APUNTES - GLEASSON - Basics of Spiral Bevel & Hypoid Gears

Spiral Bevel and Hypoid
Gear Cutting Systems:

Basics of Spiral Bevel & Hypoid Gears
MTA-Z WIR
21.03.2012
Klingelnberg AG Training Center
[T1e_v10_WIR]
[Basics of Bevel Gears] Slide 1
Basics of Spiral Bevel and Hypoid Gears

1.
Application and Classification of Bevel Gears
2.
Gear Cutting Systems
39
3.
Gear Geometry and Basic Definitions
67
4.
Hypoid Offset and Hand of Spiral
91
5.
Face Milling / Face Hobbing Cutting System in Comparison
113
6.
Basics of Continuous Indexing
133
7.
Particularities of Epycycloide Tooth Length Curvature
150
8.
Face Hobbing: Generating - / FORM - Cutting System
165
9.
The Ease Off
183
10. Bias / Tooth Twist
193
11. Calculation of Radial- & Axial Forces
231
12. The Influence of Cutter Diameter

page
250
[T1e_v10_WIR]
1.
Application and Classification of Bevel Gears

1.1
Application of Spiral Bevel Gears
1.1.1 Type of Axle Design

1.2
Characteristics of Classification:
1.2.1
shaft angle
1.2.2
offset of axes
1.2.3
tooth depth
1.2.4
tooth length curvature
1.2.5
indexing system
1.2.6
generating system
1.2.7
methods to apply length crowning
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Application of Spiral Bevel Gears :
General
The main field of application for Spiral Bevel- and/or Hypoid Gears are driven rearor front axle drives in automotive vehicles.
[T1e_v10_WIR]
General
As mentioned, Spiral Bevel and Hypoid gears - in particular those manufactured in

mass production - are mainly utilized in drive lines of automotive axles.
Type of vehicles could be ....
Trucks, buses
Passenger cars
Transporters
Sports Utility Vehicles
Tractors
(SUVs)
Off-road vehicles
[T1e_v10_WIR]
General
Other non-automotive applications could be for example ...
Stationary gear
transmission
of all kind
Helicopters
motorbikes
Railways
Outboard
marine drives
Azimuthing
Thrusters
[T1e_v10_WIR]
General
Spiral Bevel- and/or Hypoid Gears are designed to transmit torque in gear drive-lines
where the axial direction of power needs to be changed.
With axles of automotive vehicle applications this is in general 90
Between INPUT and OUTPUT
the RPM is reduced by the ratio
of tooth combination
nout = nin z1/z2
Z2
the torque is increased by the ratio

of tooth combination
Mdout = Mdin z2/z1
sense of rotation
OUTPUT
Z1
sense of rotation
INPUT
[T1e_v10_WIR]
General
The term of spiral bevel gear is frequently mistaken for differential gear or vice
versa. In driven axles of vehicles the differential gear is generally an integral part of
the spiral bevel gear drive. The differential serves to compensate the different
angular velocities between right and left wheel of the axle in condition of driving the
vehicle in a bend. Differential gears are generally designed as straight bevel gears
cut by the REVACYCLE method.
Hypoid Gearset with Differential

[T1e_v10_WIR]
Type of Axle Designs
Spiral Bevel- & Hypoid gears

are used in driven axles of
vehicles in quite different
types of design.
Without being complete, the
most popular types of axles
are presented in the following:
- Salisbury axles
- Banjo axles
- Timken axles
- IRDS axles
- PTO units
- Outer Planetary- (or Hub Reduction) axles
- Single reduction -, Tandem- or Tridem axles
Type of Axle Design:
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for Passenger Cars, VANs & light Trucks
Salisbury Axles
the axle carrier is split in a plane parallel
to the gear axis
gear axis is located inboard of the split
of carrier
the setting of radial backlash and preload of gear- and differential bearings is
controlled either with adjustable threaded
rings or with selectable shims
.... here shown in form of an

IRDS type of axle
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Salisbury Axles
.... here shown in form of rigid or

solid beam type of axles
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Salisbury Axles
good to recognize in this view :
the split of carrier parallel to the axis of gear or differential respectively
setting of pre-load of differential bearings with
this design is applied by means of spread of
the carrier set with adjusted shims hold with
snap rings
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Banjo Axles
Land Rover

to the gear axis
gear axis is located outboard of the split
of carrier
gear- / differential bearings are hold in half
cups which are fastened with pedestal caps
the setting of radial backlash and pre-load
of gear- and differential bearings is
controlled with adjustable threaded rings
TOYOTA
Pick-Up Tundra
the pre-assembled unit is mounted in the axle;

the Banjo shape of the axle crossbeam has
given the name to this type of axle (see next page)
Note:
Banjo type of axles are sometimes

also referred to as Hotchkiss type
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for medium- to heavy duty trucks
Banjo Axles
noticeably the Banjo shape of
axle crossbeam which is typically
manufactured in either steel
casting or welded construction
. Meritor
DC Actros
ca. 13 16 t* / 450HP
ca. 5 15 t* ( * = load per axle)
AAM ca. 12 t* / 26000Nm Gear 400mm
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Banjo Axles
FORD 9 axle with straddle mounted pinion (does not
show in this view) in a heavy webbed carrier
designed for the transmission of very high torque.
This type of axle used to be very popular in the 50s
70s but has been replaced mostly for cost issues
FORD 9 as a standard beam axle

FORD 9 as a special axle

for racing application
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Timken Axles
to the pinion axis
this type of design is quite rarely applied
in present times
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AdvanTEK type of Axle Design

relatively recent DANA design
carrier is split parallel to pinion axis
features an advantageous design
for automatic assembly
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Independent Rear Drive Systems

compared to rigid type of axles this design allows a better segregation of the
axle carrier vibrations being transmitted to the body of the vehicle
reduction of gear noise
reduction of unsuspended
masses (wheels, brakes)
improvement of driving
conditions of the vehicle
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Segregated suspended Axles

the carrier of the gear-set is generally designed as Salisbury type; the cover
of the assembly opening serves hereby as conjunction to the suspended axle
depending on the axle
design, the suspended
points of mounting are
not rigidly connected
but dampened to the
cross beam by means
of absorber elements
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Power Take-Off Units

Power Take-Off Units take the power from a front wheel drive transaxle, and
transfer it to the rear wheels; in general PTOs are therefore part of a 4WD concept
PTOs generally consist of rather low bevel gear ratios whereby typically the
GEAR serves as the driving member (hence the pinion becomes the driven
member)
driven
front axle
take - off
to rear axle
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10
for Trucks and Buses

source: MAN
Axles for heavy duty application

depending to required gross weight of vehicle
and allowed load per axle, driven single
reduction axles can be designed in either
Single-, TANDEM- or TRIDEM arrangement.
Axles for heavy duty application are typically
designed as Banjo type.
Hypoid axle without () and with () through-drive

source: MAN
TANDEM axle
TRIDEM axle arrangement
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Hub Reduction Axles

the total ratio of the axle is
finally reduced by means
of a set of planetary gears
in the hubs
therefore torque and
stresses are reduced for
the set of bevel gears
which allows to reduce
gear diameter
smaller diameter of ring
gear results in higher
clearance of the axle to
the ground
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11
Hub Reduction Axle with Through Drive

application of a power divider in case
of several driven axles
power divider
sectional drawing
overall view
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Hub Reduction Axle with Through Drive
TATRA Pendulum Axle

1 rim
2 hub of rear wheels
3 outer wheel
4 cover
5 oil fill bolt
6 sun gear
7 planetary gear
8 outer wheel carrier
9 bell hub
10 brake drum
11 brake carrier
12 axle beam
13 bevel pinion
14 axle carrier
15 gear
16 cover
17 shift fork
18 pressure switch
19 coupling flange
20 drive shaft
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
Schaltmuffe
transm. shaft gear
differential carrier
differential gear
shaft of through drv.
locking plate
bevel ring gear
differential carrier
center bolt
thread ring
rear axle shaft
brake pad
wheel bolt
brake camshaft
roller
tension spring
brake pad
oil drain bolt
Gestngesteller
oil fill bolt
fender guard
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12
Classification of Spiral Bevel Gears :
General
With the knowledge of the main criteria of classification of Spiral Bevel gears it
becomes a lot easier to understand the various gear manufacturing - and tooling
systems presently existing and their particular cross relations.
Some of the major characteristics are correlated and make it therefore even easier to
classify the different systems correctly .
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Bevel Gears can be classified to:

Shaft Angle
= 90
shaft angle
shaft angle
= 90
> 90
shaft angle
< 90
90
Note:
different size of Generating Plane Gear
for same diameter of gear
i.e. different machine capacity (range of
machine axes) is required for same size of gears
gear sets with shaft angles 90
are also referred as angular bevel gear drives
90
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13
additional information to:

Shaft Angle
Beveloid
Beveloid gears are helical gears with
variable profile displacement along the
face width. Applying gears of this kind,
crossing angles of gear axes of up to
approx. 10 to 15 can be realized with either intersecting or non
intersecting (skew) axes.
bevel gears with small shaft angles can be replaced with Beveloid gears
using Beveloid gears rather than spiral bevel gears can be advantageous
as the manufacturing of bevel gears with very small shaft angles requires
a disproportionately large generating crown gear which calls for the
application of large cutting machines even for relatively small gear
dimensions.
[T1e_v10_WIR]

Shaft Angle
Beveloid in combination with Angular Hypoid
this combination of bevel gears is e.g. actually
applied in drivelines of certain 4WD cars
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14
offset = 0
offset
av = 0
Spiral Bevel
gears with intersecting axes
offset
av
Hypoid
gears with non intersecting axes
Note:
the expression HYPOID is derived from the
word HYPerbolOID ( >>> see next page)
offset > 0
OFFSET of AXES
the most general case of Bevel Gears is

represented with Angular Hypoid ( 90 )
(this case, however, is applied quite rarely
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OFFSET of AXES
With Hypoid gears the pitch

surfaces are theoretically
represented by Hyperboloids
and not by conical faces.
HRH High Ratio Hypoid
This fact becomes important only for gears with quite

large Hypoid offset ( to avoid possibility of interference).
For Hypoid offset as typically used with automotive
applications, however, the configuration of Hypoid
elements are very nearly cones. For practical reasons of
manufacturing therefore, bevel or cone shaped blanks are
generally used for Hypoid ring gears and pinions.
[T1e_v10_WIR]
15

TOOTH DEPTH
tooth depth
constant
tooth depth
not constant,
tapered
Note:
for tapered tooth depth, dependant on certain design
parameters and/or the applied cutting system, the apex
of
pitch angle
face angle
and root angle
.... do not coincide
[T1e_v10_WIR]
TOOTH DEPTH
Depending on the cutting method or gear design, inconstant or tapered tooth depth
appears either with a tapered or with a parallel width of bottom land:
Standard Taper
Duplex Taper or
Tilted Root Line Taper
[T1e_v10_WIR]
16

TOOTH LENGTH CURVATURE
ARC of CIRCLE
gears cut to
single indexing method
Note:
EPICYCLOIDE
INVOLUTE
gears cut to
gears cut to
continuous indexing method Klingelnberg Palloid method
the SPIRAL in terms of length curvature is not applied with any kind of cutting system
[T1e_v10_WIR]

TOOTH LENGTH CURVATURE
STRAIGHT LINE
Straight Bevel Gears
STRAIGHT LINE
Skew Bevel Gears
or Helical Bevel Gears
Straight Bevel Gears in

these days are primarily
used for:
low torque low speed
transmissions
applications where no
gear noise criteria
apply
Straight Bevel Gears
will therefore not
further be considered
in this presentation
[T1e_v10_WIR]
17

INDEXING SYSTEM
indexing
continuous indexing
is also referred to as
Face Hobbing
or 3 - axis gears
indexing
discontinuous
or
single indexing
is also referred to as
Face Milling
or 2 - axis gears
Note:
the description 2- / 3-axis gears refers to the minimal
number of coupled axes which are required to
manufacture a respective pinion
[T1e_v10_WIR]

GENERATING SYSTEM
Pinion & Gear
generated
Ring Gear
Pinion
Gear
= non generated
FORM cut
Pinion
generated
Ring Gear
Pinion
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18

LENGTH CROWNING SYSTEM
Fixed Settings
individual cutters set with individual machine settings
to cut convex and concave side in 2 operations
Cutter Eccentricity (Dual Part Cutters)
as used with KLINGELNBERG Zyclo Palloid System
Blade Succession Angle (Single Part Cutters)
as used with OERLIKON cutting systems:
TC / ETC / EN / HN / FN
Cutter Tilt
most common and most flexible system to apply
length crowning as used with all Completing methods
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Classification of Spiral Bevel Gears :
Summary
Position of Axes
Tooth Depth
Tooth Length
Curvature
Indexing Method
Method of
Length Crowning
Profile Curvature
no vertical offset
(Sp. Bevel Gear)
constant
tooth depth
Epicycloid
Continuous
(Face Hobbing)
cutter tilt
pinion + gear
generated
blade succession
angle
N-Type (Oerlikon)
cutter eccentricity
(Cyclo Palloid)
cutter tilt
tapered
tooth depth
Involute
(PALLOID
method)
Arc of a Circle
Discontinuous
(Face-Milling)
with vertical
offset
(Hypoid Gear)
pinion generated
+ gear form-cut
(FORM method)
pinion + gear
generated
fixed settings for

individual flanks
or
cutter tilt
pinion + gear
generated
fixed settings for

individual flanks
or
cutter tilt
pinion generated
+ gear form-cut
(FORM method)
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19
2.
Gear Cutting Systems

2.1 The Generating Rack
2.2 The Generating Plane Gear
2.3 Generated Cutting Systems
2.4 FORM Cutting Systems
2.5 Neutral Data
2.6 General Features of Cutting Systems
- discontinuous systems
- continuous systems
[T1e_v10_WIR]
The Generating Rack:

the generating principle is derived
from a straight rack with straight tooth
profile
in case of spur or helical gears, the
involute tooth profiles are generated
by rolling (generating)
a cylinder with constant center
distance along the rack
Animation:
generation of tooth profiles
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20
The Generating Principle:

as the rack advances, with
corresponding rotation of the
pinion, the point of contact moves
uniformly along the path of
contact
the generating speed of the rack
is equal to the peripheral speed
of the basic circle to which the
path of contact is tangential
hence the point of contact can be
visualized as being a point on a
cord unwound from this circle
[T1e_v10_WIR]
The Generating Plane Gear:

Cylinders rolling on a Straight Rack
will form spur or helical gears
for Hypoid gears the Generating Plane

Gear is theoretically represented by a
Helical Cone Face, however, this in
in similarity the Generating Plane Gear
general is replaced by a Generating
can be considered as a ring shaped rack
Plane Gear.
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21

The generating process for Bevel Gears is
based on the common Generating Plane
Gear. The Plane Gear rotates between gear
and pinion, tangent to both pitch cones.
Generating
Plane Gear
for Spiral Bevel
The tracks of the rotating cutter blades

represent one tooth of the Generating
Plane Gear.
Note:
in case of the continuous indexing

system, z0 number of blade groups
represent z0 number of successive
teeth of the Generating Gear
The action is as though the gear or the

pinion being cut were rolling with an
imaginary gear.
Generating
Plane Gear
for Hypoid
[T1e_v10_WIR]

the tooth profiles in direction of tooth depth
are generated by the generating motion
in general the flanks of the Generating
Plane Gear - similar to the generating Rack
- have straight profiles in direction of tooth
depth
in order to introduce profile crowning or
other profile modifications, the flanks of the
tools (cutting edges) might be curved
Note:
in order to generate tooth profiles, a generating roll
motion (rolling angle) of about 25 to 35 is required
rotation of cutter
rotation of Generating Plane Gear
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22
Generated Cutting Systems:
Axis of
Generating Plane Gear
Generating Plane Gear with

straight tooth profiles
generating roll applied to cut D/P
generating roll applied to cut R/G
generated tooth profiles on D/P
generated tooth profiles on R/G
In case of Spiral Bevel gears with 90
shaft angle the Number of Teeth of the
Generating Plane Gear (Zp) calculates
as:
Zp Z12 Z22
Z1 No. of teeth Pinion
Z2 No. of teeth R. Gear
D/P = Drive Pinion

R/G = Ring Gear
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Generated Cutting Systems:

for cutting systems which pinion and gear
are generated, the Generating Gear is a
Plane Gear
the rotating tool represents a tooth of the
Plane Gear which is in mesh with either the
gear or pinion to be generated
the axis of the tool is herby parallel to the
axis of the Generating Gear i.e. the axis of
the Plane Gear
Note: a usually small amount of tilt of the axis of the tool
required to create some length crowing is NOT considered
in this illustration
during the generating roll, the axis of the tool

rotates around the axis of the Generating
Gear i.e. around the axis of the Plane Gear
Start Video
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23
FORM Cutting Systems:
Axis of
Generating Gear
Generating Gear with straight

tooth profiles
generating roll applied to cut D/P
plunge process applied to cut R/G
generated tooth profiles on D/P
straight tooth profiles on R/G
Number of Teeth of the

Generating Gear (Zp) is in this case:
Zp Z2
Z1 No. of teeth Pinion
Z2 No. of teeth R. Gear
D/P = Drive Pinion

