Guide for design elaboration of soil erosion prevention

I. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
SUPERFICIAL EROSION

OF

VERSANTS

WITH

SURFACE/

1) Climate
This study is performed in order to best know local climatic features and in order to take
maximum advantage of existing conditions, so that the least human effort and energy are
spent on facilities, and in order to harmonize with the surrounding environment.
Necessary data
a) Air temperature (multi-annual average, average sum of positive temperatures and
average sum of temperature during growth period, the average temperature oscillation
between night and day etc).
b) Rainfall (monthly and annual averages)
c) Solar radiation (duration, in hours, of direct and diffuse radiation albedo- monthly
and for periods with and without vegetation growth)
d) Climatic aggressiveness coefficient, k a
Information sources
- For temperatures and rainfall: The Romanian Climatologic Atlas or meteorological
station data in the neighbourhood of the perimeter under study (fig. 1.1);
- For solar radiation- fig. 1.2;
- For k a : fig 1.3.
Data compiling/editing method
For temperatures and rainfall/ precipitations the table below shall be completed with
monthly and yearly averages.
Average monthly and annual precipitations and temperatures recorded a the
meteorological post
Monthly

II

III

IV

VI

VII

VIII

T (C)
P (mm)

Utility of obtained data

Data obtained at items a, b and c are used for:
- correct selection of species, types and hybrids;
- production of hidden cultures (protection plants);
- Introduction of successive cultures;
- Use of intercalated cultures;
- Recommendation of sowing methods and culture density;
- Use of fertilizers and additions;

IX

XI

XII

Annual

- Selection of anti-erosion work types and their sizing in reference to climatic conditions
The climatic aggressiveness coefficient is used to forecast soil loss, in multi-annual
average values.

Fig 1.1. - Distribution of meteorological posts on the Romanian territory

Fig 1.2. - Annual sums of global solar radiations (kcal/cm)

Fig 1.3. Zoning of climatic (pluvial) aggressiveness on Romanian territory

Fig 1.4. The main relief forms and elements, represented on a level plan
1. Plateau; 2. Versant ravine; 3. Versant; 4. Versant base; 5. Lap/Saddle crest; 6. Hilltop; 7. Valley;

8. Valley base; 9. Depression; 10. Saddle; 11. Slope rupture (change); 12. Rock; 13. Peak; 14. Water
divide; 15. Valley thalweg; 16. Ogas; 17. Breakwater; 18. Peak; 19. Depression, eyehole; 20. pit; 21. sink
hole; 22. Plane; 23. Valley inflow; 24. Choline/ sincaline; 25. Mound; 26. Pap
Table 1.4.

Characteristics of homogeneous relief surfaces (hrs) in hydrographical basin h b

No
crt
1
2
3

Use

Order
no.

L l .c.m.m. p. (m)

I h.s.r . (%)

Surface (ha)

Agricultural

Total.

Figure 1.5. MAPPING OF SOIL SLOPES IN VALEA PUTULUI AND VALEA

GALBEAZA BASINS
H.B. SLANIC-BUZAU, 1997 (original)

Figure 1.6. a) Versant shape in a profile and in the horizontal plane

b) Method of determination for versant exposure
a) Profile view
Plane view
1) Straight (uniform/even) versant
2) Concave versant
3) Convex versant
4) Mixed versant (in steps or waves)
b) Thalweg
Versant I has southern exposure
Versant II has northern exposure

In order to complete the table, one must first delimit homogeneous relief surfaces (h.r.s.)
Homogeneous relief surfaces represent surface units that exhibit constant values for land
slope, length of the drainage line as well as the same versant exposure. Therefore, on the
layout plan, the delimited units shall have the following features (fig. 1.7).
- one constant slope (first appreciated/ estimated based on the approximately even
distance between grade curves)
- they have a single exposure- thus, the valley thalwegs and narrow water divides
become limits for homogeneous relief surfaces; wide water divides are includes
within a homogeneous surface, even if their exposures are not strictly identical.

Fig 1.7 Delimitation of homogeneous relief surfaces (h.r.s.) on a layout plan

The shape of the homogeneous surfaces must be as even/regular as possible. Their length,
measured on the general direction of grade curves, may have any value; their width- i.e.
L l .c.m.m. p. (length of the line with the highest slope) or the length of the water drainage
line- measured perpendicularly on the direction of the grade curves, between the limits of
the homogeneous relief surfaces, must not exceed 400 m (or 500 m only in exceptional
cases).
After delimiting the h.r.s, they shall be counted separately for each versant, with Arabic
figures from 1 to n. For each homogeneous relief surface delimited this way, the

following
characteristics
shall
- length of the line with the highest slope L l .c.m.m. p. , in metres.

be

determined:

- average slope i (%)

- surface, in ha
In the case of homogeneous relief surfaces whose slope and L l .c.m.m. p. are not constant on
the entire surface, 2 or 3 measurements shall be performed for the slope and L l .c.m.m. p.
respectively and then the average determination values (arithmetic means) shall be
introduced into the table.
The length of the line with the highest slope shall be measured on the layout plan using
the cubimeter, the catenary or with the rule, in cm; then, depending of scale of the plan,
shall be transformed into close horizon distance, corresponding to the respective field, in
m. (figure 1.8).

Fig 1.8. Sketch for determination of length of the line with the highest slope and for
determination of homogeneous relief surfaces
i +i +i
L + L2 + L3
L= 1
i= 1 2 3
3
3
The slope of the homogeneous relief surfaces is calculated with the following equation:
H
i=
Ll .c.m.m. p.
i- the average versant slope (in this case, the h.r.s), %
H - the level difference between the maximum grade level and the minimum grade
level, within the limits of the h.r.s., in metres.
D(L l .c.m.m. p. )- the close horizon distance between the superior and respectively the inferior
limit of the h.r.s., measured in metres.

Calculation of surfaces
Calculation methods.
1. Coring method
2. Via planimetry, using the polar (mechanical) planimeter/ curve recorder or the
electronic model SOKKISA or other models.
3. Via computer, on scanned layout plans, using programs ACAD, COREL-DRAW,
ARCVIEW
Surface determination via planimetry, using the polar curve recorder
The curve recorder instrument includes a polar lever and a tracing lever, which are
articulated one with the other, in their working position, using a rod (figure 1.9). At one
extremity, the polar arm is equipped with a counterweight with a needle attached to it,
that fixes the planimeter / curve recorder on the board or on the working table, forming
the pole of the curve recorder / planimeter. The other extremity of the polar arm is
another rod that connects with the tracing lever. T `his rod is introduced into a space/
hole inside the tracing lever. The tracing lever consists of a rod with millimeter gradation,
with the tracing top at one extremity and the recording device and the other extremity.

