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51

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52

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53

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crust)

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lP-55 u KM A?u E8 1200 -8 l8 '

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(Continental crust)
crust)
ALxD +," &' 2 68 (l + &')
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56

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 -55
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Au:

(Sesimographer) (g= - E(+<


E(+< u6)
u6) = 

pU7 =55
=55 8KL +," &' #E &' - : F(
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57

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| D l'
l'  ' A
-55

-55

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P( _ (< =27! 55 P^ W(Z A-#\Z F (Sulfur)Z  PAc' #EF'
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L ?-'( < A"p! A# ; ":
Ud =55

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58

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! c55

A ! A; EFE: G ' 8'


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\+' A ! (Sedimentary rocks)
-< A ! (Metamorphic rocks) .

  A,j! (Igneous Rocks)


+-< A' "G  8 A ' =55 E=KL  8 A ' '  &' 8<
=55 ' &' 8< ? 0"b E / ,' 0"b ' "=T =55 E=KL
 8 A ' 2p LX (magma)  ?-
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)- E(]);
2lo-55 KL( S 2p '0(lava) "61
-55 2p '0 &' )-

)<

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59

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! -55 KL "=T ":. +-< A !
c55 2p '0 >+\ 8
E(l 8)' : ?-' (crystal)
<-55 2p '0 0<=' >+\' )+' '((k
?- !
-55 -: (! Axt =X 6_ =)55
4( E(Q A(o(F 2p '0
\ >+\' S ' -+ ?- !
<-55 KL < P^ tU( ! < F(J

(Basalt) =55 ?-' ^  A ! E(l 8)' 8 P 55

+-< A' (Igneous Rock) 


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 n( - Is8
Is8 #' EP'
EP'
 ")Al =55

+-< A ! 8; :' t (Ae 8< 2 8 A-) ( Ao# (0"b AF
( : )Z b E yK/ "6
l?c55
S_ KM T< V^ IU up` S_ <e vK< eq (}) (joints and
fractures) :v u uSkk ipw (vertical) U U (horizontal) ` "L ^M::
>?U up`" S_ e uSkk uS` c "vu= T>g l` vM
U K?KA }Sdd K ^M:: :=I K L }<
p`} S_ "M ui`g^ U c= uM K<::

E)S 4#T
A,j!
A Xz A,j!

Fig. 2.9
Types
of Igneous rocks
)
A,j!

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60

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U-55
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2p '0 )l &' 2X );' )+'
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(thermal and contact metamorphism)
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-55

61

S_ nk`

A ! A;( G ' #F  8'


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63

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64

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65

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67

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69

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

&'() EB+ 
 !
Q214
=?
=?
&'() EB+ MR4

S1<= /A$% !
E
,  A8O66

 E #P A> A5H!  -i Bj; =P k& ] P2
P2

Al
Al m4 L.n E #P @2++ A> A5H! E
E no8
no8 A5H!2 A
 ]
 ]8 A M1@8 2
2 p- 8
p- 8 "KpM -> A9#" E qr 
 A6 Bj;& @s . @2++

/X 9Y
/XQ EB+
Z ! 
TO  Q

9&U

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;
EB+

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E M1@

A4%5 e P=Q  E M1@ AR++ E@S- T? UH# I8 V ->
(Savanna)8 ]^ E _K ]^# A5H! E8 :`.= A5H! E8 4a b;&
E [^T (Mangrove) "vu= ( h2++
TO  Q

TO  Q
EB+ !
M EB+ <=?
<=?
TO  Q
U= A$% 3
=?
=?
/TO  Q
=( ,-. + +  MR4
! (VW66

70

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

T? UH# I AO> tu -> mA Ua b;& I m1- T? Lm (BKtu)
P-P- vw I  r 1.K++ T? UH# I -E.H62 "TPa2 A4%5 E
#O 5- 7- k.7 1AaK++ x- k_2 =P#y] ;2 T? UH# I
Az2 {| ok @2++ 1( I A4%5  v ;2 Ua "} #P- 4;h2
HD mPK *1 500 : #1K b;& @2++ E@'( b;& ppPa2 -> mA
A  ] =*h28 UHh2- " x- 4a < M" 1500 : E 2500
 : I @2++ A5H!2- M" E UH# $;# @2++
I Am$9 "P HP I]& < x- ]- H vw E 60 : I
0" A*h2 (FEK 3.2 "K)++ T? UH# I 2 HP 5. > vw  P-q
EI #A8 Ib8 U2>8 A1] 2>8 % "k 1K++ #%- A7
0y& 8 95^8 Kx1 Aa E 1Al;K++
*1a2 x4
(Upper layer)

