Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Doctoral Thesis
By
ke Melinder
1 S e c o n d a r y wo r ki n g f l u i d s
used in indirect systems
1.1 Indirect systems with secondary
working fluids
Secondary working fluids (secondary refrigerants, heat transfer
fluids, antifreezes, brines) have long been used in various indirect
refrigeration and heat pump systems. One secondary working fluid
circuit transports heat from the cooling object or heat source to
the evaporator and another may cool the condenser. Many terms
are used for the fluids we here consider.
Many terms are used for the fluids we here consider. Why has secondary working fluid been chosen for this publication? The term is
not restricted to just one function of the fluid, such as heat carrier,
heat transfer fluid or antifreeze. It draws attention to an indirect or
secondary system without using the often misunderstood term
secondary refrigerant. The commonly used term brine should
strictly only be used about aqueous salt solutions. The term secondary working fluid is in agreement with the Call for papers to the
22nd Int. IIR Congress of Refrigeration in Beijing, August 2007.
Aqueous solutions (water solutions) have long been used as single phase (liquid only) secondary working fluids for cooling in supermarkets, for ice rinks, heat recovery systems, heat pumps and
other applications. However, aqueous solutions are increasingly
used also for freezers in supermarkets and other applications in
low temperature refrigeration. Aqueous solutions are among else
also used in sorption based air conditioning equipment for dehumidification of air, usually operating at rather high temperatures
(Arias 1999, Conde 2004, Kruse 2005, Lundqvist 2000, Mao and
Hrnjak 1999, Pearson 1993).
Figure 1.1 shows the principles of a completely indirect cooling
system, i.e. for a supermarket. In such an indirect system, the primary refrigerant can be confined to a compact chiller unit in the
machine room. One secondary working fluid (1) cools the condenser and the dry cooler is usually placed outdoors. Another secondary working fluid (2) is cooled in the evaporator and used for
cooling cabinets and cold storage.
1
Outdoor temperature
Dry cooler
Secondary working fluid (1)
Pump
Condenser
Compressor
Chiller unit
Pump
Evaporator
Cold
storage
Research has the last decade been made with aqueous solutions as
two-phase ice slurry for cooling in supermarkets, cooling of fish,
shrimps and vegetables, transport cooling, energy storage as well as
other applications. (Aittomki 1999, Ben Lakhdar 2002, Egolf and
Kauffeld 2005, Field and Kauffeld 2003, Fukusako 1999, Granryd
2002, Kauffeld, Egolf and Kawaji 2005, Malter 1996, Paul 1997,
Snoek 1993, Wang 1999).
With an indirect system it is possible to manufacture large quantities of factory built cooling units that can be used for a variety of
applications. It is also possible to design the primary refrigeration
unit as a compact chiller in a machine room with an extremely
small refrigerant charge. All refrigerant piping work can be performed at the factory with minimal risk of leakage. Local construction of refrigerant piping can be avoided and installation work can
be made in a more simple way (Lindborg 2003, Lundqvist 2000).
See also PAPER 3 (Melinder 2003b).
Pump
Heat source
T SF-EV
't
SF
' t HS
Temp.
(Cooling coil)
T HS-SF
Evaporator
Evaporation temp., t2
A more even temperature distribution gives more uniform formation of frost. Warm secondary fluid can be used for defrosting
which shortens the time needed for each defrosting, gives longer
intervals between defrosting periods and more even and favorable product temperatures.
Indirect systems are usually designed and built as large systems
and variations in load can be evened out and shared within different parts of a large system.
The energy consumption of a well designed indirect system may
over a year even be less than of a traditionally built direct system,
partly also due to more even temperature distribution at the cooling object and fewer defrosts needed!
ids for applications below 0C, and the challenge is especially great
for freezer applications.
There is a need for a good knowledge of thermophysical properties and other aspects of available secondary working fluids in order to make a good choice of fluid and to make reliable technical
calculations of indirect refrigeration and heat pump systems. This
thesis is meant to fill this need and to point out the requirements
of such fluids.
-5
-10
-15
NaCl
GL
-20
PG
-25
EG
MgCl2
-30
MA
EA
-35
K2CO3
CaCl2
-40
KAC
NH3
-45
KFO
MA
LiCl
-50
-55
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
GL: Glycerol
NH3: Ammonia
Chem.
symbol
Ethylene glycol (EG)
C2H602
Propylene glycol (PG)
C 3H 80 2
Ethyl alcohol (EA)
C2H60
Methyl alcohol (MA)
CH40
Glycerol (GL)
C 3H 80 3
Ammonia
NH3
Potassium carbonate
K2CO3
Calcium chloride
CaCl2
Magnesium chloride
MgCl2
Sodium chloride
NaCl
Potassium acetate (KAC) KC2O2H3
Potassium formate (KFO) KCO2H
Lithium chloride
LiCl
Mol.
weight
62.07
76.09
46.07
32.03
92.09
17.03
138.20
110.99
95.23
58.44
98.15
84.12
42.40
wt-%
Appr. eutectic
| -51C/57%
| -50C/60%
| -118C/93.5%
| -116C/87.7%
| -47C/67%
| -100C/33%
| -37.5C/40%
| -50C/30.5%
| -33C/21.8%
| -21C/23.4%
| -52C/45%
| -51C/48%
| -75C/25%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
Ethylene glycol, EG
30
Propylene glycol, PG
20
Ethyl alcohol, EA
Glycerol, GL
10
wt-% = vol-%
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Additive conc. [weight-%]
80
90
100
1400
EG
PG
EA
MA
GL
NH3
K2CO3
CaCl2
MgCl2
NaCl
KAC
KFO
LiCl
1350
1300
1250
1200
KFO
CaCl2
K2CO3
KFO
KAC
MgCl2
NaCl
LiCl
1150
GL
1100
EG
PG
1050
1000
EA
950
MA
NH3
900
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
1,41
1,40
1,39
1,38
MgCl2
CaCl2
LiCl
K2CO3
GL
PG
NaCl
EG
1,37
1,36
EA
1,35
NH3
MA
1,34
1,33
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Figure 2.4. Index of refraction at 20C, n20C, as function of additive concentration by weight, cA
12
Figure 2.4 gives values of the index of refraction of aqueous solutions at 20C, n20C, as function of the additive concentration. The
increase with additive concentration is largest with salts and smallest with methyl alcohol and ammonia. As mentioned, refractive
index is a common way to measure concentrations of glycols. For
detailed values, see Table 2.4 in Appendix.
However, it should be possible to measure the additive concentration of any of these fluids with a glycol meter that has a scale for
refractive index.
