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The Theory
of the Novel
A historico-philosophical
essay on the forms of
great epic literature
Translated by Anna Bostock
II
The Theory
of the
Novel
A historico-philosophical essay on the forms of great epic literature
by
GEORG LUKA9S
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN BY
ANNA BOSTOCK
1968
Translation
ISBN
ISBN
1971
201918171615
TRANSLATOR'S NOTE
Preface
Contents
If
I
The forms of great epic literature examined in
relation to whether the civilisation of .rhe time is an
integrated or a problematic'one
I
Integrated civilisations
The structure of the world of ancient Greece
Its historico-philosophical development
Christianity
.
29
40
70
84
II
Attempt at a typology of the novel form
I
Abstract idealism
The two principal types
Don Quixote
Its relationship to the chivalrous epic
The successors of Don Quixote
(a) the tragedy of abstract idealism
(b) the modem humorous novel and its prob
lematic
Balzac
Pontoppidan's Hans im GlUck
97
12
attempted synthesis
132
The problem
The idea of social community and its form in
literature
The world of the novel of education and the
romanticism of reality
Novalis
Goethe's attempt at a solution and the overlapping
of the novel form into the epiC'
155
Index of subjects
158
Preface
THE FIRST draft of this study was written in the summer of
1914 and the final version in the winter of 1914-15. It first
appeared in Max Dessoir's Zeitschrift fiir Aesthetik und
Allgemeine Kunstwissenschaft in 1916 and was published in
book form by P. Cassirer, Berlin, in 1920.
The immediate motive for writing was supplied by the out
break of the First World War and 'he effect which its
acclamation by the social-democratic parties had upon the
European left. My own deeply personal attitude was one of
vehement, global and, especially at th beginning, scarcely
articulate rejection of the war and especially of enthusiasm for
the war. I recall a conversation with Frau Marianne Weber in
the late autumn of 1914. She wanted t-o challenge-my attitude
by telling me of individual, concrete acts of heroism. My
only reply was: 'The better the worse!' When I tried at this
time to put my emotional attitude into conscious terms, I
arrived at more or less the following formulation: the Central
Powers would probably defeat Russia; this might lead to the
downfall of Tsarism; I had no objection to that. There was
also some probability that the West would defeat Germany;
if this led to the downfall of the Hohenzollerns and the
Hapsburgs, I was once again in favour. But then the question
arose: who was to save us from Western civilisation? (The
prospect of final victory by the Germany of that time was to
me nightmarish.)
Such was the mood in which the first draft of The Theory
of the Novel was written. At first it was meant to take the
form of a series of dialogues: a group of young people with
draw from the war psychosis of their environment, just as
I I
PREFACE
12
PREFACE.
13
PREFACE
PREFACE
'intellectual science' and does not point the way beyond its
methodological limitations. Yet its success (Thomas Mann
and Max Weber were among those who read it with ap
proval) was not purely accidental. Although rooted in the
'intellectual sciences' approach, this book shows, within the
given limitations, certain new features which were to
acquire significance in the light of later developments. We
have already pointed out that the author of The Theory of
the Novel had become a Hegelian. The older leading repre
sentatives of the 'intellectual sciences' method based them
selves on Kantian philosophy and were not free from traces
of positivism; this was particularly true of Dilthey. An attempt
to overcome the flat rationalism of te positivists nearly
always meant a step in the direction of irrationalism; this ap
plies especially to Simmel, but also to Dilthey himself. It is
true that the Hegelian revival had already begun several years
before the outbreak of the war. But whatever was of serious
scientific interest in that revival was largely confined to the
sphere of logic or of the general theory of science. So far as
I am aware, The Theory of the Novel was the first work
belonging to the 'intellectual sciences' school in which the
findings of Hegelian philosophy were concretely applied to
aesthetic problems. The first, general part of the book is
essentially determined by Hegel, e.g. the comparison of
modes of totality in epic and dramatic art, the historico
philosophical view of what the epic and the novel have in
common and of what differentiates them, etc. But the author
of The Theory of the Novel was not an exclusive or ortho
dox Hegelian; Goethe's and Schiller's analyses, certain con
ceptions of Goethe's in his late period (e.g. the demonic), the
young Friedrich Schlegel's and Solger's aesthetic theories
(irony as a modem method of form-giving), fill out and
concretise the general Hegelian outline.