SNK<
(Middle layer)

; a2 x4
(Lower layer)

< KM
(Forest floor)

-K 3.2 T? UH# I

TO 3 Z !  (Savanna)


T? pKK V -> A4%5 k_ A5H! 14K++ T? pKK V -> -> mA
UH# I EI9P %=2 b 1AaK++ T? V -> A4%5 A 65% (KV
A- " ) @2 O o 14K++ T? V -> E  T? A
 ] pKr @2++ E@'( A5H!&  2 m x- $  (25 K *1)
A va2 U - ( 380  : E 1520  :) P2 'B tu @2++ p]-
m  9U$v (20 Kn ; )  U- " A@a @2++ T? V ->
vw  7 "] #>] ;;1 I8 p4 @ p V ->8 AKw AKw vw
; 4- I AKH  r K 1 *K++ (-K 3.3 "K)++

71

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

T? V -> (Savanna)  1*K++ E@S-+E@S-+4a2 T? V -> (High savanna)
p T? V -> (Park savanna)
En(A# 0y T? V -> (Thorn scrub savanna)
savanna) h2++
.

e

d8 
-K 3.3 V -> v4 M1@

/XQ E 9Y /XQ A%: EB+

/XQ E 9Y /XQ A%:[4 EB+ !


M <=?
<=?

/X 9Y /XQ EB+ /A$%  A%: E -U2


?
E -U2
?

]^# _K ]^# A5H! E 4@2 k^. ]^8 V(K pKK8 5   E
5P^% ]^ pKK @2++ A5H!2 U A @2++ '( A5H! U " 250  :
; @2++ '(- *1 A5H!2 Ua  4a E9 =P A5H! @2++ 1B E
]^# E _K ]^# A5H!& 4- E AKH A1I-++

E@'( A4%5 pKr E

U= =A- Bj; 4a @2++ P-q k:62 A4%5 ]^# A5H!& 3000 *1
E U=& Al E@'(- 2 20% (^= " )
A 9K h2++  8 *^% E 5 
"k I A4%5 ]^# A5H!& I E U=
;- h2++ 1B E @a
E M1@ ]
E (xerophytes) H h2++

]^

E

(xerophytes)

H

E

M1@

A5H!=h2 I]$#@ Bj; E 4a @ "


E M1@ h2++

72

D1m

UI;h2

 #5K "< 

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

-K 3.4 ]^# _K ]^# A5H!& E

TO A%: 9&U 01[4 EB+

TO A%: 9&U 01[4 EB+ !


M <=?
<=?

fg M EB+ ,/<=


A$% -)4 /A$% EB
EB+

S %1  Ah66


Ah66

T? 4a b;& E A4%5 T? pKK . P1- IQ= E -F. A4%5
4a

b;&

1Aa++

E@'(

E

M1@

4a

b;&

I< 

V

-> 

=$K*K++ '(- *1 4a .. E 1( A  ] HP F4. I 1*++
P-q+

4a . I (Afromontane)+-> mA A5H! E 3000 :


4; H*h2 A5H!& 1*K++

4a . E (Alpine


vegetation) EI Ak; .
"k 3000 : uL 4;
H*h2 A5H!& 1Aa++

9^ I 2000-2500 : 4;


H*h2 A5H!& 1*++

m1 I

- P A]G

(Coniferous) E "TPa 4;


H*h2 b;& 1*K++

.. V ->  (Heath land)

k`H

-K 3.5 4a (T


(T?) b;& E

73

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

\]8
;
A%: EB+

\]8
;
EB+ /Ji
/Ji A%:[4 -UH?
-UH?