Table 2.2 is given as an aid to mix additive and water in the right
proportions to get a certain freezing point. The table gives mixing
proportions and values of refractive index, n20C, of each of the
aqueous solutions at 20C, all as a function of the additive concentration that corresponds to the freezing point tF = -15C. Table
2.2 also lists molar concentration and is mainly constructed by interpolation of values in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
(1986-87). Values are not available for the organic potassium salts.
For explanation of fluid symbols or abbreviations see Figure 2.1.
Table 2.2. Density, molar conc., mixing masses and refractive
index of aqueous solutions with conc. giving tF = -15C.
Type of
additive
EG
PG
EA
MA
GL
NH3
K2CO3
CaCl2
MgCl2
NaCl
LiCl
Additive
Conc.
CA
Density
at 20C
U20C
Molar
Conc.
M
Additive
Mass
Cs
wt-%
30.46
32.90
24.55
19.98
39.17
10.83
27.00
17.92
14.68
18.82
11.20
kg/m
1038.4
1025.5
962.4
966.6
1096.2
954.4
1264.7
1157.2
1125.2
1138.3
1062.9
kg-mol/l
5.097
4.434
5.128
6.029
4.663
6.071
2.473
1.869
1.736
3.665
2.809
kg/m
316.4
337.4
236.3
193.1
429.5
103.4
341.8
207.4
165.3
214.2
119.1
Water Index of
Mass Refraction
Cw
n20C
kg/m
722.1
688.1
726.2
773.4
666.7
851.1
922.9
949.8
959.9
924.10
943.8
1.363
1.370
1.350
1.338
1.383
1.339
1.379
1.378
1.371
1.366
1.357
(2.1)
(2.2)
where UF is the density at the freezing point, tF, and U is the density at a chosen temperature, t.
The largest expected volume change, 'V [m3], from the freezing
point, tF, to a chosen temperature, t, is then for a volume V [m3]:
'V = V(TVE/100)
(2.3)
14
2,2
EG
PG
EA
MA
GL
NH3
K2CO3
CaCl2
NaCl
KAC
KFO
LiCl
H2O
tF
2,0
1,8
1,6
1,4
1,2
1,0
EA
PG
NaCl
GL
K2CO3 EG
KAC
CaCl2
MA
KFO
NH3
LiCl
0,8
H2O
0,6
0,4
0,2
LiCl
0,0
-15
LiCl
-10
-5
5
10
15
20
Temperature [C]
25
30
35
40
4000
3750
3500
EG
PG
EA
MA
GL
NH3
K2CO3
CaCl2
NaCl
KAC
KFO
LiCl
H2O
tF
3250
3000
2750
2500
2250
2000
-20
-10
10
20
30
Temperature [C]
Q = V U cp't
(2.4)
(2.5)
where the negative sign indicates that heat flows in the direction of
decreasing temperatures.
A high value of thermal conductivity, k [W/mK], of a fluid is desirable as it contributes to good heat transfer and thereby decreases
the temperature difference between fluid and tube wall in the
evaporator and heat exchangers.
Figure 2.8 gives thermal conductivity curves for concentrations of
the aqueous solutions giving tF = -15C. The chloride salts and potassium formate have quite high values, close to water and about
30% higher values than propylene glycol, ethyl alcohol and glycerol.
16
4250
4000
3750
EG
PG
EA
MA
GL
NH3
K2CO3
CaCl2
NaCl
KAC
KFO
LiCl
H2O
tF
3500
3250
3000
-20
-10
0
10
Temperature [C]
20
30
Figure 2.7. Volumetric heat capacity of aqueous solutions (tF = 15C) as function of temperature
0,60
0,40
EG
PG
EA
MA
GL
NH3
K2CO3
CaCl2
NaCl
KAC
KFO
LiCl
H2O
tF
0,30
.
0,50
0,20
0,10
0,00
-20
-10
10
20
30
Temperature [C]
W = Pdu/dy
(2.6)
(2.7)
Figure 2.9 gives as an example kinematic viscosity for concentrations giving tF = -15C. The values differ very much between the
aqueous solutions and the viscosity increases sharply at low temperatures, especially with propylene glycol, ethyl alcohol and glycerol, even more so at higher additive concentrations and lower
temperatures.
16
GL EA
EG
PG
EA
MA
GL
NH3
K2CO3
CaCl2
NaCl
KAC
KFO
LiCl
H2O
tF
PG
14
12
10
EG
8
MA
KAC
K2CO3
xxCl
KFO
4
2
H2O
0
-20
-10
0
10
Temperature [C]
20
30
115
CaCl2
110
KAC
K2CO3 EG
NaCl
105
EG
PG
EA
MA
GL
NH3
K2CO3
CaCl2
MgCl2
NaCl
KAC
KFO
100
95
90
85
EA
NH3
PG
GL
MA
80
75
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
In view of the flammability risk when using ethyl alcohol in indirect systems, safety regulations in Sweden rewquire that the highest
temperature in cooling systems has to be at least 5C below the
flash point for the current ethyl alcohol (ethanol) concentration. If
the mass concentration is 30% or more the safety regulations are
quite strict. Figure 2.11 gives the flash point, tFL [C], as function of
the additive concentration for ethyl alcohol solutions (Svensk Kylnorm, 1992).
2.9 Conclusions
A brief definition and description has in this chapter been given of
each of the basic thermophysical properties and some other properties. A comparison of various fluids has been made for concentrations giving the freezing point, tF = -15C.
It is evident that no secondary working fluid is ideal for all applications and we should look for the best one for each type of system
and application. It is also essential to consider company information sheets of the commercial products.
In chapter 5 a comparison is made of different freezing points or
concentrations of two of these aqueous solutions to see what impact the concentration has on the thermal behavior of the fluid.
20
50
15
48
20
25
30
35
[volume-%]
46
44
42
40
38
36
34
32
30
10
12
14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Additive concentration [weight-%]
28
30
EG
PG
EA
MA
GL
NH3
CaCl2
MgCl2
NaCl
K2CO3
KAC
100C
50C
0C
90
CaCl2
MgCl2
K2CO3
NaCl
80
0C
GL
70
50C
60
PG
100C
NH3
50
EG
MA
40
EA
30
20
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
2.10 Nomenclature
The following nomenclature is used in chapter 2.
A
cA
cp
d
dT/dx
du/dy
k
Q
Re
t, T
tB
tE
tF
tFL
TVE
V
V
w
E
't, 'T
'V
J
P
Q
U
U cp
W
22
3 S e l e c t i o n o f p r o p e r t y va l u e s
of aqueous solutions
3.1 Summary
One main purpose of this chapter is to summarize the review work
reported on in the Engineering Licentiate Thesis: Thermophysical
properties of liquid secondary refrigerants, A Critical Review on Literature References and Laboratory Measurements (Melinder 1998a).
