AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE

Pure substance
A

substance

has

homogeneous

and

constant

chemical

composition.
Ex: Water, liquid, air, steam, combustion products of a fuel, H 2, N2,
CO2 and helium.
Micro Approach
A pure substance can exist in one phase only.
Formation of steam in a boiler

Ramalingam pa. 13.2 & Fig pa: 5.2

- Water is forced into boiler by the help of feed pump.
- Due to heat energy (fuel burning), the water is converted into
steam.
Sensible heat (or) Total heat of water (SH or hf)

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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

The amount of heat supplied by 1 kg of water to raise its

temperature from 0oC (freezing point) to the boiling point is called as
sensible heat.
Latent heat (hfg)
The amount of heat supplied for changing water (liquid) to
steam (vapour) i.e., Phase change will occur at constant pressure
and without change in temperature.
Saturated state
A change of phase may occur without a change of pressure or
temperature.
Saturation temperature (tsat) and Saturation pressure (psat)
- The boiling temperature of water at a particular pressure is
called as saturation temperature and corresponding pressure is
called as saturation pressure.
- Pure substance starts to evaporate at saturation temperature /
saturation pressure.
- Saturation temperature (or) temperature formation is used
instead of the term boiling point.
Latent heat of vaporization (or) evaporation (or) Enthalpy of
evaporation (hfg)
The

phase

change

from

liquid

to

vapour

evaporation or boiling.
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is

called

as

AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

hfg = hg - hf
Latent heat of fusion (Melting point)
The phase change from solid to liquid is called as melting or
fusion.
Latent heat of sublimation
- Transformation of solid to vapour directly.
- It is highly sensitive to pressure.
Latent heat of ablimation
Transformation of vapour to solid directly.
Freezing (or) Solidification
The change of phase from liquid to solid.
Condensation
The process of changing from gaseous to liquid phase.
Superheating and Superheated steam
The dry steam is further heated then the process is called as
superheating and the steam is known as superheated steam.
hsup = hg + cp (Tsup - Tsat)
ssup = sg + cp In(Tsup / Tsat)
Uses (or) Advantages of superheated steam
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Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

- It has high heat content used for produce power and heating.
- High temperature of steam is directly proportional to efficiency.
- Corrosion of turbine blades reduced.
- It has high thermal capacity per unit volume.
- Clean, odourless and tasteless.
- No fire risk.
Critical temperature
- The saturation temperature at which latent heat of evaporation
is zero is called as critical temperature.
- Liquid completely changes to vapour.
Critical pressure
- The pressure at which latent heat becomes zero is called as
critical pressure.
Triple point (or) Triple state (or) Triple phase point
A solid (ice), liquid and vapour in equilibrium (F = 0 i.e., zero
degree of freedom).
Micro Approach
- Triple point of water = 0.01 0C = 273.16 K.
- Triple point pressure of water = 0.006028 atm.
Gibs Phase Rule
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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

P + F = C +2
Let,
P - Number of phases (solid, liquid and gas)
F - Number of degrees of freedom
C - Number of components
Draw a p - T (Pressure - Temperature) diagram for a pure
substance.

Fig. ramalingam 12.4

Critical point (CP)
- Liquid and vapour coexist in equilibrium.
- In phase diagram, vaporization line extends from the triple
point to a point is called critical point.
Micro Approach
- Enthalpy of vaporization (Latent heat of evaporation) is zero at
critical point.
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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

- p - T diagram Critical & triple point both are points.

- It contains more than one of the saturation lines;
p V diagram
p V diagram Critical point is a point and triple point is a
line.
T V diagram
- T V diagram for water density maximum at 4 oC.
T s diagram
- In the T- s diagram the region left of the waterline, the water
exists as liquid. In right of the dry steam line, the water exists
as a superheated steam. In between water and dry steam line,
the water exists as a wet steam.
- As the pressure increases, the saturation temperature of the
vapour also increases.
Dryness fraction (or) Quality of steam (x)
It is defined as the ratio of mass fraction of vapour in a liquid
vapour mixture.
x = m g / m f + mg
Micro Approach
- x =0.7 which indicates 70 % of vapour and 30 % of wet steam.
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Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

- x =1: Dry steam.

