodissometimesreferredtoastheRealLifeExperience/RealLifeTest,
althoughthesetermsaresomewhatcontroversialwithinthetranscommunity.

12.

Genderconfirmationsurgeryforatranswoman(i.e.amaletofemaletransperson,
whichisthegreaternumberoftranspeople)typicallyinvolvespenectomy(removalof
thepenis)andorchidectomy(removalofthetestes)togetherwiththefashioningofa
neovaginafromthescrotalmaterial.Additionalsurgerymaytakeplaceformore
cosmeticchanges,suchasbreastenhancement,trachealshavetoreducethesizeof
theAdamsapple,andshorteningthevocalchordstoraisepitch.Facial
reconstructionmayalsobeavailable.Thelatterprocedureswilltendtobeprivately
funded.

13.

Foratransman(i.e.afemaletomaletransperson)theinitialsurgerytendstobe
mastectomy(removalofthebreasts).Totalhysterectomy(removalofthewomb)is
notuniversal.Surgeryfortransmenmayalsoinvolvesalpingooophorectomy
(removalofthefallopiantubesandovaries).Phalloplasty(thecreationofapenis)isa
difficultoperationwithaguardedprognosis.Manytransmenprefertohavethe
creationofamicropenisforurination,anddonotpursuefullphalloplasty.

TheGenderRecognitionAct2004
14.

TheGenderRecognitionAct(GRA)2004cameintoforceon4April2005.Itcreatesa
frameworkforthelegalrecognitionoftransgenderpeopleintheirreassignedsex.The
ActwastheresponsetothejudgmentdeliveredatStrasbourgon11July2002inthe
caseofChristineGoodwinv.theUnitedKingdom(applicationno.28957/95)inwhich
theEuropeanCourtofHumanRightsheldunanimouslythattherehadbeenviolations
ofMsGoodwinsArticle8(righttorespectforprivateandfamilylife)andArticle12
(righttomarry)oftheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights.Theyfoundthatthe
UKGovernmenthadapositiveobligationunderinternationallawtosecurethe
Conventionrightsandfreedomsfortranspeopleandhadtorectifytheseongoing
breaches.

15.

TheGRAprovidesforthegrantofaGenderRecognitionCertificate(GRC),andforthe
decisiontobemadebyajudicialbody,theGenderRecognitionPanel.

16.

TheGenderRecognitionPanelcomprisesjudgesandmedicalmembers,and
determinesapplicationsforaGRCundertheGRA.

17.

ThepublicwebsitefortheGenderRecognitionPanelisatwww.grp.gov.uk.

18.

TheGRApermitsapersonofeithergendertomakeanapplicationforaGRConthe
basisoflivingintheiracquiredgenderorhavingchangedgenderunderthelawofa
countryorterritoryoutsidetheUK.

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19.

ThePanelmustgranttheapplicationifsatisfiedthattheapplicanthasorhashad
genderdysphoria,haslivedintheacquiredgenderthroughouttheperiodoftwoyears
endingwiththedateonwhichtheapplicationismade,intendstocontinuetolivein
theacquiredgenderuntildeathandcomplieswithcertainevidentialandmedical
requirements.

20.

Itisworthemphasisingatthispointthatgenderconfirmationsurgery,asoutlined
above,isnotaprerequisitetothegrantofaGRC.ThePanelwillbetoldwhysurgery
hasnotbeenundergoneorisnotplanned.

21.

Therearesometimesmedicalreasonsastowhysurgeryhasnotbeen,orcannotbe
carriedout.Genderconfirmationsurgeryismajorsurgerywhichcarriestheusual
risksassociatedwiththat.Apersonsphysicalconditionmayprecludesafegeneral
anaesthesiaorotherwisecontraindicatesurgery.

22.

Fundingproblemsmaybeareasonfordelayinsurgery;theavailabilityoffunding
undertheNationalHealthService,andindeedpreliminaryassessmentandtreatment,
variesthroughouttheUK.

23.

NotalltranspeoplewillapplyforaGenderRecognitionCertificateforavarietyof
reasons,includingthatentitlementtoacertificate,inthecaseofapersonwhois
marriedorinacivilpartnership,willdependuponthemfirstdivorcingtheir
spouse/dissolvingtheircivilpartnership.Manytransgenderpeopledonotwantto
takethisstepbecausetheirrelationshipwiththeirspouse/civilpartnerhas
accommodatedandtranscendedthegendertransition.

24.

ForthoseapplicantsforaGRCwhoaremarriedorincivilpartnerships,onsatisfaction
oftheusualcriteriathePanelwillissueaninterimcertificate,whichislimitedintime
andpurpose.Itenablesanapplicationforadivorce/dissolutiontobemadewithinsix
monthsofthegrantoftheInterimCertificate,whichbecomesagroundfordivorceof
itself.TheFamilyCourtwillthenconverttheInterimCertificateintoafullGRC.

25.

ApersonwhohasbeenissuedwithafullGRCisentitledtomarryintheiracquired
genderandtheiracquiredgenderbecomestheirgenderforallpurposessavethat,
undertheGRAitdoesnotaffecttheirstatusasthemotherorfatherofachildborn
priortothegrantoftheGRC(section12).

26.

IfatransprisonerhasbeengrantedaGRC,thatpersonwillbeaccommodatedina
prisonappropriateforpeopleoftheiracquiredgender.

27.

ThefactthatapersondoesnothaveaGenderRecognitionCertificateshouldnotbe
assumedtomeanthattheyarenotatransperson;theyareentitledtorespectand
legalprotectionasappropriateinthegenderroleinwhichtheyareliving.

28.

TheGRAstatesthatitisanoffenceforapersonwhohasacquiredprotected
informationinanofficialcapacityaboutapersonsapplicationforaGRCtodisclose
thatinformationtoanyotherperson.TheGRAoutlinesanumberofcircumstancesin
whichitwouldnotbeanoffencetodisclosetheinformation,including,amongothers,
thattheinformationdoesnotenabletheindividualtoberecognised,thatthe
individualhasagreedtothedisclosureoftheinformation,thatthedisclosureisin
accordancewiththeorderofacourtortribunal,orthatthedisclosureisforthe

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purposeofpreventingorinvestigatingcrime.Thisimportantissueisdealtwithfurther
below.

Legalrequirementsconflictingwithindividualinterests
29.

Whencourtsandtribunalscomeintocontactwithtranssexualpeople,the
requirementsofthelawmayconflictwiththeneedsandinterestsoftheperson
involved.

30.

Section22oftheGRAmakesitanoffenceforapersonwhohasobtainedprotected
informationinanofficialcapacitytodisclosethatinformationtoanyotherperson.
Protectedinformationisinformationaboutapersonsapplicationforlegalrecognition
oftheiracquiredgenderor,iftheyhavelegalrecognition,theirgenderhistory.

31.

Thereareanumberofexceptionstosection22,oneofwhich(s22(4)(e))isthatitis
notanoffencetodiscloseprotectedinformationifthedisclosureisforthepurposeof
instituting,orotherwiseforthepurposesof,proceedingsbeforeacourtortribunal.

32.

Inthecaseofatransperson,disclosureofbirthgendermaybeessentialbutthiswill
berare.Itwillusuallybepossibletoacceptapersonsacquiredgenderforcourtand
tribunalpurposeswithoutfurtherinquirywhichmaynotonlybeintrusiveand
offensive,butcouldbreachArticle8rightswhicharguablymeanthatthedisclosure
wouldneedtoberelevantandnecessaryfortheproperdisposalofthelegal
proceedings.

33.

ThepolicyintentionbehindS22appearstohavebeenthatdisclosurewouldonlybe
permissibleifmadeforthepurposeofcourtproceedings;thatistosaynotasa
generalitywithinproceedingsbutasrelevanttothefundamentalpurposeofthe
proceedingsthemselves.Thereareobviousinstanceswhenitwillbemadeforthis
purposee.g.fortherecoveryofadebtincurredinthepreviousname/gender,and,in
thoseinstances,disclosureislegitimateandnecessary,howeverjudgesshouldbe
awareofthesensitivitiesandofoutingsomeonewheretheirgenderisnotrelevant
totheissueinthecase.

Guidelines
34.

TheAssociationofChiefPoliceOfficers(ACPO)recognisesthatdealingwith
transgender(andtransvestite)peoplecanraisedifficultandsensitiveissues.Ithas
thereforeadoptedguidelines,whichithascirculatedtoallforcesinEnglandand
Wales.Theseguidelinesmaybeusefullyadaptedtoprovidesoundadvicetoall
involvedintheadministrationofjustice.Themainpointsare:
a. Everyonemustbetreatedfairlyandwithrespectfortheirpersonaldignity.
b. Wherethereisaquestionrelatingtoapersonsgender,thepersonshouldbe
askedwhatgendertheyconsiderthemselvestobe,andwhatgendertheywould
prefertobetreatedas.Inthisrespect,whereverpossible,apersonshouldbe
treated,identifiedandaddressedinaccordancewiththeirwishes.(Thusa
transgenderoffendermaybemoreappropriatelysearchedbyanofficerofthe
oppositegendertothatshownonthetransgenderpersonsbirthcertificate.)

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c. Transgenderpeopleshouldnotbeaccommodatedordealtwithinamannerthatis
fundamentallyinconsistentwiththeirchosengenderidentity.
d. Nooneshouldbeputinasituationwheretheymayfacehostilityorridicule.
35.

TheNOMShasaPrisonServiceOrderinrelationtothemanagement,treatmentand
careofprisonerswhohaveorhavehadgenderdysphoria,whichusessimilarcriteria,
designedtorespectthedignityandprivacyofthetranssexualprisonerasfarasis
possiblewithinthatdifficultcontext.

Difficultiesandsocialstigma
36.

SincethecomingintoforceoftheGenderRecognitionAct2004on4April2005more
than8,000peopleinBritainhavesuccessfullyestablishedthattheyhavechanged
theirsex,somemanyyearsago.Peoplecontinuetotransitionbetweenthegenders
andmostofthemblendinvisiblyintosocietyintheiracquiredgender.

37.

Whilstacceptanceisimprovingwiththeunderstandingthatgendernonconformityis
aninternationallyrecognisedhumanphenomenon,thepersonaldifficultiesassociated
withgenderreassignmentarestillhuge.

38.

Thereremainsacertainmistrustofnonconventionalgenderbehaviourgenerally,
and,unfortunately,manytranspeopleexperiencesocialisolationand/or
discrimination.Socialstigma,althoughlesseningandnowthesubjectoflegislation
undertheEqualityAct2010,takesmanyforms,fromexperiencingpersonalviolence
inthehomeandinpublicarenas,tojoborhomeloss,financialdifficulties,lossof
contactwithfamiliesandcommunities,andtodifficultiesinpersonalrelationships.
Thereisatranscommunity,whichishighlywebsavvy,andinternetinformation
abounds.Transpeople,therefore,haveaccesstosupportandadvicefromother
membersofthetranscommunity,aswellasinformationaboutthedifficultiesthata
personmayfacewhentransitioningtoagenderrolethatiscongruentwiththeir
genderidentity.Theprocessofgenderreassignmentmustbeunderstoodagainstthat
background,andalevelofrespectaccordedtothisdifficultdecision.

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Ethnicity

9.Ethnicity,inequalityandjustice
Keypoints

Ethnicminoritiesexperiencedisadvantageassociatedwiththeirethnicityinallareas
oflife.

Theexperienceofdisadvantagedifferswithnotallethnicminoritygroups
experiencingdisadvantageinallareasortothesameextent.

Thereisconsiderablediversitywithincommunitiesandaccordinglynoteveryone
withinthesameethnicgroupwillexperiencedisadvantageinthesameway.

Thedisadvantageexperiencedbyethnicminoritiesisreflectedintheirtreatment
withinthecriminaljusticesystem.

Awarenessofthecommunitiesservedbythecourts,includingthecommonplace
experiencesofracismanddisadvantage,willassistajudgeinunderstandingthose
participatinginthejusticesystem.

Itisimportanttoavoidstereotypesbasedonperceivedcharacteristicsassociatedwith
aparticularethnicgroup.Justbecausethemajorityofmembersofanethnicgroup
havecertaincharacteristicsorviewsdoesnotmeanallmembersofthegrouphave
thosecharacteristicsorviews.

Introduction
1.

Thejusticesystemisvitalforensuringasafeenvironmentforeveryoneandforthe
resolvingofdisputesinanorderlyway.Wherethepublic,orasectionofit,lacks
confidenceinthesystem,thismayleadtoareductioninthereportingofcrimeorthe
provisionofassistancetothepoliceandcourts,andmaymilitateagainsttheorderly
resolutionofdisputes.

2.

Thereisaperceptionamongstsomecommunitiesthatthecriminaljusticesystemis
notfairandjust.Thereisevidencethatsomeoftheconcernsunderlyingthose
perceptionsmaybewellfounded,asisexploredinthischapter.

3.

Further,theexperienceofracismordisadvantageinonesectorofsocietywillhavean
impactonperceptionsabouttheadministrationofjusticeasawhole.Anappearance
beforeacourtcannotbeisolatedfromothersocialexperiences.

4.

Thereis,then,aparticularneedforjudgestodemonstratefairnessinthecarryingout
oftheirresponsibilitiesifconfidenceinthejusticesystemistobemaintainedand
promotedamongstallethnicgroups.Thisrequiresanawarenessofthewayinwhich
ourownactionsmightaffectperceptionsof,andconfidencein,partsofthejustice
system.Knowledgeandinformationaboutwhathappensoutsidecourtcanhelp
judgestoensurethatwhathappensinsideisfairandseentobefair.

5.

Someoftheavailablestatisticalmaterialissetoutbelowtoprovideanintroductionto
thesortsofdisadvantagesexperiencedbycertainminoritygroupswithinthejustice
systemandmorebroadly.Itisimportanttonotethatthereisconsiderablediversity

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Ethnicity

withincommunitiesandaccordinglynoteveryonewithinthesameethnicgroupwill
experiencedisadvantageinthesameway.
6.

Itisalsoimportanttoavoidstereotypesbasedonperceivedcharacteristicsassociated
withaparticularethnicgroup.Justbecausethemajorityofmembersofanethnic
grouphavecertaincharacteristics,experiencesorviewsdoesnotmeanallmembers
ofthegrouphavethosecharacteristics,experiencesorviews.

Statisticalbackground
7.

Thissectioncontainssomebackgroundfactsandstatisticsaboutdifferentethnic
minoritycommunitiesandinparticularthedisadvantageswhichtheyexperience.To
summarisethosefacts:
a. Thereismuchvariationbetweenethnicminoritygroupsinrelationtosocialand
economicdisadvantage.
b. Lookedafterchildrenaredisproportionatelyfromethnicminoritygroups.
c. Ineducation,GCSEattainmentlevelsarehighestforpupilsofChineseandIndian
ethnicorigin,andlowestforthoseofGypsy/RomaandIrishTravellerheritages.
d. Inthelabourmarket,allBritainsethnicminoritygroupsexperienceanethnic
penalty;theyaremorelikelytoexperienceunemployment,andthisislikelytobe
partlytheresultofracialdiscrimination.
e. Minorityethnicgroupsexperiencesignificantwealthinequality,andsomeethnic
groupsaremorelikelytohavelowhouseholdincomesandliveinsubstandardor
overcrowdedhomes.
f. Crimeandcriminaljusticeexperiencesarealsosignificantlydifferentbetween
ethnicgroups.
g. Peoplefromcertainminoritygroupsaremorelikelytobesubjecttostopand
search,arrestandimprisonment,andBlackpeoplehaveverymuchhigherratesof
arrest.
h. Ethnicminoritygroupsareunderrepresentedinmostprofessionsworkingwithin
thejusticesystem.Thisunderrepresentationisparticularlymarkedinthe
judiciary.

Thepopulation
8.

MostresidentsofEnglandandWalesbelongtotheWhiteethnicgroup(86percent,
48.2million),andthemajorityofthesebelongtotheWhiteBritishgroup(80percent
ofthetotalpopulation,45.1million).InLondon,45percent(3.7million)outof8.2
millionusualresidentsareWhiteBritish.41

41

2011 Census: Key statistics for England and Wales, March 2011 (Dec 2012, ONS) Statistical Bulletin.

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Ethnicity

9.

Twelvepercent(2.0million)ofhouseholdswithatleasttwopeoplehavepartnersor
householdmembersofdifferentethnicgroups,athreepercentagepointincreaseon
2001(ninepercent,1.4million).42

10.

Ofthe13percent(7.5million)ofresidentsofEnglandandWaleswhowereborn
outsideoftheUK,justoverhalf(3.8million)arrivedinthelast10years.43

11.

ThenumberofresidentswhostatethattheirreligionisChristianisfewerthanin
2001.Thesizeofthisgroupdecreased13percentagepointsto59percent(33.2
million)in2011from72percent(37.3million)in2001.Thesizeofthegroupwho
statedthattheyhadnoreligiousaffiliationincreasedby10percentagepointsfrom15
percent(7.7million)in2001to25percent(14.1million)in2011.44

Attitudesandprejudice
12.

Whenthepublicisexplicitlyaskedaboutprejudice,theyfeelthatthereisgreater
racialandreligiousprejudicenowadays,comparedwiththerecentpast.In2001,two
ineveryfivepeopleinEnglandandWalesbelievedtherewasmoreracialprejudicein
Britainthenthantherehadbeenfiveyearspreviously.Theviewthattherewasmore
racialprejudicethanfiveyearsagoincreasedtoalmosthalf(48%)in2005,andto
morethanhalf(56%)in2008.45Thisissonotwithstandingthatthereismuchgreater
mixingbetweencommunities.46

13.

AttitudestowardsMuslimpeopleappeartobeparticularlynegative.TheBritishsocial
attitudessurveyin2010indicatesthatthegeneralpublicholdsmorenegative
attitudestowardsMuslimpeoplethanpeopleofanyotherfaith(55%ofpeoplesaid
thattheywouldbeconcernedbytheconstructionofalargemosqueintheir
community,whileonly15%wouldbesimilarlyconcernedbyalargechurch).47

14.

Researchrevealsnegativeperceptionsofimmigrantsandasylumseekers.Thereis
particularhostilitytowardsillegalorundocumentedimmigrants.Theoveralllevelof
negativeattitudesisincreasingwithonesurveyrevealingthattheproportionof
peoplewhostronglyagreedortendedtoagreethattherearetoomanyimmigrants
intheUKincreasedfrom61%in1997to70%in2009.48

42

Ibid.

43

Ibid.

44

Ibid.

45

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 32 available at
http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/uploaded_files/triennial_review/how_fair_is_britain__complete_report.pdf. Internal references removed.

46

2011 Census: Key statistics for England and Wales, March 2011 (Dec 2012, ONS) Statistical Bulletin.

47

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 33. Internal references removed.

48

Ibid. Internal references removed.

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126

Ethnicity

15.

GypsiesandTravellersareoftenthesubjectofsuspicionanddisapproval,sometimes
exacerbatedbyinaccuratemediareporting.49

InequalitiesinsocialandeconomicLife
16.

Inkeyareasoflife,suchaseducation,housing,andemployment,thereisevidence
thatsignificantdisadvantageisexperiencedbycertainethnicminorities.Thereis,
however,adiversityofexperience,anditisnotpossibletospeakofasingularethnic
minorityexperience:therearewidespreadvariationswithintheethnicminority
population.

Lookedafterchildrenandadoption
17.

AsatMarch2009,therewere60,900childrenlookedafterbyalocalauthorityandfor
nearlytwothirdsthiswasbecauseofabuseorneglect.50Lookedafterchildrenwere
disproportionatelylikelytocomefromethnicminoritygroups,withonly73%being
WhiteBritish.

18.

Ofthe3300childrenadoptedin2009,82%werewhite,12%wereofmixedethnic
origin,3%wereBlack,2%wereAsian,and1%werefromotherethnicgroups.

19.

LookedafterchildreninEnglandexperienceloweducationalperformance,withjust
15%getting5GCSEsA*C.Lookedafterchildrenarefourtimesaslikelytobe
permanentlyexcludedfromschoolastheirpeers;twiceaslikelytobeconvictedor
subjecttoafinalwarningorreprimandfromthepolice;fourtimesaslikelytobe
unemployedattheendofYear11;andtentimesaslikelytohaveastatementof
SpecialEducationalNeeds(SEN).51

Education
20.

InEngland,therearealargedifferencesbetweenethnicgroupsinthepercentageof
pupilsachieving5+goodGCSEsincludingEnglishandMaths:
a. AhighproportionofChinese(72%)andIndian(67%)pupilsachieved5+good
GCSEsin2009.
b. TheproportionofBangladeshi,BlackAfricanandWhiteBritishpupilswascloseto
theaverage(of51%).
c. BlackCaribbeanandPakistanistudentsfellbelowtheaverageat39%and43%
respectively;
d. GypsyandTravellerchildrenarewellbelowtheaveragewithonly9%ofchildren
fromthesegroupsachievingthislevel.52IrishTravellerandGypsy/Romaarethe

49

Ibid, 35. Internal references removed.

50

DCSF (2009) Children Looked after in England (Including Adoption and Care Leavers) Year Ending 31
March 2009. SFR 25/2009. London: DCSF.

51

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 314. Internal references removed.

52

Ibid, 332-3. Internal references removed. Some care needs to be taken with these comparisons because of the
low number of eligible Gypsy and Traveller pupils.

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Ethnicity

onlyethnicgroupswhoseperformancehasdeterioratedsharplyinrecentyears,
droppingfrom42%and23%ofpupilsrespectivelygetting5GCSEsA*Cin2003,
tojust16%and14%in2007.53
e. Girlsoutperformboysacrossallethnicminoritygroups.54
21.

Therearemultiplereasonsforeducationaladvantageanddisadvantage.Lowersocio
economicstatusisakeyfactorinexplainingloweducationalattainment,perhaps
becauseoflowerparentalaspirations55andlessparentalengagementwithschools
andtheeducationprocess.56Thismaybecompoundedindisadvantagedareaswhere
someminorityethnicpupils(ofIndian,Pakistani,Bangladeshi,andtoalesserextent
Blackorigin)attendmoreethnicallysegregatedschoolsthanwouldbeexpectedby
theirrepresentationinlocalneighbourhoods,thusformingalargeconcentrationin
theschoolwithaverageorbelowaverageattainment.57

22.

Thereisalsoevidenceofstereotyping,withteachersmakingassumptionsabout
parentalexpectations.Thereisevidence,forexample,thatteachersassumethat
Chinesecultureequatestohighparentalexpectations,proschoolattitudes,and
stablefamilystructures,leadingtohighteacherexpectationswhichhavebeenlinked
toeducationalattainment.58Conversely,teachersmaymisreadSomalipupilscultural
practices,suchaslookingdownwhenspokentobyadultsasasignofrespectand
deference,asdefiantanddisrespectful59andsomakenegativeassumptionsabout
suchpupils.TheymayalsobeoverlyconcernedwithSouthAsianMuslimboys
presumedfundamentalistbeliefs,patriarchalorientation,andselfsegregation,whilst
seeingSouthAsiangirlsaspassiveandoppressed.60

23.

Whenmanyofthesefactorsandothersaretakenintoaccount,itseemsthatWhite
BritishchildrenoflowsocioeconomicstatusandBlackCaribbeanandBlackAfrican

53

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 313. Internal references removed.

54

Ibid, 333. Internal references removed.

55

Strand, S. (2008) Minority Ethnic Pupils in the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England: Extension
Report on Performance in Public Examinations at Age 16. Dcsf Rb029. London: DCSF. See too, How Fair
is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011) EHRC:
300.

56

Ball, S. (2003) Class Strategies and the Educational Market: The Middle-Classes and Social Advantage.
London: Routledge; Lupton, R. (2003) Schools in Disadvantaged Areas: Recognising Context and Raising
Quality Case Paper 76. London: Centre for the Analysis of Social Exclusion.

57

Johnston, R., Wilson, D. and Burgess, S. (2004) School Segregation in Multiethnic England, Ethnicities 4 (2):
237-265.

58

Archer, L. and Francis, B. (2005) They Never Go Off the Rails Like Other Ethnic Groups: Teachers
Constructions of British Chinese Pupils Gender Identities and Approaches to Learning, British Journal of
Sociology of Education 26 (2): 165-182.

59

Howarth, C. (2004) Re-Presentation and Resistance in the Context of School Exclusion: Reasons to Be
Critical, Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology 14 (5): 356-377.

60

Crozier, G. and Davies, J. (2008) The Trouble Is They Dont Mix: Self-Segregation or Enforced Exclusion?,
Race Ethnicity Education 11 (3): 285-301.

EqualTreatmentBenchBookNovember2013

128

Ethnicity

pupilsfromhighsocioeconomicstatushomesareunderachieving.61Whiteworking
classchildrenmaybelievethemselvestobeeducationallyworthless,62andthereis
someindicationthatBlackpupilsareallocatedtothelowerFoundationsetinMaths
andEnglish,whichremovesthepossibilitiesofhighgradesandeducationalsuccessat
GCSE.63

Schoolexclusions
24.

Therearesignificantdifferencesintheratesofschoolexclusions.

25.

MixedWhite/BlackCaribbeanpupilswere2.5timesmorelikelytobeexcludedthan
average,withapermanentexclusionrateof25per10,000pupils.PupilsfromOther
Blackhouseholdsweretwiceaslikelytobepermanentlyexcluded,witharateof20
per10,000pupils.

26.

Thehighestratesofpermanentexclusionsamongethnicminoritygroupswerefound
amongBlackCaribbeanpupils(30per10,000pupils),pupilsfromIrishTraveller
backgrounds(30per10,000pupils)andGypsy/Romapupils(whohadthehighestrate
at38per10,000pupils).Takentogethertheseratesarebetween34timestheoverall
exclusionrate.64

27.

Inadditiontohavingveryhighexclusionrates,GypsyandTravellerchildrenhavethe
lowestattendancerateofanyethnicminoritygroup,ataround75%inEngland.In
Scotland,ithasbeenestimatedthatonly20%ofGypsyandTravellerchildrenof
secondaryschoolageregularlyattendschool(andthispercentagemaybeevenlower
inmoreremoteareas).65

Highereducation
28.

Theproportionofethnicminoritystudentsinhighereducationhasbeenrisingfairly
steadilyoverthelastdecadeandthatincreasehasbeenexperiencedbyallethnic
minoritygroups,withthelargestincreasebeingamongBlackstudents.66

29.

However,studentsfromsomeethnicminoritygroupsarefarlesslikelytoleave
universitywithafirstoruppersecondclassdegreethanothers.In2008/09White
studentsweremostlikelytoachievethislevelwithnearlyseveninten(67%)White

61

(2008) Minority Ethnic Pupils in the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England: Extension Report on
Performance in Public Examinations at Age 16. Dcsf Rb029. London: DCSF.

62

Reay, D. (2009) Making Sense of White Working Class Education Underachievement, in K. P. Sveinsson
(eds.) Who Cares About the White Working Class?, London: Runnymede Trust.

63

Gillborn, D. (2008) Racism and Education: Coincidence or Conspiracy. London: Routledge.

64

Although some care is needed in using these estimates owing to the possible under-recording of pupils from
the Gypsy/Roma and Irish Traveller groups, and the small population sizes: How Fair is Britain: Equality,
Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011) EHRC: 313. Internal
references removed.

65

Ibid.

66

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 344. Internal references removed.

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Ethnicity

studentsleavingwithafirstoruppersecondclassdegree,comparedtofewerthan
fourintenBlackstudents(38%).67

Adulteducationalachievementandliteracy
30.

Therearedifferentlevelsofliteracyandeducationalachievementamongstadultsas
betweenethnicgroups.

31.

Mostdifferencesinbasicskillsbetweenethnicgroupsdisappearwhenthosefor
whomEnglishisnotafirstlanguageareexcludedfromthepoolforcomparison,
indicatingthatmuchofthedifferenceisattributabletothefactthatasignificant
numberofpeopleinethnicminoritygroupsspeakEnglishasanadditionallanguage.
However,theexceptiontothisisinthecaseofthoseinBlackorAsiangroups.There
isastrongcorrelationbetweenbeinginaBlackorAsianethnicgroupandhaving
poorerliteracyskills,inparticularforwomen.

32.

Blackmenaremorelikelytolackbasicnumeracyskillsthananyotherethnicgroups.68
WiththeexceptionofBlackCaribbean/BlackAfricanwomen,ethnicminoritypeople
overtheageof45appearlesslikelytoreachfunctionalliteracy.69

33.

Onestudyin2004foundthat21%ofmenand9%ofwomenfromtheGypsyand
Travellercommunitiescouldnotreadatall,and14%ofmenandwomencouldnot
writeanything.70

34.

Inmostethnicminoritygroupswomenaremorelikelytohavenoqualificationsthan
men.SubstantialgroupsofBlackCaribbeanandMixedWhitewomenhaveno
qualifications.OtherMixedgroupsalsohavelargegroupsofwomenwithout
qualifications.FarhigherproportionsofBangladeshiandPakistanimeninthese
groupshavenoqualificationscomparedtomeninallotherethnicgroupsandnearlya
quarterofwomenhavenoqualifications.71

Employment
35.

Althoughemploymentdisadvantageisexperienceddifferentlyacrossethnicgroups,
allethnicminoritiesexperiencesomedisadvantage.

36.

UnemploymentratesremainhigherforallethnicminoritygroupswithPakistaniand
Bangladeshimenexperiencingthelowestlevelsofemploymentamongstmenand
BangladeshiandPakistaniwomenshowingexceptionallylowlevelsofemployment.72

67

Ibid.

68

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 355. Internal references removed.

69

Ibid.

70

Ibid.

71

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 356. Internal references removed.

72

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 401. Internal references removed.

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37.

ThelowlevelsofemploymentamongstBangladeshiandPakistaniwomen,which
correspondstoasimilarpictureforMuslimwomen,includesthosewhoareBritish
born.Itisnotclearwhetherthisreflectspersonalchoice,culturalpressures,
discriminationorlackofopportunities.Evencomparingthosewithdegrees,Pakistani
andBangladeshiwomenare11percentagepointslesslikelytobeemployedthan
WhiteBritishwomen.73

38.

Someresearchindicates,too,thatonmanyGypsyandTravellersites,onlyasmall
minorityofhouseholdsareengagedinpaidwork.Theevidencepointstowardsa
strongpreferenceformaleselfemploymentwithwomentendingnottoworkoutside
thehomethoughsometimesengagingintraditionalcraftwork(someevidence
suggeststhatmarriedwomenwithchildreninschoolarebeginningtoenter
employment).74

39.

Conversely,BlackCaribbeanwomenaremorelikelythananyothergroupofwomen
toworkfulltime(thoughlesslikelythanaveragetoworkparttime).75

40.

Asamongstthoseemployed,thereissignificantoccupationalsegregation.Distinct
occupationalclusteringoccurswiththemostextremeexamplesincludingthe
following:
a. 24%ofPakistanimenaretransportdrivers(mainlytaxidrivers)intheirmainjobs
b. 17%ofChinesemenarechefs
c. 9%ofIndianmenworkinICTprofessions
d. 8%ofAfricansworkinelementarysecurityoccupations(oftensecurity guards).

41.

AdisproportionatenumberofPakistanimenarealsoselfemployed(21%).

42.

Ethnicminoritywomenareclusteredinanarrowrangeofjobs.ForBlackAfricanand
Caribbeanwomen,themostnotableoccupationalclusteringisassociatedwith
healthcareandrelatedpersonalservicesoccupations.Theseincludenursingauxiliaries
andcareassistantpositionsthattendtobelesswellpaidthanotherhealthcare
relatedjobs.76

43.

Ethnicminoritiesexperienceapaypenalty.In200407WhiteBritishwomen
experiencedapaygapof16%.However,thisroseto21%forBlackAfricanwomenand
26%forPakistaniwomenwithChineseandPakistaniMuslimwomenexperiencingthe
largestpenalties.

44.

Inthesametimeperiod,Muslimmen,whetherBangladeshiorPakistani,earnedless
thanmightbeexpectedgiventheirqualifications,ageandoccupation,by13%and

73

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 402. Internal references removed.

74

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 403-4. Internal references removed.

75

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 403. Internal references removed.

76

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 428. Internal references removed.

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Ethnicity

21%respectively.Blackmalegraduatesearn24%lessthanWhiteBritishmale
graduates.77

Health
45.

Someethnicminoritygroupsaremorelikelytoexperiencepoorhealth.Evidence
suggeststhatPakistaniandBangladeshigroupsaremorelikelytoreportpoorhealth
thanaverage;morelikelytoexperiencepoormentalhealth;morelikelytoreporta
disabilityorlimitinglongtermillness,andmorelikelytofindithardtoaccessand
communicatewiththeirGPsthanothergroups.Muslimpeoplealsotendtoreport
worsehealththanaverage.78

46.

GypsiesandTravellersreporthighlevelsofpoorhealth.79

47.

Asylumseekersandrefugeeshaveparticularhealthdifficultiesbecauseoftheimpact
ofrelocationandpossiblepastexperienceoftrauma.80

48.

Researchhassuggestedthattheremaybeanassociationbetweenharassmentand
poormentalhealth.SomeevidencesuggeststhatGypsiesandTravellersandasylum
seekers,whoareperhapsmorelikelythanothergroupstofacehostilityand
misunderstanding,areallmorelikelytoexperiencepoormentalhealth.81

Economicinequality
49.

Minorityethnicgroupsexperiencesignificantwealthinequality.82

50.

Someethnicminoritygroupsexperiencemuchworseoutcomesthanaverage.These
areevenworsethanmightbeexpected,takingintoaccountdifferencesinage
structures,educationalattainmentsandotherfactors.PeopleofIndianoriginare
morelikelytohavelowhouseholdincomethanWhitepeople,despitethefactthata
smallproportionofIndiansearnlowhourlywagesandtheyhavehigherthanaverage
educationalattainments.MorethanhalfofPakistaniandBangladeshiadultslivein
poverty.83GypsiesandTravellersarealsoathigherriskofpoverty.84AsianandBlack

77

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 416. Internal references removed.

78

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 250. Internal references removed.

79

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 264. Internal references removed.

80

Ibid.

81

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 250, 261264. Internal references removed.

82

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 460.

83

Ibid.

84

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 484.

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Ethnicity

householdsarealsoseveraltimesmorelikelythanWhiteBritishhouseholdstolivein
overcrowdedorsubstandardhomes.85
51.

Asylumseekersareatparticularriskofrealabjectpovertybecausetheyarenot
allowedtoworkwhilewaitingfortheircasestobedetermined.Ifatriskofbecoming
destituteinthemeantime,theycanapplyforminimalsubsistencewhich,ifthey
qualify,maycoverhousingandcashsupportataround70%ofbenefitlevels.86
Accordingly,theywillusuallyliveonverylowincomes.

Newmigrantcommunities
52.

IntheUK,manymigrantshaveBritishcitizenshipandhavebecomepartofsettled
ethnicminoritycommunities.Newermigrantsareanincreasinglydiversegroup,
comingfromalmosteverynationintheworld.Theyinclude:thosefromEUstates;
thosefromoutsidetheEU;asylumseekers;refugees;spouses/fianc(e)sandcivil
partners;overseasstudents;Britishnationalsreturningfromlivingabroad;and
irregularmigrantsincludingvisaandasylumseekersandclandestineentrants.The
lattergroupsarelikelytobeconcentratedintheinformallabourmarketearningvery
lowwages.87

53.

Therearealsoasignificantnumberoftraffickedimmigrants88whoseformalstatuswill
beunlawfulmakingthemespeciallyvulnerable.In2010,researchcommissionedby
theAssociationofChiefPoliceOfficers(ACPO)estimatedthatofthe17,000migrant
womeninvolvedinoffstreetprostitutioninEnglandandWales2,600hadbeen
trafficked,whilstafurther9,600werevulnerabletotrafficking.Themajorityofthe
womenwerefromChinaandSouthEastAsiawitharound400fromEasternEurope.89

54.

TotallongtermimmigrationtotheUKhasfallenovertherecentpast(leadingtoa
reductioninratesofnetmigration).ThetotalnumberofcitizensfromEUAccession
countrieswhoimmigratedtotheUKhasdecreasedsignificantlyovertherecent
periodandtherehasalsobeenasignificantdecreaseinthenumberofcitizensfrom
NewCommonwealthcountriesimmigratingtotheUK.Thelatterdecreaseisasa
resultoffewerNewCommonwealthcitizensarrivingtostudyintheUK.90

55.

However,studycontinuestobethemostcommonreasonformigratingtotheUK.91

56.

Inthepastmigrantshavemostlysettledintourbanareas,butthisgenerationof
migrantscanbefoundinsuburbanandruralareastoo.OfUKbornheadsof

85

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 460.

86

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 4845. Internal references removed.

87

Rutter, J. and Lattore, M. (2009) Migration, Migrants and Inequality, in J. Hills, T. Sefton and K. Stewart
(eds.) Towards a More Equal Society? New Labour, Poverty, Inequality and Exclusion, Bristol: Policy Press.

88

Human Trafficking: Practical Guidance (2013) Home Office.

89

Setting the Record: The Trafficking of migrant women in the England and Wales off-street prostitution
sector. Project Acumen, K. Jackson, J. Jeffey and G. Adamson (2010) ACPO.

90

Migration Statistics Quarterly Report, February 2013 (Feb 2013) Office of National Statistics.

91

Ibid.

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households,74%wereowneroccupiers,17%wereinsocialhousingand7%rented
privately.Amongtheforeignborn,64%rentedprivately,11%wereinsocialhousing
and17%wereowneroccupiers.92
57.

Amonglegalmigrants,proportionatelymoreoftheforeignbornhaveahigherlevel
qualificationthantheUKbornpopulation,buttheforeignbornalsohavehigher
proportionsofthosewhoarecompletelyunqualified.PoorlevelsofEnglisharemore
commonlyfoundamongthoseborninPoland,Bangladesh,SriLanka,Somalia,Turkey,
IraqandSlovakia.93

58.

Morethan3000childrenarriveintheUKaloneeveryyearseekingasylum.Although
therehavebeenimprovementsinrecentyears,formanyofthechildrenandyoung
people,theprocessofclaimingasylumisaveryfrighteningandbewildering
experience.94

Ethnicity,crimeandcriminaljustice
Perceptionandvictimsofcrime
59.

RacistandreligiouslyaggravatedattacksareapersistentphenomenoninBritishlife.95
PeoplefromethnicminoritybackgroundsareroughlytwiceaslikelyasWhitepeople
toreportbeingworriedaboutviolentcrime.96PeoplewhoarenotChristianare
roughlytentimesmorelikelytoreportbeingattackedorharassedbecauseoftheir
faiththanChristianpeople.97

60.

Findingsfromthe2009/10BritishCrimeSurveyinterviewswithchildrenshowedthata
higherproportionofchildrenintheBlackandMinorityEthnicgroupreportedthat
theyavoidedtravellingonbusesbecausetheywereworriedabouttheirsafetyand
usingamobilephoneinpublicallormostofthetimeascomparedtotheWhite
group.98

61.

Fearofpoliceharassmentandconcernthatcomplaintsagainstthepolicewillnotbe
takenseriouslyisgreateramongethnicminorities.Thereisevidencefromsmaller

92

Rutter, J. and Lattore, M. (2009) Social Housing Allocation and Immigrant Communities. London: IPPR.