:`.=

E



$

I]

E`B-

9U$v

UH#

p]-

.]0Hh2 A5H!& @2++ E  :`.= A  ] AHh2 k:


-E. A4%5 (Maghreb) E I -E. A4%5 @2++ :`.= A5H! P= E
U=& PA A5H! @2++ :`.= A5H! x- P" E M1@ EI n
58 b8 m4 L.n m1.8 ^L8 ` (Gorse) E ? "k h2++  2
E E] P"yy- :`.= A5H! E F Jh2 K9 mI "} 2
1kO++

[^T "vu=  (Mangrove


Vegetaion))
(
=I ( ([^T Y^ U usT> <H T>}v< "vu=' u
uGq ` T>< ( <:: X` }c< `U <vM:: [^T
"vu= ( uU^w ]" [T Y^ uA >` ` ue K<::

-K 3.6 :`.= A5H! E

 E


 E
 !

<=?
<=?

/ E
 (wild animals) E /  (wild life) T9 ;2= s !
=?
!
=?

/A$% !
!
M  E
 -UH?
-UH?

 E A" AHh2 A.h2 A]HHh2 k2@ p4*h2 M1@;h2 P=
h2++ v4 *1 Kx1 E8 I V -> <? ! .# E  
*1 2 2 <? E V * K " !8 F

" ! E`B- V F

" !  P2 1"IH++

 E P2 $K P#O =K E "P   D1m


P2   A5H! Al Ek pr  =$K*K++
=$K*K++

74

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

A4%5 P= "KpA -> 8 A  ] E E M1@ =* A ++

/TO  Q
,-.  E

'( A5H! v4 *1 *x1 E (Arboreal animals) EI x 7. AKH U
(chimpanzee)8 K0 1Pa2 7. AKH A4%5 U (Gorilla) E P= m4 M1@
1Aa++ #%- #}8 A "k 2 2 E 1Aa++
/A$% Z !  (Savanna) ,-.  E

'( A5H! K K 

>*8 97j8 :O A(=8 U "k Al F

K 

E I AV8 Ab #j E "k 1Aa++

A4%5 V K " !(Herbivores)


!(Herbivores)8
(Herbivores)8 F

K(carnivores)
K(carnivores) E BP-

" !(omnivores)
!(omnivores) "HK ;m0  E 1Aa++

 /A$% /XQ E 9Y /XQ A%:[4 ,-. E



'( A5H! Al  E .h2 A 2 9 ? m1- "} 4]2 
? AOG- x  A5H!=h2  r "K9  E h2++ ]^#
 E "TK  A(=8 9 8 I] !& (EH 8 En*8 ) @i h2++

 &'() EB+  E


 
I

I !tu
!tu 1I CV\1

&'() EB+  E


 ,Ev
,Ev (!
(! !

=?
=?

 E
 C2;<= : ! !
w@x 4H?
4H?

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 (y (Extinction) 
 !
Q214
=?
=?

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 E 9:;  "Kp ""K 1J*K++ E@'(-+1. -xj
;6 9:;
- H; I% } E$@++
- - @
- P"> "#++
- P2 -v% -7@++
- P1K -7@ =AP*++
2. A5H! P" P"*K =*h2 9:;
- PU "Az -p= h2++
- 5bO1Op1> mI2 Op " AH! A v E` =I ++
- P E "P=& h2++
- A P-@ =O .

75

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

3.  E A5H! =2H8 Pk2 K "Ua E I; -7 h2++ #%P -- 1#++

  E
 CV\1

P"K5 I; 1.++ "Ua@ E A*h2++

P1 -(;6 -- =AP*++


-

% 2 -v% P#z = *++

P5; u| F. E>K 1.++

PII% } E$@ E
P- @ =AP*++

/&'() EB+
EB+ E / E
  &BEJ ,; O -)46
-)46 /&'() EB+ / E
  &BEJ ,; O 5u1[4
7O66
 E  E Pk2 K PA5H! x- $ h2++ 1B E MP#  F@
-NO k2 .n >t  AO>  Bj;& @V E] Em 1AaK++
DU 0 " v8 k& v AP"<8 >(@8 E AI  A  ] P2 PF@
-NO "  P E 2>" P E "o 9a AO A*h2++