- x < 1: Wet steam.
Wetness fraction
Wetness fraction = 1 - x
Measurement of Quality of steam
- Barrel (or) bucket calorimeter.
- Throttling calorimeter.
- Separating and throttling calorimeter.
- Electrical calorimeter.
Degree of superheat
Degree of superheat = Tsuperheated - Tsat
It is the difference between superheated temperature and
saturated temperature at the same pressure.
Degree of sub cooling
Degree of sub cooling = Tsat - Tactual
The liquid at a temperature lower than the vapour saturation
temperature is called sub cooling or compressed liquid.
Steam Table
The properties of water = f (p & T)
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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

The

various

properties

of

steam

(saturation

pressure,

saturation temperature, specific enthalpy, specific entropy and

specific volume) are given in the tabular form.
There are three tables are available, such as
a) Temperature table
b) Pressure table
c) Superheated steam table
i) Specific enthalpy of superheated steam.
ii) Specific entropy of superheated steam.
iii) Specific volume of superheated steam.
Mollier chart (or) h s diagram (or) enthalpy entropy
diagram
- Used to get the properties of steam at easy manner.
- It eliminates the calculations.
- Entropy is the abscissa and enthalpy is the ordinate.
- It consists three regions (Liquid, wet and superheated region)
Cycle (or) cyclic process

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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

Combination of processes and return to its initial position.

Ex: Conversion of water into ice and vice-versa.
Thermodynamic cycles
1. Open cycle
2. Closed cycle
3. Power (Ideal) cycle +ve (clock wise direction). Ex: Carnot
cycle
4. Refrigeration cycle Reversed Carnot cycle (Anti clockwise).
Ex: Refrigerators, Air conditioners and Heat pump.
5. Steam power cycle (Vapour power cycle)
- Working medium : Steam
- Heat energy is converts into work.
- overall = 35 to 38 %
- Range: 1 MW to 1000 MW.
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Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

6. Gas power cycle

- Air Standard Cycles. Ex: Otto cycle and Diesel cycle
- Dual (or) Mixed (or) Limited pressure cycle: Tractor work under
Dual cycle.
- Brayton cycle: Aircraft work under Brayton cycle.
- Stirling cycle (Two reversible isotherms and two reversible
isochores)
- Ericsson cycle (Two reversible isotherms and two reversible
isobars)
Types of steam power cycle
- Carnot cycle: It is the most efficient cycle but having more
practical difficulties. So cannot used in steam power plant. Dry
saturated steam as the working medium.
- Rankine cycle Theoretical cycle for steam power plant.
- Reheat cycle.
- Regenerative cycle.
Carnot cycle

Rankine cycle

Work ratio is low.

Work ratio is high.

SSC is high.

SSC is low.

Heat addition and rejection is Heat addition and rejection is

done at constant temperature.
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done at constant pressure.

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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

High efficiency and efficiency is Low efficiency and efficiency

independent

of

the

working depends on the working fluid.

fluid.
= f (TH, TL)

Name the different components in steam power plant

working on Rankine cycle.
- Boiler (Steam generator): Water is converting into steam by the
help of furnace.
- Turbine: steam is expands by isentropically.
- Generator: Produce electric power.
- Condenser: Phase change will occur at constant pressure.
- Feed pump: Used to pump the condensate medium to the
boiler.
Ideal Rankine Cycle (or) Phase Change Cycle
The working substance undergoes change of phase. Ex: Steam
(Rankine) cycle.
Assumptions:
- Steady flow and one kg of steam flows through the cycle.
- Neglect KE and PE.
Processes:
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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