93

Rutter, J. and Lattore, M. (2009) Migration, Migrants and Inequality, in J. Hills, T. Sefton and K. Stewart
(eds.) Towards a More Equal Society? New Labour, Poverty, Inequality and Exclusion, Bristol: Policy Press.

94

Unaccompanied Children The Childrens Society, available at http://www.childrenssociety.org.uk/what-wedo/policy-and-lobbying/young-refugees-and-migrants/unaccompanied-children.

95

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 190.

96

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 242.

97

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 190.

98

Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System 2010 A Ministry of Justice publication under Section 95 of
the Criminal Justice Act 1991 (Oct 2011) Ministry of Justice: 23. Internal references removed.

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scalestudiesGypsiesandTravellershaveonlylimitedconfidenceinthesystems
abilitytoprotectthem.99
62.

AsurveyofGypsiesandTravellersinDevonfoundthathalfofrespondentshad
experiencedracism.Outof121GypsiesandTravellerssurveyedintheWestof
England,58hadexperiencedharassmentandintimidation.Suchstudiesconsistently
findthatGypsiesandTravellersdownplaytheirexperiences,andthattheydonot
expectassistancefromtheauthorities;manyseeharassmentandracismas
inevitable.100

Criminaljustice
63.

Evidencesuggeststhatanindividualsethnicgroupisnotsignificantlyassociatedwith
anincreasedorareducedlikelihoodofoffending.101However,ateverypointinthe
criminaljusticesystemcertainminoritygroupsexperienceharsheroutcomes.

64.

Blackpeoplemakeupbetween23%ofthepopulation.However,theyconstituted
15%ofthosewhowerestoppedbythepolicein2008/09.Otherethnicminority
groupswerealsooverrepresented.

65.

Further,between2006/07and2009/10,theproportionsofStopandSearchesforthe
BlackandAsiangroupsincreased(from22%and9%to33%and16%respectively).102

66.

GypsiesandTravellershaveexperiencedblanketraidsoftheirsitesonthebasisof
unfoundedallegationsbylocalcommunities.Thepolicehavepowertoremoveand
destroyvehiclesifdirectionsarenotfollowedandthismeansthatmostleave
voluntarilywhenservednotice,butthenlackaccesstolegalprocessestochallenge
thedirection.ThismeansthatTravellersareoftenforcedoutoftheirhomesby
default.103

67.

AcrossEnglandandWalesasawhole,thereweremorearrestsper1,000population
foreachoftheBlackandMinorityEthnicgroups(exceptforChineseorOther)thanfor
peopleofWhiteethnicity.Therewere84arrestsper1,000populationfortheBlack
groupcomparedwith26arrestsper1,000populationfortheWhitegroup,29per
1,000fortheAsiangroupand59per1,000forthosefromaMixedethnicbackground.
Per1,000population,Blackpersonswerearrested3.3timesmorethanWhitepeople,

99

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review (2011)
EHRC: 124. Internal references removed.

100

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review
(2011) EHRC: 231.

101

Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System 2010 A Ministry of Justice publication under Section 95
of the Criminal Justice Act 1991 (Oct 2011) Ministry of Justice: 44.

102

Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System 2010 A Ministry of Justice publication under Section 95
of the Criminal Justice Act 1991 (Oct 2011) Ministry of Justice: 14.

103

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review
(2011) EHRC: 136.

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andthosefromtheMixedethnicgroup2.3timesmore.104Thisdataisbest
understoodasevidenceofwhomthepolicesuspectofcommittingcrime.105
68.

AhigherpercentageofthoseintheBlackandMinorityEthnicgroupsweresentenced
toimmediatecustodyforindictableoffencesthanintheWhitegroupin2010(White
23%,Black27%,Asian29%andOther42%).In2010,thehighestaveragecustodial
sentencelengthforthosegivendeterminatesentencesforindictableoffenceswas
recordedfortheBlackethnicgroup,at20.8months,followedbytheAsianandOther
groupswithaveragesof19.9monthsand19.7monthsrespectively.Thelowest
averagecustodialsentencelengthwasrecordedfortheWhitegroupat14.9
months.106

69.

AhigherpercentageofthoseintheBMEgroupsweresentencedtoimmediate
custodyforindictableoffencesthanintheWhitegroupin2010(White23%,Black
27%,Asian29%andOther42%).In2010,thehighestaveragecustodialsentence
lengthforthosegivendeterminatesentencesforindictableoffenceswasrecordedfor
theBlackethnicgroup,at20.8months,followedbytheAsianandOthergroupswith
averagesof19.9monthsand19.7monthsrespectively.Thelowestaveragecustodial
sentencelengthwasrecordedfortheWhitegroupat14.9months.107

70.

Onaverage,fivetimesmoreBlackpeoplethanWhitepeopleinEnglandandWalesare
imprisoned.108

Thosewhoworkinthecriminaljusticesystem
71.

Thereissignificantunderrepresentationofcertainminoritygroupsinsomepartsof
themaincriminaljusticeagencies(police,CPS,Judiciary,NOMSandProbation).
Ethnicminoritiesaremostunderrepresentedinthepolice(4.8%)andmostwell
representedintheCPS(14.9%).

72.

Asat1stApril2012,therearenoethnicminorityjudgesintheSupremeCourtorCourt
ofAppeal.Only4.5%oftheHighCourtbenchisfromanethnicminorityandonly1.7%

104

Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System 2010 A Ministry of Justice publication under Section 95
of the Criminal Justice Act 1991 (Oct 2011) Ministry of Justice: 46.

105

Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System 2010 A Ministry of Justice publication under Section 95
of the Criminal Justice Act 1991 (Oct 2011) Ministry of Justice: 44.

106

Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System 2010 A Ministry of Justice publication under Section 95
of the Criminal Justice Act 1991 (Oct 2011) Ministry of Justice: 52. As with the proportion sentenced to
immediate custody, these findings should be treated with caution as there are a number of factors which
could affect sentence length including the mix of crimes committed, the seriousness of the offences and the
plea entered.

107

Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System 2010 A Ministry of Justice publication under Section 95
of the Criminal Justice Act 1991 (Oct 2011) Ministry of Justice: 52. As with the proportion sentenced to
immediate custody, these findings should be treated with caution as there are a number of factors which
could affect sentence length including the mix of crimes committed, the seriousness of the offences and the
plea entered.

108

How Fair is Britain: Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010: The First Triennial Review
(2011) EHRC: 162.

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Ethnicity

ofCircuitJudgesand2.8%ofDistrictJudges(Magistrates)arefromanethnic
minority.109
73.

Only4.86%ofQueensCounselarefromaBlackorMinorityEthnicgroup(though
ethnicminoritiesarebetterrepresentedamongstnonQueensCounselbarristers).110

74.

Amongstsolicitors,BlackandMinorityEthnicgroupsarebetterrepresented,
accountingfor11.1%ofsolicitors.111

109

Courts Diversity Statistics (Sept 2012) available at http://www.judiciary.gov.uk/publications-andreports/statistics/diversity-stats-and-gen-overview.

110

Demographic Profile of the Bar, Bar Council, available at http://www.barcouncil.org.uk/about-the-bar/factsand-figures/statistics/

111

Diversity Profile of the Profession: A Short Synopsis (May 2011) Law Society: 9, available at
www.lawsociety.org.uk/advice/.../diversity-profile-of-the-profession/.

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TheEqualityAct2010
Keypoints

TheEqualityAct2010definesracebroadly,tocovercolour,ethnicity,nationalityand
ethnicandnationalorigins.

TheEqualityAct2010doesnotoutlawdiscriminationintheexercisingofjudicial
functionsbutitdoesoutlawdiscriminationintheexercisingofpublicfunctionsandin
theprovisionofservicesandsowillapplytothoseworkingwithinthejusticesystem
whilstcarryingoutotherfunctions.

TheEqualityAct2010createsanewPublicSectorEqualityDutywhichimposesduties
onthoseexercisingpublicfunctionstohavedueregardtotheneedtoachievecertain
specifiedequalityobjectives.

Race
1.

Section9oftheEqualityAct2010definesraceasincluding:colour;nationality;
ethnicornationalorigins.Thefactthataracialgroupcomprisestwoormoredistinct
racialgroupsdoesnotpreventitfromconstitutingaparticularracialgroup.112This
meansthatapersonwhodescribesthemselvesasBlackAfricanwillfallwithinaracial
groupsodescribed.

2.

Ascanbeseen,raceistreatedasembracinganumberofspecificcharacteristics.

3.

Colourisselfexplanatoryasamatteroffact.Theconceptofcolour,however,has
cometodescribeacollectionofcharacteristicsandisnotmerelytodescribeasingular
physicalcharacteristicandthecomparingofskincomplexion(asonetribunalonce
did113)isneitherrequiredandnorisitappropriate.

4.

Nationalityisinessencealegalstatus.Nationalityisabroaderconceptthan
citizenshipinBritishlaw.114

5.

Nationalorigins,conversely,referstoidentifiableelements,bothhistoricallyand
geographically,whichatleastatsomepointintimerevealstheexistenceofa
nation.115DiscriminationagainstScottishpeopleandEnglishpeople,assuch,is
discriminationonthegroundsofnationalorigins.Thesamereasoningwouldapply
equallytodiscriminationagainstWelsh116peopleandagainst(Northern)Irishpeople.

6.

Ethnicityhasbeengivenabroadmeaningbythecourts.Theclassictestfor
determiningwhetheranygroupconstitutesanethnicgroupisfoundinMandla

112

Section 9(4).

113 See appeal decision in X H Diem (known as Anita Ho) v Crystal Services Plc [2005] UKEAT/0398/05.
114 L Fransman, Fransmans British Nationality Law (3rd edn, 2011, Bloomsbury Professional). It should be
noted that many exceptions apply to the prohibitions against nationality-based discrimination under the
Equality Act 2010.
115 Northern Joint Police Board v Power [1997] IRLR, para 9.
116 Gwynedd CC v Jones [1986] ICR 833, 836F.

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(SewaSingh)vDowellLee.117AccordingtoLordFraser,foragrouptoconstitutean
ethnicgroup,itmustregarditself,andberegardedbyothers,asadistinctcommunity
byvirtueofcertaincharacteristics.118Someofthesecharacteristicsareessential,
whilstothersarenot,butoneormoreofthemwillcommonlybefound,andthe
existenceofthesewillhelptodistinguishthegroupfromthesurroundingcommunity.
AccordingtoLordFraser,theconditionswhichareessentialarethese:(1)along
sharedhistory,ofwhichthegroupisconsciousasdistinguishingitfromothergroups,
andthememoryofwhichitkeepsalive;(2)aculturaltraditionofitsown,including
familyandsocialcustomsandmanners,oftenbutnotnecessarilyassociatedwith
religiousobservance.Inadditiontothosetwoessentialcharacteristicsthefollowing
characteristicsarerelevant;(3)eitheracommongeographicalorigin,ordescentfrom
asmallnumberofcommonancestors;(4)acommonlanguage,notnecessarily
peculiartothegroup;(5)acommonliteraturepeculiartothegroup;(6)acommon
religiondifferentfromthatofneighbouringgroupsorfromthegeneralcommunity
surroundingit;(7)beingaminorityorbeinganoppressedoradominantgroupwithin
alargercommunity.Agroupdefinedbyreferencetoenoughofthesecharacteristics
wouldbecapableofincludingconverts,forexamplepersonswhomarryintothe
group,andofexcludingapostates.
7.

Providedapersonwhojoinsthegroupfeelshimselforherselftobeamemberofit,
andisacceptedbyothermembers,thens/heis,forthepurposesoftheAct,a
member.119Thusmembershipofanethnicgroupmaybeacquired(asinconversion)
andthisdependsuponahighdegreeofsubjectivitysothatasenseofbelongingmay
beadequate.

8.

Jews,120Sikhs,121RomanyGypsies,122EuropeanRoma,123andIrishTravellers124haveall
beenheldtoconstitutedistinctethnicgroups.

9.

AstoGypsies,theCourtofAppealhasheldthattheyconstituteanethnicgroup
whendefinedinthenarrowsenseofRomanyGypsiesbecauseoftheirsharedhistory,
geographicalorigin,distinctcustoms,andlanguage.125

117 Mandla (Sewa Singh) v Dowell Lee [1983] 2 AC 548.


118

Mandla, 562E, per Lord Fraser.

119

Mandla, 562E562H, per Lord Fraser.

120

Seide v Gillette Industries Limited [1980] IRLR 427; R (E) v Governing Body of JFS and another (United
Synagogue and others intervening) [2009] UKSC 15; [2010] 2 AC 728.

121
122

Mandla (Sewa Singh) v Dowell Lee [1983] 2 AC 548.


Commission for Racial Equality v Dutton [1989] IRLR 8, CA.

123

R (European Roma Rights Centre and others) v Immigration Officer at Prague Airport and another (United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees intervening) [2004] UKHL 55; [2005] 2 AC 1.

124

OLeary v Allied Domecq Inns Limited, CL 950275, July 2000, Central London County Court (unreported).
Indeed Irish travellers are expressly recognized as a racial group (when defined as the Irish traveller
community) within the Race Relations (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 SI No 869, NI6 which implements the
RRA in Northern Ireland.

125

Commission for Racial Equality v Dutton [1989] IRLR 8.

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Ethnicity

10.

TheEqualityAct2010permitsanamendmentbyordertobemadetothedefinitionof
racesoastomakecasteanaspectofrace.126Noorderhasyetbeenmade.

Discriminationandtheunlawfulacts
11.

TheconceptofdiscriminationundertheEqualityAct2010isawideone.Itcovers,
a. Directdiscrimination;127
b. Discriminationarisingfromdisability;128
c. Genderreassignmentdiscrimination:casesofabsencefromwork;129
d. Pregnancyandmaternitydiscrimination:nonworkcases;130
e. Pregnancyandmaternitydiscrimination:workcases;131
f. Indirectdiscrimination;132
g. Failuretocomplywithadutytomakereasonableadjustments.133

12.

Otherprohibitedconduct134comprisesharassment135andvictimization.136

13.

TheunlawfulactsundertheEqualityAct2010outlawtheformsofprohibitedconduct
justmentioned.Theunlawfulactsoutlawtheseformsofprohibitedconductinthe
provisionofservicesandintheexercisingofpublicfunctions.137

14.

Theunlawfulactsexcludejudicialfunctionsfromtheirreach.138However,functions
whicharenotstrictlyjudicial,includingthoseundertakenbythecourts
administration,willfallwithintheseunlawfulactsandsojudgesshouldbeawareof
them.

126

Section 9(5)(a).

127

Section 13. Section 14 combined discrimination: dual characteristics is also a form of prohibited conduct
but it has not been brought into force and it is expected that it will be repealed.

128

Section 15.

129

Section 16.

130

Section 17.

131

Section 18.

132

Section 19.

133

Section 21, though this falls under the separate heading, adjustments for disabled persons.

134

See heading to sections 26 and 27.

135

Section 26.

136

Section 27.

137

Section 29.

138

Schedule 3, para 3.

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PublicSectorEqualityDuty
15.

TheEqualityAct2010introducesanewPublicSectorEqualityDuty.139Morelimited
(butsimilarlystructured)dutieswerefoundintheantidiscriminationenactmentsthat
precededtheEqualityAct2010.

16.

TheoriginsofthePublicSectorEqualityDutycanbeseenintheMacphersonReport
whichfollowedtheInquiryintothedeathofStephenLawrenceandsoithasparticular
resonancetothejusticesystemandtheworkofjudges.Thesignificantand
multifariousdisadvantagesthatethnicminoritiesexperienceinthejusticesystemwas
describedbytheMacphersonReportasconstitutinginstitutionalracism,thatis:
thecollectivefailureofanorganisationtoprovideanappropriateandprofessional
servicetopeoplebecauseoftheircolour,cultureorethnicorigin.Itcanbeseenor
detectedinprocesses,attitudes,andbehaviourswhichamounttodiscrimination
throughunwittingprejudice,ignorance,thoughtlessnessandraciststereotypingwhich
disadvantagesminorityethnicpeople.140

17.

ThepurposeofthePublicSectorEqualityDutyistocreateastrong,effective,and
enforceablelegalobligationwhichplacesequalityattheheartofapublicauthoritys
decisionmaking,141so,amongstotherthings,astoaddresstheseinstitutionalformsof
discrimination.

18.

UndertheheadingAdvancingofEquality,section149(1)oftheEqualityAct2010
enactsthePublicSectorEqualityDuty.Itprovidesthat:
Apublicauthoritymust,intheexerciseofitsfunctions,havedueregardtotheneed
to
(a)eliminatediscrimination,harassment,victimisationandanyotherconductthatis
prohibitedbyorunderthisAct;
(b)advanceequalityofopportunitybetweenpersonswhosharearelevantprotected
characteristicandpersonswhodonotshareit;
(c)fostergoodrelationsbetweenpersonswhosharearelevantprotected
characteristicandpersonswhodonotshareit.

139

Section 29.

140

Stephen Lawrence Inquiry Report, Sir William Macpherson, 1999, Cm 4262-I, para 6.34.

141 See Speech of Mike OBrien, Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department, HC
Standing Committee D, 2 May 2000 in addressing the Race Equality Duty which provided the model for the
Public Sector Equality Duty: The Bill is one of the most significant steps that the Government will take on
race equality in Britain, and is probably the biggest step taken since the Race Relations Act [1976]. The Bill
will create a positive duty on all public authorities to promote race equality. It will be a major change in
law. The Government sees this new duty as a way of trying to eliminate discrimination in public services,
not only in the internal organisational structure of public authorities but in the delivery of services to ethnic
minorities . . . In considering any new element of Government policy, a Minister must consider the
implications for ethnic minorities and race equality generally . . . The public services must recognise that it
is no good simply paying lip-service to race equality: they must ensure that race equality is at the heart of
their organisations considerations when providing servicesit should be part of the mainstream of policy
consideration. The new duty will be a significant step forward . . . Equality is important in the delivery of
services to all the people of this country and should be pursued in a way that is consistent with our belief
that we must become a successful multiracial society.

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19.

TheDutyappliestoalltheprotectedcharacteristicsundertheEqualityAct2010,142
includingrace.

20.

Eachlimbofthedutyisexplainedfurtherundersection149oftheEqualityAct2010.
Havingdueregardtotheneedtoadvanceequalityofopportunitybetweenpersons
whosharearelevantprotectedcharacteristicandpersonswhodonotshareit143
involveshavingdueregard,inparticular:
totheneedto(a)removeorminimisedisadvantagessufferedbypersonswhosharea
relevantprotectedcharacteristicthatareconnectedtothatcharacteristic;(b)take
stepstomeettheneedsofpersonswhosharearelevantprotectedcharacteristicthat
aredifferentfromtheneedsofpersonswhodonotshareit;(c)encouragepersons
whosharearelevantprotectedcharacteristictoparticipateinpubliclifeorinany
otheractivityinwhichparticipationbysuchpersonsisdisproportionatelylow.144
Havingdueregardtotheneedtofostergoodrelationsbetweenpersonswhosharea
relevantprotectedcharacteristicandpersonswhodonotshareit145requireshaving
dueregard,inparticular,totheneedto(a)tackleprejudice,and(b)promote
understanding.146

21.

Thethreelimbsofthedutyrequireseparateconsideration.Whilstadvancingequality
ofopportunitywillbeassistedby...[it]isnotthesamethingas,theelimination
discrimination...[T]he[advancing]ofequalityofopportunityisconcernedwith
issuesofsubstantiveequalityandrequiresamorepenetratingconsiderationthan
merelyaskingwhethertherehasbeenabreachoftheprincipleofnon
discrimination.147Similarly,fosteringgoodrelationswillinvolvediscreteattentionand
mayrequireverydifferentactions.Accordingly,thefactthatadecisionisprovedtobe
lawfuldoesnotrelieveapublicauthorityfromthedutytohavedueregardtothe
otherequalityobjectives.148

22.

DischargingthePublicSectorEqualityDutyrequiresthatdueregardisgiventothe
equalityobjectives.Dueregardmeansproportionateregard,orthatwhichis
appropriateinallthecircumstances.149

23.

Accordingly,thegreatertheimpact(positivelyornegatively)thatanydecisionorthe
exerciseofanyfunctionmayhave,thegreatertheweightmustbegiventothe

142 Except marriage and civil partnership, save in respect of the first limb; see section 149(7) for the relevant
characteristics for the purpose of section 149(1)(b) and (c).
143 Section 149(1)(b).
144 Section 149(3).
145 Section 149(1)(c).
146 Section 149(5).
147 R (Baker) v Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government and LB Bromley [2008] EWCA Civ
141; [2008] LGR 239, para 30, per Dyson LJ; see, too, Pieretti v London Borough of Enfield [2010] EWCA
Civ 1104; [2010] EqLR 312, para 31.
148 See, for example, Hereward & Foster LLP & Anor v Legal Services Commission [2010] EWHC 3370;
[2011] EqLR 150.
149 R (Baker) v Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government [2008] EWCA Civ 141; [2008]
LGR 239, para 31, per Dyson LJ; R (Brown) v Secretary of State for Work and Pensions [2008] EWHC
3158 (Admin); [2009] PTSR 1506, para 82, per Aikens LJ.

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equalityobjectives;inacasewherelargenumbersofvulnerablepeople,manyof
whomfallwithinoneormoreoftheprotectedgroups,areaffected,thedueregard
necessaryisveryhigh.150
24.

Asthecaselawhasmadeclear,thesubstanceofthedutymustbeconscientiouslyhad
regardtoifthedutyistobeproperlydischarged.Forthispurpose,relevantmaterials
mustbeanalysedinthecontextoftheduty151withaconsciousdirectingofthemind
totheobligations.152

25.

Aswiththeunlawfulacts,thePublicSectorEqualityDutydoesnotapplytojudicial
functionsorafunctionexercisedonbehalfof,orontheinstructionsof,aperson
exercisingajudicialfunction.153Areferencetoajudicialfunctionincludesareference
toajudicialfunctionconferredonapersonotherthanacourtoftribunal.154

26.

However,aswiththeunlawfulacts,thePublicSectorEqualityDutywillapplyto,
amongstotherthings,functionsexercisedbythecourtsadministration.Insome
circumstances,thequestionwhetherapartyorotherpersonhascompliedwiththe
Dutymayberelevanttoajudgewhendecidingwhatactiontotakeinrelationtoa
case.

150 R (Hajrula) v London Councils [2011] EWHC 448 (Admin); [2011] EqLR 613, para 69, per Calvert-Smith
J.
151 R (Harris) v LB Haringey [2010] EWCA Civ 703, para 40, per Pill LJ.
152 R (Meany) v Harlow DC [2009] EWHC 559 (Admin), para 74.
153 Sch 18, para 3(1).
154 Sch 18, para 3(2).

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UseofLanguage
Keypoints

Itwillsometimesbenecessarytoidentifyordescribeapersonsethnicity.Whereitis
notrelevant,itshouldnotbereferredtoatall.

Whereitisrelevantthensomecareneedstobetakentoensurethatappropriate
termsareused.

Whereajudgeisunsureabouthowtoidentifyordescribeapersonsethnicityorhow
toaddressaperson,sheshouldaskthepersonconcernedhowtheywouldwishtobe
identified,describedoraddressed.

Introduction
27.

Itwillsometimesberelevanttoidentifyordescribeapersonsethnicity.Whereitis
relevantthensomecareneedstobetakentoensurethatappropriatetermsareused.
Whereapersonsethnicityisirrelevanttherewillbenoneedtorefertoitatall.

28.

Whereajudgeisunsureabouthowtoidentifyordescribeapersonsethnicityorhow
toaddressaperson,sheshouldaskthepersonconcernedhowtheywouldwishtobe
identified,describedoraddressed.Someguidanceisprovidedbelowasto
appropriateterms.

Terms
29.

TheEnglishlanguageisconstantlyevolving,andacceptableterminologydescribing
ethnicminoritieshasdevelopedasawayofavoidingoffenceanddeveloping
sensitivity.Itisimportantthatunacceptablelanguageisnotused.Thisisnotaboutso
calledpoliticalcorrectness,ratheritispartofsocietysresponsetotheneedto
recogniseandrespectdiversityandequality.

30.

Languagethatwasformerlyusedtodescribeapersonsraceissometimesnolonger
acceptable.Itshouldbenotedthattherecanbedifferencesinopinionoversome
terms,sowhilstsomewordsareclearlyunacceptable,forotherstheremaynotbeany
onecorrectansweraboutwhetherthetermisrightorwrong.Someguidanceis
providedbelow.

31.

Black:ItisnowconsideredacceptabletousethetermBlacktodescribepeopleof
CaribbeanorAfricandescent.

32.

WestIndian/AfricanCaribbean/African:ThetermWestIndianwasformerly
usedasaphrasetodescribethefirstgenerationofsettlersfromtheWestIndiesand,
inparticular,manyolderpeoplefromthatcommunitywillsodescribethemselves.
WhilstthetermWestIndianwouldnotalwaysgiveoffence,itisinappropriateto
useitunlesstheindividualconcernedidentifieshimselforherselfinthisway.
ThetermAfricanCaribbeanisnowmuchmorewidelyused,especiallyinofficialand
academicdocuments.Whereapersonsethnicoriginisrelevant,thattermisboth
appropriateandacceptable.Itdoesnot,however,refertoallpeopleofWestIndian
origin,someofwhomareWhiteorofAsianextraction.

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ThetermAfricanisoftenacceptableandmaybeusedinselfidentification,although
manyofAfricanoriginwillrefertotheircountryoforigininnationaltermssuchas
NigerianorGhanaian.
YoungpeopleborninBritaintodaymaychoosenottouseanyofthesedesignations.
33.

Asian:AsianisacollectivetermwhichhasbeenappliedinBritaintopeoplefromthe
IndiansubcontinentandotherpartsofAsia,suchasIndonesia.Inpractice,people
fromtheIndiansubcontinentmaynotconsiderthemselvestobeAsian.People
tendtoidentifythemselvesintermsofoneormoreofthefollowing:
a. Theirnationalorigin(Indian,Pakistani,Bangladeshi).
b. Theirregionoforigin(Gujarati,Punjabi,Bengali).
c. Theirreligion(Muslim,Hindu,Sikh).
ThetermAsiancanbeappropriatewhentheexactethnicoriginofthepersonis
unknownorasacollectivereferencetopeoplefromtheIndiansubcontinent.The
morespecifictermsofSouthEastAsian,FarEastAsianorSouthAsianmaybe
preferred.
YoungpeopleofSouthAsianoriginborninBritainoftenacceptthesameidentities
anddesignationsastheirparents.Thisisbynomeansalwaysthecase,andsomenow
mayprefertodescribethemselvesasBlackorasBritishAsian.

34.

Mixedrace/Mixedheritage:Thetermmixedraceiswidelyusedandisconsidered
acceptablebysomeandnotbyothers.Anothertermwhichmaybebetterismixed
heritage.Thetermmultiracialisonlyusedinrelationtocommunities.

35.

Ethnicminorities/Minorityethnic:Thetermsethnicminorityandminorityethnic
arewidelyusedandaregenerallyacceptableasthebroadesttermstoencompassall
thosegroupswhoseethemselvestobedistinctfromthemajorityintermsofethnicor
culturalidentity.ThistermisclearlybroaderthanBlackminorityethnicorthe
problematicalvisibleminorities(problematicalasitmayimplythatthereare
invisibleminorities),andbringsinsuchgroupsasGreekandTurkishCypriotsorGypsy
Travellers.

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Interpreters
Keypoints

Judgesdonothavearoleinarrangingforinterpreters.However,theymusttakecare
toensurethatpotentialdifficultiesintheuseofEnglishareidentifiedandaddressed.

AfunctionalabilitytospeakEnglishindaytodaylifemaynotbesufficientto
understandorspeakEnglishsufficientlywellastounderstandandanswerquestionsin
court.

Therearenowstandardizedarrangementsinplaceforsecuringtheassistanceof
interpreters.

Judgesrole
36.

Althoughjudgesarenotinvolvedinmakingarrangementsforinterpreters,itis
importantthattheyarefullyawareofpotentialdifficultiesexperiencedbywitnesses
whomayhaveonlyalimitedabilitytospeakandunderstandEnglish,andthe
interpretationfacilitiesavailableandthearrangementsforsecuringthem.155

37.

Whengivingevidence,peopleforwhomEnglishisnotafirstlanguagemaynotalways
fullyunderstandwhattheyarebeingasked.Itisonethingtoknowthebasicsofa
languageandtobeabletocommunicatewhenshoppingorworking.Itisquite
anothermatterhavingtoappearincourt,understandquestions,andgiveevidence.It
shouldalsoberememberedthatmanyethnicminoritiesprefertospeaktheirmother
tongueathome.Judgesshouldthereforebealerttodifferentlanguageneeds,and
shouldnotassume,simplybecauseawitnesshaslivedintheUKformanyyears,that
heorshedoesnotrequireaninterpreter.

38.

Situationsmayarisewherethejudgehastotakeaproactiverole,andmakesome
efforttoclarifyandresolvetheextentofanylanguagedifficultyfacedbyawitness.It
ispartofthejudgesfunctiontoassessanindividualsfluencyandcomprehension.Ifa
judgehearingacaseconsidersthataninterpreterisrequired,anadjournmentshould
begrantedforthatpurpose.

39.

Ajudgemayalsowishtocheckwhethertheinterpreterandtheaccusedorwitness
areindeedabletocommunicate,andtoconfirmthattherearenoculturaldialector
languagedifficultiesthatwouldprecludetheinterpreterfrominterpreting.

InterpretersinCriminalProceedings
40.

On30January2012courtsandtribunalsacrossEnglandandWalesstartedusinga
newinterpreterservicethroughasingleagency,AppliedLanguageSolutions.

155

As to which, see http://www.justice.gov.uk/courts/interpreter-guidance.

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41.

ANationalAgreementonArrangementsfortheUseofInterpretersprovidesclearand
detailedguidanceforallagenciesontheprocedurestofollowateachstageofthe
criminaljusticeprocesswhereaninterpretermayberequired.156

InterpretersinCivilandFamilyProceedings
DeafandHearingimpairedLitigants
42.

HerMajestysCourts&TribunalsServicewillmeetthereasonablecostsofinterpreters
fordeafandhearingimpairedlitigantsforhearingsincivilandfamilyproceedings.

43.

Manypeoplehaveafriendorrelativewhousuallytranslateforthem.Ifthedeaf
personwantssuchapersontointerpretforthem,theywillneedtoaskforpermission
fromthejudge.Thejudgemustbesatisfiedthatthefriendorrelativecanexactly
interpretwhatisbeingsaidtothecourtandwhatthecourtissayingtothedeaf
person.

44.

Unlesstherelativeorfriendhasarecognisedqualificationinrelayinginformation
betweendeafandhearingpeople,itmaybebettertouseaqualifiedinterpreterwho
willunderstandthelimitsofaninterpretersrole.

45.

Ifaninterpreterisneeded,thecourtwillmakearrangementsforaninterpreterto
attend.

Foreignlanguageinterpreters
46.

Courtstaffwillalsoarrangeforlanguageinterpretersneededforcivilandfamily
hearingsincertaincircumstanceswherecasesinvolve:
a. CommittalcasesHerMajestysCourts&TribunalsServicehasalegalobligation
undertheHumanRightsActtoprovidelanguageinterpreters.Theywillensure
thatanyoneattendingacommittalcasehasthefreeassistanceofaninterpreterif
s/hecannotunderstandorspeakthelanguageusedincourt.
b. DomesticViolenceandcasesinvolvingchildrenBecauseofthesensitivityofthese
cases,HerMajestysCourts&TribunalsServicehasagreedthatitwillprovidean
interpreterifrequired.Thisisirrespectiveofwhethersolicitorsareinvolvedor
publicfundingisavailable.
c. NoncommittalcasesHerMajestysCourts&TribunalsServicewillprovidean
interpreterifthatistheonlywaythatalitigantcantakepartinahearing.The
relevantcircumstancesarewheretheperson:
i. Cannotspeakorunderstandthelanguageofthecourtwellenoughtotakepart
inthehearing
ii. Cannotgetpublicfunding.

156

National Agreement for the Use of Interpreters and National Agreement 2011 rider; see,
http://www.justice.gov.uk/courts/interpreter-guidance.

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Ethnicity

iii. Cannotaffordtoprivatelyfundaninterpreter,andhasnofamilymember,or
friend,whocanattendtointerpretforthemandwhoisacceptabletothe
court.
47.

Ifthecaseispubliclyfunded,CommunityLegalServicefundingmaybeavailable.Ifthe
caseisprivatelyfunded,partieshavetosupplytheirowninterpreters.

WelshLanguage
48.

TheWelshLanguageAct1993providestherightforanypartytospeakWelshinlegal
proceedingsinWales(criminal,civilandtribunalshearings).

49.

AssoonasitisknownthattheWelshlanguageistobeusedatahearingdetails
shouldbeprovidedtoHMCTSWelshLanguageUnitbyemailing
welsh.language.unit.manager@hmcts.gsi.gov.ukwhowillarrangeaWelshinterpreter
fromthelistofthosewhohavesuccessfullysatexaminationsinsimultaneous
interpretation.HerMajestysCourts&TribunalsServiceisresponsibleforpayingthe
interpreter'sfees.

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Discriminationonthebasisofbeliefornonbelief

10.Discriminationonthebasisofbeliefornonbelief
Keypoints

Awarenessofapersonsbeliefsincludingnonbeliefinanyreligioustraditionis
integraltobeingawareofequaltreatmentissues.

Realisingthatajudgeandothercourtortribunalpersonneltakenoticeofmatters
relatingtoanindividualsbeliefsystemhelpscreateanatmosphereoftrustand
reducesalienation.

Noassumptionsshouldbemadeaboutwhatconstitutesareligiousbelieforpractice
orwhattypeofaccommodationmightberequired;andavoidassumptionsinrelation
toanindividualbasedsolelyondressorappearance.

Religiousandotherbeliefs,ornonbelief,areoftenafundamentalaspectofapersons
identity.

Religionandbelief(includingnonbelief)discrimination
1.

TheEqualityAct2010regulatesdirectandindirectdiscriminationonthegroundsof
religionorbelief(includingnonbelief),harassmentonthegroundsofreligionand
beliefandvictimisation.TheEqualityAct2010alsoregulatesreligionandbelief
discriminationoutsidetheemploymentfield.

Religiousdiversity
2.

TheUKisadiversesocietywithpeopleofmanybeliefsandsomewithnone.Many
peopledonotbelieveinGod.Somepractisereligiousobservancesoutsidethe
boundariesoftraditionalworldreligions(e.g.pagans).Othersabidebysetsofbeliefs
thatarenotreligiousinnature,forexamplesecularistsandhumanists.

Nationalorethnicorigin,race,colourandreligion
3.

Theprohibitionagainstreligiousdiscriminationmayoverlapwithprohibitionsagainst
unlawfuldiscriminationbasedonnationalorethnicorigin,raceandcolourwherea
particularreligionisstronglyassociatedwith,orperceivedtobeassociatedwitha
particularracialorothergroup.Theinterrelationshipbetweentheseprotected
characteristicscanbecomplex.
a. Ethnicgroupsareoftenmultireligious.Indians,forexample,maybeHindus,
Muslims,Sikhs,Christiansormembersofotherbeliefsystemsormayhaveno
religionorbelief.
b. Religiouspracticecancutacrossethnicgroups,forexampleMuslimscanbe
Albanian,Bangladeshi,Bosnian,Chinese,Indian,Indonesian,Iraqi,Malaysian,
Nigerian,Pakistani,Somali,Turkish,English,Irish,ScottishorWelsh.
c. Ethnicandreligiousidentitiescanalsocoincide:bothJewsandSikhsare
recognisedasethnicgroupsundertheEqualityAct2010.
d. AlargeminorityofBritishpeopleofallethnicgroupshavenoreligiousbelief.Some
adoptnonreligiouslifestances,suchashumanismorsecularism.

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Internaldiversity
4.

Toaddtothecomplexity,eachreligionandbeliefhasaconsiderableinternaldiversity
oftraditions,practices,culturesandlanguages.
a. Therearemanyvariationswithinminorityreligionsandbeliefs,andmanyvarieties
ofnonbelief,justastherearewithinChristianity.
b. Thereligiouspracticesofmembersofsomeminorityethniccommunitiesmay
includepracticesandviewscharacteristicoftheirareaoforiginbutnotnecessarily
intrinsictotheteachingoftheirspecificreligion;culturalandreligioustraditions
maybecloselyinterwovenincomplexways.Thus,althoughwespeakofdistinct
religionsandfaithcommunities,thereareoftenoverlaps.
c. ManyAfricans,forinstance,maybeMuslimorChristian,buttheyalsoliveina
distinctlyAfricanculturalmanner.
d. ThesameistrueofpeoplefromSouthAsia,wheredifferentreligionscoexist,and
wheredifferingpracticeshavedevelopedovertime.Culturaldifferenceswithin
anyonegroupmayalsoinvolvedistinctionsonthebasisofage,genderandsocial
status.Individualsmayalsodifferintheiradherencetoandpractiseoftheir
religiousbeliefs.

SystemsofbeliefandnonbeliefintheUK
5.

ForinformationinrelationtosomeofthemainbeliefsystemspresentintheUK,
pleaseseeAppendix1.

Sincerityofbelief
6.

Quiteofteninthehearingroomcontextwewillcomeacrossindividualswhoclaim
thataparticularpracticeisessentialtotheirfaith.Whetheritisornotmaybetoo
difficulttodetermineandisnotforustodecide.Whatiswithinourjurisdictionisthe
questionofcredibilityandwemayincertaincircumstancesberequiredtodetermine
whetheraparticularbeliefisgenuinelyheldandtheextenttowhichaparticular
individualisboundbywhattheysayisessentialtotheirreligiouspractice.However,
becausethedefinitionofreligionisbroadandprotectsbeliefsandpracticeswith
whichjudgesandothersmaybeunfamiliar,judgesshouldordinarilyassumethatan
individualsrequestforreligiousaccommodationisbasedonasincerelyheldreligious
belief.If,thereisanobjectivebasisforquestioningeitherthereligiousnatureorthe
sincerityofaparticularbelieforpractice,itmaybejustifiabletoseekadditional
supportinginformation.Alwayshaveinmindthatasjudges,ofcourse,westriveto
fulfilourjudicialoathtodorightandensurejusticetoall,irrespectiveofan
individualsprotectedcharacteristicsincludingreligionorbelief.

SystemsofbeliefandnonbeliefinEnglandandWales
7.

Inthe2011census,59.3%ofrespondents(33.2million)statedtheirreligionas
Christian[2001census:71.6%ofrespondents(37million)],whilst25.1%(14.1million)
statedtheyhavenoreligion[2001census:15.5%(9.1million)]andafurther7.2%(4
million)didnotrespondtothequestion[2001census:7.3%(4.2million)].Some4.8%
(2.7million)[2001census:3.8%(1.5million)]givetheirreligionasMuslim,makingthis

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Discriminationonthebasisofbeliefornonbelief

themostcommonreligionafterChristianity.Some12.4%(1million)[2001census:
8.5%]ofLondonspopulationgivetheirreligionasMuslim;5%(410,000)[2001census:
4.1%]areHindusand1.8%(147,000)[2001census:2.1%]areJewish.Itcanbe
observedthat:
a. Christiansremainthelargestsinglegroupbyfar(nearly6outof10people).
b. Thesecondlargestgroupisofthoseprofessingnoreligiousbelief.Itisalsoworth
notingthatover7%ofthepopulationdidnotrespondtothequestion,whether
fromapositionofnonreligiousbelieforforotherreasons.