Perhaps a still more important legacy of Hegel is the his
toricisation of aesthetic categories. In the sphere of aesthetics,
_
IS
PREFACE
PREFACE
PREFACE
18
PREFACE
PREFACE
Thomas Mann's later development, as early as in the 1920S,
justifies his own description of this work: 'It is a retreating
action fought in the grand manner, the last and latest stand
of a German romantic bourgeois mentality, a battle fought
with full awareness of its hopelessness . . . even with insight
into the spiritual unhealthiness and immorality of any sym
pathy with that which is doomed to death'.
No trace of such a mood is to be found in the author of The
20
PRE F A C E
21
PREFACE
22
PREFACE
23
!
Dedicated to Yelena Andreyevna Grabenko
Integrated Civilisations
HAPPY ARE those ages when the starry sky is the map of all
INTEGRATED CIVILISATIONS
all that is necessary is to find the locus that has been pre
destined for each individual. Error, here, can only be a matter
of too much or too little, only a failure of measure or insight.
For knowledge is only the raising of a veil, creation only the
copying of visible and eternal essences, virtue a perfect know
ledge of the paths; and what is alien to meaning is so only
because its distance from meaning is too great.
It is a homogeneous world, and even the separation between
man and world, between'!' and 'you', cannot disturb its
homogeneity. Like every other component of this rhythm,
the soul stands in the midst of the world; the frontier that
Jl
INTEGRATED CIVILISATIONS
that is
34
INTEGRATED CIVILISATIONS
can life become essential? But the answer ripened into a ques
tion only when the substance had retreated to a far horizon.
Only when tragedy had supplied the creative answer to the
question: how can essence come alive? did men become aware
that life as it was (the notion of life as it should be cancels
out life) had lost the immanence of the essence. In form-giving
destiny and in the hero who, creating himself, finds himself,
pure essence awakens to life, mere life sinks into not-being
taken the almost extinguished torch from his hands and kindled
it anew. And Plato's new man, the wise man with his active
unmask the tragic hero but also illuminates the dark peril the
hero has vanquished; Plato's new wise man, by surpassing the
hero, transfigures him. This new wise man, however, was the
last type of man and his world was the last paradigmatic life
yet they bore no fruit; the world became Greek in the course
of time, but the Greek spirit, in that sense, has become less
INTEGRATED CIVILISATIONS
Pisano, St. Thomas and St. Francis, the world became round
once more, a totality capable of being taken in at a glance;
the chasm lost the threat inherent in its actual depth; its
this way brought near and given visible form. The Last
For the first time, but also for the last. Onc!! this unity
old unity was certainly exhausted; but the river beds, now
dry beyond all hope, have marked forever the face of the
earth.
forget that art is only one sphere among many, and that the
very disintegration and inadequacy of the world is the pre
manifest itself, they must create by their own power alone the
pre-conditions for such effectiveness-an object and its en
to the point where they can encompass it, or else they must
INTEGRATED CIVILISATIONS
sary object and the inner nullity of their own means. And in
this case they carry the fragmentary nature of the world's
structure into the world of forms..
39
however, on the
may happen that the change affects only the object and the
detail,
they
the
original
form-giving
in the all-determining
a priori
a priori.
the dramatic action, heavy with the weight of, life-so that
will anneal them into heroes free of human dross. In this way
the condition of the hero has become polemical and problem43
vanished
forever :
while
Zolaesque
monumentality
le
upon the work itself : it is, more ' or less, lyrical in nature.
The relativity of the independence and the mutual bonds
aIS
lt
le
T,
.e
:t
r
a
obj ect,
is
the lyricism
i
i
THE THEOR Y OF T HE N O V E L
ust
'
.,
s
s
55
intentions
but
by
the
given
historico
.'
THE E P I C A N D T HE N O V E.L
verse transform such moments into the true level of life. And
so the effect of verse is here the opposite just because its
cendent.