1-2: Isentropic (Reversible adiabatic) expansion in a turbine (1

2).
2-3: Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser (2 3).
3-4: Isentropic compression in a pump (3 4) and
4-1: Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler (4 1).
= Wnet / QS
Net work done (or) Power output, Wnet = WT - WP
WT = h1 h2
WP = h4 h3 = v3 (p4 p3)
QR = h2 h3
QS = h1 h4
Methods for improving performance of Rankine cycle
a) Rankine cycle with superheated steam.
b) Increase the boiler pressure and temperature to certain limit.
c) Decrease the condenser pressure and temperature.
d) Superheated steam is supplied to the turbine.
e) Implementing reheat, regeneration and combined reheat
regenerative
f) Reducing the boiler feed pump work
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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

g) Increasing turbine expansion work and

h) Economiser and Air preheater.
Specific steam consumption (SSC) (or) Steam rate (SR) (or)
specific steaming rate
It is defined as the mass flow of steam required per unit power
output.

Let ,
Power output, Wnet = WT - WP.
Micro Approach
- Capacity of power plant expressed in terms of SSC.
- SSC = 3600 / WT - WP (kg / kW. hr)
Specific heat rate (or) Heat Rate (HR)
Specific heat rate = Heat supply rate / Net power output.
What are the effects of condenser pressure on the Rankine
Cycle?

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Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

Lowering the condenser pressure, the cycle efficiency will

increase and increase the wetness of steam, so turbine blades will
erodes and air leakage will occur.
Why Rankine cycle is modified?
- The work obtained at the end of the expansion is very less.
- The work is too inadequate to overcome the friction.
Reheat cycle
- It is mainly designed for avoid excess moisture at the final
stage of the turbine and increase the thermal efficiency.
- The expansion takes place in two stages. In the first stage,
steam expands in the high - pressure turbine then the steam is
reheated at constant pressure in the boiler and remaining
expansion carried out in the low-pressure turbine.
- = [(h1 h2) + (h3 h4)] / [(h1 hf4) + (h3 h2)]
Let,
h1 Enthalpy of steam at inlet to HP turbine
h2 Enthalpy of steam at exit to HP turbine
h3 Enthalpy of steam at inlet to LP turbine
h4 Enthalpy of steam at exit to LP turbine
Micro Approach
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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

The cycle efficiency can improve by 4 to 5 %.

Why reheat cycle is not used for low boiler pressure?
At the low reheat pressure the heat cycle efficiency may be less
than the Rankine cycle efficiency. Since the average temperature
during heating will then be low.
Effects (or) purpose of reheating (or) advantages of reheat
Rankine cycle
- Increase the dryness fraction of the steam (Erosion of turbine
blades reduced).
- Specific output of the cycle is increased.
- Increases the turbine work, heat supply and the cycle
efficiency.
- Size of the plant is compact.
Disadvantages of reheat Rankine cycle
- Multiple reheaters are used.
- If the reheat pressure is too low, the efficiency may decrease.
Regeneration
- A process in which a feed water heater uses steam extracted
from a turbine to preheat water entering a boiler.
Advantages of Regenerative cycle
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Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

Heat supplied to boiler is reduced.

- Thermal efficiency is increased.

-

Reduces the thermal stresses produced in the boiler.

Erosion of turbine is reduced.

Small size condenser is enough.

Function of feed water heaters in the regenerative cycle with

bleeding
To increase the temperature of feed water to the saturation
temperature corresponding to the boiler pressure before it enters
into the boiler.
Micro Approach
Function of economizer:
To preheat the feed water by utilising the exhaust flue gases
(15 to 20 % of fuel saving is possible and prevents formation of scale
in boiler water tubes).
Function of super heater:
Increase the temperature of saturated steam (p =c).
Function of air preheater:
To preheat the air by utilising the exhaust flue gases (2 % of
boiler efficiency increased; Installed between an economiser and
chimney).
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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-4- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND POWER CYCLE

What are the assumptions made to drive ideal gas equation

analytically using the kinetic theory of gases?
a) There is no intermolecular force between particles.
b) The volume of the molecules is negligible in comparison with
the gas.

Micro Approach
overall = combustion x cycle

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