Discriminationonthebasisofbeliefornonbelief
8.

Discriminationonthebasisofbeliefornonbeliefcontributestothemarginalisation
andsocialexclusionofgroupsandindividuals,andrangesfromviolenceandbullying
toprejudiceagainstapersonbecauseoftheiractualorperceivedbeliefornonbelief.
Prejudicealsomanifestsitselfinthesignalssentout,intentionallyornot,inthewayin
whichtheneedsofapersonareignoredoroverlooked,forexamplewhenaccessing
publicservices.Theriskofunemploymentalsovariessignificantlyaccordingto
religiousidentity.

TheEqualityAct2010
9.

ReligionorbeliefisaprotectedcharacteristicundertheEqualityAct2010.Underthis
Act:
a. Religionmeansanyreligionandareferencetoreligionincludesareferencetoa
lackofreligion.
b. Beliefmeansanyreligiousorphilosophicalbeliefandareferencetobeliefincludes
areferencetoalackofbelief.

10.

TheEqualityAct2010makesitunlawfultodiscriminatedirectlyorindirectly,toharass
ortovictimisepeoplebecauseoftheprotectedcharacteristicofreligionorbelief.This
includesharassmentorvictimisationbecauseofperceivedreligiousbeliefornon
belieforbecauseofanassociationwithsomeonewhoholdsaparticularreligious
beliefornonbelief.TheEqualityActprohibitsdiscriminationinemployment,andthe
provisionofgoods,servicesandfacilities.

11.

TheEqualityAct2010alsorequiresthatpublicbodies,must,intheexerciseoftheir
functions,havedueregardtotheneedtoeliminateprohibiteddiscrimination,
advanceequalityofopportunity,andfostergoodrelationsbetweenpersonswho
sharearelevantprotectedcharacteristicandpersonswhodonotshareit.Courtsand
tribunalsarepublicauthoritiesforthesepurposes,althoughtheexerciseofjudicial
functionsisanexcludedfunctionoftheActforthesepurposes.

Directandindirectdiscrimination
12.

Directdiscrimination,treatingapersonlessfavourablybecauseoftheirbeliefsornon
belief,canarisewhereactionsandattitudesarebasedonassumptionsand
stereotypes.

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a. Afaithcommunityorbeliefgroupmaybeseenasasinglemonolithicblock,static
andunresponsivetonewrealitiesratherthanasdiverse,withinternaldifferences,
debatesanddevelopments.
b. Afaithcommunityorbeliefgroupmaybeseenashavingaimsorvaluesthatdiffer
fromthoseheldbythewidercommunity,ratherthanasbeinginterdependent
withthewidercommunityandsharingcommonvaluesandaims.
13.

Directdiscriminationcanalsoarisewhereactionsandattitudesarebasedon
assumptionsandstereotypes,whetherpositiveornegative,aboutmembersornon
membersofaparticularfaithorbeliefgroup,ratherthanbasedonevidenceaboutthe
particularindividual.Forexample,aMuslimwomanwearingaheadscarfmaybeseen
asoppressedandforcedtowearit,whereasaSikhmanwearingaturbanmaynotbe
seeninthesameway.

14.

Itisequallyimportanttoavoidtreatingeveryonethesameirrespectiveoftheir
individualbelieforgroupidentity.Awarenessoftheneedsofdifferentfaithgroups,as
wellasoftheexistenceofasignificantgroupwithnonreligiousbeliefsornobeliefs,is
importantifdiversityanddifferenceistoberespectedandaccommodated.

NorthernIrelandlegislation
15.

TheNorthernIrelandAct1998containssimilarprovisionstothosecontainedinthe
EqualityAct2010.

TheHumanRightsActandtheECHR
16.

TheHumanRightsAct1998andtheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights(the
ECHR)providetwomeansofprotectingreligiousrights:Article9,therighttofreedom
ofthought,conscienceandreligion;andArticle14,therightnottobediscriminated
againstintheenjoymentofConventionrightsongroundsthatincludereligionand
belief.TherearetwoaspectstotheprotectionaffordedbyArticle9:absolute
protectionfortherighttofreedomofthoughtandbelief;andqualifiedprotectionfor
therighttomanifestreligion,whichcanberestrictedwhereitisnecessaryand
proportionatetodosotoprotecttherightsofothers.

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Oaths,affirmationsanddeclarations
Keypoints

Thepurposeofadministeringanoathoraffirmationtoawitnessistoensurethatthe
witnessmakesasolemndeclarationtotellthetruth.

TheOathsAct1978permitswitnessesthechoiceofswearinganoathormakinga
solemnaffirmation.

Thedegreetowhichawitnessconsiderstheirconscienceboundbytheprocedureis
thecriterionofvalidity.

Thecontentsofthischaptershouldassistalljudiciaryandtribunaljudgesin:

ensuringthatsworntestimonymeetsalltherequirementsoftheOathsAct1978;

ensuringthattheneedsofallcourtusersandwitnessesaremetwithregardto
theirreligionorbeliefwhengivingswornevidenceormakingdeclarations;and

thatwitnesseswhochoosetoaffirmorswearanoatharetreatedwithrespect
andsensitivity.

Introduction
1.

TheOathsAct1978makesprovisionfortheformsinwhichoathsmaybe
administeredandstatesthatasolemnaffirmationshallhavethesameforceand
effectasanoath.Intodaysmulticulturalsocietyeveryone,whatevertheirreligionor
belief,shouldbetreatedwithrespectwhenmakingaffirmations,declarationsor
swearingoaths.

2.

Themostcommonwordingoftheoathis:
Iswearby[substituteAlmightyGod/NameofGod(suchasAllah)orthenameofthe
holybook]thattheevidenceIshallgiveshallbethetruth,thewholetruthand
nothingbutthetruth.

3.

Themostcommonwordingformakinganaffirmationis:
Idosolemnly,sincerelyandtrulydeclareandaffirmthattheevidenceIshallgive
shallbethetruth,thewholetruthandnothingbutthetruth.

4.

Asamatterofgoodpractice:
a. theimportantquestionofwhethertoaffirmorswearanoathshouldbepresented
toallconcernedasasolemnchoicebetweentwoprocedureswhichareequally
validinlegalterms;
b. theprimaryconsiderationshouldbewhatbindstheconscienceoftheindividual;
c. oneshouldnotassumethatanindividualfromaparticularcommunityorethnic
backgroundwillautomaticallyprefertoswearanoathratherthanaffirm,orvice
versa.

5.

GuidancewasgiveninthecaseofKemble:

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a. Wetaketheviewthatthequestionofwhethertheadministrationofanoathis
lawfuldoesnotdependuponwhatmaybetheconsiderableintricaciesofthe
particularreligionwhichisadheredtobythewitness.Itconcernstwomattersand
twomattersonlyinourjudgement.Firstofall,istheoathanoathwhichappears
tothecourt(NBmosttribunalsdonotadministeranoath)tobebindingonthe
conscienceofthewitness?Andifso,secondly,andmoreimportantly,isitanoath
whichthewitnesshimselfconsiderstobebindinguponhisconscience?
6.

LordLaneC.J.inR.v.Kemble[1990]91Cr.App.R.178
a. InthiscaseaMuslimwitnessinthecriminaltrialhadpreviouslyswornanoathon
theNewTestament,althoughintheCourtofAppealthesamewitnesssworean
oathontheQuran.HetoldtheCourtofAppealonoaththatheconsidered
himselfconscienceboundbytheoathhemadeatthetrial.Headdedthathe
wouldstillhaveconsideredtheoathtobebindingonhisconsciencewhetherhe
hadtakenitupontheQuran,theBibleortheTorah.TheCourtofAppealaccepted
hisevidence,findingthatheconsideredallthosebookstobeholybooks,andthus
thathewasconscienceboundbyhisoath.ThisisdespitethefactthatinIslamic
jurisprudenceanoathtakenbyaMuslimisonlybindingiftakenontheQuran.
Inthecourtroomtheemphasisisuponreceivingtestimonyanddeterminingthe
credibilityofthewitnessonthebasisofhisorherbindingoathoraffirmation.
Someorthodoxreligiousbelieversmaychoosetoaffirmbecausetheybelievethat
swearinganoathisnotaproceduretobeundertakeninanonreligiouscontext
suchascourtproceedings.

Holybooks
7.

Differentfaithtraditionsplacevaryingemphasesupontheirholybooksinthecontext
oftheirbeliefsystem.Manyfaithtraditionsareoral,ornotbasedonscripture,while
others,suchasHinduismorJainismrevereanumberofscriptures;andforyetothers,
thereisonecentraltextonly.Forall,theirholybooksmustbehandledwithrespect
andsensitivity.

Ritualpurity
8.

Certainfaithtraditionsinsistthatanyonehandlingaholybookorscripturebeina
stateofritualpurity.

9.

Ritualpuritymaybeachievedbyperformingablutionsinvolvingtheuseofwater.

10.

Awitnessmayindicatetheneedtoperformablutionsbyreferringtotheneedto
washormayspecifyaneedtowashtheirhands/face/feet.Anopportunitytousea
washroomforthispurposeshouldbegiventothewitness.

11.

Incertainreligioustraditions,womenwhoaremenstruatingorrecoveringfrom
childbirthcannotobtainritualpurityandmayprefertoaffirmratherthanhandletheir
holybook.

12.

Itisforthisreasonthatitisgoodpracticeforholybookstoremaincoveredina
separateclothwhennotinuseandwhenbeinghandledbycourtstaffsoastoavoid
causingpossibleoffence.Needlesstosay,allhandlingofholybooksshouldbewith
theutmostrespect,andnoholybookshouldbeputonthefloororthrowndown.

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13.

Otherpractices:
a. HinduandSikhwitnessesmaywishtoremovetheirshoes.
b. Jewish,Muslim,Rastafarian,Sikhorotherwitnessesmaywishtocovertheirheads
whentakingtheoath.Theyshouldnotbeaskedtoremoveheadcoveringsin
court.
c. Hinduwitnessesmaywishtobowbeforetheholybookwithfoldedhandsbefore
oraftertakingtheoath.
d. Witnessesmaypreferthatthebookisonlytouchedbytherighthand.

14.

Thesepracticesshouldbeaccommodatedwherepossible,toenablesuchwitnessesto
considerthemselvesmostconscienceboundtotellthetruth.

15.

Particularcareisrequiredifawitnessindicatesapreferencetoswearanoathona
holybookofanotherfaithbecausetheirholybookisnotavailableincourt.Itmaybe
preferableinsuchcircumstances,forthewitnesstoaffirm.

Goodpracticebycourtstaff
16.

Witnessesandjurorsshouldbepresentedwithachoiceoftwoequallyvalid
proceduresofmakinganaffirmationorswearinganoathbycourtstaff,beforethey
comeintocourt.

17.

Iftheywishtoswearanoath,witnessesshouldbeinformedabouttheavailabilityof
differentholybooksincourt.Theyshouldnotbepersuadedtoswearanoathonthe
NewTestamentforthesakeofconvenience.

18.

Iftheyindicateapreferencetoswearanoath,witnessesandjurorsshouldbeinvited
toidentifytheholybookonwhichtheywishtoswearanoath.

19.

Ifaparticularholybookisnotavailable,itisgoodpracticeforthewitnesstobeinvited
toaffirm,eveniftheyarewillingtoswearanoathontheholybookofanother
religion.

20.

Noassumptionsshouldbemadethatanindividualfromaparticularcommunityor
ethnicbackgroundwillautomaticallyprefertoswearanoathratherthanaffirm,or
viceversa.

Formoredetailedconsiderationregardingthepracticesofdifferentfaithtraditionsplease
seeAppendix2.

Otherformsofoathtakenincourt
Note:Ineverycasetheappropriateformofoathoraffirmation(assetoutinAppendix2)
precedesthewordssetoutbelow.

Jurors
...thatIwillfaithfullytrythedefendant(s)andgiveatrueverdict(trueverdicts)accordingto
theevidence.
...thatIwillfaithfullytrythedefendant(s)whetherthedefendantisundersomedisability
sothats/hecannotbetriedandgiveatrueverdictaccordingtotheevidence.

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...thatIwillfaithfullytrythedefendant(s)whetherthedefendantstandsmuteofmaliceor
bythevisitationofGod(whethers/heisabletoplead)(whethers/heissaneornotandof
sufficientintellecttocomprehendtheproceedings)andgiveatrueverdictaccordingtothe
evidence.

Witnesses
...thattheevidencewhichIshallgiveshallbethetruth,thewholetruthandnothingbutthe
truth.
...thatIshallanswertruthfullyanyquestionswhichthecourtmayaskofme.

Interpreters
...thatIwillwellandfaithfullyinterpretandtrueexplanationmakeofallsuchmattersand
thingsasshallberequiredofmeaccordingtothebestofmyskillandunderstanding.

Children
Theformofoathforanychildoryoungpersonaged14to17yearscommencesIpromise
by....Theevidenceofachildagedunder14yearsisgivenunsworn.

RelevantprovisionsoftheOathsAct1978
A1.(1)AnyoathmaybeadministeredandtakeninEngland,WalesorNorthernIrelandin
thefollowingmanner:
ThepersontakingtheoathshallholdtheNewTestament,orinthecaseofaJew,theOld
Testament,inhisupliftedhand,andshallsayorrepeataftertheofficeradministeringthe
oaththewordsIswearbyAlmightyGodthat...followedbythewordsoftheoath
prescribedbylaw.
(2)Theofficershall(unlessthepersonabouttotaketheoathvoluntarilyobjectsthereto,or
isphysicallyincapableofsotakingtheoath)administertheoathintheformandmanner
aforesaidwithoutquestion.
(3)InthecaseofapersonwhoisneitheraChristiannoraJew,theoathshallbe
administeredinanylawfulmanner.
(4)Inthissectionanofficermeansanypersondulyauthorisedtoadministeroaths.
3.Ifanypersontowhomanoathisadministereddesirestoswearwithupliftedhand,inthe
formandmannerinwhichanoathisusuallyadministeredinScotland,heshallbepermitted
sotodo,andtheoathshallbeadministeredtohiminsuchformandmannerwithout
furtherquestions.
4.(1)Inanycaseinwhichanoathmaylawfullybeandhasbeenadministeredtoany
person,ifithasbeenadministeredinaformandmannerotherthanthatprescribedbylaw,
heisboundbyitifithasbeenadministeredinsuchformandwithsuchceremoniesashe
mayhavedeclaredtobebinding.
(2)Whereanoathhasbeendulyadministeredandtaken,thefactthatthepersontowhom
itwasadministeredhad,atthetimeoftakingit,noreligiousbelief,shallnotforanypurpose
affectthevalidityoftheoath.

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5.(1)Anypersonwhoobjectstobeingswornshallbepermittedtomakehissolemn
affirmationinsteadoftakinganoath.
(2)Subsection(1)aboveshallapplyinrelationtoapersontowhomitisnotreasonably
practicablewithoutinconvenienceordelaytoadministeranoathinthemannerappropriate
tohisreligiousbeliefasitappliesinrelationtoapersonobjectingtobesworn.
(3)Apersonwhomaybepermittedundersubsection(2)abovetomakehissolemn
affirmationmayalsoberequiredtodoso.
(4)Asolemnaffirmationshallbeofthesameforceandeffectasanoath.

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Religiousdress

1.

Apersonsreligionorbeliefcaninfluencethewaytheydressandpresentthemselves
inpublic.Inmostinstancesthiswillpresentfew,ifany,issuesforjudges.

2.

Whilethereareotherexamplesofreligiousitemsofclothing(theJewishskullcapthe
kippahoryarmulkeisone;theSikhturbananother),theissueofreligiousdressis
onethatismostlikelytoariseinrelationtotheniqab,orfullveil,sometimeswornby
Muslimwomen.Astheniqabinvolvesthefullcoveringoftheface,thejudgemayhave
toconsiderifanystepsarerequiredtoensureeffectiveparticipationandafair
hearing,bothforthewomanwearingtheniqabandotherparticipantsinthe
proceedings.Thisisadifficultandsensitivematteraboutwhichguidancewillsoonbe
publishedintheformofaPracticeDirectionbytheLordChiefJustice.TheBench
Bookwillbeupdatedatthattime.

3.

Someusefulguidanceonthebackgroundtoandreligioussignificanceofthewearing
ofdifferentstylesofMuslimheadscarfcanbefoundat
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/5411320.stm.

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Appendix1Differentbeliefsystems
TheBahaifaith
Keypoints

TheBahaifaithisabasedupontheteachingsofBahaullah(181792)whowasborn
inIran.

MembersoftheBahaifaithcanbefoundallovertheworld,butthelargest
communitiesareinSouthAsia,Africa,LatinAmerica,andthePacificIslands.

TheBahaicommunityestablisheditspresenceintheUK,EuropeandtheUSAasearly
asthe1890s.

Introduction
TheBahaicommunityintheUKislongstandingwithmanyoriginatingfromIranaswellas
indigenousethnicEnglishBahais.TheoriginsoftheBahaifaithinIrandatebacktothe
nineteenthcentury,whenBahaullahandsubsequentlyhissonAbdulBahapromulgated
theBahaifaith.Bahaullahwasconsideredthepromisedsaviourforallhumankindand
presagedbytheBab,anIranianwhobrokeawayfromShiaIslamandheraldedtheBahai
faithin1844.Thelast24yearsofBahaullahslifewerespentinexileinPalestine,resulting
intheBahaiWorldCentrenowbeingsituatedinHaifa,Israel.
Afterhispassingin1921AbdulBahasgrandson,ShoghiEffendi(18991957),wasmade
theGuardianoftheBahaiFaith.ShoghiEffendiwasalsoinstrumentalinspreadingthe
teachingsofBahaullaharoundtheworldandwasresponsiblefortranslatinghiswritings
intoEnglish.AfterShoghiEffendispassingtherewasnofurthersuccessorandsoin1963,
followingBahaullahswrittenguidance,theBahaiNationalAssemblieselectedthefirst
UniversalHouseofJusticewhichnowgovernsBahaiaffairs.

Beliefsandpractices

BahaisupholdtheunityofGod,theunityofHisprophets,andtheonenessofthe
entirehumanrace,withtheviewthatitisnecessaryandinevitablethatallhumankind
willbeunited.

TheprimarydutyoftheBahaisistosearchaftertruth,andtheharmonyofscience
andreligionisconsideredaforemostagencyforthepacificationandorderlyprogress
ofhumansociety.

Theprinciplesofequalrightsandopportunitiesforallraces,menandwomen,and
compulsoryeducationforallareinsistedupon.

Theinstitutionsofmonasticism,priesthoodandmendicancyareprohibited.

Monogamyisprescribedanddivorcediscouraged.Thestrictobediencetoones
governmentisencouraged.

Themainpracticesareprayer,meditationandfasting.

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Prayerisencouragedandoneisobligedtosayprayersdaily,includingthe
recitationofoneofthreeobligatoryprayers,theshortestofwhichistobesaid
betweennoonandsunset,andotherprayersrecommendedbyBahaullah.

Bahaisareencouragedtomeditateuponapassageofscripturetwicedaily,inthe
morningandevening,withtheemphasisplaceduponmeditatinginaqualitative
manner.

Fastingisobservedfor19daysintheyearfromthe2Marchto20March.Thefast
isfromsunrisetosunset.Pregnantwomen,thesickandelderlyareexemptfrom
fasting.

PilgrimagetotheShrinesofBahaullahinAcre(Israel),theBabinHaifaandthe
restingplaceofShoghiEffendiinEnglandisencouraged.

Holybooksandscriptures
ThewritingsofBahaullahandhissonAbdulBaha,andtheBabareconsidereddivinely
inspiredscripture.OneofthemaintextsbyBahaullah,ofwhichthereareoverahundred
volumes,iscalledtheKitabiAqdas.ThewritingsofShoghiEffendiareconsideredinfallible
commentariesonBahaiscriptures.

TheBahaiwitnessorjurymemberwillprobablychoosetoaffirm,sinceforBahais
theirwordistheirbond.

IfaBahaichoosestoswearanoathitwouldmostlikelybeontheKitabiAqdas.

Centralpracticesanddaysofobservance
Apartfromthedailyprayers,whicharesaidinprivate,communalactivitiesareorganisedby
localassemblies,themembersofwhomareelectedannually.Communalgatheringsare
heldatprivatehomesoratrentedhallsinlocationswhereaBahaicentreisnotestablished.
BahaiHousesofWorshipareatpresentlimitedtooneoneachcontinentandareopento
thepublicfortheworshipofGod.TheBahaicalendarcomprises19months,eachof19
days.ThefirstdayofeachBahaimonthiscelebratedbyalocalcommunalgatheringwhen
participantsreciteprayersandreadholyscriptures,discusscommunitymatters,andfinally
enjoyfoodtogether.
OnspecialFestival/HolyDaysparticulardevotionalscripturesaresetasidefortheoccasion
andsermonsmaybesaid.TheFestival/HolyDaysareasfollows:

FeastofRidvan(DeclarationofBahaullah,21April2May)anditisrecommended
thatworkissuspendedonthefirst,ninthand12thdaysofRidvan.

FastingseasonofAla(2March20March)endingwiththefeastofNawRuz
(meaningNewDay)on21March,alsoconsideredthecommencementofthenew
year,whenitisalsorecommendedthatworkbesuspended.

AnniversaryoftheDeclarationoftheBab(23May)whenitisalsorecommendedthat
workbesuspended.ThisdayalsocoincideswiththeBirthofAbdulBaha.

BirthofBahaullah(12November)whenitisalsorecommendedthatworkbe
suspended.

BirthoftheBab(20October)whenitisalsorecommendedthatworkbesuspended.

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AscensionofBahaullah(29May)whenitisalsorecommendedthatworkbe
suspended.

MartyrdomoftheBab(9July)whenitisalsorecommendedthatworkbesuspended.

AscensionofAbdulBaha(28November).

Dietaryrulesandtaboos
Intoxicatingdrugsandalcoholareprohibited.

Ritesofpassage
BabiesarebornBahaiandtheremaybeanamingceremonycelebratingthebirthofthe
child.
MarriageisastronglyencouragedinstitutionamongstBahaisandconsideredtheonly
legitimateframeworkwithinwhichtoenjoysexualfreedom.Onlymonogamousmarriages
arepermittedandinordertopreservesocialcohesiontheconsentofallparentsofthe
brideandgroommustbesoughtbeforemarriage.
Themarriageceremonyhasnosetritualaspect,excepttheexchangeofthemarriagevow
bythecouplebeforewitnesses:Wewillall,verily,abidebytheWillofGod.
Localmarriagecustomscanbefollowed,buttheamountofdowriesexchangedisfixed.
Divorceisstronglydiscouragedandseveralconditionsmustbemetbeforeitispermitted,
suchasayearsseparation,duringwhicheffortsatreconciliationaremade.
Funeralsshouldbecarriedoutwithdignityandhonoursincedeathmarksthepassage
fromthislifetothenextphaseofexistence.Cremationisprohibitedsince,inaccordance
withthelawsofnature,thebodyshouldbeallowedtodecomposenaturally.Burialofthe
bodymusttakeplaceinalocationnofurtherthanonehoursjourneyfromtheplaceof
death.
Specialprayersarerecitedatthefuneralandsubsequentlyforthebenefitofthedeceased.
Forthosewhodiewithouthavingmadeawill,therearerecommendationsforthedivision
ofwealth.

Buddhism
Keypoints

TheBuddhistcommunityintheUKisverydiverse:withmembersfromtheIndian
subcontinent,China,JapanandthewholeofSouthEastAsia.Therearealsomanyof
ethnicEuropeanoriginwhopracticeBuddhism.

Thecultural,regionalanddistinctdoctrinaldifferencesbetweenadherentsdemand
thatnoassumptionscanbemade.

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Introduction
Buddhismwasfoundedbythehistoricalfigure,ShakyamunitheBuddha(theenlightened
orawakenedone)inthesixthcenturyBCinNorthernIndia.Therearetwomainstrandsof
Buddhismwithvariationsofthoughtandpracticewithinthem.Theseare:

Theravada(thewayoftheelders)isthepredominantformofBuddhisminSriLanka,
Burma,Thailand,LaosandCambodia.ThisschoolcanalsobereferredtoasHinayana
(thesmallvehicle).

Mahayana(thegreatvehicle)isthemostwidespreadoftheBuddhistschoolsandis
predominantinMongolia,Korea,andVietnam.ThedevelopmentsinChinafolloweda
specificcoursegiventhenatureandhistoryofthecountry,andinJapantheZen
(meditation)formofMahayanaBuddhismispredominant.TibetanBuddhismhas
alsofollowedaspecificcourse.

Beliefsandpractices
IntheUKtodaythereareasignificantnumberofBuddhists,fromSriLanka,Burma,
Thailand,IndoChinaandotherSouthEastAsiancountries,India,Sikkim,Bhutan,Nepal,
Tibet,MongoliaandotherpartsofCentralAsia,aswellasChina,KoreaandJapan.Thefaith
groupincludesmanyethnicEuropeansaswell.
Buddhismisawayofenlightenmentfromthecycleofrebirthanddeath(Samsara);lifeis
consideredimpermanentandcharacterisedbysuffering.Thepathtoachieving
enlightenmentinvolvesthreeessentialcomponents,knownastheThreeJewels:
1. SubmissiontotheBuddha.
2. TheteachingsoftheBuddha(Dhamma).
3. TheBuddhistcommunity(theSangha)comprisingmonksandnunsandthelaity,who
relyoneachother.
TakingrefugeintheseThreeJewelsbyrecitingaformulatothateffectisthemeansby
whichapersonisacknowledgedtobeafollowerofBuddhism.Thephilosophycanbe
summarisedbythedoctrineofthenobleeightfoldpath,oftensymbolisedasawheelwith
eightspokes:
1. rightunderstanding
2. rightthought
3. rightspeech
4. rightaction
5. rightlivelihood
6. righteffort
7. rightmindfulness
8. rightconcentration.
AlayBuddhistissupposedtolivebyfiveprinciples,apartfromseekingrefugeinthe
Buddha,theDhammaandtheSangha.Thesearetoabstainfromkilling,stealing,sexual
misconduct,falsespeechandalcoholanddrugabuse,whichimpairmindfulnessand
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concentration.ThetwopartsoftheBuddhistSangha,thelaityandthemonksandnuns,are
consideredinterdependent.ThelayBuddhistsprovidefood,clothingandaplacetolive,
whilethemonksandnunsgiveadviceandprovidethelaitywithachancetoacquiremerit
(anothersenseofDhamma)throughtheirhelp.

Holybooksandscriptures
AlltheschoolsofBuddhismrefertothesamecanonofscripture:

Tipitaka(inPali,fortheTheravadaschool),

ortheTripitaka(inSanskrit,fortheMahayanaschool).

Theseareslightlydifferentversionsofthesameoriginaltext,inthreemajorsections,based
ondifferentaspectsoftheBuddhasteachings.ThemanylanguagesspokenbyBuddhistsin
theUKreflecttheirethnicdiversityasacommunity.

MostBuddhistswillreadilyaffirmandareunlikelytowishtoswearanoath.Inthe
past,courtstaffhavebeeninstructedtoadministeraformofdeclarationtoBuddhists
whichstartsIdeclareinthepresenceofBuddhathat...Thisformofdeclarationis
wrongandunacceptabletoBuddhistsandshouldnotbeused.

ATibetanBuddhistwhowishestotakeanoathinacourtshouldbeaskedtostatethe
formofoathwhichtheywillregardasbindingontheirconscience.(InTibetan
practice,oathsarenormallytakeninfrontofapictureofadeity,aphotographofthe
DalaiLamaoranyLamaofthewitnessspractice,iftakenatall.)Sometimessucha
witnesswilltakeanoathbyelevatingareligioustextbooksuchastheTipitakaabove
theirheadandswearingbyit.Ifsuchawitnessdoesnotstipulatesuchapracticeand
doesnothavetheappropriatebookwiththem,theyshouldaffirm.

Centralpracticesanddaysofobservance
Particularfestivalsmaydependonthenationaloriginsofapersonandcertaincelebrations
maypreventapersonfromappearingincourtonaparticularday.
MeditationisthecentralpracticeinBuddhism.
BuddhisttemplesmaybesimpleZenBuddhistmeditationhallsorornateTibetanBuddhist
templesofgreatsplendour.IntheUK,theymaybepurposebuiltstructureslikethePeace
PagodainMiltonKeynes,orsimplyashrineroominaresidentialhouse,oftenwithincense
holders,flowersandcandles.MostBuddhistswillhaveasmallshrineintheirhomein
additiontoworshippinginatempleaswell.Buddhistsremovetheirshoesasamarkof
respectwhentheygointoatemple.Theysometimesprostratebeforetheimageofthe
Buddha,makeofferingsofflowers,lightandincense,andtheymayrecitesacredscriptures.
Monksandnunsweardistinctiverobesinparticularcolours,whichindicatetheirallegiance
toanyoneofthedifferenttraditionsofBuddhism.
MajorreligiousfestivalsTheravadaandMahayana.Buddhistsabidebyalunarcalendar
sothatfestivaldatesvaryfromyeartoyear,althoughtheZenBuddhistshaveafixed
calendar.Mostfestivalscommemoratethebirth,life,teachingsandenlightenmentofthe
Buddha.

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FortheTheravadinBuddhists:

MaghaPujaisusuallylateFebruary.

VaisakhaPujaorBuddhaDay,usuallythefullmoondayinMaycommemoratesthe
birth,enlightenmentandpassingoftheBuddha.

AsalhaPuja,thecelebrationoftheBuddhasfirstsermon,usuallyinJuly,marksthe
beginningofthethreemonthrainretreat,duringwhichmonksandnunstraditionally
havetoremaininoneplace.Anotherimportantfestivalmarksthelastdayofthisrain
retreat(PavaranaorSanghaDay),usuallyinOctober.

FortheMahayanaBuddhistseverynewmoondayisShakyamuniBuddhaDay,andon
everyfullmoondaytherearecelebrationsoftheBuddha,hisEnlightenmentandhisPassing
(Parinirvana).
TheZencalendarisnotlunarandincludesthefollowingspecialdates:

15FebruaryTheBuddhaspassing(Parinirvana)

8AprilTheBuddhasbirthday

3OctoberBodhidharmasDay(DayofthefirstPatriarchinChina)

8DecemberTheBuddhasEnlightenment

Dietaryrules
Buddhismemphasisestheavoidanceofintentionalkilling,basedontheprincipleof
nonviolence(Ahimsa).Thus,manyBuddhistsaretotalvegetarians,althoughsomeallow
themselvesfishoreggs.Theprincipleofrightlivelihoodexcludestradinginfleshand
Buddhistsmayavoidworkingasbutchersorfishermen.

Ritesofpassage
Althoughnospecialceremoniesareprescribedandtraditionsvaryfromcountrytocountry,
manyinvolvetheparticipationofmonks.
Birth.Atthetimeofbirth,monksmaybeinvitedtothehometochanttextsfromBuddhist
scripturesandthebabymaybetakentothetempleforanamingceremony.
Ordination.Dependingupontheethnicorigin,forsomeBuddhiststemporaryordinationis
oftenafeatureofaboysoryoungmanslifeuntilandifhedecidestobecomea
householderwhichisconsideredacceptable(althoughsomeBuddhistcommunitiesfrown
uponthis).Afterashort,fairlysimpleordinationceremony,whentheyoungboybecomesa
novicemonk,heistaughtsomemeditationpracticesandissymbolicallyclothed.Younggirls
arenottemporarilyordainedasnunsinthesameway,althoughtheymayrealiseavocation
tobecomenunsduringadulthood.
MarriageisahighlyrespectedinstitutioninBuddhism,sincethelaycommunityisobviously
neededtosupportthemonksandnuns.Arrangedmarriagesarecustomaryinmany
Buddhistcommunities.AtBuddhistmarriageceremonies,monksdonotofficiateassuch,
butareinvitedtoattendforthebenedictionstheymaybestow.
Funeralritualsareimportantandapersonsstateofmindatthetimeofdeathisconsidered
crucialtodeterminethequalityofthenextlife.Buddhistsfollowdifferentnationalandlocal

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customsforburialorcremationandotherrites.InaccordancewiththeprinciplesofKamma
(Karmainsanskrit),Buddhistsbelievethatthequalityofrebirthinthenextlifedepends
upononesactionsinthisone,andtheintentionswithwhichthoseactionswereperformed.
PersonsenlightenedduringthislifeareliberatedtheyattainNibbana(Nirvanainsanskrit)
andsoarereleasedfromthecycleofrebirthanddeath(Samsara).Thus,whenapersonis
abouttodie,thereisanattempttofocusthemindonhighertruths,andmonksmayoften
beinvitedtocomeandchantatthattime.

Christianity
Keypoints

ChristianityisthelargestfaithgroupintheUKwiththegreatestnumberof
subdivisions.

Itisthereligionpractisedbythewidestvarietyofminoritycommunities.

AssumptionsabouttheculturalandracialhomogeneityofChristianworshippers
needtobeputaside.

NoteveryonesharesthesameunderstandingofChristianityanditscreedsandethical
requirements(e.g.asregardsmarriage,warandothermatters).

Introduction
TheformandpracticeofChristianfaithandworshipamongstminoritycommunitiesisas
variedasthecommunitiesthemselves.TherealityofChristianworshipintheUK
encompassesallraces,genders,peoplewithalltypesofdisabilitiesandpeoplesofallsexual
orientations.ChristianityfirstcametoBritainsoonafterthefollowersofChristestablished
themselvesintheMediterranean(withStAugustineofCanterburyinthesixthcentury
reconnectingBritishChristianswithcontinentalEurope),andissaidtohavetakenrootin
Irelandby390CE,andinScotlandbytheendofthesixthcenturyCE.Christiancommunities
inEngland,WalesandScotlandallhaveverydifferentnationalcharacters.Thegrowthof
Black,PentecostalandindependentevangelicalchurchesintheUKhasbeenamarked
developmentinrecenttimes.

Beliefsandpractices
ThereligionwasfoundedbythosewhobelievedthatJesusofNazarethwasChrist(fromthe
Greek:ChristosatranslationoftheMessiah)theMessiah(generallytranslatedas
Redeemer)asprophesiedbywhatisreferredtoastheOldTestamentintheBible.The
distinctiveChristianclaimbeingthatChristisGodincarnate.Christianityisthesecondofthe
threeAbrahamicorSemiticreligions(tracingtheiroriginstotheprophetAbraham):
Judaism,ChristianityandIslam.
AstheteachingsofChristfocusedontheSpiritandnottheLaw,theretendstobeless
emphasisuponmattersofritualobservance,orreligiousrulesandregulationsinthedaily
lifeoftheChristianthanforJewsandMuslims(althoughthiswouldbelessapplicableto
traditionalRomanCatholicsorOrthodoxChristians).Howeverthetheologicalelaborationof

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Christiandoctrineisafarrangingandcomplexstory,andeverystreamwithinChristianity
hasitsownritesandrituals.TheimportanceofhistoryforthedevelopmentofChristianity
shouldneverbeunderestimated.Christianityderivesmuchfromtherichfabricofhistory:
theseparationbetweentheEastandtheWest,andtheReformation,givingusthethree
mainbranchesofChristianityweseetoday.
TheRomanemperorConstantinein313CE,andagainin380CE,theRomanemperor
TheodosiusdeclaredChristianitytheofficialreligionoftheRomanEmpire.In1054thefirst
majordivisionbetweentheEasternandWesternchurchestookplace.Aseriesofpolitical,
theologicalanddevotionaldevelopmentsculminatedintheReformation,whereathird
brancharosewithinChristianityasaresultofadivisionbetweenchurcheswhichclaim
unitywithRome(theRomanCatholicChurch)andwhatbecameknownasProtestantism.
Protestantismhastakenmanydifferentforms,fromEpiscopalian(e.g.theChurchof
England,theChurchinWales)throughtothePresbyterianchurches(ChurchofScotland,
UnitedReformedChurch).Fromaglobalperspective,NorthernEuropeandAmericaare
broadlyProtestantwithsignificantCatholicandOrthodoxpopulations;NorthAmericahasa
majorityProtestantpopulationwithaninfluentialRomanCatholicpresence;Southern
EuropeandLatinAmericaarebroadlyRomanCatholic;andtheAfricanContinentandthe
Pacificregionhaveamixtureofdenominationalallegiance.
ThereisadivisionbetweentheTrinitarian(thosewhobelievethedoctrineoftheTrinity,
thattheoneGodcomprisesthethreepersonsofFather,SonandtheHolyGhost),
denominationswhichincludeAnglicans,RomanCatholics,Methodists,Orthodox,
PresbyterianandtheReformedChurches,(themajoritydenominationswithinChristianity)
andthenonTrinitariandenominationswhichincludeJehovahsWitnesses,Mormonsand
Unitarians.
TrinitarianChristianscanberoughlydividedintoRomanCatholic(andanumberofEastern
ritechurcheswhoadheretounitywiththePope);Reformed/Protestant(fromAnglicanto
PresbyterianandPentecostal);Orthodox(alargeandlooseconfederationofchurchesin
unionwithPatriarchsintheEastandMiddleEastincludingavastdiasporathroughoutthe
worldandgrowingOrthodoxcommunitiesintheUK).Anumberofchurchessometimes
calledOrientalOrthodox,includingtheCoptic(Egyptian),Ethiopian,Eritrean,Armenian
andSyrianChurches,alongwithchurchesofveryancientfoundationinSouthIndia,have
somehistoricdisputesovertheologywiththeGreekandRussianOrthodoxChurches.
ThoughtheseOrientalOrthodoxchurchesshareatheology,theyarethemselves
autonomous,asaretheGreekandRussianOrthodoxChurches.

Holybooksandscriptures
TheBibleisthemaintextcomprisingboththeOldTestament(alsoreferredtoasthe
JewishScriptures)andtheNewTestament.RomanCatholicsandOrthodoxChristiansalso
recognisetheApocryphaashavingtheauthorityofHolyScriptures.
TheOathsAct1978:ThepersontakingtheoathshallholdtheNewTestament,orinthe
caseofaJew,theOldTestament,inhisupliftedhand,andshallsayorrepeatafterthe
officeradministeringtheoaththewordsIswearbyAlmightyGodthat...followedbythe
wordsoftheoathprescribedbylaw.
TheQuaker(orMoravian)witnesswouldmostprobablyaffirmanditcouldtakethe
followingform:IbeingoneofthepeoplecalledQuakers(UnitedBrethrencalled
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Moravians)dosolemnly,sincerelyandtrulydeclareandaffirmthattheevidenceIshallgive
shallbethetruth,thewholetruthandnothingbutthetruth.
TherearealsoanumberofChristiansfromEvangelicaldenominationswhomightpreferto
affirmratherthanswearoaths.