Figure 1.9. The polar curve recorder/ planimeter

Rotita- Wheel
Vernierul- The vernier/nonius
Rotita inregistratoare- Recording wheel
Discul inregistrator- Recording disk
Surub fara sfarsit- Worm screw
Articulatie- Joint
Bratul polar- Polar arm/lever
Bratul trasor- Tracing lever
Varful trasor- Tracing needle
Contragreutate- Counterweight

Reading of the recording device contains four figures (figure 1.10)

Figure 1.10
The first figure is obtained from the counting disk, which can be found at the left of the
indicator above the disk (Fig 1.10)
- The first figure is obtained from the counting disk, to the left of the indicator above the
disk
- The 2nd and 3rd figures are obtained from the recording tape/ gauge tape, in reference to
the zero division of the vernier/ nonius
- The fourth figure is given by the vernier
The difference between the final reading and the initial reading represents the generator
number, C; the generator number multiplied by the planimetric constant k p ,
corresponding to the scale of the plan results in the surface subjected to planimetry,
S k = k p C x
The following operations are necessary in determination of the planimetric constant
kp :
- Designating a surface of known size, usually square or rectangular, and calculating the
area S in reference to the scale of the plan, in the desired measurement unit.
- Calculating the planimetric constant with the formula:
S
kp =
C

Very careful planimetry/ curve recording of the selected surface shall first be performed
in a clockwise direction, the second time counterclockwise and the third timeclockwise again. A 30-150 angle is recommended when following the perimeter of the
surface with the tracing needle between the two arms/ levers of the planimeter/ curve
recorder.
Below we shall schematically present several of the new mechanical (polar) planimeters/
curve recorders of Japanese make:

Fig. 1.11. Other mechanical planimeter/ curve recorder models

For swift and accurate surface measurement, electronic (digital) planimeters may be used,
manufactured by Japanese company SOKKISA:

Fig. 1.12. Digital SOKKISA planimeters

Utility/Use of the data obtained

Data obtained at items a), b), d) and e) shall be used for:
- Selection of species, types and hybrids
- Correct anti-erosion management of the territory
Data obtained at item c) shall be used for:
- Soil loss forecasts
- Selection of work types and sizing these works according to geo-morphological
conditions.

3) THE SOIL
The study must describe the main soil features directly and indirectly influencing the
intensity of erosion processes. Knowledge of these soil characteristics helps in devising
the complex anti-erosion management scheme/ strategy, necessary for keeping soil losses
within acceptable/ admissible limits.

Necessary data
a) Genetic soil type (black soil/ chernozem, brown soil, erodisoluri, grey soil,
rendzine, podsol etc)
b) soil texture
c) erosion degrees
d) value of S factor
Information sources
In a design made by staff authorized for CES work design, the data is requested from the
Office for Studies of Pedology and Agro-Chemistry. (OSPA), via its subsidiaries in every
county.
Data may also be obtained by the specialized research groups, in compliance with the
ICPA methodology.
In the current didactic reference book, we recommend use of the following
bibliographical sources:
- For the genetic soil type- map of soils in Romania, from pedology manuals
- For soil texture- The Climatologic Atlas of Romania of pedology manuals
- For erosion degrees- Soil erosion map, 1976, scale 1:500000;
- For value of factor S- ICPA Methodology, for determination of the 186 indicator,
presented below, or the Soil Erodability Map, 1993, scale 1:500000.
The estimation method for the erosion potential coefficient was based in the 186
indicator, within the Methodology for performance of pedologic studies, made in 1987
by ICPA Bucharest.
The 186 indicator establishes the erosion potential classes, depending on the genetic soil
type, erosion degree and soil texture.

Table 1.5. Value for erosion potential coefficient S

Soil type

Erosion

Indicator 186

Texture
Soft
N

SB

C2

CC, CI, CM, BM

CN

RZ, BD, TR

BR, BD, RP
BP, SP, PG
BO, NO
PR, PD, An, ER fe, ER au
Hs, Ls
Nf, VS
SN
RS
ER ca, ER ar, ER ro

Average
S

Absent or weak

0.9

0.9

0.7

Moderate

0.9

0.9

0.8

Strong and very strong

1.0

1.0

0.9

Absent or weak

0.8

0.8

0.7

0.6

Moderate

0.9

0.9

0.7

0.7

Strong and very strong

0.9

0.9

0.9

0.8

Absent or weak

0.7

0.7

0.6

0.6

Moderate

0.8

0.9

0.8

0.8

Strong and very strong

0.9

1.0

1.0

0.8

Absent or weak

0.8

0.8

0.7

0.7

Moderate

0.8

0.9

0.8

0.7

Strong and very strong

0.9

1.0

0.9

0.8

Absent or weak

0.9

0.9

0.8

Moderate

0.9

0.9

0.8

Strong and very strong

Absent or weak
Moderate
Strong and very strong
Absent or weak
Moderate
Strong and very strong
Absent or weak
Moderate
Strong and very strong
Absent or weak
Moderate
Strong and very strong
Absent or weak
Moderate
Strong and very strong
Absent or weak
Moderate
Strong and very strong
Absent or weak
Moderate
Strong and very strong
Absent or weak
Moderate
Strong and very strong
Very strong

1.0
0.9
0.9
1.0
0.9
0.9
1.0

1.0
0.6
0.6
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.0

0.9
1.0
0.6
0.8

1.0
1.0
1.1
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.0

0.8
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.1
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.0

0.7
0.8
0.8
1.0
1.0
1.1
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.9

0.9
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.9

0.8
0.8
0.9

Heavy

0.9
0.9
1.0
0.8
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.0
0.8
0.9
0.9

0.8
0.9
0.9

0.8
0.8
1.0

0.8
0.8
0.9

1.0
1.0
1.1
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.0

ER ac
ER ti, ER tz, ER vs, ER pr,
ER is, ER gz, ER sc

Very strong
Excessive

Table 1.6
Texture classes
N (sand)
U (clayey sand)
S (sandy clay)
L (clay)
T (argillaceous clay)
A (argile)

1.1

1.1

1.1

1.1
1.1

Argile content (average) (%)

0.3
0.8
15
25
40
60

Table 1.7. Significance of the symbols used for codification or the soils of symbols used
for codification of the soils
Code
SB
C2
CC
C1
CM
BM
CN
RZ
PR
TR
BR
BD
RP
BR
SP
PG
BO
NO
BP
PD
AN
ER fe
ER an
HS
LS
NF
VS

Soil name
Grey soils
Carbonate chernozems/ black soils
Cambic chernozems/ black soils
Loamy-alluvial soils
Soluri cernozomoide
Brown eu-mesobaic soils
Grey soils
Rendzine soils
Pseudo-rendzine soils
Red soil (Tera rosa)
Brown luvic soils
Brown loamy-alluvial soils
Red-brown luvic soil
Brown luvic soils
Luvic soils albice
Pseudo-gleic soil
Acid brown soils
Acid black soil
Brown ferrous-alluvial soil (brown podsol soil)
Podsol
Andosol
Ferous-alluvial erosion soil
Andic erosion soil
Humic-silicate soil
Marsh soil
Black clino- hydromorphic soil
Vertisoil and vertic soils

1.1
1.1

SN
RS
ER ca
ER ar
ER ro
ER ac
ER ti
ER rz
ER pr
ER ls
ER vs
ER gz
ER sc

Soloneturi
Regosoil
Cambic erosion soil
Loamy-alluvial soil
Radic erosion soil
Alcalized erosion soil
Typical erosion soil
Rendzinic erosion soil
Preudo-rendzinic erosion soil
Litic erosion soil
Vertic erosion soil
Gleic erosion soil
Salinized erosion soil

Data editing method

A description of the characteristic horizons on the soil profile on the perimeter under
study shall be performed. Values shall be obtained for hydro-physical and chemical
characterization of the soil units (humus reserve, hydrolysable nitrogen content,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium carbonate, clay content, volume weight etc).
The table below shall indicate the texture class together with the corresponding surfaces
and the S factor value:
Table 1.8. Distribution of h.b. . surface on texture classes and erosion degrees
Genetic soil type

Texture class

Erosion degree

Surface
(ha)

S factor
(% of h.b.)