R/G = Ring Gear
[T1e_v10_WIR]
FORM Cutting Systems:

for systems which the gear is cut with the
FORM method, the Generating Gear for the
pinion is represented by the Bevel Gear
which meshes with the pinion
the rotating tool represents here again a
tooth of the Generating Gear which is in
mesh with the pinion to be generated
the axis of the tool is hereby inclined or tilted
towards the axis of the Generating Gear
during the generating roll the axis of the tool
rotates around the axis of the Generating
Gear; at the same time the axis of the tool
wobbles relative to the axis of the Generating
Gear
Start Video
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24
Comparison Form of Profile: FORM - / GENERATED

Gear Profile
compared to the GENERATED gear, the profile of the FORM type gear is wider
at the tip and across the root section
FORM
type gear
GENERATED
type gear
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Comparison Form of Profile: FORM - / GENERATED

Pinion Profile
both pinion profiles are generated; compared to the pinion of a FORM cut gear the
profile of the GENERATED gear is wider at the tip and across the root section
FORM
type gear
GENERATED
type gear
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25
Neutral Data:
Task:
In order to allow for all possible motions
between work and tool, an effective, non
restricting mathematical approach for the
kinematics of machine and tool is needed.
minimum number of parameters
all 6 degrees of freedom
no restrictions of any physical machines
Approach of Neutral Data:
description of the tool

description of blank geometry
specification of basic machine settings
additional motions by Taylor series
up to 6th order
HORIZONTAL
motion ( )
M/c Root
angle
work
rotation
tool
rotation
Mounting
Distance
+
additional Free Form Motion
crossing
point
Machine
Center-to-Back
Basic
Setting
pitch apex
setting
value
Neutral
Data
S
Radial Distance
a
M
Tilt angle
M
Swivel angle
a
Work Offset
a
M
M/c Root angle
a
Md+ M/c Center-to-Back mccp
Sli
Sliding Base
a
RA0
Ratio of Roll
b
QM
Mean Cradle angle
m
Work
Axis
-CL
Horizontal Setting
parameter does NOT exist with

BASIC SETTINGS !!
generation
roll
Machine Center
Cradle Axis
Sliding Base
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Neutral Data:
Work Axis
Basic Motions defined by Plane Gear
HELICAL motion
+
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26
Basic
Setting
Tilt
angle
Swivel
angle
Radial
Distance
Spiral
angle
mean
Cradle angle
Work
Axis
Neutral
Data
S
Radial Distance
a
M
Tilt angle
M
Swivel angle
a
Work Offset
a
M
M/c Root angle
a
Md+ M/c Center-to-Back mccp
Sli
Sliding Base
a
RA0
Ratio of Roll
b
QM
Mean Cradle angle
m
VERTICAL
motion
HORIZONTAL
motion
setting
value
Basic
Gear Data
setting
value
V
H
Vertical
Horizontal
Work
Offset
Cradle Axis
H
see aux. document

<Visualization ND.PPT>
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Neutral Data:
Possible additional Free Form Motions:
following motions can be added (superimposed) during generation roll:
superimposed rotation of work

superimposed depth position
superimposed offset position
superimposed offset position
superimposed root angle pos.
superimposed radial position
1.... m .... 2
Modified Roll
Helical Motion
Horizontal Motion
Vertical Motion
Angular Motion
Radial Motion
angle of Generating - Roll

2
a
b m c m ... g m
()
aconst.
(
)b m c m ... g m
2
aconst.
()b m c m ... g m
aconst.
()b m c m ... g m
2
(
)b m c m ... g m
aconst.
2
const.
()
a
b m c m ... g m
()
()
()
()
()
()
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27
Arrangement of Axes:
setting axes
The Conventional Gear Generator

with Cradle, Tilt & Swivel
Altogether there are 10 axes required:
6 setting axes remain set and rigidly clamped
during the cutting process
4 working axes are partially coupled:
with the continuous indexing method there are
simultaneously 3 axes coupled at a time :
respectively
A + B + WT
A + B + WS
for generating
for plunging
working axes
Eccentricity:
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Referring to Conventional Generators with Cradle
Depending on the design of conventional generators, the Radial Distance is either

set by the rotation of an eccentric drum or by linear displacement of a cross slide.
Eccentricity = 0
the centers of tool (cutter)
spindle and cradle coincide
this does not correspond to any
reasonably applicable position
of the cutter !
Eccentricity > 0
Eccentricity > 0
the center of tool (cutter-)

spindle is swiveled along an
arc of a circle off the center
of the cradle
the center of the tool spindle

is specified by the Radial
Distance and the Mean
Cradle Angle
WT [ ]
EX [mm]
EX [mm]
m [ ]
EX [ ]
EX [ ]
EX = 0
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28
Cutter Tilt:
with this concept tilting the tool spindle is realized by means of the rotation of a
obliquely split drum.
the Neutral Point of the tilting drum is preferably located near the crossing point of
the cradle axis and the plane of blade pitch point.
Cutter Tilt = 0
the rotational setting of swivel
DLM () is not relevant
Cutter Tilt > 0
Cutter Tilt > 0
max. cutter tilt results at a

rotation of 180 of the tilt block
the orientation of the tilted

cutter is realized with the drum
of swivel DLM ()
max
max / 2
EK = 180
EK = 0
Radial Distance:
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Depending on the design of conventional generators, the Radial Distance is either

set by the rotation of an eccentric drum or by linear displacement of a cross slide.
Radial Distance = 0
the centers tool (cutter-)
spindle and cradle coincide
this does not correspond to
any reasonably applicable
position of the cutter !
Radial Distance > 0
Radial Distance > 0

is displaced in lateral
direction off the cradle center

is specified by the Radial
Distance and the Mean
Cradle Angle
EX [mm]
WT [ ]
EX [mm]
m [ ]
DLM [ ]
EX = 0
DLM = 0
EX [mm]
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29
Cutter Tilt:
with this concept, tilting the tool spindle is realized by means of the pivoting the
spindle block around the axis of the spindle worm drive
the amount of cutter tilt affects the location of the center of the plane of blade pitch
points
Cutter Tilt = 0
without any tilt of cutter the
rotational setting of swivel
DLM (s) is not relevant
Cutter Tilt > 0
Cutter Tilt > 0
the amount of cutter tilt

causes an alteration of the
center of the tool
the orientation of the tilted

cutter is realized with the drum
of swivel
DLM ()
Cutting Machines:
Oerlikon C-type Machines (horizontal concept)
3 linear axes
X axis
Y axis
Z axis
Z
B
3 rotational axes
A cutter axis
B work axis
C rotational axis
Chip flow
subject to the sense of rotation of
the cutter chips are falling either
directly or indirectly via inclined
surfaces of into the chip conveyor
[T1e_v10_WIR]
[T1e_v10_WIR]
30
Cutting Machines:
Oerlikon C-type Machines (vertical concept)
3 linear axes
X axis
Y axis
Z axis
X
Y
3 rotational axes
A cutter axis
B work axis
C rotational axis
A
C
Chip flow
Irrelevant to the sense of rotation
of the cutter chips are falling
directly into the chip conveyor
Cutting Systems:
Z
B
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Single Indexing
In case both flanks of a gear are cut

simultaneously with a single indexing tool
we get constant width of bottom land (*).
In order to control lengthwise crowning, the
pinion is to be finished with independent
machine- and cutter settings.
(*)
cutting: PINON
cutting: GEAR
in case of single sided cutting processes the width

of bottom land might vary from toe to heel
top- & bottom land width is constant

tooth depth needs to be tapered
tooth length curvature: Arc of a Circle
Applications are:
Gleason
5-cut system (Fixed Settings)
[T1e_v10_WIR]
31
Cutting Systems:
Single Indexing
In case both flanks of pinion/gear are cut with

a circular tool we get - with reference to the
pitch point of the tool - constant slot width
top- & root land width is constant
tooth depth needs to be tapered
face- & root angle need to be adjusted
in order to achieve uniform slot width
from toe to heel (Duplex-Cone)
Applications are:
Oerlikon ARCON
Gleason Completing (Duplex Helical)
Cutting Systems:
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Single Indexing
In case of constant tooth depth,

the slot width needs to be tapered
tooth depth is constant
thickness of top- & root land is tapered
Applications are:
WIENER
system
CURVEX
system (Modul)
SARATOV
system
ROCHAT
system
[T1e_v10_WIR]
32
Cutting Systems:
Continuous Indexing
In case of constant tooth depth, the slot

width necessarily needs to be tapered.
The slot width at the outer diameter is wider
than that at the inner diameter.
top land thickness is tapered
lengthwise curvature: Epicycloide
Applications are:
Oerlikon
Oerlikon
N1-FN, HN-FN
SPIROFLEX, SPIRAC
Oerlikon
SPIRON
Klingelnberg CYCLO PALLOID

Gleason
TRIAC, PENTAC-FH
Cutting Systems:
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Continuous Indexing
In case of constant tooth depth, the slot

width necessarily needs to be tapered.
The slot width at the outer diameter is wider
than at the inner diameter.
normal module is constant
lengthwise curvature: Involute
Application is exclusively:
Klingelnberg PALLOID
Note:
more and detailed information related
to individual cutting systems see class:
T8 Cutting Methods & Tooling Systems
[T1e_v10_WIR]
33
3.
Gear Geometry
3.1 General Nomenclature
3.2 Pressure Angle / Line of Action
3.3 Contact Ratio
3.4 Path of Contact
3.5 Addendum / Dedendum / Whole Depth / Clearance
3.6 Axial - / Radial Backlash
3.7 Replacement Helical Gears
3.8 Undercut / Profile Displacement
3.9 Tooth Thickness Correction
3.10 Blank Dimensions
Gear Geometry:
many denominations as
specified for helical gears
are used likewise for spiral
bevel gears.
General Nomenclature
root
circle
whole depth
addendum
For more detailed gearing

expressions and denominations
see Standard AGMA, DIN or
ISO23509 Specifications
[T1e_v10_WIR]
dedendum
tooth fillet
bottom
land
backlash
top land
flank
circular
thickness
working
depth
Note:
by convention the smaller
member of gear is called
Pinion, it is usually the driving
member
chordal
thickness
base
radius
tip
clearance
pitch
radius
[T1e_v10_WIR]
34
Gear Geometry:
Pressure Angle / Line of Action
Line of Action
is tangent to both base circles
Path of Action (Length of Action)

is the locus of successive contact points
between a pair of gears during mesh;
it is limited by both of the tip circles
Pitch of Action
is the tooth pitch measured along the
path of action
Pressure Angle
is the angle at a pitch point between the
line of pressure which is normal to the
tooth surface, and the plane tangent to
the pitch surface. The pressure angle
gives the direction of the normal to the
tooth profile.
>> meshing gears (animation)

[T1e_v10_WIR]
Gear Geometry:
Zone of Action
Zone of Action
for involute, parallel-axis gears with
either spur or helical teeth, is the
rectangular area in the plane of action
bounded by the length of action and the
face width.
In practical case (i.e. for gears with
length and profile crowning) the Zone of
Action is restricted by the effective face
width and the effective working depth.
Face
Width
Zone of Action
Length of Action
Line of Contact
[T1e_v10_WIR]
35
Gear Geometry:
Contact Ratio for Bevel Gears
Profile Contact Ratio

=
Length of Action angle a

Pitch of Action angle
Pitch of Action
Length of Action
high profile contact ratio results of:
long path of action

- large whole depth of teeth
- small pressure angle
Pitch of Action angle

Length of Action angle
small pitch of action

- large number of teeth
advantage of high profile contact ratio:

more pairs of teeth in contact
smooth meshing
disadvantage of high profile contact ratio:

low strength of rupture
(... as teeth are generally slender and high
>> small tooth root section)
Gear Geometry:
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Overlap Contac Ratio

=
Overlap angle
angular pitch
high overlap contact ratio results of:
large overlap angle
- large tooth width

- large spiral angle
- small tool diameter
small angular pitch

- large number of teeth
- small normal module
advantage of high overlap contact ratio: disadvantage of high overlap contact ratio:
high axial thrust to bearings
more pairs of teeth in contact
smooth meshing if is an integral No.
[T1e_v10_WIR]
36
Gear Geometry:
Total Contact Ratio

In case of conjugate gears there would theoretically be:
In case of bevel gears manufactured with

length- and profile crowning there is:
Total Contact Ratio

2
A more accurate determination of the contact ratio is possible by means of tooth

contact analysis. Based on the effective shape, length and flattening of the contact
under load the so-called effective contact ratio can be calculated.
torque = 600Nm
torque = 100Nm
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Gear Geometry:
Path of Contact
The Path of Contact on either of the

tooth flanks is the course along which
the theoretical single point contacts
develop during the meshing period.
start of mesh
for DRIVE
sense of rotation:
FORWARD
Under load the single point contacts

spread in direction of the Contact Lines
Path of Contact
Contact Lines
The Path of Contact appears different

depending on the Ease Off
i.e. in particular on the amount of
Tooth Twist and/or Profile Crowning
( see section 9.7 / 10.5 )
start of mesh
for COAST
sense of rotation:
REVERSE
[T1e_v10_WIR]
37
Gear Geometry:
Spiral Angle
The Spiral Angle - as well as other

major gear parameters - is defined in
the plane of the Generating Plane Gear.
It is the angle between the tangent to
any point along the tooth flank and the
line of the tangent point to the apex of
pitch angle.
in general the spiral angle

is specified at the Mean Point m
( i.e. at center of tooth width)
the spiral angle is

- minimal
at the small end of gear
- maximal at the large end of gear
Gear Geometry:
Module
C.P.
P.C.D
mt
z
C.P.
Transverse Module
b
= =
mt
P.C.D. d C.P.

z
z
Diametral Pitch
D.P.
Note:
dm1
Circular Pitch
mt
[T1e_v10_WIR]
25.4
P.C.D. C.P. m te
small D.P.
large D.P.
dm2
D.P.
1inch
P.C.D. = pitch circle diameter
coarse pitch
fine pitch
Mean Normal Modul
d2 = P.C.D.
dm
= mean diameter
= number of teeth
mn
dm1 cos m1 dm2 cos m2

mn
z1
z2
[T1e_v10_WIR]
38
Gear Geometry:
Reference Planes
Transverse Plane
... is perpendicular to the axial plane
and to the pitch plane
Normal Plane
... is normal to a tooth surface at the
pitch point.
In a spiral bevel gear, one of the
positions of a normal plane is at a
mean point. This plane is normal to
tangent of the tooth length curvature
and to the pitch plane at the mean
point
For cylindrical gears:

transverse section
normal section
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Gear Geometry:
Addendum / Dedendum / Whole Depth
for spiral bevel gears - similar to

spur and helical gears - addendum
and dedendum of uncorrected
profile depth (tooth height) are
selected as a factor of normal
module.
ha =
hf =
ks =
hf1
ha2
ha1
hf2
ks
ha
h
hf
ha* mnm
hf* mnm
(hf*- ha*) mnm
ks
typically factors ha* and hf* of tooth depth are selected in the range of:
range
default (Face Hobbing)
addendum
dedendum
tip clearance
ha =
hf =
ks =
0.9 ... 1.10 m n

1.1 ... 1.35 m n
0.2 ... 0.30 m n
whole depth
ha + hf
ha = 1.00 mn
hf = 1.25 mn
ks = 0.25 mn
[T1e_v10_WIR]
39
Gear Geometry:
Tip - / Root Clearance
Pinion Root Clearance: ks1

minimum distance between
pinion root to the tip of gear
without any influence of the
root fillet radius
hf1
ha2
ha1
hf2
ks 1
ks 2
Gear Root Clearance: ks2
minimum distance between root

of ring gear to the tip of pinion
without any influence of the root fillet radius.
corrected addendum
- dedendum respectively
ha1 = (ha* + xh) mnm

hf1 = (hf*- xh) mnm
ha2 = (ha* - xh) mnm

hf2 = (hf*+ xh) mnm
Note:
the tip- root clearances of pinion and gear are supposed to be equal: ks1= ks2
Due to manufacturing tolerances (or errors) of whole depth and/or tooth thickness, due to
insufficient clearance interference might occur either in the root of pinion or in the root of gear.
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Gear Geometry:
Addendum / Dedendum / Whole Depth
factors related to tooth dimensions are specified differently acc. to standards below:
KLINGELNBERG
tooth depth factor
addendum factor
(related to Mean Normal Module m mn )
AGMA 2105
GLEASON
K1
= K/4
Cnom
C1
ha*
mean addemndum factor

profile shift coefficient
hhm = xh
working depth
hmw = 2 x m mn x ha*
dedendum factor
hf* = hm/m mn - ha*
tooth whole depth
he = ( ha* + hf* ) x m mn
clearance factor
c = hf * - ha*
= hm/mmn - ( K/2 )
thickness modification factor
xsm = xs
= K3/2
thickness modification factor

(old OERLIKON specification)
Ds = 2 xs
= K/2 x (0.5 - C1)

hmw = m mn x K1
hmw = mmn x K/2

hf * = hm /m mn - ( K/4 )
hm = 1.15 hmw + 0.05 m mn
hm = 1.15 hmw + 0.05 m mn
[T1e_v10_WIR]
40
Gear Geometry:
Axial Backlash
with Spiral Bevel or Hypoid gears backlash

is usually specified as radial backlash but
set in terms of axial withdrawal back from
metal-to-metal contact which represents the
zero-backlash condition.
Slow-
Rapid-feed
There is no straight forward and definite

relation between axial (J) and radial (jne)
backlash as parameters such as
- pitch cone angle pinion 1
- pressure angles n
- and actual contact position
Axial Backlash
would have to be considered.
jne 2 J sin n cos 1