Centralpracticesanddaysofobservance
ThecommunalworshipofChristians,oftenreferredto,especiallybyCatholicsand
Orthodox,astheLiturgy,takesplaceinchurch,andtheparticulardaysetasideforthisis
normallySunday.Theformthatthemainservicetakesvariesaccordingtoeach
denomination.ThemostcommonelementsforallChristiansarereadingsfromtheBible,
therecitationofprayers,includingtheLordsPrayer(theshortprayertaughtbyJesustohis
disciplesandthemostuniversalprayeracrossalltheChristiandenominations)andthe
singingofHymns,aswellasasermonorhomily(moralexhortationorinstruction),orthe
expositionofbiblicaltexts.
Thecentralsacrament(atermmeaningacorporateeventoffocalsymbolicsignificance)is
thecommemorationofChristsLastSuppertakenthenightbeforehisCrucifixion,inwhich
Christtookbreadandwine(Jesustookbread,andblesseditandsaid,Take,eat,thisismy
body,AndhetookthecupandsayingDrinkyeallofitForthisismybloodMatthew
26:26,Mark14:22,Luke22:19)andaskedhisdisciplestorepeatthismealinhismemory.
Thesignificanceofthismeal,andinparticularthesharingofthebreadandwine,is
profoundinalltheChristiandenominationsandisknownvariouslyasMass,Holy
Communion,TheLordsSupper,andtheHolyEucharist.
Themeaningsattributedtothisritearemanifold,andthefrequencywithwhichaChristian
partakesinitvariesalso,butunlikethesacramentsassociatedwithbirth,marriageand
death,thisriteisrepeatedandthroughthatrepetition,thebelieversfaithisdeepened.
Treatingthebreadandwinewithdisrespectis,foranyChristian,aseriousinsulttotheir
faith.Orthodox,RomanCatholics,andAnglicanChristiansusuallycelebrateaEucharist
(Greek,meaningthanksgiving)withbreadandwine,knowntotheOrthodoxastheLiturgy
(Greek,meaningservice),CatholicsasMassandtoAnglicansandReformedasTheLords
Supper,HolyCommunionorEucharist.Manyreformedchurches(Presbyterian,Methodist)
celebratetheEucharistlessoftenandtheirusualSundayworshipmaybehymns,readings
andasermon.
IntheEastern/OrthodoxChurch,ChristiansstandtoreceivetheEucharist;intheRoman
CatholicandAnglican,theykneelorstand;inotherdenominationstheysit.Insome
churchessweetpotatoesandhoneyaresubstitutedforthebreadandwine(suchasinthe
threemillionstrongKimbanguistChurchinZaire);inothers,suchastheSocietyofFriends
(Quakers)therearenospecificsacramentalacts,astheemphasisisonthecontinualinner
actionoftheSpirit.TheSalvationArmyalsodoesnotpracticesacramentalworship.
ThemajorfestivalsorcommemorativedaysforthevarioustraditionsamongtheAnglican,
RomanCatholicandOrthodoxdenominationsare:

Epiphanyusuallyfallingon6January(alsoknownasHolyEpiphanyintheOrthodox
Church).IntheWesternChurchitcommemoratesthemanifestationofChristtothe
Magi(thethreewisemenfromtheEastwhocametopayhomagetotheinfantJesus)
andintheEasternChurch,thebaptismofChristbySt.JohntheBaptist.

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LentistheperiodleadinguptoGoodFridayandtheEasterweekend.Itfallssometime
inMarch/Aprilaccordingtocalculationsbasedonthelunarcalendar.Theperiodmay
beobservedbyabstentionsandotherasceticpracticesaswellasdietaryrestrictions
ofsomekind(suchasabstainingfrommeat),andsomeRomanCatholicsobservethe
periodofLentbyfastingfromfoodduringthedaylighthours,andabstainingfrom
meatonFridaysduringLent.OrthodoxChristiansalsohavefastsduringLent.Ash
WednesdaymarksthefirstdayofLentforWesternChristians,andisknownassuch
fromthepracticeofthefirstChristianstoplaceashontheirheads.Thedaybeforeis
knownasShroveTuesday(whichdoesnothaveanyreligioussignificance)onwhich
peopletraditionallymadetheirconfessionandusedupfoodgenerallyforbiddenin
Lent(hencePancakeTuesday).

PalmSunday(sometimescalledPassionSunday)istheSundaybeforeEaster
commemoratingChriststriumphalentryintoJerusalemwhenbranchesofpalm
leaveswerestrewnontothegroundwelcomingJesusintothecity.

MaundyThursday(thedaybeforeGoodFriday)commemoratingChristsLastSupper
withhisdiscipleswherehesharedbreadandwine.MaundystandsforMandatum
Novumnewcommandment:AnewcommandmentIgiveuntoyou,thatyoulove
oneanother(John13:34).

GoodFridayandEasterSundaywhichfallsometimeinMarch/Aprilaccordingto
calculationsbasedonthelunarcalendararethemostimportantdatesintheChristian
calendar.GoodFridaycommemoratesthecrucifixionofChrist.EasterSunday
celebratesTheResurrectionofChristfromHistomb.

AscensionDayisthefortiethdayafterEasterwhentheAscensionofChristinto
Heaveniscelebrated.

PentecostoccurringonWhitSundaycommemoratesthedescentoftheHoly
Ghost/SpiritontheApostlesofChrist,andformanyChristiansisthebirthdayofthe
Church.

CorpusChristi,afestivalinhonouroftheEucharistobservedontheThursdayafter
TrinitySunday(theSundayafterWhitSunday).

TheFeastoftheTransfiguration(6August)whenChristappearedtothreeofhis
disciplesonMountTaborwithMosesandElias,dazzlinglychangedinappearance,and
thedisciplesheardavoicefromHeaven(ThisismySon:hearhimMark9:2).

Assumption/DormitionoftheHolyMotherofGod(OrthodoxandRomanCatholic)
celebratedon15August;thetakingupoftheBlessedVirginMary(herbodyandsoul),
motherofChrist,intoHeavenafterherearthlylifehadended.

AdventSundayisthefirstofthelastfourSundays(theperiodknownasAdvent)
beforeChristmas(usuallythelastSundayinNovember).

TheFeastoftheImmaculateConception(8December)celebratingthefactthat
accordingtoRomanCatholictheology,theVirginMary,motherofChristwas
conceivedwithoutanystainoforiginalsin.

ChristmasDay(25December)celebratesthebirthofChrist(someEasternChristians
calculatethisaccordingtoothercalendars).

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Dietaryrules
TherearegenerallynorestrictionsforreformedChristians.OrthodoxandRomanCatholics
observetheperiodofLentwithfastingandOrthodoxalsomayhaveotherfastperiods.
CatholicandOrthodoxmayalsorefrainfromeatingmeatoncertaindays,suchasFridays,to
commemoratethecrucifixionofJesus.RomanCatholicsmayalsofastbeforemajorfestivals
andCommunion.OrthodoxChristiansmayfastfrommeat,dairyandoliveoilproductson
WednesdaysandFridays.

Ritesofpassage
ManychurcheshavesacramentssacredritestheybelievetobeinstitutedbyChristor
withhisauthority.Thenumbervaries.RomanCatholicshaveseven(Baptism,Eucharist,
Confirmation,OrdinationtoMinistry,Marriage,Confession,ExtremeUnction(LastRites)).
Manyothersrestrictthetermsacramenttotworitesonly(BaptismandEucharist).Other
churches,likeQuakers,havenoanalogousritesandcelebrateneitherEucharistnor
Ordination.
Baptism:aninitiatoryriteoftencalledChristeningwhichinvolvesthesprinklingofwater
orimmersioninwatersignifyingthatthesubjectiscleansedofsinandconstitutedasa
memberoftheChurch,traditionallyperformedfornewbornandveryyoungchildren
thoughsomedenominationstreatitasariteexclusivelyforadultstosignifytheirinitiation
andcommitmenttothefaith.
ConfirmationandfirstHolyCommunion:animportantceremonynormallyperformedwith
childrenandyoungadultstoallowthemtoreaffirmthebaptismthattheyreceivedas
infants.Itisaritethatcaninvolvetheanointingofoil,possiblyalongwiththelayingonof
handsbyabishop.
AChristianmarriageceremonycelebratedinChurchisrecognisedincivillawasavalid
marriageceremonyandobviatestheneedfortheobservanceofacivilmarriageinaregistry
office,providedtheappropriatelegalnoticeshavebeengiven.
TherecognitionofaChristianmarriageceremonyincivillawdoesnotmeanthatall
Christiandenominationsequatecivillawwiththeirtheologicalprinciples.RomanCatholics
donotadmitthepossibilityofdivorce,andsodonotrecognisethedissolutionofmarriage
accordingtocivillaw.Thishasmanyconsequencesforthosewishingtoretaintheir
affiliationtotheRomanCatholicChurchupondivorceandifseekingtoremarry.Divorcees
inotherdenominationsmayalsofacecertainobstaclesorrequirementsifseekingto
remarryinChurchsincemarriageisconsideredanindissolublelifelongunion.
Penance/makingofconfession:theconfessionofsinstoChristwiththepriestasawitness
andtheabsolutionfromthosesins.ThisriteismostlyrecognisedbyRomanCatholicsand
OrthodoxbutmanyAnglicansalsoobserveit.
Ordination:qualifyingthoseordainedaspriests/deacons/ministerstoteachthefaithand
administerthesacraments.EveryChristiandenominationregardsministryasafunctionof
greatdignity,butalsooneofservice.ForCatholics,OrthodoxandmanyAnglicansministers
aresetapartbyasacredriteofordinationtoservethemandhavethreelevelsofmajor
holyorders:deacon,priestandbishop.

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Presbyterianchurchministersarealsoordainedbutthereisonlyonelevelofordination.
Theadmissionofwomentoordainedministryhappenedasearlyas1925inHongKong
amongAnglicans.Womenareincreasinglyimportantinordainedministryinmanychurches.
TheRomanCatholicChurchandmanyOrthodoxchurchesonlyallowmentobeordainedto
thelevelsofdeaconorbeyond.Theministerusuallyhasaspecialstatuswithinthechurchs
ownlaw,orcanonlawandmanyministersmaybelievetheirfirstdutywhenconflictarises
betweencivilandcanonlawistothecanonlaw.InEngland,thecanonlawoftheChurchof
Englandhasauniquestatusaspartofthelawoftheland.
MinistryinsomeBlackorIndependentchurchesmaybelessformalisedwithnoparticular
formalordinationservice,ortheymayrecognisePastorsasbeingthekeyminister.This
doesnotmeanthecommunitytreatthemwithanylessrespect.Mostministersundertake
someformoftraining,boththeologicalandpastoralfortheirrole.
ManychurchesmostlyOrthodox,RomanCatholicandAnglicanhavecommunitiesof
womenandmen,boundbyvows,toalifeofservice.Theseareknownasreligious
communitiesororders.Somemaybemonasticorderswithinwhichmembersremain
secluded,leadingalifeofcontemplativeprayerandwork.Othercommunitiesengagein
servicefromteachingtonursingandsocialcare.Thesecommunitiesorordershave
distinctivecustomsderivingfromarulegoverninghowmembersliveandahabitorformof
dress.Membersmaytakeareligiousnamewhichisdifferentfromtheirbirthnames.
ExtremeUnction:thesick,especiallythoseclosetodeath,areanointedwithoilbyapriest
asprayersaresaid.
Burial:traditionallyChristiansareburied,andtheintermentisprecededbyaservicein
Church(normallyaccompaniedbyaserviceofMassorEucharistforCatholics,Orthodoxand
manyAnglicans).HoweverRomanCatholicsandProtestantsmayalsobecremated.

Hinduism
Keypoints

Hinduismisoneoftheworldsmostancientsystemsofreligiouspracticetracingback
atleast5,000years.

FoundedinIndia,mostofitsadherentsoriginatefromthere,althoughthereare
significantHinducommunitiesinMauritius,theCaribbean,SouthEastAsia,andthe
PacificIslandsaswellasanumberofethnicUKpeoplewhofollowthetenetsof
Hinduism.

AssumptionsabouttheculturalandracialhomogeneityofHinduworshippersmust
beputasideasthedivisionsandsubgroupswithinHinduismareverydiverse.

Introduction
WhileHinduismisthedominantreligioninIndia,Nepal,SriLankaandamajorreligionin
Trinidad,Guyana,Bali,Mauritius,andFijiandotherislandsinthePacificbasin,thereare
nowabout500,000HinduslivinginBritain,mainlyinandaroundLondonandinthelarge

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citiesoftheMidlands.ThemajorityofBritishHindusoriginatefromtheIndianstatesof
GujaratandPunjab,althoughsomehavecometoBritainviaEastAfrica.
MembersofsuchcommunitiesmayspeakGujaratiorPunjabi.OtherHinducommunitiesin
theUKarecomprisedofHindusfromvariouspartsoftheIndiansubcontinent(including
Bengalis,TamilsandMarathis)andthecountrieslistedabove.

Beliefsandpractices
Aprofoundlyrichanddiversereligionthatequipsthebelieverwithatotalallencompassing
lensthroughwhichtoviewtheentireuniverse:thewayisknownasthesanatanadharma:
theeternalway.
Basedonacomplexmythologythereisnofounderassuch,buttheacknowledgementand
worshipoftheSupremeBeingtheAbsoluteandInfiniteBrahmanisbasicforall.
ThefirstprincipleofselfdeterminationofthisSupremeBeingisthepersonalGodorIshvara
whoisseenashavingthreeaspects:theCreator(Brahmtobedistinguishedfrom
Brahman),thePreserver(Vishnu)andtheTransformer(Shiva).Thistrinityisknownasthe
Trimurti.ThefeminineconsortsoftheTrimurti,theShaktis,comprisethedynamicfeminine
aspectofthemanifestationofthepersonalGod.
ThusinHinduism,feminineandmasculinequalitiesareeachacknowledgedasintrinsically
valuable.Gendersegregationisconsideredanecessaryadjunctofthedifferentiation
betweenthetwoqualities,butgenderoppressionisconsideredadistortionoftheconcepts
ofHinduism.Maleandfemalesaintsandgurusarebothofferedequalreverence.
ThesecondoftheTrimurti(trinity),Vishnu,issaidtohavecometoearthninetimesin
ordertopreservethereligionandmankind.Heisexpectedatenthtime.Eachincarnationof
VishnuisknownasanAvataraandamongstthemaretheLordKrishna,theLordRama,the
Buddha(asunderstoodwithinHinduism)andthelastincarnationtocomewillbetheKalki
Avatara.
Broadlyspeaking,themaindivisionintermsofworshipandcurrentHindupracticenowis
betweenthosewhofollowthepathofVishnu(Vaishnavites)andthosewhofollowthepath
ofShiva(Shaivites).However,unsurprisinglyinareligionsoancient,therearenowmany
subdivisionsandsects,andaplethoraofdeities(ishtadevata)representingdifferent
aspectsoftheDivinePrinciplewhoarenowworshippedbythevastmajorityofHindus.
MostHindusinsistthattheirworshipofoneorotherofthedeitiesisnothingbutthe
worshipoftheoneultimatereality,Brahman.
HowevercentraltoallHindudoctrinesandmodesofworshiparetheinterrelatedconcepts
oftransmigrationandofkarma.Eachsoulisdestinedtomultiplebirthsandrebirths
(throughtheelaboratecosmiccyclesoftime)andthetransmigrationofsoulsfrommineral,
vegetableandanimalstatestothehumanstate(fromwhichthereisthepossibilityof
breakingfreefromthiscycleandachievingliberationmoksha)isdependentuponones
karma.Karmaisthecosmicchainofactionandreactiontheinescapablelawofcauseand
effectwhichmanifestsoneveryplaneofexistencewhichcouldbecomparedtothesaying
ofChristasyesowsoshallyereap.
Theguidanceenablingthesoultonavigatethecyclesoftransmigrationisthelawofright
action:dharma.Thedoctrineofdharmaislaidoutinthescripturesandembodiedinthe
livesofthesaintsandsagesofHinduism.
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Inthehumanstate,thedutiesmadeincumbentbydharmadependuponthefourstagesof
life:
1. youthandcelibacybrahmacharya,
2. marriage/householderuparkarvana/grihastha,
3. stateofretreatvaisthika/vanaprastha,
4. totalrenunciationbrahamatpura/sannyasi.
AssocialdelineationaccordingtocastewasofficiallyabolishedinIndia,ifitisatallrelevant
nowitisasameanstonavigatethesocialbackgroundofaperson,anditmaytherefore
emergeasanindicatorforthepurposeofarrangingmarriagesorsocialorganisationsforall
thefaithcommunitiesfromIndiawhetherHinduorSikh,or,toalesserextent,Muslim.The
termjatortribe/clanindicatesthesocialoriginofapersonandthesearenumerous.The
HinducommunitiesintheUKmayormaynotchoosetoorganisethemselvesaccordingto
socialgrouping;certainlythecurrentunderstandingaboutjatisthatitisnolongerarigid
delineationofanythingexceptthatitmayactasanindicatorofsocialbackground(clan,
tribe,region)inIndia.
Traditionallythevarnaorcolouroftheindividualwastodelineatethedutiesthatensued
accordingtoorientationandvocation.AstaughtbytheBhaghavadGita,thefulfilmentof
thoseduties(accordingtovarna)offeredupasasacrificetoGodwasawaytosurmount
varnaandotherkarmiclimitationsandachievethespiritualperfectionthatisthebirthright
ofeveryhumanbeing.ItwasprobablynotuntiltheMoghulinvasionofIndiaandthe
subsequentcolonisationbytheBritishthattherigidityandsocialdeprivationthatis
commonlyassociatedwithvarna/castesegregationwasestablished.
BrahminthepriestsKshatriyathewarriorsVaishyathemerchantsandcraftsmen
ShudrathelabourersThesanyasinorsadhumaybefromanyvarnabutchoosesto
abandonsocietyandspendlifeasanitinerantmonkandfemalegurusmaybemarriedor
havetakenvowsofcelibacy.
TheDaalit(oppressed)arenotfromwithinthefourgroupingsandtheyhavebeenalso
beentermedharijanorservantsofGodbyGandhi;manyreveredHindusaintsarefrom
amongstthisgroup.EthnicEuropeans(andallothersnotbornasHindus)whochooseto
followHinduprecepts,participateinHinduworshipandpractice,anddevotetheirtimeto
thelifeofthecommunityaccordingtotheirorientationandskills:forexample,aspujaris
spendingtimeindevotion,orasteachersorcooksintheashram(community).

Holybooksandscriptures
TherearetwolevelsofscriptureinHinduismasopposedtoonecentraltext,allofwhich
provideguidanceandknowledge.AllthescripturesareintheancientlanguageSanskrit,
whichisnotcommonlyspokenorwritten.
Thefirstlevelisconsidereddirectrevelation(Shruti)comprisingtheVedas(havingbeen
recordedabout1500BC),theSamhitas,theBrahmanas,theAranyakas,theUpanishads
andtheBhagavadGitawhich,paradoxically,islocatedasatextwithinthesecondlevelof
scripturetheSmriti.AmongsttheSmritiaretheVedangas,theSutras,theShastras,the
Purunas(includingtheBhagavatam),andthetwogreatepicstheMahabarataandthe
Ramayana.TheBhagavadGita(sometimessimplycalledGita)abookwithinthe

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MahabarataisadialoguebetweentheLordKrishnaandthewarriorArjunaandis
considereddirectrevelation.ItistheonetextthatHindusmightchoosetoswearanoathby
inthecourtroomcontext.
Inthepasttheremayhavebeensomeconfusionoverthequestionofwhichholybook
shouldbeusedforHindustoswearanoathinanEnglish/Welshcourt.Ithasnowbecome
conventiontokeepcopiesoftheBhagavadGitaorGitaforthispurposeinorderto
promoteuniformityinthecourtsacrossthecountry.
Acommonlyheldviewisthataholyscriptureshouldbeheldintherighthand,whichis
alwaystobeusedforimportantauspiciousactions,andoutofreverenceforitsauthority
thewitnessmay,inaddition,holditalofttheirheadsasiscustomaryinmanyEastern
traditions.
Thewitnessmayalsowishtoperformablutionstoachieveastateofritualpurity.Theoath
cantaketheform:IswearbytheGitathattheevidenceIshallgiveshallbethetruth,the
wholetruthandnothingbutthetruth.

Centralpracticesanddaysofobservance
Hindureligiousworship(puja)maytakeplaceinthehomeorinthetemple(mandir),with
thecontemplationofimages(murtis)ofchosendeities.Templeworshipmaybeindividual
orcommunal,thelatterparticularlyontheoccasionofcertainfestivals.
Templeworship(arti)isnormallyledbyapriestandfollowsacertainpatternthatis
repeatedinotherHindurituals.Beforereligiousceremoniesorworship,purificationofthe
ritualspaceandoftheparticipantstakesplacethroughritualcleansing.Thisismaintained
andso,forexample,shoesareremovedwhenoneenterssucharitualspace.
Beforeworshipatthetemple,andonprescribeddays,individualsmayobservefastsand
carefullydecoratetheroomortemplewithflowers,andlightincense,andspeciallamps.
Itemsmayalsobeofferedtoaparticulardeityordeitiesincircularmotion,whiledevotional
hymns(bhajans)aresungandauspicioushymnsorformulae(mantras)arerecited,perhaps
totheaccompanimentofmusicalinstruments(kirtan).Onspecialoccasions,asalsofor
majorlifecyclerituals,afiresacrifice(havan)maybeperformed,butthisisamatteroflocal
customandpractice,dependingonwhichritualtraditionspeoplefollow.Theworshipis
completedbythedistributionofblessedfood(prasad),usuallysomeformofsweets,andby
puttingsomespecialpowderormarkontheforehead.TraditionalHinduwomenmayalso
marktheirmarriedstatusbyredpowderinthepartingofthehair(sindhur)accordingalso
tolocalcustom.MarriedHinduwomenmayalsoweararedspot(bindi)ontheirforehead
atothertimes,whichisoftensaidtobeforgoodluck,butnowmaybewornasafashion
adornment.Traditionalwomenmayoftenavoidwearingblackorwhite,astheyarethe
coloursassociatedwithdeath,sothatitmaybethatanolderwomanwearingwhitemaybe
awidow.Otherjewellerysuchasbangles,goldnecklaceswithdarkbeads(mangalsutra)
mayalsobetraditionallysignificant.However,today,muchjewelleryissimplyfashionable
andmayhavenoreligioussignificance,althoughitmaysignifyaparticularsocialstatus.
Astrologicalsciences(revealedintheVedanga)determineauspiciousdaysforweddingsand
otherevents,andalsohelpascertainthecompatibilityofprospectivespousespriorto
marriage.

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PilgrimagesareanimportantelementinHinduismandareencouragedespeciallyatfestival
times.Hinduscelebrateseveralmajorfestivalsaccordingtoalunarcalendar,sothatthe
datesvaryslightlyfromyeartoyear.Throughouttheyear,thefollowingfestivalsmaybe
important,butothers,impossibletolisthere,arealsoofgreatimportancedependingon
localtraditionsandaffiliations:

Shivratri:thebirthfestivalofLordShivaheldsometimeinFebruary/March.

Holi:theHinduspringfestivalinMarch/April,whichisalsoatimeofharvestand
aroundwhichtherearemanyancientlegends.Bonfiresarelit,eveninBritain,and
peoplethrowcolouredwaterandbrightpowdersovereachother.

Ramnavami:thebirthdaycelebrationsinhonourofLordRamainlatespring.

RakshaBandhan:thisiscelebratedinAugustandemphasisesthemutualbonds
betweenbrothersandsisters,butisnotconfinedtobloodrelations.

Janmashtami:thisimportantfestivalinAugust/SeptembercelebratesthebirthofLord
KrishnaandisofspecialimportancetotheHareKrishnagroupsofHindus.

NavratriandDashera:celebrationsoftheMotherGoddessandthetriumphofgood
overevil,heldinOctober.Navratri(ninenights)involvesninenightsoffolkdancing
andworship,whileDashera(thetenthday)isthefinaldayofthesecelebrationsand
canbeconsideredanauspiciousdayforstartingnewbusinesses.

DivaliorDipavali:followssoonafterDasherainOctober/Novemberandisamajor
Hindufestival.ItmarkstheendoftheHinduyearinsomepartsofIndiaandamong
somecommunities.Itiscalledthefestivaloflights,whenhomesareceremoniously
illuminatedwithcandlesandsmalloillamps(divas),friendsarevisited,presentsare
exchangedandnewclothesareworn.Divaliislinkedtoremovingignorancethrough
knowledge,learningtodistinguishbetweenrightandwrong,andisconnectedwith
storiesofRamaandSitafromtheepicRamayana.Thedayafterdivali,sometimes
calledannakuta,markstheHinduNewYear,whentempleofferingsofsweetsand
specialfooditemsaremade.

Dietaryrulesandtaboos
ThepermissibilityandpurityofcertainfoodsisanimportantaspectofHindupracticeandas
diverseasallthestrandswithinHinduism.Intoxicatingorharmfulfoodswillbeavoided.
Becauseeatingmeatinvolveskillinglife,manyHindusarevegetarian,includingthe
avoidanceofeggsandfish.ManyHindusarenotstrictlyopposedtoeatingmeat,butwill
onlyconsumeitoccasionally.Thosewhoeatmeatregularlywillnormallyavoidbeef.
ManyHindusdonotsmoketobaccoordrinkalcohol,andsometimesavoidstimulantssuch
asteaandcoffee.

Ritesofpassage
ThemajorritesofpassageforHindustodayarebirth,marriageanddeath,althoughatleast
40separateHindutraditionscanbeciteddevolvinguponthefourstagesoflifementioned
earlier.

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Birthinvolvesritualimpurityformotherandbaby,andthenamingofanewbornbabymay
bedelayedforabouttendaysorsoforthatreason.Thechoiceofanauspiciousnameis
consideredveryimportant,andconsideredtoinfluenceapersonthroughouttheirlife.
Thesacredthreadceremony(upanayana)heraldsthestartofayoungHinduboysperiod
offormaleducationandmaytakeplaceattheageofeightyears.Thisritualhadmoreor
lessfallenintodisusebutisnowbeingrevived,evenintheUK.Itinvolvesthetyingofa
specialthread,whichtheboywilldrapeoverhisleftshoulderandwillthereafteralways
wear.Afterthisritual,hewilllearndetailsaboutHindubeliefsandcustoms,the
performanceofritualsandhowtoprepareforbeingahouseholder
(uparkarvana/grihastha).Youngpeoplewhoarenotinitiatedinsuchawaymayfindthata
smallritualaspartofthepreparationsforthemarriageceremonysymbolicallyinvolves
theminthesameriteofpassage.
MarriageisamajorHinduriteofpassageandtherearemanyelaborateritualsandcustoms
toensureblessingsforthecouple.Hinduismviewsmarriageasasacramenttobe
celebratedasasolemncontractbeforedivinewitnesses,oftensymbolisedbytheritualfire
atweddings.Theunionofthecoupleandthetwofamilieswithintheirsocialnetworkis
givenmuchimportanceandpremaritalrelationshipsweretraditionallydiscouraged.
Marriageisvaluedasthekeyinstitutioninsocietyandistreatedinidealisedtermsasalife
longunionandanindissolublesacrament.Divorceisrelativelyuncommonandwomenmay
bestigmatisedasdivorceisconsideredaviolationofidealnormsso,inturn,remarriage
maybefrownedupon.
Thesolemnisationofmarriageisajointaffairbetweenthecouplesfamilies,butitis
traditionalthatthebridesfamilyshouldmakethemostofthenecessaryarrangements,hire
hallsandothervenuesforthecelebrations,andbearthebulkofthecosts.Normally,in
India,Hindumarriagesdonottakeplaceintemples,butinanopenspaceunderacanopy.
IntheUK,ithasbecomecustomarytosolemniseHindumarriagesinlargehallsorhotels
whichcanaccommodatemanyguests.
TheHindumarriageceremonyitselfinvolvescomplexrituals(withmanyvariations
accordingtotraditionalandregionalcustom)toensurebenedictionforthecouple.

Somefurtherpointsaboutmarriage
CurrentpracticeandcustominmostoftheIndiansubcontinent(distinctfromreligious
obligation)tendstoattachgreatimportancetothecomplexexchangesofgifts.Giftswill
normallybegiventothebridebyherparents,buttherehavebeencaseswherethegrooms
familyhavedemandedoratleastexpectedallkindsoffinancialbenefitsfromthemarriage,
andthishasledtoinstancesofabuse.
Dowrytraditionallyconsistedoftwoparts:thegiftsfromthebridesfamilytoher(stridhan
oftenconsistingofjewellery)andthegiftsfromthehusbandsfamily(sulkham).
DespitethepassingoftheDowryProhibitionAct1961inIndiaandamendmentlegislation
(1986),thegivingofanddemandfordowrieshasbeenhardtoeradicateinIndiaasit
continuesundertheguiseofexchangeofweddinggifts,whichcanofcourseplayapositive
roleinthemarriageproceedings.ThecustomsofIndiancommunitiesresidentintheUK
havealsofollowedsuit.However,whereabusedoestakeplaceandacrimoniousdivorce
proceedingsfollow,intheUKconventionalancillaryreliefproceedingshavebeeninstituted

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tosecurethereturnofmarriagegifts(dowry).ConventionalEnglishcaselawdetermining
theintentionofthedonorofthegifttodetermineownershipofthemhasbeencitedin
thesecivilproceedingsaswellasrelevantIndianauthoritiestodeterminethepresumption
ofownershipincases.
Funeralritualsareviewedfromtheperspectiveofthetransmigrationofthesouls,sothere
aremanyritualstoensurethesmoothpassageandfuturewellbeingofthedeparted.A
priestmaybecalledupontoleadritualsatthehomeofthedeceasedbeforethebodyis
takentothecrematorium,wherefurtherbriefritualsmaybeperformed,oftenbytheeldest
sonofthedeceased.
Assoonaspossibleafterthecremation,theashesarerituallysprinkledintoflowingwater.
InIndia,thiswouldpreferablybedoneintheRiverGanges,butBritishHindushavebegunto
uselocalrivers,oftennearthesea,forthispurpose.Hindusrememberthedeceasedin
specialritualsonceayearandperformtheshraddhaceremonybyofferingsesameseeds,
otherauspicioussubstancesandwatertothedeceased,especiallyduringthefortnightin
autumnprecedingdashehra.

Indigenoustraditions
Keypoints

Customsandtraditionsvaryaccordingtotheregionalandtribalcommunitiesofthe
differentregionsrangingfromAfricatoAustralia,andincorporatingPolynesiaand
partsoftheAmericancontinent.

Adherencetothesecustomsandtraditionsdoesnotpreventanyindividualfromalso
practisinganyotherfaithsuchasChristianityorIslam.

Noteveryonesharesthesameunderstandingaboutthesetraditionsandtheirorigins.

Introduction
Individualswhocomefromregionswhereindigenousfaithtraditionsarestillpractisedhave
alongestablishedpresenceintheUK.Manyoftheseindividualsalsoadheretoother
religiouspractices.

Beliefsandpractices
Indigenoustraditionsarecharacterisedbytheirrelianceonorality,ontheconceptoftime
astheeverpresentnow,andtheirattachmenttotheirphysicalsurroundings,totheplacein
whichtheyfindthemselves.Lifeisseenasonecontinuumofpast,presentandfuture,
subjecttothehigherforcesofnature.Individualsaretiedtotheirancestors,thecustomsof
thelocalityandtheirimmediateenvironment,withtherecognitionofresponsibilitiesto
futuregenerationsandtoatranscendentpower.
Greatimportanceisattachedtofilialandtribalrelationships,andtothekeyphenomenaof
nature:theearth,rivers,trees,plantsandanimals.Theacknowledgementofancestorsplays
alargeroleinworshipandinrelationtofestivals.Thetradition:

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Appendix1Differentbeliefsystems

turnsnotonworshipbutonidentification,aparticipationin,andactingoutof,
archetypalparadigms
Smith,H.,1991,TheWorldsReligions,SanFrancisco,HarperCollins

Holybooksandscriptures
Knowledgeofthetraditionsandcustomsarepassedonthroughoraltradition:the
knowledgeandfocusoftheindividualincourtwillbethereferencepoint.

ManypeoplesfromAfrica,NativeAmericans,andAboriginalpeoplesfromAustralia
maintaintheirowntraditionalreligiousheritage.Makingaffirmationswouldbeinline
withthisheritage.

Somealsofollowotherfaithtraditions,inwhichcasetheymaychoosetoswearan
oathonaholyscripture.

Centralpracticesanddaysofobservance/dietaryrules
Thesewillalldependontheregionaloriginoftheindividualandwhatotherfaith,ifany,
theyhaveadopted.

Ritesofpassage
Alltheritualsrelatedtobirth,marriageanddeathvaryenormouslydependinguponthe
regionandotherfaithidentitiesoftheindividualsconcerned.
AlthoughmanyAfricanmarriagesmaybepolygamous,thisisnotobligatory.Ifatthetimeof
themarriageceremonytherewerenootherspouses,anAfricanmarriageceremony
performedabroadmayberecognisedintheUK.
AccordingtothePrivateInternationalLaw(MiscellaneousProvisions)Act1995amarriage
conductedabroad,inacustomaryAfricanandlegallyvalidmanner,whichmaytherefore
meanapotentiallypolygamousmanner,isnotvoidifatitsinceptionneitherpartyhasany
spouseadditionaltotheother.Inparticular,section5(1)ofthe1995Actreads:Amarriage
enteredintooutsideEnglandandWalesbetweenpartiesneitherofwhomisalready
marriedisnotvoidunderthelawofEnglandandWalesonthegroundthatitisenteredinto
underalawwhichpermitspolygamyandthateitherpartyisdomiciledinEnglandand
Wales.Thisissoprovidedthatthemarriageconductedabroadconformstotheessential
requirementsoftheplaceofcelebrationofthemarriage.
Section5(2)ofthe1995Actreads:Thissectiondoesnotaffectthedeterminationofthe
validityofamarriagebyreferencetothelawofanothercountrytotheextentthatitfallsto
bedeterminedinaccordancewiththerulesofprivateinternationallaw.

Islam
Keypoints

IslamistheyoungestoftheSemiticorAbrahamicreligions.

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TheBritishMuslimcommunityintheUKisextremelydiversewithmemberswhoare
fromethnicEnglish,Welsh,IrishbackgroundsandarebornMuslim,aswellasthose
whohaveenteredIslamlaterintheirlives.TheculturaloriginsofotherBritish
MuslimsspanfromAlbaniatoAfrica,theMiddleEasttoMalaysiaandfromPolandto
Pakistan.

TheculturaldiversityoftheMuslimcommunityintheUKreflectsthemanydifferent
trendsandtendencieswithinthereligionasawhole.

AssumptionsabouttheculturalandracialhomogeneityofMuslimworshippers
shouldbeputaside.

NoteveryonesharesthesameunderstandingaboutIslamanditscreeds.

Introduction
TheMuslimcommunityintheUKislongstandingwithsailorsfromtheYemen,Gujaratand
otherMuslimnations,knownasthelascarsestablishingcommunitiesintheseaportsof
Liverpool,Cardiff,Southamptonandotherporttownsover300yearsago.Bytheendofthe
nineteenthcenturyMuslimintellectualgroupswerewellestablishedinBritain,comprising
suchfiguresasWilliamHenryQuilliam,LordHeadley,andMarmadukePickthall,whose
translationoftheQuranintoEnglishisstillamongstthemostconsultedandpopular
translations.
BritishMuslimshavethusalwayscomprisedawidespectrumofculturalandethnicgroups
rangingfromEuropeantoSouthEastAsian.However,asaresultofmigrationencouragedin
the1950s,themajorityofMuslimsintheUKareofSouthAsiandescentandtherest(in
decreasingnumericalproportions)fromtheMiddleEast(includingNorthAfrica),Africaand
Europe.
ThehistoricaloriginsoftheIslamicfaithareintheancientcitiesofMeccaandMedinaon
thewesterncoastoftheArabianPeninsula,wheretheProphetofIslam,Muhammad(570
632CE),foundedthereligion.Islamspreadrapidly,andatdifferentperiodsencompassed
theentireregionnowknownastheMiddleEast,CentralAsia,theNearEast,extendingfrom
theBalkansandSpaininthewest,toChinaandtheFarEast,andfromtheVolgainthenorth
toSubSaharanAfrica.

Beliefsandpractices
ThereligionfoundedbytheprophetMuhammadisbasedonthecentralbeliefinthe
onenessofGod(calledAllahinArabic),whothereligionstatesisthesameGodofAbraham,
MosesandJesus,Muhammadbeingthelastinthelineoftheseprophetsbeginningwith
Adam.ThistestimonytotheonenessofGodandtotheprophethoodofMuhammad
comprisesthedefiningtenetofthefaith(knowninArabicastheshahada)andmustbe
declaredinordertoconverttoIslam.
MuslimsbelievetheQuranwasrevealedbyGod,wordforword,andthusaccordit
absoluteauthorityindeterminingreligiouspractice,morality,andthelaw.Asthelanguage
oftheQuranisArabic,alloftheessentialreligioustermsareintheArabiclanguage.
TheQuranalsoexplicitlyreferstootherreligionsandimplicitlytoprophetsotherthan
thoseofSemiticmonotheism:

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Trulythosewhobelieve,andtheJews,andtheChristians,andtheSabeanswhoever
believethinGodandtheLastDayandperformethvirtuousdeedssurelytheirrewardis
withtheirLord,andnofearshallcomeuponthem,neithershalltheygrieve.(2:62)
VerilyWehavesentMessengersbeforethee[OMuhammad].Aboutsomeofthemhave
Wetoldthee,andaboutsomeWehavenottoldthee(40:78)
Theessentialreligiousobligationsknownasthefivepillarsare:
1. theattestationoftheshahadaortestimonyofbeliefintheoneGodandthe
prophethoodofMuhammad;
2. thefivedailyprayers(salat):atfirstlight,midday,afternoon,sunsetandnighttime,
whichmaybesaidindividuallyinanysuitableplace,orincongregationatfixedtimesin
amosque.Theinnermeaningofthisriteisgivenasthepermanentattachmenttodivine
reality;
3. thepracticeoffastingeverydayfromfirstlighttosunsetinthemonthofRamadan.The
fastinvolvesabstinencefromallfood,drinkandsexualactivity.Theinnermeaningof
thispracticebeingdetachmentfromthebodyandtheego;
4. theobligatory,annualpaymentofalms(zakat)ofonefortiethofonesfixedassetsto
thepoor.Theinnermeaningofthispracticebeingdetachmentfromtheworld;
5. finally,ifoneisable(dependinguponfinances,ageandhealth),thereisthedutyto
performtheprescribedpilgrimagetoMecca(Hajj).Theinnermeaningofthispilgrimage
istoreturntoonesinnercentre,theKaba,thecubeshapedshrineinMecca,beingthe
externalsymboloftheheart.
Godsnatureisconsideredtohavetwoattributes,thefeminine(alJamal)andthe
masculine(alJalal),whichareconsideredequal,necessaryandcomplementary,although
thisisnotsomethingthatwouldbetakenforgrantedbymostorthodoxMuslims.Both
attributesarethendifferentiatedintoseveraldimensions,thetotalityofwhichcompriseall
ofGodsqualities.ThusinIslam,womenandmenembodythedifferentattributesofGod,
andindividualcharacterscomprisereflectedconfigurationsofthesedivinequalities.In
socialterms,genderdifferentiationisstronglymarked,butthereligionitselfinfactallows
bothsexestoparticipateinallspheresofcommunallife(e.g.oneofthewomancompanions
oftheprophetMuhammad,Nusaybah,foughtalongsidehimonthebattlefield).
ThecurrentstereotypesofMuslimwomenshouldbeplacedinthecontextofIslamic
history.TheProphetsfirstwife(thefirstwomantoenterIslam)cametoknowofhimasher
employeeinherbusinessasawealthyandsuccessfulmerchant.Throughoutthecourseof
Islamichistorywomenhaveparticipatedinallspheresofciviclife,butduringthecourseof
theeighteenthandnineteenthcenturiestheplaceofwomenwasdeemedtobeathome,in
parallelwiththetrendsinNorthernEurope,andgendersegregationwasincreasinglyand
unfairlyenforced.Currently,inmanyMuslimsocietieswomenareintheprocessof
reclaimingtheirreligiousheritage.