= 
I 2>" m1- "* P I< """ "o  -p= @2++ I "*
tu=6 m1- LP;6  1 *K++
PI "*   -p= H+- E b; EPm #]
- y E E$
- #A E E kK -
- Px2* "k= o %5& } E$ 4P
- DU 0 4a Bj; ""
- A#.7 1K -7 =P"< "k h2++

-K 3.7 I @ =K@ "}

76

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

9 C
;2' d (Over grazing) E 
C?
;;1 @ I $r E n b; " *1 "9- I """ =*K++
#%-

PI #AA- "];6 Eo @2++ 5;


A A AI P Jh2 A`

n b; V 4P

M" V -> I<  V  =$*++ I

 @ I $r

" =P n 
A  E *1 4a E< E=I]A @2++ " =P
n I<  P#AA- ; =xK++ "1 Bj; I $r HP

B I< #AA-

1A;K++

 J4
(forest degradation)
I no " "9@ E E U=& "o I """ ="Pp;K++ u "vu=
T>\ u T [mp }Ge (=G<U < (ed ( w<'
uSNL< K<U ee` S w Q (Biodiveristy) vLM:: SSS Kw
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/ E
  &BEJ ,;  !3
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U D1m (Biodiversity) "9@ -p= F@ - -O (Ecological) 92 @2++ AO> 
E

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A bHhK++ "o AI

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qr



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animals) K =: 1;m$++ P-q IQ= EI K= A1p .. =* (Mount
Nyala) "9 1J*K++

K=
>L
-K 3.8 K= A1p .. =*

77

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

/
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#1Al8 U=h2 -I]
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E
I A!2 $ 5KI]A*h2 9  tu U=h2 o EI K
A" A@a 0 =*h2  E h2++

pP =& 3.1.1

) E29 *1 "] =&


1.  E  E F@ -O

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2.  E E  E I@ "P E< #I  k A6


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" EOP m=++

T) ?
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H.
#A E n=7 OI Pk  E b; P#z I =$K A}
 I  E I@

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>t;h2 23 "P A7 LAH "4 Pp4K IJ B A++

3.1.2 2^8 A A


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Ec<  A ! "# $
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78

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FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

 

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 &'()
 32


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= 2 ;2= CV\1

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"} A kH " @2 @2 2 @m++ 2^ "Aa H  -> 28 As
-> 2 (m. m  T1 8 ] 2^8 U 2) h2++ As -> k ->
=P2 2 AKH 2
 MP- %= A !- F7  "x@ A1IP-++
AO> A5H!&  2^ p-  <.h2 qr A5H!& I E] 1;1HhK++
A4%5 A MP- O o 20.2 (^= @ BP) " @2 4 DU- 0
MP- DU 13% (AF.  " ) =pP2 14K++ 2 p-  "  A@a
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D> 2=< I 8 IH6 A4%58 -F.$6 A4%58 SO V(K ]^ E "]k:6 A4%5 h2++
A4%5 2 "

pKK

pKK 1P==K++ {| mU ok A% *V " 2

 1K++ AF  ; A4%5 m A>@ ^- " =( A% m.


2 14++ *1 9]2 ] "] ;2 2^ " A(% 5* DU v
A= "L  A1IP-++ ? 1K A! @2 I ]^# _K ]^# 

79

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

k:6 A4%5 E SO V(K ]^ A5H! @2++ E@'( A5H!&


*1  E noh2 I5# "

U A h2++ '(-

x- 4a @ " A*h2++ >b !AI-

A7 tu A IPK p-  P*h2 > F.2 A A1IP-++


I] _K I] A5H!& =P2 4a 2 E] A5H!2 "F; 2 #a
A#.7 LG&  P"P 4a AL E`"> AA>hK++ AO>
A =*h2 }uK
c -> 2^ mI CD " 2^@ "9 F. E=m 1Aa++ #%k:6 A4%5 pKK 2 E=E >  "9- -]K++
2 PP= AAKr 12*K++ P-q+AAKr P"8 P- # k=8PO E8 P"sO  AAKr
- P 2 AAKr:12*K++
- PI% AA
AAK
r:- 2^ I% 2 } E$@8 PO F.8 P#9U9@8
Kr
E AI P#o AAK r 12*K++
- PE F.:F. E L4 "< k K P# 9K P  EH; 1#K++
AAKr:- P#V #x. F. P"F. 1#K++
- PA5H! 3 AAKr
- P"Ua AAKr:AAKr P= ;6 E$& ++ P-q 2^ 8  KH
2>> "k P#5> 1]OK++
- -xj
;6 9:;
9:;:- A - P#-] #E> P#2x- P-q 2 m8
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= 4d)4

