Automotive Heat Transfer Modeling and Simulation

Automotive Heat Transfer
Raj Ranganathan
October 29-30, 2012
Senior Vice President Technical
Showatech, Inc.
Presentation Roadmap
1.
Introduction
a.
b.
2.
Engine and exhaust components

Heat transfer CFD
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Background
Benchmark in-cylinder measurements
Interaction of heat transfer with
combustion
Zero and multi-dimensional modeling
Standard and modified wall functions
Low Reynolds Number Model
Heat Transfer Coefficients
Validation with measurements
5.
Overview
Piston, liner, head and valve temperatures
Bay-to-bay breathing
Engine cooling system considerations
Engine lubrication system considerations
6.
Interaction with under-hood components

Design decisions early in a vehicle program
Turbochargers
After treatment devices
Tail pipe gas temperatures
Materials Properties and Temperatures
Thermo-mechanical fatigue
Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Engine Component Heat Transfer

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Exhaust System Heat Transfer

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Engine In-Cylinder Heat Transfer

a.
b.
c.
3.
4.
Passenger Compartment human comfort

Energy transactions and heat transfer
Energy Balances
Air management
Refrigeration considerations
Windshield de-icing
Best Practices and Challenges

a. Best practices for heat transfer modeling
b. Challenges in simulation and
measurement
Turbocharged SI Engine
Bozza et al, 3D-1D Analysis of the Turbulent Flow Field, Burning Speed and Knock Occurrence in a
Turbocharged SI engine, SAE 07NAPLES-69, 2007
Engine Components
Inline 4 Cylinder SI Engine with Dual Overhead Cams
http://www.carbibles.com/fuel_engine_bible.html
Four Cylinder Engine
Four Stroke Cycle (Otto) Animation
1. Intake
2. Compression
3. Power (Expansion)
4. Exhaust
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:4StrokeEngine_Ortho_3D_Small.gif
Engine Components
Typical Four Stroke Single Cylinder Engine
Spark Plug
Exhaust Camshaft
Intake Camshaft
Valves
Water Jacket
Piston
Connecting Rod
Crankshaft
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocating_engine
Otto and Diesel Cycles
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine
Two Stroke Cycle Animation
1. Power (Expansion) Red

2. Exhaust Grey
3. Intake (Scavenging) Green
4. Compression
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:4StrokeEngine_Ortho_3D_Small.gif
Exhaust Components
Passenger Car SI Engine Exhaust System
1 Manifolds: collects exhaust gases from the cylinders

2 Catalytic Converters: remove harmful gases
3 Resonators / Front Muffler: reduce noise / vibration
4 Rear Muffler: reduce noise
5 Tail Pipe: expel exhaust gases into the ambient
http://carline.com.au/more-about-exhausts.html
10
Exhaust System
Key Components
http://www.quickhonda.net/exhaust.htm#Analysis%20of%20the%20Exhaust%20System%20in
%20an%20Average%20Car
Exhaust Flow in an Automobile, Alvin Teo
11
Exhaust System
Details
http://www.sundevilauto.com/tag/auto-diagrams
12
Heat Transfer
Broad Definition
What is thermodynamics?
Quantify the properties of the end states of a substance due to transfer

of energy in the form of heat and work
What is heat transfer?
Energy transfer driven by a temperature difference; how it takes place
When do heat transfer considerations arise in practice?
Whenever we measure temperatures Experimental View

Whenever we solve the energy equation Simulation View
Can be in a fluid or solid medium
Can be in vacuum thermal radiation and residual gas conduction
13
Simulation and Experiment

Relative Roles
From Peter, ORourke, Dan Haworth, Raj Ranganathan, Computational Fluid Dynamics, ASM
Handbook, Volume 20: Materials
14
Simulation and Experiment

Relative Roles
Simulation:
Drive Design & Development

CG of D&D shifted towards Simulation away from Measurements
Commercial user friendly software (danger: garbage in garbage out)
An effective simulation process
is characterized by best practices
provides acceptable accuracy for engineering purposes
has been validated and
is documented in detail to reduce engineer-engineer variability
Experiment:
Validate Models (CFD, FEA etc.)

Fill Gaps in Simulation Capability
Material Properties (TMF)
Confirm Final Design
15
General Simulation Paths 1/2

CFD, Network and Cycle Simulation
CFD:
Three-Dimensional
Governing partial differential equations: mass, momentum, energy and species
Less Empirical (example turbulence modeling)
Spatial Resolution Millions of Cells
Computational Domain Component level (example in-cylinder)

Analysis Cost High
Network:
One-Dimensional
Algebraic balance expressions
More Empirical
Limited Spatial resolution Hundreds of Cells
Computational Domain System level (example lubrication system)
Analysis Cost Low
16
General Simulation Paths 2/2

CFD, Network and Cycle Simulation
Engine Cycle Simulation:
Zero-Dimensional
Phenomenological Balance Expressions
More Empirical
No Spatial Resolution Single Cell
Work horse of engine design & development for decades
Two general manifestations:
1) Fuel Rate Cylinder Pressures (Engine Cycle Simulation)
2) Cylinder Pressures Fuel Rate (Heat Release Analysis)
Originally developed by testing engineers in the seventies at engine OEMs
Under predicts heat transfer
Garbage-in garbage-out
Analysis Cost Low/Medium
17
Overview of CFD
Method of Solution
Using commercial software:
Solve continuity, momentum, energy and species conservation equations
The majority of flows are turbulent Equations for turbulence
Define computational domain
Mesh the domain
Numerically solve the problem on a computer
Post process results
Ensure cell quality skewness, volume growth etc.
Prism layers at the wall
Grid independent solutions
Hexahedral mesh higher accuracy, labor intensive
Tetrahedral mesh less labor intensive (faster mesh creation), accuracy?
1.
2.
3.
Ferziger, J. H. and Peric, M., Computational Methods for Fluid Dynamics, Springer, 1997.
Patankar, S. V., Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow, Hemisphere, 1980.
ORourke, P. J., Haworth, D. C. and Ranganathan, R., Computational fluid dynamics, ASM Handbook, vol 20:
Materials selection and design, 1998.
18
Overview of CFD
Navier Stokes Equations
The conservation equations of momentum, energy and species possess a common
form and can be cast in a general form as shown (using the Cartesian tensor notation):

u j S
t
x j
x j x j
Continuity Equation:
dependent variable: T, C and uj
uj velocity field
diffusion coefficient (kinematic viscosity, thermal diffusivity or mass diffusivity)
S remaining terms assembled into source term
a key enabler in the development of general purpose CFD codes

1.
2.
3.
Ferziger, J. H. and Peric, M., Computational Methods for Fluid Dynamics, Springer, 1997.
Patankar, S. V., Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow, Hemisphere, 1980.
ORourke, P. J., Haworth, D. C. and Ranganathan, R., Computational fluid dynamics, ASM Handbook, vol 20:
Materials selection and design, 1998.
19
Heat Transfer CFD

Subject Domain
Prima Facie Numerical solution of Convection Heat Transfer problems
Convection is Coupled with:
Conduction via Diffusion Terms
Solid Conduction (Conjugate Heat Transfer)
Radiation in Participating Media via source term
Radiation in Non-Participating Media via boundary flux
Phase Change (example melting of ice on wind-shield)
Simplified 1-D
Energy Equation
cp T
t
Inertia
c T v
p
Advection

T
dP
qcomb
t
y
y
dt
Diffusion
Source
20
Convection Heat Transfer

Overview
Energy is transported by a flowing fluid coupled to the momentum equations
Accurate modeling of fluid mechanics (velocities) and chemical reactions (combustion)
pre-requisites to accurate modeling of heat transfer (temperatures)
implications for HT validation
HT centric viewpoint of CFD
Thermo-physical (laminar) properties: , cp, k and
If above properties are f(T) two-way coupling between V and T
Simplified 1-D
Energy Equation
cp T
t
c T v
p

T
dP
qcomb
t
y
y
dt
Velocity
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Reactions
Bejan, A., Convection Heat Transfer, John Wiley, 1984.

Kays, W. M. and Crawford M. E., Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 1966, 1980, 1993.
Arpaci, V. S. and Larsen, P. S., Convection Heat Transfer, Prentice-Hall, 1984.
Burmeister, L. C., Convective Heat Transfer, John Wiley, 1984.
Kakac S. and Yener, Y., Convective Heat Transfer, CRC Press, 2nd edition, 1995.
Kakac, S., Shah, R. K. and Aung, W. (editors), Handbook of Single-Phase Convective Heat Transfer, WileyInterscience, 1987.
21
Modelling Turbulent Flows

Overview
The majority of flows are turbulent Critical need to predict turbulence
An ideal turbulence model should capture the essence with minimum complexity
Dependent variables unsteady, fluctuating u, v, w, P, T and C
Time-average the equations RANS (Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes) equations
New Terms Turbulent diffusivities of momentum (eddy viscosity), heat (eddy
conductivity) and species (mass eddy diffusivity)
Closure k- Model k is the turbulence kinetic energy and is its dissipation
Simplified 1-D
Energy Equation
cp T
t
c T v
p

T
dP
qcomb
t
y
y
dt
Eddy conductivity
1. Launder, B. E. and Spalding, D. B., Mathematical Models of Turbulence, Academic, 1972.

2. Launder, B. E. and Spalding, D. B., The numerical computation of turbulent flow, Comp. Methods Appl. Mech.
Eng., vol. 3, pp 269-289, 1974.
3. Shih, T. H., Liou, W. W., Shabbir, A. and Zhu, J., A new k-e eddy-viscosity model for high-Reynolds number
turbulent flows model development and validation, Computers Fluids vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 227-238, 1995
4. Wilcox, D. C., Turbulence Modeling for CFD, DCW Industries, 1993.
22
Boundary Layers
Turbulent Flow
Boundary conditions at a surface Formation of boundary layers in the region
between wall and the far-field.
The boundary layer consists of three sub-layers viscous, buffer and inertial
Viscous sub-layer adjacent to a surface in which molecular transport (of heat,
momentum and species) is dominant k >> kt
Inertial sub-layer in which turbulent eddy transport (of heat, momentum and species)
is dominant k << kt
Buffer Layer transition layer that separates the above two layers in which both
molecular and eddy transport are important O (k) ~ O(kt)
Modeling boundary layers accurately is a pre-requisite for accurate wall heat transfer
predictions
Simplified 1-D
Energy Equation
cp T
t
c T v
p

T
dP
qcomb
t
y
y
dt
Eddy conductivity
1. Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, 6th edition, McGraw-Hill, 1968.
23
Dimensionless Energy Equation

Dimensionless Groups determined by
1.
Buckingham Pi Theorem problematic if relevant variables are omitted

Scaling arguments
24
Dimensionless Groups
Br
U2
k T
St
hf L
Nu
Y
kf
1.
hf
V cp
Bi
Nu
Re Pr
hC LS
kS
25
Conjugate Heat Transfer

Strongly and Loosely Coupled
In Conjugate Heat Transfer the fluid domain and structural

domain are solved together
When solved simultaneously Strongly coupled
When solved sequentially (iteratively) Loosely coupled
Especially used in engine cooling system simulations
Fluid Temperature
Heat Transfer
coefficient
FLUID
DOMAIN
SOLID
DOMAIN
Wall temperature
Courtesy Ricardo
26
Conjugate Heat Transfer