4
Gear Geometry:
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Radial Backlash
radial backlash is therefore measured and set

separately. Typically the pinion spindle is locked
and radial backlash (B/L) is measured with an
indicator either as:
transversal radial backlash jte
(measured in tangential direction at heel)
or
normal radial backlash jne
(measured perpendicular to tangent of flank at heel)
recommendation:
jne (0.03 mnm ) + 0.05
Note:
root land and tooth fillet of gear and pinion must be free of
interference even at condition of zero- (or minimal) backlash
[T1e_v10_WIR]
41
Gear Geometry:
Virtual
Helical Gears
for reasons of simplicity, certain

parameters at any point along the face
width of spiral bevel gears can be
calculated, checked or explained on the
base of the so-called Equivalent- or
Virtual Helical Gears (according to
Tredgold)
Virtual Helical Gears are either considered
with either:
> infinitely small face width
> helical angle corresponding to
spiral angle at respective position
center lines of
Equivalent Helical gears
are crossing center lines
of Bevel gears
or (acc. to DIN 3991 / ISO 10300)

> original face width of bevel gear
> helical angle = mean spiral angle
Gear Geometry:
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Undercut / Profile Displacement
undesirable undercut might occur with

- high ratios
- low number of teeth of pinion
- deep profile (high dedendum factor)
Profile Displacement is therefore

applied to avoid undercut, whereby:
undercut might appear in particular at toe

end of pinion in case of parallel tooth depth
(Face Hobbing) due to high dedendum
factor in relation to corresponding normal
module at toe
- upper limit:
- lower limit:
xh1 m n xh2 m n
hf1
h
hf
profile displacement:
ha
hf
T = mn x
Pinion: (+) xh x mn positive

Gear: (-) xh x mn negative
h hf2
T = mn *
h
ha1
ha2
ha
h
pointed teeth on pinion

to avoid undercut
[T1e_v10_WIR]
42
Gear Geometry:
Undercut / Profile Displacement
The influence of profile displacement with reference to the pinion is shown with
below sections of tooth profiles
e.g. z1=9 z2=41
Profile displacement :
None to Small
undercut might
appear
Larger
undercut disappears
pointed topland
might appear
towards toe
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Gear Geometry:
Tooth Thickness Correction
undesirable pointed teeth might

appear at the pinion toe end due to:
- large profile displacement
- large pressure angles
- large face width of pinion (in particular F.H. design)
Tooth Thickness Displacement can
therefore be applied in order to:
- avoid pointed teeth
(particularly for F.H. on pinion toe)
- to balance root stresses
(i.e. to balance life to rupture)
between pinion and gear
Note:
tooth thickness correction:

Pinion: (+) xs x mn positive
Gear: (-) xs x mn negative
typically tooth thickness will be

- increased on pinion
( xs1 + )
- decreased on gear
( xs2 )
T = mn *
xs x mn
T = mn x
xs x mn
[T1e_v10_WIR]
43
Gear Geometry:
General
es
Back cone
hfe
b
2
Re
Ri
Rm
dai
crossing point
Kb
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Blank Dimensions (parallel tooth depth)

snm1
Blank Dimensions Pinion

In order to avoid interference of
the tips of blades with the front
end of a bearing journal, a face
angle modification can be applied.
OERLIKON denominations
b1
Ra
1
Rm
1
hk
AZ
tI
Face- and root angles remain

parallel but may deviate from
pitch angle by some degrees.
Ri1
hf
1
tE
Note:
dki 1
dz
dm 1
d1
k1
dka 1
Limit for positive angle correction:

k = k1 = 0 ca. 5
pointed tip of teeth at toe of pinion
Limit for negative angle correction:

k = k1 = 0 ca. 3
undercut at pinion toe
Axis of the
mating gear
de
Face Width
half of Face Width
Outer Cone Distance
Mean Cone Distance
Inner Cone Distance
Mounting Distance
Angle Correction
Generating Cone Angle
Face Angle
Pitch Angle
Root Angle
Outer Tip Circle Diameter
Pitch Diameter
Inner Tip Circle Diameter
Whole Depth
Addendum
Dedendum
hae
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
hg
b
b/2
Re
Rm
Ri
Kb
k
E
a
f
dae
de
dai
hges
hae
hfe
Blank Dimensions (constant tooth depth)
d ae
Gear Geometry:
- Zt 1
AP1
A1
[T1e_v10_WIR]
44
Gear Geometry:
Blank Dimensions (parallel tooth depth)

snm2
OERLIKON denominations
In order to avoid interference of

the tips of blades with the front
end of a bearing journal, a face
angle modification can be applied.
Face- and root angle remain
parallel but may deviate from pitch
angle by some degrees.
Rm
2
Ri
2
k2
ha2
h2
b2
hf2
dki 2
tI
tE
A2
On the ring gear, any positive

angle modification of the pinion
appears negative & vice versa
AP2
Ra
+ Zt 2
Blank Dimensions Ring Gear
dm 2
Note:
D2 (P.Diam.)
dka 2
This kind of tip- / root-angle modification

is applicable for Face Hobbing only
Gear Geometry:
hae
Raur
Back cone
Rinr
fe
de
dai
Axis of the
mating gear
dae
Face Width
Crown to Crossing Point
Front Crown to Crossing Point
Mounting Distance
Addendum Angle
Dedendum Angle
Face Angle
Pitch Angle
Root Angle
Outer Tip Circle Diameter
Pitch Diameter
Inner Tip Circle Diameter
Whole Depth (*)
Addendum (*)
Dedendum (*)
Crossing Point to Face Apex
Crossing Point to Pitch Apex
Crossing Point to Root Apex
Shaft Angle
hges
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
Blank Dimensions (tapered tooth depth)
b
Raur
Rinr
Kb
a
f
a
f
dae
de
dai
hges
hae
hfe
Gza
Gzt
Gzf
[T1e_v10_WIR]
hfe
Crossing point
GZa
GZt
GZf
tB
Note:
Tooth depth dimensions (*) refer generally
to the outer diameter of gears
[T1e_v10_WIR]
45
4.
Offset and Hand of Spiral

4.1 General Definitions
4.2 Spiral Bevel Gears (LH - and RH - pinion)
4.3 Hypoid (LH - and RH - pinion) with positive offset
4.4 Hypoid (LH - and RH - pinion) with negative offset
4.5 Example of Application
4.6 Features of Spiral Bevel - / Hypoid Gears in comparison
General Definition:
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Hand of Spiral
the Hand of Spiral of bevel

gears / pinions is specified in
direction of view from cone
apex:
left hand
right hand
L.H. c.c.w.
R.H. c.w.
direction of view for hand of spiral
The correct or appropriate hand of spiral is usually selected as such that the main
application of gear set results in axial thrust of pinion towards the main bearing of
the shaft.
see section 11 : calculation of axial and radial forces
[T1e_v10_WIR]
46
General Definition:
DRIVE - / COAST Flank
Ring Gear:
HEEL
DRIVE flank
convex
flank = DRIVE flank
concave flank = COAST flank
COAST flank
HEEL
Pinion:
concave flank = DRIVE flank
convex
flank = COAST flank
TOE
TOE
Heel
outer (large) end of tooth
Toe
inner (small) end of tooth
DRIVE flank
COAST flank
DRIVE flanks
loaded (in mesh)
in sense of rotation forward
COAST flanks
loaded (in mesh)
in sense of rotation reverse

in coasting conditions forward
or:
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Spiral Bevel Gears:
Offset = 0
Spiral Bevel gear sets can be designed

and applied without restrictions:
pinion: L.H.
r. gear: R.H.
shaft direction may be either to

right or to left side of ring gear
pinion may be positioned either in
front or behind ring gear
m2
m1 = m2
Spiral angels are typically selected:
pinion / gear
pinion: R.H.
r. gear: L.H.
m1
dm1
Spiral angles are the same for pinion

and ring gear:
m = 30 ... 35
[T1e_v10_WIR]
47
ZEROL Gears:
Offset = 0
a special application of Spiral Bevel Gears is

known as ZEROL gears.
m1 = m2 = 0
The main aspect of this a application is to
keep axial thrust of the pinion as small as
possible and thrust in all directions positive
for pinion and ring gear.
m = 0
relatively large cutter diameter need to be

considered
in particular with Face Hobbing spiral
angles at the mean point should be
selected as such that spiral angle at toe
will not get negative
at toe:
i > 0
m = 3 ... 5
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Hypoid Gears :
Positive Offset ( L.H. pinion / R.H. gear )
Hypoid gears are usually designed with

positive offset, i.e. with larger spiral
angle on pinion than on gear.
Hypoid pinion
av
m1 > m 2
by indicating the offset below center

it is customary to look at the face of the
gear with the pinion shaft to the right
Spiral Bevel pinion
m2
pinion: R.H.
r. gear: L.H.
av

pinion
gear
m1
m2
m1
dm1'
This results in a larger pinion diameter

than compared with the spiral bevel
pinion of the same ratio
= 45 ... 50
= 27 ... 32
[T1e_v10_WIR]
48
Hypoid Gears :
Positive Offset ( R.H. pinion / L.H. gear )
Hypoid gears are usually designed with

positive offset, i.e. with larger spiral
angle on pinion than on gear.
m1 > m 2
av
This results in a larger pinion diameter

than compared with the spiral bevel
pinion of the same ratio.
by indicating the offset above center
pinion: R.H.
r. gear: L.H.
av

pinion
gear
m1
m2
Hypoid Gears:
= 45 ... 50
= 27 ... 32
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Negative Offset ( L.H. pinion / R.H. gear )
Hypoid gears can exceptionally be

designed with negative offset, i.e. with
smaller spiral angle on pinion than on
gear.
m1 < m2
av
This results in a smaller pinion

diameter than compared with the spiral
bevel pinion of the same ratio.
by indicating the offset above center

For geometrical reasons (small pinion
diameter) negative Hypoid offset can be
only very small. This case is rarely
applied in automotive drives.
m2
pinion: L.H.
r. gear: R.H.
av
m1
[T1e_v10_WIR]
49
Hypoid Gears:
Negative Offset ( R.H. pinion / L.H. gear )
Hypoid gears can exceptionally be

designed with positive offset, i.e. with
smaller spiral angle on pinion than on
gear.
m1 < m2
av
This results in a smaller pinion

diameter than compared with the spiral
bevel pinion of the same ratio.
pinion: R.H.
by indicating the offset below center

r. gear: L.H.
av
For geometrical reasons (smaller pin.

diameter) negative Hypoid offset can be only
very small. This case is quite rarely applied
in automotive drives.
(Exception: PTO type gear sets with i < 2 )
Bevel Gears :
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Summary of Cases
most common
application
Spiral Bevel:
pinion L.H. / gear R.H.
Hypoid - positive offset:

Hypoid - negative offset:

Spiral Bevel:
pinion R.H. / gear L.H.
Hypoid - positive offset:

Hypoid - negative offset:

[T1e_v10_WIR]
50
Hypoid Gears :
Range of Hypoid Offset
Hypoid offset is selected by the designer who in consideration of the application of the Hypoid
axle - selects a balanced choice between a
number of properties of opposing
characteristics.
D2
av
>> see page 107
Typically Hypoid offset is selected in the range

indicated below:
Application:
av in % of Gear D2
Passenger Car
Truck
av
D2
10 ... 25 %
8 ... 12 %
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Hypoid Gears :
Arrangement of Gears and Offset for 4WD
in automotive drive-lines the Hypoid offset (the drive shaft) is usually arranged
below the center line of ring gear.
( lower center of gravity, stronger pinion, higher total contact ratio, etc.)
in case of 4WD concepts it is therefore required that the selected hand of spiral of
gear and pinion for the same direction of rotation of ring gear is providing either
Driving or Coasting conditions for rear- and front axle. In order to apply
positive offset for both drives, the pinion needs to be placed once in front and
once behind the gear. The offset will therefore be above center for e.g. front axle.
L.H. pinion / R.H. gear
R.H. pinion / L.H. gear
offset +
offset +
pinion with equal sense of rotation:

pinion in front of gear
pinion behind gear
forward direction rear axle
forward direction front axle

[T1e_v10_WIR]
51
Hypoid Gears :
Arrangement of Gears and Offset for 4WD
in case of 4WD concepts it is required that the selected hand of spiral of gear and
pinion for the same direction of rotation of ring gear is providing either Driving or
Coasting conditions for rear- and front axle.
in order to apply positive offset for both drives with the pinion arranged in both
cases at the same side of gear, the sense of rotation must necessarily be different
for rear- and front axle.
the same hand of spiral for both gear sets results as an advantage of this concept
offset +
offset +
pinion with unequal sense of rotation:

pinion of both axles on same side of gear
forward direction rear axle
forward direction front axle
Spiral Bevel Gears:
Tandem- / Drive-Through Axle
In case of tandem- or multiple drivethrough axles there appears a similar

problem concerning the arrangement of
the gear-set and the selection of hand of
spiral. Due to the reverse direction of
drive shaft and pinion, the last axle
requires a mirrored arrangement of the
set and inverse hand of spiral
Pinion R.H. / Gear L.H.
offset
>0
non-offset
HypoidBevel
Spiral
gears
[T1e_v10_WIR]
see page 19
last AP axle
drive-throughAP axle
Pinion L.H. / Gear R.H.
forward
direction
of coupled
(Tandem-)
axles
forward
direction
of coupled
(Tandem-)
axles
[T1e_v10_WIR]
52
Geometry of Gear Blanks for:
ratio:
face width pinion:
Z2 d2 dm2
Z1 d1 dm1
b1 b2
i
diameter pinion:
1
dm1 dm2
i
spiral angles:
m1 m2
b2
dm1
d1
b1
SPIRAL BEVEL Gears:
2
dm2
d2
Z1
Z2
(for 90 shaft angle)
Z2
2 arctan
Z1
1 2 90
pitch angles:
1 arctan
[T1e_v10_WIR]

SPIRAL BEVEL Gears:
pinion (1)
pressure angles are usually balanced for

DRIVE / COAST flanks
the Limit Pressure Angle lim

is lim = 0 for Spiral Bevel Gears
Drive flanks:
cv pinion
+
cx gear
0 v1 Nv1
Coast flanks:
cx pinion
+
cv gear
0 x1 Nx1
convex
flank
concave
flank
convex
flank
0 x 2 Nv1
0 v 2 Nx1
concave
flank
gear (2)
[T1e_v10_WIR]
53
b1
face width pinion:
b2
1
dm1 k dm2
i
cos
m2
enlargement factor:
k
cos m1
spiral angles:
m1 m2
dm2
diameter pinion:
pitch angles:
1 arctan
Z1
Z2
d2
1 2 90
2 arctan
Z2
Z1
Z2
1,2 f ,offset,cutter,cutting system

Z1
d1
Z2 d2
dm2
rsp.
Z1 d1
dm1
b1 b2
i
ratio:
dm1
HYPOID Gears:
[T1e_v10_WIR]

HYPOID Gears:
pinion (1)
pressure angles are usually not balanced for

DRIVE / COAST flanks in order to result in a
balanced length of the Line of Action in both
directions of operation.
the Limit Pressure Angle lim > 0
is usually positive for positive Hypoid offset
Drive flanks:
cv pinion
+
cx gear
0 v1 Nv1 lim
Coast flanks:
cx pinion
+
cv gear
0 x1 Nx1 lim
convex
flank
concave
flank
convex
flank
0 x 2 Nv1 lim
0 v 2 Nx1 lim
concave
flank
gear (2)
[T1e_v10_WIR]
54
... some properties in comparison

properties
SPIRAL BEVEL Gears:
HYPOID Gears:
diameter pinion
smaller ( )
bigger
tangential force at dm1

resulting input torque
bigger
smaller ( )
()
()
strength to rupture & pitting :
smaller ( )
bigger
()
spiral angle pinion
smaller ( )
bigger
()
axial thrust of pinion

as result of input torque
smaller ( )
bigger
()
length of tooth trace
smaller ( )
bigger
()
face contact ratio
smaller ( )
bigger
()
sliding velocities on flanks :
smaller ( )
bigger
()
resistance against scoring :
higher
smaller ( )
heat generated into oil
smaller ( )
bigger
efficiency factor
bigger
smaller ( )
()
()
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Flank Sliding Velocities

SPIRAL BEVEL Gears:
()
direction of velocities
HYPOID Gears:
Note:
sliding velocities are larger
in case of Hypoid gears
sliding velocities appear only in

profile direction
no sliding velocities appear
along the pitch line
sliding velocities appear both in

length- and profile direction
sliding velocities appear also
along the pitch line
[T1e_v10_WIR]
55
consequence for lapping of gear-sets
SPIRAL BEVEL Gears:
HYPOID Gears:
lapping removal
with
protuberance
lapping removal
with
protuberance
lapping removal
without
protuberance
lapping removal
without
protuberance
no lapping effect along pitch line
lapping effect along pitch line too
increasing lapping removal

towards tip and root starting p.line
more regular lapping removal

across profile depth
narrow contact after long lapping
better lapping abilities
[T1e_v10_WIR]
consequence for lapping of gear-sets
Spiral Bevel & Hypoid Gears:

protuberance to avoid
lapping step
no protuberance
could create
lapping step
the appearance of a lapping step is avoided by applying a protuberance to the tool

tips; protuberance at the tool tip is causing root relief in the root of teeth being cut
protuberance is usually applied only to pinions to be cut and lapped or to
rough-cut gears & pinions which are to be flank-ground only (fillet radii and bottom
land to remain not ground!)
ring gears (in particular gears of high ratios) dont need protuberance due to the
fact that lapping removal is much less compared to pinion
[T1e_v10_WIR]
56
5.
Face Milling / Face Hobbing in comparison