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32 2 99 !
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2 @a2  pP @2++ pP #P I . "9@ m1- P2 #P @2++ 2
K tu  .S #I AE 19K m1- @7. 1oK++ P 2
PP= n; M1@ 1O K++ P-q EI {q.8 ;1w1> # "k n;&
k P 2 @2++
k& xK$ A E$ @V  A5H! 3 O = @A

pr A**t A; m1- 1L  A5H! pP 1H*K++


2- @ A P HP2 1L (Composition)  - @ k2 .n
 -p= .S =
=> mI#1 K Bj; "Pm @V D1m **h2
@A  @2++ P 2
2 m1- A #P . I]2 U =P8
A**t @ "w P2 ;1 2 m1- A #P @2++

2 pP 22 A5*6 F@ D1m;6 1L . =$2K++ #%22 -xj


;6 9:; 1OK++
80

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

P2^ "K    -p= 19++


-  4 :4 n  "<%= A5H! T>P90 4 8 2^ 2 IHP0 m]9
$  0. 8 AAKr *1  A* K  #!= E K*& 8 E$
#!= E (detergents) 4  o %5& P90 "v# 4 <::

-K 3.9
3.9 "<%= A5H! mx 4n

- o %5 (I%) U$ :U$ E@'( Al m]9 o %5& 8 - 9x 9


A-. >] "k @2++

-K 3.10
3.10  . mx $P L1 P 2

- E F. -p= K pP: pP E - P#I - *1 2 5*6
A P-q

#O%=8 ]-H1 ]-A]- 5r E 4 7- 2 "K

4a A- A*h2++


- "< E m 4 :4 "< A mx2 4n 2 #E> n.(Erosion)
-p= m U$  P1U 2^ 1p*K++

81

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

/A'  , W 4d)4

/A'  , W 4d)4 !

<=?
<=?
A' >R4(
>R4(4d)4
)
4d)4
) 7O66

A "* (Soil erosion) E A "K (Land degradation) @a A P-@ *1 AI
= h2++ A "* "F&  p4r 1"IH++ E@S-+ 2 n.
o n.
vH A.] FM h2++

=
= 
8
2 n.  AP- p4r A  @a A "* -p= @2++ M1@- BP
1*K++ E@S-+. A' /=
/= /(  (Sheet erosion)
'( M1@ n. 22 K9 H1<]2- k2 Oo r I. b1 mIS
m @2++ 22 " A- mk@2 Oo "8 U "8
#k] " E

A? 2^

I no " @2++ I no  @ A5H! n.2 " A@a

1K++ A 2 m@ " k_ A5H! 14K++ A5H!2 EK K9 I]
1].K++
2. 0 =X 8 (Gulley
(Gulley erosion)
rosion)
b1 2^ n. 2 A5H! 5> @2++ H> U Oo "} A5H! K U
1K "} 2 2 "2] bQ  = k A n. @2++ '( M1@ bQ tu
I Ek/ K9 E=Al P n. "h2 4a @2++
T. 
y 8 (Wind
(Wind erosion)
erosion)
AO> A5H!& Ua U " < > Bj; k A? 9* o 1] K++
A5!2- I AKH @ A5H!2 A mI A.@ 1Pm o 1K 1mkOK++ ]^#
A5H!& o 1K I$ A p4r  .| 1mkOK I- =Li (deflation) 1H*K++

& A&8

M

) "} n  0K0K #] k2 .n bQ  P m. 2^ n. =p.K++


P) b; "9= I -x 5> 9*K E (Shifting cultivation) HP F4.
A5H!2 I E "@ Ptu2 ? k K - 1kxK++ 1B E E b;2
PU P P BP  M"; )* A? P-@ 1O#K++ -- 19K++
'( )* A? E]] - #1- P A}2 1 A5H! P q* b;
A` -x A5 A` E 1-.K++ '( M1@ E 
? UH#2 I A5H!
Lm @2++ P'(- A5H!2 A Pn.  P @2++

82

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

T) A *1 A> M1@ k K J A> b; AL2 # 9K A? P-@ ="-K++


A va2 k K P" 9K mk #E> 1K K++ '( "] A> A5H! =
k K

# 9K

Pk K

E>A

A*t

#E>

E

A?