Interface Energy Balance
Fluid cell centre
Fluid cell
Surface Energy Balance

w
s
T f T w
s T T
q
f
s
f
Wall
s
h
f
Solid cell
Solid cell centre
distance between cell centre and wall

f conductivity of the fluid
s conductivity of the solid
Tf temperature of the fluid in the fluid cell centre
Ts
temperature of the solid in the solid cell centre
f
f
, h
s
s
s
h f T f h sT s
T
h f hs
hf
q
T f T w
Thermal BC for a transient FEA heat

conduction and thermal stress model of
solid = hf and Tf
Tw temperature at the fluid/solid interface (wall)

q heat flux at the fluid/solid interface (wall)
27
Radiation Heat Transfer

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wavelength
Thermal
Solar
Visible
Infrared
Microwave
103
1011
102
1012
101
1013
X-rays
< 10-2
Ultraviolet
10-2 0.4
Visible
0.4 0.7
Infrared
0.7 1000
Thermal
0.1 100
Solar
0.1 3
Microwave
> 102
Ultraviolet
100
1014
10-1
1015
X-rays
10-2
1016
Wavelength
10-3
1017
Frequency s-1
Incropera, F. P. and Dewitt, D., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, John Wiley, 1994.
28
Thermocouples
Basic Iron-Constantan Circuit
Overview
Discovery by Seebeck 150 years ago

Current flows in a closed circuit of two dissimilar
metals when the two junctions are at different
temperatures
Magnitude and direction current properties of
the metals and T
http://www.nphheaters.com/technical/thermo_letter.htm#measure
29
In-Cylinder Heat Transfer

Reason for Importance
Peak Values
Gas Temperature > 2000oC

Heat Flux ~ 0 to 10 MW/m2
Metal Temperatures < 400oC (CI), 300oC (Al), 200oC (Lube Oil Film)
As Cylinder Wall Temperature
Thermal Stress, Fatigue

Volumetric Efficiency
Knock tendency
Friction piston/rings
Performance
Fuel Efficiency
Emissions HC, CO
Turbocharger energy recovery
Radiator Fan and Water Pump Power
Engine Heat Transfer is Important

Heywood, J, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw Hill 1988.
30
Heat Rejection from the Cylinder Gases

Dependencies
Heat rejection increases with mass of fuel burnt

Heat rejection as a fraction of fuel energy decreases with
Increasing engine speed

Increasing engine load
> 1 and < 1
Increasing compression ratio
Spark retard in SI engines
Increasing coolant temperatures
Engine Heat Transfer is Important

1.
Heywood, J, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw Hill 1988.
31
Benchmark Measurements SI Engine

In-Cylinder Local Temperature and Local Heat Flux
Single Cylinder, SI Engine

Premixed
Flat Cylinder Head, Flat Piston
2D Axi-symmetric chamber
Centrally Located Spark Plug
Cylinder Head and Liner Temperatures
Cylinder Head and Liner Heat fluxes
Benchmark for ~ 30 years
Engine Operating Conditions
Thermocouple Locations on dome
1. Alkidas, A. C., Heat transfer characteristics of a spark-ignition engine, J. Heat Transfer,

vol. 102, pp. 189-193, 1980.
2. Alkidas, A. C. and Meyers, J. P., Transient heat flux measurements in the combustion
chamber of a spark ignition engine, J. Heat Transfer, vol. 104, pp. 62-67, 1982.
32
Benchmark Measurements DI Diesel Engine

DI diesel engine
Flat Cylinder Head, Bowl in Piston
Eight Hole Nozzle Injector
2D Axi-symmetric Sector Mesh
Piston and Wall Heat fluxes
Thermocouple Locations on piston
1. Kleeman, A. P., Gosman, A. D. And Binder, K. B., Heat Transfer in Diesel Engines: A CFD Evaluation
Study, The Fifth International Symposium on Diagnostics and Modeling of Combustion in Internal
Combustion Engines (COMODIA), July 1-4, Nagoya, Japan, 2001.
2. Kleeman, A. P., CFD Simulation of Advanced Diesel Engines, PhD thesis, 2001.
33
Benchmark Measurements DI Diesel Engine

Transient surface temperatures are measured using a special surface thermocouple

Point measurement
Semi-infinite 1-D heat conduction problem
The (1-D) heat flux is then calculated
Variations due to variations in analytical techniques
Analytical techniques - FD
1. Kleeman, A. P., Gosman, A. D. And Binder, K. B., Heat Transfer
34

CA Variation of Local Cylinder-Head Temperature and Heat Flux
Heat Fluxes
Surface Temperatures
Flame Arrival
Flame Arrival
Tsurface << tgas (greater thermal inertia)

Rapid rise in heat flux Flame Arrival
CA of peak surface temperature ~ CA of peak flux
Flame Arrival Drives Peak Heat Flux

vol. 102, pp. 189-193, 1980.
35

Spatial and Cyclic Variation of Local Heat Fluxes
Spatial Variation
Cycle to Cycle Variation
Flame arrival CA distance
from spark plug
Flame arrival
Slope of average profile <

slope of individual cycles
HT Driven by Combustion; Cannot Separate the two

vol. 102, pp. 189-193, 1980.
36
Evolution of In-Cylinder Temperatures

CFD Results
Cylinder Head
Configuration of Alkidas et al (1980-82)

Spark Plug Location
Piston
690 CA
Axis
740 CA
Liner
700 CA
750 CA
710 CA
760 CA
720 CA
730 CA
Courtesy CD-Adapco
Symmetry Plane
Engine Operating Point 1
Alkidas et al (1980-82)
37
Evolution of In-Cylinder C3H8 Concentrations

CFD Results
Cylinder Head

Spark Plug Location
Piston
690 CA
Axis
740 CA
Liner
700 CA
750 CA
710 CA
760 CA
720 CA
730 CA
Courtesy CD-Adapco
Symmetry Plane
38
Evolution of Near Wall Gas Temperatures

CFD Results
2500.0
STAR-CD: near wall mesh 1.2 mm
Local Gas Temperature, oK
2250.0
Location: HT-1
2000.0
1750.0
1500.0
1250.0
Flame Arrival
STAR-CD: 400 axial x 200 radial (green)
1000.0
750.0
~ 707 CA
500.0
250.0
0.0
690.00
720.00
750.00
780.00
810.00
Crank Angle
Courtesy CD-Adapco

39
Background
In-Cylinder Simulation Paths
Two general paths:

Engine Thermodynamic Cycle Simulation: Zero Dimensional, Empirical, Single Zone
CFD: Three-Dimensional, Less Empirical, Millions of cells
40
Combustion Simulation
Zero-D and 3-D Models
Cylinder Pressure (bars) versus Crank Angle (degrees)
Bozza F., Fontana G, Galloni E and Torella E, 3D-1D Analysis of the Turbulent Flow Field, Burning
Speed and Knock Occurrence in a Turbocharged SI engine, SAE 07NAPLES-69, 2007.
41
Engine Cycle Simulation

Global Heat Transfer Predictions
No spatial variation
Under predicts HT
Growing role of CFD
Comparison of surface averaged heat flux: predictions & correlations
1. Kleeman, A. P., Gosman, A. D. And Binder, K. B., Heat Transfer in Diesel Engines: A CFD Evaluation
Study, The Fifth International Symposium on Diagnostics and Modeling of Combustion in Internal
Combustion Engines (COMODIA), July 1-4, Nagoya, Japan, 2001.
42
Wall Heat Transfer Choices

Multi-Dimensional Modelling
BL divided into three sub-layers
Viscous molecular transport dominant

Inertial turbulent eddy transport dominant
Buffer transition between the above two layers
High Reynolds Number Modeling Approach (Wall Function)
Viscous layer is not resolved

Derive solutions for the near-wall region for T, U, C
Applied to a single layer of cells near the walls
Near wall cell required to be in the inertial layer, y+ >30 where y+ = y u*/
Do not refine the near wall cell
Grid dependence for remainder of the computational domain
Permits relatively coarse near-wall mesh
43
Simulation
Transient and Combustion Terms
SI Engine
Transient
Combustion
Investigator: Han et al (1997)
Transient and Combustion terms not important
HT Model: Han et al (1997)

Combustion Model: Abraham et al (1987)
Measurements: Alkidas (1980)
1. Han, Z. and Reitz, R. D., A Temperature Wall Function Formulation for Variable-Density
Turbulent Flows with Application to Engine Convective Heat Transfer Modeling, International
Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 40, No 3., pp. 613-625, 1997.
44
Momentum Equation
Viscous and Inertial Layers
Quasi-steady
u
t
t x , y
u u
x
Couette Flow
u v
y
dP

u
dx
y
y
u u (y)
u
u
u
v
x
y
Assume
v 0
dP t u
dx
y
y
Flat Plate BL
u constant
Properties
(P, T)
(T)
45
Momentum Equation
Closed Form Solution
Viscous Region
d
du
t
0
dy
dy
du
W
dy
Turbulent Region
f
f
t
Viscous Region
u y
Inertial Region
Log-law
y ym
log e E y
von Karman constant
y ym
ym - intersection
Properties
46
Energy Equation
Viscous and Inertial Layers
Quasi-steady
cp T
t
t x , y
Tu
Tv
Quasi-steady
t x , y

T
dP
k kt
y
y
dt
Neglected: viscous dissipation and heat source
Couette Flow
T T (y)
T
T
cp u
v
x
y
k kt T
y
y
Properties
(P, T)
(T)
Assume v 0
k k(T)
Cp Cp ( T )
47
Energy Equation
Simplification
d
dT
k kt
0
dy
dy
Cp
t
k
t
Pr
t
q"W
Cp
Pr
LHS
kt
dT
qW"
dy
dy
dT
1

Pr Pr
t
RHS
~ 1 mm T ~ 1000oC
Near Wall Mesh

Properties
Integrating the LHS

48
(P, T)
(T)
k k(T)
Cp Cp ( T )
Energy Equation
Two Solutions: Motivation Tnear-wall ~ 1000oC
Properties

LHS
Tf
qw"
TW
dT
T+ for Standard Wall Function
f c p w u Tw T f
qw"
All Fluids (all Pr)

Properties
(T)
Tf
LHS
TW
Assume
"
w
dT
P P P
0 P ~ constant
x y z
T+ for Modified Wall Function

f
c pw u T f
qw"
log
Tw
T
T
f
Gases Only Pr ~ 1
Integrating the RHS
49
Energy Equation
Solution
y
RHS
y 0
dy
1

Pr Pr
t
Viscous Region
Pr < 5
Turbulent Region
Pr > 0.5
Near Wall Mesh
RHS
T Pr y
T
Prt u P
y
T
y
T
Pr < 5
y - intersection
T
Pr > 0.5
Sub-layer resistance factor, P ~ f (Prt, Pr)
50
Standard and Modified Wall Functions

Temperature Solution for Common Gases (0.5 < Pr < 5)
T Pr y
T A Ln y B
y
T
y
T
y - intersection
T
Standard equations for k and
Algebraic expressions for k and in near-wall cell
Near Wall Mesh

- Constant Properties
- Variable Properties
c p u TW T
Standard
qW"
u T
qW"
log
TW
Modified
51
State of the Art

Temperature Wall Functions
Effects Considered
Variables
Constant
Launder et al (1973)
Diffusion
Angelberge r et al (1997)
Diffusion
cp, k
Han et al (1997)
Diffusion, Transient, Work, Combustion
, cp, k
, , cp, k
(Transient and Combustion not important)
Nijeweme et al (2001)
Diffusion, Transient, Work, Advection
, cp, k
Park et al (2009)
Diffusion
cp, k
Diffusion, Transient, Work, Advection
, cp, k
(Mo/ring only)
(Transient and Advection effects cancel)
52
State of the Art

Temperature Wall Functions for Common Gases
of T+
T+ Profile
T Pr y
Launder et al (1973)
T
Rakopoulos et al (1997)
Prt u P
y yT
T Pr
Angelberge r et al (1997)
Han et al (1997)
y yT
2.075 Log e
y 13.2
3.9
y 13.2
T 2.1 Log e y 2.5
y 40
See Below
y 40
c p u TW T
q"W
cp u T
q"W
cp u T
q"W
cp u T
q
"
W
T
Log e W
T
T
Log e W
T
T
Log e W
T
y 40
1
1
1
Loge 40
10.2384 P
Loge y
117.31
C
C Pr
C Pr
C 1Pr
53
Low Reynolds Number Model

Temperature Solution for All Pr
c p u TW T
qW"
Pr y
- If we use variable properties, are we ok?