That material forms the basis for the charts and tables used in the
IIR-publication Thermophysical properties of liquid secondary refrigerants (Melinder, 1997). An additional purpose of this chapter
is to report on more recent review work done, including two additional fluids not covered in Melinder (1998a).
The main intention of this work has been to select thermophysical
property data with good or acceptable technical accuracy of a
number of aqueous solutions that can be used by the refrigeration
and heat pump industry, rather than focusing on a limited number
of property values or scientifically accurate measuring techniques.
Hence, a thorough literature search was made to find the most reliable property values of aqueous solutions for choice of secondary
working fluid and technical calculations of refrigeration and heat
pump systems. Detailed literature references are given for thermophysical properties of each aqueous solution. Some laboratory
measurements were made of most of the fluids types when literature values were incomplete or deemed unreliable. Methods used
are briefly described and results are given.
The aqueous solutions, without other additives, presented in
Melinder (1998a) and Melinder (1997) are ethylene and propylene
glycol, ethyl and methyl alcohol, glycerol, ammonia, potassium
carbonate, calcium, magnesium and sodium chlorides as well as
potassium acetate. The types of aqueous solutions that have been
added in this thesis */ are potassium formate and lithium chloride.
*/ A commercial product based on betaine has been introduced
on the market and in conference papers but property values from
other sources are lacking (Jokinen 2003, Jokinen, Willems 2004).
Thermophysical property data given in Melinder (1997) are in the
Melinder (1998a) compared with measured values and other litera23
24
25
26
27
54. Int. Journal of Thermophysics, Vol. 8, p.351 (1987) and Vol. 15,
p.165 (1994)
55. Internal report of measurements at KTH for Kylteknikern [25];
(1957)
56. Internal report with measurements at Ume university primarily of
specific heat and thermal conductivity (1996)
57. MIDAS Database for Thermophysical Properties, Excerpt from R.
Krauss, ITT, Stuttgart University, Germany (1995)
58. Refrigeration, Air Conditioning, and Cold Storage, R. C. Gunther
(1957)
59. Tables of Physical and Chemical Constants, G. C. Kaye, T. H.
Laby (1986)
60. Thermal Conductivity, Vol. 2, R. P. Tye (1969)
61. Thermophysical Properties of Matter, Volumes 3; Thermal Conductivity. Nonmetallic liquids and gases; Y. S. Touloukian et al
(1970)
62. Thermophysical Properties of Matter, Volumes 6; Specific heat.
Nonmetallic liquids and gases; Y. S. Touloukian et al (1970)
63. Wrme und Kltetechnik, Zeitschrift fr Klimatechnik,
Trockentechnik, Wrme- und Schallschutztechnik, February 1941
28
29
(..,1r)
(..,1)
(..,1y)
3.3
Some of the charts and discussions in Melinder (1998a) are covered in Melinder (1998b). These include density of ethylene glycol,
thermal conductivity of sodium chloride, freezing point and viscosity of calcium chloride.
Certain property values of some aqueous soutions have been
changed especially at low temperatures since Melinder (1998a) was
written. A discussion of some of these changed property values
will be presented here, including specific heat of ethyl alcohol. The
viscosity values of calcium chloride at low temperatures are reviewed. The reference lists of these aqueous solutions are also
given.
Property values of aqueous soutions of lithium chloride and potassium formate have been added since the publication of Melinder
(1998a) and are considered with a detailed reference list and charts
with discussion. Charts give for these two aqueous solutions the
basic thermophysical properties: freezing point; density; dynamic
viscosity; specific heat and thermal conductivity.
3.3.1
31
32
4600
% by w t
[3], [6]
Bose
0, 10, 20,
30, 40,
50, 60%
o---o
4400
4200
20
25
10
[69] 10%
30
[69] 0%
4000
40
3800
[21]
20, 40%
3600
50
3400
[71]
0, 10, 47%
60
3200
++++++++
[71] 50%
++++++
3000
2800
Ethyl alcohol
Specific heat
2600
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
Temperature [C]
10
20
30
40
Melinder 2007
Calcium chloride
Dynamic viscosity
[6]
Stakelb.
& Plank,
21,8%
28,7%
---10
[3]
Sprung
18,2%,
30,8%
o---o
[1]
20C
% by w t
[79], [App 1]
Melinder
18, 22, 28%
x -- -- x
[21]
20, 30%
30
28
25
20
[4]
Buche
1927
15
10
5
0
- 1
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
Temperature [C]
20
30
40
Melinder 2006
Figure 3.3. Results of pressure drop tests of calcium chloride water with property values from Stakelbeck [41]
Figure 3.4. Results of pressure drop tests of calcium chloride water with property values from author [79]
36
37
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
-50
Chosen values
[1] CRC Handbook of Chem. & Physics
[6] Maran, 1956
[6] Voskreneskaya, Yanatieva, 1937
[6] Rodebush, 1918
[65] Andersson, 1996, 20%
[73] Gmelins Handbook, Lithium, 1960
-55
-60
-65
-70
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
38
1160
26
1150
25
24
1140
1130
w t-%
22
1120
1110
Density [kg/m3] .
1100
[1]
20C
and 0%
20
18
1090
1080
1070
1060
1050
1040
1030
1020
1010
1000
[3], [73]
2, 6, 10,
14, 18, 22,
24, 26%
x---x
15
14
10
[5]
2, 5, 10, 15
20, 25%
o o
[84]
5, 10, 15,
20, 25%
- -
6
5
[6]
0, 5.1,
15.2,
25.3%
6, 25, 50C
990
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10
2
6
10
0
20
Temperature [C]
30
40
50
60
Melinder 2007
39
100
[6]
Jacopetti
18, 40C
[6]
Alfimoff
0C
10
- [4]
15, 35C
o o
[App 1]
Melinder
15, 20 %
w t-%
24
+, x
20
[1]
20C
15
10
5
0
1
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
Temperature [C]
10
20
30
40
Melinder 2007
40
4,4
w t-%
0
4,2
4,0
3,8
10
3,6
15
3,4
18
20
22
24
3,2
[71]
20, 23%
3,0
x,+
[6]
Jauch
18C
2,8
[6]
Tucker
20C
o
[5]
26,5C
2,6
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
Temperature [C]
10
20
30
40
Melinder 2007
41
0,62
[67]
Uemura
10, 30C
10, 20%
0,60
0,58
w t-%
0
5
10
0,56
15
18
20
22
24
[65]
Andersson
20%
x--x x
0,54
0,52
[4]
Riedel
20C
0, 5, 10,
15, 18, 20,
22, 24%
0,50
0,48
[6]
Kapustinskii
& Ruzavin
25C
o
0,46
0,44
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
Temperature [C]
10
20
30
40
Melinder 2007
42
43
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
-50
-55
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
Melinder 2007
44
0
Chosen values
.