2

E` =I K++ A?- E Pn. 1 PxK++


") 4a b; *1 Al I<  "0] Oo PA n. #"Jh 1K++ A5H!2
vw P#1<? A? U 2 9* =K++ v4 F - P#1<? |o
*K

@A

A1<-++

'(-

*1

n.2

-p=

Oo

|4

"Kp

mkI2 A Ua b;& *1 Pk.7 E "}  =*n 1 *K++


) A## U Bj; qP F4. "} #] U o > k A?
Pn. = KxK++
A'
A' 
/A$%
A " """

A4%5 2 o ;1  @2++

A "  @a@ =$h2 A4%5 p4r  h2++

V(K ]^ -E. A4%5 (o n.)


^.  ]^ (o n.)
_K $  (subhumid) =P2 T? V -> A5H! (@a@ 2^ n.)
T? UH#2 I A5H! P1 I no E -p= "@ tu (2^
n.)
A4%5 T? 4a b;&  ..& P1 IQ= qr -F. A4%5
A
(2 n.)

B- A4%5 pKr K ;2 2


n.

@2++

A4%5

n.

-p=8

n.2 4@ E " P= pKr


P= @2++

-K 3.11
3.11 }g[g[ x

83

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

9&Q A
A 32
[4
AO> A5H!& P1- #&  I% x!=& A pP ;k  AH
EHHk "> *1 =P  @2++ Bj;2- H> =IA2 E=IA 4@ E"]
"> *1 =P2 % A5* (fossil fuels) Al EI kK8  K- E 

"k 1K - A$9- @2++ q*2 PA pP "F@ 9S o %5


mx2 =Kx. 7  tu m`( I 0.h2 4a 4@ E"] =P2 
7@ "& 7 #2 P992 51 7 (Exhaust fumes) @2++ #%- I]
E I #$K E`B- n @A @ "k A pP #HH 9S
h2++

-K 3.1
3.12 A pP A` AH #

A D1m P"< =K @A 2 9O2 4. 11vK

#  tu mI tu E"] P"x2 A pP @a "&  51 ] @A

(SO2), /HC/, (NOx), (CO)

"v# 5r (As)8 (Pb)8 (Hg)8 (Cd) ' mL

 8 7 A. A mL h2

E@'( wK = O mI k2@;  "H " A5* E


H  p/a 1|O

KA pP 5; "& !<?- #  |K2 ;Q


-

Ua . =P2 @O A$9-8 n5%&  Ak. n5% E>:
A @

 U ->& A$9-

P= II% 23 A$9- A==U

p4  b;& B I] p- 

5; #E> #-]J b;& "<.h2 ( "k h2++

84

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

=
(  (case Study)
A] A/ E   E - 13
A` AH IQ=  #  "] 2- ( =.

1879
1879 M.- @2++

DU v- 3,
3,381,
381,569 " ( =. 1995 M.- #E*6 ;p 
=5I2 DU E>A = A] K++ ( =. 1970&i A #n m`( F.
A@8 >(@ E - "9@ @V E`B- P A! F. 4P

A?

DU mI # 1KK++ A` AH # DU AP/ ^= M"; J E4


A>K++ '( "@V-

( =. 2015M.-

}T~ DU 0 5.1 KQ

EII A-K++ A` AH E>A E= "x 2 DU 0 J 1
O o-

7- @2++ ( =. 1920&i A5H! A` AH # O o 33

 r : J @++ '= m`( ( =. 1976 M.- 224  r.:


@]  ( =.

1982 M.- I mI 530  r :


: EII

A- @++ A` AH # 4@ #I *1 5 A4%5 #& A ++
AB tu IQ= # @% DU A> a  2 A` AH # @%
@2++ A` AH x DU 0 E>A #@ (urbanization) =
P-q I]2 9 "<%=  E]8 "]
"] K# Ab E]8
#L  AAKr (2
(28 " .8 4n #mA "k) Ab E]
1;1H
1;1H;K++ #%- ._p "@8 |O OO% D  AKH k&
O1 A! h2++

pP =& 3.1.2

) E29 *1 "] =&


1.
2.
3.
4.