As a drawn piece, the soil unit cartogram shall be developed.

Use of obtained data

- Characterization of soil appropriateness for various cultures
- prognosis of average multi-annual prognosis
- selection species, types and hybrids in order to obtain vegetation that valorizes the soil
production potential, and that ensures the best soil surface protection
- selection of types of anti-erosion works and their sizing according to the pedologic
conditions
4) Vegetation
Vegetation is of special importance for the shape of degradation of sloped lands through
superficial erosion, because the presence of vegetation contributes to reducing the
intensity of this natural process.
Necessary data
a) Agricultural production profile
b) Structure of the uses

c) Structure of crop-rotation on the agricultural land

d) Value of the C factor
Information sources
In the case of a design developed by staff qualified to design CES works, the data shall be
requested form the Cadastral and Territorial Management Office (OCOT) through its
branches in every county.
In the case of a yearly project, data shall be imposed through the topic, taking into
account the existing recommendations in our country concerning optimal division/ zoning
of crops depending on the overall conditions of climate, relief, altitude etc. Data in table
below shall be used for the value of factor C
Table 1.9. Value of factor C
No
crt
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

Culture

Value of factor C

Corn- monoculture
Corn, under rotation
Potatoes and beet
Peas and beans
Spring straw cereals
Autumn straw cereals
Perennial grass, first year
Perennial grass after the second year
Closed pastures (bine incheiate)
Pastures with low degradation
Moderately degraded pastures
Strongly degraded pastures
Nonproductive barren lands
Viticulture plantations
Closed fruit-tree plantations
Forest
Closed natural meadows/ grasslands

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.3
0.2
0.14
0.03
0.014
0.001
0.2
0.3
0.8
1.2
0.7
0.5
0.005
0.001

Notes

Data processing methods

For item a)- In the current situation, agriculture in the area is based on .. (large plant
culture, viticulture, fruit culture, zootechnics etc)
For item b)- the following table shall be completed:
Table 1.10. Distribution of surface of h. b. __________ on categories of use
Category of use

I. Agricultural lands
Ploughland/ Arable land (A)
Pastures (Ps)
Meadows (Fn)

Surface
(ha)

Notes
(% of Surface of h.b.)

Noble vines (Vn)

Hybrid vines (Vh)
Orchards (Lv)
TOTAL I
II. Non-agricultural lands
Forests (Pd)
Exploitation roads (De)
Nonproductive (Np)
Inside urban area
Constructions (Co)
Waters, marshes
Underbrush/ Underwood
Other uses
TOTAL II
GENERAL TOTAL (III)
For item c) the following table shall be completed
Culture
(% of arable surface)
Annual hoes/ hoeing machines
Annual straw
Annual vegetables
Perennial grasses

Utility of obtained data

- forecast of soil loss caused by superficial erosion, as a multi-annual average.
I. ESTIMATION INDICATORS FOR SUPERFICIAL EROSION EFFECTS
1) For soil users in agriculture the following items shall be established:
a) specific soil loss, multi-annual average, for every hectare of a homogeneous relief
surface
b) Average soil loss according to uses
c) Thickness of entrained soil layer
d) Allowed erosion
2) For uses of soil and water resources downstream, the following items shall be
established:
- effluent erosion

1.a. Estimation method for specific soil loss, multi-annual average

The calculation model used in the design activity was elaborated through application of
statistical methods when processing data obtained via direct measurements.
The structure of the calculation model is the one established in 1958 by American
researchers Wischmeier and Smith, within the Soil Conservation Service (SCS), based on

processing of vast experimental data, and known under the name of USLE (Universal
Soil Loss Equation).
In Romania, under the supervision of academician M Motoc, ample research has been
dedicated to soil erosion, based on which, starting from the known elements of the
universal erosion equation, indicators were established that enable annual average
evaluations of soil losses.

The calculation model obtained is the following:

E s = K a Lm i n S C C s
E s - Sediment production generated by superficial/ surface erosion (soil loss) as a multiannual average value, in t/ha.year
K a - Correction coefficient that depends on climatic (pluvial) aggressiveness. The
coefficient was determined during the climatic study
L- versant length, in homogeneous relief units, measured in m
m exponent = 0.4, when L<100 m
= 0.3, when L>100 m
i- versant slope, in homogeneous relief units, measured in %. i n = 1.36+0.97i+138i
(see table 1.3)
S- correction coefficient depending on soil erosion potential. Values from table 1.8 shall
be used, from the pedologic study
C- correction coefficient depending on anti-erosion works and measurements. Values
from table 1.12 shall be used, from the vegetation study.
C s - correction coefficient depending on anti-erosion works and measurements. Values
from table 1.9 shall be used, from the study concerning antropic impact
In order to determine soil losses caused by superficial erosion, as a multi-annual average,
the following instructions shall be observed:
- the ponderate average value of erosion coefficient S shall be established for each
homogeneous relief surface, taking into account the soil and erosion cartogram. The
ponderate average values of C and C s coefficients shall be calculated. C s values shall
take into account the utility cartogram and the topic provisions concerning the structures
of crops/ cultures. The soil and erosion cartogram shall be superimposed on the plan with
the actual situation of the utilities. The homogeneous relief surfaces shall be numbered in
the form of fractions; the numerator will the order number of the h.r.s.,and the
denominator will contain the values of the correction coefficients that are present in the
soil loss calculation equation.
In order to manage calculation of soil loss cased by superficial erosion ( E s ), a table shall
be used, as below:

Table 1.14. Specific soil loss, multi-annual average

Use

Order No.
h.r.s.

Ka

L (m)

Lm

i (%)

in
6

Cs

Es

(t/ha.yea
r)
10

Surfac
e (ha)
11

Es .
(t/year)
12

Total Total

1.b. Calculation of soil loss, ponderate averages, according to uses

E mp.use =

( E Supr )
Supr
s

h .r . s .

h .r . s .

col12
col11

t/ha.year, for each use

1.c. Thickness of soil layer entrained

In order to transform soil losses into cubic m/year, volume weight of the solid eroded
material established in the pedologic study shall be used ( ):
E surf . (t / year )
, where = 1.6+2.2 t / m 3
E surf . (m 3 / year ) =
3
(t / m )
A example of solution for the calculation of soil losses caused by superficial erosion is
presented in table 1.15 for a certain hydrographical basin, which also has a soil loss
cartogram presented in figure 1.13.
1d. Admissible erosion
For the conditions in our country, the admissible erosion E adm. , which represents the
allowed limit of soil losses caused by superficial erosion, without impacting on soil
fertility- taking into account the annual rhythm of bedrock soil formation- has values
between 3-6 t/ha.year, depending on genetic soil type: for brown soils the value is 4-5
t/ha.year, and for other soil types the value is 3-4 t/ha/year.
Table 1.14. Values of coefficient i

i (%)
2
3
4

in
3.85
5.51
7.45

i (%)
31
32
33

in
164.05
173.71
186.65

Surf.