5.1 Cutting Method - Features
5.2 Indexing System
5.3 Tooth Depth
5.4 Tip- / Root Clearance
5.5 Tooth Gap Width
5.6 Generating Plane Gear
5.7 Contact Lines / Cutting Lines
5.8 Blade System
5.9 Machine Capacity
5.10 Deflection Characteristic
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Face Milling methods
Face Hobbing methods
Single Indexing
Continuous Indexing
in general cutting methods are

either Multi-Cut or Completing
continuous indexing methods are generally

Completing systems
Spread Blade (Fixed Setting)

2 cutting operations for Gear
Roughing
Finishing
3 cutting operations for Pinion

Roughing
Finishing convex flank
Finishing concave flank
DUPLEX
completing method
for Pinion and Gear
1 cutting operation
for Gear & Pinion
- basically 1 m/c required only
- less handling operations
- less floor space
- more flexibility in production
Alternatively:
diverse multi-cut operations are possible
1 or 2 operations for Gear
2 or 3 operations for Pinion
there is also the possibility of

a so-called Mixed Completing
(i.e. pinion Completing + Gear rough- & then finish-cut)
[T1e_v10_WIR]
57
Face Milling
some facts in comparison
Hard Finishing Processes can either

be lapping or grinding
Face Hobbing
Hard Finishing Process for mass

production is restricted to lapping
HFP could be skiving, however, FORM
method for ring gears cannot be applied
in case of ground applications HT

distortions can be eliminated
HT distortions can be pre-compensated

but never completely be eliminated
designed EaseOff can be achieved

within a few microns deviations only
Lapped i.e. final EaseOff can only be

assumed based on experience
design / application of small cutter

developments are extremely difficult
design / application of small cutter

developments easy to perform
(some restrictions in lapping apply)
cutting times generally higher than

FH due to required indexing and
idle times for back-roll
higher expenditure in production for
rough-cutting and grinding of single
components
smaller expenditure in production for

cutting and lapping in pairs
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Face Milling
Face Hobbing
Arc of a Circle
RW
ro
of tat
cu ion
tte
r
Indexing Method
ro t
of ation
cut
ter
Cutting times generally shorter than F.M.
Epicycloide
RW
ro
of tatio
wo n
rk
in
of dex
wo ing
rk
RBM
each single tooth is cut in a

consecutive manner
all teeth are cut simultaneously
tooth length curvature = Arc of Circle

radius of curvature is constant
and generally larger than with F.Hob.
tooth length curvature = Epicycloide

radius of length curvature is not
constant and generally smaller
than with F.Mill.
[T1e_v10_WIR]
58
Face Milling
Indexing Method
Face Hobbing
rotation
of work
outside
blade
outside
blade
inside
blade
inside
blade
center of cutter
cutter center
rotation of
cutter
rotation
of cutter
radii of inside (IB) - and outside

(OB) blades are different
radii of IB- and OB blades are

theoretically identical ( see section. 6.3)
(without profile- and tooth thickness correction)
Face Milling (5-Cut)
Length Crowning
rfl concave (pinion)

rfl convex (pinion)
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Face Milling
with all single indexing (except some

Jobbing ) cutting methods, roughing
as well as finishing means cutting
both flanks of the ring gear with 1
single tool only
Thereby inevitably two different radii of
length curvature between the concave
and convex flank are created
rfl concave (gear)

rfl convex (gear)
With the 5-cut method the pinion needs

therefore to be cut with 2 different tools
in order to create a reasonable amount
of length curvature
reason for two individual tool diameter
to generate the pinion:
rfl convex (pinion) >> rfl concave (pinion)
[T1e_v10_WIR]
59
Face Milling (Completing) Length Crowning Face Milling (Completing)

LB = large
LB = small
Completing with
relatively SMALL
tool diameter
Completing with
relatively LARGE
tool diameter
difference of radii of length curvature

concave convex is relatively large
a lot of crowning needs to be reduced
to obtain reasonable length of contact
Face Milling (Completing)
difference of radii of length curvature

concave convex is relatively small
less length crowning needs to be
reduced to obtain a reasonable TCP
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Face Hobbing
Length Crowning
a) plunge position below

b)
with center
virtual tilttilt
(without
of of
tool
tool)
Plunge Cut of Gear
Plunge Cut of Gear

- with (virtual) tilt of tool > 0
- replaced by pl. pos. below center
a)
b)
length crowning caused by

difference of cx/cv radii is reduced
- without tilt of tool

= 0
- at center roll position T = m
the cut root line is straight
[T1e_v10_WIR]
60
Face Milling (Completing) Tip Root Clearance
Face Hobbing
root of pinion to tip of gear
root of pinion to tip of gear
root of gear to tip of pinion
root of gear to tip of pinion
cut root line of gear is heavily curved

clearance root-gear to tip-pinion is
considerably reduced at toe and heel
tip clearance at mean point must be
increased in order to avoid
interference at both ends of tooth
Face Milling
Tooth Depth
tooth depth is tapered

slot width is constant or tapered (*)
- constant
- slightly tapered
for Tilted Root Line

for Standard Root Line
width of top land is even (*)

width of root land is even (* see above)
cut root line of pinion is slightly curved

( similar as with Face Milling)
cut root line of gear is straight
there is no negative disturbance of
the tip-root clearance
whole depth does must not be increased
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Face Hobbing
tooth depth is parallel

slot width is tapered
top land pinion might become pointed at
toe in case of high ratios
2nd face angle is to be applied
in order to avoid pointed teeth
[T1e_v10_WIR]
61
Face Milling
Tapering of Tooth Depth
Tool Diameter
Tool / Mean Cone Distance
rW = 4.5
rW / Rm = 0.7
Face Milling
Tool Diameter
Tool / Mean Cone Distance
rW = 7.5
rW / Rm = 1.1
The tapering of tooth depth is characterized by the Sum of Dedendum Angles

In case of DUPLEX taper the sum of dedendum angles depends on the mean
spiral angle, the relative size of tool diameter and face module
The sum of dedendum angles of pinion and gear is: f = f_pinion + f_gear
90 m et
f _ Duplex
R
tan
n cos m
e2
Rm 2 sin m 2
1
rW

The larger the Tool Diameter and the smaller the Spiral Angle
the larger the Sum of Dedendum Angles; i.e. the more tapered the tooth depth
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Face Milling
Tooth Gapwidth
Face Hobbing
he
he
hi < he
hi = he
hi
in particular with all completing cutting the width of tooth gap is tapered
methods the gap width is constant
the size of fillet radii in the root are
the size of fillet radii in the root can be
restricted by the width of gap at toe
optimized with reference to the whole in case of relatively large cutter
tooth length
diameter and/or large tooth width, the
regardless to cutter diameter and tooth
blade point width OB/IB might not fully
width, the point width of blades can be
overlap at the heel
selected for optimal overlap
[T1e_v10_WIR]
62
Face Milling
Tooth Depth: EXCEPTION !
parallel tooth depth appears exceptional

for gear cutting methods:
- WIENER 2 - Track
- CURVEX (Modul)
- SARATOV
- SemiCompleting (= grinding method
producing circular tooth length form
for gears pre-cut to Face Hob system)
tooth depth is tapered

in general for all gears cut with
circular tooth length curvatures
according to Face Mill cutting
method
Face Milling
Face Milling
Generating Plane Gear

Plane Gear for pinion
Plane Gear for gear
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Face Hobbing
Plane Gear for gear + pinion
Generating Plane Gears are different

for pinion and gear
Plane Gears are theoretically identical

for pinion and gear
axes of Gen. Plane Gear do not

coincide tooth depth tapered
axes of Gen. Plane Gear do coincide

tooth depth parallel
conjugate gear flanks not applicable
allows to cut conjugate gear flanks
[T1e_v10_WIR]
63
Face Milling
Generated Cutting Lines
Face Hobbing
computed determination of generated cutting lines both cases represent similar gear dimensions
heel
toe
with circular tooth length form of single

indexing F.M. cutting methods, the
direction of generated cutting lines
proceeds relatively steeply inclined
along the height of tooth profiles
therefore a larger generating interval
is required compared to Face Hobbing
results in longer cutting time
toe
caused by the simultaneous rotation

of cutter and work with continuous
indexing F.H. cutting methods, the
direction of generated cutting lines
proceeds relatively gently inclined
along the height of tooth profiles
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Face Milling
contact line
heel
Contact Lines
cutting
direction
cutting
direction
Face Hobbing
contact line
cutting line
cutting line
cont. Index
rotation
generation roll
generation roll
generated cutting lines are parallel

with contact lines (they do coincide
in direction)
cutting lines are in general shorter
than with Face Hobbing
with large feed rates, generated
cutting lines could appear as flats
generated cutting lines are crossing

the contact lines under an oblique
angle
with large feed rates, generated
cuttings lines could appear as flats
on flanks of gener. gears /pinions,
however, not as critical as with FM
[T1e_v10_WIR]
64
Face Milling
Face Hobbing
Contact Lines
contact line
contact line
generated
cutting lines
generated
cutting lines
feed marks (generated cutting lines)

are parallel to contact lines
feed marks (generated cutting lines)

are NOT parallel to contact lines; they
are crossing each other
in order to obtain good surface finish

and good running behavior, blades
must set and trued within very close
tolerances (<1 m)
larger tolerances can be allowed to

still obtain good running behavior and
low gear noise
Face Milling
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Blade System
traditionally using standard

pre-profiled blades
with ARCON-, RSR or PENTAC-FM
useful blade-width
grinding stock
systems, however, bar blade tooling is

available and widely established too)
grinding
stock
useful
blade-length
grinding rake-face only

relatively large amount of stock
required to remove wear-marks
Face Hobbing
using mainly bar blades
grinding rake- & clearance faces
small grinding stock
large useful length of bar allows
to regrind blades up to 120 x
can be purchased from different
suppliers of the users choice (... in case of rectangular cross section of sticks)
[T1e_v10_WIR]
65
Face Milling
Face Hobbing
Machine Capacity
RW
RW
radial
distance
radial
distance
RM
radial distance is smaller for same

dimension and gear parameters
requires less m/c capacity or allows
larger max. dimensions with given m/c
capacity
RM
radial distance is larger for same

dimensions and gear parameters
requires more m/c capacity or allows
smaller max. dimensions with any
given m/c capacity
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Face Milling
Direction of Displacement
Face Hobbing
RW
RW
RBM
+V
-V
V-
V+
+H
+H
-H
+H
+H
-H
-H
-H
V+
for H+ of pinion, TCP moves to:

- tip and heel for DRIVE
- tip and toe for COAST
+V
V-
-V
for H+ of pinion, TCP moves to:

- tip and toe for DRIVE
- tip and heel for COAST
[T1e_v10_WIR]
66
6.
Basics of the Continuous Indexing System

6.1 The Epicycloide as Tooth Length Curvature
6.2 Position of Cutter Center
6.3 Cutters for the Continuous Indexing System
6.3.1
2-Blade/Group Cutter with z0 = 1
6.3.2
2-Blade/Group Cutters with higher z0
6.3.3
3-Blade/Group Cutters with higher z0
6.4 Conclusion
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Eb
Tooth Length Curvature:

rW
of the Face Hobbing System is

based on the development of the
Elongated Epicycloide
The Epycycloide develops as the path of
the elongated cutter radius
( r = rW )
of a ROLLING CIRCLE
( r = Eb )
which rolls under the condition
of no slip on a BASE CIRCLE ( r = Ey)
Ey
This condition is described with the

equation:
Eb z 0
E y zp
Note:
A tooth length curvature representing
an Epicycloide is achieved by the
simultaneous rotation of cutter and work.
Zp
Z0
Eb
No. of teeth of Generating Plane Gear

No. of Blade Groups on Cutter
is proportional to Normal Modul and z0
[T1e_v10_WIR]
67
Tooth Length Curvature:
The appearance and the development of an Epicycloide can be nicely demonstrated

in function of varying:
- (a) base circle radius
- (b) rolling circle radius
(link to URL)
- (c) elongated radius of rolling circle (= cutter radius)
[T1e_v10_WIR]
The Position of Cutter Center:

the position of the cutter center relative to
the center of the Generating Plane Gear is
an important parameter of gear geometry.
It is the major limiting factor of the
required machine capacity.
This distance is called
Eb
Ey
(see p. 53)
Radial Distance
Eb
or is also referred to as:
Eccentric Distance
Ey
S = Eb + Ey
Eb
Ey
Radius of Rolling Circle

Radius of Base Circle of Epicycloide
[T1e_v10_WIR]
68
Cutters for Face Hobbing:
roughing blade
the Face Hobbing cutting system is

performed by rotating cutters, equipped
with blade groups consisting of either 2 or
3 different blades:
RB roughing blade
OB outer finishing blade
IB inner finishing blade
1 blade group
outside finisher
in order to maintain the previous

condition, cutter and work rotate
simultaneously and in timed relation
all blades of the same blade group are
passing the same tooth gap
the next following blade group is passing
the successive tooth gap
inside finisher
[T1e_v10_WIR]
The Continuous Indexing:

RWOB
theoretical cutter z0 = 1
to explain the continuous indexing we
consider the most simple cutter there is:
1 OUTSIDE finishing blade
RWIB
IB
OB
OB
( in opposite position )
1 INSIDE finishing blade
IB
180
both blades are arranged on the

identical radius RW.
while rotating the cutter for 180
the former position of OB is taken by
IB, meanwhile the gear has rotated by
of the Pitch = 180/z
mn
180 / Z
[T1e_v10_WIR]
69

theoretical cutter z0 = 1
blade sequence angle:
OB IB = 360/ 2 / z0
IB OB = 360/ 2 / z0 = const.
Note:
- radius of rolling circle
is very small for z0 = 1
- rpm of work is relatively low
compared to rpm of cutter
- cutting direction from toe to heel
[T1e_v10_WIR]

2-blade cutters with higher z0
to provide high productivity with Face
Hobbing cutters, the total number of
blades; i.e. the number blade groups
(z0) shall be high.
z0 can be increased as much as the
cross section of blade shafts allows
to arrange blades on the nominal
cutter diameter = 2 rW
EM
1 blade group
RW
for the number of blade groups z0

it is generally preferred to apply
prime numbers in order to avoid the
possibility of creating common factors
with numbers of teeth to be cut
RW
z0 = 5
EM
z0 = 11
[T1e_v10_WIR]
70

2-blade cutters with higher Z0
blade sequence angle:
OB IB = 360/ 2 / z0
IB OB = 360/ 2 / z0 = const.
Note:
- radius of rolling circle is larger for
higher number of blade groups;
radius of rolling circle is proportional
to number of blade groups
- rpm of work is higher for larger
number of blade groups
[T1e_v10_WIR]

with equidistant blade positions the
sequence angle between finishing
blades is wi = w = 360/2/ z0
the displacement of a blade pitch point
takes place along an Involute based at
the rolling circle of the Epicycloid
with non-equidistant blade sequence
angles, cutter blade radii need to be
corrected in order to maintain the
nominal pitch and tooth thickness
Note:
multitudes of involutes of the same base circle
feature constant distance along their entire
length of curvature
[T1e_v10_WIR]
71

360
z0
the displacement of blade cutter radii Rb can

be derived according to the simple equations
aside
w 360
wi w
2 2 z0
RB
t
w
w
2
t
RB w
2
w
the Crowing Factor

F = w x zo
specifies the angular difference between
the equidistant and the actual angular
distance between the finishing blades of
a blade group of a given cutter
the angular distance between the finishing
blades can therefore be determined in
function of the blade sequence angle and
the number of starts:
Blade Sequence angle wi = (180 - F ) / zo
w mn z 0
2
360
w z0
mn
720
RB F
mn
720
[T1e_v10_WIR]

in order max. blade numbers with 3
blades / group can be achieved, the
equidistant position of blades
OB IB OB .....
needs to be changed:
finishing blades OB - IB are to be
positioned at closer proximity:
wi < w
( wi < 180 / z0 )
rotation
of cutter
RW
RB
EM
(L1/1)
RB
OB
wi
(L1/2)
1/2
RB
this allows to position RB blades

in order to maintain correct pitch of
cut tooth slots, blade radii are
corrected:
RWOB = RW + RB
RW IB = RW RB
IB
(L1/3)
[T1e_v10_WIR]
72

blade sequence angle is not const.
OB IB IB OB
Note:
- radius of rolling circle is larger for
higher number of blade groups;
radius of rolling circle is proportional
to number of blade groups
- rpm of work is higher for larger
number of blade groups
[T1e_v10_WIR]

cutting pinion and gear, the
combination of a L.H. + R.H. cutter
designed to the previous principle
results in a certain amount of length
crowing
the so called Crowning Factor of
cutters is defined as:
F = wi z0 = ( w wi) z0
concave flank pinion
B
R ex
RW r conv
gea
B ve
R ca
con
RWnion
pi
RW + RB
is meshing with
convex flank gear
RW RB
convex flank pinion
RW RB
is meshing with
concave flank gear

RB v e
nca
o
RW ar c
ge
B x
R ve
con
RWnion
pi
gear flanks
pinion flanks
RW + RB
[T1e_v10_WIR]
73

3-blade cutters SPIRAPID
IB
(R2/6)
the SPIROFLEX / SPIRAC cutting

system requires a pair of cutters
resulting in ZERO (0) crowning in
combination of the L.H.+ R.H. cutters
for this reason the normal blade
sequence as applied in pinion cuter
RB OB IB
is changed to:
OB RB IB
RB
rotation
of cutter
RB
(R2/5)
wi
(R2/4)
EM
RB
RW
this special arrangement of blades,

applied on SPIRAPID cutters results in:
high blade density with 3 bl./gr.
zerocrowning for cutter tilt = 0
1/2
OB
[T1e_v10_WIR]
The Continuous Indexing Method:

CONCLUSION:
as the result of identical tooth length curvatures ( zero - crowning )
we would obtain with Face Hobbing:
full-length contact pattern conjugate teeth
for practical application conjugate gears are not useful !
in order to allow tolerances in gear manufacturing & assembly
and to allow reasonable deflections under loaded conditions,
the following intentional corrections are introduced:
modification
achieved with (in general):
length crowning
profile crowning
BIAS (tooth twist)
cutter tilt
curvature of blade profile
m/c settings and/or modified motions
[T1e_v10_WIR]
74
Features of Continuous Indexing ( Face Hobbing ) :

short setup and change-over times,
pinions and ring gears cut economically in one completing process
universal application of one (1) machine for both pinions + ring gears
(compared to 5-cut method)
simplicity of gear design and development; parallel tooth depth
F.H. not appropriate as roughing method prior to grinding for mass production
manufacture of conjugate teeth is theoretically possible
high performance of gear-set as the result of small cutter design:
high contact ratio
pocketing effect
low sensitivity of contact to deflections under load
hence, long bearing patterns can be applied
contact lines & feed marks crossing each other under different directions;
larger tolerances for tool setting and surface roughness than F.M.
7.
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Particularities of Epicycloide as Length Curvature

7.1 Point of Involute (special case: N-type gear)
7.2 Point of Involute (general case)
7.3 Location of Point of Involute
7.4 Epicycloide Length Curvature: Basic Relations
7.5 Length Curvature for large cutter diameter
7.6 Length Curvature for small cutter diameter
7.7 Variations of Normal Module & Spiral Angle
for different Cutter Diameter
7.8 High Flexibility of Face Hobbing
[T1e_v10_WIR]
75
Point of Involute (N-point)
z0
No. of blade groups
zp
No. of teeth of
Gener. Plane Gear
Eb
radius of rolling
circle = direction of
orientation of blades
Eb =
x m p x z0
rB =
RP x sin p
condition:
Eb / Ey = z0 / zp
rotation
of cutter
RW
EB
rotation
of work
RB
RP
RA
A_
BET
RI
EY
radius of curvature
at calculation point
rb
N-Point
(point of involute)
x
15
cutter radius
0.4
rw
special case : N-type gear
EX
RM
B
[T1e_v10_WIR]
special case : N-type gear
Definition:
Epicycloide
the N-point represents
that position of the tooth
length curvature, where
the instantaneous radii
of the Epicycloide and of
the Involute of the same
rolling
circle
are
identical.
Involute
rolling circle
inst. radius
of curvature
base circle
of epicycloide
[T1e_v10_WIR]
76

cutter radius
rbm
radius of curvature
at mean point
rotation
of cutter
N-Point
(point of involute)
(instantaneous radius of length

curvature: graphical method
according to Euler - Savary)
z0
No. of blade groups
zp
No. of teeth of
Gener. Plane gear
Eb
radius of rolling
circle
Em =
mnm z0
Em
orientation of blades
RW
EBM
RBM
_2
EX
rotation
of work
Note:
EB / EY = z0 / zp
in general case the

orientation EM radius of rolling circle EB
[T1e_v10_WIR]

Definition:
EY
2
RM
B TM
condition:
EB
rW
general case
general case
Epicycloide
Involute
the N-point represents

that position of the tooth
length curvature, where
the instantaneous radii of
the epicycloide and of
the involute of the same
rolling circle are identical.
rolling circle
base circle
of epicycloide
inst. radius
of curvature
[T1e_v10_WIR]
77
specification of location
The position of Point of Involute is practically specified either as:

Difference to the Outer Cone Dist. : Rinv - Re
or as:
Position Factor N-Point : Ni
(previously used notion by OERLIKON)

(newly introduced notion in KIMoS)
or as:
Ratio of Involute-to-Outer Cone : Rinv / Re
(notion used by GLEASON)
Re
Re
Re
Rinv
Rinv
Rinv - Re <
Rinv / Re <
Ni
=
0
1
0
Rinv
Rinv - Re = 0
Rinv / Re = 1
Ni
= 1
Rinv - Re > 0
Rinv / Re > 1
Ni
2
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Epicycloide Length Curvature:
Basic Relations
from the rolling condition of the Epicycloide the radial displacement EM can easily
be derived:
RWM
RW
z0
m
Y z0 n
zp
2
RM
mn
tan m
2
m
Y Rm cos m zp n
2
EM EB z0
Y
EY zp
EY
RBM
X Rm sin m zp
EM
EM
EBM
EB
2 Rm
cos m
zp
rot
o f ation
wo
rk
mn
rot
of ation
cu
tte
r
EB z0
EY zp
EX
[T1e_v10_WIR]
78
Length Curvature large cutter :
variation along face length of:

Curvature Radius / Spiral Angle / Normal Module
Radius of Length Curvature:

at toe
: RBi < RBm
at heel
: RBa > RBm
rotation
of cutter
difference : RBa RBi (in % of RW)

is smaller than with small cutters
rotation
of work
Spiral Angle:
at toe
: i < m
at heel
: a > m
difference : a i
is smaller than with small cutters
m
i
Normal Module:
at toe
: mn_i < mn_m
at heel
: m n_a > mn_m
difference : mn_a mn_i

is larger than with small cutters; max. normal module is off heel
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Length Curvature small cutter :
variation along face length of:

Curvature Radius / Spiral Angle / Normal Module
Radius of Length Curvature:

at toe
: RBi < RBm
at heel
: RBa > RBm
rotation
of cutter
difference : RBa RBi (in % of RW)

is bigger than with large cutters
Spiral Angle:
at toe
: i < m
at heel
: a > m
rotation
of work
a
m
difference : a i
is bigger than with large cutters
Normal Module:
at toe
: mn_i < mn_m
at heel
: mn_a > mn_m
difference : mn_a mn_i

is smaller than with large cutters; max. normal module near center of tooth width
[T1e_v10_WIR]
79
Variations of Normal
Module and Spiral Angle
for different Cutter Radii
Spiral Angle
[]
50
40
30
20
note different development of

toe-to-heel values of
spiral angle
normal module
with reference to cutter radius
Cone Dist.
[mm]
Normal Module
[mm]
5.0
4.0
3.0
Cone Dist.
[mm]
Normal Module varies with a

maximum at some point
the NPoint (point of Involute)
represents the point of maximum
Normal Module
Position of N-Point
for cutter radius SMALL
MEDIUM
LARGE
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Developing of Normal Module and Width of Tooth Gap for

different Tool Diameter (for continuous indexing methods)
Design with relatively LARGE tool diameter
efa
bending of length curvature is relatively small

the width of tooth gap from toe to heel is
apparently increasing
sufficient overlap of blade point width
might possibly not be provided at the heel
efi < efa

efa
Design with relatively SMALL tool diameter

bending of length curvature is relatively large
the difference in tooth gap width from
toe to heel is apparently small
sufficient overlap of blade point width
can easily be provided from toe to heel
efi efa
[T1e_v10_WIR]
80
Epicycloide Length Curvature:
mnm
dm cos m 2 Rm cos m
Z2
ZP
mnx
dx cos x 2 Rx cos x
Z2
ZP
Spiral Angle at various Positions

max. Normal Module
rotation
of cutter
RW
rotation
of work
Rx cos x Ey sin x
EBM
m a
m
i
2 Ey
mnx
sin x
zp
Ey
Ex
Ri
Rm
mnmax.
2 Ey
1.0
zp
condition at N - point :
Rx
Ra
x = 90
sin x = 1.0 point of max. normal module

[T1e_v10_WIR]
High Flexibility of Face Hobbing
rw (x)
different size of cutter can be applied

for same size of gears with same or
similar size of spiral angle
Rm
or:
the position of N-Point is determined by
the cutter diameter
Note:
the parameters R m , m and mnm are identical
for the upper and the lower gear design
Rm
[T1e_v10_WIR]
81
High Flexibility of Face Hobbing

rw
same size of cutter can be applied for
different size of gears with same or
different size of spiral angle
Position of N-Point depends on
size of gears
size of spiral angle
size of rolling circle
(i.e. No. of blade groups of cutter)
m (x
Rm (x)
rw
Note:
the parameters R m and m are different
for the upper and the lower gear design
>
(x)
Rm > R m (x)
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Different Length Curvature

for same Cutter Diameter
application of cutters of identical
Cutter Radius with different Number
of Blades Group to the same size of
gear result in differences for:
rolling circle of the Epicycloid

orientation (EM) of the blades
radius of curvature of the Epicycloid
position of the Point of Involute
EM(2) > EM(1) RBm(1) > RBm(2)
NOTE:
The parameters RW, Rm , m and mnm in
upper and lower examples are identical
[T1e_v10_WIR]
82
8.
Face Hobbing: Generating - and FORM - cut Method

8.1 General Description
8.2 Length Crowning applied with Cutter Tilt
8.3 The Generating Cutting Method
Configuration of Cutter in relation to Work
8.4 The FORM- or Plunge Cutting Method
Configuration of Cutter in relation to Work
GENERATING
cutting method for F.H.:
[T1e_v10_WIR]
FORM - or PLUNGE
cutting method for F.H.:
General Note:
with Oerlikon continuous indexing system using FS - type cutters, above cutting
methods have been referred to as
SPIROFLEX
staying for GENERATING cutting method
SPIRAC
staying for FORM - or PLUNGE cutting method
Notes and descriptions hereafter, however, are of some common information
also for more recent cutting methods such as
SPIRON
(Klingelnberg-Oerlikon)
TRIAC or PENTAC FH
(Gleason)
axes of machines in simultaneous motion (as mentioned hereafter)
for conventional m/cs
for 6-axes NC m/cs
GENERATING cut ring gear (no tilt)
3
4
GENERATING cut pinion
3
6
FORM cut
ring gear
3
3
FORM cut
pinion (generated) 3
6
[T1e_v10_WIR]
83
Method of Length Crowning:

General: applies for both systems
application of a variable degree of
cutter tilt to achieve infinitely variable
amount of length crowning
cutter tilt can be applied
- on either gear or pinion
- or on both members
in general: cutter tilt is applied on
pinion only in order to keep ring gear
to theoretical dimensions
variation of cutter tilt without
modification of blades can be used to
control contact position
[T1e_v10_WIR]

increased tooth depth is providing a

wider tooth gap towards both ends of
tooth which results in mismatch i.e.
length crowning
PHI_V
PH
I _X
A
H
H (tooth depth)
the angle of cutter tilt needs to be

compensated on blade flank angles in
order to maintain nominal pressure
angles of component to be cut
AL
F_
N
F_
AL
NR
B (face width)
tooth depth is cut slightly deeper

towards both ends of face width due to
cutter tilt
A-A
[T1e_v10_WIR]
84

cutter tilt results in slightly increased
tooth depth towards
toe and heel of pinion
increased tooth depth is providing a
wider tooth gap towards both ends of
tooth which results in mismatch i.e.
length crowning
tilt angle of cutter requires to be

compensated on flank angles of blades;
as the tilt angle varies by variable
amount, blades need to be ground to
variable flank angles.
necessity of individual stick blades

[T1e_v10_WIR]

as the result of increased cutter tilt, the
length of contact is reduced
the axes of the Generating Plane
Gears for pinion and gear do not
coincide any more
no cutter tilt
as a result of this - without any

countermeasures - a certain
amount of BIASIN would be
introduced to the tooth flanks
BIAS
BIAS
cutter tilt
no countermeasures
tooth twist
diagonal contact
[T1e_v10_WIR]
85
Different Type/Reasons for Cutter Tilt

cutter tilt in a
horizontal plane:
cutter tilt in a
horizontal plane:
cutter tilt in a
vertical plane:
to generate conjugate
pinion flanks to an
existing FORM cut
ring gear
to change BIAS
conditions by means
of hollow cone
to create length crowning

corrections of TCP in
profile direction
corrections of TCP
in length direction
[T1e_v10_WIR]
GENERATING cutting method:
generated Ring Gear with

generated Pinion;
Ring Gear
crowning applied with cutter tilt

(or by other means)
Completing process; i.e. part is
finished in one (1) cutting process
cutting time is approximately 25%
longer compared to FORM cutting
method
this cutting method to apply
for low gear ratios
i = z2/z1 < 2.5 ... 2.2
Pinion
[T1e_v10_WIR]
86
GENERATING cutting method:
continuous indexing cutting method using

bar blade cutters
cutter blades of 1 blade group represent 1
tooth of the generating pane gear
no tilt required in horizontal plane as
cutter represents Generating Plane Gear
cutter tilt is applied in vertical plane to
achieve length crowning
[T1e_v10_WIR]
GENERATING
cutting method for Ring Gear:
3 axes in simultaneous motion:
rotation of cutter (A-axis) and work
(B-axis) in timed relation
+ either
plunge cut (X-axis)
A-axis
B-axis
F,K
or
generation roll (W-axis)

W-axis
generation roll starts after X-axis

has advanced to full depth of tooth
cycle is finished after end of roll
(generation roll)
X-axis
[T1e_v10_WIR]
87
GENERATING
cutting method for Pinion:
machine
root angle
B-axis

+ either
plunge cut (X-axis)
A-axis
t
ro
e
n
h
c
a
m
is
x
-a
B
le
g
n
a
i
x
-a
W
n
e
(g
l)s
n
tio
ra
-x
A
or

W-axis
(generation roll)
generating the pinion with the

theoretical plane gear
X-axis
[T1e_v10_WIR]
GENERATING
F,K
machine
root angle
B-axis

+ either
plunge cut (X-axis)
-a
tB
ro
e
in
h
c
a
m
is
x
le
g
F,Kp
x
-a
W
n
e
(g
l)s
n
tio
ra
e
-x
A
A-axis
or

W-axis
(generation roll)
generating the pinion with a

modified plane gear to control
BIAS condition (tooth twist)
referred to as Hollow Cone
X-axis
[T1e_v10_WIR]
88
FORM - or PLUNGE
cutting method:
plunge - cut ring-gear with
generated Pinion;
Ring Gear
length crowning applied with tilt

(or by other means)
Completing process; i.e. part is finished
in one (1) cutting process
more economical cutting method due to
shorter cutting times on ring-gears
this cutting method to apply for medium
to high gear ratios
i = z2/z1 > 2.2 ... 2.5
Pinion
[T1e_v10_WIR]
FORM - or PLUNGE cutting method:
continuous indexing cutting method using

bar blade cutters
cutter blades of 1 blade group represent 1
tooth of generating gear (= ring gear)
cutter tilt required in horizontal plane as
rotating blades of cutter represent teeth of
Generating Gear
additional tilt of cutter required in vertical
plane in order to achieve length crowning
[T1e_v10_WIR]
89
FORM- or PLUNGE
cutting method for Ring Gear:
+
plunge cut (X-axis)
A-axis
F,K
B-axis
cutting cycle is finished after

X-axis has advanced to full depth of
tooth
W-axis
(no generation roll)
X-axis
no generation-roll is applied
cutting time is approximately 25%
shorter compared to the
GENERATED cutting method
[T1e_v10_WIR]
FORM- or PLUNGE
machine root
angle = 0
B-axis

+ either
plunge cut (X-axis)
A-axis
or

W-axis
(generation roll)
generating the pinion with the

theoretical (actual mating) gear
X-axis
[T1e_v10_WIR]
90
FORM- or PLUNGE
machine
root angle
B-axis

+ either
plunge cut (X-axis)
A-axis
or

W-axis
(generation roll)
generating the pinion with gear of

modified number of teeth to control
BIAS condition (tooth twist)
9.
X-axis
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Ease Off
9.1 Crowning of Tooth Flanks
9.2 Definition
9.3 Ease Off Analysis / - Synthesis
9.4 Description of Flank Deviations
9.5 Major Parameters of Influence to the Ease Off
9.6 Ease Off Parameters and Side Effects
9.7 Effect of Profile Crowning and Twist to Path of Contact
[T1e_v10_WIR]
91
Ease Off
Crowning of Tooth Flanks:
Spur - & Helical Gears
Spiral Bevel Gears
Involute profile in direction of tooth

height; involutes are self-equidistant
Octoide profile in direction of tooth

height
displacements occur in distance

between axes
displacements occur in 3D direction of

offset and mounting distance D/P & R/G
displacements have no influence to

contact position
displacements have influence to

contact position >> crowning is required
Ease Off
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Definition:
... is the minimum distance of a pair of flanks

for an ideal meshing operation
... is the graphical representation of all kind
of mismatch and flank modifications applied
to gear and pinion
Tooth Contact Analysis ( TCA )

computation of all 4 flanks point by point
(15 15 or 25 25 lattice points)
simulation of meshing operation