[77] Freezium
[88] Hycool
[85] Tyfoxit F
[66] Antifrogen KF
-5
Freezing point temperature [C] .
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
-50
EA
-55
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Melinder 2007
0 0
0 0
4
2
0 0
0 0
45
1360
% by w t
1340
48
1320
45
1300
1280
40
1260
1240
35
Density [kg/m3] .
1220
1200
30
1180
25
1160
1140
20
1120
[84] from
de Garcia,
1920, 21C
also in [6]
1100
1080
1060
10
1040
5
.
1020
0
1000
980
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
Temperature [C]
0 0
0 0
4
2
0 0
0 0
30
40
Melinder 2007
46
100
10
% by w t
[[App. 1]
Melinder,
Hycool
38, 44,
47%
48
45
40
35
30
20
10
0
+--+--+
1
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
Temperature [C]
0 0
0 0
4
2
0 0
0 0
30
40
Melinder 2007
47
4300
% by w t
0
4200
4100
4000
3900
10
3800
3700
3600
3500
20
3400
3300
25
3200
30
3100
3000
35
2900
40
2800
45
2700
30
2600
2500
-50
-40
-30
-10 35 0 25 10
-20
20
Temperature [C]
0 0
0 0
4
2
0 0
0 0
30
40
Melinder 2007
0,620
% by w t
0,610
0,600
0,590
0,580
10
0,570
0,560
20
[65]
Andersson
Hycool -25
0,550
0,540
25
30
+--+--+
0,530
35
0,520
40
0,510
45
48
0,500
0,490
0,480
0,470
0,460
0,450
0,440
0,430
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
Temperature [C]
0 0
0 0
4
2
0 0
0 0
30
40
Melinder 2007
P = W(U1 - U2)K
(3.1)
51
52
4 M a k i n g t h e r m o p hy s i c a l
properties of aqueous
s o l u t i o n s a va i l ab l e f o r
computer use
4.1 Introduction
As mentioned in earlier chapters, aqueous solutions are used in
various types of indirect refrigaeration and heat pump systems. Reliable basic thermo-physical data is needed for choice of suitable
fluid and for technical calculations of the system. This chapter describes how the selection of property values results in tables and
charts intended for the industry. The chapter also describes the
process to transform these property values to a material suitable
for computer treatment (Melinder 2006).
53
The results for aqueous solutions of lithium chloride and potassium formate, salts that may be used at quite low temperatures, are
also given as these types have been added since Melinder (1997)
and Melinder (1998a) were compiled.
Based on the work described in chapter 3, Table 4.1 gives basic
thermophysical properties of aqueous solutions of ethyl alcohol.
The following symbols are used:
tF
cA
t
U
cp
k
tF
cA
cp
[C]
0
[wt-%]
0
-2.09
-4.47
10
-7.36
15
[C]
40
30
20
10
0
40
30
20
10
0
-2.09
40
30
20
10
0
-4.47
40
30
20
10
0
-7.36
[kg/m]
992.2
995.7
998.2
999.7
999.9
983.1
986.6
989.5
990.8
991.4
991.2
974.9
978.7
982.0
983.8
984.9
985.1
966.8
971.2
975.2
978.0
979.9
980.5
[J/kgK]
4177
4177
4181
4192
4218
4235
4235
4240
4270
4325
4340
4270
4270
4280
4310
4360
4390
4320
4310
4320
4340
4370
4410
[W/mK]
0.631
0.615
0.598
0.580
0.561
0.588
0.576
0.562
0.548
0.532
0.528
0.554
0.542
0.529
0.516
0.503
0.498
0.518
0.507
0.496
0.485
0.474
0.466
[mPas]
0.653
0.798
1.002
1.306
1.792
0.77
0.96
1.24
1.70
2.45
2.70
0.90
1.16
1.53
2.17
3.25
4.20
1.03
1.35
1.84
2.70
4.20
6.5
(cont.)
54
cA
cp
-10.92
20
-15.45
25
-20.47
30
-29.3
40
-37.7
50
-44.9
60
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-10.9
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-15.45
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-20.47
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-29.3
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-37.7
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-44.9
958.8
963.8
968.8
972.5
975.7
977.8
978.0
950.5
957.0
962.0
967.0
971.0
974.5
975.5
940.8
948.0
954.0
960.0
965.4
969.5
972.9
973.0
920.1
927.7
935.1
942.5
949.4
956.0
962.3
967.5
897.6
905.8
914.0
921.3
929.4
937.0
945.0
953.0
959.0
874.3
882.7
891.3
899.3
907.3
915.5
923.5
931.7
940.0
943.7
4315
4310
4310
4330
4360
4385
4390
4310
4300
4290
4280
4270
4260
4254
4240
4240
4230
4200
4170
4120
4050
4045
4120
4080
4030
3970
3900
3810
3710
3610
3950
3890
3820
3730
3630
3510
3370
3230
3110
3690
3630
3550
3450
3330
3200
3050
2880
2710
2630
0.484
0.475
0.466
0.457
0.448
0.439
0.438
0.454
0.446
0.438
0.430
0.422
0.414
0.410
0.423
0.417
0.411
0.405
0.398
0.391
0.385
0.385
0.369
0.365
0.361
0.357
0.352
0.348
0.344
0.340
0.322
0.320
0.317
0.315
0.312
0.309
0.307
0.304
0.302
0.280
0.279
0.278
0.277
0.276
0.275
0.274
0.273
0.272
0.272
1.16
1.55
2.16
3.22
5.15
9.7
10.3
1.27
1.73
2.45
3.71
6.10
11
17
1.36
1.86
2.68
4.08
6.80
12.2
25
26
1.47
2.01
2.90
4.35
7.05
12.5
24.5
50
1.48
2.00
2.84
4.20
6.60
11
20
41
75
1.44
1.92
2.65
3.78
5.75
8.85
14.7
26.5
55
85
55
(4.1)
where i+j d 5 and where Cij is the coefficient for each term.