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

9.66
12.15
14.91
17.95
21.27
24.86
28.73
32.87
37.29
41.99
46.96
52.20
57.73
63.53
69.61
75.96
82.59
89.49
96.67
104.13
111.86
119.87
128.15
136.71
145.55
154.66

34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60

193.87
204.36
215.13
226.17
237.49
249.28
260.96
273.11
285.53
298.23
311.29
324.46
337.99
351.79
365.87
380.23
394.86
409.76
424.95
440.41
456.15
472.16
488.45
505.01
521.85
538.07
556.36

Table 1.15
ESTIMATION OF SOIL LOSSES CAUSED BY SURFACE EROSION IN SUBBASINS V. PUTULUI AND V. GALBEAZA
H. B. SLANIC- BUZAU, 1997 (Original)

Subbazinul hidrografic- Hydrographical sub-basin

Folosinta- Use, Purpose
Arabil- Arable
Pasune- Pasture
Faneata- Meadow, Grassland
Supr s.o.r- Surface of homogeneous relief surface

MAP page 30- legend:

GRUPA DE EROZIUNE= Erosion Group/Class
T/ha.an = t/ha.year
2.a. Effluent erosion

Effluent erosion represents the average multi-annual volume of solid material, transited
through a control area, located downstream from a collection surface. This volume is not
equal with total erosion because a part of the eroded material is deposited on the small
versant slopes (in the case of superficial erosion), and another part is deposited into the
bed of the water network. In order to establish the reduction degree of the total reduction,
the diagram in figure 1.14 shall be used, which helps establish the proportion of material
transited through the control area, in percent, depending on the surface of the
hydrographical basin. The respective quantity is obtained by multiplying total erosion
with the reduction coefficient obtained from the diagram below. The reduction curve was
established by specialists from the Soil Preservation Service (SPS) in the US, based on
direct measurements in small hydrographical basins. The method can also be used in our
country until indigenous calculation models are developed. This method shall be used
when deep erosion is low or when the ravines are formed on the versants.

Etotal Esup r
[illegible equation]

Fig. 1.14. Curve of the reduction coefficient (after G.F. Renfro)

The value of the reduction coefficient for particular situations (as per R. F. Hadley and LM Shown)
Value of reduction coefficient
Conditions in the hydrographical network of small
h.b., which open directly into storage lakes, canals
of regularized rivers.
1.00
Ravines and active torrents with no vegetation and
no deposits
0.75
Ravines and active torrents, no vegetation, with
deposits
0.50
Ravines and torrents covered with vegetation
0.30-0.50
Waterbeds with intermittent deep erosion
0.00-0.40
Long waterbeds, with no deep erosion, and with
obvious waterbed deposits

CHAPTER. II. FEATURES OF WATERBEDS SUBJECTED TO DEEP EROSION

1) Geometrical elements
Deep erosion formations are traces left by strong concentrated streams, on various
supports. The characteristics of the lithological sub-layer cause the morphometric
elements of the waterbed to acquire specific sizes and shapes. The geometrical elements
of the waterbed at a given time represent one of the components of status parameters of
the respective formations; this is why identification of these elements is an obligatory
stage in forecasting overall waterbed dynamics.
Necessary data
a. The direction of deep erosion formation, in the horizontal plane
b. Length of deep erosion formations
c. Waterbed surface
d. Reception/ inlet surface both at the top, as well as total reception surface
e. Waterbed depth values

f. Thalveg slopes
g. Shape of transversal/cross sections
h. Perimeter sizes
Information sources
The abovementioned elements, items a-d, shall be obtained from the layout plan, made at
various scales, depending on the design base (see chapter. I.2).
In order to determine elements at items e-f, the longitudinal profile shall be used, usually
at different scales, as follows:
- for the x-coordinate (length), the same scale as the layout plan shall is generally
used.
- For the y-coordinate (grades), the used scales are 1:500, 1;200 or 1:100
Elements at items g and h shall be determined on elevated transversal profiles at all the
characteristic waterbed sections; thus, sections that register significant changes on the
rout of the formation shall be identified.
Data editing/ processing methods
All morphometric data categories shall be represented in the synoptic longitudinal profile,
designed for the deep erosion formation, as in the example below (fig 2.1)
Use of obtained data
- for the biological and hydraulic studies
- submitting and sizing the waterbed stabilization works
2. Hydrology
Deep erosion has a small reception surface (hydrographical basins whose surface is
smaller than 10 sq. km) and therefore the hydrologic study employs simulation methods
for surface drainage, valid for small hydrographical basins; in this situation rainfall
intensity may be considered uniform/ homogenous.

Fig. 2.1 Synoptic longitudinal section through the deep erosion formation
The indicators in the hydrological study used in design are calculated for excess
probabilities that depend on the importance class of the anti-erosion works, as per
STAS 5432/1-85.
The importance class of constructions and installations for soil erosion prevention for the
agricultural lands are defined depending on their class, design development time and
functional role within the respective arrangement, according to STAS4273-83 and STAS
5576-88.

Table 2.1
Name of arrangement

Arranged
surface Construction class
intended to construction
or
installation,
S,
thousand of ha
4*)
Constructions and installations for
S5
soil erosion elimination on the
S<5
4**)
agricultural lands
*) Constructions and installations can be classified to a higher class only in well-justified
cases, based on studies and technical-economical analyses.
**) Works of strictly local interest and works connected to site organizations may be
included in importance class V, based on appropriate justification.
Table 2.2
Name of hydrotechnical work

Hydrotechnical work classification

According
to According
to
exploitation period functional role

Drainage canals, with a permanent

character, with dry walls or consolidation
works (including vegetation and binding
works)
Transversal works with effective height
H<6m
Versant development works: soil waves,
drains etc*

Definitive
(permanent)

Temporary (semipermanent)

Main

Hydrotechnical work category

1
2
3
4
Importance class of hydrotechnical work
II
III
IV

Secondary

III

IV

Secondary

III

IV

*) Based on technical and economical justification, drains may be considered permanent

secondary works.
Annual theoretical excess probability is adopted as indicated in the table below
Table 2.3
Name of facility

Characteristic
hydrometeorological
parameter

Normal exploitation conditions

Special exploitation conditions

Importance class

II

III

IV

II

III

IV

Annual theoretical excess probability

Facilities
for
protection
of
agricultural land against destructive
water effects
Dewatering Flow
adjustment
and
works at the land
draining
surface and the
facilities
dewatering-draining
network to the outlet
Water
evacuation
constructions
Erosion prevention facilities for
agricultural land