Holybooksandscriptures
ThecentraltextistheQuran,whichisconsideredthefinal,unalteredandunalterableword
ofGod.TheHebrewPentateuchisalsoregardedasrevealedscriptureasarethePsalms,
whilsttheGospelsareregardedasdivinelyinspired,notdivinelyrevealed.Thesecondmost

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importantsourceofauthorityinIslamisthecanonoftherecordedsayingsandnormative
practicesprescribedbytheProphetMuhammad(knownastheSunnah).
TheQuranandSunnahtogetherprovidethebasisfortheShariahorbodyofIslamiclaws,
whichprovidesguidanceforMuslimsonallmattersofprivateandpublicconcern.
TheShariahthuscomprisesboth:

asetofrulesgoverningtheindividualsrelationshipwithGod,definedintermsof
religiouspractice(thefivepillars)whicharenonnegotiable,butvaryindetail
betweenfiveestablishedschoolsoflaw.TheSunnimajorityMuslimpopulation
adheringtoanyoneofthefourschoolsoflaw(Maliki,Hanafi,Hanbali,Shafii)and
theminorityShiapopulationadheringtothefifth;and

abodyofrulesgoverningcorporaterelationswhichareflexibleandopentochange
accordingtotheprinciplesofahighlydevelopedjurisprudence.

BritishMuslimsmayadheretoanyoneofthefiveschoolsoflawand,likeanyreligious
community,thelevelofknowledgeandawarenessofreligiousprinciplesisnotconsistent
amongindividuals.
MuslimsconsideroathsontheQuranasbinding.AstheWordofGod,Muslimsdonot
touchtheQuranicscriptunlessinastateofritualpuritywhichinvolvestheperformanceof
ablutions.TheQuranmaybehandledbysomeonenotinastateofritualpurityifitiskept
inacoveredcloth,accordingtosomeschoolsoflaw,butthebookmustneverbehandled
carelessly.However,menstruatingwomenandotherswhoareinastateofritualimpurity
maybereluctanteventotouchtheQuran,letaloneswearanoathuponit,andforthis
reasontheymayprefertoaffirm.
InthecaseofRvKemble[1990]91CrAppR178,theCourtofAppeallaiddownthe
minimumrequirementsofthelawandmadeitclearthattheonlydutyofacourtisto
considerwhetherthewitnessistakinganoathwhichappearstothecourttobebindingon
thewitnesssconscienceand,ifso,whetheritisanoathwhichthewitnesshimself
considerstobebindingonhisconscience.Inthiscase,aMuslimwitnessinthecriminaltrial
hadpreviouslyswornanoathontheNewTestament,althoughintheCourtofAppealthe
samewitnesssworeanoathontheQuran.HetoldtheCourtofAppealonoaththathe
consideredhimselfconscienceboundbytheoathhemadeatthetrial.Headdedthathe
wouldstillhaveconsideredtheoathtobebindingonhisconsciencewhetherhehadtaken
itupontheQuran,theBibleortheTorah.TheCourtofAppealacceptedhisevidence,
findingthatheconsideredallthosebookstobeholybooks,andthusthathewas
conscienceboundbyhisoath.ThisisdespitethefactthatinIslamicjurisprudenceanoath
takenbyaMuslimisonlybindingiftakenontheQuran.
BecauseofthecomplexityofIslamicjurisprudentialdoctrines,inatrialwherethereare
severalMuslimwitnessesitwouldbegoodpracticetoensurewitnessesaregivenachoice
betweenoathsswornontheQuranoraffirmations,ratherthanpermitthepossibilityof
oathsbeingtakenondifferentholybooksbydifferentMuslimwitnesses.AsMuslimsare
obligedtocovertheirheadsanddressmodestlyatalltimes,itmaybethataparticular
witnessnotsodressedwouldwishtocoverthemselvesappropriatelyincourtifswearingan
oathontheQuran;howeverafailuretodosowouldnotinvalidatethedegreetowhicha
personconsidersthemselvesboundbytheiroath.Theissueofheadcoveringanddressis

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sensitive.ManyMuslimsprefertointerprettheguidelinesexhortingmodestyinastrict
manner,despitethediversityofdresscodesindifferentMuslimcultures.
Witnesseswhochoosetocoverthemselvesshouldnotbeaskedtoremovetheirclothingin
courtasthiswouldbeconsideredextremelyoppressiveandpossiblyamounttoanabuseof
therighttofreedomofreligiouspractice.

Centralpracticesanddaysofobservance
Whilethemosqueisthemainplaceofcommunalworship,prayersmaybesaidinany
appropriatelocation.
TheprayersinvolvetherecitationofversesfromtheQuranwhilstperformingaseriesof
movementssuchasstanding,bowing,prostratingandremainingseated,withtheaimof
encouragingthecorrespondingattitudesofmoralrectitude,gratitude,submissionand
humility.
Apartfromtheobligationtoprayfivetimesdaily,themiddayprayeronFridaysis
consideredaspecialopportunitytoparticipateincommunalprayers.Thesecongregational
prayersdonothavetotakeplaceinamosque,butdorequiresufficientpeopletomakea
congregation,thatis,atleasttwo.
Womencanparticipateinallreligiousactivitiesandtheearliesttraditionsrelatehow
womenwouldattendthemosqueandaskquestionsoftheprophetMuhammadatpublic
gatherings.
Islamicreligiousfestivalsarecelebratedinaccordancewithastrictlylunarcalendarsothat
everylunaryearthedatesofthemonthgobackbyapproximatelytendays;thusagiven
lunardatewillreturntothesamedateoftheGregoriancalendarevery33years.
Eachlunarmonthlastsfor2830days,andayearisusually354days,sonofixeddatescan
begivenforfestivals.
TheIslamicdayiscountedfromeveningtoeveningandallfestivalsthereforebegininthe
eveningbeforethedayofthefestival.TheIslamiccalendarcommenceswiththeyearin
whichtheprophetMuhammadmigratedfromMeccatoMedinainordertoescape
persecution.ThenamesofthemonthsintheIslamiccalendardatefrompreIslamictimes.
Themajorfestivalsandcommemorationsareasfollows:

Ramadan.Thismonth(thedatesvaryeachyear)isconsideredasanopportunityto
intensifyreligiouspracticeandenhanceonesconsciousnessofGodspresence.Every
adultandphysicallycapableMuslimisobligedtofastfromfirstlighttosunsetforthe
durationofthismonth.DuringthehoursoffastingMuslimsareobligedtoabstain
fromfood,drink,sexualactivity(andalsosmoking).Womenwhoaremenstruating,
recoveringfromchildbirthandnursingmothersareexemptfromfasting,asarethe
elderly,thesickandtravellers.ThelasttendaysinRamadanareconsideredespecially
auspiciousastheprophetMuhammadreceivedthefirstrevelationoftheQuranin
thelasttendaysofRamadan.ManyMuslimswillspendthelasttennightsofRamadan
inworshipinadditiontofastingduringtheday.

EidulFitrcommemoratestheendofRamadan.Specialprayersarerecitedatthe
mosqueandfamiliesandfriendspayeachothervisitstoenjoycelebratorymeals.New

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garmentsarewornandgiftsexchanged.InMuslimcountriesthreedaysoffestivities
ensuewhicharealsopublicholidays.

HajjistheobligatorypilgrimagetotheKabaanditisperformedinthemonthnamed
afterthepilgrimage(twomonthsafterthemonthofRamadan).Thepilgrimageis
performedduringthecourseofthreedaysandconsistsofvariousritessuchasthe
circumambulationoftheKabaandthevisittothemountofArafat,nearMecca.The
performanceofthepilgrimageisdeemedtobepurificatory.Onthethirdandfinalday
ananimalissacrificedandthemeatdistributed.Theperformanceofthisritecoincides
withthedatethattheprophetAbrahamisbelievedtohaveoffereduphissonin
sacrificetoGod,symbolisingtheintentiontomaketheultimatesacrifice.

EidulAdhaorEidulKabeermarksthecompletionoftheHajjpilgrimageandthree
daysoffestivitiesensuewhicharepublicholidaysinMuslimcountries.

MuharramisthefirstmonthoftheIslamiclunaryear,andtraditionallytherewasa
fastrecommendedonthetenthday.However,withindecadesofthedeathofthe
prophetMuhammad,hisgrandsonandmanymembersofhisfamilywereslaughtered
onthetenthdayofthemonth,ataplacecalledKerbala(nowsituatedinIraq)where
theyhadbeenbesiegedfortendayswithoutfoodandwater.TheShiaMuslims
commemoratethemartyrdomoftheProphetsfamilywithspecialritualsthroughout
themonthofMuharram,butespeciallythefirsttendays.

MiladunNabiisthecelebrationoftheprophetMuhammadsbirthday.Thisoccasion
isoftenmarkedbyadayofprayer,devotionalchantingandfestivitiesinhonourofthe
Prophet.

Dietaryrules
Muslimdietaryrulesspecifyfoodsthatarepermissible(halal)andthosethatareprohibited
(haram).Asageneralrule,allfoodwhichcontainspork,andalldrinkwhichcontains
alcohol,isprohibited.Theextenttowhichsuchrulesareobservedvariesaccordingtothe
individualslevelofreligiousadherence.
Theprocessbywhichananimalislawfullyslaughteredentails:first,itsritualconsecrationto
God;thentheuseofasharpknife,toavoidinflictingpain;andfinally,thedrainingawayof
allthebloodoftheanimal.Themeatoftheanimalisthusrenderedhalal.

Ritesofpassage
ForaMuslim,eachandeveryactivityfromtheactofeatingtothepronouncingofa
marriagecontractshouldcommencewiththepronouncementofaformulainArabic
whichconsecratestheactinthenameofGodtheMostMerciful,theMostCompassionate
(BismiLlahialRahmanialRahim).
AccordingtotheShariah,aMuslimisapersonbornofeitheraMuslimmotherorfather.
Atbirththecalltoprayer,whichcontainstheshahada(ortestimonyoftheonenessofGod
andtheprophethoodofMuhammad)ispronouncedinthebabysearandthisissaidto
confirmthatIslamisthereligionofthechild.

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SomeMuslimculturesperformanamingceremonyforthechildknownastheaqiqah,and
thisfeasttakesplace40daysafterthebirthofthechild,andthemeatofananimalis
distributedamongfamily,friendsandthepoor.
Muslimboysshouldbecircumcised.Theageatwhichtheboyundergoestheoperation
variesfromculturetoculture.
TheShariahdoesnotprescribewhathasbeencalledfemalecircumcisionorfemalegenital
mutilation.ThisritualpredatestheadventofIslaminmanyculturesofAfricaandthe
MiddleEastandisthereforestrictlyculturalandnotreligious.
TheSunnahorPropheticnormemphasisestheimportanceofmarriageinIslam.TheSunnah
emphasisestherighttosexualfulfilmentforbothwomenandmen,andmarriageisseenas
theonlylegitimateframeworkwithinwhichsexualitycanbeexpressed.Underverystrict
conditions,aMuslimmanmaymarryuptofourwivesandcurrentestimatesarethatfewer
than2%ofMuslimmarriagesarepolygamous.

MuslimmarriageanddivorceandtheinterfacewithUKcivillaw
AMuslimmarriageisknownasanikahoraqdwhichtakestheformofacontractbetween
thebrideandgroom,whichtheymustenterintofreely.Thegroomhastoprovideasumof
moneyforthecontracttobevalid,andthiscanbeanysumagreedbetweentheparties.
Thisisknownasthemahrandhassometimesbeenincorrectlyreferredtoasthedowry.
Thisbelongstothewifewhocandemanditanytime.Thecontractshouldbewitnessedby
twocompetentwitnesses.Thecontractentailscertainrightsandobligationsforboth
parties.
Divorce.Islamhasalwaysrecognisedthepossibilityofterminatingamarriagecontract.A
husbandcandosousingvariousproceduresandthedivorceisknownastalaq.Inadditiona
wifehastherighttodissolvethemarriagecontractonherowninitiative,inwhichcaseshe
isrequiredtoinformaMuslimjudge(knownasaQadi).Thisrighttodivorcecouldbe
stipulatedinthemarriagecontract;ifitisnotsostipulated,thepartiescannegotiatethe
wifesreleasefromthemarriagecontract,andthisprocedureisknownasakhulla,whereby
thewifemustpayacertainamountofmoney,mostoftentheamountofmoney(mahr)she
receivedfromherhusband.Themarriagecanalsobedissolvedbythewifeincertain
instanceswhichdonotrequirehertopayanything,butdoesrequiretheinterventionofa
Muslimjudge;forexample,whendesertedbyherhusbandjudicialinterventionisrequired
tomakeaformaldeclarationthatthehusbandismissing,orwhenthehusbandisimpotent,
aformaldeclarationtothateffectisrequired.Thedissolutionofthemarriagecontractis
calledafaskhofnikah,andthiscanalsobedeclaredwhenthehusbandcausesthewife
harm.Thecategoryofharmisverybroadandincludesahusbandsrefusaltoconsiderthe
marriageatanend.
ToavoidthedifficultyfacedbyMuslimwomenintheUKwhodonothavethemeansto
requesttheinterventionofMuslimjudgestodissolvetheirmarriagecontracts,Muslim
communitygroupshaveformedorganisationscomprisingindividualstrainedinIslamic
jurisprudencetoactasaMuslimjudgewouldandtofacilitatetheproceduresavailableto
Muslimstodissolvetheirmarriages.Theoldestandmostwellestablishedofsuch
organisationsistheMuslimLawShariahCouncil(basedinWestLondon).Ithasanexpress
policyofnotmakinganydecisionswhichcouldbeseentoconflictwithEnglishandWelsh
familylaw,forexample,withregardtofinancialorchildcustodymatters.However,theydo
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offeradviceandarbitration/mediationskillsfacilitiesinsuchareas,sincetheQuran
expresslyendorsesarbitrationandmediationoffamilydisputes.
TheDivorce(ReligiousMarriagesAct)2002currentlyspecificallyappliestoJewish
communities.SinceIslamiclawfacilitatesthemeansbywhicheitherpartycandissolvea
marriagecontract,theinterventionoftheUKcivillawhasbeendeemedunnecessary.
However,asMuslimmarriagesanddivorcesconductedabroadarerecognised,thevast
majorityoftheMuslimcommunityintheUK,andattimestheirUKcivillawlegaladvisers,
becomeconfused.ThePrivateInternationalLaw(MiscellaneousProvisions)Act1995
recognisesthosemarriagesconductedabroadinanIslamic(andpotentiallypolygamous)
mannerifthemarriagewaslegallyvalidinthecountrywheretheceremonywasperformed
andattheinceptionofthemarriageneitherpartywasmarriedtoanother.
AstodivorcesaccordingtotheShariahoutsidetheUK,therelevantlegislationissection46
oftheFamilyLawAct1986.Divorceproceedingsabroadarerecognised.Thecrucialtermis
proceedingsthattakeplacewhereeitherpartyishabituallyresident,domiciledora
nationalinthatcountry.
AccordingtothefactsofQuazivQuazi[1980]AC744,theHouseofLordsrecognisedan
Islamicdivorceasobtainedbyproceedings,whereithadbeenobtainedaccordingtothe
MuslimFamilyLawsOrdinance1961ofPakistan.Theprocedureinthatcaseinvolvedthe
husbandpronouncingtalaqinordertoterminatethemarriage,andgivingnoticetothe
Councilandtothewife.
Thisproceduremustbedistinguishedfromthebaretalaqthatjurisprudenceinthiscountry
hasbeenkeentoclassifyasotherthanproceedings.Therefore,adivorceaccordingto
IslamiclawthattakesplaceoutsideoftheUKmayberecognisedasvalidintheUK,provided
thatthereweresomeproceedingsgivingspousesadequatenoticeandanopportunityto
respond.
Children.Islamiclawrespectstheprincipleofthebestinterestsofthechild.Ondivorce,
youngchildren(normallyundersevenyearsold)shouldstaywiththemother,althoughthe
fatherisexpectedtoprovidemaintenanceandretainsguardianship.Thecustodyofolder
childrencanbewitheitherthefatherorthemotherandbothhavetherighttoclaim
custodydependingontherightsofthechild.
ForfurtherinformationcontactTheMuslimLaw(Shariah)Council(Tel:02089926636).
Funerals.Priortothefuneral,ritualablutionsareperformedonthebodyofthedeceasedby
apersonofthesamesex,usuallydrawnfromfamilymembers.Thebodyiswrappedina
whiteshroud.Burialtakesplaceassoonaspossibleafterdeath,oftenwithin24hours.The
funeralprayersaresimple.Thebodyislaidonitsrightside,withtheheadfacingMecca.
RecitationoftheQuran(ideallythewholeoftheQuran)inArabicispartofthemourning
ritual.TheShariahprescribesthreedaysofmourning,butsomeMuslimculturesoften
extendthisperiodto40days.Attheendofthisperiod,themournersinvitefriendsand
relativestoarecitationoftheQuranfollowedbyameal.Bodiesareneverburiedwithina
placeofworship.

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Jainism
Keypoints

JainismisareligioustraditionbasedinIndia,olderthanBuddhismbutsmallerinsize
thanHinduism.

TheJaincommunityintheUKcomprisesanumberofgroupingswhoplacediffering
emphasesonthescripturestheyadheretobutfollowthesamebasicphilosophy.

Thecommunityisdistinctlydividedintoasceticsandlay,malesandfemales,asa
fourfoldsociety.Sincetheasceticsarenotallowedtouseanyvehiclesfortravel,only
laityistobefoundincountriesoutsideIndia.

Introduction
TheJaincommunityintheUKislongstandingwithmanyoriginatingfromthestateof
GujaratinnorthwestIndia.TheoriginsofcontemporaryJainisminIndiadatebackto599
BCEwhenthecommonlyacknowledged24thandlastteacherofthisera,accordingtothe
Jains,VardhamanaMahavirawasborn.Heabandonedhislifeasaprinceattheageof30
yearstolivelifeasarovingmendicantdetachinghimselffromallworldlypossessionsand
renouncingallcomforts.Aftersome12yearsheattainedomniscientknowledgeofthe
universeandabsolutedetachmentfromworldlydesireandhebeganimpartinghiswisdom.
Bytheendofhislifein527BCEitissaidthathehadseveralhundredthousandfollowers.
Thereafterhisseniordisciplescontinuedhisteachingsandadivisionbetween(broadly
speaking)northernandwesternpracticesandsouthernandcentralpracticesarose.This
wasmostmarkedlycharacterisedbythedivision,whichendures,betweenthe
Shvetambaras(mostlyinthenorth)andDigambaras(mostlyinthesouth).Amost
particularlyapparentdistinctionintheirasceticpracticesisthattheShvetambaramonks
andnunswearwhiteclothingandtheDigambaramonksrenounceallclothesandremain
naked.Now,inaddition,thereisasignificantlylargelayJaincommunityalsoseekingapath
ofrenunciationandnonaggression.

Beliefsandpractices
Timeisconsideredeternalincyclicalterms,witheachcycledividedintotwohalvesof
ascentanddescent;thescripturaldefinitionoftimeisindecipherableinyears.TheJains
believethat24teacherstakebirthineachhalfcycleandtherehavealreadybeen24
teachers,theTirthankaras,inthecurrentdescendingcycle,thelastofwhomwas
VardhamanaMahavira.
Thecentralteachingisthatindividualscantranscendhumanlimitationsbymeansofascetic
practices.
Eachandeverythingiseitherjiva(knowing)orajiva(nonknowing,suchasmaterial).The
humansoul,asallsoulsinwhateverembodiment,isjiva,andispreventedfromrealisingits
purejivastatebytheattachmentofajivathroughthedoctrineofkarma(theLawof
Causalityextendedtoitssubtlestlevelandinfinitepotentialitywhichmustbetranscended
inordertoachievetotalliberationfromthecycleofbirthandrebirth).Allthatisajiva(non
jiva)canbetranscendedbydetachmentincludingphysicaldetachmentthroughascetic
practices.AllJainpracticesinvolveasceticrigoursothat,forexample,uponenteringthe

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monasticstateaDigambaramonkwillgiveupallpossessionsandclothingbutwillbegiven
abroomofpeacockfeathersandabowl,andaShvetambarawillbegiventhreepiecesof
cloth,abeggingbowl,astaffandabroomofwool.Variationsaretobefoundinsome
sects.
Anotherkeyconceptisthatofahimsawhichmeansnoninjurytoanyother.Thisincludes
anyelementofaggressionorconsumption,whichexplainsthemonasticJainpracticeof
carryingasmallbroomtogentlybrushawayalllivingcreaturesbeforeunwittinglystepping
onthemwhenwalkingormovingtobeseated.Likewise,practisingJainswillobservea
vegetariandiet.
Thepathtoliberationconsistsof14stagesanduponenteringthefourthstageoneisableto
leadalifeofpiety,andonlyuponbecomingamonkornundoesoneenterthefifthand
sixthstages.Jainswhoarelayobserversofthepathmayalsofollowasceticpractices,but
theyalsoparticipateincommunalactivitiessuchastempleworship,wheredevotional
practicesareobserved.ImagesoftheTeacher(Tirthankara)arereveredwithvotive
offeringsandthesingingoflitanies.Pilgrimagestoholysitesandshrinesarealso
undertaken.

Holybooksandscriptures
ThecanonofJainliteraturecomprisesearlyscriptures,latertextsinSanskritandmore
modernmanualsofpracticeanddiscipline.TheShvetambaraandDigambaraliteratureis
distinct.
TheJainwitnessorjurymembermaychooseeithertoaffirm,orpossiblyswearanoath.
Sincetherearemanydifferentgroupings,nosingletextcanbespecified,butsomemay
choosetoswearanoathonatextsuchastheKalpaSutra.Sometimessuchawitnesswill
swearanoathbyelevatingaholyscriptureabovetheirheadandswearingbyit.Ifsucha
witnessdoesnotstipulatesuchapracticeand/ordoesnothavetheappropriatetextin
court,theyshouldaffirm.
Questionsofritualpuritymayarise.

Centralpracticesanddaysofobservance
Apartfromtempleworship,asoutlinedabove,thelaycommunityandthemonkssharea
periodofretreatintherainyseason,whenthemonksceasetheirtravelstodifferent
centres.Intherainyseason,thetwoelementsoftheJaincommunityparticipateinsessions
wherethemonksteachandworshipwiththelaymemberswhomayalsousethisperiodto
performretreatsandkeepfasts.
PilgrimagesareanimportantfeatureofJainismandareencouraged,especiallyatfestival
times.Jainscelebrateseveralmajorfestivalsaccordingtoalunarcalendar,sothatthedates
varyslightlyfromyeartoyear.Throughouttheyear,thefestivalscommemorateand
celebratethemajoreventsofthelivesoftheTirthankarasandotherJainsaints.Allare
impossibletolisthere,butinclude:

ThebirthdateofVardhamanaMahavirainMarch/April.

Thedeath/liberationofVardhamanaMahavirainOctober/November,which
coincideswiththeHindufestivalofDiwali/Deepavali.

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TherainyseasonretreatknownasParyushanaheldsometimeinAugust/September.

Monthlyfastdaysarealsoregularlyobserved,timedaccordingtothewaxing/waning
ofthemoon.

Dietaryrulesandtaboos
ThepermissibilityandpurityofcertainfoodsisanimportantaspectofJainpractise.
Intoxicatingorharmfulfoodswillbeavoided.AllpractisingJainsarevegetarian,including
theavoidanceofeggsandfish,becauseoftheirbeliefinahimsa(noninjury).Themore
orthodoxpractisealsoavoidsuseofrootvegetablessuchasonions,potatoes,carrotsand
garlic,aswellasfruitsandvegetableswithmanyseedssuchasfigsandaubergines,because
Jainsavoidfoodswhoseproductionkillstheentireplant,harmsmicroscopicorganisms,or
destroysthegermsoffuturelife(seeds).

Ritesofpassage
ThemajorritesofpassageforJainswhoarenotmonks/nunsaretosomeextentparallel
withthoseoftheHindusintermsofbirthandmarriagerituals,butsincethemanualson
asceticpracticearequitedetailedabouttheprocessofdetachmentfromthisworld,
wherebyvowsaretaken,fastsandsexualcontinenceobserved,andultimatelythe
abandonmentofallhouseholderactivities,manycommunityritualscannotassumethe
samedimensionsasfortheHinducommunity.
AllJainswillbecremated,withtheveryimportantdistinctionfromHindusthattheydonot
performtheshraddhaceremonycommemoratingdeathsincetheydonotbelieveinthe
possibilityoftransferofmeritfromtheprogenytothedepartedsoulwhichisthepurpose
ofthisHinduceremony.

Judaism
Keypoints

JudaismistheoldestoftheSemiticorAbrahamicreligions.

TheJewishcommunityintheUKhasbeenpresentsincetheearlyMiddleAges.

BritishJewscaneitherbeAshkenazi(fromCentralandEasternEurope),themajority,
orSephardifromtheIberianpeninsula,NorthAfricaandtheMiddleEast.

TheUKJewishcommunityof252,000isextremelydiverse,andcanbedivided
betweenultraOrthodoxJewsandvariousProgressivegroups.

Introduction
TheJewishcommunityintheUKhasawellstudiedhistoricalpresence.Theywereexpelled
byEdwardIin1290,butwerereadmittedtoEnglandtowardstheendoftheseventeenth
century.BritishJewscomefromboththeSephardiandAshkenazicommunities.The
SephardicameoriginallyfromtheIberianpeninsula,NorthAfricaandtheMiddleEast,and
havebeeninEnglandsincetheseventeenthcentury.MostBritishJewstodaybelongtothe
AshkenazicommunitiesoriginatingfromCentralandEasternEuropewhocamehereasa
resultofRussianpogromsinthelatenineteenthcenturyandNazipersecutionduringthe
1930sand1940s.
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AlthoughmostJewsspeakEnglish,HebrewandYiddisharealsoinuse.Hebrewisthemain
languageofworshipandmanychildrenlearnitinsynagoguebasedclasses(cheder)orin
denominationalschools.YiddishisgenerallyspokenamongolderAshkenaziJewsandisa
mixtureofmedievalGerman,PolishandRussian,butusingtheHebrewalphabet.
JewsqualifyasanethnicgroupasdefinedbytheRaceRelationsAct1976,seeSeidev
GilletteIndustriesLtd[1980]IRLR427.Theessentialcharacteristicsarealongshared
history,distinguishingitfromothers,andthememoryofit;andaculturaltraditionoftheir
own,includingfamilycustoms.

Beliefsandpractices
Asareligiouscommunityofabout252,000peopleintheUK,livingmainlyinthelarge
conurbations,JewsaresplitintoOrthodoxandvariousProgressivegroups,stemmingfroma
movementknownalsoasReformJudaism.
OrthodoxJewsbelievetheTorahwasrevealedbyGod,wordforword,andthusaccordthe
Bibleanditsrabbinicalinterpretationsfullauthorityindetermininglaw,life,andreligious
practice.
AdherentsofReformJudaismbelievethattheTorahwasinspiredbyGod,butregarditas
opentorevisionandareinfavourofreformsinchangingtimes.
TherearealargenumberofdifferentshadesofaffiliationwithintheJewishcommunity,
rangingfromultraOrthodox(Hasidim,haredim)tosecularnonaffiliatedJews.Thisis
reflectedinthewidespectrumofbothreligiouspracticeandculturalobservanceand
identitywithinthecommunity.
CentralJewishconceptsfocusonthebeliefinoneGod,whocreatedtheworld,extending
justiceandcompassiontoall.WhileGodswayscanbeknown,itisbelievedthatHis
ultimateessenceisunknowable.ThemainelementsofJewishbeliefareasfollows:

TheTorahistherevelationofGodswordstoMosesonMountSinai.TheTorah
containsDivineteachingamongstwhicharethefivebooksofMoses(alsoknownas
thePentateuch)includingthe613commandments(mitzvot)whichenableJewsto
sanctifytheirdailylife:ForIamtheLORDyourGd:yeshallthereforesanctify
yourselvesandyeshallbeholyLeviticus11:44.Thesecommandmentscoverall
aspectsoflife,dealingwithquestionsofethics,spirituality,theSabbath,festivals,
dietaryrulesandmanyothermatters.AmongOrthodoxJewsinparticular,studyof
theTorahandpracticeofitscommandmentsistreatedascentraltoreligiouslife.

ThebeliefthatGodscompassionpermitstheatonementofsiniscentraltotheJewish
faith.

ThetraditionalhopeintheestablishmentofGodskingdomonearthistiedtoabelief
inthecomingofaMessiah.Meanwhile,mansdutyistoworkforthebettermentof
society.

Theroleofwomen,especiallymothers,isconsideredveryimportantinJewishlife
becauseoftheirroleinthepreservationofJewishcustomsandvalues,particularly
withregardtofestivalsandcelebrations.InProgressiveJudaism,menandwomenplay
anequalpartinreligiousceremoniesandwomencanbecomerabbisspiritual
leadersofthecommunity.

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HolybooksandJewishlaw
JudaismisderivedfromJewishscripturesasinterpretedbytherabbis.Thethreemain
Scriptures(theTanakh)are:

theTorahthefivebooksofMosesalsoknownasthePentateuch,

theNeviimthebooksoftheProphets,

theKetuvimtheWritingsincludinginteralia,thePsalms,Proverbs,Ecclesiastes.
Halacha,theJewishLaw,throughwhichthepracticeinJewishlifeisgoverned,isa
codificationoftheMishnaandtheTalmud,andtherabbiscommentariesthereon
andisappliedinrulingsbytheBethDin,theCourtofJewishLaw.

JewsmayapproachtheBethDinforrulingsonissuessuchasdivorce,conversionto
Judaism,orasacourtofarbitrationinotherprivatelawmatters.
MaleJewsmaywishtocovertheirheadswhentakingtheoath,butthisisnotarequirement
oftheOathsAct1978andfailuretocovertheheadshouldnotberegardedasanindication
ofuntruthfulness.Jewishlawregardstheactoftakinganoathoraffirmationasequally
bindingwhetherornottheheadiscovered.Jewswhowishtocovertheirheadsatalltimes
shouldnotbeconsidereddisrespectfulofthecourt.
TheActrequiresthatJewstaketheoathontheTorah,alsoknownastheHebrewBibleor
OldTestament.However,manyveryOrthodoxJewsdonotthinkitappropriatetoswear
oathsupontheTorahinanonreligiouscontext.Suchawitnessshouldbepermittedto
affirmwithoutanyconsiderationthattheircredibilityhasbeencompromised.Ultra
Othodoxmenmaynotwishtotakethebookfromthehandsofawomantowhomtheyare
notmarried,andafemaleushermaywishsimplytosetthebookdownforthewitnessto
pickup.
WhilemostJewswearwesterndress,devoutmentendtokeeptheirheadcoveredatall
times,eitherwithaskullcaporahat.OrthodoxmaleJews,mainlyoftheHasidictradition,
weardarkclothes,widebrimmedhats,longcoats,beardsandsidelocks.Thepracticeof
coveringtheirheadatalltimesshouldbepermittedandnotconsidereddisrespectfulofthe
court.
Orthodoxwomen,observerulesofmodestdressandmaynotwearsleevelessgarmentsor
trousers,andmarriedwomenalsotendtocovertheirhairatalltimes,oftenwithawig,if
notahatorothercovering.ItisnotappropriateforanOrthodoxJewishwomantoshake
handswithanadultmaleorinanywaytobetouchedbyanadultmaleorviceversa,except
withintheimmediatefamily.

Centralpracticesanddaysofobservance
Whilethesynagogueisthemainplaceofcommunalworship,thiscantakeplaceanywhere,
forexampleonspecialoccasionsathome.Itisnotnecessarythatarabbishouldlead
communalprayers.
Therearethreedailyprayers:
1. themorningservice(shacharit).Duringshacharit,butnotonShabbatorfestivaldays,
phylacteries(tephilinasmallblackboxcontainingholyscriptures)maybeworn(held
inplacebystraps)ontheforeheadandarm,particularlybymaleOrthodoxJewsover

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theageof13years,orbymarriedmenonly,orevenbysomewomeninProgressive
communities;
2. theafternoonservice(mincha);
3. theeveningservice(maarivorarvit).
AmongOrthodoxJews,certaincommunalprayerscanonlybesaidamongaproperly
constitutedcommunity(minyan),orwhenatleasttenJewishmalesarepresent.Theentire
serviceinanOrthodoxsynagoguewouldbeinHebrew,apartfromtherabbissermonanda
prayerfortheRoyalFamily.
InmanyReformorLiberalcongregations,moreEnglishmaybeused.Mostsynagogueshave
apulpitfromwheretherabbipreachesandacantorusuallyleadsthecongregational
prayers.InanOrthodoxsynagogue,menandwomensitseparately.
TheSabbath(orShabbat)iscentraltotheorganisationofJewishlife.Itbeginsaboutanhour
beforeduskonFridayeveningandendsatnightfallonSaturday.Itisadayofworshipand
rest,withspecialsynagogueservicesandpublicreadingsoftheTorah,prayersandspecial
mealsspentwiththefamily.Asageneralrule,Jewsareforbiddenfromengaginginany
activitiesconsideredaswork(whichincludestravelling,writing,cooking,andtransacting
anyformofbusinessincluding,ofcourse,goingtocourt).
RecitationsfromotherscripturesmayalsobeconductedonShabbatmorningandon
festivaldays.AfterShabbatandfestivalservices,aspecialprayercalledkiddushissaid.It
proclaimstheholinessoftheShabbatandofkeyfestivalsandisalsorecitedbeforemeals
overacupofwine.Inpractice,thevariousJewishgroupingsinterprettheserulesdifferently
and,asageneralrule,thereismuchvariationinthedegreeofobservanceoftherulesof
theSabbath.AnOrthodoxJewmuststoptravelbeforetheSabbathorFestivalbegins.A
requestforacourttoaccommodatethisneedonaFridayorFestivaleveinwinter,when
theSabbathcanbeginasearlyas3.30pm,shouldbegranted.Courthourscanbeadjusted
accordingly.
OnMondayandThursdaymornings,onShabbatmorningsandafternoonsandonfestival
days,aportionofthehandwrittenTorahscroll(SeferTorah)isread.Suchreadingstake
placefromaraisedplatforminthecentreofthesynagogue.TheTorahscrollhasan
honouredplaceinworship.ItiskeptinsideavelvetcoverandishousedintheHolyArk
(AronKodesh)behindanembroideredcurtainwithaneverlastinglighthunginfrontofit.
Jewishreligiousfestivalsarecelebratedinaccordancewithacombinedlunarandsolar
calendarina19yearcycle.Eachmonthhas29or30days,andayearisusually354days,so
nofixeddatescanbegivenforfestivals,althoughthosedatesaregivenayearinadvance
andjudgesshouldhavereferencetothemwhenlistingcases.TheJewishdaygoesfrom
eveningtoeveningandallfestivalsthereforebeginintheeveningbeforethedayofthe
festival.Noworkmaybedoneonfestivaldays.TheJewishyearappearsondocuments,for
examplemarriagecontracts(ketuba)andongravestones;so,forexample,theyear2000CE
wastheJewishyear5760/61.
Majorfestivalsare:

Pesach(Passover,March/April)consistsofeightdaysandcommemoratestheexodus
oftheJewsfromEgypt.Thehomeceremonycentresonthefirsttwonightsaround
thespecialsedermealinwhichthestoryoftheexodusoftheJewsfromEgyptis

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retold.Thehouseisthoroughlycleanedanddishesarechangedtoremovealltracesof
leavenedfood(chametz).Nosuchfoodsareconsumed,insteadpeopleeat
unleavenedbread(matza)andfoodspreparedspecificallyforthatperiod.

Shavuot(Pentecost,May/June)isafestivaloftwodayscommemoratingthereceiving
oftheTorahonMountSinaibyMoses,andnoworkisdoneonthesedays.

RoshHashana(September/October)consistsoftwodayswhichbegintheNewYear
andwhichdeterminetheyearahead.Nomatterhowsecular,aJewislikelyto
celebrateRoshHashanaandYomKippur.

YomKippurisafastdaydevotedtoprayerandworshipcommemoratedtendays
aftertheNewYear,beginningatduskandlastingtillnightfallthefollowingday.

Sukkot(Tabernacles,September/October):thisfestivalofsevendayscommemorates
thewanderingoftheJewsinthewildernessbetweenEgyptandCanaan.Temporary
structures(sukkot)arebuiltbysomefamiliesontothesideofhousesandsome
familieseatinthem.Thisfestivalisfollowedbycelebrationsofthecompletionandre
commencementoftheannualcycleofreadingsfromtheTorah.

Minorfestivals,whichdonotinvolverestrictionsonworking,include:

Chanukah(inDecember),afestivalofeightdayscommemoratingtherededicationof
theSecondTempleinJerusalembytheMaccabeesinapproximately168BCE(with
oneoftheeightcandlemenorahbeingliteverynight,untilthelastnightwhenall
eightburn,accompaniedbythesingingofhymnsandbenedictions).Nowavery
popularfestival.

Purim(February/March),adaycommemoratingthesavingoftheJewsofthePersian
Empire.

TishaBeav(July/August),afastdaytorememberthedestructionoftheFirstTemple
in586BCEandoftheSecondTemplein70CE.

Dietaryrules
TheJewishdietaryrulesareknownaskashrut.Theextenttowhichsuchrulesareobserved
variesaccordingtotheindividualslevelofreligiousadherence.
Animals,birdsandfish,ifpermitted,arekosher.Foodwhichcontainstreif(i.e.nonkosher)
particles,orhasbeencookedamongstproductsfromforbiddenanimals,isunacceptable.
Forbiddenfoodsincludeallproductsfrompigs,shellfish,gameandanydomesticated
animals.
Forpermittedmeattobekosher,itmusthavebeenslaughteredandpreparedbyaqualified
person(shocket).SlaughteraccordingtoJewishlaw(shechita)involvesdrainingtheblood
fromtheanimalascompletelyaspossiblebyslittingitsthroataccordingtoprescribedrules
tominimisesuffering.Thereisaprohibitionagainstconsumingblood,someatmaybe
processedandfurtherkosheredbysoakingandsalting,andsometimesbybroiling.The
mixingofmilkfoodswithmeatfoodsisprohibited.Separatesetsofkitchenutensils,
crockeryandcutleryareusedandatimelapsebetweeneatingmeatandmilkfoodsis
practised.Fruitandvegetablesareallacceptableandcanbeeatenwitheithermilkormeat.

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Aswithallotheraspectsofthereligion,thereisawidevariationinpracticeinrelationtothe
observanceoftherulesofKashrut.