AO> A4%5 pKr CD " 2^ E] k2 - -p= @2?
2^ E A "K -p= ?  LU?++
A "K -p= - - h2?
A pP "F&  LU?++

P) > F.
#%&  ><  "F++ AIa2 > " 2 %=8 BPa2
> A
%= E "]2 > I M pP %= 211
A>++ '=- m5QJ B 211;hB "P A7 LAH Pp4 =++
211 @ 0-@A 0 kqO *1 1 |IP2 @A 5P "-(. B *
E`=I* B 1yh2++ "]- 0 qO *1 2 I . B *1
AK ++

85

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

3.2
3.2 
 P"H mk E-&
U ES  A ! "# $
#%& '( U E )*+)*+

EB+

99 9?4 &'() R4 > ;2=
 -A4566

&'() E*+ (/


9?4 &'() R4 (/
(/ E
3% > 1!#4566
1!#4566

=
= A
A A' 32
E
 tC E
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=

B 2 C/ ( 1;4566

 

 &'() 
 /%s4
  CV!
&'() R4 & >>Y

I

_ h2++ A DK2 q*2 DK2 *1 "] @2++ '(-

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 2>" q*a2 
 2>" =*K++ P-q A>
E 2>" J  E "P= - 8 A " E P-@8 A5H! A
 ]8 1@5K++ 2 DK2 "@5 .2  E D1m8 E E>A E
1|OK++ A "|O I  E E L% "A>- !  E
k&  D1m 1@5K++ "]- E@'( EIkkP == Bj;& >- 23 k2
K DK2 k_2 1@5K++

 " "H (conservation of natural resources) #P

  P-q EI  E8
E8 2^8 A8 A8 

E m.L. o 2>" "*K #P  q* A@ A 





AH E  "9- #P @2++

=
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tC
&/92 =
E

 Q d K?
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A E
#/9 E
 99 K?
K?

=
 C/  99 7[4

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- *1 #K++

A! @ 2 #x. LG "9- 2 51 @A  #mA>++

E8 #E> 0o b;& E I $r m 5*6 51 @A  "x

86

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

 pP " P"9@ =  p<r& F. *1 #K++


2 D =I  pr% "k 5r  "9- h2++

A 32
 99; 7[467[46

 E #$K " ::


7 #x%=& - # k=  I%& x%= *1 "-++
=] 4a 7 \ "< E` #>]::
7 #x%= "V%=& " 7 #2& *1 "-::
H! A 2 5bO1 Op1> " 9S  E M1@  "A
. 9 "K(I no "")::
E (lead) D @ @O (benzene) "9- "k h2++

A'
 C/ 
99 7[4
A

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(soil

conservation)

x-

A*t

$

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@2++

@a

"OI%=h2 E @2 ;Ot AA - @ PL"6 E (mechanized farming) #O%= ]@A  4a I] 9E P
A 2 A " "H G; @2++
1B E A " "H O1   POI? DUb J 2 A1IP-++
9;- @ L% "A> B* - @5 O1 @2++ AB tu A " "K
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"@H LG F. *1 #K A P-@ 1-.K8 - => K8 ? AL A-
1.K B- *1 v =KvH A5H! E`< =I K++