However, the logarithmic equation form of the same polynomial
is used for dynamic viscosity:
log f = 6 Cij(x-xm)i (y-ym)j
(4.2)
56
cp
3.00E+01
9.61E+02
4.19E+03
4.03E-01
1.48E+00
0 1
1.12E-04
-5.37E-01
2.83E+00
6.54E-04
-4.74E-02
0 2
-1.55E-05
-3.21E-03
-3.58E-02
3.48E-07
4.33E-04
0 0
0 3
6.60E-07
1.49E-05
5.22E-04
-2.11E-08
-3.03E-06
1 0
-1.04E+00
1.58E+00
2.30E+01
5.16E-03
-1.38E-02
1 1
-2.81E-05
2.17E-02
-5.87E-01
2.22E-05
-4.57E-05
1 2
-4.74E-07
-2.15E-04
3.67E-03
3.72E-08
5.97E-06
1 3
-2.45E-08
7.94E-07
5.66E-05
-2.01E-10
-1.03E-07
2 0
2.00E-03
-3.93E-02
-2.39E-01
1.39E-05
-8.21E-04
2 1
-5.01E-06
3.26E-04
-6.32E-03
3.48E-07
1.83E-05
2 2
5.43E-08
3.94E-07
3.37E-05
-5.85E-09
-1.63E-07
2 3
-2.33E-09
-6.60E-09
8.83E-07
2.16E-11
-3.68E-09
3 0
-5.19E-04
3.65E-04
-1.49E-02
2.64E-06
-2.74E-05
3 1
2.04E-07
-7.91E-06
5.73E-04
4.22E-08
7.24E-07
3 2
2.04E-09
1.81E-07
-1.20E-06
-2.79E-10
-2.64E-09
4 0
-2.42E-05
7.41E-05
-1.08E-03
1.80E-07
-1.54E-06
4 1
1.49E-08
-1.46E-07
1.77E-05
1.14E-09
2.37E-08
5 0
-4.65E-07
2.13E-06
-1.45E-05
3.80E-09
-2.58E-08
xm =
ym =
-20.2024
8.1578
-20.2024
8.1578
-20.2024
8.1578
-20.2024
8.1578
-20.2024
8.1578
cA
0,1690 */
0,0006
cp
0,0137
Error
0,0044
0,0284
Row nr
5 */
25
22
41
67
58
1010
% by w t
0
Ethyl alcohol
Density
1000
990
10
15
20
25
Density [kg/m3] .
980
970
30
960
950
40
940
930
50
60
920
910
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
Temperature [C]
30
40
Melinder 2007
% by w t
15
20
10
5
0
30
4400
4200
4000
25
40
3800
3600
3400
50
3200
60
3000
Ethyl alcohol
Specific heat
2800
2600
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
Temperature [C]
20
30
40
Melinder 2007
0,65
Ethyl alcohol
Thermal conductivity
0,60
0,55
% by w t
0
5
10
0,50
15
20
0,45
25
30
0,40
40
0,35
50
0,30
60
0,25
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
Temperature [C]
Melinder 2007
Ethyl alcohol
Dynamic viscosity
50
60
40
30
% by w t
10
20
15
10
5
0
1
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
Temperature [C]
Melinder 2007
[C]
[C]
: 50<x<0
x<y<100
-20
-10
: 50<x<0
x<y<100
-20
-10
-45<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
-73<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
-40<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
-84<x<0
x<y<20
-20
-10
-50<x<0
-20
cA
cp
36,19
1058
3494
0,415
7,99
39,41
1045
3620
0,384
21,67
29,73
970
4127
0,393
12,22
24,87
969
3914
0,431
5,42
46,28
1129
3155
0,407
19,18
13,46
953
4239
0,460
2,94
30,95
1322
2877
0,519
6,25
20,82
1196
2992
0,530
4,48
16,59
1151
3192
0,505
5,58
22,62
1182
3305
0,530
4,22
27,91
1155
3232
0,467
5,67
28,94
1192
3121
0,506
3,55
13,66
1083
3405
0,522
3,97
x<y<40
-10
x<y<40
-10
x<y<40
-20
-10
-21<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
-50<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
-50<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
-75<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
61
The results obtained can generate values for any freezing point.
Table 4.4 gives property values of ethyl alcohol for tF = -5C,
-10C, -15C, -20C, -30C and -40C. For symbols see Table 4.1.
Table 4.4. Basic thermophysical properties of ethyl alcohol
62
tF
cA
U
cp
P
[C]
-5
[wt-%]
11.1
-10
18.7
-15
24.5
-20
29.7
-30
40.7
-40
53.1
[C]
40
30
20
10
0
-5
40
30
20
10
0
-10
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-15
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
[kg/m]
972.8
976.9
980.3
982.7
984.0
984.2
960.8
966.0
970.5
974.1
976.6
978.1
951.5
957.5
963.0
967.7
971.6
974.5
975.6
941.8
948.5
954.8
960.5
965.6
970.0
973.6
918.4
926.0
933.5
940.8
947.8
954.6
961.1
967.1
890.8
899.0
907.1
915.2
923.2
931.1
939.1
947.1
955.1
[J/kgK]
4287
4285
4310
4350
4396
4419
4313
4315
4333
4361
4390
4415
4298
4291
4292
4295
4297
4291
4284
4259
4239
4219
4196
4166
4127
4074
4119
4078
4024
3957
3877
3783
3675
3553
3862
3812
3740
3650
3542
3419
3280
3129
2967
[W/mK]
0.546
0.534
0.522
0.509
0.496
0.490
0.493
0.484
0.474
0.464
0.455
0.445
0.456
0.448
0.440
0.433
0.425
0.417
0.413
0.425
0.419
0.412
0.406
0.399
0.393
0.387
0.366
0.362
0.358
0.354
0.349
0.345
0.341
0.337
0.308
0.306
0.305
0.303
0.301
0.299
0.297
0.295
0.293
[mPas]
0.92
1.20
1.60
2.25
3.48
4.51
1.12
1.50
2.09
3.09
5.00
9.10
1.26
1.71
2.42
3.67
6.05
11.16
15.89
1.37
1.86
2.65
4.03
6.67
12.22
25.24
1.47
2.02
2.88
4.35
7.03
12.4
24.0
52.2
1.45
1.99
2.81
4.11
6.33
10.4
18.6
36.5
79.9
[C]
[C]
-50<x<0
x<y<100
-20
-10
-50<x<0
x<y<100
-20
-10
-45<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
-73<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
Validity limits
-40<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
Validity limits
-84<x<0
x<y<20
Glycerol
Ammonia
Validity limits
Potassium carbonate
Validity limits
Calcium chloride
Validity limits
Magnesium chloride
Validity limits
Sodium chloride
Validity limits
Potassium acetate
Validity limits
Potassium formate
Validity limits
Lithium chloride
Input values:
-20
-10
37,5<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
-50<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
33,5<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
-21<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
-50<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
-50<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
-75<x<0
x<y<40
-20
-10
-20
-10
cA
Q
2
Pr
U cp
[-]
[kJ/m K]
36,19
7,55
67,2
3697
39,41
20,73
204,1
3785
29,73
12,60
128,4
4003
24,87
5,59
49,2
3795
46,28
16,99
148,7
3562
13,46
3,08
27,1
4041
30,95
4,73
34,6
3803
20,82
3,75
25,3
3579
16,59
4,85
35,3
3674
22,62
3,57
26,3
3908
27,91
4,91
39,2
3734
28,94
2,98
21,9
3719
13,66
3,66
25,9
3688
63
64
1010
% by w t
0
Ethyl alcohol
Density
1000
990
10
15
20
25
Density [kg/m3] .