Distance in the ordinary world of life is extended to the
T HE E P I C A N D T HE N O V EL
IS
THE THEO R Y OF T HE N O V EL
priori
62
T H E E P I C A N D T H E N O V EL
T HE E P I C A N D THE N O V EL
The nature of laws and the nature of moods stem from the
real, dissolves the whole outside world in! mood, and itself
becomes mood by virtue of the inexorable identity of essence
between the contemplative subject and its object. The desire
to know a world cleansed of all wanting and all willing trans
66
T H E EPIC A N D THE N O V E L
to trans
the epic their content; the epic hero, as bearer of his destiny,
68
THE E P I C
r
ts
Ie
1-
)t
IC
Ie
re
Ie
:::t
c,
r
IS
)
Ie
Ie
1-
:h
es
Ie
Ie
al
1-
ld
e.
:s,
:h
)-
A N D T H E N O V EL
'
T HE I N N ER FORM OF T HE N O V EL
1
,
t1
[)
:l
:l
Ll
:l
e
f
tl
e
;,
t1
f
.s
7I
Art always says 'And yet ! ' to life. The creation of forms
72
THE I N N ER FORM OF T HE N O V E L
,e
.e
point, the novel is the most hazardous genre, and why it has
1-
5.
It
r
1-
e
:s
e
:-
.s
s
the entertainment
novel, which has all the outward features of the novel but
which, in essence, is bound to nothing and based on nothing,
i.e. is entirely meaningless. Other genres, where being is
treated as already attained, cannot have such a caricatural
twin because the extra-artistic element of its creation can
never be disguised even for a mom en,; whereas with the
novel, because of the regulative, hidden nature of the effective
binding and forming ideas, because of the apparent resem
blance of empty animation to a process whose ultimate con
tent cannot be rationalised, superficial likeness can almost
e
s
s
lead to the caricature being mistaken for the real thing. But
a closer look will always, in any
. concrete case, reveal the
caricature for what it is.
Other arguments used to deny the genuinely artistic nature
of the novel likewise enjoy only a semblance of truth-not
S
S
f
1
t
stricter, still more inviolable artistic laws for itself than do the
73
power in the world if men did not sometimes fall prey to the
more indefinable and unformulable they are in their very
essence : they are laws of tact. Tact and taste, in themselves
subordinate categories which belong wholly to the sphere of
mere life and are irrelevant to an essential ethical world, here
acquire great constitutive significance : only through them is
subjectivity, at the beginning of the novel's totality and at
its end, capable of maintaining itself in equilibrium, of posit
ing itself as epically normative objectivity and thus of sur
mounting abstraction, the inherent danger of the novel form.
This danger can also be formulated in another way : where
ethic has to carry the structure of a form as a matter of
and their
novellas in
basis of the whole, the basis which holds the entire work
side world is due, in the last analysis, to the fact that any
a lifetime, and its direction and scope are given with its
normative content, the way towards a man's recognition of
himself. The inner shape of the process and the most adequate
80
:he
he
it
.ly
ed
:er
m
o
le
lIt
le
:h
is
.y
[s
lr
:e
'e
:s
a
:,
:1
j
I
1
,
84
'
ze
:>f
,Ie
:1-
ts
19
)-
se
Te
tIl
1-
le
al
.n
e.
o
If
.e
If
If
n
n
n
o
;s
f
found. This vain search and then the resignation with which
and more painful his need to set this most essential creed of
all literature as a demand against life, the more deeply and
painfully he must learn to understand that it is only a demand
gods,
and
gods
whose
kingdom
is
not
yet,
so
nt
ld
ty
Id
ly
Lt,
.e,
w
e
Ld
er
ll,
e,
d,
1e
ld
.y
:h
Le
1S
e
y
e,
:11
TS
.d
t,
.0
l',
T H E T H EORY OF T H E N O V EL
that the
his soul and therefore does not know any hostile reality :
everything exterior is, for him, merely an expression of a pre
determined and adequate destiny. Therefore the dramatic
hero does not set out to prove himself : he is a hero because
88
:re'
ld
:e
re
:d
)
at
Jt
)f
19
Ie
m
)-
e,
lt
Ie '
5-
e.
if
IS
.0
It
n
:t
"e
d
'S
I
e
d
:-
c
e
to essence, is unavoidable :
NO V E L
and gods that are to come; irony has to seek the only world
)y
(.