Ease Off
Contact Pattern and Path of Contact
Transmission Error
pinion flank
gear flank
[T1e_v10_WIR]
92
Ease - Off
Ease Off Synthesis :
describes the correlation between Ease Off and the parameters of machining
operation
EaseOff of conjugate gears
enables user driven modifications of

individual parameters of machining
operation
Ease Off is specified with 5 characteristics
profile crowning
EaseOff
with profile modifications
length crowning
pressure angle deviation
spiral angle deviation
tooth twist
Ease Off
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Ease Off (graphical) Description of Flank Deviations
Flank Form or Profile

deviations in Ease Off are
specified with a parameter
and may either occur as ...
HB Profile Crowning
LB Length Crowning
EaseOff
Pressure Angle
Deviation
Spiral Angle
Deviation
dv
Flank Twist
Tooth Contact
Path-of-Contact
[T1e_v10_WIR]
93
Ease Off
Ease Off (graphical) Tooth Contact: Ease Off Synthesis

large (+)
The sign and the amount

of the EaseOff parameters
specify the position and
shape of the tooth contact
HB
small ()
large (+)
small ()
LB
EaseOff
plus
(+)
minus ()
+/
toe/heel d
Tooth Contact
Path-of-Contact
dv
Ease - Off
+/
direction
of P.o.C.
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Major Parameters of Influence to Ease Off
Profile Crowning:
Shape of the tool
Work offset
Lengthwise crowning:
Diameter of the tool
Tilt and flank angle of tool
Pressure angle difference:
Flank angle of tool
Mounting distance
Tilt
Ratio of roll
Helical Motion 1.Order
Spiral angle difference:
Radial distance
Machine root angle
Tilt
Twist:
Modified Roll 2. , 4. & 6. Order
Helical Motion 2. ,4. & 6. Order
[T1e_v10_WIR]
94
Ease - Off
Ease Off Parameters + side Effects (individual flanks)
Profile Crowning:
Shape of the tool
Work offset
--Twist , Spiral Angle, Pressure Angle

-----
Flank angle of tool

Mounting distance
Tilt
Ratio of roll
--Twist , Spiral Angle

Twist, Length Crowning
Twist
Twist
Radial distance
Machine root angle
Tilt & Swivel
Twist:
--Twist, Pressure Angle

Twist, Length Crowning
Ease - Off
Length Crowning
Length Crowning
Ease Off Parameters + side Effects (Completing)
Profile Crowning:
Shape of the tool
Work offset
independently adjustable for cx + cv flank

different reaction for cx + cv flank


similar reaction for cx + cv flank
Flank angle of tool

Mounting distance
Tilt
Ratio of roll
independently adjustable for cx + cv flank

Radial distance
Machine root angle
Tilt & Swivel
Twist:

Modified Roll 2.Order

[T1e_v10_WIR]
see influence of individually corrected machine settinngs

to the position of contact and to flank deviations
additional document <Correction Effects_K5.DOC>
Modified Roll 2.Order


[T1e_v10_WIR]
95
Ease - Off
no Bias
Effect of Profile Crowning

and Tooth Twist to the
Path-of-Contact
straight profile
curved profile
direction and shape of Path of

Contact depend strongly on
the amount of profile crowning
straight profile
Bias In
this fact makes it quite difficult

to judge the nature
of any Bias Condition
curved profile
therefore the Ease Off

analysis value for tooth twist
(dv) allows easier judgment
and control of Bias Condition
straight profile
Bias Out
curved profile
[T1e_v10_WIR]
10. BIAS Condition - Tooth Twist

10.1
Definition of Vertical- and Horizontal Displacement
10.2
Reaction of TCP for Displacement in Vertical Direction
10.3
Reaction of TCP for Displacement in Horizontal Direction
10.4
Checking Bias Conditions with V / H - check
10.5
Definition of BIAS
10.6
Conditions of Bias due to Distortion
10.7
Intentional Determination of Bias Conditions of Ease Off
10.8
Methods to Control Bias
[T1e_v10_WIR]
96
Definition:
Vertical and Horizontal Displacement
H+ increase Mounting Distance Pinion
H+ increase Mounting Distance Pinion
V+ Ring Gear up or Pinion down
V+ Ring Gear up or Pinion down
Offset (av) is increased

L.H. pinion
R.H. r.gear
Offset (av) is decreased
H+
MD
V+
R.H. pinion
L.H. r.gear
MD
H+
V+
av
av
V+
H+
Definition:
H+
V+
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Vertical- and Horizontal Displacements
Denomination of axes V H J
Denomination of axes E P G
(KLINGELNBERG OERLIKON)
(GLEASON)
pinion LEFT
gear RIGHT
V+
Hypoid Offset is increasing
E+
E+
pinion RIGHT
gear LEFT
V+
Hypoid Offset is decreasing
[T1e_v10_WIR]
97
BIAS:
Contact Pattern Reaction because of V displacement
The inclination of the direction of displacement of the tooth contact does not
depend on the relative size of tool diameter
DRIVE (R.H. Gear)
Heel
1
4
Toe
Root ring gear
V = E = change in offset:
Note:
1. E = -0.2mm
The Tooth Contact Position (TCP)

moves mainly in direction of tooth length
2. E = -0.1mm
3. E = +0.1mm
4. E = +0.2mm
BIAS:
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Contact Pattern Reaction because of H displacement
The inclination of the direction of displacement of the tooth contact does very much
depend on the relative size of tool diameter!
DRIVE (R.H. Gear)
4
Heel
3
Toe
2
1
Root ring gear
H = P = change in pinion MD:
Note:
The Tooth Contact Position (TCP)
moves mainly in direction of tooth profile
1. P = -0.2mm
displayed direction of H displacement

applies for large cutter diameter F. Milling
3. P = +0.1mm
2. P = -0.1mm
4. P = +0.2mm
[T1e_v10_WIR]
98
BIAS:
checking Bias Conditions with V/H - check
V/ H- check is used when developing gears for production and monitoring the quality
of production gears (soft, hard or finished lapped or ground)
With a V/ H-check, the amount and direction of axial displacements are controlled
with a rolling test machine.
Conditions / Limitations for V/H-check
1. TCP is to be displaced to Toe / Heel
position on Drive and Coast flank
2. TCPs at Toe/Heel positions must be
positioned at central profile
3. TCPs shall not exceed Toe / Heel and the
original length of TCP must be maintained
at Toe/Heel positions
( to avoid boxing-up of tooth contact)
4. calculated center shall be central-central
BIAS:
[T1e_v10_WIR]
V/ H-checks can be recorded in a matrix ...
Contact Pattern
V
H
... or can be plotted into a V/ H - chart
0
0
+V
TOE
Toe
DRIVE
+ 10
- 10
- 35
+ 32
45
43
- 12.5
1.05 +11.0
COAST V
H
- 12
+ 09
+ 38
- 35
50
44
+13.0
1.14 - 13.0
+H
Center Position
DRIVE
Heel
DRIVE
HEEL Total Ratio Center
DRIVE V
H
units are typically either:

1/100 of mm
or 1/1000 of inch
Note: following is alternatively used for V & H
E = offset (V)
P = pinion axial displacement (H)
G = gear axial displacement
[T1e_v10_WIR]
99
BIAS:
Note: - distance H indicates the amount of lameness of tooth contact at V=0

- the ratio of total V/H displacements indicates the amount of BIAS
+V
Heel
COAST
+V
Center Position
COAST
Toe
DRIVE
+H
+H
H
Center Position
DRIVE
BIAS:
Toe
COAST
Heel
DRIVE
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Gear Design / - Development based on

V/H Displacements of the Carrier
Due to design specific features and stiffness

each carrier or axle respectively deflects under
load. The distortion of the carrier, the gear
members, bearings and shafts are the reason
for the displacement of tooth contact
The displacements for different load conditions
need either to be measured on an axle rig or to
be calculated with FEM.
Relative Ritzelabdrngungen Zahnflankenmitte Zug

0.8000
0.6000
hereby shall be ensured that the contacts

under load spread evenly and optimally
on the whole tooth flanks
0.4000
Abdrngung (mm)
Development of a Gear Set:

the finished lapped or ground gear set
is supposed to feature the same or a
similar BIAS condition as the carrier
0.2000
0.0000
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
-0.2000
-0.4000
-0.6000
-0.8000
Dreh mo me nt (1.000 Nm)

E = -y
P= x
G=z
Da
Linear (E = -y)
Linear (P = x)
Linear (G = z)
Linear (Da)
[T1e_v10_WIR]
100
BIAS:
Definition Variant 1
DRIVE
Bias IN
Heel
Bias OUT
Root ring gear
Toe
Bias IN
if the center of contact moves towards tip/heel when increasing the mounting
distance and decreasing the offset in the same amount.
Bias Out
if the center of contact moves towards root/heel when increasing the
mounting distance and decreasing the offset in the same amount.
BIAS:
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Heel
Root ring gear
Toe
the change in the offset E and the change in the Mounting Distance P are adjusted
as such that the center of TCP moves parallel to the pitch line towards the heel.
Bias IN
Bias OUT
V E
1
H
P
V E
1
H
P
Note:
Definitions 1+2 apply only for Hypoid pinions with
spiral angle m1 in the order of 45 to 50
[T1e_v10_WIR]
101
BIAS:
m 1
assuming that the carrier shows

about equal stiffness in horizontal
and vertical direction, deflections
under load take place in a direction
perpendicular to a tangent to the
pinion tooth at mean point.
m 1
V
H
Bias conditions therefore depend on

the spiral angle of the pinion
V E
c tan m1
H
P
V E
c tan m1
Bias OUT
H
P
Bias IN
BIAS:
Heel
Toe
Root ring gear
[T1e_v10_WIR]
General Definition
Bias IN
light load contact
with reference to the ring gear the

contact develops from
- tip at heel
to the
root at toe
on the convex (Drive) side
- tip at toe
to the
root at heel
on the concave (Coast) side
heavy load contact
Bias NEUTRAL
Bias OUT
with reference to the ring gear the
contact develops from
- root at heel to the
tip at toe
on the convex (Drive) side
- root at toe
to the
tip at heel
on the convex (Coast) side
Bias IN
Bias OUT
[T1e_v10_WIR]
102
BIAS Conditions:
Any changes of Bias Conditions can
occur due to heat treatment distortions.
Bias 0
or
Bias NEUTRAL
Unequal distribution of blank material in

areas of tooth- and tooth root typically
results in unequal stresses of the case
hardened structure of gear materials.
this effect is sometimes referred
to as unwind of gear teeth
Note:
along the Path of Contact there appear
- more lines of contact
for Bias In
- less lines of contact
for Bias Out
simplified representation of Bias or Tooth Twist
Bias In
Bias Out
[T1e_v10_WIR]
BIAS Conditions:
Bias 0
without Profile Crowning
Bias conditions i.e. a certain amount of

tooth twist can intentionally be considered
in designing the Ease Off
dv = 0
flank twist
dv = 0
Characteristic of the EaseOff:

profile crowning HB = 0 5 m
flank twist
dvdrive = 0
dvcoast = 0
length crowning LB
= 40 45 m
Note:
- practically no twist of the EaseOff
- path of contact :
> in profile direction vertical within contact
- without profile crowning the contact can easily
be recognized to be Bias Neutral
- transmission error ca. 18 rad
path of contact
[T1e_v10_WIR]
103
BIAS Conditions:
Bias IN
without Profile Crowning

dv > 0
flank twist
dv < 0
Characterisitc of the EaseOff:

flank twist
dvdrive = 0.7 dvcoast = 0.7
length crowning LB
= 45 50 m
Note:
- twist of opposite flanks
- path of contact :
> in profile direction diagonal within contact
- Bias IN tendency can easily be recognized
- with same length crowning the contact is
longer along the Path of Contact
- transmission error smaller ca. 7.5 rad
path of contact
[T1e_v10_WIR]
BIAS Conditions:
Bias OUT without Profile Crowning
dv < 0
flank twist
dv > 0

flank twist
length crowing
LB
= 40 45 m
Note:
- path of contact :
> in profile direction inverse diagonal (Z-Form)
- Bias OUT tendency can easily be recognized
- with same length crowning the contact is
shorter along the Path of Contact
- transmission error larger ca. 40 rad
path of contact
[T1e_v10_WIR]
104
BIAS Conditions:
Bias 0
with Profile Crowning

dv = 0
flank twist
dv = 0

profile crwning
HB = ca. 15 m
flank twist
dvdrive = 0
dvcoast = 0
length crowning LB
= ca. 40 m
Note:
- practically no twist of the EaseOff
- path of contact :
> in profile direction diagonally oblique
(although no apparent flank twist !)
- transmission error ca. 65 - 70 rad
path of contact
[T1e_v10_WIR]
BIAS Conditions:
Bias IN
with Profile Crowning

dv > 0
flank twist
dv < 0

profile crowing
HB = ca. 15 m
flank twist
length crowing
LB
= ca. 44 m
Note:
- path of contact :
> in profile direction diagonally oblique
(hardly distinguishable from Bias 0 )
- transmission error smaller ca. 40 rad
path of contact
[T1e_v10_WIR]
105
BIAS Conditions:
Bias OUT with Profile Crowning
dv < 0
flank twist
dv > 0

profile crowning HB = ca. 15 m
flank twist
length crowning LB
= 40 45 m
Note:
- path of contact :
> in profile direction slightly oblique
(hardly distinguishable from Bias 0
- transmission error larger ca. 96 rad
path of contact
Methods to control BIAS:
[T1e_v10_WIR]
General
A number of machine setting modifications have direct influence or side effects

to tooth twist (>> see sections 9.5 / 9.6)
The most effective parameters to control Bias or Tooth Twist, however, are
Modified Roll and Helical Motion
Note:
a modification of Modified Roll 1st order corresponds to a modification of

the Decimal Ratio. (Modifications to the pressure angle are undesired side
effects in changing the Bias with the Decimal Ratio)
All modifications are effective mainly along the Path of Contact and therefore
appear obliquely across the tooth flank
for Face Hobbing there are alternative methods to control Bias conditions such as:
- modified Generating Gear (Hollow Cone)
or
- Hook Angle of Blades
these methods are particularly applied with conventional gear cutting machines;
i.e. without the ability of applying Modified Motions
[T1e_v10_WIR]
106
Principle of Modified Roll
Modified Roll changes the constant Ratio of Roll into a to a polynomial function
eccentric function (E) and
approximated polynomial function (P)
modified ratio 1/u
Principle of a Modified Roll Ratio

for a mechanically controlled m/c
generating cradle
E ca. 0.35 (= 20)

generating interval
practically applied
to generate Spiral
Bevel- or Hypoid
pinions
worm drive
generating angle
eccentric function (E)
approx. by a polynominal function of 4th order (P)
example of EaseOff
of Mod.Roll 2nd order
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Definition of Modified Roll
Modified Roll
With Modified Roll the relationship (ratio) of motions between the generating
cradle to the work spindle is not constant
the generation roll motion is either accelerated or decelerated during the travel
within the interval of the generating roll angle
Generating Roll Angle: = start-of-roll mean end-of-roll
e.g. roll positions for this example

- Start of Roll at heel tip (convex flank)
= 65
- Start of Roll at heel root (concave flank) = 69
(see position of green arrow
- anywhere during generating roll

(see position of green arrow
- End of Roll at toe root (convex flank)

- End of Roll at toe tip (concave flank)
= 89
= 97
= 100
[T1e_v10_WIR]
107
General Facts of Modified Roll
in case of completing cut gears flanks, as well as in case of inconstant

generating ratios (= modified roll) the action of generating both concave and
convex flanks simultaneously results in different effects at opposite flank areas
i.e. depending on modified generating
motions running either ahead or lacking behind
the constant roll motion, certain amount of
material is either removed (-) or left over (+)
on the opposite flanks respectively
Note:
any flank modifications of generating roll appear in a

direction tangential to the flank
consequences to both flanks are therefore different
effects caused by different pressure angles of the tool

convex/concave are therefore not as significant as they
appear with modifications of Helical Motions
[T1e_v10_WIR]
General Facts for Modified Roll
corrective effects with Completing systems for DRIVE / COAST flank occur :
... along the Path of Contact in OPPOSITE direction for Modified Roll
corrections for cv/cx flanks are slightly staggered due to the fact that the tool is
cutting a tooth gap; i.e. generating opposite flanks in slightly different positions
toe
heel
= b ( m)
without correction
= e ( m)4
Modified Roll 4th order
toe
heel
= c ( m)2
Modified Roll 2nd order
= f ( m)5
toe
heel
= d ( m)3
Modified Roll 3rd order
= g ( m)6
[T1e_v10_WIR]
108
Modified Roll
Example shown for Face Milling Completing
following sequence of images

display a flank comparison of
pinion flanks modified with
different modifications of roll
compared with a reference
tooth
no corrections
Modified Roll 1. order (b = +0.005)
Modified Roll 2. order (c = 0.025)
Modified Roll 3. order (d = 0.1)
note: modifications of convex / concave flanks appear in opposite direction
Modified Roll 4. order (e = +0.4)
Modified Roll 5. order (f = +1.5)
Modified Roll 6. order (g = +6.0)

[T1e_v10_WIR]
Modified Roll
Face Hobbing
10:41-200/25 ARCON(II)14-6
10:41-200/25 SPIRON(II)13-76
different
directions of
generating lines
e.g. Modified Roll 2nd order
flank modifications develop

for both cutting methods:
along the Path of Contact
in direction of generating lines
e.g. Modified Roll 4th order
[T1e_v10_WIR]
109
General Facts for Helical Motions
corrective effects with Completing systems for DRIVE / COAST flank occur :
... along the Path of Contact in SAME direction for Helical Motion
modifications for Helical Motion to cv/cx flank depend on pressure angles:
small modifications for small - / large modifications for larger pressure angles
toe
heel
toe
heel
toe
heel
linear Helical Motion (H.M.)
linear H.M. and 2nd order
linear H.M. and 3rd order
linear H.M. and 4th order
[T1e_v10_WIR]
General Facts for Helical Motions
during the generating roll, Helical Motion performs an additional feed (advance
or withdrawal) in direction of tooth depth; this additional motion could be
performed either linear or in form of a Polynomial function of higher order
Helical Motion in case of completing cut gears,
results in similar effects in areas of opposite flanks
concave/convex
i.e. depending on the direction of the additional
Helical Motion, on both flanks certain amount of
material is either removed (-) or left over (+)
Note:
in case of Hypoid gears, pressure angles of concave/convex

flanks are usually considerably different
Modifications caused by Helical Motion are of different amount

on both flanks, however, they result in the same direction
[T1e_v10_WIR]
110
Helical Motion
Example shown for Face Milling Completing
Helical Motion 1. order (b = +0.15)
Helical Motion 2. order (c = +0.7)
Helical Motion 3. order (d = +3)
note: only very small modifications of concave flank ( small pressure angle : Hypoid)
Helical Motion 4. order (e =+15)
Helical Motion 5. order (f =+75)
Helical Motion 6. order (g =+350)