980
970
30
960
950
40
940
930
50
920
60
910
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
Temperature [C]
20
30
40
Melinder 2007
20
25
4200
Specific heat [J/(kgK)] .
% by w t
15
30
10
5
0
4000
40
3800
50
3600
3400
60
3200
Ethyl alcohol
Specific heat
3000
2800
2600
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
Temperature [C]
20
30
40
Melinder 2007
0,625
0,600
% by w t
0
Ethyl alcohol
Thermal conductivity
0,575
0,550
0,525
10
0,500
15
0,475
20
0,450
0,425
25
30
0,400
0,375
40
0,350
0,325
0,300
50
0,275
60
0,250
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
Temperature [C]
30
40
Melinder 2007
Ethyl alcohol
Dynamic viscosity
60
10
% by w t
40
20
15
10
5
0
1
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
Temperature [C]
20
40
Melinder 2007
30
Specific
heat
Thermal
conduct.
Dynamic
viscosity
tF
Conc.
U
cp
P
wt-%
kg/m
J/kgK
W/mK
mPas
-1.72
-4.86
-10
8.6
-12.6
10
-15
11.5
40
30
20
10
0
-1.72
40
30
20
10
0
-4.86
40
30
20
10
0
-10
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-12.6
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-15
1004
1007
1010
1011
1012
1012
1021
1024
1027
1029
1030
1030
1042
1045
1048
1050
1052
1052
1050
1053
1056
1058
1060
1060
1061
1059
1062
1065
1067
1069
1070
1070
4080
4080
4080
4080
4090
4090
3920
3910
3910
3910
3915
3920
3766
3748
3731
3715
3702
3694
3710
3690
3670
3650
3630
3610
3610
3652
3626
3599
3574
3549
3528
3518
0.625
0.609
0.592
0.575
0.557
0.554
0.617
0.602
0.585
0.569
0.552
0.544
0.607
0.592
0.577
0.561
0.545
0.529
0.603
0.589
0.573
0.558
0.543
0.527
0.523
0.599
0.585
0.570
0.555
0.540
0.525
0.517
0.69
0.86
1.07
1.39
1.90
2.01
0.78
0.94
1.18
1.55
2.06
2.40
0.89
1.08
1.34
1.72
2.32
3.33
0.93
1.13
1.41
1.84
2.45
3.45
3.80
0.99
1.20
1.48
1.90
2.56
3.67
4.51
67
U
cp
P
-20
13.7
-23.5
15
-30
16.8
-40
19.1
-44.5
20
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-23.5
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-44.5
1071
1075
1078
1080
1082
1083
1084
1079
1082
1085
1088
1089
1091
1092
1092
1090
1093
1096
1099
1101
1102
1103
1104
1104
1107
1110
1113
1115
1117
1118
1119
1120
1109
1112
1116
1118
1121
1123
1124
1125
1126
1126
3572
3539
3505
3471
3437
3405
3374
3530
3490
3450
3410
3370
3330
3290
3280
3472
3426
3379
3332
3284
3236
3189
3142
3400
3343
3287
3230
3173
3116
3058
3000
2941
3370
3310
3250
3190
3130
3070
3010
2950
2890
2860
0.594
0.580
0.566
0.551
0.536
0.522
0.507
0.591
0.577
0.563
0.548
0.534
0.520
0.505
0.500
0.587
0.573
0.559
0.545
0.531
0.516
0.502
0.488
0.582
0.568
0.554
0.540
0.526
0.512
0.498
0.484
0.471
0.579
0.566
0.553
0.538
0.524
0.510
0.497
0.483
0.469
0.463
1.08
1.30
1.61
2.06
2.77
3.97
6.10
1.12
1.37
1.70
2.19
2.91
4.1
6.3
7.8
1.21
1.47
1.82
2.34
3.14
4.5
6.8
11.1
1.33
1.62
2.01
2.59
3.47
4.89
7.29
11.64
20.03
1.40
1.71
2.12
2.68
3.57
5.02
7.55
12
20
26
tF
Cont.
68
U
cp
P
-50
21.2
-56
22.5
-60
23.3
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-56
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
1116
1120
1123
1126
1128
1130
1132
1134
1135
1135
1123
1127
1130
1133
1136
1139
1140
1142
1143
1144
1145
1128
1132
1135
1138
1141
1143
1146
1147
1149
1150
1150
3333
3269
3205
3142
3078
3014
2950
2886
2821
2755
3295
3230
3160
3095
3030
2960
2890
2830
2760
2690
2650
3273
3204
3135
3066
2998
2930
2862
2793
2725
2657
2589
0.576
0.563
0.549
0.535
0.522
0.508
0.494
0.481
0.467
0.454
0.572
0.559
0.546
0.532
0.519
0.505
0.492
0.479
0.465
0.452
0.445
0.569
0.557
0.544
0.530
0.517
0.504
0.491
0.477
0.464
0.451
0.438
1.47
1.79
2.24
2.88
3.85
5.38
7.91
12.3
20.3
35.9
1.55
1.94
2.41
3.1
4.1
5.7
8.4
13
21
36
50
1.66
2.01
2.51
3.23
4.33
6.02
8.75
13.3
21.3
36.0
64.4
tF
1150
% by w t
1140
-50C
22.5
1130
-40C
1120
20
1110
Density [kg/m3] .
1100
1090
15
.-20C
1080
1070
1060
10
1050
1040
1030
1020
Lithium chloride
Density
1010
1000
2
0
990
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
Temperature [C]
30
40
Melinder 2007
% by w t
0
4100
4000
5
3900
3800
3700
10
3600
3500
15
3400
3300
20
3200
22,5
3100
3000
2900
Lithium chloride
Specific heat
2800
2700
2600
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
Temperature [C]
30
40
Melinder 2007
0,62
% by w t
0,60
0
2
5
0,58
10
15
0,56
20
22,5
0,54
0,52
0,50
0,48
Lithium chloride
Thermal conductivity
0,46
0,44
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
Melinder 2007
Lithium chloride
Dynam ic viscosity
10
%by wt
22,5
20
15
10
5
0
1
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
Temperature [C]
20
30
40
M elinder 2007
Specific
heat
Thermal
conduct.