,f
e
r
tl
is why it is
for a true,
makes that
of our age :
93
' .
II
ATTEMPT AT A TYPOLOGY OF
THE NOVEL FORM
Abstract Idealism
THE ABANDONMENT of the world by God manifests itself
distances as realities.
97
A B S TRACT I DEAL I S
Ise
Iv!
if
Ip,
cry
e:
real. And this is the action of the novel. The novel's discreteheterogeneous nature is revealed here with maximum vivid-
lb-
)she
ed
;es
er;
he
an
th'
ve
he
of
its
IS
ry
at
he
ty
ed
he
'0 -
pe
Ill .
le
ue
he
ut
its
n-
the
from all those other areas of the soul which have not been
<.
AB S TRACT IDEAL I S M
ml)
os
the
Jut
ists
ity
-hy
the
ied
:Ifnes
an
]se
ne.
elf
:an
lll
un
ed
)le
nd
en
ed
b:iSS
of
ed
)n
de
ISS
nt
d-
ItS
101
T Il E T II E O R Y O F T H E N O V E L
metaformal
grace;
distance,
losing
its
A B S TRACT I DE A L I S
ly
ho
Ily
ate
rc
10-
tty
Ig.
ng
by
its
nt,
lke
!ly
"Y-
la
tal
)w
ife
10I !!
:he
:ed
es,
of
,ed
redeeming word.
; a
ms
as
meaning and substance only in his own soul, whose home was
od
Ito
fe,
it
forsake the world; when man became lonely and could find
A B S TR ACT I D E AL I S M
as
w
Ig
Ie
>d
m
In
.sat
!d
ld
::e
to
Ie
Ie
ld
le
19
I
I
le
:y
.y
e
le
:0
IS
le
P
11
:r
pathology, so that the epic form had to. become that of the
novella. In this form, as in any dramatic form-giving, the
profound interpenetration of the sublime and the grotesque
must give place to the purely sublime : the monomania is so
acute, the abstraction so extreme, the idealism inevitably
becomes so thin, so contentless, so generalised, that the
characters move very near the frontier of unconscious comedy
1 05
A B S TR ACT
'{
I D EAL I S M
NOVEL
A B S T R A C T I D E A L I S M.
T H E T H EO R Y O F T H E N O V E L
A ll S T R A C T
IDEAL! S
III
ity and the outside world even stronger. When the interiority
is like a cosmos, it is self-sufficient, at rest within itself.
Whereas abstract idealism, in order to exist at all, had to
translate itself into action, had to enter into conflict with the
T HE
RO M A N T I C I S M OF D I S I LL U S I O N M E N T
of their
hero's life and the novel's action. In the type of novel which
we are now considering, all the relationships have ceased
to exist from the start. The elevation of interiority to the
status of a completely independent world is not only a
psychological fact but also a decisive value judgement
on reality; this self-sufficiency of the subjective self is
its most desperate self-defence; it is the abandonment of
any struggle to realise the soul in the outside world, a
struggle which is seen a priori as hopeless and merely
humiliating.
This attitude is so intensely lyrical that it is no longer
capable of purely lyrical expression. Lyrical subjectivity has
to go for its symbols to the outside world; even if that world
has been made by subjectivity itself, it is nevertheless the
only possible one; subjectivity, as an interiority, never con
fronts in a polemical or negative way the outside world that
is co-ordinated to it, it never takes refuge inside itself in
an effort to forget the outside world; rather, it proceeds as
an arbitrary conqueror, it snatches fragments out of the
atomised chaos which is the outside world and melts them
down-causing all origins to be forgotten-into a newly
created, lyrical cosmos of pure interiority. Epic interiority,
by contrast, is always reflexive, it realises itself in a conscious,
distantiated way in contrast to the naIve distancelessness of
true lyricism. Therefore its means of expression are secondary
ones-mood and reflexion-which, despite some apparent
similarities to those of pure lyricism, have nothing whatever
to do with the essence of the latter. Reflexion and mood
are constitutive structural elements of the novel form, but
their formal significance is determined precisely by the fact
that the regulative system of ideas on which the whole reality
is based can manifest itself in them and is given form through
their mediation; in other words, by the fact that they have
a positive, although problematical and paradoxical, relation
ship to the outside world. When they become an end in
1 14
'
:h
d
Ie
a
tlt
IS
)f
a
ly
er
as
ld
Ie
1-
at
In
as
le
.y
f',
s,
)f
'Y
It
r
,d
It
:t
y
:h
works,
whether
monumental
or
decorative.