[T1e_v10_WIR]
Helical Motion
Face Hobbing
10:41-200/25 ARCON(II)14-6
10:41-200/25 SPIRON(II)13-76
different
directions of
generating lines
e.g. Helical Motion 2nd order
flank modifications develop

for both cutting methods:
along the Path of Contact
in direction of generating lines
e.g. Helical Motion 4th order
[T1e_v10_WIR]
111
Corrective Effects (Summary)
Corrective Effects along Path of Contact for Modified Roll / Helical Motion
below indications are valid for positive coefficients
Modified Roll
Hand of
Spiral
LH Pinion
more material removal

less material removal
Helical Motion
1./3./5. order
2./4./6. order
1./3./5. order
2./4./6. order
Ease-off on Gear flank
DRIVE
DRIVE
RH Gear
RH Pinion
COAST
OPPOSITE Effects on
SIMILAR Effects on
COAST
DRIVE and COAST flanks!
DRIVE and COAST flanks!
+
LH Gear
DRIVE
COAST
+
+
COAST
DRIVE
Example: Modified Motions
Modified Roll 2. order POSITIVE
Helical Motion 2. order NEGATIVE
[T1e_v10_WIR]
+
with every Duplex- or Completing
method, a wanted correction on the
concave side will have some unwanted
side effects on the convex side
in case only 1 flank shall be corrected,

a second correction effect is to be superimposed to
compensate unwanted corrections of convex side
=
[T1e_v10_WIR]
112
Hollow Cone
for Face Hob Generating Cutting System

a condition of Bias OUT is introduced in
generating the pinion using a Generating Plane
Gear of reduced number of teeth.
Hence, the Generating Plane Gear is not plane
anymore; it is therefore referred to
as Hollow Cone
Note:
method is somehow limited for high number
of blade groups and large Hypoid offset
any modification of Hollow Cone modifies Bias
conditions on both flanks Drive / Coast similarly
profile crowning will be introduced as side effect
of modification in Bias
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Hollow Cone
for Face Hob FORM Cutting System

a condition of Bias OUT is introduced in generating
the pinion using a Generating Gear of reduced
number of teeth.
Hence, the Generating Gear does not represent
the actual mating gear anymore;
it is also referred to as Hollow Cone
Note:
method is somehow limited for high number
of blade groups and large Hypoid offset
any modification of Hollow Cone modifies Bias
conditions on both flanks Drive / Coast similarly
profile crowning will be introduced as side effect
of modification in Bias
[T1e_v10_WIR]
113
Hook Angles of Blades
for Face Hobbing Cutting System

a condition of Bias is introduced in case the cutting
edge is running in a plane NOT perpendicular to
the cutting direction.
as there is some cutting action at the tips of
blades, any amount of blade hook angle should be
positive; this condition introduces Bias Out to the
flanks of pinion and gear
u ()
Note:
with 2-face blades, a relatively small hook angle results
from the blade slot tilt angle of cutter and from the actual
blade pressure angle
with 3-face blades & large blade slot tilt angles, hook
angles can be selected intentionally
( limited by grinding restrictions)
in case of Face Milling methods the amount of
hook angle has got no influence at all to flank twist
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Lapping of Gears
4
2
control of lapping motions
resulting contact on test m/c
increased ratio of values V / H

Bias-In ratio for lapping motions
Bias-In tooth contact
increased lapping of :
toe root + heel tip of gear for COAST
toe tip + heel root of gear for DRIVE
more material is lapped off

in H positions 1-, 2+, 3+, 4 smoother tooth meshing,
smaller transmission error
[T1e_v10_WIR]
114
Lapping of Gears
4
2
control of lapping motions
resulting contact on Test m/c
decreased ratio of values V / H

Bias-Out ratio for lapping motions
Bias-Out tooth contact

more material is lapped off
in H positions 1+, 2-, 3-, 4+
increased lapping of :
toe tip + heel root of gear for COAST
toe root + heel tip of gear for DRIVE
harsher tooth meshing,

larger transmission error
[T1e_v10_WIR]
11. Calculation of Axial - and Radial Forces

11.1
General
11.2
Calculation of Components
11.3
Example:
11.4
Examples: Hypoid Gears
11.5
Main Direction of Deflections Drive Conditions
11.6
Main Direction of Deflections Coast Conditions
11.7
Determination of Gear Deflections under Load
Spiral Bevel Gears

W
R
W
)R
(x
M
T
B
[T1e_v10_WIR]
115
Axial- & Radial Forces:
General
based on the pinion input torque Md1 the

following forces result :
Note:
- positive values in direction of arrow

- for equations see following page
Fu1
Fu2
Tangential Force Pinion

Tangential Force R.Gear
Fa1
Axial Force Pinion

for DRIVE and COAST
Fr1
Radial Force Pinion

for DRIVE and COAST
Fa2
Axial Force R.Gear

for DRIVE and COAST
Fr2
Radial Force R.Gear

for DRIVE and COAST
Md
Fa2
Fr2
Fa1
Fu1
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Calculation
PINION (1)
(cx)
(cv)
RING GEAR (2)
n1(cx) n
n2 (cx) n
n1(cv) n
n2 (cv) n
2 1000 Md
Fu1
dm1
Tangential Force
Fa1
Fr2
Fu2
Pressure Angle
Pressure Angle
Fr1
Fu2 Fu1
cos m2
cos m1
Axial Force (Drive)

sin 1
tan m1 cos 1 )
cos m1
Fa2 (Drv) Fu2 (tan n2 (cx)
sin 2
tan m 2 cos 2 )
cos m2
sin 1
tan m1 cos 1 )
cos m1
Fa2 (Cst) Fu2 (tan n 2 (cv)
sin 2
tan m 2 cos 2 )
cos m 2
cos 1
tan m1 sin 1 )
cos m1
Fr2 (Drv) Fu2 (tan n 2 (cx)
cos 2
tan m2 sin 2 )
cos m2
cos 1
tan m1 sin 1 )
cos m1
Fr2 (Cst) Fu2 (tan n2 (cv)
cos 2
tan m2 sin 2 )
cos m2
Fa1(Drv) Fu1 (tan n1(cv)
Axial Force (Coast)

Fa1(Cst) Fu1 (tan n1(cx)
Radial Force (Drive)

Fr1(Drv) Fu1 (tan n1(cv)
Radial Force (Coast)

Fr1(Cst) Fu1 (tan n1(cx)
[T1e_v10_WIR]
116
Example 1 for Spiral Bevel Gear
pinion
ring gear
Number of Teeth
Offset / Pitch Diameter
Normal Module
Pitch Cone Angle
Mean Diameter
Spiral Angle
Nominal Pressure Angle
Pr. Angle Modification
Pressure Angle concave fl.
Pressure Angle convex fl.
z
av / d
mn
dm
m
n
n (cv)
n (cx)
Input Torque
Circumferencial Force
Md
Pu
650.00
32737.35
32737.35
[ Nm ]
[N]
AXIAL force
DRIVE
Fa (Drv)
21526.15
9119.79
[N]
Fa1(Drv) = Fr2 (Drv)
AXIAL force
COAST
10
43
[ -- ]
200.00 [ mm ]
[ mm ]
76.91
[]
170.77 [ mm ]
30.00
[]
[]
[]
20.00
[]
20.00
[]
0.00
3.44
13.09
39.71
30.00
20.00
0.00
20.00
20.00
Spiral Bevel with m=30
= for info only

= input
= result
Note: for Spiral Bevel gears there is:
Fa (Cst)
-15293.17
17682.45
[N]
Fa1(Cst) = Fr2 (Cst)
RADIAL force DRIVE
Fr (Drv)
9119.90
21526.19
[N]
Fr1(Drv) = Fa2 (Drv)
RADIAL force COAST
Fr (Cst)
17682.38
-15293.09
[N]
Fr1(Cst) = Fa2 (Cst)
Example 2 for Hypoid Gear
pinion
gear
Number of Teeth
Normal Module
Pitch Cone Angle
Mean Diameter
Spiral Angle
z
av / d
mn
dm
m
n
n (cv)
n (cx)
Input Torque
Md
Fu
650.00
27524.88
32540.41
[ Nm ]
[N]
AXIAL force
DRIVE
Fa (Drv)
28175.46
5748.55
[N]
AXIAL force
COAST
Fa (Cst)
-19619.23
20192.07
[N]
10
20
3.46
18.21
47.23
42.90
20.00
1.72
18.28
21.72
43
[ -- ]
200 [ mm ]
[ mm ]
71.34
[]
171.57 [ mm ]
30.00
[]
[]
[]
21.72
[]
18.28
[]
RADIAL force DRIVE
Fr (Drv)
3797.33
21770.88
[N]
RADIAL force COAST
Fr (Cst)
22211.29
-13010.65
[N]
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Hypoid with ...

small offset: 20mm
spiral angle gear: 30
= for info only
= input
= result
Note:
max. thrust = +30% of Spiral Bevel of
same ratio and dimensions (m=30)
[T1e_v10_WIR]
117
pinion
gear
Number of Teeth
Normal Module
Pitch Cone Angle
Mean Diameter
Spiral Angle
z
av / d
mn
dm
m
n
n (cv)
n (cx)
Input Torque
Md
Fu
650.00
23506.01
31264.99
[ Nm ]
[N]
AXIAL force
DRIVE
Fa (Drv)
29706.01
3626.89
[N]
AXIAL force
COAST
10
30
3..4707
21.55
55.31
49.38
20.00
2.34
17.66
22.34
43
[ -- ]
200 [ mm ]
[ mm ]
67.28
[]
172.32 [ mm ]
30.00
[]
[]
[]
22.34
[]
17.66
[]
Fa (Cst)
-20034.73
20659.62
[N]
RADIAL force DRIVE
Fr (Drv)
622.76
21088.23
[N]
RADIAL force COAST
Fr (Cst)
23866.50
-10918.51
[N]
Hypoid with ...

small offset: 30mm
spiral angle gear: 30
= for info only
= input
= result
Note:
max. thrust = +38% of Spiral Bevel of
same ratio and dimensions (m=30)
[T1e_v10_WIR]
pinion
ring gear
Number of Teeth
Normal Module
Pitch Cone Angle
Mean Diameter
Spiral Angle
z
av / d
mn
dm
m
n
n (cv)
n (cx)
Input Torque
Md
Fu
650.00
22727.27
32263.15
[ Nm ]
[N]
AXIAL force
DRIVE
Fa (Drv)
28834.42
2447.79
[N]
AXIAL force
COAST
Fa (Cst)
-18056.96
20620.75
[N]
10
40.00
3.68
24.61
57.20
50.00
20.00
4.05
15.95
24.05
43
[ -- ]
200.00 [ mm ]
[ mm ]
63.03
[]
173.26 [ mm ]
24.15
[]
[]
[]
24.05
[]
15.95
[]
Hypoid with relatively

large offset
large spiral angle on pinion
= for info only
= input
= result
RADIAL force DRIVE
Fr (Drv)
-2087.69
17475.96
[N]
Note:
max. thrust = +34% of Spiral Bevel
based on same ratio & dimensions
(Spiral angle gear is here smaller
than the previous Sp. Bevel Gear
RADIAL force COAST
Fr (Cst)
25621.22
-5736.15
[N]
radial thrust on pinion might get

negative for certain conditions
[T1e_v10_WIR]
118
Effects of Spiral and Pressure Angles
Pinion concave (DRIVE)
Baseline (100%):
Pinion convex (COAST)
Hypoid gearset
g.pitch dia. 200 mm
offset
40 mm
press. angle
22
gear sp.ang. 25.0
pinion sp.ang. 51.5
torque :
650 Nm
Axial Force
(>> alike to example 4)
Radial Force
Gear Spiral Angle

beta_m2 [ ]
legend:
Effects of Spiral and Pressure Angles
Gear convex (DRIVE)
Baseline (100%):
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Gear concave (COAST)
Hypoid gearset
g.pitch dia. 200 mm
offset
40 mm
press. angle
22
gear sp.ang. 25.0
pinion sp.ang. 51.5
torque :
650 Nm
Axial Force
(>> alike to example 4)
legend:
Radial Force
Gear Spiral Angle

beta_m2 [ ]
[T1e_v10_WIR]
119
Driving ( L1/R2)
Case 1:
L.H. pinion + R.H. ring gear
meshing flanks : pinion CONCAVE
with : r.gear CONVEX
resulting effects:
pinion displacement in direction
perpendicular to tangent of flanks
decreasing offset (V-)
increasing pinion mounting distance
axial thrust is pushing pinion in direction
towards the main bearing
favorable condition!
V
H+
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Coasting ( L1/R2 )
Case 2:
L.H. pinion + R.H. ring gear
meshing flanks : pinion CONVEX
with : r.gear CONCAVE
resulting effects:
increasing offset (V+)
decreasing pinion mounting distance
axial thrust is pulling pinion in
direction off the main bearing
unfavorable condition!
V+
H
[T1e_v10_WIR]
120
Driving ( R1/L2 )
Case 3:
R.H. pinion + L.H. ring gear
meshing flanks : pinion CONCAVE
with : r.gear CONVEX
resulting effects:
decreasing offset (V+) !
increasing pinion mounting distance
axial thrust is pushing pinion in direction
towards the main bearing
favorable condition!
V+
H+
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Coasting ( R1/L2 )
Case 4:
R.H. pinion + L.H. ring gear
meshing flanks : pinion CONVEX
with : r.gear CONCAVE
resulting effects:
increasing offset (V-)
decreasing pinion mounting distance
axial thrust is pulling pinion in
direction off the main bearing
unfavorable condition!
V
H
[T1e_v10_WIR]
121
Determination of Deflections of the Gear Set under Load

Deflections of gears, shafts, bearings and carrier itself due to forces appearing under
load are generally not known. This information therefore needs either to be established
with relatively elaborate methods of measurement (A) or to be calculated (B)
A) Deflection Test
The effective or relative displacements
of pinion and gear can be measured on
an axle test rig in loaded, quasi static
conditions (i.e. at extremely low rpm)
For this purpose the gear members as
well as the carrier need to be modified
in a way that the displacements and
distortions can be measured at points
significant for respective distortions in
all 3 directions V, H and J
[T1e_v10_WIR]

With an experimentally performed tests the displacements of 2 passenger car gears
of identical ratio and dimensions have been compared in 2 different carriers
Deflection Test
carrier in GTS
carrier in ALU
Lines of deflection
read-out of measurement
values for load conditions:
Md = 0, 25, 50, 75 & 100%
pinion input torque [Nm]
[T1e_v10_WIR]
122

Deflection Test
200
150
The collected and compiled results

allow to conclude the effective amount
of deflections and the required BIAS
characteristic of the gear set
respectively
100
SCHUB (GTS)
50
ZUG
(GTS)
SCHUB (ALU)
ZUG
-50
(ALU)
-100
-150
0
25
50
75
100
Drehmoment in %
relative displacements V (vertical)

Ausfhrung GTS
ZUG
SCHUB
V
-60
80
H
45
-30
J
-50
490
V/H
1.33
2.67
ZUG
SCHUB
-75
105
60
-40
-55
670
1.25
2.63
in m
Drehmoment
am Ritzel
200
540 Nm
150
670 Nm
100
ZUG
50
Ausfhurung ALU
ZUG
SCHUB
V
-100
130
H
85
-80
J
-50
660
V/H
1.18
1.63
ZUG
SCHUB
-125
150
140
-80
-55
855
0.89
1.88
in m
-50
540 Nm
-100
ZUG
Drehmoment
am Ritzel
(ALU)
SCHUB (ALU)
670 Nm
(GTS)
SCHUB (GTS)
25
50
75
100
Drehmoment in %
relative displacements H (horizontal)
[T1e_v10_WIR]

B) Calculation of Displacements acc. to BECAL (KIMoS)
The TCA (Tooth Contact Analysis) under load acc. to BECAL offers the opportunity
to calculate the deflection under load in directions V, H and J in relation to the
entered torque. In addition to the specification of the gear set and the respective
EaseOff, for this purpose the so-called environment needs to be known and
specified. The calculations are based on BEM or so-called Boundary Elements
Method.
The term Environment stands for
the description or modeling of the following:
- diameters and lengths of
stepped segments of shafts
- dimensions, specifications, arrangements
and pre-load of roller type bearings
Note:
the influence of the stiffness of gear

carrier is NOT considered with this method !
[T1e_v10_WIR]
123

Calculation of Displacements
acc. to BECAL (KIMoS)
there are calculated:

lines and total amount of
deflections
flank pressures of the
loaded tooth contact
root bending stresses
[T1e_v10_WIR]

C) Calculation of Displacements with ROMAX DESIGNER Software
Starting with version v2.10 KIMoS offers the opportunity of an interface to export all
relevant dimensions Spiral Bevel- or Hypoid gear design to ROMAX.
ROMAX DESIGNER then is used to complete the modeling of the complete gear set
including shafts, bearings, differential and the arrangement of the carrier. Based on
established forces, displacements under load are calculated and re-imported back
into KIMoS for the purpose of L TCA
[T1e_v10_WIR]
124
12. Influence of Cutter Diameter

12.1
Application of Small Cutter Diameter
12.2
Application of Large Cutter Diameter
12.3
Displacement of TCP for Small Cutter Diameter
12.4
Displacement of TCP for Medium Cutter Diameter
12.5
Displacement of TCP for Large Cutter Diameter
12.6
Example: Displacement of TCP in comparison
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Application of SMALL Cutter Diameter:

Face Milling
rectangular case:
the Radial S and the tangent to tooth at mean point are parallel
this case is possible but rarely applied as it is difficult to manufacture;
smallest recommended cutter radius is
rc > 1.1 Rm sin m
view to Generating Gear
(vertical tangent to tooth)
view to cutter (cutting Hypoid pinion L.H.)