COSTS
- Mesh Size (Memory, CPU, t)
- Mesh Generation
- Validation
Standard equation for k

Standard equation + additional terms for
Near Wall Mesh

y+ ~ 1
Algebraic expressions for k and in near-wall cell

54
Evolution of Near Wall y+

CFD Results
150
STAR-CD: near wall mesh 1.2 mm
Location: HT-1
STAR-CD: 400 axial x 200 radial (green)

120
Local +
STAR-CD: 200 axial x 100 radial (orange)

90
Flame Arrival
~ 707 CA
60
STAR-CD: 80 axial x 40 radial (blue)

(Initial TKE tuned to match PCP)
STAR-CD: 80 axial x 40 radial

(red)
30
Y+ = 13.2
0
650
690
730
770
810
Crank Angle
Courtesy CD-Adapco
55
Natural Convection in a Square Cavity

Temperature and Concentration Buoyancy Forces
Ranganathan, R. and Viskanta, R. "Natural Convection in a square cavity due to combined driving forces,"
Numerical Heat Transfer, vol. 14, pp. 35-59, 1988.
56
Grid Independent Solutions

Natural Convection in a Square Cavity
Grid
Results
20 x 20
40 x 40
80 x 80
Benchmark
Nuav
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
8.402
9.502
13.404
14.215
0.082
0.124
1.600
1.749
0.991
1.000
0.112
0.094
0.880
0.862
0.267
0.232
0.040
0.044
9.025
9.270
17.867
17.947
0.053
0.068
1.118
1.015
0.993
1.000
0.085
0.080
0.861
0.854
0.272
0.245
0.040
0.042
8.959
8.928
18.259
18.076
0.039
0.046
1.012
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.079
0.078
0.852
0.851
0.268
0.257
0.036
0.039
8.817
17.925
0.038
0.989
1.000
0.076
0.850
0.260
0.038
Numax
max
Numin
min
Umax
max
Vmax
Ranganathan, R. and Viskanta, R. "Natural Convection in a square cavity due to combined driving forces,"
Numerical Heat Transfer, vol. 14, pp. 35-59, 1988.
57
Heat Transfer Coefficient

Pre-CFD Time Frame
Historically, in the pre-CFD era, the heat transfer coefficients were computed along two
general approaches:
Closed form solutions simple geometries/physics
Experiments complex geometries/physics
Large body of empirical correlations in the literature for Nusselt number in terms of
other dimensionless groups (Reynolds, Prandtl numbers) and a reference temperature
See example below
Nux h x / k
Pr
Rex U x /
h heat transfer coefficient
x distance from leading edge of plate
k thermal conductivity of the fluid
U characteristic velocity
density of the fluid
dynamic viscosity of the fluid
hx x
Nu X
0.0296 Re 4X/ 5 Pr1 / 3
k
Turbulent flow over a flat plate
1. Incropera, F. P. and Dewitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, John Wiley, 2002.
2. Fox, R. W., McDonald, A. T. and Pritchard, P. J., Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 6th edition, John Wiley, 2004.
58

Post-CFD Time Frame
In the post-CFD era, a 3rd approach to computing the heat transfer coefficients has
become available, namely, numerically.
Its primary use is in inter-disciplinary simulations
Loosely coupled conjugate heat transfer (CHT) using CFD and FEA
Provide boundary conditions for radiation heat transfer modeling
Depends on the specific mesh used for CFD
If mesh is changed HTC will change
59

Different Definitions
h
qw" , L
f ,G Tw,G
(1)
qw" , L
f ,G Tw, L
(2)
qw" , L
f , L Tw, L
(3)
Equations (1) and (2)
Specifying global reference fluid temperature, Tf,G is problematic
Therefore ambiguity surrounds it usage
Equation (3)
Recommended as Best Practice for inter-disciplinary studies

Local wall temperature
qw,L local heat flux at the wall

Tf,G Global (reference) fluid temperature
Tf,L Local (near-wall) fluid temperature
Tw,G Global (reference) wall temperature
Tw,L Local (near-wall) fluid temperature
h local heat transfer coefficient
Solid
Fluid
Local fluid temperature
60

From Wall Functions
T Pr y (4)
T
A Ln y
(5)
y
T
y
T
y - intersection
T
Standard Wall Function
u T
"
W
log
TW
(7 )
Modified Wall Function
61

Method of Solution
Given wall temperature boundary condition
Calculate T+ from equation (4) or (5)
Calculate qw,L = qw from equation (6) or (7)
Calculate h from equation (3)
Given wall heat flux boundary condition
Calculate T+ from equation (4) or (5)
Calculate Tw,L from equation (6) or (7)
Calculate h from equation (3)
Using Standard Wall Function, Eq (6)
Using Modified Wall Function, Eq (7)
cP u *
T
(8)
u T
log
f , L Tw, L
TW
(9)
62

A 4th Definition
Equation (8) gives rise to an innovative possibility!
Does not need a solution of the energy equation (temperatures)
Simply solving the continuity and momentum equations is enough
Temptation to use this HTC together with an ad-hoc, reference, global

fluid temperature when solving heat conduction problems in FEA using
equation (2)
Unfortunately solid temperature solution will vary with reference

temperature, Tf,G choice.
Must be avoided as a best practice

Historically, used to (qualitatively) monitor design sensitivities using
cheaper CFD (i.e. without energy equation). Becoming irrelevant due to
faster computers.
63

Essentials
Rewriting equation (3):
qw h f (T f Tw )
qw , Tf , Tw are fundamental parameters; can be measured
qw , Tw are unambiguous
Latitude in the choice of Tf (depending upon distance from surface)
The HTC, hf is a constant of proportionality
The choice of Tf will determine hf
By itself the HTC, hf has no meaning,
hf MUST be used in combination with Tf
LOCAL Quantities
Pointers
CHT in general can be loosely or strongly coupled dictated by the physics
In a loose coupling, several iterations will be necessary
64

Typical Values
Mechanism
Fluid
HTC (W/m2-K)
Natural
Convection
Gases
2 50
Liquids
50 4000
Forced
Convection
Gases
10 500
Liquids
100 75,000
Boiling
300 1,000,000
Evaporation
300 50,000
Condensation
300 100,000
Phase Change
65
Equivalent HTC for Thermal Radiation
q"
4
S
4
sur
hr A TS Tsur
2
hr TS Tsur TS2 Tsur
Reference Temperature - Tsur
66
Loose Coupling of In-Cylinder CFD and FEA Models

Prediction of Metal Temperatures and Thermal Stresses
Engine Simulation Model
In-Cylinder CFD
Iteration 1
Strongly Coupled CHT Not an Option
HTC, Tgas
FEA Heat Conduction

Iteration 1
Assumed Twall
In-Cylinder CFD
Iteration 2
In-Cylinder CFD
Iteration 3
HTC, Tgas
HTC, Tgas
FEA Heat Conduction

Iteration 2
FEA Heat Conduction

Iteration 3
67
Validation Best Practices

CFD Models
Difference between Model and Measurements:
Root cause could be lost in the complex methodology
Start simple
Become progressively more complex
Measurement errors
Empiricism
Problem formulation
Material properties
Wall treatment
Grid independence
Grid quality
Caution: Errors canceling out fortuitously
Systematic validation for each of the potential sources of error

Acceptable accuracy
68
Natural Convection
Turbulent Flow in a 2D Cavity
Temperature
Velocity
Geometry
Reference data: Experiments
Cold Nu
Courtesy CD-Adapco
Hot Nu
k-epsilon with
low-Re mesh
69
Natural Convection
Turbulent Flow in a 2D Cavity
Velocity
Temperature
Reference data: Experiments
Two-layer model
Geometry
A=5
Courtesy CD-Adapco
70
Validation for Engine HT

Pre-requisites
Combustion (Global Quantities):
Cylinder Pressure
Burnt fuel mass fraction (SI)

Heat release rate (CI)
Heat Transfer (Local Wall Quantities)
Gas temperature
HTC
What is needed?
Detailed Measurements
Geometry
Valve Lift
Boundary and Operating Conditions

Difficulty of getting detailed measurements, geometry
71
Combustion Validation Global Quantities

Importance of Matching Cylinder Pressure and Burning Rates
SI Engine
Cylinder Pressure (MPa)
Burnt Fuel Mass Fraction
Global Heat Flux (MW/m2)
Equally Important
(a) Local gas temp,
(b) HT model,
(c) Numerical resolution
Investigator: Angelberger et al (1997)

HT Model: Angelberger et al (1997)
Combustion Model: Modified CFM
Angelberger, C., Poinsot, T. and Delhay, B., Improving Near-Wall Combustion and Wall Heat Transfer
Modeling in SI Engine Computations, SAE Technical Paper Series, No. 972881, pp. 113-130, 1997.
72
Combustion Validation
Cylinder Pressures
Simulations: Angelberger et al (1997)
CFD Simulations
Measurements
Cylinder Pressure, bars
PCP = 25 bars
Ignition Timing
(-27 BTDC)
CFD and Measurements

SI Engine
Crank Angle
1. Angelberger, C., Poinsot, T. and Delhay, B., Improving Near-Wall Combustion and Wall Heat Transfer
Modeling in SI Engine Computations, SAE Technical Paper Series, No. 972881, pp. 113-130, 1997.
73
Heat Transfer Validation

Comparison of Wall Functions with Measurements
DI Diesel Engine
Variation of
properties can have
a 4-fold Effect
Difficulty of
predicting flame
arrival
Investigator: Kleeman et al (2001)
1. Kleeman, A. P., Gosman, A. D. And Binder, K. B., Heat Transfer in Diesel
Engines: A CFD Evaluation Study, The Fifth International Symposium on
Diagnostics and Modeling of Combustion in Internal Combustion Engines
(COMODIA), July 1-4, Nagoya, Japan, 2001.
HT Model: Angelberger et al (1997)

Combustion Model: Eddy Break-up LATCT
Measurements: Daimler
74
Heat Transfer Validation

Comparison of Wall Functions with Measurements
SI Engine
Variation of
properties can
have a 2-fold
effect
Firing Engine
1. Han, Z. and Reitz, R. D., A Temperature Wall Function Formulation for Variable-Density
Turbulent Flows with Application to Engine Convective Heat Transfer Modeling,
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 40, No 3., pp. 613-625, 1997.
Motoring Engine
Investigator: Han et al (1997)
HT Model: Han et al (1997)
Combustion Model: Abraham et al (1987)
75
Engine Heat Transfer Through Components