ethical problem-the
question of necessary
and
T HE
R O MA N T I C ISM OF
D I S I L LUSIO N ME N T
from
their
significance
to
the
individual's
117
",
<II
T H E T H EORY OF T H E N O V E L
'l
'
I
'
'ji,.
.
J'
, i
'11
'l
'.1
T HE
R O M A N T I C I S M O F D I S IL LU S I O NMENT
119
T HE
R O M A N T I CI S M O F D I S .IL LU S I O N M E N T
in:
p.
Archiv
121
(1914),
the
T HE ROMANT I C I S M O F D I S I L L U S I O N ME N T
ing principle:
123
THE THE O R Y O F T H E N O V E L
124
T HE
R O MA N T I C I S M O F D IS I L L U S I O N M E N T
T H E THE ORY O F T H E N O V E L
THE R O M A N TI C I S M O F D I S IL L U S I ONME N T
127
THE THE O R Y O F T H E N O V E L
subject
and
object
are
sharply
separated
in
the
ex
uS
THE
ROMANT I C I S M OF D I S IL L U S I O NMENT
THE THEORY O F T HE
N OVEL
form.
The formal ancestor and the formal heir of Don Quixote
-the chivalrous epic and the adventure novel-both demon
strate the danger inherent in this form, the danger which
arises from its overlapping into the epic, from its inability
to give form to the duree: the danger of triviality, of being
reduced to mere entertainment. This is the necessary prob
lematic of this type of novel, just as disintegration and
formlessness, which are due to a failure to surmount time as
1 3
M 0 F DIS 1 L L lJ S IO N MEN T
131
T H E T H E ORY O F T H E N O V E L
,
l
134
'
WILHELM MEI S TER S Y E A R S
O F APPREN T ICE S H IP
to contemplation.
Humanism,
the fundamental.
T H E T H EO R Y OF T H E N O V E L
'
S Y EA R S O F APP R E;NTICE S H IP
137
THE T H E O RY O F THE N O V EL
not, and only its interaction with the individual can reveal
this. The necessary ambiguity is further increased by the
fact that in each separate set of interactions it is impossible
to tell whether the adequacy or inadequacy of the structure
Yet the author must not abandon his ironic attitude, replac
lies the other great danger inherent in this form of the novel,
138
WILHE L M M E I S T E R
'
was not accidental but the result of that enigmatic and yet so
deeply rational elective affinity between an author's funda
139
reality cannot, given the fact that reality at the present stage
'
S YEARS OF APPRENTICE S H IP
Goethe to use it and its use had to fail only because, given
the author's fundamental intention, it was oriented towards
W I L H E L M M E I S TE R
'
S YEAR S OF APPRENTICE S H IP
143
form.
Europe.
144
TO L S TO Y A N D T H E
S OCIAL FOR M S O F L I F E
extent into the epic. Tolstoy's great and truly epic mentality,
which has litde to do with the novel form, aspires to a life
based on a community of feeling among simple human beings
'
convention.
With the heroic ruthlessness of a writer of historic great
T H E T H E O RY O F T H E N O V E L
T O L S TO Y AND T H E
S O CIA L F O R M S O F L l F E
and . grasps the essence that rules over him ancl works within
him, the meaning of his life. His whole previous life vanishes
into nothingness in the face of this experience; all its con
flicts, all the sufferings, torments and confusions caused by
them, appear petty and inessential. l\1eaning has made its
appearance and the paths into living life are open to the
soul. And here again Tolstoy, with the paradoxical ruth
to die now, to die like that. But Anna recovers and Andrey
returns to life, and the great moments vanish without trace.