Maximum
flow

0.1*)

1*)

10***)

0.01

0.1

0.5

1**)

3**)

Maximum
precipitations

10***)

3**)

Maximum
outlet flow
Maximum
precipitations

10***)

0.5

1**)

3**)

10

20

0.5

5**)

Therefore, at the date of design, one should define a probable physical-geographical state
of these hydrographical basins- in a time interval equal to the normal operational duration
of the works- and the maximum liquid flows of the torrents should be established
according to this state. But, for reasons of simplification, the drainage coefficient value
may depend, in a given case, only on the calculation rainfall taken into consideration;
that is, the flow has the same probability value as the rainfall that generated it.
According to the hydrological field, the rainfall that has a certain excess probability and
duration, and that is connected to a certain height of the rainfall/ precipitation layer, shall
be called calculation rainfall.
In case there is no data available for more precise calculations, the transfer from one
excess probability value to another shall be made using correction factors. Thus, if the
maximum flow was determined for a 10% excess probability, the transfer to other
probability values can be made, approximately, by multiplication with the following
factors:
Table 2.4.
Excess probability (%)
Correction factor

1
1.50

5
1.15

10
1.00

20
0.80

50
0.64

The drainage coefficient

In order to quickly establish the average drainage coefficients, according to their use,
slopes and textural composition, the following values may used:
Table 2.5. The average value of drainage coefficients (adapted after Frevert)
Use

Forest
Pasture
Agricultural land

Slope (%)

0-5
5-10
01-30
0-5
5-10
10-30
0-5
5-10
10-30

Soil texture
Light
0.10
0.25
0.30
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50

Average
0.30
0.35
0.50
0.30
0.65
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70

Heavy
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.40
0.55
0.60
0.60
0.70
0.80

In the case of non-homogeneous hydrographical basins, where relief conditions, soil

texture, vegetation and presence of CES (soil erosion prevention) works are variable, a
weighted average shall be calculated for each component factor within the calculation
equation of the drainage coefficient.

*) During design of class I and class II constructions, different values may be adopted for
theoretical annual probability of excess of maximum flow/ discharge in normal
exploitation conditions, in reference to the specific features of the constructions and of
the component elements, exploitation conditions etc, based on technical and economical
justification, which is adopted together with the documentation of the respective
investment.
**) During design of temporary class IV and V constructions, verification under special
exploitation conditions is not necessary.
***) In the case of works of strictly local interest, and for works connected to
construction sites, a probability of 10-20% may be adopted based on appropriate
justification.
Necessary data
a. Maximum liquid discharge
b. Maximum liquid volume
c. Solid volume
Estimation methods for the maximum liquid discharge

In the case of small versants and hydrographical basins, for soil erosion prevention works
we do not currently have enough direct measurements to use statistical methods for
establishment of discharges with various error margins and that is why design uses
empirical discharge estimation methods, obtained based on research performed in
representative hydrographical basins. Specialized literature presents numerous such
calculation models, many of which lead to similar results. We consider that the methods
we recommend enable an appropriate analysis of the drainage process and they were
accepted for the design activity.
1. Estimation of the maximum discharge with the rational formula, as follows:
Qmax . p % = 0.167 k I S
Qmax - the maximum discharge with the same insurance as the calculation rainfall (m3/s)
k- drainage coefficient
I Average intensity of the calculation rainfall with excess probability p (%), which
corresponds to the time of concentration on the entire basin (mm/min)
S- collection surface (ha)
The excess probability or insurance of the maximum discharge are represented by the
ratio (expressed in percent)- between the number of years when a certain value of this
discharge was exceeded, and the total number of years taken into consideration.
Generally, the maximum discharge of probability p% does not correspond to the rainfall
with the same probability, apart from rainfall, the discharge is also influenced by other
factors. Thus, there are factors that concern the basin coverage; they are represented
globally through the drainage coefficient and play an important part- especially for small
basins- in starting, accelerating or decelerating of drainage on versants. Determined by

these factors, the values of the drainage coefficient change along with any modifications
caused by natural hazards (wind damage etc), or by sometimes unpredictable antropic
interventions (massive deforestation, fires etc).
Thus, the methodology devised by ICPA shall be employed; as per ICPA methodology,
the value of drainage coefficient k is calculated with the following equation:
k= k s I T V V F
k s - standard drainage coefficient, k s = 0.35, established at the Research Station for Soil
Erosion Prevention (CES)- Perieni, Vaslui County; coefficient was established for the
following conditions: soil with average surface texture, deep soil with weaker drainage,
the land average slope of 12%; hoeing plants, no Sil Erosion Prevention (CES) works;
I- correction coefficient depending on soil texture (infiltration factor)
T- correction coefficient depending on the average terrain slope on the surface of
reception of the respective works (topographic factor)
V- correction coefficient depending on use and crops of land (vegetation factor)
L- correction coefficient depending on anti-erosion works (works factor)
F- correction coefficient depending on calculation insurance
Values of these correction coefficients are presented in the tables below:

Table 2.6- Value of the infiltration factor (I)

No crt
1
2
3
4
5

Soil category
Soils with coarse texture on the entire profile
Coarse surface texture, average texture on the profile
Average surface texturel; deep soil with weaker drainage (Perieni
standard)
Average surface texture; below 30 cm depth- low permeability
horizon
Argillaceous texture on the entire profile

I Factor
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2

Table 2.7- Value of topographic factor (T)

No crt
Versant
slope (%)
T Factor

1
2-4

2
4-6

3
6-8

4
8-10

5
12

6
12-16

7
16-20

8
20-24

9
24-28

10
28-32

11
32-35

0.58

0.72

0.83

0.91

1.00

1.04

1.10

1.20

1.25

1.30

1.35

Table 2.8. Values of use and crop factors

No crt
1
2
3
4
5
6

Uses and crops

Non-productive lands with no vegetation, field
Hoeing land (Perieni standard)
Straw, good density
Straw, average density
Pasture, good quality
Pasture, low quality

V Factor
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.9
0.6
0.8

7
8
9
10
11

Grasslands, good quality

Grasslands, low quality
Wine plantation or orchards, maintenance system for black field
Forest, good quality
Forest, low quality

0.5
0.7
0.85
0.4
0.5

Table 2.9- Values of factors of CES works

No crt
1
2
3
4
5

CES works
No CES works (Perieni standard)
Crops arranged in strips or grassed bands
Bench platforms on arable land
Platforms in steps for wine and fruit plantations
Interception channels on grazing lands.