Heat Transfer PATHS
In-Cylinder Gas
Cylinder Head
Cylinder Liner
Piston
Valves
Gas to surface radiation negligible
Cylinder Head
Coolant
Valves/Seats/Stem/Guide
Ports
Piston
Piston Rings Cylinder Liner
Cylinder Liner
Piston underside / Lube oil jets / Crankcase oil splash
Friction between piston and liner
Block
Coolant
In-Cylinder surface to surface radiation

76

Heat Transfer Processes
Gas side heat transfer (CFD in-cylinder flow)

Coolant side heat transfer (CFD coolant flow)
Lube oil side heat transfer (piston, lower liner)
Heat Flux between different parts
Crank-angle dependent events
77

Cylinder Head
Peak temperatures occur in regions where access to cooling is difficult,
namely, the valve bridge and the region between exhaust valves of
adjacent cylinders
High mass, high cost component in the vehicle. Therefore, thermal
optimization using a model is necessary
Cylinder Liner
Integral with the block and is in contact with the cylinder gases
Thermal distortion of the liner and piston can impact piston component
of engine friction.
Engine Block
High mass, high cost component in the vehicle. Therefore, thermal
optimization using a model is necessary
78

Piston and Piston Rings
Heat flow from piston to rings and then to the liner
Heat flow directly from piston to the liner
Friction between piston rings and liner
Exhaust Valves
The relatively high temperatures of the exhaust valves can cause knock
The thermal effects of exhaust blow-down must be comprehended

Heat transfer between the valve and the seat insert, valve stem and
guide must be comprehended.
Exhaust Port
Complex thermal physics in the exhaust port needs to be modeled to
ensure accuracy of modeling downstream exhaust components.
79

Exhaust Manifold
The presence of an EGR system and/or a turbocharger increases the
importance of optimizing this manifold
Important source of heat to underhood components. The exterior
temperature of the manifold (together with the EGR and turbocharger
systems) drives underhood packaging, material selection and cost from a
thermal standpoint.
Intake Manifold
Important to optimize for mixing of EGR gases with intake air.
Important to optimize for cylinder variability.
80
Cylinder Head Steady Temperatures

Thermocouple Measurements
Peak temperatures where
access to cooling is difficult.
Valve bridge
1. Finlay et al, Factors influencing combustion chamber wall temperatures in a liquid
cooled, automotive, spark ignition engine, Proceedings Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, vol. 199, no. D3, pp. 207-214, 1985.
81
Liner Steady Temperatures and Heat Fluxes

Predictions using Engine Simulation Program
Exposed to hot gases for a

larger time fraction
qL Total heat flux in/ the liner
qGL heat flux from the gas /

the liner.
Exposed to cooler gases for a

smaller time fraction
1. Woschni, G., Prediction of Thermal Loading of Supercharged Diesel Engines, SAE

paper 790821, 1979
82
Liner Instantaneous Heat Fluxes

Measurements on a DI Diesel Engine
Measurement locations
on the liner
Sugihara, T., Shimano, K., Enomoto, Y., Suzuki, Y., Emi, M., Direct heat loss to combustion
chamber walls in a DI Diesel Engine, SAE Technical Paper 2007-24-006, 2007.
83
Liner Instantaneous Heat Fluxes
MW/m2
Measurements
MW/m2
Local heat flux on the liner at C1
Local heat flux on the liner at C9

Sugihara, T., Shimano, K., Enomoto, Y., Suzuki, Y., Emi, M., Direct heat loss to combustion
chamber walls in a DI Diesel Engine, SAE Technical Paper 2007-24-006, 2007.
84
Parts of a Typical Piston
Piston rings cool the piston

Kovach et al, Engine friction reduction for improved fuel economy, SAE paper 820085, 1982
85
Piston Steady Temperatures

Measurements
Li, C-H, Piston thermal deformation and friction considerations, SAE Paper 820086, 1982
86
Piston Heat Fluxes

Percent Heat Outflow
Ring Heat Transfer

Important
Furuhama., S, et al Temperature distribution of piston rings and piston in high speed diesel
engine, Bull. JSME, vol. 22, no. 174, pp. 1788-1795, 1979
87
Exhaust Valves
Measured Temperatures
High velocity of gases

during blowdown
1. Worthen, R. P. and Raven, D. G., Measurements of valve temperatures and strain in a

firing engine, SAE paper 860356, 1986
88
Exhaust Manifold
Predicted Temperatures On Inside Surface Using CFD
Courtesy of Showatech, Inc.
89
Bay-to-Bay Breathing
Schematic
1. Ranganathan, R., "Crankcase pumping network flow model for a four stroke engine," 1999 SAE Congress, Cobo
Center, Detroit, March 1-4, 1999, SAE paper No. 1999-01-0215, SAE Special Publication SP-1451.
90
Interactions
Crankcase windage rotating components moving through a bath

liquid oil and gases
Oil drain back necessary to avoid engine failure due to starving
the oil pump
Positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) transferring blowby gases
from the bays to the engine intake and intro the combustion
chamber
Oil aeration reduce pump efficiency, oil pressure and increase oil
temperature and consumption
91
Results
92
Results
93
Results
94
Results
95
General Cooling System Considerations

Metal Temperatures
High Metal Temperatures / Low Coolant Velocities
Melting damage to metal
Thermal stress damage to metal
Lower fatigue life
Knock problems
Boiling induced local structural damage
Low Metal Temperatures / High Coolant Velocities

Fuel economy loss due to high rate of cooling (energy loss)
Fuel economy penalty due to higher parasitic power
Unburned hydrocarbon and CO emissions increase
96
Role of Boiling in Cooling System Design

Topics
Cooling System Design using CFD

Suppression of Boiling
Utilization of Boiling
Cavitation in Cooling System
97
Cooling System Design

Example: Opposed-Piston Two Stroke Engine
Patrick Lee and Michael Wahl, Cylinder Cooling for Improved Durability on an Opposed-Piston Engine,
SAE 2012-01-1215, 2012
98
Heat Flux Distribution

In-Cylinder Walls
AXIAL
Heat Flux Distribution
SAE 2012-01-1215, 2012
99
Temperature Variation
In-Cylinder Walls Design 1
AXIAL
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
SAE 2012-01-1215, 2012
100
AXIAL
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
SAE 2012-01-1215, 2012
101
AXIAL
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
SAE 2012-01-1215, 2012
102
AXIAL
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
SAE 2012-01-1215, 2012
103
Physics of Boiling
Nucleate and Film Boiling
Applied Heat Flux
Sudden Transition
nucleate boiling film boiling
film boiling nucleate boiling
104
Boiling Heat Transfer

Empirical Expression
Rohsenow, 1952
105
Validation of CFD Model of Boiling

Robinsons Experiment
Inlet:
v=0.25 m/s , 1.00 m/s
p=1 bar, 2 bar, 3 bar
T=90 C
Liquid
50% water + 50% ethylene glycol by volume
Heating wall
constant temperature
All other walls
adiabatic
Courtesy CD-adapco
106

Comparison of Robinsons Experiment with CFD Results
Typical distribution of liquid vapour, temperature and velocity
Courtesy CD-adapco
107

Comparison of Robinsons Experiment with CFD Results
VINLET = 0.25 m/s
Experiment
Pressure = 1 bar
STAR-CCM+ HBM
Experiment
Pressure = 2 bar
STAR-CD
E2P
STAR-CD
E2P
Courtesy CD-adapco
STAR-CCM+ HBM
108
Suppression of Boiling Heat Transfer

Thermal/CFD Analysis of Engine Cylinder Head
Mesh Imported from Parasolid model
Mesh statistics:
150k Fluid cells with 2 layer extrusion cells
450k Structural cells
Boundary Conditions assigned realistic values
but without detailed spatial variation
9 Operating Points: (1, 2, 3) bar pressure x

(80%, 100%, 120%) flow rates
Run Time: 15mins on 4 cpus per point
Courtesy CD-adapco
109

Polyhedral Mesh Showing Fluid and Structural Domains
Fluid
Courtesy CD-adapco
110

Mesh Detail at Fluid Structure Interface
Courtesy CD-adapco
111

Velocity Magnitude
Courtesy CD-adapco
112

Parametric Changes Effect of System Pressure
Pressure = 1 bar
Flow rate = 100%
Vapor Volume Fraction

Courtesy CD-adapco
113

Parametric Changes Effect of System Pressure
Pressure = 3 bar
Flow rate = 100%
Reduced boiling with

Increased Pressure

Courtesy CD-adapco
114

Parametric Changes Effect of Flow Velocity
Pressure = 2 bar
Flow rate = 80%

Courtesy CD-adapco
115

Parametric Changes Effect of Flow Velocity
Pressure = 2 bar
Flow rate = 120%
Reduced boiling with

Increased Flow Rate

Courtesy CD-adapco
116

Vapour Generation Pressure / Flow Rate Matrix
1 bar
2 bar
Reduced boiling
3 bar
80 % flow
Courtesy CD-adapco
100 % flow
120 % flow
117

Structural Temperature
Courtesy CD-adapco
118

Whole Engine Conjugate Heat Transfer Including Boiling
Overall simulation time: 5 hours on 10 CPUs, Intelxeon 2.6GHz
over 3 orders magnitude convergence
Temperature
Flow field in cooling jacket

Courtesy CD-adapco
119
Utilization of Boiling Heat Transfer

Nucleate Boiling Cooling Systems
Change coolant system design philosophy
Reduce cooling system size and weight
Reduce fuel consumption
Reduce parasitic pumping power
From attempt to suppress coolant boiling under all conditions

To utilization of high boiling heat transfer rates at high heat loads
Reduce fuel consumption
Enable precision cooling of engine areas
Increase engine durability.
Argonne National Laboratories
120
Boiling Coolant Technology Development

Argonne National Laboratory (Yu, France and Smith, 2008)
Design, fabricate and utilize a unique experimental facility
Experimentally determine boiling heat transfer rates & pressure drops
Emphasis on small coolant passages of head region

Emphasis on boiling of binary coolant mixture of water & ethylene glycol.
Determine boiling heat transfer limits
Horizontal flow of water and ethylene glycol/water mixtures

Vertical flow of water and ethylene glycol/water mixtures
Generate essential information for design of nucleate-boiling cooling systems
Critical heat flux

Two-phase flow instability
Model Development
Vehicle coolant system design

Heat transfer design
Correlation of data for engine cooling-system design purposes
121

Flow of ethylene glycol 50/50 through a horizontal duct
122

Flow of ethylene glycol 50/50 through a horizontal duct
123

Flow of water through a horizontal duct
124

Flow of water through a horizontal duct
125

Flow of water through a vertical duct
126

Flow of water through a vertical duct
127

Nucleate Boiling Model
CHEN Model
AVL Model
Measurements
Courtesy AVL List GmbH
128
Cavitation Induced Impediments

Locomotive Cooling System Example
Rationale
Weak link in locomotive operation high altitude and tunnel

High Altitude mountainous geography requires 3+ locomotives
Tunnel confined space causes hot ambient for the radiators
Engine de-rated due to cooling system cavitation
Minimum static pressure is at the cooling pump inlet negative gage
Nozzle diffuser device elevates pump-in pressure by grounding the throat
Locomotive experiments, spreadsheet analysis
Patented
Raj Ranganathan and Edward Cryer, III, Cooling Pump Cavitation Suppressor, Patent No: US 6932029 B2,
August 23, 2005.
129
Cavitation Suppressor
Locomotive Cooling System
Coolant Level
Coolant
Tank
Computational domain
Axis
Not to Scale
35 mm
X
few inches
K
Pressure inlet BC
Grounding
the pressure
Inlet to the cooling

pump ~ Minimum
pressure in the
cooling system
Raj Ranganathan and Edward Cryer, III, Cooling Pump Cavitation Suppressor, Patent No: US 6932029 B2,
August 23, 2005.
130
Dynamic Viscosity of Oil Versus Temperature