-K 3.13
3.13 f (` e^

87

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

ppPa  A $ Ap 5 .&  LG&  H.6 #>]  _


Me}<L< A 0-@A A++ E@S b;2 *1  E no AP m1 KU u#P Sp `wM++
- M1@ A " "x%= LG =KAK? EG @2 H.6 -IA2?
A? #@ " - =pK @2? P#K - #>] 1< K?
A? AO#@ I] - M1@ Bj; *1 1AaK? "x%=2 LG -> @2?
A? ] @A 1; EG @2? #% ]-@A A? 2 #K 1< K?
A? pRK? P 3# #>]t= LG&i ->h2? mI_ EO1K -
#>] AP ?
'( "Kp - M1@ A "= "H!= LG H.6 #>] EOP  5m )*
 2 mk m1- B- - *1 #K E *P+- o "*= vw  #& %= "K++
- k r  #.] "U.::
- 9P E F. *1 #K++
- A@a >b  "F.++
- Oo "} *1 V # 9K++
-  A6 k2 .n #O%=&  AH "9-++
- E #&  Pmk M"; #]4++
- A? #@ I] "x++
- A? AO#@ I] "x++
- n b; ]$ "9-++
- A E E E "++
- E E H.6 #>]++
- pK H  (Humus) A 2 ""++
AQ8S &'() R4
C/; 7[4
CV!
AQ8S (Alternative) &'() R4
C/; 7 
 !
Q214
=?
=?

BP   p4r 1"IH++ E@S-+1. 1# !
! 7 (Renewable resources)
resources) &'() R46R46'( M1@ 
E9-Hh2 .h2 =>S () 

h2++ -q&i- 2^8  E8  n b;& 8 A8 A "k
h2++
2. A 
!
resources)) &'() R46
R46-! 1# ;@x (Nonrenewable resources
'( M1@ 
I+- kK8 @O L1 (Petroleum)8  U8 #E>
"k h2++ '( M1@ 
9-Hh2 )* .h2 #1

h2++ A#.7 (Alternative) 
 "= LG& K P1
AG A 9-Hh2 )* "Kk #Aah2 A* 
E>: P#.L- -9-Hh2 LG& h2++ P-q 1K P#" EI kK8 @O L18

U "k "9- 1K E@S b; K qr 1K - 
P-q+- T1 ^8 2^ o 1K8 k--> Eor (thermal energy) "9#P @2++

88

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

=
(  (case Study)
&/O
d 1 A%: T T-d
The United Nation Environment Program
H? "F; A5H! "T  yy" M*# A5H! I@
E$&  #H8 "K# *1 =
A. PA5H!=h2 -
@>/ H.6 =I "O @2++ 1 > yy"2 H? "F;
k2 K A5H! "P E..A kj m 1972 M.- HI]A2 k H @2++ >
 / Az2 1 !  P=
A. > pK*6 #H% /
A++
H? "F; A5H! "T  A5H! IN@
IN@ "P MP- A94
pKK I] 2pK =P2 ha HPE FKx @2++ P"T
P"TT- \
\ k2 2pK
MP-
A. --@ 98 m@ =P2 A5H! IN@
IN@ E`<.h2
#H8 MP- A5H! I@ Bj; "$z I]kHh2 AO` p <?
m`=2 PMP- "F; ]k #;m - E`mk #>] @2++
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 E$& x- k_ h2++ @'("TK A5H! M8 2=< 2^ E k2 K A5H! I@ #] A
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A"7K++ A5H! 1 -@ E 9:; #m0- *1 F. *1 EG
2K EI K "- AKw  .6 "F; pK*6 "F;
E`B- "F;6 5K >
  ]  1.K++ 
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=I K++
H? "F; A5H! "T"T- 
 MPA94 > D 8 AIAa 5r > LPK
U228 A MP- A94 2& pP
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 AO
AO > 4 =I K++
Ea- "<%= A5H!=  I@ P
A## P#>] "T ? Pm
Ib  & @ E   > 4
#>] 1AHK++

-K 3.14
3.14

89

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

pP =& 3.2


3.2

) E29 *1 "] =&


1.  E E>A F7 *1 E< =I @A -> h2?
2.  E8 28 A E  E "= "H!= LG& 
A .?++
3. H? "F; A5H! "T  yy" M*# -> @2?

P) > F.
 >< 4?++ ""%=2 > "<%= A5H!= B E $
Ep 5 "P8 BPa2 > "<%= A5H!= B 2 $ "P
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"4

T

P ]k

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A=

A7



=>++

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1I]++

T) ? H.
 E 2>" 23 =1 -K F?++

90

FME
FM--NO E 
E< =>? @A

 
SMf SkU:SkU:- pU L K }a Nw wK~ uTe V ` 
MKA L TM::

 !g#6!g#6- E
E EB+ E
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(A
 /=  2,; = &BEJ)
&BEJ) E 2A%:;<= ,C /

M =66

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