Factor L
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.80
0.90

Establishing of average calculation rainfall intensity

In order to set out the average calculation rain it is needed to determine the following
items:

Concentration time of superficial flowing on the entire hydrographical basin

Intensity of calculation rain, which time length corresponds to the concentration
time

Concentration time of superficial flowing will be calculated with the next relation:

t = tv + tc + td, where:
t = total concentration time (min);
tv = concentration time of flowing spread on the slopes (min)
tc = concentration time of flowing in the catching channels, if any (min)
td = concentration time of flowing in superficial outlets or valleys, erosion formations in
depth, if any (min)
Concentration time of lowing spread on slopes, in minutes, will be calculated with the
following relation:
tv = 0.0167 x k x

ly
lv

, where:

ly = flowing length on the slope, in m;

lv = average gradient of surface in m/m;
k = parameter according to soil roughness;
For the slopes with crop, k = 30 will be applied.
Concentration time of superficial flowing (in minutes) on the catching channels (tc)
and outlets (td)

Concentration time of superficial flowing (in minutes) on the catching channels (tc) is
estimated with the empiric formula:
lc

tc = 0.000167 x

te = 0.00278 x

lv

for channels without grass

le

for channels with grass

ic
lc = length of channel (m)
le = longitudinal gradient of channel (m/m)
Concentration time of superficial flowing (in minutes) on outlets or collecting valleys is
estimated with the next empiric relation:

ld = 0.0008 x
ld= 0.0003 x

ld
id
ld
id

for strengthened outlets

for valleys or outlets planted with grass

ld= flowing length (m)

ld = average gradient of valley or outlet (m/m).
Intensity of calculation rain

Intensity of calculation rain, which length corresponds to the concentration time for the
exceeding probability required by designed works, is set out with the diagrams in the
annex, corresponding to the area of perimeters location, which is the cope of the project
(according to STAS 9470/73, revisited in 1985 ) see the annex.
Calculation of the maximum flow, with the rational formula, is made for each work and
is incorporated in the calculation notes of the respective work.

Fig. 2.2 zoning of rain intensity within Romania

2. Estimation of maximum flow using reductional formula

As opposed to the method for calculation of flow, presented above, the reductional
formula considers the attenuation of flows simultaneously with the increasing of surface.
This calculation pattern is mostly applied to approximately circular hydro-graphic basins.
Calculation method is:
Q = 0.362 x Sn x H x Ir x T x C x B x V x A x F, where

S = surface in ha; factor n is 0.8 for surfaces of 10-100 ha, 0.78 foe surfaces of 100-200
ha and 0.75 for surfaces between 200 and 400 ha.
H rain factor, which has the following values per climatic areas (rain areas), fig. 2.3
D1 = 1.0
D2 = 1.0
D3 = 0.8
D4 = 0.8
D5 = 0.9
D6 = 1.0

D7 = 1.0
D8 = 1.0
D9 = 1.0
D10 = 1.0
D11 = 1.0
D12 = 1.2

C1 = 1.0
C2 = 1.0
C3 = 1.0
C4 = 1.2
C5 = 1.1

M1 = 0.9
M2 = 1.0
M3 = 1.0
M4 = 1.0
M5 = 0.9

Meaning of symbols: C = plain, D = hill, M = mountain

Fig. 2.3 Rain areas within Romania (according to Maria Platagea, 1974)
If infiltration factor, with the values in the table 2.6
T topographic factor depends on the gradient of land mean on the hydro-graphic
basin.

Table 2.11
Gradient (%)
0-3
3-8
8-15
15-25

Factor T
0.72
0.92
1.1
1.37

C = factor for soil works and crop anti-erosion systems, with the following values:

Works on the direction of line of the high gradient = 0.2

Works on the general direction of level curves = 1.0
Crops in strips or bands planted with grass

B = factor for the shape of hydro-graphic basin, with the following values:

Table 2.11.a
Surface 10-100 ha:
Shape index of >1.6
h.b S (m2)/ L
(m2)
B values
1.25

1.3 1.0

0.80 0.60 0.40 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10

1.2 1.15 1.1

1.05 1.0

0.95 0.9

0.85 0.8

0.75

L average length of basin, m

Surface 100-400 ha:

Shape index of >0.9
h.b S (m2)/ L
(m2)
B values
1.25

0.75 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.32 0.26 0.22 0.20 0.15 0.10
1.2

1.15 1.1

1.05 1.0

0.95 0.9

0.85 0.8

0.75

V = factor for covering of land, with the following values:

Towns = 2
Villages, farms = 1.2
Row crop cultivator = 1.0
Straw plants, good thickness = 0.8
Straw plants, medium thickness = 0.8

Meadow, poor quality = 0.8

Meadow, good quality = 0.6
Grass land, good quality = 0.5
Grass land, poor quality = 0.7
Forest, good quality = 0.4
Forest, poor quality = 0.5

A = factor for slopes improvement works, with the following values:

Without improvement works = 1.0

Channels, terraces = 0.85

F = factor depending on the flows frequency:

For 1% = 1.0
For 5% = 0.73
For 10% = 0.62

c. Specific discharge

With regard to collecting surfaces corresponding to the slopes improvement works as

well as with regard to the hydrographical basins, it will calculate the maximum specific
discharge, in l/s ha comparing maximum discharge with various insurances in l/s with the
surfaces in ha.
Methods to estimate the capacity of liquid flowing

a. Maximum discharge capacity

The maximum capacity of liquid discharge is used to size the level channels, the basins
collecting the water from surface drainage and to calculate the effluent erosion.
As in the case of maximum discharge, different estimation methods are used. The
following method is the easiest of all the used calculation methods.
V = 10 x H x k x S, where

V = discharge capacity in m3
H = maximum rain in 24 hours, with the insurance provided for the works to be designed
(see table 2.12)
k= average-temperate discharge index, for collecting surface. For fast calculations, the
values shown in the table for maximum discharge are to be applied, according to Frevert
or, in case of some comprehensive studies on hydrographical basins, the method,
recommended by Petre Stanescu and his team, or ICPA method will be applied.
S = collecting surface in ha
The presented pattern implies as also for the maximum discharge that soil moisture
degree is satisfactory, resulting from the previous calculation rainfall values; this
assumption might be available in case of insurances of 1%, 5% or 10%, but not for
smaller insurances.
Table 2.12
Maximum rainfalls in 24 hours with various insurances
No

Locality

Layer of maximum rainfalls in 24 hrs (mm) with insurances

05%
1.0%
5%
10%
20%
3
4
5
6
7

1
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230

2
Sighet Maramures
Satu Mare
Someseni-Cluj
Satu-Lung-Brasov
Sighisoara-Mures
Sibiu
Simeria-Hunedoara
Savarsin AradStamora Moravita Timis
Segarcea-Dolj
Studina-Olt
Strehaia-Mehedinti
Schitu Golesti-Arges
Scornicesti-Olt
Slobozia Ialomita
Scopoasa-Dambovita
Sinaia-Prahova
Tinca-Bohor
Turda-Cluj
Turnu Rosu-Sibiu
Teius Alba
Timisoara Timis
Targu Jiu-Gorj
Titu-Dambovita
Tamasesti-Teleroman
Tiganesti-Ilfov
Targoviste
Tulcea
Targu Ocna-Bacau
Tuzla-Constanta
Urziceni
Urziceni-Vrancea
Vascau-Bihor
Voicesti-Olt
Valea Ursului-Arges
Valea Calugareasca
Zalau
Zlatna Alba
Zatreni-Dolj