Strong Temperature Dependence
Temperature (K)
Dynamic Viscosity
(N-s/m2)
Prandtl
Number
273
4.0
50,000
300
0.5
6,250
325
0.1
1,250
350
0.04
500
375
0.016
200
400
0.01
125
425
0.006
75
Andy Sutherland, Fuel economy and cabin heating improvements thanks to thermal management
solutions installed in a diesel hybrid electric vehicle, SAE 2010-01-0800; Courtesy of Ricardo
131
Friction Behaviour During Engine Warm-Up

Effect of Lubrication Oil Viscosity
Shayler, P. J., Baylis, W. S. and Murphy, M., Main Bearing Friction and Thermal Interaction During the Early Seconds of
Cold Engine Operation, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, January 2005, Vol. 127, pp. 197-205.
132
Friction Losses
SI and CI Engines
1. Ball, W. F., Jackson, N. S., Pilley, A. D. and Porter, B. C., The friction of a 1.6 liter automotive engine
gasoline and diesel, SAE paper 860418, 1986
133
Instantaneous Main Bearing Friction

Effect of Adiabatic Bearing and Journal
Zammit, Jean-Paul, Shayler, P. J., Gardiner, R., and Pegg, I., Investigating the Potential to Reduce Crankshaft Main
Bearing Friction During Engine Warm-up by Raising Oil Feed Temperature, SAE 2012-01-1216, 2012.
134
Cumulative Main Bearing Friction

Effect of Lubrication Oil Warm-Up and Thermal Isolation
Zammit, Jean-Paul, Shayler, P. J., Gardiner, R., and Pegg, I., Investigating the Potential to Reduce Crankshaft Main
Bearing Friction During Engine Warm-up by Raising Oil Feed Temperature, SAE 2012-01-1216, 2012.
135
Viscous Dissipation in Fluid Flows

Local Temperature Rise in Flow Through Flat Parallel Plates
2
a dP y
1
u

2 dx a
4
2
Continuity
Momentum
12 Q
dP
dx
a3
Y = a/2
Y=0
du
d T

2
dy
dy
2
Energy
BC
dT
0 at y a / 2
dy
T Tref at y 0
Solution
12 Q y 4
3
k a
a3 y

12 24 Tref
Closed Form Solution

136
Viscous Dissipation in Parallel Plate Flow

Local Temperature Rise
Prandtl
Number
(typical)
Fluid
Example
Mean
Velocity
Br x dT
Closed
Form: Local
Temp Rise
Mean Temp
Increase
Closed
Form dP
m/s
deg-C
deg-C
Pa
Gases
20
0.4
0.9
0.12
48
10
Water
20
0.8
480
100
Ethylene
glycol
20
40
90
4800
1000
Engine oil
20
400
900
80
48000
10000
Engine oil
20
4000
9000
800
480000
Gases
100
10
23
1.2
240
Gases
200
40
90
3.2
480
137
Lube Oil Energy Balance

Oil as the Control Volume
Steve Zoz, Steve Strepek, Marc Wiseman, Cheng Qian, Engine Lubrication System Model for Sump Oil
Temperature Prediction, SAE 2001-01-1073, 2001
138
Lube Oil System

Physical Model
139
Validation of Predicted Temperatures

Comparison with Measurements
140
Relative Magnitudes of Heat Transfer Rates

Model Predictions
141
Oil Sump Temperature Vs Coolant Temperature

Oil as the Control Volume
142
Component Temperatures
143
Wall Temperatures
144
Piston Cooling Jets

Transient Response When Jets Are Switched Off
Measured Piston Temperatures
David Luff, Theo Law, Paul Shayler and Ian Pegg, The effect of piston cooling jets on diesel engine
piston temperatures, emissions and fuel consumption, SAE 2012-01-1212
145
Piston Cooling Jets

Transient Response When Jets Are Switched On
Measured Piston Temperatures
146
Piston Cooling Jets

Cylinder Liner Temperatures
147
Piston Cooling Jets

Measured Engine Oil Temperatures
148
Piston Cooling Jets

Transient Response When Jets Are Switched On
Measured Engine Oil Pressures
149
Piston Cooling Jets

Active Control of Jets for the NEDC Cycle
Jets Closed
Piston temperatures higher by 20-80oC
CO lower by 5-10%
NOx higher by 3%
Reduces engine oil flow through the lube circuit
Greater flow through internal (pump) bypass
Higher pump out pressure
Higher pump power consumption (parasitic loss)
Compensated by better combustion due to higher
piston temperatures
Active Control of Jets
CO lower by 6%
NOx higher by 1%
With NO fuel economy change
150
Vehicle Thermal Model

Oil / Coolant / Cabin / AC
The following 1D thermal models were built using FLOWMASTER:

Coolant circuit
Oil circuit
Vehicle cabin
Air conditioning (A/C) circuit not presented in this paper
The global model architecture is as follows:
Oil Circuit
sump
Conduction
through engine
structure
Coolant Circuit
Cabin
heater
radiator
Cabin
Evaporator
air intake
AC Circuit
condenser
Ambient
151
Vehicle Thermal Model

Cabin Model Representation
152
Vehicle Thermal Management

Fuel Economy Improvement due to Faster Oil Warm-Up
Concept
Hot coolant flask
Two-phase heat battery for coolant

Split oil sump
Clutched water pump
Electrical water pump
Intelligent thermostat
Two-phase heat battery for oil
153

Fuel Consumption Savings
10%
NEDC
Artemis Urban
Artemis Road
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
Coolant
thermal flask
(2L)
Coolant heat
battery (4L)
Split sump
(40% active
volume)
Split sump
(20% active
volume)
Clutched
water pump
Electrical
water pump
Intelligent
thermostat
Oil heat
battery (1L)
154

Coolant Heat Storage Flask

The concept was first adopted by Toyota on the Prius 2
Insulated flask of approximately 2 litres in the main
cooling system
The flask is filled with hot coolant during normal
vehicle operation. During cold engine starts, the flask
releases the hot coolant to preheat the main coolant
circuit
Source: Toyota
Thermal model:
Flask was modelled by controlling two ball valves to
connect the flask circuit with the main
Flask dumps into the main cooling system a 2 litre
volume of 80C coolant modelled by addition of
flow sources
Source: Toyota
155

Coolant Heat Battery (Schatz)

The heat battery concept stores heat from coolant and
releases it during a vehicle cold start
The battery contains about 4 liters of coolant
The battery core is composed of sealed fins filled with
salt/water mixture of barium hydroxidrate octahydrate.
The operation relies on a latent heat release during phase
change from liquid to solid.
Thermal model:
Heat battery was modelled by introducing an auxiliary
loop containing a thermal bridge which imposes a heat
flow rate
Heat battery was assumed perfectly adiabatic during the
cycle
Initial temperature of the battery was imposed to 80C
Source: Schatz
156

Split Sump Concept
Return
The concept uses a perforated basket around

the oil pickup and return, to restrict oil
movement and mixing during warm-up,
increasing oil warm-up rate
Basket
During the warm-up phase of the cycle hot

oil is returned into the active oil volume
After the warm-up phase, utilisation of the
total oil volume is ensured by the lower oil
viscosity allowing adequate transfer through
the basket
Pick-up
Sump
Thermal Model
The oil sump basket was modelled by reducing the oil amount
respectively to:
40% of the original volume (from 4.5 litres to 1.8 litres )
20% of the original volume (from 4.5 litres to 0.9 litres )
157

Oil Heat Battery

For the sole purpose of reducing engine friction
hence fuel consumption, it is preferable to heat the
engine oil directly as opposed to via the coolant
An oil system heat battery needs to be smaller than
the coolant heat battery due to:
Packaging and installation constraints
A volume of 1 litre was deemed to be more
appropriate for the oil system
Thermal model:
The heat battery is modelled by a thermal bridge
which releases thermal power
The heat characteristic was obtained from the
coolant heat battery, and recalculated according
to the oil density and the liquid volume reduction
from 4 to 1 litre
Source: Schatz (on coolant here it is

assumed to be used on oil circuit)
158

Use exhaust heat to warm up the oil after the

oil pick-up pipe (exhaust heat exchanger
installed in the sump or outside the sump)
12
11
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Oil pump
Oil pipe to Filter
Oil Filter
Heater Matrix
Oil pick-up pipe
Wet sump
Outlet by-pass pipe
Outlet throttle
Central exhaust stream throttle
Exhaust pipe
Catalytic Converter
Exhaust Manifold
Inlet Throttle
Inlet by-pass pipe
ENGINE
10
13
1
14
9
3
BATTERY
CONTROL UNIT
Oil Temp
Input
Courtesy of Ricardo
159
160
161
162
Engine Compartment
163
Engine Under Hood and Under Body

Heat Sources and Sinks
Under Hood Sources
Under Hood Sinks
Exhaust Manifold
Hoses (coolant, oil, fuel etc.)
Turbine Housing
Wire Harness
Catalytic Converter
Rubber of engine mount
Take Down Pipes
Compressor
Under Body Sources
Under Body Sinks
Catalytic Converter
Floor Pan
DPF during regeneration

Exhaust System downstream
of DPF during regeneration
164
Engine Under Hood and Under Body

Example Temperatures
oC
Exhaust Manifold
650
Take Down Pipe
650
Exhaust Gas in Manifold
800
Radiator Exit
100
Brake Booster
75
Catalytic Converter Skin (inlet/outlet)

Exhaust Gas in Muffler
Exhaust Muffler Skin
400-600
800
300-600
Battery
75
Engine Mount
90
Transmission Oil
140
Engine Oil
140
Under hood air
80-85
165
Engine Under Hood
Hose Temperatures, oC
Hose Temperatures Using Simplified Analysis
25 mm gap
25 mm gap,
2 m/s air
100 mm gap
Source Temperatures, oC
166
Engine Under Body

Floor Pan Temperatures Using Simplified Analysis
Floor Pan Temperatures, oC
40 mm gap, no shield
40 mm gap, with shield
40 mm gap, no shield, 2m/s air
100 mm gap, no shield
Source Temperatures, oC
167
Engine Compartment
Heat Transfer Modelling Considerations
Goals of CFD
Prevent thermal problems
Guide material selection
Locate thermocouples for confirmation
Local HTC and Tf for transient component radiation models
Pointers
Couple exhaust gas flow with the engine compartment model
Heat transfer due to convection, conduction and radiation.
Uncertainties in emissivity (surface degradation, dirt, moisture)
Lateral conduction in component walls must be included.
Difficulties of modeling natural convection during soak.
Role of component radiation models.
168
Engine Compartment
Thermal Radiation Shields
169
Design Changes During a Vehicle Program

Repercussions of Changes
Freedom to make
design changes
Cost of making
design changes
Percent design complete
Knowledge of product
Product Design & Development Timeline
1. Important to make design decisions early in a vehicle

development program
2. Changes to design increasingly difficult and costly later in
a program
170
Model of Thermocouple in Exhaust Port