Life goes on in the world of convention, an aimless, in
149
of
this constant
flux
because
each figure is
as
insub
stantial as the next, and any one can be put in the place of
any other. Whenever one walks on to this stage, whenever
one leaves it, one always finds-or
has to reject-;the
ing founded upon itself; its relation to the whole does not
TOL S TO Y A N D THE S OC I A L F OR M S O F L I F E
the overlapping into the epic only makes the novel form still
more problematic, without coming concretely closer to the
desired goal, the problem-free reality of the epic. (In purely
lSI
drawn for the first time simply as a seen reality. That is why
he, and the form he created, lie outside the scope of this book.
Dostoevsky did not write novels, and the creative vision
1 53
Index of Names
Confessions o f a Beautiful Soul,
76
Human Comedy,
1 09,
1 1 3,
1 25
54,
Vita Nuova, 5 3
Dessoir, Max,
Benn, Gottfried, 1 8
I I
Deutsche Zukunft, 1 8n
Gesttmmelte Werke, 1 8n
Dickens, Charles, 1 07
Bergson, Henri, 1 2 1
Dilthey, Wilhelm, 1 2 , 1 5, 1 6,
19
Bloch, Ernst, 1 8
Questions
53,
Commedia,
102, 1 27
Defoe, rnniel, 1 4
Benjamin, Walter, Z I
Fundamental
Divina
of
Philosophy, 2 2
Spirit o f Utopia, 2 1
Thomas Munzer, 2 1
Boccaccio, Giovanni
Decameron, 1 2
Browning, Robert
Paracelsus, 88
Ryron, Lord
Don Juan, 59
Ernst, Paul, 7 6
Eschenbach, Wolfram von, 3 7 ,
60
Euripides, 40
Europe, 1 44-5
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 1 8, 1 5 2
Carlyle, Thomas, 1 9
Fielding, Henry, 1 4
First World War,
I I,
1 2, 1 5, 1 8
Flaubert, Gustave, 1 5 1
L'Education sentimentale, 1 4
1 24-5, 1 29
Salammbo, 1 1 6
I NDEX OF NAME S
Ibsen, Henrik, 89
France, 2 1 , 2 2
Francis, St., 3 7
Franck, Henri, I 1 7
Freytag, Gustav
joyce, james
Gennany,
Giotto, 3 7
I I,
1 4,
Ulysses, 1 4
1 9, 2 1 , 2 2
Kant, Immanuel, 1 2 , 3 6
Keller, Gottfried
Elective Affinities, 54
Werther, 5 3
Kierkegaard, Sorell, 1 8- 1 9
Michael Kohlhaas, 1 05
1 3 2-43, 1 4 5 , 1 47
Kroner, 1 9
Dead Souls, 1 07
The Inspector-General, 1 08
Oblomov, 1 20
Greece, 3 7 , 3 8
Mann, Thomas, 1 5 , 1 8
Hauptmann, Gerhart, 1 08
Reflections of an Unpolitical
,Wan, 1 9-20
54, 90
Marx, Karl, 1 7 , 1 9
Mehring, Franz, 2 1
Napoleonic Wars, 1 4
Hilferding, Rudolf
Nietzsche, Friedrich,
Iliad, 5 5 , 1 2 1
Odyssey, T 2 1
22
Parisiellne, The, 1 08
Paul, jean, 54
Pisano, Niccolo, 37
Plato, 3 6
1 56
I N D E X O F N A M E S
Pontoppidan, Henrik, 1 3
Stalin, 1 7
14
1 1 3 - 1 4, 1 29
Proust, Marcel, 1 4
Eugene Onegin, 59
Thomas Aquinas, St., 37
Ranke, Leopold von, 1 6
Rickert, Heinrich, 1 6
Tolstoy, Countess A. A . , 1 46
Tolstoy, Count Leo,
1 45-5 2
Russia, I I
Three Deaths, 1 46
1 4,
20,
22.