Note: cutter is located behind the pinion)
S
m
Rm
rc = Ds/2 = Rm x sinm
[T1e_v10_WIR]
125
Application of
SMALL Cutter Diameter:
Face Milling
for horizontal H+ displacement
TCP moves towards:
tip and heel for Coast
tip and toe
for Drive
for vertical V+ displacement
TCP moves towards:
tip and toe
for Drive
the directions of vertical and
horizontal displacement almost
converge in the rectangular case
-V
-H
+H
+V
+H
-H
-V
+V
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Application of Small Cutter Diameter:

Face Hobbing
rectangular case can more easily be applied than with Face Milling methods,
however, special location of contact position is required to allow TCP to utilize
full length of flanks under load.
(tangent to tooth vertical)

Note: cutter is behind pinion)
rbm = Rm x sin m
Rm
[T1e_v10_WIR]
126
Application of
SMALL Cutter Diameter:
Face Hobbing
very low sensitivity, stable contact
even for large deflections of pinion &
gear under heavy load
V- / H+ or V+ / H- directions
compensate each other
R.H. gear / L.H. pinion
strong tooth due small length

curvature with max. normal module
near to the calculation point
lapping abilities somewhat limited as
lapping takes place in diagonal
direction along the face width only
-V
-H
+V
V+
V-
+H
-H
+V
+H
V+
3
-V
V-
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Application of SMALL Cutter Diameter :

Face Hobbing
Comparison of directions of displacement:

pinion: L.H. / gear: R.H.
-H
V-
+H
V+
pinion: R.H. / gear: L.H.
V+
V-
-V
-V
+V
+H
+V
+H
+H
-H
V+
-H
V-
V-
V+
3
+V
-H
-V
1
+V
note: to perform a V/H check is NOT possible!

[T1e_v10_WIR]
127
Face Milling
Displacement Directions small cutters
10:41-200/25 Arcon(II)12-5 Rinv/Re= 0.931
Face Hobbing
10:41-200/25 Spiron(II)11-51
rw = 63.6 mm
Rinv/Re= 0.868
rbm = 47.2 mm
DUPLEX
Completing
The tool radius for this example design

is merely rw = 1.25 R m sin m
and hence afar of the 90 case.
The tool radius for this example design

is rw = 1.1 Rm sin m
corresponds practically to 90 case!!
Though a problem is getting apparent

with the tendency of large and small
length crowing between tip and root
The EaseOff allows to design without

problems & additional correction effects
note: smaller crowning LB & HB !

[T1e_v10_WIR]
Face Milling
Displacement Direction V small cutter
10:41-200/25 Arcon(II)12-5 R inv/Re= 0.931
Face Hobbing
10:41-200/25 Spiron(II)11-51
R inv/Re= 0.868
V+0.30
V+0.30
V+
V-
V-
V-0.30
V+
V-
V+
V-0.30
[T1e_v10_WIR]
128
Face Milling
Displacement Directions H small cutter
10:41-200/25 Arcon(II)12-5 R inv/Re= 0.931
Face Hobbing
10:41-200/25 Spiron(II)11-51
H+0.20
H+0.30
H+
H-
H-
H+
H+
H+
H-
H-
H-0.30
H-0.20
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Face Milling
Displacement Directions V+H small cutter
10:41-200/25 Arcon(II)12-5 R inv/Re= 0.931
Face Hobbing
10:41-200/25 Spiron(II)11-51
H+
V+
V
H-
H-
H+
H- V-
V-0.30 H+0.3
R inv/Re= 0.868
V+0.30 H-0.3
V+0.30 H-0.3
V-
R inv/Re= 0.868
H+
V+
H-V-
H+
V+
V-0.30 H+0.3
[T1e_v10_WIR]
129
Application of LARGE Cutter Diameter:

Face Milling

[T1e_v10_WIR]
Application of
LARGE Cutter Diameter:
Face Milling
for horizontal H+ displacement
TCP moves towards:
tip and toe
for Coast
tip and heel for Drive
for vertical V+ displacement
TCP moves towards:
tip and toe
for Drive
-V
with large cutter diameter, the

directions of vertical and horizontal
displacement diverge
+H
-H
-H
+V
+V
+H
-V
[T1e_v10_WIR]
130
Application of LARGE Cutter Diameter :

Face Milling

-V

VH+
+V
V+
H-
+H
-V
2
+H
2
+H
+V
V+
H+
VH-
-H
-H
+H
-H
3
+V
-V
V+
H-
VH+
-H
V+
H+
VH-
+V
-V
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Application of LARGE Cutter Diameter:

Face Hobbing

[T1e_v10_WIR]
131
Application of
LARGE Cutter Diameter:
Face Hobbing
sensitivity of contact for V/H
deflections increases with the cutter
radius
Point of Involute (i.e. point of largest
normal module) is located off the
heel
R.H. gear / L.H. pinion
-V
VH+
+V
4
V- / H+ or V+ / H- directions
are adding to each other
+H
-H
+H
good lapping abilities as lapping area

can be moved to either tip-/rootposition at toe and heel
-H
3
V+
H-
+V
-V
V+
H-
VH+
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Application of LARGE Cutter Diameter :

Face Hobbing
VH+
+V
-V

V+
H-
+H
-H
V+
H+
VH-
-V
+V
+H
+H
-H
+H
-H
-H
3
+V
-V
V+
H-
VH+
1
3
V+
H+
VH-
+V
-V
[T1e_v10_WIR]
132
Face Milling
Face Hobbing
direction of displacement
r c = Ds/2
rb m
+V
-V
-V
+V
+H
+H
-H
+H
+H
-H
-H
-H
+V
+V
-V
-V
Note: different direction of contact

displacement for H (horizontal)
actual radius = Ds/2
Face Milling
Note: actual radius rbm < Ds/2

(= instantaneous radius of
length length curve at mean point)
Displacement Directions large cutters
10:41-200/25 Arcon(II)16-7.5 Rinv/Re=1.24
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Face Hobbing
10:41-200/25 Spiron(II)17-88 Rinv/Re =1.08
rw = 95.25 mm
rbm = 66.4 mm
In order to allow a direct comparison of tooth contact displacements between the two
cutting methods, EaseOff parameters for an example design are calculated identically
Exemplary the tooth contact for both designs is placed in the center of tooth width and
profile; the amount of length- & profile crowning as well as twist are assumed identical
note:
this does not represent a generally or practically required

position of a NOMINAL tooth contact for this application
[T1e_v10_WIR]
133
Face Milling
Displacement Directions V large cutters
10:41-200/25 Arcon(II)16-7.5 Rinv/Re =1.24
Face Hobbing
10:41-200/25 Spiron(II)17-88 Rinv/Re=1.08
V +0.35
V +0.35
V+
V+
V-
V-
V+
V+
V-
V-
V -0.35
Face Milling
V -0.35
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Displacement Directions H large cutters
10:41-200/25 Arcon(II)16-7.5 Rinv/Re =1.24
Face Hobbing
10:41-200/25 Spiron(II)17-88 Rinv/Re=1.08
H +0.35
H+
H +0.35
H+
H-
H+
H-
H-
H -0.33
H+
H-
H -0.35
[T1e_v10_WIR]
134
Face Milling
Displacement Directions V+H large cutters
10:41-200/25 Arcon(II)16-7.5 Rinv/Re =1.24
Face Hobbing
10:41-200/25 Spiron(II)17-88 Rinv/Re=1.08
V+0.30 H-0.30
H+
V-
V+
H-
H+
V+0.30 H-0.30
V+
H+
V-
H-
V+
VH-
H-
V-0.30 H+0.30
V-0.30 H+0.30
H+
V+
V-
Direction of TCP Displacement: general
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Face Hobbing
The directions of tooth contact displacements shown in previous pages do not only
depend on the relative tool diameter or the position of the Point of Involute respectively,
TCP displacements depend also on the initial position of TCP.
This characteristic can apparently be recognized for gears designed with medium size
tool diameter like Rinv /Re = ca. 0.85 1.05
The direction of displacement V (vertical) is generally independent from the position
of N-point as well as from the initial TCP; the vertical directions stretch for all
applications at almost identical inclinations slightly diagonal across the flanks
The inclination of the direction of displacement H (horizontal) becomes increasingly
more leveled the closer the initial TCP is positioned towards the heel.
With a TCP in close proximity to the Point of Involute, the directions of displacement
resembles that of a gear designed with relatively small tool diameter
the described tendency for the direction of displacement H (horizontal) appears
more distinctively on the Coast flank as it does on the Drive flank >> see page 270
[T1e_v10_WIR]
135
Direction of Displacement: V+H medium size cutters

10:41-200/25 Spiron(II)13-76 Rinv/Re= 0.99
Face Hobbing
Tooth Contact in MEAN Position
V+0.30
V+
V-
H+0.30
V+
H+
V-
H-
H+
H-
MEAN position
V0.30
H0.30
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Direction of Displacement: H medium size cutters

10:41-200/25 Spiron(II)13-76 Rinv/Re= 0.99
Face Hobbing
TCP in TOE or HEEL position
H+0.30
H+
H-
H+
H-
H+
H+
H-
TOE position
HHEEL position
H0.30
[T1e_v10_WIR]
136
Displacement under Load (schematically):

no load condition:
small cutter
deflection under load:

position of contact is stable
=
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Displacement of TCP under Load :
small cutter
contact at no load condition:
deflection of contact under load:
DRIVE: center position

COAST: center-to-heel position
DRIVE: contact spreads evenly

COAST: contact spreads more to toe
position of contact is stable
[T1e_v10_WIR]
137
Displacement under Load (schematically): medium cutter

no load condition:

contact moves slightly to heel
=
Displacement under Load (schematically):

no load condition:
[T1e_v10_WIR]
large cutter

pos. of contact moves to heel
=
[T1e_v10_WIR]
138
Displacement of TCP under Load:
large cutter
contact at no load condition:
deflection of contact under load:
DRIVE: toe position

COAST: toe position
DRIVE: contact spreads to heel

COAST: contact spreads to heel
position of contact moves to heel
[T1e_v10_WIR]
thank you for your attention !
[T1e_v10_WIR]
139
.... and finally lets repeat the

very, very basics of gearing !
[T1e_v10_WIR]
... an amusing introduction to the world of gearing expressions:

M
Z
P.C.D.
C.P.
D.P.
HK
HF
c
Gear Rhymes :
Bramley-Moore
Sanderson Brothers Pty.Ltd.
Thomastown, Australia
Illustrations
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
Module
Number of Teeth
Pitch Circle Diameter
Circular pitch
Diametral Pitch
Addendum
Dedendum
Clearance
published :
Charles Cooper
Robert Wirthlin
GEARTECHNOLOGY
Magazin / Sept.2000
Oerlikon Geartec
[T1e_v10_WIR]
140
Those who belong to the trade Engineering

and wish for success, they m u s t understand gearing;
Wherever you go where machinerys fixed,
you are bound to find gear wheels, all sizes, all mixed.
Diameters then shall be called letter D.

It shortens the word, so I hope you agree.
Big D is measured right over the teeth,
Pitch D is measured a little beneath.
[T1e_v10_WIR]
D
P.C.D.
[T1e_v10_WIR]
141
From one tooth to the next, if measured it be,

along the Pitch Circle and not on Big D
will give us the Circular Pitch of the gear,
a word you will probably frequently hear.
The number of teeth in a gear wheel, you see,
depends on the Circular pitch and Pitch D.
C.P.
P.C.D.
M
Z
Evas showing the

Pitch of the gear!
[T1e_v10_WIR]
If two are but known, you can find out the third
with the help of a rather peculiar word.
PI it is called, a valuable key,
three-point-one-four-one-and-six it must be!
M
If you are given Circular Pitch an the Teeth,
put these on top and put PI underneath.
Work out this fraction and you will obtain
the answer Pitch D. Now let me explain
that if you require any other relation,
its easily got from this simple equation.
P.C.D.
P.C.D. C.P.
C.P. Z
[T1e_v10_WIR]
142
If Pitch D and PI are both multiplied,

to get Circular Pitch, by Teeth you divide.
Reverse the last two, and the answer will be
the Number of Teeth in the gear wheel, you see.
P.C.D.
Z
P.C.D.
Z
C.P.
C.P.
The height from Pitch D to the top of the tooth

is called the Addendum, its really the roof.
To reckon Addendum you just specify
the Circular Pitch and divide it by PI.
HK
[T1e_v10_WIR]
Now the Circular Pitch should not be confused

with more simple method more frequently used.
Diametral is better than Circular Pitch,
the figures are shorter, no chance of a hitch.
Let us call it D.P., it saves waste of time,
its not only correct but it is easier to rhyme.
It gets over the use of those troublesome PIs ;
moreover its value once signifies
the Number of Teeth for each inch of Pitch D.
Large D.P. means size of teeth becomes wee.
C.P.
M
D.P.
Z
P.C.D.
D.P.
D.P.
[T1e_v10_WIR]
143
The Number of Teeth over D.P. will at once

give the answer Pitch D, unless youre a dunce.
The other way round, Teeth - over Pitch D,
will obviously give you the answer D.P.
P.C.D.
Z
D.P.
Z P .C.D. D .P .
1
D.P .
0 .25 ...
c
D.P .
HK
For Number of Teeth, now kindly take heed,
use Pitch D and D.P. its their product you need.
For Addendum you take one, and divide by D.P.
from this you can easily work out Big D.
If it is the clearance youre anxious to know,
write point-two-five-and-something, with D.P. below.
To convert D.P. in circular measure

it so easily done that its really a pleasure.
Divide PI by D.P. , that is all you need do.
The thing is so simple it hardly seems true!
If you want to convert these the other way

round,
the answer is quickly and easily found.
Divide PI by the Circular Pitch and you then
get the answer D.P. with the stroke of a pen.
[T1e_v10_WIR]
D.P.
C.P.
C.P.
D.P.
[T1e_v10_WIR]
144

APUNTES - GLEASSON - Basics of Spiral Bevel & Hypoid Gears

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APUNTES - GLEASSON - Basics of Spiral Bevel & Hypoid Gears

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Spiral Bevel and Hypoid

Gear Cutting Systems:

[Basics of Bevel Gears] Slide 1

Basics of Spiral Bevel and Hypoid Gears

Application and Classification of Bevel Gears

Gear Cutting Systems

Gear Geometry and Basic Definitions

Hypoid Offset and Hand of Spiral

Face Milling / Face Hobbing Cutting System in Comparison

Basics of Continuous Indexing

Particularities of Epycycloide Tooth Length Curvature

Face Hobbing: Generating - / FORM - Cutting System

The Ease Off

10. Bias / Tooth Twist

11. Calculation of Radial- & Axial Forces

12. The Influence of Cutter Diameter

[Basics of Bevel Gears] Slide 2

Application and Classification of Bevel Gears

Application of Spiral Bevel Gears

1.1.1 Type of Axle Design

tooth length curvature

methods to apply length crowning

Klingelnberg AG Training Center

[Basics of Bevel Gears] Slide 3

Application of Spiral Bevel Gears :

Klingelnberg AG Training Center

[Basics of Bevel Gears] Slide 4

Application of Spiral Bevel Gears :

As mentioned, Spiral Bevel and Hypoid gears - in particular those manufactured in

[Basics of Bevel Gears] Slide 5

Application of Spiral Bevel Gears :

Other non-automotive applications could be for example ...

[Basics of Bevel Gears] Slide 6

Application of Spiral Bevel Gears :

the torque is increased by the ratio

Klingelnberg AG Training Center

[Basics of Bevel Gears] Slide 7

Application of Spiral Bevel Gears :

Hypoid Gearset with Differential

[Basics of Bevel Gears] Slide 8

Application of Spiral Bevel Gears :

Type of Axle Designs

Spiral Bevel- & Hypoid gears

Type of Axle Design:

[Basics of Bevel Gears] Slide 9

for Passenger Cars, VANs & light Trucks

.... here shown in form of an

[Basics of Bevel Gears] Slide 10

Type of Axle Design:

for Passenger Cars, VANs & light Trucks

.... here shown in form of rigid or

Klingelnberg AG Training Center

Type of Axle Design:

[Basics of Bevel Gears] Slide 11

for Passenger Cars, VANs & light Trucks

Klingelnberg AG Training Center

[Basics of Bevel Gears] Slide 12

Type of Axle Design:

for Passenger Cars, VANs & light Trucks

the axle carrier is split in a plane parallel

the pre-assembled unit is mounted in the axle;

Banjo type of axles are sometimes

Klingelnberg AG Training Center