Coupling with Measurements and Engine Cycle Simulation Code
Salient Features of the Model
Cylinder Pressure Measurements from an Engine Dynamometer
Predict Transient Cylinder Temperatures & Exhaust Flow Rates using Engine Cycle Simulation
Compute Transient Exhaust Port Heat Transfer
Compute Transient Exhaust Port Exit Gas Temperature
Transient model of Thermocouple Temperatures using previous as boundary conditions
Balance between storage, convection and radiation; conduction neglected
Time averaging the Thermocouple model results yields an equilibrium thermocouple temperature
To survive harsh exhaust gas environment, thermocouples are large in size
Large thermocouples provide a single equilibrium temperature
Predicted and measured thermocouple temperatures compared.
Equation 5
1. Caton, J.A., Comparisons of Thermocouple, Time-Averaged and Mass-Averaged Exhaust Gas Temperatures in a Spark Ignited
Engine, SAE Technical Paper 820050, 1982
2. Caton, J.A. and Heywood, J.B., An Experimental and Analytical Study of Heat Transfer in an .Engine Exhaust Port, International
Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 581-596, April 1981.
3. Caton, J. A., Heat Transfer, Mixing and Hydrocarbon Oxidation in an Engine Exhaust Port, M.I..T., Ph.D. Thesis, February 1980.
171
Heat Transfer in the Exhaust Port

Conclusions
For an SI engine, at 7 operating conditions:
Measured transient (crank angle) cylinder pressures were used
Engine cycle simulation program used to predict transient (crank angle) exhaust gas temperatures
Transient model of an un-shielded thermocouple located in the exhaust port created
Thermocouple model Balance between energy storage, convection heat gain, radiation heat loss
Dependence of exhaust as temperatures to Load, Speed, Equivalence Ratio, Spark Timing examined
Mass-Averaged Exhaust Gas Temperatures represent the energy content of the gases
Time-Averaged Exhaust Gas Temperatures do not representative of the energy content of the gases
The Time-Averaged Exhaust Gas Temperatures were about 20oK higher than Thermocouple
Equilibrium Temperatures (both measured and modeled). This is due to the balance between
convection heat gain and radiation heat loss from the thermocouple
The Time-Averaged Exhaust Gas Temperatures were about 10% less than the Mass-Averaged Exhaust
Gas Temperatures
1. Caton, J.A., Comparisons of Thermocouple, Time-Averaged and Mass-Averaged Exhaust Gas Temperatures in a Spark Ignited
Engine, SAE Technical Paper 820050, 1982
2. Caton, J.A. and Heywood, J.B., An Experimental and Analytical Study of Heat Transfer in an .Engine Exhaust Port, International
Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 581-596, April 1981.
3. Caton, J. A., Heat Transfer, Mixing and Hydrocarbon Oxidation in an Engine Exhaust Port, M.I..T., Ph.D. Thesis, February 1980.
172
Mass Averaged Versus Thermocouple Temperatures

Thermocouple Temperature ~ Time Averaged Temperature
Mass Flow Rate
Mass Flow Rate
2.24 g/s
Temperature
2.24 g/s
Temperature
469oK
137oK
Mass Averaged Values

Time Averaged Gas Temperature 183oK
173
Interaction of Exhaust Port Gas Flows in the Manifold

V-6 Engine (Two Manifolds) Mass Flow Rates
8.67 g/s
2.89 g/s
Exhaust Port Exit Manifold Inlet
Manifold Exit
Time Averaged Values
174

V-6 Engine (Two Manifolds) Gas Temperatures
947oK
876oK
Manifold Exit
Mass Averaged Gas Temperature 962oK

175

V-6 Engine (Two Manifolds) Flows and Temperatures
947oK
876oK
Manifold Exit
2.89 g/s
8.67 g/s
Manifold Exit
176

Inline-6 Engine (Single Manifolds) Mass Flow Rates
17.36 g/s
2.89 g/s
Manifold Exit
177

Inline-6 Engine (Single Manifolds) Gas Temperatures
975oK
877oK
Manifold Exit
Mass Averaged Gas Temperature 962oK


Inline-6 Engine (Single Manifolds)
975oK
877oK
Manifold Exit
Manifold Exit
179
Effect of Radiation on Gas Temperature Measurements
Temperature Shortfall, oC
Shielded versus Unshielded Thermocouples
Unshielded Thermocouple Measurement, oC

Radiation Error ~ 6oC 30oC
Ranganathan, R., Turner, D. and Franchett, M., Exhaust Manifold Gas Temperature Predictions using
System Level Data Driven Modeling, SAE 2005-01-0698, 2005.
180
Mass Averaged Gas Temperature (MAGT) Corrected for Radiation

Effect of Wall Temperature
MAGT Corrected for Radiation, oC
Low Wall Temperature
Thermocouple = 723oC
MAGT = 737oC
Thermocouple Emissivity = 1.0
Wall Temperature = MAGT
Wall Inside Surface Temperature, oC

Range ~ 70oC
181
Effect of Thermocouple Emissivity
Thermocouple = 723oC
MAGT = 737oC
Wall Temperature = 400oC
Thermocouple Hot Junction Emissivity

Range ~ 20oC
182
Effect of Thermocouple Emissivity
Thermocouple Emissivity = 1.0

Wall Temperature = 600oC
MAGT, oC
Radiation Error ~ 9oC 50oC
183
Exhaust Manifold Exit Gas Temperatures

Temperature Inlet Boundary Conditions for Downstream CFD Models
Factors to be considered
Heat transfer from the gases in the manifold to the ambient
Time delay due to different ports being at different distances from manifold exit
For an Adiabatic Manifold, Mass Averaged Gas Temperature at Exit = Mass Averaged Gas
Temperature at Inlet
Mass Averaged Gas Temperature ~ Time Averaged Gas Temperature
Thermocouple (equilibrium) Temperature (measured) < MAGT or TAGT by 2%
Example
Thermocouple (equilibrium) Temperature (measured) at Manifold Exit = 723oC
Mass Averaged Gas Temperature (2%) = 723 + 14 = 737oC
Correction for Radiation to walls at 600oC = 766oC
184
Exhaust Gas Temperatures

Early in a Vehicle Development Program
Ranganathan, R., Turner, D. and Franchett, M., Exhaust

Manifold Gas Temperature Predictions using System Level
Data Driven Modeling, SAE 2005-01-0698, 2005.
185

Sensitivity to Vehicle Parameters
186

Sensitivity to Vehicle and Engine Parameters
187
Simple Turbocharged Engine

Schematic Diagram
Figure from Fundamentals of Turbocharging, by Nicholas Baines (2005) used by

permission of Concepts NREC
188
Gas Exchange Processes in a Turbocharged Engine

One Dimensional Model
Figure from Fundamentals of Turbocharging, by Nicholas Baines (2005) used by

permission of Concepts NREC
189
Turbocharger Heat Transfer

Overview
HT Inventory:
Turbine Ambient: 65%
Turbine Bearing Oil: 25%
Turbine Compressor: 5%
Bearing Friction: 5 %
Turbocharger Energy Flows
HT Notes:
Compressor impacted by HT
(Bohn et al 2003)
Bearing oil key role in cooling
Differences in HT between gas

stand and actual engine
Thermal radiation from turbine
Lateral conduction in the housing
Two Solution Paths:

Test: Adiabatic, non-adiabatic, hot and cold gas stands
Analysis: CHT (CFD/FEA)
Turbocharger CFD also involves HT considerations
Nick Baines, Karl Wygant and Antonis Dris, The analysis of heat transfer in
automotive turbochargers, Proc ASME Turbo EXPO 2009: Power for land, sea
and air, June 8-12, Orlando, Florida, ASME GT2009-59353
190

Conjugate HT Study Surface Temperature Distribution
Bohn Dieter, Heuer Tom and Kusterer Karsten, Conjugate flow and heat transfer
investigation of a turbo charger: Part 1: Numerical Results, Proc ASME Turbo
Expo 2003, June 16-19, 2003 Atlanta, Georgia.
191

Conjugate Heat Transfer Study Fluid and Solid Temperatures
Bohn Dieter, Heuer Tom and Kusterer Karsten, Conjugate flow and heat transfer
investigation of a turbo charger: Part 1: Numerical Results, Proc ASME Turbo
Expo 2003, June 16-19, 2003 Atlanta, Georgia.
192
Exhaust After-Treatment
Definition of Problems
Rationale
Diesel engine after treatment devices remove NOx and particles from exhaust gas
Inject liquid HC for oxidation in DOC to enable DPF (Diesel Particulate Filter) regeneration
Inject liquid DEF (Diesel Exhaust Fluid) for NOx conversion in SCR (Selective Catalytic Reduction)
Spray dynamics
Mixing of vapors and exhaust gas currently inadequate
Objective: Improve evaporation and mixing
EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation)
High stresses due to hot spots
EGR Mass Fraction
Courtesy Rick James
DPF Soot Distribution
193
NOx Formation and Local Gas Temperatures
Seiji Yamamoto et al, Numerical simulation of diesel combustion with high EGR rate, 7 th
International Conference on Modeling and Diagnostics for Advanced Engine Systems
COMODIA 2008, July 28-31, 2008, Sapporo, Japan
194
Use of Mixers
Role of Mixers
Mixers improve the atomization and evaporation by changing the flow pattern of the injected
liquid and enhancing turbulence
Mixers speed up decomposition reactions (DEF) via same enhanced turbulence
Mixers improve the uniformity of the mixture thereby reducing potential of ammonia slip
(SCR), UHC (DOC) and efficient utilization of all devices.
Mixer
Mixer
Courtesy Rick James /Simutech/ANSYS
195
Conventional Mixer Concepts
Yong Yi, Development of a 3D Numerical model for predicting spray, urea decomposition
and mixing in SCR Systems, SAE 07-FFL-26
196
Conventional Mixer Performance
Uniformity Index
1
1
2
X
X
V X dA
V dA
Yong Yi, Development of a 3D Numerical model for predicting spray, urea decomposition
and mixing in SCR Systems, SAE 07-FFL-26
197
Nozzle Diffuser Mixer

Patent Pending
1. Raj Ranganathan, Sandro Balestrino, Bob Straub and Sharon Li,Enhanced nozzle diffuser mixer for evaporation,
opened on 12 January 2009, filed with the US Patent Office on 10 November, 2009, USPTO Ser. No. 12/615618
2. Raj Ranganathan, Bob Straub, Sherif El Tahry,Nozzle diffuser mixer, opened on 13 May 2008, filed with the US
Patent Office on 13 July, 2008, USPTO Ser. No. 12/171865
198

Basic Principle
Injector
Axis of pipe and cone
Cone
Diffuser
Exhaust pipe
Patent Pending
Nozzle
199

Basic Principle
Slow moving Gas, Vapor, Droplets
Injector
-- Residence Time
-- Mixing Length
-- Cone Surface Evaporation
Recirculation
Patent Pending
Axis
Fast moving Gas
Exhaust pipe
200

Variant Design
Injector
Bigger Tumble Recirculation
Axis
Deflectors?
Exhaust pipe
Asymmetric Cone
201

Vapor Concentration at DOC Inlet
Conventional Fan Mixer
202

Velocities
Low Exhaust Flow (0.2-36.0 m/s)
Medium Exhaust Flow (0.1-86.5 m/s)
Velocity Vectors on mid plane
High Exhaust Flow (0.2-147.0 m/s)

203

Velocities
Low Exhaust Flow (2.1-3.2 m/s)
Medium Exhaust Flow (4.3-6.7 m/s)
Normal Velocity Contours on Inlet

plane of Substrate
High Exhaust Flow (7.9-10.7 m/s)