198
145
85
172
85
95
137
91
100

154
119
77
147
78
87
117
80
87

91
74
60
100
61
69
80
62
64

69
59
52
82
54
61
65
54
56

52
46
45
66
46
53
50
46
46

128
198
147
143
176
190
133
118
114
83
133
60
104
115
103
149
130
132
182
98
105
134
172
135
120
166
120
198
170
76

107
159
128
121
150
151
124
108
127
74
119
55
95
104
95
132
111
118
146
90
95
119
146
119
101
143
108
150
133
68

72
101
90
79
100
92
102
86
84
56
93
46
73
81
76
98
79
88
90
74
70
88
100
84
70
100
82
101
80
56

62
81
75
66
81
74
93
76
67
48
82
41
63
71
67
85
70
76
75
67
60
74
84
69
59
84
71
80
62
50

62
60
54
65
54
82
63
52
41
69
36
53
61
58
70
57
64
54
58
49
59
67
56
48
66
58
60
46
44

Methods to estimate the solid volume

The estimation method below was drawn up based on research conducted in

Romania regarding the formation of deep erosion in hil areas and is intended to determine
the average multi-annual volume of solid material resulted from deep erosion activity.
The calculation procedure consists of the following equation:
in which:
Ws=q x Sactive

Ws average multi-annual volume of solid material resulted from deep erosion, in

m3/year.
q specific volume of alluvia produced by the active bed sector, in m3/year;
Sactive active surface of deep erosion formation, in ha.
The values of specific volume of alluvia produced by the active bed sector varies
according to the evolution stage of such formation, as follows:
Table 12.13
(according to M. Motoc)
q (m3/ha .year)
Evolution stage of deep erosion formation
- channels and gullies with discontinuous development or ongoing
300-800
stabilization
- active gullies with step erosion, without bank collision processes
800-1300
- highly active gullies, with bank collision processes
1300-1800
- highly active gullies with associated processes of slides and
1800-2800
collapses on extended surfaces

These are calculated on sectors with homogenous evolution, and the sum indicates
the solid volume produced by the entire formation.
Information sources
1. For the use of rational formula that calculates the maximum liquid flow rate:
Layout plan indicating the formation reception surface and the calculation
sections on the course alignment.
Soil unit cartogram;
Cartogram of current uses and of existing C.E.S. works.
Map of rain intensity zoning (fig. 2.2)
Graphs correlating the concentration time and the intensity of the calculation rain
intensity with several assurance limits (as per STAS 9470-73 and revised in
1985).
For the redirection formula map of rain region sin Romania (fig. 2.3).
2. To estimate the maximum liquid volume:
Data regarding the maximum rainfall in 24 hours, with various assurances (table
2.12).
3. To estimate the solid volume
Limits of active sectors determined by site reconnaissance or photogram
interpretation.
Data processing
- the following table shall be filled in as well as the corresponding boxes from the
synoptic longitudinal section (fig. 2.1)

Table 2.14
Indicators resulted from the hydrological survey
Section no.
hydrographic
basin

S
(ha)

Category
of C.E.S.
works
on
slopes
and bed

Maximum flow
rate (m3/s)
10% 20% 50%

Specific discharge
(l/s.ha)
10% 20% 50%

Maximum liquid
volume (m3)
10% 20% 50%

Maximum specific
discharge (l/m3)
10% 20% 50%

Note: * Calculation to obtain the hydrological indicators shall be completed in the prefeasibility survey stage and in the versions included in the feasibility study.
** The discharge with a 50% assurance is accepted to be the formation discharge
for the deep erosion process.
Utility of survey

Identification of formation evolution stage;

Dimensioning slope works (interception and surface discharge channels), of cross
course works and of the channel linking to the outlet.
Establishment the hydrological efficiency of the complex of measures and works
designed in the hydrographic basin.
Evaluating the alluvia effluence at the small hydrographic basin exit.
Formation discharge with 50% assurance is used in determining the critical
speeds driving the bed material.

3. Hydraulic elements of water discharge through the bed

The hydraulic study completed on the deep erosion formation takes into account
the specificity of discharge, especially represented by the flux of biphasic fluid flux made
up of one liquid component and one sedimentary. This appeals to elements of the theory
of alluvia movement.
Target data

a)
b)
c)
d)

speed of flood;
speed of water/solid material mixture;
bottom speed of stream;
crest of mass movement (drive) of alluvia.

a) Calculation methods for the speed of flood

1) calculated as per Chezys formula, for a uniform movement stream:\

Solid
volume
(m3/year)

V = C R I , (m/s).

in which:
C speed coefficient (Chezy)
1
C= R y , according to Pavlovsky;
n

1
C= R 1 / 6 , according to Manning;
n
C=

R=

87 R

+ R

, according to Bazin;

- hydraulic ray, in m;

- dip surface, in m2,

P
- dip perimeter, in m.
n,
-roughness coefficient whose recommended values are presented in tables 2.15,
2.16, 2.17.
l
- hydraulic gradient, in m/m (is approximated as the gradient of the course bed)
Table 2.15
Curr.
No.
A

Nature of channel walls

Brooks and rivers, with fixed gravel layer
a) Fine riprap with a lot of sand
b) Riprap 10-20 mm
c) Riprap 20-60 mm
d) Riprap 50-150 mm
e) Mountain rivers with boulders
Meadows and flooded plains
a) Pastures and hay fields without boscage with short grass
Pastures and hay fields without boscage with long grass
b) Surfaces cultivated before the ear appears
Mature crops
c) Grove, boscage
Scattered boscage, predominantly weeds
Boscage with few trees, winter time
Boscage with few trees, summer time
Grove, thickness between regular and high. winter time
Grove, thickness between regular and high. summer time
d) Forest
Thick willows, summer time
Cleared land, but with tree stumps, without re-growth coppice
Cleared land, idem, with a lot of re-growth coppice

n
varies from to

Taken in projects
n
0.020
0.022
0.025
0.030

0.030-0.035
0.025-0.035
0.030-0.050
0.020-0.040
0.030-0.050

0.030
0.035
0.030
0.040

0.035-0.070
0.035-0.060
0.040-0.080
0.045-0110
0.075-0.160

0.050
0.050
0.050
0.070
0.100

0.110-0.200
0.030-0.050
0.050-0.080

0.150
0.040
0.040

Many trees standing; few cut down; or chopped down.

e) Reed, cane, rush, after the development and thick layer

0.080-0.120
0.120-0.220

0.100
0.170

Table 2.16

Values of roughness coefficient n according to B. Kinori

Type of natural valleys

Flowing conditons
good
average
0.028
0.030
0.033
0.035
0.040
0.045
0.060
0.070
0.030
0.040

very good
0.025
0.030
0.035
0.050
-

Without vegetation, without alluvia

With loose vegetation or gravel
With vegetation and stones
With a lot of vegetation
Mountain valleys without vegetation:
trees shrubs flooded at different levels,
riprap and boulder bed

bad
0.033
0.040
0.050
0.080
0.050

Table 2.17

Values of roughness coefficient for gullies

Characteristics of gully sectors
Transport sections without plantations on
the bottom
Transport sections with rare plantations
Transport sections with thick plantations
Digging sectors without plantations
Digging sectors with rare plantations
Digging sectors with thick plantations

3,5 4
4,5- 5
6.5 7.5
5.5 6,5
7,0-6,5
9,0 -10

Notes
Higher values are considered
for frequent bends, irregular or
creased banks and random
settlements.