Ritesofpassage
AccordingtotheHalacha,aJewisapersonbornofamotherwhowasbornJewishorhas
convertedtoJudaism.
MaleJewsarenormallycircumcisedwhentheyareeightdaysold,inaceremonycalledbrit
mila,carriedoutbyatrainedcircumciser(mohel),usuallyinthehomeandwithfamilyand
friendspresent.TheboyisgivenaHebrewnameduringthisceremony.Thereisno
equivalentceremonyforgirls,butanamingceremonyisconductedinthesynagogue.Inthe
Orthodoxtradition,muchimportanceisgiventoritualbathing(mikveh)beforemarriage,
aftermenstruationandafterchildbirth,inordertoachievespiritualpurity.
Attheageof13years,amaleJewassumesapositionofresponsibilityinthecommunity
markedbyanimportantceremonycalledthebarmitzvah.Thisinvolvestheboybeingcalled
totheTorahandreadinginHebrewfromtheTorah,usuallyduringtheShabbatmorning
service.Aftertheservice,theboysfamilymayprovideakiddush(whichconsistsofdrinks
andsnacks).Presentsaregiventotheboyandtheremaybeapartyforfamilyandfriends.
ProgressiveJewsmayalsoholdabatmitzvahfor13yearoldgirlsinthesameform.Some
Orthodoxgirlscelebrateabatmitzvahattheageof12years,thetraditionalcomingofage
forgirls,whileothersmayparticipateinacommunalbatchayilceremony,usuallyheldat
theageof13.
MarriageisoffundamentalimportanceinJewishlifegiventhecentralplaceofthefamilyin
Jewishritualandcustom.
TheconceptofaJewishmarriageisinaccordancewiththelawsofMosesandIsraeland
takestheformofacontractfreelyenteredintobythebrideandgroom,andevidencedbya
document(Ketubah)whichsetsouttherights,obligationsandintentionsoftheparties,and
isexecutedbeforetwovalidwitnesses.
Divorce.Judaismhasalwaysrecognisedthatamarriagemaybreakdownandprovidesa
methodforitsdissolution.AJewishdivorceisknownasaGet.Itisnotanorderofthecourt,
norisitdependentuponfaultonthepartofeitherparty.Whatisrequiredisthemutual
consentofbothpartiestocarryouttheGetprocedure:justasamarriagecontractcanonly
beenteredintobymutualconsent,sothedissolutionofthatcontractshouldbeeffectedby
mutualconsent.
TheGetprocedure.TheJewishdivorcetakeseffectwhentheGetdocumentisfreelygiven
bythehusbandandfreelyacceptedbythewife.IthastobespeciallywritteninHebrewand
Aramaicbyaqualifiedscribeandsignedbytwocompetentwitnesses.Itisthenhandedover
bythehusband,orhisproxy,tothewifeusuallyatthepremisesoftheBethDin,areligious
court,underthesupervisorofareligiousjudge(Dayan)oradesignatedrabbi.Underthe
MarriageAct1836andfollowedinallsubsequentActs,thecivillawexpresslyrecognisesa
Jewishreligiousmarriage(providedthatnoticetotheRegistrarhasbeengiven)sothata
religiousceremonyconstitutesbothareligiousandacivilbond.Yetindissolvingthatdual
bondthelawonlyrequiresthecivilbondtoberevoked,leavingintactthereligiousbond
whichmeansthatforareligiousJewthemarriagelimpson.

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ResultofafailuretoobtainaGet.WithoutaGetthepartiesmaynotremarryaccordingto
Orthodoxreligiouslaw.IfahusbandrefusestogivehiswifeaGetsheisknownasan
Agunahorchainedwife.Ifsheignorestheprohibitionandpurportstoenterintoasecond
union:

sheisdeemedbyreligiouslawtobelivinginadultery

sheisforbiddentomarrythepersonwithwhomshehascommittedadultery,evenif
herhusbandsubsequentlygivesheraGet;

anychildborntoherasaresultofthesecondunionwillbereligiouslyillegitimate(a
mamzer)andwillsufferseriousdisabilityunderreligiouslaw.

IfawiferefusestoacceptherhusbandsGetheisknownasanAgun.However,hedoesnot
sufferfromallthesedisadvantages.
ToalleviatethehardshipsufferedbyJewishmenandwomeninthesecircumstances,the
courtinanycivilproceedingsmaydeclinetomakeabsoluteadecreenisiofdivorce
accordingtosection10AoftheMCA1973whichhasnowbeenimplementedunderthe
Divorce(ReligiousMarriagesAct)2002.Thisallowsthecourttoorderthatadecreenisiis
nottobemadeabsoluteuntiladeclarationismadebybothpartiesthattheyhavetaken
suchstepsasarerequiredtodissolvethemarriageinaccordancewiththereligiouslawsof
theJews.
InanattempttoalleviatethehardshipcausedtoanAgunand/orAgunah,theOfficeofthe
ChiefRabbiinvitesacouplepriortomarriagetosignanextensiontotheKetubahwhereby
theyagreedtoconsultaBethDinwhendifficultiesariseinthemarriageaPrenuptial
AgreementorPNA.JudicialopinionmaybedividedontheenforceabilityofPNAsingeneral.
HowevertheChiefRabbisPNAcanbeofimportantevidentialvalueasitdemonstratesthat
thepartiesalwaysintendedtoregulatetheirrelationshipsaccordingtoJewishreligiouslaw.
Thecourtmayalsotakeintoaccountthatthewifeisstillawifeaccordingtoreligiouslaw
andnotanexwifewhenconsideringthelevelofmaintenance,propertyadjustments,etc.
ConsideranorderforcontemptifthetermsofthePNAhavebeenincorporatedintoacourt
order.
Whenthecredibilityofthepartiesisanissueinanyrelevantproceedings,includingcases
involvingchildren,takeintoaccountthataspousewhoisinbreachofthetermsofan
undertakingmaynotbeconsideredtrustworthy.
Forfurtherinformationcontact:GetAdvisoryService,JewishMarriageCouncilon0208203
6311.
Funerals.Priortothefuneral,thebodyofthedeceasediswashedandpreparedbyaperson
ofthesamesex,drawnfromavoluntarygroupofmembersofeachsynagogue(chevra
kadisha).Thebodyiswrappedinawhitelinenshroudandamanmaybewrappedinhis
ownprayershawl(tallit).Burialtakesplaceassoonaspossibleafterdeath,oftenwithin24
hours.Thefuneralserviceissimpleanddignified,thecadetprayerissaidbythemourners
andaeulogyisgenerallydelivered.
Thefourstagesofritualmourningare:
1. thetimebetweendeathandthefuneral;

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2. theweekofmourning(shiva)whenthemournersstayathomeandsitonlowstoolsto
receivevisitors;
3. afurtherperiodof23dayswhenlifegraduallyreturnstonormal;and
4. aperiodoflessintensemourninglastinguntiltheendoftheyearfollowingthedeath.
Kaddishprayersaresaidinthesynagogueduringthe11monthsfollowingthedeathandon
theanniversaryofthedeath,andthereisaspecialceremonyforsettingthetombstone.

Nonreligiousbeliefsandnonbelief
Keypoints

Inthe2011Census,25.1%ofthepopulationdescribeditselfasnonreligious.

Explicitnonbeliefdatesfromthe10thcentury.

Whilethereisnoonebodythatrepresentsthisdiversegroupofpeople,thereare
organizations,suchastheBritishHumanistAssociationandNationalSecularSociety,
whoseprimarybeliefsarelaidoutbelow.

ExplicitnonbeliefintheUKbecamecommononlyinthe19thcentury,encouragedfirstby
growingunderstandingofgeologyandthenbyDarwinism.Earlierfreethinkershadtriedto
rationalisetheirbeliefs(Unitarianismwasastagingposttounbeliefforsome
congregations),andreligionhadbeenseverelyquestionedby18thcenturyEnlightenment
philosopherslikeDavidHumeandthedeistThomasPaine.Legalandsocialconstraints,
however,madereligiousunorthodoxy,letaloneatheism,potentiallydangerous.The
secularistmovementbeganinthemid19thcenturyandthiswasfollowedbythe
emergenceoffreethinkingrationalismandtheethicalmovementthatistheforerunnerof
modernHumanism.
Adistinctioncanbedrawnbetweenthosewhosimplyrejectreligiousbelieforwholead
theirliveswithoutreferencetoit,andthosewhoexplicitlyadoptanonreligiousphilosophy
oflife,suchasHumanism,thatprovidesitsownanswerstotheultimatequestionsthatare
addressedbyreligion.
Thefollowingarebriefdescriptionsofsomeofthedifferentgroupsofnonbeliefandnon
religiousbelief.

Atheismandagnosticism
AtheismistheabsenceofbeliefinGod.AtheistsarepeoplewhodonotbelieveinGodor
otherspiritualbeings.
Anagnosticintheoriginalsenseofthewordisapersonwhothinksthatwecan'teverknow
aboutanythingotherthanthenaturalworld,andthereforethatthequestionastowhether
Godexistsornotisonethatcanneverbeanswered.Agnostics,inthepopularsense,are
peoplewhohavedoubtsabouttheexistenceofGod.Theydon'tbelievethatGodexists,but
theydon'tbelievethatGoddoesn'texist,either.

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Reasonsfornonbelief
Peoplearenonbelieversformanyreasons,amongthem:

Atheismistheirchosenphilosophy.

Theyhavereachedanatheistpositionaftercarefulstudyandconsideration.

Theyfindinsufficientevidencetosupportanyreligion.

Theythinkthatreligiousdiscourseisnonsensical.

Theyoncehadareligionandhavelostfaithinit.

Theyliveinanonreligiousculture.

Religiondoesn'tinterestthemorseemrelevanttotheirlives.

Theyseenoneedforreligiousexplanation.

Theyseereligionashavingcausedalotofharmintheworld.

Theycannotbelieveinagodwhoallowssomuchsuffering.

Manyfindscientificexplanationsoftheexistenceoftheuniverseandoflifesatisfactoryand
seenoneedorutilityininvokingagod.Theybelievethathumanbeingscandevisesuitable
moralcodestolivebywithouttheaidofagodorscriptures.
Mostpeoplewhoidentifyasatheistsdonotconsideratheismtobeareligionorbelief
system.Therearemanyatheistphilosophicalsystemsandtheyarenolessintellectually
adequatethanothersystemsofbelief:theonethingtheyhaveincommonisnonbeliefin
god(s).Atheistsarenolessmoral(orimmoral)thanthoseholdingaspecificreligiousbelief.
Inpracticaltermsatheistsoftenhavethesameorverysimilarvaluesandfollowthesame
moralcodeasreligiouspeople,buttheyarriveattheirdecisionsaboutwhatisrightor
wrongwithoutanyhelpfromtheideaofaGodorfromreligioustexts.

Secularism

Secularismaffirmsthatthislifeistheonlyoneofwhichwehaveanyknowledgeand
humaneffortshouldbedirectedwhollytowardsitsimprovement.

Itassertsthatsupernaturalismisbaseduponignoranceandassailsitasthehistoric
enemyofprogress.

Secularismaffirmsthatprogressispossibleonlyonthebasisofequalfreedomof
speechandpublication;thatthefreecriticismofinstitutionsandideasisessentialtoa
civilisedstate.

Affirmingthatmoralityissocialinoriginandapplication,Secularismaimsatpromoting
thehappinessandwellbeingofmankind.

SecularismdemandsthecompleteseparationofChurchandStateandtheabolitionof
allprivilegesgrantedtoreligiousorganisations.

Itseekstospreadeducation,topromotethefraternityofallpeoplesasameansof
advancinguniversalpeace,tofurthercommonculturalinterestsandtodevelopthe
freedomanddignityofmankind.

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Humanism

Humanismisanapproachtolifebasedonhumanityandreason.

Humanistsrecognisethatmoralvaluesarebasedinhumannature,butthatinmaking
moraljudgementsweneedtointerpretourwidelysharedvaluesbytheuseof
knowledge,reasonandexperience.Humanistsmakedecisionsafterconsideringthe
availableevidenceandassessingthelikelyoutcomesofactions,notbyreferenceto
anydogmaorsacredtext.

Humanistsseetheprovisionalexplanationsoflifeandtheuniverseprovidedby
scienceandtheuseofreasonasthebestavailable.Theythinkitfollytoturntoother
sourcessuchasreligionorsuperstitionforanswerstounansweredquestions.

HumanistsarethereforeatheistsoragnosticsbutHumanismisanactivephilosophy
initsownright,notjustanegativeresponsetoreligion.

Humanistsbelievethatwecanandshouldseektomakethebestoftheonelifewe
havebycreatingmeaningandpurposeforourselves.Oneconsequenceisthat
humanistsseeitastheirresponsibilitytomakelifeasgoodaspossibleforeveryone
includingfuturegenerations.Theystronglysupportindividualhumanrightsand
freedomsbutbelieveequallyintheimportanceofindividualresponsibility,social
cooperationandmutualrespect.Theyseekasocietyinwhichpeoplewith
fundamentallydifferentbeliefscancooperate,withsharedinstitutions,lawsand
governmentthatareneutralbetweendifferentbeliefgroups.

Humanistsendeavourtolivetheirlivestothefull,findinginspirationinthediversityof
humancultureandachievementandintherichnessofthenaturalworld,andfinding
fulfilmentintheartsandsciences,physicalrecreationandendeavourandinthe
pleasuresofhumaninteraction,affectionandlove.

Rastafarianism
Keypoints

TheRastafarianreligiousmovementhasdefinitepoliticalundercurrentsofprotest
againsttheslaveryandrepressionofallBlackpeople.

Asareligiousmovement,manycomponentsaretakenfromChristianity,Judaism,
HinduismandAfricanTraditions.

Beliefsandpractices
AmovementinspiredbyMarcusMosiahGarvey(18971940),whopromotedtheUniversal
NegroImprovementAssociationinthe1920sandspearheadedtheBacktoAfrica
movementduringthe1930s.ItisalsoinspiredbytheaccessiontothethroneofHaile
SelassieIastheEmperorofEthiopiaunderhisprecoronationnameofRas(prince)Tafari,
whoisconsideredtobeadivineMessiahandthesaviourofallBlackpeople.Theterm
RastafaridatesfromthecoronationofHaileSelassiein1930.

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MarcusGarveysinitiativesaimedtoraiseselfawarenessandselfrespectamongBlack
peopleinJamaicaandtheUSA,encouragingprideintheirAfricanheritage.Consequently,
thevariousgroupingswhichconstitutetheRastafarirejectedEuropeanorientedcultural
denominationsandChristianrevivalistreligions,developingtheirownidentitywhilst
awaitingredemption.Todaytheyareaworldwidemovement.
RastafariansbeganmigrationtotheUKfromJamaicainthelate1950sand1960s.Many
linkshavebeenmaintainedwiththeCaribbeanandtheoriginalJamaicanmovement
throughRastafarimusicandliterature,aswellascharismaticfiguressuchasBobMarley.
TheRastafarireligiousmovementhaslinkswithChristianityandJudaism.Someofits
principlesareveryclosetothoseofHinduismandvariousAfricantraditions.Itmaybe
consideredaneclecticreligiousmovementandthetwocentralbeliefsarethatHaile
Selassie,asRasTafari,isthetrueandlivingGod(Jah),andthatsalvationforBlackpeopleis
onlythroughreturntoAfrica.
Rastafarianssupporttheirbeliefsbyreferencetonumerousbiblicaltextswhichthey
interpretasconfirmingthatGodisBlack.TheyregardJahbothasatranscendentdeityand
aspresentinallmen.Theirlanguage,basedonJamaicanpatois,usesmanyspecialwords
andtriestocapturethisunityofmanwithJahbythetermIandI.SinceJahisseenasthe
Godoflife,Rastafariansdonotacceptthattherighteouscandieandtheybelievein
reincarnation.
ThesecondkeyelementofRastafarianbeliefrelatestosalvation,whichcanonlyberealised
byBlackpeoplethroughtheirreturntoAfrica,theBlackZion,afterliberationfromtheevils
oftheWhitedominatedwesternworld,whichisfrequentlyreferredtoasBabylon.Africais
regardedasaspiritualfocus,atruehome,heavenonearth,andRastafariansregardBlack
peopleasthetrueJewsandchosenpeopleofGod.
Therearenofixedrulesofpracticeorbeliefonothermatters.Rastafariansareguidedby
referencetothecultureandtraditionsofEthiopia,andemphasisetheethosofpeaceand
love,truthandrightaction.
Commontomostbeliefsystems,menandwomenareassignedgenderspecificroles.
Whilewomenarenotdiscouragedfrompursuingcareersoutsidethehome,theirhighest
roleisseenasthatofwifeandmother.

Holybooksandscriptures
TheofficialreligionofEthiopiasinceAD330hasbeenChristianityandRastafariansin
consequencestudytheBible,especiallytheOldTestamentandtheBookofRevelationin
theNewTestament.Theyrecogniseall87booksoftheBible,includingtheApochryphaand
theBookofEnoch,asopposedtothe66booksoftheauthorisedversionusedbymany
Christianchurches.TodaytheRastafarianmovementconsistsofseveralstrands,and
includespersonsofotherthanAfricandescent.
ARastafarianmaychoosetoswearanoathontheBible(theHebrewBibleorNew
Testament)ortheymayprefertoaffirm.

Centralpracticesanddaysofobservance
Thereisnocentralised,hierarchicalstructureofaRastafarianchurch.Insteadthereare
severalRastafarianorganisations,suchastheEthiopianOrthodoxChurch,theEthiopian
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WorldFederation,theUniversalBlackImprovementOrganisation,theTwelveTribesof
IsraelandtheRastafarianUniversalZion.
OnlyasmallproportionofRastafariansintheUKareformallyaffiliatedtoanyoftheseor
othergroups,andRastafaritheologyandreligiouspracticevarieswidelyasaresult.There
arenospecificallydesignatedplacesofworshippeoplenormallymeetintheirhomes,
wherelongsessionsofdiscussion,debateandargument(reasoning)areheld.However
moreformalgroupssuchastheEthiopianWorldFederationwilldesignatespecificsitesand
certainofficeholdersorchaplainswillleadthespiritualpartoftheproceedings.
Singinganddrumming,especiallyreggaemusic,areimportantwaysofcommunicatingthe
ethosofthemovement.
Controversially,smokingcannabisorganja(theherb)isconsideredanimportantpartof
Rastafarianreligiouspracticeandistreatedasasacrament.Ganjaisseenasnaturalandas
GodsgiftandRastafariansseektolegitimiseitsusebyreferencetobiblicaltexts(Hebrews,
chapter6,verse7)Landthatdrinksintherainoftenfallingonitandthatproducesacrop
usefultothoseforwhomitisfarmedreceivestheblessingofGod.(NIVBible).
OneelementofRastafariandresscodeisformen(brethrens)andwomen(sistrens)notto
cuttheirhairbuttowearitinlonglocks,knownasdreadlocks.ManyRastafarimenwear
distinctivecaps(tams)madeofknittedmaterial,leatherorcloth,ofteninthetraditional
colours(red,gold,greenandblack)oftheEthiopianflagorthenationalcoloursofJamaica
(gold,greenandblack).Thesecolourshavesymbolicmeaning:redforthebloodshedinthe
historicalstruggleofRastafarians;goldforfaith,prosperityandsunshine;greenfortheland
anditsproduce;andblacksymbolisingthecolourofthepeople.
Oncertainoccasions,suchasprayermeetingsandspiritualgatherings,Rastafariansuncover
theirheads.SomeRastafarianswearAfricanstyledress,thusexplicitlymarkingtheir
allegiancetoanAfricanrootedtradition.ThisisalsosymbolisedbymedallionsofRasTafari,
thelion,theimperialsymboloftheEthiopianthrone,representingstrengthandpower.
Crossesarewornassymbolsoftheburdenoflife.
ThecaseofDawkinsvCrownSuppliers(1989)heldthataRastafariancannotberefused
employmentbecauseofhisrefusaltocuthishair(dreadlocks).
Theissueofhaircoveringisparticularlysensitiveandincreasinglyminorityethnicgroups
willseekequaltreatmentabouttheneedtomaintainheadcoveringatalltimes,includingin
acourt,accordingtotheirreligiouscustom.
TheRastafarianyearisbasedontheEthiopiancalendar,whichbeginsanewyearon11
Septemberandhas13months,thelastofwhichhasonlysixdays.Importantcelebrations
are:

theEthiopianChristmas(7January)whichisnotacelebrationofthebirthofJesusbut
anacknowledgementofhislifeandworks;

EthiopianConstitutionDay(16July)commemoratesthegrantingofEthiopiasfirst
ConstitutionbyEmperorHaileSelassiein1931;

thebirthdayofEmperorHaileSelassieI(23July),oneoftheholiestdaysoftheyear.It
ismarkedasadayofcelebrations,prayerreadings,prophecyandspiritualgatherings,
andRastafarianswillrefrainfromattendingworkonthatday;

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thebirthdayofMarcusGarvey(17August)ismarkedinasimilarwayandisgiven
virtuallythesameimportance;

EthiopianNewYearsDay(11September)iscelebratedwithsinging,dancing,
drummingandprayer;

theAnniversaryofthecoronationofHaileSelassieI(2November)isalsotreatedas
oneoftheholiestdaysoftheyearandiscelebratedwithdrumming,hymnsand
prayer.

Dietaryrules
Outofreverenceforthelawsofnature,mostRastafariansarevegetarianandwillbe
concernedtoeatonlynaturalororganicfood,andtoavoidpollutingtheearthwith
unnaturalsubstancesandchemicals.Porkisprohibited,notonlybecauseofbiblical
injunctionsagainstitbutalsobecauseofassumptionsabouttheanimalssusceptibilityto
disease.ManyRastafariansdonotdrinkalcohol.

Ritesofpassage
Rastafarianchildrenareblessedbytheeldersandperhapsacongregationwithdrumming,
chantingandprayers.
FollowingtheRastafarianinterpretationoftheBible(Mark,chapter12,verses1925),
Rastafariansdonotperformanyformalmarriageceremony,butamanandawomanwho
cohabitareautomaticallytreatedashusbandandwifebythecommunity,andfidelityis
consideredveryimportant.
Sincethereisnobeliefindeathassuch,andRastafariansviewlifeaseternal,movingfrom
onegenerationtothenextthroughspiritualandgenealogicalinheritance,thereareno
specialceremoniesondeath,orfollowingdeath.ManyRastafarianswillfollowthecustoms
ofthecommunitiesinwhichtheyreside.

Sikhism
Keypoints

TheUKishometothelargestSikhcommunityoutsideIndia.

ThereligionwasfoundedinthePunjabregionofIndia,andsothevastmajorityofits
adherentsoriginatefromthatregion.

Sikhcommunitiesmigratedtomanypartsoftheworld,principallyEastAfrica,theUK
andCanada.TherearenowasmallminorityofethnicEnglishfollowersofSikhism.

AstherearenowmanydifferentsubgroupswithintheSikhcommunity,itcannotbe
assumedthateveryonesharesthesameunderstandingaboutSikhismanditscreeds.

Beliefsandpractices
ThereligionwasfoundedinthefifteenthcenturybyGuruNanak,whowasbornofHindu
parentsbutproceededtoestablishanewreligion,emphasisingthatthelowestisequalto

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thehighestinrace,creed,politicalrightsandreligioushopes,andinthatwayemphasising
freedomfromthecastesystemandgenderinequalityastheywerepresentinIndiaatthe
time.
SikhsarerecognisedasanethnicgroupundertheRaceRelationsAct1976asstatedinthe
caseofMandlavDowellLee[1983]2AC548.
Theessentialcharacteristicsarealongsharedhistory,distinguishingitfromothers,andthe
memoryofit;andaculturaltraditionoftheirown,includingfamilycustoms.
Sikhsbelieve:

intheoneGod,whosedivinenameisconstantlyrecalledandmeditatedupon;

inthetenspiritualmasters(Gurus)andtheirteachings;

inacceptanceoftheSikhHolyBook,theGuruGranthSahib,ashavingthefunctionof
alivingGuru;

thatsalvationandliberationfromthecycleofreincarnationisattainedthrough
meditationandservicetootherpeople.

AtenthofaSikhspersonalwealthandincome(daswandh)issupposedtobegivento
peopleinneed.
ThetenthandfinalGuru,GobindSinghestablishedthesacramentofamritwhichisa
ceremonialbenedictionreceivedattheSikhtemple(knownasagurdwara)andalsothe
conceptofthePureSikhs(bothmaleandfemale,theKhalsa)whoareidentifiedbytheFive
Kswhichremainuntildeathandareneverremovedexceptbythewearerorifmedically
necessary.Forexample,Sikhmotorcyclistsareexemptedfromwearingcrashhelmetsifthey
wearturbans(section1oftheMotorCycleCrashHelmets(ReligiousExemption)Act1976).
ThedegreeofadherencetothewearingoftheFiveKsvariesbetweenindividualsbut
comprises:
1. kesh:uncutlonghair,tiedinaknot,andkeptunderaturbanformenandoftenascarf
forwomen,whichsymbolisesobedience,acceptanceofGodswillandhumility;
2. kanga:awoodencombtokeepthehairinorder,symbolisingcleanliness;
3. kara:asteelbanglewornontherightarm,symbolisingthebondwiththeGuruandthe
brotherhoodoftheKhalsa;
4. kachhaorkachhedra:atypeofundergarment,symbolisingdiscipline,selfrestraintand
chastity;
5. kirpan:asword,nowusuallysmallandceremonial,wornasanemblemofpowerand
dignity,symbolisingindependenceandfearlessness.
AspartofinitiationintotheKhalsa,menweregiventhenameSingh(lion)andwomenthe
nameKaur(Princess).Itisnowcommonpractice(althoughbynomeansobligatory)for
thesedesignationstobeincludedasamiddlename,notnecessarilywithanyinitiationinto
theKhalsa.Commonly,aSikhnamemayinvolvethreecomponents:apersonalname
(usuallynotgenderspecific),followedbythereligiousgenderdesignation,andthenafamily
name/surname.Forexample:ManjitSinghDhillon(male);ManjitKaurDhillon(female).

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Holybooksandscriptures
ThemostimportantSikhholyscriptureistheGuruGranthSahib,averylargecollectionof
readingsandhymnswrittenbytheGurusofSikhismandvarioussaints(bhagats),someof
whomwereHindusandMuslims.AllSikhscripturesarewrittenintheGurmakhiscript.
TheSikhholyscripturesarealsoreferredtoastheGurusword(gurbani)andaretreated
withutmostrespect.TheGuruGranthSahibisalwayskeptinacleansilkclothandisplaced
onasmallbed(manjisahib)onadaisbelowacanopy.Inmanygurdwaras,thescriptures
arekeptonthefloorabove,thusinanelevatedposition,whilethefloorbelowisusedfor
socialfunctions.
TheSunderGutka,anextractfromtheGuruGranthSahib,hasbeenconsideredthe
appropriateformofaSikhholybooktobeusedincourtsintheUK.Thisconventionseems
toavoiddifficultiesovertherulesregardingthehandlingoftheGuruGranthSahiboutsidea
gurdwarabypersonswhoarenotqualifiedorauthorisedtodoso.
TheformtheOathmaytakewhenswornbyaSikh(takenontheSunderGutka)is:
IswearaccordingtotheSunderGutka(orbyAlmightyGod)thattheevidenceIshallgive
shallbethetruth,thewholetruthandnothingbutthetruth.

Centralpracticesanddaysofobservance
Sikhsmayworshipathomeorintheirtempleknownasagurdwara.Eachgurdwaramaybe
recognisedbythenishansahib,atallflagpoledrapedinsaffronclothandasaffronflag
bearingtheSikhembleminblackornavyblue.Thenishansahibisneverloweredexcept
whenitisrenewed,whichtakesplaceonceayearinanimportantceremony.
IntheUK,ithasbecomeconventionalinmostgurdwarasthatcommunalprayersareheld
onSundays.Almostallactsofworshipareprecededbyritualbathingasgreatemphasisis
placedonritualpurity.
Thegurdwaraisabareroomwithnoimagesorseats.Sikhswillremovetheirshoeswhen
enteringandmennotwearingturbanswillcovertheirheadsasamarkofrespectforthe
GuruGranthSahib.Worshipperswalktowardsthedais,maketheirofferings,bowtothe
groundwithfoldedhandsandthenmovebacktositonthefloorcrosslegged.Inmost
gurdwaras,womensitseparatelyfromthemen,togetherwiththeirchildren.
SikhwomenplayanactiveroleinallactivitiesintheSikhtemplealthoughtheremaybe
separatespacessetasideforwomen.Gendersegregationisconsideredpositive,andunfair
genderdiscriminationisnotpermitted.ThefactthatSikhpersonalnamesaregender
neutralisconsideredavaluableindicatoroftheintrinsicequalitybetweenthesexes.
AtypicalSikhserviceconsistsofhymnsinging(kirtan),adiscourseonthedivinename,
followedbyaconcludingcommunalprayer(ardas)andarandomreadingoftheGuru
GranthSahibwhichisconsideredtorevealthewillofGod.Theserviceconcludeswiththe
eatingofholyblessedfood(karahprashad),normallyfollowedbyacommunalmeal
(langar),bothofwhichsymbolisefraternityandequality.Suchmealsareoftenpreparedby
alargenumberofpeopleanditisconsideredmeritorioustoengageinsuchcommunity
service.

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Sikhreligiousfestivalsarebroadlytimedaccordingtoalunarcalendarandthereforevary
slightlyfromyeartoyear.Vaisakhi,celebratedon13April,istheonlyfestivalheldona
fixeddate,thedayofthefoundingoftheKhalsabyGuruGobindSinghin1699.
AllmajorSikhfestivalsarecelebratedoverthreedaysandinvolveacontinuousrecitationof
theentireGuruGranthSahib.SuchfestivalscommemorateeventsaroundtheGurusand
theestablishmentoftheSikhreligionandtheyinclude:

ThebirthdayofGuruGobindSingh,thetenthGuru,celebratedinJanuary/February.

HolaMohalla,athreedayfestivalinFebruary/March,hasamilitaryemphasisand
demonstratestheartofselfdefence.

ThefirstinstallationoftheGuruGranthSahibbyGuruGobindSinghinNanded,three
daysbeforehisdeathin1708,iscelebratedinAugust.

GuruNanaksbirthdayiscelebratedoverthreedaysinOctober/November.

TheSikhfestivalofDiwali(October/November)celebratesthereleasefromcaptivity
ofthesixthGuru,GuruHarGobind.

Dietaryrules
ManySikhsarevegetarian.Sikhsmaychoosenottoeatmeatfromanimalskilledaccording
totheritualmethodobservedbytheMuslimsandJews(halalorkosher)meat.
StrictlyobservantSikhswillnotsmoketobaccoordrinkalcoholinanyform,andtheymay
alsoabstainfromdrinkingteaandcoffee.

Ritesofpassage
TheJanamSanskarornamingceremonytakesplaceinthehomeoratthegurdwaraassoon
aspossibleafterbirth,andinvolvesopeningtheGuruGranthSahibatrandom,andthefirst
letterofthehymnonthetopofthelefthandpageindicatesthelettertobeginthenameof
thebaby.
ASikhmaybeinitiatedintotheKhalsaatanytimeandthereafterisobligedtowearthe
FiveKs,andobserveastrictdiet.
Themarriageceremony,anandkaraj,theceremonyofbliss,willtakeplace,asfaras
possible,inthegurdwara,andcertainlyatanyrateinthepresenceofthedivinewitnessof
theGuruGranthSahib.TheSikhmarriageceremonyincludesareadingfromtheGuru
GranthSahibandasermonfromtheofficiatingpriestonthedutiesofmarriage.Thebrideis
thengivenawaybyherparentsandthespousesarejoinedtogetherbyaclothorscarfand
walkfourtimes,clockwise,aroundtheGuruGranthSahib.Theceremonyconcludeswith
collectiveprayersandisfollowedbyaweddingfeast.
Atthetimeofdeath,readingandrecitationofpartsoftheGuruGranthSahibis
recommendedandfriendsandrelativesmaygatheratthebedsideofadyingpersonfor
thatpurpose.Afterdeath,thebodyiswashedanddressedinnewclothesbyapriestor
relative,andisthentakenforcremationassoonaspossible.Sikhsarealwayscremated
evenstillbornchildren.Normally,thesonorclosestmalerelativestartsthecremation.

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Onthefollowingday,theasheswillbeceremoniallysprinkledintoflowingwater.Duringthe
daysandnightsafterthefuneral,alltheadultmembersofthefamilywillattendacomplete
readingandrecitationoftheGuruGranthSahib.

Taoism
Keypoints

MostTaoistsintheUKareofChineseorigin.

Taoismisabeliefsystemwhichenablesitsadherentstoalsoparticipateinotherfaith
traditions.

ConfucianismisaguidingphilosophytowhichmanyTaoistsalsosubscribe.

ForTaoistsitisnotcontradictorytopractiseBuddhism,Christianityoranyotherfaith.

TheChinesecommunityinthiscountryisverydiversenoassumptionsaboutthe
culturalandracialhomogeneityofTaoistandChineseworshippersshouldbemade.

NotallChinesesharethesameunderstandingaboutTaoismsincethisalsodepends
uponwhichregiontheyoriginatefrom(provincesinmainlandChina,HongKong,
SouthEastAsia).

Introduction
MostTaoistsintheUKaremembersoftheChinesecommunity,althoughmanyofthem
wouldalsoconsiderthemselvestobeadherentsofConfucianphilosophy(alsotermed
Confucianism).BothTaoismandConfucianismconstituteatotalmoraloutlookwhich
permitsthemembershipofandparticipationinthecommunalpracticesofotherfaith
communities.TaoismisconsideredabeliefsystemwhilstConfucianismisoftentermeda
guidingphilosophyandthetwoareconsideredentirelycompatiblewithotherbelief
systemssuchasBuddhism,ChristianityandIslam.Thisinnatemetaphysicalsubtletyisone
ofthedistinctivefeaturesoftheChineseapproachtoreligion.
TheChinesecommunityintheUKisdiverseconsistingofthosewhocamefromHongKong
inthe1950sand1960swhilstmorerecentlyotherChinesehavecomefromSouthEastAsia
andfrommainlandChina.NeedlesstosaytherearemanyBuddhistsinChina,aswellasa
significantnumberofChristians(mostlyfromHongKong),whilstChinaalsohasoneofthe
largestMuslimpopulationsintheworld.AlthoughmostChinesewillbeabletoreadthe
commonwrittenMandarinalphabet,therearemanydifferentspokendialectsofboth
CantoneseandMandarin.
AlthoughthepracticeofreligionwasdiscouragedandattimessuppressedinthePeoples
RepublicofChina,manyTaoistswereabletomaintaintheirbeliefsalthoughtheymaynot
havebeenabletopractisetheritesformally,sothatitmayhaveappearedasifmany
peoplefrommainlandChinadidnotpractiseanyreligion.Thisaccountsforwhymuch
religiousdoctrineandknowledgeoftraditionssurvivesasanoralrecordonly.
PoliticaldevelopmentshaveenabledmoreChinesefromthemainlandtoberathermore
forthcomingabouttheirreligiouscommitments.

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Beliefsandpractices,holybooksandscriptures
TheprincipaltextoftheTaoistsistheTaoTeChing(TheWayandItsVirtue)andthisis
attributedtoLaoTzu(c500BCE)whoisconsideredtobethefounderofTaoism.Thetextis
consideredthebasisofwhatisknownasreligiousTaoismandalsophilosophicalTaoism.
TheWay(theTao)concernsManandhisplacewithintheuniverse.TheTaoistheall
embracingprinciplebeforeheavenandearth:itcauseseverythingtoarise,yetitactsnot.
Wuwei,thefundamentalprincipleofnonactionornoninterferencewiththelawsof
natureiscentraltothepracticeofTaoism.ThepoweroftheTaoisthatwhichmakesall
phenomenawhattheyare.Theforcesofnatureandindeedmountains,rivers,treesandall
suchaspectsofNaturearereveredassacred.
TheYinYangsymbolofTaoismemphasisestherelativityofallvaluesandthedimensionsof
polarity.Everythinghasoppositedimensions:positive/negative,dark/light,active/passive,
male/female(andsoaframeworktounderstandallgenderrelationsisprovided).This
understandingprovidesthebasisforcomprehendingallforcesofthebody,theworkingsof
themindandultimatelylifeanddeath.
Thepopularmanifestationsofritualpractice(sometimesreferredtoaspopularTaoism)
emphasisetheimportanceofpayinghomagetochosendeities(representingdifferent
dimensionsoftheprinciplesoftheTao)andtoancestorsanddeceasedeldersinorderto
encouragetheforcesofhealth,happinessandprosperity.Thismostcommonlyinvolvesthe
establishmentofanaltarandplacingstatuesorimagesofthedeitiesandphotographsupon
itornearby.Mostoftenoneorthreedeitieswillbechosen,oftentheonesmost
appropriatetothehomeortothebusinessifthealtarisalsoplacedthere.Inaddition,there
arealsovarioustraditionsinChina,whichinvolvethedisplayofsmallstatuesofdeitiesin
homesorbusinesses.
Inthepast,courtstaffhavebeeninstructedtoadministeraformofdeclarationtoChinese
witnessesinaceremonywhichinvolvesthebreakingofasaucer.Thisceremony,instituted
intheImperialCourtsofChinamanycenturiesago,isveryrarelypractisedtodayincourtsof
law,althoughitissaidtobepractisedbytheTriadsduringtheirsecretinitiation
ceremonies.ItisprobablybecauseofthisassociationthatChinesetodaydonotaskor
choosetotakeanoathinthismanner.Itshouldthereforenotbeused.
Taoistsshouldbegiventhechoicetoaffirmor,iftheyadheretoanotherfaithtradition,to
swearanoath.Forexample,therearemorethan50ChineseChristiancongregationsin
citiesandmajortownsintheUK,andtheymayprefertoswearanoathontheBible.

Centralpracticesanddaysofobservance
Apartfrompersonaldailydevotions,templeworshipisledbypriests,someofwhommay
becelibateandresidentatthetemple.Thetemplesmaybededicatedtoone,threeorfive
deities,andchantingofsacredformulaeisconductedmorningandevening.Thereisusually
analtar,maybeinfrontofimagesorstatuesofthechosendeities,andchantingwilltake
placefacingit.Inaddition,regularlessonsontheteachingsofLaoTzumayalsotakeplaceat
thetemple.
Onthefirstand15thdayofeverylunarmonthavegan(noanimal,dairyorfishproducts)
meal,preparedbytheworshippersthemselves,willbeservedtoalldevoteesinorderto

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participateinaritualcleansingandpurificatoryrite.Commemorationsofthebirthdaysof
certaindeitiesarealsoobservedbyavegandietfortheday.
Taoistfestivalsarebasedonalunarcalendarandanannualcycleandsymboliseboththe
passingoftheyearintermsoftheripening,harvestingandstoringofcropsaswellas
passingthroughthelifecycle.Manyofthesefestivalsaremoreconcernedwiththepractice
ofpopularTaoism,andthemajoronesareoutlinedbelow.

Thewintersolstice,whichcoincideswiththeGregoriancalendardateofthe21
December,isthedaybywhichonesageismeasured.Specialsweetmeatsare
preparedfortheoccasion,suchasglutinousriceballsandplacedonthealtaras
offerings.