204
After-Treatment Devices
CFD Process
Mesh Quality:
Boundary layer grid

Geometry Features
Spray Dynamics sub-model:
Default constants modified
User Code:
Uniformity Index (UI) for mixing of urea / HC with exhaust gas

UI for vapor, vapor + liquid, velocity
% Evaporation rate
Steady state & transient runs
Any monitoring plane , Velocities normal to plane, Reversal of velocities accounted for
Mass flow rate weighted average of vapor & liquid concentrations
Blend CFD with Test data: Correlation

DOC Chemistry Model formulation
SCR Chemistry Model formulation
205
The diameter of the substrates is

fairly critical.
Mesh: Capture Geometry Essential Features

206
Mesh: Boundary layer grid

207
Effect of Spray Model Constants

Fully hexahedral boundary layer mesh, standard k-e model, H2O injection
1
Default
Constants
Droplet Break Up
ON
OFF
OFF
OFF
ON
ON
Wall Film
ON
ON
OFF
OFF
ON
ON
Droplet Collision
OFF
OFF
OFF
OFF
OFF
OFF
Particle Break-Up
Unsteady
Unsteady
Unsteady
Steady
Unsteady
Unsteady
5e-5
10
10
10000
10
10
5e-5
10
10
10000
10
10
5e-5
10
10
10000
10
10
1e-3
10
1
10000
10
5
1e-3
10
1
10000
10
5
1e-3
10
1
1250
10
3
~ 50
~ 50
~ 50
~ 32
~5
~1
~1
~1
~1
~1
~1
8.1
16.1
31.0
53.0
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Particle time step size (s)

# of CP Iterations / DPM iteration
No of time steps
Maximum Number of Steps
Number of Diameters
Number of Particle Streams
CFD Turn-around time (Hrs)

Number of Processors
CFD data transfer time (Hrs)
1.
2.
Urea mass balance SCR inlet

Urea mass balance tailpipe exit
0.8
6.4
No. of HEX / TET Cells (millions)
1.2 / 0
1.2 / 0
1.2 / 0
1.2 / 0
1.2 / 0
0.10 / 0.05
Solver Precision
Double
Double
Double
Single
Single
Single
Discretization Order (Upwind)
Second
Second
Second
First
First
First
30-150
30-150
30-150
30-150
30-150
30-150
H2O Uniformity Index
0.91
0.90
0.90
0.85
0.85
0.84
H2O+Liquid Uniformity Index
0.80
0.81
0.78
0.77
0.77
0.66
Velocity Uniformity Index
0.91
0.91
0.91
0.91
0.91
0.91
Evaporation Rate (SCR Inlet) %
59.8
49.6
29.6
55.2
55.2
52.3
Y Range
208
3D porous media CFD model with solid & gas in local thermal equilibrium
Highly simplified chemistry: exhaust gas + HC -> exhaust gas
Evaporation of HC droplets
Energy and species source terms due to chemistry & evaporation
Constrained particle motion in the DOC & DPF through user code
Arrhenius expression: R = A TB e-C/T
Tuned constants with test data
A = 1.2e11, B = 0.0, C = 12218, T local gas temperature in oK
Chemistry in the DPF not accounted for
209
CFD
Test
Note:-Not to scale
DPF Temperatures: Comparison with Experimental Results

210
3D porous media CFD model with solid & gas in local thermal equilibrium
Source terms in energy and species conservation equations modeled by
balancing convection mass transfer rate of the reacting species with
surface reaction rates using separate surface & gas concentrations
3 Reaction NOx conversion model: Fast, Standard & Slow SCR reactions
Species: NO, NO2, CO2, H2O, N2 and NH3
Two step de-coupled CFD:
1) Steady state using time averaged urea injection rate, spray models, full exhaust system
2) Steady state CFD model of SCR using BC (pressure, temperature, species) from above
Adsorption / Desorption not included

NO to NO2 conversion in DOC not included
NH3 to NOx re-conversion not included
211
Pressure Outlet
Vapor UI= 0.90
Convective Walls
Mass Flow inlet

(Profile)
Evaporation Rate = 54.4%

(Components are Air and H2O)
Inlet profiles computed from the full exhaust CFD model
Simplified SCR Model
Liquid+Vapor UI= 0.84
212
NO2 SCR
Inlet
NH3 SCR
Inlet
NO SCR
Inlet
NH3 SCR
Outlet
NO SCR
Outlet
NO2 SCR
Outlet
Inlet and Outlet Species Mass Fraction Profile

213
Mining CFD Output to Validate With Tests
Vapor Mass Fraction UI = 0.93
Vapor + Liquid Mass Fraction UI = 0.89
Local Mass flux of Vapor, UI = 0.89
Temperature
Tests
Liquid Mass Fraction
Local Mass flux of Liquid
Velocity UI = 0.78
214
Catalytic Converter Light-Off

Overview
Since the time to light off is so critical in overall vehicle emissions, consideration
must be given at the design stage
Key components such as exhaust manifold and turbocharger can have a significant
effect on the light-off and emissions and so must be considered as early as
possible
This drives the requirement for an analysis toolset which can accurately predict
the effect of design changes, both detailed and concept, on the gas temperature
provided to the catalyst and ultimately the catalyst performance
Thermally induced stresses and fatigue life are other considerations
Catalytic Converter on a 1996

Dodge Ram Van
Courtesy of Ricardo
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_converter
215
Exhaust Tail Pipe Gas Temperature Control

Diesel Trucks with DPF
Rationale
Diesel engine filters remove particles from exhaust gas

Filter is cleansed periodically by oxidation of particles (regeneration)
Exhaust gas temperature at tail pipe > 500 - 700oC
Objective: Lower the gas temperature
216
Passive Exhaust Cooler
Hot Exhaust
Accelerator
Ambient Air
Annulus
Entrainer
Duct
Diffuser
Cooler Exit
Cooled Exhaust
PHENOMENA
ENTRAINMENT: Fluid flow is driven by pressure, body and viscous (shear)
forces. The net sum of these equals inertia forces. In this device, large radial
velocity gradients between high velocity exhaust gas and low velocity ambient
air create viscous forces that pull ambient air into the device. Pressure forces
play a smaller role.
MIXING: Enabled by radial velocity gradients and flow development.
VACUUM: The device (except the first nozzle) is below atmospheric pressure,
discouraging backflow through the annulus.
SIMPLEST-FORM: Small diameter pipe going into larger pipe!
DESCRIPTION
ACCELERATOR: Nozzle accelerates the gas to entrain sufficient ambient air into
the device. Noise absorber required if velocities are high.
ANNULUS: Air is drawn through the annulus between the accelerator and the
entrainer.
ENTRAINER: Entrained air mixes with the exhaust gas.
DUCT: Optimizing, mixing.
DIFFUSER: Lowers back pressure, rated power penalty and mixes the fluids.
SPACING: Spacing between accelerator exit and entrainer inlet increases
cooling.
CROSS-SECTION: Circular, oval or other form to meet requirements i.e.
manage trade offs between performance, penalties, limits etc.
COOLER-EXIT: May be slanted to change exit direction, back pressure.
Raj Ranganathan, B Deep, B Murthy, T Stewart, Fluid entrainment apparatus, Patent No.: US 7637099, Dec 29, 2009 .
217
Exhaust Tail Pipe Gas Temperature

Passive Cooler
Raj Ranganathan, B Deep, B Murthy, T Stewart, Fluid entrainment apparatus, Patent No.: US Dec 29, 2007637099, 9 .
218

Passive Cooler
Production cooler on a MY 2007 diesel truck
219

Passive Cooler Bent for Packaging
220

Cooler Exposed to Mud and Snow
Mud
Snow
221
Problem Formulation is key:

Computational domain & BC
Cooler placed inside large computational enclosure

Annulus: Interior boundary
Cooler Exit: Interior boundary
Inlet and exit BC of the enclosure constant pressure with a small gradient
2D axi-symmetric steady state model
Square elements aligned with the flow to minimize numerical diffusion

Quick computer turn around time speeds model development
Not distracted by geometry, transients
Understand fundamental heat transfer / fluid flow processes, key controlling parameters
User support no proprietary concerns
222
Gives GM a strategic advantage allows regeneration at idle

No moving parts simple, ingenious principle of physics applied
The simplicity of this device is its crowning achievement
Inexpensive manufacturing
High reliability
Low skin temperature
Cooler can be bent for packaging
1 mpg FE-> Save 7 million gallons of diesel fuel / yr
Cost savings for GM = $ 12 million / yr
Opportunity Income for GM = $ 5 million / yr
223

Performance
224
Temperature Dependence of Material Properties

Example Aluminum
Temperature
Aluminum rapidly looses strength above 150 C (300 F)

2/3 Strength loss at 175 C (350 F)
Tensile Strength After High Temperature Exposure

Tensile Strength, ksi
70
212 F
60
50
300 F
40
30
350 F
400 F
450 F
500 F
20
10
600 F
0.1
10
102
103
Time at Temperature, hr
104
105
225
Thermo-Mechanical Fatigue
Simulation Process for Exhaust Manifold, Turbine Housing
Design
Steady State CHT
Transient Solid Temperature
Stress Analysis
TMF Life Prediction
226
Geometry of Integrated Manifold
Heuer, T., Engels, B. and Wollscheid, P. , Thermomechanical analysis of a turbocharger based on conjugate
heat transfer, ASME Turbo Expo 2005, June 6-9, Reno-Tahoe, Nevada, US
227
Temperatures at Exterior and Interior Surfaces
228
Temperature Distribution
229
Temperature and Thermal Stresses in the Divider
230
Thermal Stresses in the Volute / Manifold Area
231
Heat Exchangers
Overview
Definition
A heat exchanger is a device in which heat is transferred

from on fluid to another across a solid boundary (wall)
Heat Exchangers in the Automobile
Radiators cool the engine

Engine Oil Cooler cool the engine lubrication oil
Transmission Oil Cooler Cool the transmission fluid
Charge Air Cooler Cool the intake air (turbocharged or
supercharged engine)
Condensers and Evaporators Air conditioning system
232
Heat Exchangers
Performance Parameters
Parameters
Hot fluid flow rate

Cold fluid flow rate
Hot fluid heat transfer area
Cold fluid heat transfer area
Wall heat conduction properties
233
Single Stream Analysis

Example Radiator
Overview
Only one of the fluid streams is modeled air side

Coolant in the tubes is assumed to have a constant temperature
The air side is the cold fluid at TC
The coolant side is the hot fluid, TH
The air side is discretized into cells, i, within a computational domain
Inlet (boundary) conditions for the air side needed
Qi U Ai TH TC ,i
234
Dual Stream Analysis

Example Radiator
Overview
Both fluid streams are modeled

The air side is the cold fluid at TC
The coolant side is the hot fluid, TH
Both fluids streams are discretized into overlapping cells, I
Overlapping cells must have one to one correspondence
Inlet boundary conditions for both fluid streams needed.
Qi U i Ai TH ,i TC ,i
235
Fundamentals of HVAC
Passenger Compartment Thermal Comfort
Objectives
Thermal comfort for occupants of the passenger compartment

Provide clean, fresh air
Keep windows clear for safe vehicle operation
Sub -Systems
Air conditioning
Heating
Ventilation
Math Model
Conservation of mass
Conservation of energy
Conservation of momentum (CFD)
Equation of state
Daltons law for mixtures
Psychrometrics relations
236
Closed System Analysis

Example of Psychrometrics
Heating Power
Volume of passenger compartment, V = 5 m3