2) Equations calculating water flowing speed through the beds, in case of gradually
varied movements:
- the following formulas are generally known:
h
Vm = C ( ) n ghl , where:
d
h water depth, in m;
d height of prominences on the bottom, in mm .
I hydraulic gradient, approximated through the average gradient of the bottom, in m/m.
The most used formulas for this purpose are:
Vm = 5,6 log

615h
ghl
d

h
Vm = 6,9( )1 / 5 ghl
d

(Goncearov)

(Pavlovski and Forchemier)

b) Speed of water /solid material mixture

Average speed of a stream loaded with solid material (Vam) as per the torrential
coefficient (kt), is established using the following equation:
Vam =Vflood.kt, (m/s), where:
Vflood = flowing speed, in the same hydraulic conditions as a clean stream, without
alluvial material, in m/s;
kt = torrential coefficient which expresses the torrential condition, that is the extent to
which floods are loaded with alluvia and the extent to which the slope is degraded.
kt =

a + ( al a ) k t

, where:

a specific weight of water , in t/m3;

al specific weight of alluvia, in t/m3;
v
k t = al is the loading coefficient, having the following values according to the stream
v water
characteristics.
a) kt = 00.04 for watery streams (without a special load of solid material am = 1.06
t/m3). These gullies are characteristic for basins well covered in vegetation and with
erosion resistant rocks.
b) kt = 0.040.4 for streams with water and boulders-loaded with solid material in big
quantities - am = 1.5 t/m3). Torrential gullies of this category have reception basins with
degraded vegetation.
c) kt = 0.040.4 for muddy streams (these have a very big load of solid material) These
torrential gullies have laminar flowing, the stream being a viscous mixture of water and
solid material with a high power of destruction. In Romania, these can be found on the
northern slopes of Fagaras mountains.
c) bottom speed of stream

Can be determined using the following equation:

vt = .vam, where
vam = average speed of stream mixed with solid material
= 0.625
d) crest of mass movement (drive) of alluvia
In current design, for deep erosion beds, the crest of mass movement of alluvia is
determined using the value of the critical driving speed, which corresponds to the

formation debit (formation debit is the debit with the most intense bed processes and
which, according to the indications existing in the specialized literature, may be deemed
to be equal to the average maximum debit or to the maximum debit with a 50%
probability of excess).
Equations for the critical driving speed:
a) vcr.antr= umx y 0m.2 0-average limit speed of driving corresponding to alluvia
developed in river bed, in m/s;
um = limit speed of driving (specific critical speed) in m/s for the current with
average depth of 1 m corresponding to the formation outflow (tables 2.18 and
2.19);
ym = depth of watered section, corresponding to the formation outflow
Table 2.18
Values of driving limit speeds of the riverbed which average depth is 1 m for noncohesive soils

Nature of soil
Dust and mud
Fine sand
Middle size sand
Coarse sand
Small size ballast
Middle size ballast
Coarse ballast
Small size gravel
Middle size gravel
Large size gravel
Small boulders
Middle size boulders
Large boulders

Size of particles (mm)

0.005-0.05
0.05-0.25
0.25-1.00
1.00-2.50
2.5-5.00
5.0-10.00
10.00-15.00
15-25
25-40
40-75
75-100
100-150
150-200

U01 (m/s)
0.19-0.26
0.26-0.40
0.40-0.70
0.70-0.80
0.80-1.00
1.00-1.25
1.25-1.40
1.40-1.60
1.60-2.00
2.00-2.60
2.60-3.00
3.00-3.50
3.50-4.00

Table 2.19
Values of driving limit speeds of the riverbed which average depth is 1 m for
cohesive soils

Nature of soil
Coarse clayey sand
Heavy clayey sand
Light sandy clays
Medium sandy clays

U01 (m/s)
0.80-0.90
1.10
0.80-0.90
1.20

Nature of soil
Heavy sandy clays
Weak clays
Standard clays
Compacted clays
Muddy soils

U01 (m/s)
1.20-1.30
0.80
1.30-1.50
1.60-1.90
0.60-0.70

Drawing out of data

The calculations are made in the same sections with the sections where it has been
obtained the values of liquid flowing outflows, in the initial stage and after arrangement.
Determinated values will be inserted into the synoptic longitudinal section, at the relevant
columns.
Utility of study

to identify the evolution study of erosion formation in depth;

to size the works in the riverbed

Estimation indicators of erosion effects in depth

Estimation of multi-annual average erosion

The method was undertaken by R.Gaspar and A. Apostol (1970), the calculation pattern
being:
Wa = Wav + Waa (m3/ year), where:
Wa = total volume of alluviums as multi-annual average, m3/ year
Wav = volume of alluviums from the slope, m3/ year
Waa = volume of alluviums from the riverbed, m3/ year
Wav = ab (S x q1) i1
Waa = b x (L x q2) 15/i
Where
a = parameter depending on the average length of slope, table 2.20
b = parameter depending on the main thalweg, table 2.21
q1 = erosion rate in the surface, which depends on the usage class and erosion degree (cm/
ha. Year), table 2.22
S = surface with certain usage and erosion degree (ha)
i1 = average gradient of hydro-graphic basin (m/m)

L = active length of hydro-graphic network (km)

q2 = depth erosion rate (cm/ km) (fig 2.4)
i2 = average gradient of main thalweg (m/m)
i = parameter obtained from the graph of depth erosion rate
Table 2.20
Values of parameter a

Iv (m)
a

50
0.7

100
1.0

200
1.4

300
1.7

400
2.0

Table 2.21
Values of parameter b

No
1
2
3

Conditions
Slopes with concave profile, the riverbed has
many bends
Slopes with convex profile, the riverbed has few
bends
Intermediate situations

Length of main thalweg, km

1
5
10
20
0.80 0.65
0.57
0.50
1.0

0.85

0.77

0.70

0.90

0.75

0.67

0.60

Table 2.22
Values for q1

No

Class of soil and erosion condition

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Forest with full consistency, with litter, without erosion

Ditto, without litter, grassland or meadow, without erosion
Forest with consistency below 0.6, grassland, erosion of I, II degree
Ditto, erosion of III or IV degree
Meadow, light erosion
Meadow, strong erosion
Meadow, very strong or excessive erosion with landslides
Arable land with temperate strong erosion
Ditto, very strong erosion
Non-productive soil without landslides
Non-productive soil with active landslides

q1 (m3/ ha.
year)
0.05-0.3
0.5-2.0
1.0-3.0
3.0-8.0
1.0-4.0
5.0-15.0
15.0-30.0
5.0-10.0
15.0-40.0
20.0-60.0
40.0-100.0

Fig 2.4. Diagram of erosion indicator q 2 in m3/km, for a vegetation coverage of the
basin in compliance with the following value: a) z<5mm; b) 5z<10mm; c) 10z<15
mm; d) zmm.