Dynamic
Viscosity
tF
Conc.
U
cp
P
wt-%
kg/m
J/kgK
W/mK
mPas
-2.2
-5
10.2
-10
17.9
-11.5
20
-15
24.0
40
30
20
10
0
-2.2
40
30
20
10
0
-5.0
40
30
20
10
0
-10
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-11.5
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-15
1023
1026
1029
1031
1032
1032
1054
1057
1060
1062
1064
1065
1102
1105
1108
1111
1114
1115
1114
1118
1121
1124
1127
1129
1129
1141
1144
1148
1151
1154
1157
1158
4000
4000
4000
4005
4010
4010
3815
3808
3803
3801
3801
3803
3552
3539
3527
3517
3507
3500
3490
3480
3465
3455
3440
3430
3428
3356
3340
3325
3309
3294
3280
3273
0.616
0.602
0.587
0.572
0.556
0.552
0.605
0.592
0.578
0.563
0.548
0.541
0.589
0.576
0.564
0.551
0.537
0.523
0.586
0.573
0.560
0.547
0.534
0.521
0.519
0.577
0.565
0.552
0.540
0.527
0.515
0.508
0.72
0.88
1.09
1.41
1.9
2.05
0.78
0.95
1.18
1.50
2.00
2.35
0.90
1.08
1.33
1.68
2.20
3.02
0.92
1.11
1.35
1.70
2.23
3.08
3.25
1.01
1.21
1.47
1.84
2.40
3.28
3.91
72
Conc.
U
cp
P
wt-%
kg/m
J/kgK
W/mK
mPas
-16.0
25
-20
28.9
-21,3
30
-30
36,8
-35,0
40
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-16.0
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-21,3
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-35
1148
1152
1155
1159
1162
1165
1166
1174
1178
1181
1185
1189
1192
1194
1182
1186
1190
1193
1197
1200
1202
1202
1229
1233
1237
1242
1246
1249
1252
1255
1252
1257
1261
1265
1269
1273
1276
1279
1280
3320
3305
3290
3275
3260
3245
3235
3207
3190
3173
3155
3138
3121
3103
3180
3160
3140
3125
3105
3085
3070
3065
2995
2977
2959
2941
2923
2905
2886
2866
2920
2900
2885
2865
2850
2830
2810
2795
2785
0.576
0.563
0.550
0.538
0.525
0.513
0.505
0.568
0.555
0.543
0.531
0.518
0.506
0.494
0,565
0,553
0,541
0,529
0,517
0,504
0,492
0,490
0,550
0,538
0,526
0,514
0,502
0,490
0,478
0,466
0,540
0,529
0,517
0,506
0,494
0,482
0,471
0,459
0,453
1.04
1.24
1.51
1.88
2.44
3.32
4.1
1.12
1.33
1.61
2.01
2.61
3.55
5.14
1,15
1,36
1,64
2,06
2,69
3,66
5,25
5,50
1,32
1,57
1,89
2,34
3,01
4,11
6,0
9,5
1,40
1,67
2,00
2,50
3,20
4,40
6,40
10,0
13,5
73
Conc.
U
cp
P
wt-%
kg/m
J/kgK
W/mK
mPas
-40
42,9
-50,0
48
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
1274
1279
1284
1288
1292
1296
1299
1302
1304
1316
1321
1326
1330
1335
1338
1342
1345
1348
1350
2846
2827
2808
2790
2772
2755
2737
2719
2700
2735
2710
2695
2675
2655
2640
2620
2605
2585
2570
0,531
0,520
0,509
0,497
0,486
0,474
0,463
0,451
0,440
0,517
0,506
0,495
0,484
0,472
0,461
0,449
0,438
0,426
0,415
1,50
1,79
2,16
2,68
3,46
4,74
6,98
11,2
20,0
1,78
2,15
2,65
3,32
4,4
6,1
9,2
14,8
26,5
57
74
1350
48 % by wt
1325
45
1300
1275
40
Density [kg/m3] .
1250
35
1225
30
1200
1175
25
1150
20
1125
1100
1075
10
1050
Potassium formate
Density
1025
1000
975
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
Temperature [C]
30
40
Melinder 2007
Potassium formate
Specific heat
4200
% by w t
0
4000
3800
10
3600
20
3400
25
3200
30
3000
35
40
2800
45
2600
48
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
Temperature [C]
10
20
30
40
Melinder 2006
75
0,620
% by w t
Potassium formate
Thermal conductivity
0,600
0
5
10
0,580
0,560
20
25
30
0,540
35
0,520
40
45
48
0,500
0,480
0,460
0,440
0,420
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
Temperature [C]
20
30
40
Melinder 2006
Potassium formate
Dynamic viscosity
% by w t
48
45
40
35
30
25
20
10
0
1
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
Temperature [C]
20
30
40
Melinder 2007
5. Comparison of aqueous
solutions as to heat
transpor t, pressure drop
and heat transfer
5.1. Introduction
Indirect systems with secondary working fluids are used extensively in heat pumps and in supermarkets in Sweden. Using such
indirect systems make it possible to minimize the primary refrigerant charge and leakage which is important from environmental aspects. A secondary working fluid should have enough freezing security, good transport and heat transfer abilities and the viscosity
should not be too high at the operating temperatures, as it determines the type of flow occurring and the pressure drop.
This chapter compares a few types of aqueous solutions used as
secondary working fluids for two types of applications. The first is
bedrock heat pumps and the second is cooling cabinets in supermarkets. Low temperature applications are considered in PAPER 5
(Melinder 2004) and PAPER 7 (Melinder 2005).
The additive mass fraction or concentration of the aqueous solutions is often higher than necessary for the application. How does
the additive concentration affect the thermal performance? As an
aid to find out, the aqueous solutions used in the examples are
compared with different concentrations, giving the freezing points
tF = -10C, -15C and -20C for heat pumps and tF = -15C and 20C for cooling cabinets.
Typical examples are used to compare the fluids as to volumetric
heat capacity, viscosity, Reynolds number, needed pumping power
as well as heat transfer that affect temperature differences in heat
exchangers. The result is presented in figures that also give indications how the type of flow influences these properties.
What equations are used in the comparisons chosen for heat
transport, heat transfer and pressure drop?
77
Q = mcp't = V U cp't
(5.1)
E P = 'pf V /KP
(5.2)
'pf = (f/2)Uw2L/d
(5.3)
(5.4)
Re = wd/Q = wdU/P
(5.5)
(5.6)
A friction coefficient given in Gnielinski (1976) is valid for turbulent flow as well as the transitional region (Re t 2300):
f = (0.79lnRe -1.64)-2
(5.7)
In our comparison we will use equations 5.4 and 5.7 that together
cover all types of flow that are of interest here.