AmajorChinesefestivalistheChineseNewYear,linkedtothelunarcalendarandit
fallsusuallyinJanuaryorFebruaryasthefirstdayofthefirstlunarmonth.Thisisthe
majorpublicholidayoftheyearinHongKongandChina,butmostChineseintheUK
prepareaspecialNewYearsEvedinnertowhichfamilyandfriendsareinvited,and
continuetoworkthenextday,ifitfallsmidweek,transferringanycelebrationstoa
nearbyweekend.Celebrationsarefamilyoriented,thoughnowadaysmanyChinese
communitycentresintheUKorganiselocalfestivities.

Thefirstfullmoonofthefirstmonthisalsocelebratedbyaprocessionoflanterns.

OtherfestivaldaysduringtheyearincludetheChingMing(thegravesweeping
festival)usuallyinMarchwhengravesaresweptandthenpossiblycoveredoverwith
talismanictilesexhortingblessingsforthedeparted.

TheDragonBoatfestivalusuallytakesplaceinthefifthlunarmonthand
commemoratesthevirtuesofveracity,loyaltyandheroism,byrememberinghow
dragonboatsweresentouttotheseatodeflectsharksfromthebodyofthe
honourablewarriorwhopreferredtodrownhimselfratherthanmanifestdisloyalty.

ThecommemorationoftheHungryGhoststakesplaceintheseventhlunarmonthfor
aperiodof15dayswhenmanydevotionsandsacrificesareofferedupforthespirits
whosepositiveandnegativeelementshavenotbeenintegratedinorderforthemto
bereleasedintothenextrealm.

TheAutumnLanternfestivalcelebratingtheharvesttakesplaceonthe15thdayof
theeighthlunarmoon.

Dietaryrules
GreatattentionispaidtothedifferingYinandYang(forexamplecoolingandheating
effects)qualitiesofallfoodstoconsumetheminabalancedmanner.PractisingTaoistswill
observetheveganfastsmentionedaboveonthefirstand15thdayofeverylunarmonth.
Otherwise,therearenorestrictionsassuch.HoweverTaoistswhoalsoconformtoother
traditionswillobservetheappropriaterulessuchasvegetarianBuddhistTaoists.

Ritesofpassage
ThesedependonthenationalandculturaloriginoftheTaoistsinquestion,forexample,
whethertheyarefrommainlandChinaorSouthEastAsia,buttheyfocusonthemainlife

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cycleevents.ManyritualshavedevelopedintoasortofpopularChinese
Taoism/Buddhism.
ThefamilyisoneofthemostcentralunitsinpopularChineseunderstanding.Allaspectsof
birth,marriageanddeatharesurroundedbyritual,butmanymaynotbefollowedinthe
UK.
Atthetimeofbirth(andforaperiodofconfinement,usuallyforonemonthafterwards)
womenareencouragedtorestandgivenspeciallypreparednutritiousfoodstoeat.
Marriagecustomsmaybeveryelaboratewithproceedingsbeingdividedintosixphases,
beginningwiththeproposal,andcontinuingwiththeengagement,processionofbrides
dowry,bridalprocession,marriagevows,andtheweddingbreakfast.Marriagesare
importantcommunityevents,joiningtogethertwofamilies.Apriestmaybeinvitedto
invokeblessingsuponthecouple,orthecouplemayvisitthetempleandasimpleceremony
takeplacethere.Thebrideandgroommaykneelbeforethegroomsparentsandoffertea
sweetenedbydatestotheirrelatives.Giftsareoftengiveninredenvelopestothemarried
couple(andarealsogivenatChineseNewYear:strictly,theyshouldbegiventounmarried
childrenbytheirmarriedrelativesandfriends).Traditionalweddinggowns(kwans)arered,
thatbeingthecolourforgoodluck.Whiteisalsoworntorepresentpurity,andmanybrides
nowwearwesternbridaldresses,sometimeschangingtoakwanduringthewedding
celebrations.
FuneralritesareoftenextensiveandmaycombineTaoistandBuddhistelements.Ritual
ablutionsareperformedoverthedeceasedandlayersofpapermoney(forthebankof
meritsinhell)andtalismansmaybeplacedoverthedeadbodytoprotectitfromharmful
influencesinthenextrealm.Papermoneyandpaperhousesmaybeburned.Flowers,
wreaths,incense,andaspecialancestorshrinemaybepresentedduringthefuneralrite.
Customsvaryastowhetherthedeceasedisinterredorcremated.Closerelativeswillbe
wearingblack,andothersblackandwhite.Awillowbranchsymbolisingthesoulofthe
deceasedmaybecarriedbacktothefamilyaltar.Theremaybeagatheringofthefamily
andmournersontheseventh,49thor100thdayafterthefuneral,andtheremaybea
commemorationritualafterthefirstandthirdyearsfollowingthedeath.Apriestmaybe
invitedtoinvokeblessingsuponthedeadontheseoccasions.

Zoroastrianism
Keypoints

ZoroastrianismisanancientreligionbasedupontheteachingsofZarathushtra(1400
1200BCE)wholivedinIranbeforetheadventofwriting.

TheZoroastriancommunitynowgenerallycomprisesthosefromIranandthosewho
settledinIndia,knownastheParsees.

MembersofbothcommunitieshavealongestablishedpresenceintheUK,Europe
andtheUSAfromasearlyasthe1800s.

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Introduction
ZoroastrianismspreadeastfromthesteppesofAsiaMinortothevalleyoftheOxusriver.It
wasthestatereligionoftwoPersianempires,thefirstofCyrustheGreat(550531BCE)and
thesecondoftheSasanians.Itwasonlysome300yearsaftertheArabconquestofIranthat
Zoroastrianismbecameaminorityfaith.Towardstheendof800CE,agroupofZoroastrians
decidedtosettleintheIndianstateofGujaratinsearchofreligiousfreedom,andthis
communitybecameknownastheParsees,whosubsequentlyalsoestablishedthemselvesin
theIndiancapitalofMumbai(Bombay).ThecommunityinIran,knowninIranasthe
Zartushtis,ismostlysettledaroundtheregionofYazd,althoughasignificantnumberlivein
Tehran.TodayZoroastriansaresettledworldwide.

Beliefsandpractices
Bornintoalineofhereditarypriests,Zarathushtraexperiencedasetofdivinerevelations
afterbeingcompelledtomeditateontheviolenceandinjusticehewitnessed.Hewasgiven
tounderstandtheretobeoneeternalGod,AhuraMazda,whocreatedtheworldinorder
fortheforcesofgoodtoreignovertheevilspiritAngraMainyu(andhisevilforcesthe
daevas).TheforcesofgoodthatchallengetheevilarethesevenAmeshaSpentas,orHoly
Immortals.Throughtheseforces,AhuraMazdaactstoovercomeevil.
EachgoodforceprotectsoneofthesevencreationsofSky,Earth,Water,Plants,Cattle,
ManandFire.
Alloflifeandcreationistoengageinastruggletoovercometheforcesofevil,topromote
goodnessandbringaboutthesalvationofall.TheadventoftheSaviour,theSaoshyant
(bornoftheseedofaprophetandavirgin)willsavetheworld,whichbythattimewillhave
becometotallywretched.Afteragreatbattleofthegoodandevilforces,atwhichthegood
willtriumph,theLastJudgementwilltakeplace,andthesavedwillrejoiceeverlastinglyin
thepresenceoftheAhuraMazda,andeventuallytheywillbejoinedbythedamnedwho
willhaveundergoneaperiodofpurification.
ThelifeaimofaZoroastrianistoovercometheforcesofevilwithdivineaid:alliscomprised
intheguidingaphorismofgoodintention,goodspeech,goodaction.Fromthisanall
pervasiveethicalcodehasbeenestablished.
Themainpracticeisprayerperformedinfrontofthesacredfirewhichisalwayskept
aflame:

Prayersaresaidfivetimesaday(atsunrise,noon,sunset,midnightanddawn).

Prayersareperformedwhilststandingandrecitingversesfromtheholyscriptures,
andasacredthread(kusti)whichisalwayswornthreetimesaroundthewaistand
acrossthesacredshirt,isunwoundandthenreknotted(evokingtheancientoriginsof
thewordreligionwhichcomesfromtheLatin,ligare,tobind/tieoneselftothe
Divine).

Holybooksandscriptures
TheZoroastrianreligionhasalongoraltradition,buteventually,thesayingsofZarathushtra
wererecordedinacollectionofholytextsknownastheAvesta,andwritteninthelanguage
ofAvestaninthefifthorsixthcenturyCE.SomehymnsintheAvesta,knownastheGathas

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areknowntohavebeencomposedbyZarathushtra.TheextantAvestacomprisesthe
Gathas,liturgies,andprayers.LaterreligioustextsareinPersian,GujaratiandEnglish.

Zoroastriansmaychooseeithertoaffirm,orpossiblyswearanoath.

TheirholyscripturesareknownastheAvesta.

Considerationsofritualpuritymayarise.

Centralpracticesanddaysofobservance
Theritesofprayerareperformedinfrontofthesacredfire,representingtheTruthand
sacredpresenceoftheDivine,andtherearemanysacredfiretemples.Practicesvery
amongstdifferentcommunitiesandfamilies;somechoosetovisitthetempleregularly,
othersprayathomemoreoftenbeforetheirownfire.
Greatemphasisisplacedonritualpurityandsoaccesstothetempleorbeingpresent
duringZoroastriandevotionsmaybedependentuponthat.
Incenseisofferedtothesacredfireandgiftsofmoneygiventothepriests,andcareis
alwaystakeninkindlingandmaintainingthefire.
Pilgrimagestosacredfiretemples,specialsourcesofwaterorsacredmountainstakeplace
regularly.
Therearesevenmajorfestivalscelebratingthedifferentseasonsoftheyearandtheseven
creations.Theynowcomprisefivedaysofcelebrationeach,themostimportantbeingthe
firstday:

NawRuz(theNewDay).TheNewYearandthefirstdayofSpring,21March.The
festivalgoesontill26March.TheassociatedcreationisFireandtheassociatedholy
immortal,Righteousness.

Maidhyoizaremaya(MidSpring).30April4May.TheassociatedcreationisSkyand
theassociatedholyimmortal,Dominion.

Maidhyoishema(MidSummer).29June3July.TheassociatedcreationisWaterand
theassociatedholyimmortal,Wholeness.

Paitishahya(AutumnHarvest(bringinginthecorn)).1216September.The
associatedcreationisEarthandtheassociatedholyimmortal,Devotion.

Ayathrima(HomecomingoftheHerds).1216October.Theassociatedcreationis
Plantsandtheassociatedholyimmortal,Immortality.

Maidhyairya(MidWinter).31December4January.TheassociatedcreationisCattle
andtheassociatedholyimmortal,GoodIntent.

FarvadiganorMukta(AllSouls).1620March.TheassociatedcreationisManandthe
associatedholyspiritofAhuraMazdaHimself.

Dietaryrulesandtaboos
Therearenospecificdietaryrestrictionsexcepttoavoidanythingthatisintrinsicallyevil.

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Ritesofpassage
Theremaybeasimplenamingceremonycelebratingthebirthofthechild,andinsomevery
orthodoxfamiliesthemothermaybesegregatedfor40daysoutofconcernforritualpurity.
Acomingofage,knownamongsttheIraniansassedrapushun(puttingonthesacredshirt)
andamongsttheParseesasnaojote(newbirth),iscelebratedforbothgirlsandboys.The
youngpersonpreparesthemselvesbylearningthekustiprayers,andthenontheappointed
daybathes,anddrinkssomeconsecratedliquidbeforeputtingonanewshirt.Apriestmay
theninvestthemwiththekusti,andgeneralrejoicingandfestivitiesfollowwiththegivingof
presentsandenjoyingspecialfood.
Marriageisastronglyencouragedinstitution,andtherearemanypopularcustoms.The
marriageceremonyhascertainprescribedritualaspects.Priortotheceremonythecouple
performritualablutionsandwearnewgarments.Thepriestconsecratesthemarriageby
pronouncingsacredformulaeinAvestaninfrontofthecoupleandwitnesses.The
ceremoniesupondeathareveryimportant,sincefortheZoroastrian(asinlife)atdeath
greatemphasisisplacedontheeliminationofnegativeforces.SinceMancomprisesthe
sevenelementsaforementioned,thenegativeelementsemanatingfromdeathmustbe
purifiedbynotbeingabsorbedintotheearthbyburial,norbypollutingtheairwith
cremation,butbeingreabsorbedintothelifeprocess.Corpsesaresimplyenshroudedand
carriedonmetalbierstowalledenclosuresondesignatedheights(hillsormountains)or
morecommonlyastonetower(dakhma)andtherelefttobeconsumedbyvulturesandfor
thebonestobepurifiedbytheSun.However,inmoderntimes,electricalcremationsor
burialincementcoffinshavebeenadoptedassuitablealternatives.Thefuneralshouldtake
placeasquicklyaspossibleandprayersaresaidforthedeceasedforthreedays.Onthe
fourthdayspecialmeritoriousactsareofferedupforthebenefitofthedeceased.Forthe
firstyear,theremaybemonthlycommemorationsandthereafterannualcommemorations
attheMuktadorFarvardigan,AllSoulsfestivalbetween16and20March.

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Appendix2Practicesofdifferentfaithtraditions

Appendix2Practicesofdifferentfaithtraditions

TheBahaiFaith,Buddhism,Christianity,Hinduism,Indigenoustraditions,Islam,Jainism,
Judaism,Rastafarianism,Sikhism,TaoismandZoroastrianism,aswellasadescriptionof
somesystemsofnonreligiousbelief,suchassecularismandhumanism,andnonbelief,
thatis,atheismandagnosticism.
Eachofthereligiousentriesfollowsasetformatforthesakeofclarity,butinfactnotall
religionsplacethesameemphasisoneachofthedimensionsoffaithaslaidoutinAppendix
3.Somereligionsplaceacentralimportanceupononescripture,suchasChristianity,Islam
andJudaism.Othersrevereanumberofscripturesequally,suchasHinduismandJainism,
whilstothersarenotsoscripturebased,suchastheIndigenoustraditions.Forsomefaith
traditions,ritesofpassagearecentral(e.g.Christianity,JudaismandZoroastrianism)whilst
forothersritesofpassage(apartfrombirthanddeath)areculturallyimportantratherthan
spirituallysignificant(e.g.Hinduism,Islam,JainismandTaoism).Forsome(e.g.Christianity
andSikhism)communalritesandplacesofworshiparecentraltoreligiouspractice.For
others,whilstcommunalworshipisimportant(e.g.theattendanceofFridaycongregational
prayersatamosqueforMuslims),theperformanceofthedailyprayersismoresignificant
todeterminethedegreeoffaithadherence.Insomereligionstherearevariations,suchas
Zoroastrianism,wheretheemphasisvariesaccordingtodifferentbranchesofthereligion.
Forothers,individualprayerandcommunalworshipplayequivalentroles.
Forsomefaithtraditions,ritualpurity,whichmayormaynotbeconnectedwithgenderas
such,isverysignificant(e.g.Hinduism,Jainism,Judaism,Islam,andZoroastrianism),whilst
forothersitplaysnopart.

Bahais

Maychooseeithertoaffirmor,possibly,swearanoath.FortheBahaitheirwordis
theirbond.

TheholybookcontainingtheteachingsoftheirGuideiscalledtheKitabiAqdas.

Buddhists

Maychooseeithertoaffirmor,possibly,swearanoath.

AformofdeclarationforBuddhistswhichstartsIdeclareinthepresenceofBuddha
that...iserroneousandshouldbediscontinued.

TibetanBuddhistswhowishtoswearanoath,shouldbeaskedtostatetheformof
oathwhichtheyregardasbindingontheirconscience.(InTibetanpractice,oathsare
normallytakeninfrontofapictureofadeity,aphotographoftheDalaiLamaorany
Lamaofthewitnessspractice,iftakenatall.)Sometimessuchawitnesswilltakean
oathbyelevatingareligioustextbookabovetheirheadandswearingbyit.Ifawitness
doesnotstipulatesuchapracticeanddoesnothavetheappropriatebookwiththem,
theyshouldaffirm.

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Christians

Maychoosetoswearanoathoraffirm.

TheirholyscriptureistheBible;mostusuallythepartthatisknownastheNew
Testamentwillsuffice.

Hindus

Maychoosetoaffirmorswearanoath.

Oftheirmanyholyscriptures,theBhagavadGitaisconsideredsuitableforthe
purposesofswearingoaths.

TheBhagavadGitamaybekeptinacoveredcloth,thesuggestedcolourofwhichis
red.

Questionsofritualpuritymayarise.

Indigenoustraditions

Maychoosetoaffirmorswearanoath.

ManypeoplefromAfrica,NativeAmericans,andAboriginalpeoplefromAustralia
maintaintheirowntraditionalreligiousheritage.Makingaffirmationswouldbeinline
withthisheritage.

Somealsofollowotherfaithtraditionsaswell,inwhichcasetheymaychooseto
swearanoathonaholybook.

Jains

Maychooseeithertoaffirmor,possibly,swearanoath.

Sincetherearemanydifferentgroupings,nosingletextcanbespecified,butsome
maychoosetoswearanoathonatextsuchastheKalpaSutra.Sometimesawitness
willswearanoathbyelevatingaholyscriptureabovetheirheadandswearingbyit.If
awitnessdoesnotstipulatesuchapracticeanddoesnothavetheappropriatetextin
court,theyshouldaffirm.

Questionsofritualpuritymayarise.

Jews

Maychoosetoaffirmorswearanoath.

TheirholybookisknownastheHebrewBibleorthePentateuchsometimesalso
referredtoastheOldTestament.

TheHebrewBiblemaybekeptinacoveredcloth,thesuggestedcolourofwhichis
black.

Jewsshouldnotbeaskedtoremovetheirheadcoveringsincourt.

Questionsofritualpuritymayarise.

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Appendix2Practicesofdifferentfaithtraditions

Muslims

Maychoosetoaffirmorswearanoath.

TheirholybookisknownastheQuran.

TheQuranshouldbekeptinacoveredcloth,andthesuggestedcolourisgreen.

Questionsofritualpuritymayarise.

Moravians

Maychooseeithertoaffirm,orpossiblyswearanoath.

AsuitableholybookistheBible;mostusuallythepartthatisknownastheNew
Testamentwillsuffice.

Quakers

Maychoosetoaffirm;theymaynotswearanoath.

AsuitableholybookistheBible;mostusuallythepartthatisknownastheNew
Testamentwillsuffice.

Rastafarians

Maychooseeithertoaffirmor,possibly,swearanoath.

AsuitableholybookistheBible;mostusuallythepartthatisknownastheNew
Testamentwillsuffice.

Rastafariansshouldnotbeaskedtoremovetheirheadcoveringsincourt.

Sikhs

Maychoosetoaffirmorswearanoath.

TheirholybookisknownastheGuruGranthSahib,andaportionofitknownasthe
SunderGutkamaybesuitableforthepurposesofswearinganoathincourt
proceedings.

TheSunderGutkashouldbekeptinacoveredcloth,thesuggestedcolourofwhichis
orangeoryellow.

Sikhsshouldnotbeaskedtoremovetheirheadcoveringsincourt.

TheformoftheoathwhichstipulatesswearingbytheWaheguruisnot
recommendedsinceSikhsbelieveinswearinganoathbeforeGod.

Questionsofritualpuritymayarise.

Taoists

Maychooseeithertoaffirmor,possibly,swearanoath.

ManyTaoistsintheUKaremembersoftheChinesecommunityandmanyofthem
wouldalsoconsiderthemselvestobeadherentsofConfucianism.

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Appendix2Practicesofdifferentfaithtraditions

BothTaoismandConfucianismpermitthemembershipofandparticipationinthe
communalpracticesofotherfaithcommunities,somanymayalsobeBuddhists/
Christians/Muslims.

TheTaoistholybookistheTaoTeChing,althoughthosewhoarealsopractisingother
faithtraditionsmaychoosetoswearuponanotherholybook.

Zoroastrians

Maychooseeithertoaffirm,orpossiblyswearanoath.

TheirholybookisknownastheAvesta.

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Genderequality

11.Genderequality
Keypoints

Womenremaindisadvantagedinmanypublicandprivateareasoftheirlife;theyare
underrepresentedinthejudiciary,inParliamentandinseniorpositionsacrossarange
ofjobs;andthereisstillasubstantialpaygapbetweenmenandwomen.

Stereotypesandassumptionsaboutwomenslivescanleadtounlawful
discrimination.

Factorssuchasethnicity,socialclass,sexualorientation,disabilitystatusandage
affectwomensexperienceandthetypesofdisadvantagetowhichtheymightbe
subject;assumptionsshouldnotbemadethatallwomensexperiencesarethesame.

Discriminationisoftenunconsciousandbasedonapersonsownexperienceand
perceptions;itisimportanttobeawareofthewidediversityofwomensexperiences.

Womenmayhaveparticulardifficultiesparticipatinginthejusticesystem,for
example,becauseofchildcareissues,andcourtsmayneedtoconsideradjustments
toenablewomentoparticipatefully.

Womensexperiencesasvictims,witnessesandoffendersareinmanyrespects
differenttothoseofmen.

Asjudges,wecangosomewaytoensuringthatwomenhaveconfidenceinthejustice
processandthattheirinterestsareproperlyandappropriatelyprotected.

Ofcourse,mencansufferfromgenderdiscriminationtoo;thissectionreflectsthe
realitythatthisisrarer.

Introduction
1.

Thischaptercontainsinformationabout:
a. genderstereotyping;
b. womenineducationandemployment;
c. womenascarers;
d. pregnantwomenandmothers;
e. sexualharassmentandviolenceagainstwomen;
f. womenasoffenders;
g. womeninthecourtortribunalroom;
h. marriage.

Genderstereotyping
2.

Genderinequalityisreflectedintraditionalideasabouttherolesofwomenandmen
and,thoughtheyhaveshiftedovertime,theassumptionsandstereotypesthat
underpinthoseideasareoftenverydeeplyrooted.Thus,itiscommontoassumethat

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Genderequality

awomanwillhavechildren,lookafterthemandtakeabreakfrompaidworkorwork
parttimetoaccommodatethefamily.However,suchassumptionsandstereotypes
canandoftendohavetheeffectofseriouslydisadvantagingwomenandmaybe
discriminatory.
3.

AsBaronessHalesaidinR(EuropeanRomaRightsCentre)vImmigrationOfficer,
PragueAirportin2004:
Theindividualshouldnotbeassumedtoholdthecharacteristicswhichthesupplier
associateswiththegroup,whetherornotmostmembersofthegroupdoindeedhave
suchcharacteristics,aprocesssometimesreferredtoasstereotyping.Evenif,for
example,mostwomenarelessstrongthanmostmen,itmustnotbeassumedthat
theindividualwomanwhohasappliedforthejobdoesnothavethestrengthtodoit
Ifstrengthisaqualification,allapplicantsshouldberequiredtodemonstratethat
theyqualify.

4.

Commonstereotypicalassumptionsoftenappliedtoallwomenandmenarethat:
a. men,notwomen,arethemainearnersinthefamily;
b. womenareprimarycarersofchildren;
c. womenwithchildrenwillbelesscommittedtotheirwork;theymaynotreturn
frommaternityleaveorwillwanttoworkparttime;
d. menarebestsuitedtoheavy,physicaljobs;womentocaringjobs;
e. menwillnotwanttotaketimeoffworktocareforchildren;
f. womenarephysicallyweakerthanmen;
g. womenarebettercarersthanmen;
h. femalejudgesaremoreappropriateforfamilycasesthanmalejudgesandmale
judgesaremoreappropriateforheavycriminalcases.

5.

Suchassumptionsshouldnotbemadeaboutallwomen(ormen)eventhoughthey
maybetrueaboutmanyorevenmostwomen(ormen).

6.

However,statisticsaboutpracticeswhichdisadvantagewomeninparticular,
comparedtomen,mayberelevanttoestablishindirectsexdiscrimination.Indirect
discriminationiswherethereisanunjustifiedpracticeorpolicythatparticularly
disadvantagesonegenderaswellasdisadvantagingtheindividualclaimant.Indirect
discriminationrecognisestheneedtomakeanadjustmentforindividualswhoare
disadvantagedbecauseofcharacteristicsassociatedwiththeirgender(orrace,age,
disability)theaimbeingtoputmenandwomen(anddifferentracialgroupsand
disabledpeople)onanequalfooting.Thus,evidencethatmorewomenworkpart
timeisrelevanttoshowthatarequirementtoworkfulltimeislikelytodisadvantage
morewomen.Ifnotjustifiedinanyparticularcasethiswouldbeindirectsex
discrimination.Thismustbedistinguishedfromunfoundedassumptionsthata
particularwomanwillwanttoworkparttime.

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Genderequality

Educationandemployment
Education
7.

Agovernmentreportin2007,Genderandeducation:theevidenceonpupilsinEngland
foundthat:
a. Considerationsofsocialclassandethnicityalongsidegenderhelpstoidentify
whichchildrenareunderachieving.
b. Since1988,onthethresholdmeasureof5+A*CGCSEs,asignificantgendergap
infavourofgirlshasemerged.GirlstendtodobetterinthemajorityofGCSE
subjects;theyaremorelikelytotakearts,languagesandhumanitiesandboysare
morelikelytotakegeography,PEandIT.
c. Girlsaremorelikelytostayoninfulltimeeducationatage16(82%ofgirlsand
72%ofboys).
d. Ethnicityisalsoamoreimportantfactorthangender.BlackCaribbeanandBlack
Otherboysaretheleastlikelyofanyethnicgrouptoachieve5+A*CGCSEpasses,
butBlackCaribbeanandBlackOthergirlsarenotdisadvantagedtothesame
extent.
e. WhiteBritishfreeschoolmealsboysareagroupwithparticularlylowattainment.
f. 70%ofchildrenwithidentifiedSpecialEducationalNeedsareboys.
g. Boysareninetimesaslikelyasgirlstobeidentifiedwithautisticspectrum
disorder.
h. Boysarefourtimesaslikelyasgirlstobeidentifiedashavingabehavioural,
emotionalandsocialdifficulty(BESD);genderisabetterpredictorthansocialclass
andethnicityofbeingclassifiedashavingBESD.
i. Boysaccountfor80%ofpermanentexclusionsandthreequartersoffixedterm
exclusions,thoughtherehasbeenanincreaseinpermanentexclusionsofgirls
(from16%to21%).Pupilsreceivingfreeschoolmealsarethreetimesmorelikely
tobeexcluded.
j. Girlsaremorelikelythanboystohavebeenthevictimofpsychologicalbullying
whilstboysaremorelikelythangirlstohavebeenthevictimofphysicalbullying.
k. Boysaremorelikelytohavecommittedacriminaloffence(33%comparedto
21%).
l. Womenmakeupover80%offulltimeregularteachersand90%ofprimary
teachers,butonly30%ofsecondaryheadteachersand64%ofprimaryhead
teachers.

8.

UnderthegenderequalitydutylocalauthoritiesandallmaintainedschoolsintheUK,
aswellascityacademies,citytechnologycollegesandpupilreferralunitshavea
generaldutyto:
a. eliminateunlawfulsexdiscriminationandharassment;
b. promoteequalityofopportunitybetweenmenandwomen.

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Genderequality

9.

Thereisalsoaspecificdutytopublishagenderequalityschemeshowinghowthe
localauthorityintendstofulfilitsdutiesandsettingoutitsgenderequalityobjectives.
GuidancefromtheEqualOpportunitiesCommission(nowtheEHRC)pointsoutthat
menandwomenarenotstartingfromanequalfootingandthatidenticaltreatment
willnotalwaysbeappropriate.Itsaysthatschoolscanhelpaddressthegenderpay
gapandjobsegregationthatexistsbeyondtheschoolitselfbyimplementing
initiativestocountergenderstereotypedattitudestojobsandcareersamongpupils
andparents.

Employment
10.

Around45%oftheUKworkforcearewomenand70%ofallwomenofworkingageare
inpaidwork(thoughthisfigurevariesaccordingtoethnicitysothat71%ofwhite
women,64%ofAfricanCaribbeanwomen,60%ofIndianwomenand20%of
Bangladeshiwomen,areinpaidwork).

11.

In2013areportbyPricewaterhouseCoopers(PwC),theWomeninWorkIndex
rankedtheUK18thof27OECD(OrganisationforEconomicCooperationand
Development)countriesinfiveareasoffemaleeconomicempowermentsuchaspay
equality,thefemaleunemploymentrate,andtheproportionofwomenworkingfull
time.Thefigureswerefrom2011,thelatestyearforwhichcomparabledatawas
available.

12.

PwCcomparedthefiguresfor2011withthesamedatafor2007and2000andfound
UKwomenhadslippeddownthetablearesultofrisingfemaleunemployment,
aboveaveragepayinequality,andfewerfulltimeemploymentopportunities,
althoughthepaygapitselfat18.4%hadnarrowedalittle.

13.

Occupationsegregationisoneofthemaincausesofthegenderpaygap.Womens
employmentishighlyconcentratedincertainoccupationsandthoseoccupations
whicharefemaledominatedareoftenthelowestpaid.Inaddition,womenarestill
underrepresentedinthehighpaidjobswithinoccupations.TheGovernment
EqualitiesOfficeisencouragingcompaniestoimplementtheresultsoftheWomenon
Boardsreview,publishedbyLordDaviesinFebruary2011.Thereviewrecommended
thatUKlistedcompaniesintheFTSE100shouldhaveaminimum25%femaleboard
memberrepresentationby2015.ItalsorecommendedthatFTSE350companies
shouldsettheirownchallengingtargets.

Ethnicminoritywomen
14.

AstudybytheEqualOpportunitiesCommission(EOC)in2007,MovingonUp?,found
that:
a. Theemploymentrateforthepopulationoverallis73%comparedtotheethnic
minorityemploymentrateof61%.Forfemaleethnicminoritiestheemployment
rateis52.8%.
b. 35.5%ofethnicminoritywomenworkparttimecomparedto41.5%ofWhite
women.
c. Theunemploymentrateforallgroupsis5.7%;forethnicminoritiesitwas10.7%.
TwothirdsofPakistaniandBangladeshiwomenareeconomicallyinactive.

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Genderequality

d. Ethnicminoritywomenaremorelikelytoworkinthepublicsector(33.6%)
comparedto16.7%forethnicminoritymen.
e. OnceinemploymentminorityethnicwomenareassuccessfulasWhitewomenin
reachingahigheroccupationallevelwhichindicatesthattheirlabourmarket
disadvantageappliesmainlytofindingwork.

Carers
15.

Womenarestilltheprimarycarersofchildren.However,some73%ofwomenwith
childrenworkand53%ofwomenwithchildrenunderfivework.Theynevertheless
spendthreetimesasmuchtimeasmenoncaringforchildren.Thispatternandthe
stereotypeofwomenaschildcarers,however,disadvantagesmenaswell.Meninthe
UKarespendingmoretimewiththeirchildrennowandwanttohavemoretimewith
them,buttheyalsoworkthelongesthoursintheEU.LabourMarketStatisticsshow
thatinthesecondquarterof2011,82percentofmenwithdependentchildren
comparedto30percentofwomenwithdependentchildrenwereworkingfull
time.Only6percentoffatherswithdependentchildrencomparedto37percentof
motherswereworkingparttime.

Caringforelderlyanddisableddependants
16.

AccordingtoCarersUK(www.carersuk.org)oneineightadults(around6million
people)intheUKprovideunpaidcareforpartners,relativesorfriendsinneedofhelp
becausetheyareill,frailordisabled.Some3.9millioncarersareofworkingage.

17.

58%ofcarersarewomenand42%aremen.

18.

80%ofcarersareofworkingage.

19.

1.5millioncarerscombinefulltimepaidemploymentwithunpaidcare58%ofthese
workingcarersaremen.

20.

662,000carersareemployedparttime;ofthese89%arewomen.

21.

Oneinthreecarersisnotabletoreturntoworkbecausetherightalternativecareis
notavailable.Oneinfivegivesupworktocare;thisisoftenassociatedwithlossof
income,pensionandlongtermfinancialsecurity.Thisisalossbothtoemployeesand
employers.

22.

Carersworkingmorethan20hoursperweekareclusteredinlowerleveljobs.

23.

Thereareanumberofemployeeswhoarecaringforbothchildrenandadultsinneed
ofcare,whichmakesthereconciliationofworkandfamilylifetwiceasdifficult.

24.

AhighproportionofyoungPakistaniandBangladeshimenandwomencombinepaid
workandunpaidcare.

Recommendation

Accountmayneedtobetakenofapersonscaringresponsibilitieswhenlistingcases.
Forexample,itmaynotbeeasytofindanalternativecarertofitinwiththecourt
hearingandcourthoursanditmaybenecessarytoadjustthecourtortribunalhours
toaccommodateacarersneeds.

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Genderequality

Pregnancy,maternityleaveandbreastfeeding
25.

Despitethefactthatanyunfavourabletreatmentofawomanforareasonrelatedto
herpregnancy,pregnancyrelatedsicknessabsenceormaternityleaveisunlawful
discrimination,thisisstillwidespreadandisamajorfactorinthegenderpaygap.

26.

Greaterexpectations,theEOCsinvestigationintopregnancydiscriminationin2005
hasshownthat:
a. Amillionpregnantwomenarelikelytoexperiencediscriminationatworkoverthe
nextfiveyears,ifcurrenttrendscontinue.
b. Eachyearalmosthalfofthe440,000pregnantwomeninGreatBritainexperience
someformofdisadvantageatwork,simplyforbeingpregnantortakingmaternity
leave.

27.
ResearchpublishedbyIPPRin2013Whosbreadwinning?Workingmothersandthe
newfaceoffamilysupporthasfoundthat:
a. Whilstalmostoneinthreemothersisnowtheprimarybreadwinnerinthefamily
(up80%from1998)thereisaveryclearpersistenceofgenderdiscrepanciesat
homeastheystillshoulderthemajorityofhouseholdtasks;
b.Despitethisanaveragemotherearns26percentlessthananaveragefather.
Recommendation:adjustmentsforpregnantwomenincourtsandtribunals

Considerationshouldalwaysbegiventoaccommodatingpregnantwomenandnew
andbreastfeedingmothersinanyproceedingsinwhatevercapacitytheyaretaking
part,whetherasparties,witnessesorrepresentatives.Thismayrequiresensitive
listingsandbreaksduringtheproceedings,whichmaysometimesmeanthatacase
goespartheard.

Wherepossible,therequirementsofawomanwhomaybebreastfeedingshouldbe
accommodatedinanycasemanagementdecisions.

Awomanwhoisheavilypregnantorhasjustgivenbirthshouldnotbeexpectedto
attendacourtortribunalunlessshefeelsabletodoso.Althougheverywomanis
differentthiswouldapplyatleasttothemonthbeforethebirthandatleasttwo
monthsafterthebirth,thoughthisperiodwouldbelongeriftherewerecomplications
atbirth.Evenatelephonehearingmaybetoodifficultifthewomanislookingafter
thebabyonherown.Thismaymeanthatahearinghastobeadjourned.

Breaksshouldbeallowedforbreastfeeding.

Itmaybepossibletoconductahearingwithababyorchildinthecourtprovidedthe
babyorchildisnotdisruptingthehearing,by,forexample,cryingormakinganoise.
However,ahearingshouldnotbeconductedinthepresenceofachildunlessthe
judgeissatisfiedthatitisappropriateinallthecircumstancesforthechildtoseeand
heartheproceedings.Forexample,itmaynotbeappropriatewheretheremaybe
informationthatmightcausethechilddistress,anxietyorotherharm.

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Genderequality

Sexualharassmentandviolenceagainstwomen
27.

Sexualharassmentremainsaproblemforwomenbothatandoutsidework.Itis
unwantedconductthathasthepurposeoreffectofviolatingapersonsdignityor
creatinganintimidating,hostile,degrading,humiliatingoroffensiveenvironment.It
coversanyformofunwantedverbal,nonverbalorphysicalconductofasexualnature
andanylessfavourabletreatmentonthegroundthatthevictimhadrejectedor
submittedtounwantedconduct.Itsometimesleadstoawomansufferingfrom
anxietyordepression.

28.

Itisdifficulttoputafigureontheextentofsexualharassmentinsidetheworkplaceor
outside,becauseitoftengoesunreported.Manyemployeeswhosufferharassment
arereluctanttocomplainbecauseofthefearthattheymaylosetheirjobasaresultof
complaining.

Domesticviolence
29.

Thegovernmentdefinesdomesticviolenceas:Anyincidentofthreateningbehaviour,
violenceorabuse(psychological,physical,sexual,financialoremotional)between
adultswhoareorhavebeenintimatepartnersorfamilymembers,regardlessof
genderorsexuality.Itincludessocalledhonourbasedviolence,femalegenital
mutilation(FGM)andforcedmarriage.

30.

Statisticsondomesticviolence(seeforexamplethewebsitesofWomensAidand
gov.uk)revealsthat:
a. In2012around1.2millionwomensuffereddomesticabuse,over400,000women
weresexuallyassaulted,70,000womenwererapedandthousandsmorewere
stalked.
b. Fewerthan1in4peoplewhosufferabuseatthehandsoftheirpartnerandonly
around1in10womenwhoexperienceserioussexualassaultreportittothe
police.
c. Ofallviolence,domesticviolencehasthehighestrateofrepeatvictimisation,with
nearlyhalfofvictimsbeingvictimisedtwiceormoreandalmostoneinfourbeing
victimisedthreeormoretimes.
d. Domesticviolenceaccountsfor16%ofallreportedviolentcrimes.
e. 44%ofwomenkilledwerekilledbyacurrentorexpartner.Onaverage,two
womeninEnglandandWalesarekilledeveryweekbyacurrentorformermale
partner
f. Therehasbeena65%increaseinnumberofdomesticviolenceprosecutions
between2005/6and2010/11andacorresponding99%increaseinnumberof
defendantsconvicted.Despitethis,domesticviolenceconvictionratesinthefive
yearsto2011stoodatjust6.5%ofincidentsreportedtopolicethoughamuch
higherproportionofaround70%ofthosecharged.
g. Over75%of1112yearoldboysthoughtitwasacceptablethatmenhitwomenif
theymakethemangryandmoreboysthangirls,ofallages,believethatsome

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Genderequality

womendeservetobehitaccordingtoareportbyF.Migniuoloin2007onthe
GenderEqualitydutyandschools(seewww.schoolsout.org.uk).
31.

Thereareanumberofsignificantreasonswhywomendonotleavedangerous
partners,includingsafety;forexamplesurvivorscanbeatahigherriskwhenthey
leaveviolentpartners.Thereareothertiestohomesincludingidentity,family,money
andstatuswhichoperateasstrongmotivatorsforstayinginaviolentrelationship.
Womenwithuncertainimmigrationstatushavenorecoursetopublicfundssoarenot
eligiblefortheprotectionprovidedbyrefugesandmaybeforcedtostaywithinan
abusiverelationship.

32.

Religious,culturalandsocialfactorsmayberelevant.Forexample:
a. Insomecommunitiesawomanleavingherabusivehusbandmaybeatriskof
reprisalsorevenbeingkilledbyherownorherhusband'sfamilyforbringing
shameontothefamilyorcommunity.
b. Thelossofasupportnetworkforsurvivorswithdisabilitiesorspecialneedsmay
meanparticularhardship,isolationandthepossibilitythatsimilarsupportmay
neverbefoundintheareashemovesto.