5, 56, 89, I 2 2
Schlegel, Friedrich, 1 5
Virgil, 49
Schopenhauer, Arthur, 2 2
Scott, Sir Walter, I I 5
Weber, Marianne, I I
Shakespeare, 4 1 , 54
Weber, Max, 1 2, 1 5
Shaw, Bernard, 1 08
Wellershof, D., 1 8n
Simmel, Georg, 1 2, 1 5
Socrates, 47
Solger, 1 5
Allgemeine
Sorel, Albert, 1 8
schaft, I I
Spengler, Oswald, 1 6
Kunstwissen-
Zweig, Arnold, 2 3
1 57
Index of Suhjects
Aesthetics, 1 5, 1 6, 1 7 , 3 1 , 34, 38,
7 2 , 74
Anti-capitalism, 19
Art, 17, 35, 37, 38, 48, 100, 106,
I I 8, 1 5 2
Biography, 77 -8, 8 1 , 8 2
Capitalism, 1 9, 20
Categories,
1 5, 1 6, 20, 48, 66
Church, 3 7
Cognition, 34, 3 6, 64-5
Comedy, 1 05-6, 1 08
Demonic, 65, 87-<)0, 9 1 , 92, 97,
98, 1 00, 1 0 2- 1 I , 1 I 3 , 1 30
Drama, 42-9, 63, 7 1 , 88-9, 1 05,
1 08, 1 2 I , 1 2 2, u6 -8
Education, 1 3 5-8
Enlightenment, 2 3
Epic, 3 5 , 46-55, 74, 87, 98, 108,
v,
47, 49, 63
Existentialism, 1 9
Expressionism, 1 8
1 03, 1 24
Gods, 3 7 , 65, 66, 86, 88, 89, 92,
1 02, 1 2 2
Greeks, 30-8, 40, 42, 44
Humanism, 1 3 5
Idealism, 97, 1 05, 1 1 2-1 3, 1 1 7,
1 29, 1 3 3-5, 1 45
Idyll, 5 2, 58, 59, 7 1
Images, 3 3, 4 1 , 48, 98, 1 26, 1 28
Intellectual Sciences School, 1 2,
1 4, I S , 1 6
Irony, 1 5, 74-5, 77, 84, 85, 90,
Epistemology, 2 I , 2 2
Logic, 1 5
7 2, 74, 84, 9 1 , l I S , 1 I 6
Lyric, 50-2
INDEX OF
Metaphysics, 3 1 , 34. 3 8
SUBJECTS
Mysticism, 90
3 7 , 41
Positivism, 1 3 , 1 5, 1 6
Nature,
63.
1 39.
1 45-8,
1 50
152
Novel
1 25, 1 5 '
Rationalism,
chivalrous, 1 0 1 -3 . 1 05
of disillusionment. 1 4.
1 8-20,
1 1 6,
1 1 7,
I I 8,
1 2 2,
Russian literature, 1 45
1 2 1 -2 , 1 24, 1 27 , 1 29-3 1 , 1 3 7 .
Science, 1 5
1 07 ,
1 09- 1 0,
1 1 4- 1 6,
1 3 3 -5,
of education, 1 3 5-8
epic and. 1 5 , 4 1 . 5 6-69, 7 1 -2,
151
entertainment, 7 1 . 1 02, 1 05
Realism, 1 8
1 1 9,
1 4 1 , 1 44, 1 45-6, 1 5 1 , 1 5 2
form, criterion of. 1 3
humorous, 59, 1 07, I 3 2
intention of, 84-5
Short Story, 5 1
State. 3 3
Symbols, symbolism, 30, 4 1 , 48,
5 2 , 6 1 , 6 3 , 64, 66, 67, 8 1 , 88,
nineteenth-century, 1 1 0, 1 1 2-
1 08, 1 I 3 , I I 4, 1 3 7
1 5, 1 2 5
Ontology, 2 3
6 1 , 6 7 , 84, 87-8, 1 08
Greek, J.2-5
Utopia, Utopianism, 1 2 , 20, 2 1 ,
46, 48, 58, 70, l i S, I I 6, 1 I 7 ,
1 42, 1 44, 1 45 , 1 5 2
French, 1 9
Greek, 3 4
Hegelian, I S
history of, 1 6
Kantian, I S
I N D E X OF
S UBJECTS
1 2 7, 1 2 8
Verse
ballad, 59, 60
dramatic, 56-7
e pic; 57, 58
tragic, 56
1 60
32, 34