The basic thermo-physical property that has most influence the
friction coefficient is the viscosity. The influence of viscosity is
stronger with laminar flow than with turbulent flow as is indicated
by the equations above.
Q = DA-m
(5.8)
(5.9)
79
(5.10)
( f / 8)(Re 1000) Pr
1 12,7( f / 8)1 / 2 (Pr 2 / 3 1)
(5.11)
81
4,5
4,0
3,5
3,0
PG -20
EA -20
GL -20
PG -15
EA -15
GL -15
PG -10
EA -10
GL -10
Oper. t.
2,5
2,0
1,5
1,0
0,5
0,0
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
Temperature [C]
10
15
20
PG -20
EA -20
GL -20
PG -15
EA -15
GL -15
PG -10
EA -10
GL -10
Oper. t.
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
Temperature [C]
82
83
6000
Reynolds number [ - ]
5000
4000
PG -20
EA -20
GL -20
PG -15
EA -15
GL -15
PG -10
EA -10
GL -10
Oper. t.
2300
3000
2000
1000
0
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
Temperature [C]
10
15
20
70
60
50
PG -20
EA -20
GL -20
PG -15
EA -15
GL -15
PG -10
EA -10
GL -10
Oper. t.
40
30
20
10
0
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
Temperature [C]
84
85
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
PG -20
EA -20
GL -20
PG -15
EA -15
GL -15
PG -10
EA -10
GL -10
Oper. t.
500
400
300
200
100
0
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
Temperature [C]
10
15
20
3,5
3,0
2,5
2,0
1,5
1,0
0,5
0,0
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
Temperature [C]
10
15
20
86
4,0
3,5
3,0
EG -20
EA -20
KAC -20
2,5
2,0
KFO -20
EA -15
EG -15
KAC -15
KFO -15
1,5
1,0
HFE-7100
Oper. t.
0,5
0,0
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
Temperature [C]
10
Figure 5.7. Volumetric heat capacity, Ucp [kJ/(m3K)] as function of fluid temperature
18
EG -20
EA -20
KAC -20
KFO -20
EG -15
EA -15
KAC -15
KFO -15
HFE-7100
Oper. t.
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
Temperature [C]
10
6000
EG -20
EA -20
KAC -20
KFO -20
EG -15
EA -15
KAC -15
KFO -15
HFE-7100
Oper. t.
2300
Reynolds number [ - ] .
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
-20
-15
-10
-5
Temperature [C]
10
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
Temperature [C]
10
89
2000
EG -20
EA -20
KAC -20
KFO -20
EG -15
EA -15
KAC -15
KFO -15
HFE-7100
Oper. t.
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
Temperature [C]
4,5
Temperature diff. [K]
4,0
3,5
3,0
2,5
2,0
1,5
1,0
0,5
0,0
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
Temperature [C]
90
5.5 Discussion
For the chosen example we see that laminar flow can be expected
for the highest concentrations (lowest freezing point) of propylene
glycol. We may get transitional flow for both types of fluids except
for freezing points tF = -5C and -10C, when we can expect turbulent flow. The influence on friction coefficient, pressure drop
and pumping power is not crucial with this example. However,
laminar and also transitional flow should be avoided because of the
added temperature difference between the liquid and inner tube
wall in the collector tube.
5.6 Nomenclature
The following nomenclature is used in chapter 5.
cp
d
f1
k
91
Nomenclature, cont.
t
w
A
E
Q
V
D
't
P
Q
U
-m
temperature [C]
fluid flow velocity [m/s]
heat transfer area [m2]
pumping power [W]
cooling capacity [W]
92
6 . B a s i c t h e r m o phys ica l
properties of aqueous
solutions used as ice slur r y
6.1. Introduction
The most basic form of ice slurry is pure waterwith ice which is an
excellent secondary working fluid. However, when temperatures
below 0C are required, freezing point depressant additives are
used. Most aqueous solutions used as single-phase secondary fluids
can also be used as ice slurry, a fluid consisting of liquid and ice
where small ice crystals are produced, usually with some type of ice
generator. The ice crystals are then transported to the cooling object from which heat is removed when some or all of the ice crystals melt. The great enthalpy change when ice melts requires less
temperature change in the cooling object and makes it possible to
reduce the volume flow rate for a given cooling capacity and also
to use smaller pipe dimensions in the system.
Some pioneers in the field of ice slurries focused on getting ice
slurry equipment working for various applications, such as air conditioning, cooling cabinets in supermarket, district cooling, preserving fish, shrimps and vegetables. (Paul 1995, Snoek 1993,
Wang and Goldstein 1996) A lot of research has since then been
made, focusing also on various aspects and details of ice slurry
properties, control, equipment, measurements etc. (Bel 1999, Ben
Lakhdar 1998, Egolf et al 1996, Fournaison et al 2001, Guilpart et
al 2005, Meewisse 2004, Melinder and Hgg 2005, Pronk et al
2005). Much of this research has been carried out in connection
with an IIR Working party that since 1999 has arranged workshops
that from 2006 were transferred into conferences on Phase
Change Materials and Slurries for Refrigeration and Air Conditioning. This work has resulted in an IIR Handbook on Ice Slurries
(Kauffeld, Egolf and Kawaji 2005).
The requirements that have to be fulfilled by an ideal secondary ice
slurry fluid are basically the same as for single phase fluids as outlined in chapter 1.3.2, except for the fact that ice slurries operate a
few degrees below the freezing point of the solution while single
93
924
923
922
921
920
919
918
917
916
-50
-45
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
Temperature [C]
94
UI = 917 0.13tI
(6.1)
The specific heat of ice is much lower than the specific heat of
water in the liquid phase. Measured values of specific heat of ice by
Dickinson-Osborne, published in CRC Handbook of Chemistry &
Physics (1988-89) and a serie of measurements by Fransson (2002)
are plotted besides data in Plank (1988) and Raznjevic (1976). Note
that data from Plank (1988) show a much steeper slope than the
rest and there is a spread of values at or near 0C.
2,15
Osborne, 1915
Fransson, 2002
Plank, 1988
Raznjevic,1976
Eqn. 6.2
2,10
2,05
2,00
1,95
1,90
1,85
1,80
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
Temperature [C]
(6.2)
95
(6.3)
2,9
Plank, 1988
Raznjevic, 1976
2,8
Eqn. 6.4
2,7
2,6
2,5
2,4
2,3
2,2
-50
-45
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
Temperature [C]
(6.4)
96
tF
tS
tE
mI
lS
lI
c0
cS
cE
'