Recommendationthejudgesrole

Thecourtsandjudiciaryhaveanimportantroletoplayinconveyingtothepublicthat
domesticviolencewillnotbetoleratedandsendingoutamessagethatabuseand
violenceinanintimaterelationshipisaseriousmatterandisunacceptable.Children
arealsoaffected.Notonlyaremanytraumatisedbywhattheywitness,thereisalsoa
strongconnectionbetweendomesticviolence,sexualviolenceandchildabuse.Whilst
mostvictimsofdomesticviolencearewomen,menandpartnersinsamesex
relationshipsmightalsobevictimsofdomesticviolenceandshouldbetreated
similarly.Insofaraspossible,genderneutrallanguageshouldbeusedtodescribe
domesticviolencewithoutlosingsightofthefactthattherealityisthatsomeofthe
mostphysicallyviolentincidentsarecommittedbymenonfemalepartnersorex
partners.

TheSentencingCouncilhasproduceddefinitiveguidelinesinrelationtocases
involvingdomesticviolenceandbreachofaprotectiveorder.(Theguidelinesare
availableonhttp://www.sentencingguidelines.gov.ukorfrom

TheSentencingCouncilforEnglandandWales
TheRoyalCourtsofJustice
EastBlock,RoomEB16
TheStrand
LondonWC2A2LL

Telephone:02070715793

Sexualoffences
33.

TheMinistryofJusticeStatisticalBulletininJanuary2013reportedthatanannual
averageof404,000womanand72,000menarethevictimsofsexualoffences.

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Genderequality

34.

Thereareanestimated85,000femalevictimsofrapeorsexualassaultbypenetration
everyyearintheUK(12,000men).Sincetheageof16some5%ofwomenintheUK
havebeenrapedand20%haveexperiencedothersexualoffencessuchassexual
threats,unwantedtouchingorindecentexposure.

35.

Only15%ofserioussexualoffencesagainstpeopleover16arereportedtothepolice.

36.

Overalljustundertwothirdsofallcasesprosecutedassexualassaultresultina
convictionandthoseconvictedofrapealmostallreceivedacustodialsentence.

37.

AHomeOfficeSurveyin2009foundthatoneinfourrespondentsbelievethata
womanispartiallyresponsibleifsheisrapedorsexuallyassaultedwhensheisdrunk
orusingdrugs.Some10%feltsheshouldbepartlyheldresponsibleifwalkingaloneat
night.Rapecomplainantsmaybereluctanttoreportcrimebecausetheyfearthat
theywillbeblamedfortheattack(becauseofwhattheywerewearingortheamount
theyhaddrunk).

Myths
38.

Agenuinevictimwillreportrapeatonce.TheCourtofAppealhasrecentlyconfirmed
thatjuriescanbetoldthatdelaycanbedowntotraumaaftertherape.

39.

Falseallegationsofrapearecommon.Thereisnoreliableevidencethatmorefalse
complaintsaremadeinrapecasesthaninotherseriouscrimes.

40.

Mostrapesarecommittedbystrangers.In90%ofcasesrapistsareknowntothe
victim:apartnerorformerpartner,friend,colleague,acquaintanceorprofessional.

41.

Rapevictimsshouldputupafightandshowsignsofstruggle,andavictimwillsustain
genitalinjuries.Notallvictimsresist,manyfearingtheconsequences.Manywomen
freeze.

42.

Consenttosexcanbeassumedfromdress,flirting,drink.Juriescouldbetoldthatifa
manflashedhisbulgingwalletaroundinapubandthenhaditstolen,noonewould
saythatthepersonwhostoleitwasnotreallyathief.

43.

Strangerrapeismoretraumaticthanrapebyaknownperson.Sexualassaultisa
traumaticexperiencewhoevertheperpetratorandsometimesmoretraumaticifa
breachoftrustisinvolved.

Recommendationthejudgesrole

Ajudgewillnothearaserioussexualoffencecaseunlessheorshehasattended
specialisttraining.ThematerialsareavailabletojudgesviatheJSBtrainingwebsite.

Specialmeasures

Considerationshouldalwaysbegiventousingthecourt'sgeneralandspecialpowers
toeffectafairhearingwherethecaseinvolvesallegationsofsexualharassmentor
violence.TheseincludethespecialmeasuresintroducedbytheYouthJusticeand
CriminalEvidenceAct1999(allowingevidencetobegivenbytelevisionlink,byDVD,
videorecordingorbehindascreen;andallowinghearingsinprivateincertain
circumstances).Asfarascriminalproceedingsareconcerned,whereanallegationof
rapeorofotherspecifiedsexualoffencesismade,nomatterrelatingtothe

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Genderequality

complainantshallbeincludedinanypublicationifitislikelytoleadtotheir
identification.Thecircumstancesinwhichanonymitycanbeliftedareverylimited
(SexualOffences(Amendment)Act1992).
Evidenceviavideolink,anonymity

Inthecontextofcivilproceedings,thecourtshavepowertopermitevidencetobe
givenbyvideolink(r.32.3CivilProcedureRule(CPR)andPracticeDirection32,Annex
3).Rule32.3CPRprovidesageneraldiscretion(withoutlimits)topermitevidenceto
begivenbyvideolink(RowlandvBrock[2002]4AQllER370,NewmanJ).Thoughthe
usualruleisthathearingswillbeinpublic(r.39.2CPR),exceptincertainclassesof
case,thecivilcourtsalsohavepowertoholdhearingsinprivateifitisconsidered
necessaryintheinterestsofjustice(r.39.2(3)(g)CPRandseePracticeDirection39,
paras1.11.10).Inaddition,acourtmayorderthatthattheidentityofanypartyor
witnessmustnotbedisclosedifitconsidersitnecessaryinordertoprotectthe
interestsofthatpartyorwitness(r.39.(2)4CPR).

ThespecificrulepermittingvideoevidenceintheCivilProcedureRules(r.32.3CPR)is
itselfbasedontherequirementsoftheoverridingobjectiveunderr1.1CPR,namely
toensurethatpartiesareplacedonanequalfooting.Therelevantpartsofthedutyto
dealwithacasejustlyinaccordancewiththeoverridingobjectiveascontainedinthe
2001Regulationsareframedinidenticaltermstothosecontainedinr.1.1CPR.

Womenasoffenders
44.

BaronessHaleDBEsaidinher2005LongfordTrustLecture:
Itisnowwellrecognisedthatamisplacedconceptionofequalityhasresultedin
someveryunequaltreatmentforthewomenandgirlswhoappearbeforethecriminal
justicesystem.Simplyput,amaleorderedworldhasappliedtothemitsperceptions
oftheappropriatetreatmentformaleoffenders.Thecriminaljusticesystemcould
askitselfwhetheritisindeedunjusttowomen.

StatisticsfromthePrisonReformTrustwebsite
(www.prisonreformtrust.org.uk/women):
45.

Womenrepresentabout5%oftheoverallprisonpopulation.

46.

ThenumberofwomeninprisoninEnglandandWalesstoodat4,141inNovember
2012,andatotalof10,024womenwerereceivedintoprisoninthe12monthsto
September2012.

47.

From20002010,thewomensprisonpopulationincreasedby27%.

48.

Mostoftheriseinthefemaleprisonpopulationcanbeexplainedbyasignificant
increaseintheseverityofsentences.In1996,10%ofwomenconvictedofan
indictableoffenceweresenttoprison,in201014%were.

49.

Theproportionofwomenprisonersundersentenceaged40andoverhasrisenfrom
18%in2002to28%in2009.

50.

Womenaretentimesmorelikelythanmentoselfharminprison.

51.

Oneinfourwomeninprisonhasspenttimeinlocalauthoritycareasachild.

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Genderequality

52.

Nearly40%ofwomeninprisonleftschoolbeforetheageof16years,almostonein
10wereaged13oryounger.

53.

30%ofwomenwerepermanentlyexcludedfromschool.

54.

Overhalfthewomeninprisonreporthavingsuffereddomesticviolenceandonein
threehasexperiencedsexualabuse.

55.

NearlyhalfofwomenprisonerssurveyedforaMinistryofJusticestudy(48%)
reportedhavingcommittedoffencestosupportsomeoneelsesdruguse,compared
toonlyjustoveronefifthofmaleprisoners(22%).

56.

19%ofwomenwerenotinpermanentaccommodationbeforeenteringcustodyand
10%ofwomenweresleepingrough.

57.

8.4%ofwomenreleasedfromprisonsentencesoflessthan12monthshadpositive
employmentoutcomescomparedto27.3percentofmen

Recommendations

TheSentencingGuidelinesprovidethat:
Sentencersmustbemadeawareofthedifferentialimpactsentencingdecisionshave
onwomenandmenincludingcaringresponsibilitiesforchildrenorelders;theimpact
ofimprisonmentonmentalandemotionalwellbeing;andthedisproportionate
impactthatincarcerationhasonoffenderswhohavecaringresponsibilitiesiftheyare
imprisonedalongdistancefromhome.

ThePrisonServiceGenderSpecificStandards(GSS)provideguidanceonthevarious
stagesofcustodyandconsidertheneedsofdifferentwomensuchasyoungand
olderwomen,BMEwomen,foreignnationalwomen,womenwithdisabilities,women
servingalifesentenceandwomenwithchildren.

Thereisevidencethatasignificantproportionofforeignnationalwomeninprison
mayhavebeentraffickedandcoercedintooffendingbutwomenaretooterrifiedto
disclosethisforfearofretaliation.

InternationalstandardsforwomenoffendersaresetoutintheUnitedNationsRules
fortheTreatmentofWomenPrisonersandNonCustodialMeasuresforWomen
Offenders(theBangkokRules),adoptedinJuly2010.

Thepublicsectorgenderequalitydutyappliestoprisons,probationservicesandcourt
staff.

Accommodatingdifferentsittinghoursandbreaks

Womenshouldnotbedisadvantagediftheyhaverecentlygivenbirth,are
breastfeedingorcaringforchildren.Womenwhoarebreastfeedingwillneedtohave
asuitableplacetonurseandadequatebreakstodoso.Weshould,inexercisingour
casemanagementfunctions,haveproperregardtothisindecidingsittinghoursand
even,asappropriate,location.Similarly,womenandmenwhohavedependent
childrenmayhavechildcareresponsibilitieswhichmakeconventionalsittinghours
difficultorimpossibleforthem.Suchresponsibilitiesshouldbeaccommodatedasfar
aspossible.Itisunlikelytohelpintheachievementofjusticeifawitnessorpartyis

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lateordistractedbyreasonofconcernoverchildcare.Withsensiblelistingandcase
managementsuchresponsibilitiesshouldbereadilyaccommodated.
Language

Awomansmaritalstatuswillusuallybequiteirrelevanttotheissuesbeforeus.
However,courtesyisanimportantwayofensuringthatparticipantsinthejustice
processfeelfairlytreatedanditisimportantthereforetocheckwithanywitnesshow
theywishtobeaddressed.Weshouldnotassumethatamarriedorunmarried
womanwouldprefertobecalledMrsorMissmanymayprefertheneutralMs.
Accordingly,itisbesttoaskawomanhowshewishestobeaddressed,i.e.ratherthan
themoreintrusive(andirrelevant)Areyoumarried?.

Intheuseoflanguage,wecanunconsciouslyconveyassumptionsaboutgenderroles
whichmightbeoffensiveordisconcertingtoparticipantswhodonotmatchthose
roles(e.g.postman;chairmanratherthanpostalworkerorchair).Insofaras
possiblethereforeweshouldtakecaretousegenderneutrallanguage:they(rather
thanheorshe);them(ratherthanhimorher).

Protectingwomen

Ashasbeendescribedabove,therearetoolsavailableatcommonlaw,instatute,in
theCivilProcedureRules,tribunalrulesandasenshrinedintheEuropeanConvention
ofHumanRightstoensurewomencanfeelsafeinparticipatinginthejusticeprocess
andareprotectedagainstunjustifiedintrusivequestioning.Weshouldusethesetools
asappropriate,bearinginmindthatArticle6oftheEuropeanConventionrequires
asacomponentofthebroaderconceptofafairtrialthateachpartymustbe
affordedareasonableopportunitytopresenttheircaseunderconditionswhichdo
notplacethematasubstantialdisadvantagevisvistheiropponent(seeDeHaes
andGisjselsvBelgium199825EHHR1,para.53).

Marriageanddivorce
58.

ItisunlawfulundertheEqualityActtodiscriminateagainstsomeonebecausetheyare
marriedorinacivilpartnership.

59.

Acivilmarriageorpartnershipmusttakeplaceataregisterofficeorvenueapproved
bythelocalauthority.Whilstareligiousmarriagemaytakeplaceinachurch,mosque,
templeorotherplaceofworship,therelationshipwillnotbelegallyrecognisedunless
theplaceofworshipiseitherAnglicanorregisteredbytheregistrargeneralfor
marriage.Divorceissimilarlyonlylegallyrecognisedifitcomplieswithlegislation.
a. Thereareofcoursemanydifferentviewsontheacceptabilityofdivorcein
differentcultures.
b. Themediaregularlycommentsontheapparentinequalitybetweenmenand
women,withwomenfindingitmoredifficulttodivorcethanmenunderboth
ShariaandOrthodoxJewishlaw,forexample.
c. Insomecommunitiesdifficultiesariseondivorcewhenthecouplediscoversthat
theirreligiousceremonywasnotlegallyrecognizedastheirplaceofmarriagewas
notregistered.

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60.

RecentlyintheHighCourt,Mr.JusticeBaker,adjournedahearingandagreedto
endorsetheparties'proposaltorefertheirdisputestoaprocessofarbitrationbefore
theNewYorkBethDinoncehewassatisfiedabouttheprinciplesandapproach
adoptedbytherabbinicalauthorities.TheprocesswassuccessfulbutBakerJstressed
thattheoutcome,althoughlikelytocarryconsiderableweightwiththecourt,would
nothavebeenbindingandwouldnotprecludeeitherpartyfrompursuingapplications
tohiscourtinrespectofanyofthemattersinissue.Heemphasizedthatthecourt
givesrespecttoallreligiouspracticesandbeliefs,[b]utthatrespectdoesnotoblige
thecourttodepartfromthewelfareprinciplebecause...thewelfareprincipleis
sufficientlybroadandflexibletoaccommodatemanyculturalandreligiouspractices.
(ReAIandMT[2013]EWHC100(Fam)).

61.

Themediareportedthecasewidelyasopeningupapossibilitythatdivorcessettled
byreligiouscourtsincludingShariaareastepclosertobeingallowedunderBritish
law.

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12.Sexualorientation
Keypoints

Sexualorientationisjustoneofmanyfacetsofapersonsidentityandlesbian,gayand
bisexual(LGB)peopleareasdiverseasthecommunityasawhole.

Thedefinitionoflesbian,gay,bisexualityandheterosexualityisbetterexpressedas
sexualorientationtowardspeople,ratherthansexualattractionto.Thisreflectsthe
factthatpeoplebuildcommitted,stablerelationshipsanddoesnotfocuspurelyon
sexualactivity.

MostLGBpeoplefeelthattheirsexualorientationisunalterablejustasmost
heterosexualsdo.

GayisincreasinglyusedasagenerictermtodescribeLGBpeopleinpreferenceto
homosexual.

Samesexrelationshipsarenotnecessarilythesameasheterosexualones.Courtsand
tribunalsshouldbecarefulnottojudgesamesexrelationshipsaccordingtothe
principlesofheterosexualmarriedlife.Inanycase,families,whetherheterosexualor
gay,thatdonotconformtothetraditionalmodelareanincreasinglycommonsocial
reality.Samesexcouplescanenterintocivilpartnershipsandcan,asamatteroflaw,
constituteanenduringfamilyrelationship.

ObjectivemainstreamresearchshowsthatchildrenbroughtupbyLGBparentsdo
equallyaswellasthosebroughtupbyheterosexualparents.

Somepeoplewronglyassumethatbeinglesbianorgayisrelatedtopaedophiledesire.It
isnot.

Lesbian,gayandbisexualpeoplecontinuetogoinconstantfearofunequaltreatmentin
theirdailylives.Discriminationbythejusticesystem,whenithappens,confirmsthe
expectationsofmanyLGBpeople.

Whendealingwithanyapparentlackofcandour,courtsandtribunalsshouldremember
thatbeinggayorlesbianisanindividualexperiencethatmayhaveledtofearand
concealment;manygaypeoplefeartoengagewiththejusticesystemastheymaybe
outedinopencourtwithseriousconsequencesfortheirfamilylifeandtheir
relationshipsinthecommunity,nottomentiontheirsafety.

Thereisnoonegaycommunitybutgrowingupgayinvolvesprofoundfeelingsof
isolationandthediscoveryofagaycommunitymeansthediscoveryofarefugeina
hostileworld.Researchhasshownthatbisexualpeoplesufferparticularproblemsin
beingexcludedfrombothheterosexualandgaycommunities.

Noreputablemedicalopinionnowsuggeststhathomosexualityisacatchableor
pathologicalconditionorthatboysorgirlscanbeseducedintobeinggay.

StonewallwhichworkstoachieveequalityandjusticeforLGBpeoplehasawebsite
containingagreatdealofusefulinformation:www.stonewall.org.uk

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Lesbian,gayandbisexualpeopleintroductionandlanguage
1.

Thelifestyles,occupations,politicalbeliefsandfinancialcircumstancesofLGBpeople
willbeasdiverseandunpredictableasthoseoftheirheterosexualcounterparts.Their
sexualorientationisbutonefacetoftheiridentitiesandtheirlives.

2.

Itisextremelydifficulttocalculatethenumberoflesbians,gaymenandbisexualsin
EnglandandWales.ThegovernmentandStonewallagreethatareasonableestimate
isthat57%ofthepopulationisgay.InhisopinioninGrantvSouthWestTrains(Case
C249/96),intheEuropeanCourtofJustice,AdvocateGeneralElmerestimatedthat
therewere35millionLGBpeoplewithintheEuropeanUnion.

3.

Itshouldalsobenotedthathumansexualityisacompletespectrumrangingfromthe
exclusivelyheterosexual,throughvarietiesofbisexualitytotheexclusivelygay.
Additionally,somepeopleresistlabelling,anddeclinetobeidentifiedasbeingofany
particularorfixedsexuality.Allthismakesanestimateofnumbersextremelydifficult
althoughthereislittledoubtthat,withmoretolerantpublicattitudes,thenumberof
peoplewillingtobeidentifiedasgay,lesbianorbisexual,isincreasing.

4.

Tobestereotypedonthebasisofsexualorientationisjustasoffensiveastobe
stereotypedonthebasisofcolour.Consequently,judicialdecisionmakersneedtobe
awareoftheharmdonetopeople,andtothereputationofthejudicialsystem,by
stereotypicalassumptionsandhomespuntheoriesaroundtheissueofbeinglesbian,
gayorbisexual.

5.

Judgesshouldbealerttorestrainanyintrusivequestioningofthesexualityofa
witness,alitigant,anapplicantoradefendantunlessitisstrictlyrelevanttoreal
issuesinthecase.Infactitisrarelynecessarytoaskwhatalitigantssexual
orientationis,andifitbecomesnecessarytheyshouldbeaskedtoselfdefine.

6.

Differentpeoplepreferdifferenttermsbutingeneralitisacceptabletousethe
following:
lesbian,gayandbisexualpeople(forshort,LGBpeople;sometimesthetermLBGTis
usedmeaninglesbian,gay,bisexualandtransgenderpeople)
awomanwhoislesbian/alesbian/agaywoman
agayman
abisexualperson

7.

Termsthatarenotacceptableare:
ahomosexual
agay
somelesbiansdonotliketobecalledgaybecausetheyhaveadistinctidentityfrom
gaymenalthoughmanyareveryhappywiththat
dyke/queer,etc.someofthesederogatorytermsmaybeusedwithironybygay
peoplethemselvesbutshouldnotbeusedbyjudgesor(generally)byheterosexual
people.

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8.

Lesbian,gayandbisexualpeoplefaceadailydilemmawhethertobeopenastotheir
sexualorientation,andriskbigotry,prejudice,discriminationandtheadverse
judgementsofothers,orkeeptheissuehiddenandfaceaccusationsofcoverup,
dishonestyandalackofcandour.Manyaredeeplyfearfuloftheconsequencesof
comingout.Formany,thefearisofpotentialpersonalrejectionbyfamily,friends
andcolleagues.Employmentcanbelost,familiesdevastatedandrelationships
damagedbyunnecessaryandprurientcourtreporting.Courtsandtribunalsshouldbe
awarethatthesefactorsmayplaceadditionalburdensongayandlesbianwitnesses
andvictims,andshouldconsiderwhatmeasuresmightbeavailabletocounteract
them.

9.

ItissometimesaskedWhydotheyhavetosaytheyaregay,whynotkeepthisa
privatepersonalmatter?Amongsttheanswersare:
Heterosexualpeopleareconstantlyoutingthemselvestocolleaguesreferringtomy
husband/wifeetc,allLGBpeoplewantistodothesame
Manysaythatcomingoutisaliberatingexperiencewhichremovesstressandallows
fullparticipationintheworkplaceetc.

Perceptionsofprejudice
10.

Thereisanhistoricalbackgroundofdeep,widespread,entrenchedandunchallenged
discriminationagainstLGBpeopleandmalehomosexualitywasonlydecriminalisedin
NorthernIrelandin1980.PollingbyStonewallin201213showsthat800,000people
intheBritishworkforcehavewitnessedphysicalhomophobicbullyingatworkinthe
pastfiveyears;98%ofsecondaryschoolpupilswhoidentifyasgayregularlyhear
homophobiclanguage;andthereare20,000homophobiccrimesstillbeingcommitted
inthiscountryeveryyear.

11.

ForLGBpeople,therefore,unequaltreatmentintheirdailylivesisaneverpresent
expectation.Discriminationbythejusticesystem,whenithappens,comesasno
surpriseandreinforcesabeliefthatnothingwilleverchange.Further,parties,jurors
andwitnessesmayassumethattheirlifestyleandsexualitywillbejudgedadversely.

12.

Itisoftenremarkedthatyoungpeoplearemuchmoretolerantandunderstandingof
LGBpeople.Butthereportedexperienceofgaypeopleisthatthistoleranceor
understandingdoesnotmanifestitselfinschoolsandunlessinformedbyeducation
andintelligentthoughtsuchapparenttoleranceonthepartoftheover18scanbe
somewhatsuperficial(seeTheTeachersReport,Stonewall,2009).

Thelegalrecognitionofsamesexrelationships
13.

Acivilpartnershipisarelationshipbetweentwopeopleofthesamesexwhichis
formedwhentheyregisterascivilpartnersofeachother.TheCivilPartnershipAct
2004alsobroadenedthedefinitionoffamiliessothatforalmostallpurposessame
sexcouplesaretreatedasequivalenttooppositesexcouplesandcivilpartnersare
treatedasequivalenttomarriedpartners.Itprovidesfordivorce(knownas
dissolution)inmuchthesamewaysasformarriage;amendslawsrelatingto
children,thesuccessionoftenancies,willsandinheritance,pensions,socialsecurity,

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childsupport,taxationanddomesticviolencetoprovidethesamesexpartnerswith
muchthesamerightsasheterosexualpartners.
14.

TheMarriage(SameSexCouples)ActreceivedRoyalAssentinJuly2013allowingthe
firstsamesexmarriagestobeperformedinthesummerof2014.Whens.9ofthatAct
comesintoforceitwillgrantanyonewhoisregisteredinacivilpartnershiptheability
toconvertthatpartnershipintoamarriage.

15.

AtthecommitteestageinFebruary2013BenSummerskill,CEOofStonewall,was
askedabouttheimportanceoftheBilltogaypeoplegiventhatthecivilpartnership
legislationhasconferredprettymuchthesamerightsasmarriagealready.Hesaid:
First,wearealivetothefactthattherearenowanincreasingnumberoflesbianand
gaypeople,particularlyyoungerones,whowanttheirfamilystructurestobe
describedinexactlythesamewayaseveryoneelses.Forthosewhohavechildren,
thatisparticularlyimportant.Secondly,manypeopleratherhopedwhencivil
partnershipswereintroducedthattheywouldleadtolesbian,gayandbisexualpeople
beingtreatedinthepublicspaceinexactlythesamewayasothers..Wehavecome
totheviewthatuntilpeoplearetreatedinexactlythesamewaylegislatively,thereis
ariskthat.distinctionswillcontinuetobemade..someofthelanguagewehave
heardinthepublicspaceinrecentweeksandmonthscomparinggaypeopleinlong
termrelationshipstoabortionists,tobestialistsandtopaedophileshasrather
galvanisedtheviewofalotofgaypeoplethatitistimethatthisdistinctionwas
eroded.

16.

Thewordingofthecivilpartnershipcontractandthecivilmarriagecontractarepretty
muchthesame.Thelegislationwillenablesamesexmarriagesonreligiouspremises
butwillnotrequirethis.Civilpartnerswillbeentitledtoconverttheirpartnershiptoa
marriage.

Familyissues
17.

Extensivepsychologicalresearchhasdemonstratedthatchildrenbroughtupby
lesbianorgayparentsdoequallyaswellasthosebroughtupbyheterosexualparents
intermsofemotionalwellbeing,sexualresponsibility,academicachievementand
avoidanceofcrime.Thereisnobodyofrespectableresearchwhichpoints
convincinglytoanyotherconclusion.

Childrenborntosamesexcouplesthroughdonorinsemination
18.

TheHumanFertilisationandEmbryologyAct2008appliestobothsamesexand
heterosexualcoupleswhoconceiveusingdonorspermorembryos.TheActbrought
civilpartnersintolinewithmarriedcouples,andsamesexcouplesnotinacivil
partnershipinlinewithunmarriedcouples.Samesexcouples,includingcivilpartners,
arelegallyrecognisedasparentsofchildrenconceivedduringtheirrelationshipfrom
themomentofconceptionwithouttheneedforeithertoapplytoadoptthechild,
givingsamesexcouplesthesamerightstoparenthoodasheterosexualcoupleswhen
registeringtheirchild'sbirth.

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19.

Fertilityclinicsarenolongerrequiredtoconsiderthe'needforafather'before
grantingtreatment;nowclinicsareonlyrequiredtoconsidertheneedfor'supportive
parenting'.

Adoption
20.

IntheAdoptionandChildrenAct2002thereisprovisionforsamesexcouplesto
adopt.Itisnotnecessaryforthecoupletohaveregisteredtheirpartnership.
Unmarriedcouples,however,whethergayorheterosexual,mustshowthattheyare
livingaspartnersinanenduringfamilyrelationship(section144(4)).

21.

InMcClintockvDepartmentofConstitutionalAffairsUKEAT/0223/07,MrMcClintock,
aJusticeofthePeace,resignedfrommembershipoftheFamilyPanelbecausethe
DepartmentofConstitutionalAffairsrefusedtorelievehimofthedutytoofficiatein
casesinwhichhemighthavetoplacechildrenforadoption,fosteringorcarewithcivil
partnersorsamesexpartners.TheEATupheldatribunalsdecisionthatMr
McClintockhadnotsuffereddirectorindirectdiscriminationorharassmenton
groundsofhisreligionorbelief(theEmploymentEquality(ReligionorBelief)
Regulations2003).

22.

ThebasisonwhichMrMcClintockhadaskedtobeexcusedwasthatchildrenwere
beingtreatedaspartofanunacceptablesocialexperiment.Hehadnotmadeitclear
thathisobjectionwasfoundedonanyconscientiousorreligiousconvictions.Inany
event,theEATupheldthetribunal'sfindingthattherequirementforMrMcClintockto
upholdthejudicialoathtoapplythelawwithoutfearorfavourwasjustified.

Residenceandcontact
23.

Oneofthecentrallegalconceptsinlesbianandgayparentingisparental
responsibility.InEnglandandWalesitisdefinedintheChildrenAct1989asallthe
rights,duties,powers,responsibilitiesandauthoritywhichbylawaparenthasin
relationtothechildandhisproperty.Itisthestartingpointforrecognitionasa
parentunderthelaw.Somegaymencanobtainparentalresponsibilitybyagreement
withthemotherbutmanygayparentshavetogotocourttoobtainanorder(see
www.stonewall.org.uk/at_home/parentingandwww.rightsofwomen.org.ukfor
furtherinformation).

Divorce
24.

Itsometimeshappensthat,aftersuccumbingtosocialpressuretomarry,amanor
womanfacesuptothefactthattheyaregay,andthemarriagebreaksdown.Forthe
reasonsgivenaboveinrelationtoadoptionitwouldbewrongforajudgetomakeany
valuejudgementsbasedonthesexualityoftheparties.Theheterosexualpartymay
feelsuperior,orthatthefaultorblamelieswiththegayorlesbianpartybyvirtueof
theirsexuality,butsuchnotionsaremisplaced.

Employment
25.

TheEqualityAct2010outlawsemploymentdiscriminationonthegroundsofsexual
orientation.Discriminationcanbedirect,indirectvictimisationorharassment.Thereis
noneedtoforpersonsufferingdiscriminationtobegayorperceivedasgayand

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Sexualorientation

indeednoneedforthejudgetoaskwhatthevictimssexualorientationis.Thetestis
whetherthatpersonhassufferedadisadvantageongroundsofsexualorientation.
26.

SirStephenSedleyintheCourtofAppealstated:
Sexualorientationisnotaneither/oraffair.Somepeoplearebisexual;someare
asexual;some,includingheterosexuals,haveunusualinterestsandproclivities.Allof
thesemaydesiretokeeptheirorientationtothemselvesbutstillbevulnerableto
harassmentbypeoplewhoknoworsensewhattheirorientationis.
EnglishvThomasSandersonBlindsLtd[2009]IRLR206,CA

27.

Thereissometimesaperceivedconflictbetweentheprotectionaffordedbythe
EqualityActtothosewiththeprotectedcharacteristicsofreligionorbeliefandsexual
orientation.InLadelevLondonBoroughofIslington[2009]theCourtofAppeal
rejectedanappealbyaregistrarwhohadrefusedtoperformcivilpartnership
ceremoniesagainstafindingthatshehadnotbeendiscriminatedagainstongrounds
ofherChristianreligion.LordNeubergerheld:
MsLadelewasemployedinapublicjobandwasworkingforapublicauthority;
shewasbeingrequiredtoperformapurelyseculartask,whichwasbeingtreated
aspartofherjob;MsLadele'srefusaltoperformthattaskinvolveddiscriminating
againstgaypeopleinthecourseofthatjob;shewasbeingaskedtoperformthe
taskbecauseofIslington'sDignityforAllpolicy,whoselaudableaimwastoavoid,
oratleastminimise,discriminationbothamongIslington'semployees,andas
betweenIslington(anditsemployees)andthoseinthecommunitytheyserved;
MsLadele'srefusalwascausingoffencetoatleasttwoofhergaycolleagues;Ms
Ladele'sobjectionwasbasedonherviewofmarriage,whichwasnotacorepartof
herreligion;andIslington'srequirementinnowaypreventedherfrom
worshippingasshewished.
MrsLadelesapplicationtotheECHRfailedinJanuary2013.

28.

In2011theCourtofAppealconsideredadiscriminationclaimbroughtbyagayman
partlyonthegroundsthatacolleaguehadoutedhim;shewasfoundtohave
believedthathewasopenlygay.LJEliassaidthatitwould:
"[make]amockeryofdiscriminationlawtoimposeliabilityinthesecircumstances.
Adefendantwouldbeliablefordiscriminationfordoingsomethingwhichthe
claimanthadreasonablyledhimorhertobelievewouldnotcausetheclaimant
concern....GrantvHMLandRegistry[2011]
Suchsituationsarefactspecificbutjudgesshouldnotassumethataninnocent
allusiontoacolleaguessexualorientationinneutrallanguageisunlawful.

29.

Rightstotimeoffworktocareforchildren,forexamplepaternity,parentaland
adoptionleaveandtherighttotimeofffordependantsareavailabletogaypeople.

30.

SeetheStonewallwebsite(http://www.stonewall.org.uk/workplace)forresources,
researchandguides,includinganemployerhandbookandanemployeetoolkit.There
isalsoinformationonwww.gov.uk

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Facilitiesandservices
31.

TheEqualityAct2010outlawsdiscriminationandharassmentintheprovisionofall
goods,facilitiesandservicesThisincludeshealthcare(GPscannotturnyouwayfor
beinggayorrefuselesbian,gayorbisexualpeopletreatmentstheywouldofferto
anyoneelse)housing(inthepastsomecouncilshaverefusedtorecognise
homophobicbullyingasagoodreasontorehouseapersonorevicttheirneighbours),
ineducation(ifaschoolfailstotakeantigaybullyingseriouslyorrefusesaplaceto
someonebecausetheymightbegay)andtheexercisingofpublicauthorityfunctions.
HotelsandB&Bscannotrefusedoubleroomstosamesexcouples(seeBlack&
MorganvWilkinson[2013]EWCA820wheretheCourtofAppealrefusedanappealby
aChristianbedandbreakfastownerwhohadrefusedabedtoagaycouple,but
grantedherleavetoapplytotheSupremeCourt).Restaurantsshouldnotaskgay
couplestoleavesimplyforholdinghands.

Lesbian,gayandbisexualpeopleandcrime
32.

From1967inEnglandandWaleshomosexualactsbetweenadultswithnoother
personspresentbecamelegal(1980inScotlandand1982inNorthernIreland).Under
theSexualOffencesAct2003thereisanoffenceapplicabletoallpersonsregardlessof
theirsexualorientationofsexualactivityinapubliclavatory;thisisallthatremains
ofthe1967referencetootherpersonspresent.From2000theageofconsentfor
gaymenhasbeen16.Lesbianshaveneversubjecttothecriminallaw.Consensual
homosexualactbetweenadultsremainillegalinabout36%ofthecountriesofthe
world.

33.

Thereisnoevidencethatbeinggayimpliesapropensitytocommitanyparticulartype
ofcrime.Acommonandextremelyoffensivestereotypelinksbeinggaywith
paedophilia.Mostsexualabuseofchildrenhappensinthehome,iscommittedby
someonethechildknowswell,andisnotgenderspecific.Thereisabsolutelyno
evidencethatgaymenaremorelikelytoabusechildrenthanheterosexualmen.

34.

Lesbian,gayandbisexualpeopleareoftenthevictimsofcrime.Stonewalls2008
surveyfoundthat:
Oneinfivelesbianandgaypeoplehadexperiencedahomophobichatecrimeor
incidentinthelastthreeyears,oneineighthadbeenavictiminthelastyear;
threeinfourofthoseexperiencinghatecrimesorincidentsdidnotreportthemto
thepolice.Sevenintendidnotreporthatecrimesorincidentstoanyone.
Oneinsixexperiencinghomophobichateincidentsinthelastthreeyearsexperienced
aphysicalassault.
Eightpercentofallblackandminorityethniclesbianandgaypeoplehave
experiencedaphysicalassaultasahomophobichateincident,comparedto4%of
alllesbianandgaypeople.Oneinsixlesbianandgaypeoplehavebeeninsulted
andharassedinthelastthreeyearsbecausetheyaregay.

35.

Byvirtueofs.146oftheCriminalJusticeAct2003,wherethecourtisconsideringthe
seriousnessofanoffencecommittedbyapersonwhodemonstratedhostilitybased
onsexualorientation(orpresumedsexualorientation),orwheretheoffenceis
motivated(whollyorpartly)byhostilitytowardspersonswhoareofaparticular

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Sexualorientation

sexualorientation,thenthecourtmusttreatsuchhostilityasanaggravatingfactor,
anditisimmaterialwhetherornottheoffender'shostilitywasalsobased,toany
extent,onanyotherfactor.
36.

However,thereisnofreestandingoffenceofhomophobichatecrimesoperpetrators
cannotbechargedwithaspecificoffenceofhomophobicallymotivatedharassment,
unlikeperpetratorsofraciallyandreligiouslymotivatedhatecrimeswhocanbe
chargedwithraciallyorreligiouslyaggravatedharassmentorassault.

Immigration
37.

Issuesaroundsexualorientationariseintwobroadareas,namelysamesex
relationships,whereonepartyisanoverseasnationalseekingpermissiontoenteror
remainintheUKwithaviewtosettlement,andlesbian,gay,transgenderand
transvestiteasylumseekers.

38.

ThoseenteringtheUKforthepurposeofenteringintoacivilpartnershiporwiththe
intentiontolivepermanentlywiththeotheraretreatedexactlythesameas
heterosexualpeopleenteringtomarryorcohabit.HomeOfficeapprovalmaybe
required.

39.

Thosewhoclaimtoberefugeeswithawellfoundedfearofbeingpersecutedunder
Article1A2ofthe1951UnitedNationsConventionrelatingtothestatusofrefugees
(TheRefugeeConvention)byreasonoftheirsexualorientationorwhofeargender
relatedharmmayputtheircaseonthebasisthattheyaremembersofaparticular
socialgroup,Paragraphs295A295GofHC395asamendedbyHC538.Theymayalso
arguethattheyhaveawellfoundedfearbyreasonoftheirpoliticalopinion,orfor
anyoftheotherreasonssetoutinArticle1A2oftheRefugeeConvention.

40.

Thereisverylittleinformationonwhichcountriescondonehumanrightsabuses
basedonsexualorientation(seeAmnestyInternationalsCrimesofhate,conspiracyof
silence:tortureandilltreatmentbasedonsexualidentity(2001)).Anotherproblemis
thatinsomecountriesdeemedsafebytheHomeOffice,LGBandtransgenderpeople
maystillsufferpersecution.

41.

Anapplicantmayalsohavedifficultyinprovingtheirsexualorientation.Initsreport
Fitforpurposeyet?publishedin2008,theIndependentAsylumCommissiondiscussed
particularcredibilityproblemsfacedbyLGBandtransgenderpeople,forexample(a)
theymayhaveledanapparentlyheterosexualfamilylifeintheirhomecountryor(b)
theymayhavedelayedcomingouttoimmigrationofficialsandinterpretersuntillate
intheday,thefearofdisclosurebeingmistakenforchangingtheirstory.

HIVpositivepeopleandAIDS
42.

ItiswrongtoassumethatAIDSandHIVpositivestatusareindicativeofhomosexual
activity.Worldwide,heterosexualactivityisresponsibleformostnewHIVinfections.
Intravenousdrugabuseisanotherverycommoncause.TheTerrenceHigginsTrust
(tht.org.uk)reportsthattherearenownearlyasmanyAfricanpeoplelivingintheUK
diagnosedwithHIVastherearegaymen,thoughthemajorityofnewinfections
continuetobeamongstgaymen.

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Sexualorientation

43.

HIVtreatmentcanpreventapersondevelopingthesymptomsofAIDSindefinitely.
SuchtreatmentisavailableintheUKtoallHIVpositivepeople.Withoutsuch
treatmentthesymptomsofAIDSarelikelytodevelop.

44.

Thepaceofmedicalprogresshasdramaticallychangedandlengthenedthelivesof
HIVpositivepeopleinthosecountriesabletoaffordthecostoftreatment.Thismeans
thatoldideasneedtoberethoughtinthelightofnewmedicalfacts.Unfortunately,
thefearandstigmatisationresultingfromanoutofdateunderstandingoftheissues
canbeverydamagingtoHIVpositivepeople.Discriminationtowards,orharassment
of,agayHIVpositivepersonislikelytobeunlawfulbothongroundsofdisabilityand
sexualorientation.

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