Pressure of air, P = 1.0 bar
Initial Temperature of air, TI = 10 oC
Specific heat of air, cp = 1000 J/kg-oK
Final Temperature of air, TF = 25 oC
Time lapse = 1 minute
PV
6.23 kg
RT
Q m c p TF TI / t 1.54 kW
Equation of State
for a closed system
237
Open System Analysis

Heating Power
Volume flow rate of dry air, V = 6 m3/min

Pressure of air, P = 1.0 bar
Inlet Temperature of air, TI = 10 oC (saturated)
Partial pressures: Pv1 = 1.2276 kPa, PA1 = 101.3 - 1.2276 = 100.0724 kPa
Exit Temperature of air, TF = 25 oC
Relative humidity of air at exit = 0.70
Partial pressures: Pv2 = 0.70 x 3.169 =2.2183 kPa, PA2 = 101.3 2.2183 = 99.0817 kPa
Specific humidity: w1 = Mv/MA x Pv1 /PA1 = 0.00763 kg(v)/kg(a), w2 = 0.0139 kg(v)/kg(a)
v A1
mA
RT
0.812 m3 / kg
PA1
VA
v A1
Equation of State
7.389 kg / min
238
Open System Analysis

Heating Power
Mass of vapor generated: mA x (w2 w1) = 0.0465 kg/min
h1 Cp A T1 w1 h fg Cpw T1 287.21 kJ / kg(a)

h2 Cp A T2 w2 h fg Cpw T2 302.43 kJ / kg(a)
Q ma h1 h2 1.84 kW
for a OPEN system
239
Human Thermal Balance

Energy Transactions
Heat Transfer Mechanisms Within the Body
Metabolism Rate of energy production of the body rate of oxygen

consumption and rest/exercise factor
Sweating Evaporative heat loss
Respiration Convective and Evaporative heat loss between incoming
and outgoing breathing air
Blood Circulation Blood flow near the skin changes the skin
conductance
Heat Transfer Mechanisms External to the Body
Convection from outer surface (bare body & clothing) to air

Solar insolation on outer surface
Radiation heat exchange of outer surface with surroundings (cabin,
sky, mountains, buildings etc.)
Conduction through the clothing.
Contact with solid surfaces (example car seat)
Conduction, Convection, Radiation, Evaporation

240
Independent Heat Transfer Parameters

Human Thermal Environment
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Passenger Cabin Air Temperature convection heat transfer to air

Passenger Cabin Vapor Pressure, Relative Humidity fundamental measures of
moisture in the air
Heat transfer coefficient and Corresponding Temperature External Convection
due to Air movement (i.e. velocity field)
External Evaporation Rate Sweating (rate depends on 1, 2 and 3) primary
survival mechanism of the body from over heating
Internal Convection Rate due to Respiration (proportional to metabolic rate)
Internal Evaporation Rate due to Respiration (proportional to metabolic rate)
Radiation temperature of surroundings Long Wave Radiation energy exchange
with surroundings
Solar Flux Short Wave Radiation (solar), both direct and indirect (reflected)
Radiation properties of surfaces body, clothing, surrounding surfaces
241
Independent Heat Transfer Parameters

Human Thermal Environment
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Thickness, thermal conductivity and amount of Clothing Conduction heat transfer

through the clothing
Mean Skin Temperature, TS,O measured by sensors weighted combination of
eight local temperatures: head (7%), chest (17.5%), back (17.5%), upper arms
(7%), fore-arms (7%), hands (5%), thighs (19%) and legs (20%). Preferred range 33
to 34 oC at rest
Skin Wettedness (ratio of equivalent skin area covered with water / total skin area)
Body Heat Storage rate of change of mean body temperature, Tb preferred
range 36.3 to 36.5 oC during rest
Metabolic Energy Production
Work done by the body neglected
Heat Conduction through the Skin Balance between items 15, 16, 5 and 6
242
Physiological and Psychological Factors
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Passengers activity level

Age
Gender
Vision
Emotion
Human Thermoregulation acts to maintain constant body temperature
243
Volume Energy Balance of the Body

Steady State Model Fangers Model
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
dE
q Con q L, D q L,S q L, R q C , S q C , R q R ,S q Sol M
dt
E internal (thermal) energy of the body (J)

t time (s)
q_dot heat transfer rate (W)
M heat source within the body due to metabolic energy production(W)
Subscripts
Con heat transfer through the contact resistance between the skin and clothing (= conduction heat
transfer through clothing)
L,D Latent heat transfer of water vapor that evaporates while diffusing through the layers of skin
L,S Latent heat transfer due to evaporation of sweat from the surface of the skin
L,R Latent heat transfer from the body to the air due to humidity differences in the breathing air
C,S Convection heat transfer from the skin to the air
C,R Convection heat transfer from body to respiration air
R,S Radiation heat transfer from the skin to the surroundings (long wave)
Sol Solar irradiation (direct , scattered and reflected) on the skin (sunburn)
dE/dt rate of internal energy storage in the body (W)
Assumption Work done by the muscles that is converted into heat source within the body has been
neglected in the above model
Krzysztof Cena, Jeremy Austin Clark, Bioengineering, Thermal Physiology and Comfort, Volume 10, Google Books
244

Empirical Sub-Models
.
q L,D q L,S q L,R

.
q Con AD
S ,O
1 dm
AD dt
TC ,O
RCL
AD 0.202 m0.425 H 0.725

c m dTb
dE
b
dt
AD dt
Evaporation
Clothing
Surface Area
Energy Storage
m body mass (kg)

A Dubois surface area of human body
dm/dt rate of change of body mass
H height of body (meters)
T Temperature
T time
R Thermal resistance
c specific heat = 3500 J/kg-oK for body tissues
Subscripts
CL Clothing
S,O Skin, outer surface
C,O Clothing, outer surface
B body
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, 2001 ASHRAE Handbook,
Fundamentals, SI Edition, pp. 8.1, Atlanta, 2001.
245

Metabolic Rates and Convection Coefficients
W/m2
Activity
Sleeping
40
Reclining
45
Seated, quiet
60
Driving vehicle
60-120
Resting/Sitting
Treadmill (2 mph)
Free Walking (2 mph)
Head
3.2
4.2
7.2
Chest
2.5
3.6
4.8
Back
2.4
3.2
4.7
Metabolic Rates for Various Activities
Upper Arms Forearms

4.0
3.9
6.4
6.6
6.0
11.2
Hands
4.6
7.2
11.6
Thighs
2.8
5.0
8.7
Legs
3.7
10.5
11.8
Mean
3.1
5.8
8.4
Local Convective Heat Transfer Coefficients, W/m2-oC
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, 2001

ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals, SI Edition, pp. 8.1, Atlanta, 2001.
246
Surface Energy Balance of the Clothing Exterior

Steady State Model Fangers Model
qCon qC , conv qC , rad
Dependent upon passenger cabin air temperature,

surroundings radiation temperature , solar flux,
velocity field, thermal conductivity of clothing
q heat flux (W/m2)
Subscripts
C, conv Convection heat flux from clothing outer surface of clothing
C, rad Radiation heat flux from outer surface of clothing
247
Passenger Cabin Energy Transactions

Contributors
Contributors to Energy Flows
Energy added to the cabin (heating) by the HVAC system during cold weather
enthalpy lost by the HVAC air flow
Energy removed from the cabin (cooling) by the HVAC system during warm
weather enthalpy gained by the HVAC air flow
Infiltration (leakage) driven by pressure differences across cracks
Conduction heat transfer through walls doors, windows, windscreens, roof,
floor panel etc.
Direct and Indirect solar irradiation on cabin exterior surfaces
Long wave radiation exchange between cabin exterior and surroundings
De-icing and de-fogging of windshield
A/C and Heating System must compensate for the above

248
Passenger Cabin Volume Energy Balance

Cabin Air
Steady State Volume Energy Balance
Convection Heat Transfer between cabin air and vehicle interior surfaces
Convection and evaporative Heat Transfer between cabin air and
occupants
Infiltration Enthalpy transport due to air mass transfer (leakage) into
cabin
Enthalpy change of air mass flow from the HVAC system
qEnthalpy qBody qConvection, Vehicle,

.
qLeakage
.
qBody q L,S q L, R q C ,S q C , R
A/C and Heating System must meet above requirement

249
Passenger Cabin Exterior Surface Energy Balance

Steady State Surface Energy Balance on Vehicle Outer

Surface
Heat conduction through the vehicle outer surface

Direct and indirect (scattered and reflected) solar radiation
Long wave radiation exchange with surroundings
Convection heat transfer from outer surface to ambient air
Melting of ice and snow on windshield and vehicle outer surface
qConduction qConvection, Vehicle,
qSolar qRadiation qConvection, Vehicle, O q2
A/C and Heating System must compensate for the above

250
Solar Radiation
Independent Parameters
Solar heat load at sea level depends on
The earths location with respect to the sun time of day, day of year
The earths rotation and tilt
The location on the earth latitude and longitude
The surface angle solar altitude, solar azimuth, surface tilt angle,
angle of incidence
Radiation properties of the surface next slides
251
Transmissivity of Glass to Solar Energy

Glazing
Visible
Solar
Conventional
80
76
16
IR reflective
73
52
37
11
IR absorptive
76
53
41
Sullivan, R., and Selkowitz, S., Effects of Glazing and Ventilation Options on Automobile Air
Conditioner Size and Performance, SAE Paper No. 900219, 1990
252
Solar Radiation Properties of Glass

Specular Dependence
1
Transmittance
Reflectance
Absorptance
0
0
100
Angle of Incidence - degrees
253
Air Management
Distribution of Air
Overview
A blower along with ram effect supplies draws in fresh air

Foreign objects, liquid and frozen water are kept out
Fresh air is heated (in the heater core) or cooled (in the evaporator)
Fresh air is mixed with recirculated air
Conditioned air enters at the base of the windshield and near side
windows
Conditioned air should avoid creating hot/cold spots on the body or
surfaces
Adequate air distributed to the base of the wind shield to avoid icing
of the wiper blades.
Noise should be minimized
Network analysis commonly used together with empirical expressions
for pressure drop and heat transfer, fan laws
254
Matching Blower with Duct System

Overview
Static Pressure
System
Blower
Efficiency
Power
Flow Rate
255
Refrigeration Cycle
First Law and Coefficient of Performance
High Temperature Heat Sink AMBIENT Air, TH
QH
Expansion Device
Compressor
Condenser
QH QL = W
COP = QL / (QH QL)
Evaporator
QL
Low Temperature Heat Source CABIN Air, TL
Heat is pumped from a low to a high temperature

256
Carnot Refrigeration Cycle
Temperature, T
Reversible Processes
TH
Reversible (Ideal) Processes:

1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
Isentropic compression
Isothermal heat rejection
Isentropic expansion
Isothermal heat addition
TL
4
COP = TL / (TH TL)
Entropy, s
257
Carnot Refrigeration Cycle
COP
Maximum Coefficient of Performance
Cabin Temperature, TL, oF
258
Ideal Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Processes
Van Wylen, G.J and Sonntag, R.E., Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics, John Wiley, 1985
Effect of Condenser Temperature

Performance of Refrigeration System
Condenser Purpose:
0.9
COP \ COPCarnot
Reject energy from the

refrigerant to the air
0.6
30
60
Condenser (Ambient Air) Temperature, TH, oC
260
Effect of Evaporator Temperature

Performance of Refrigeration System
Evaporator Function:
0.9
COP \ COPCarnot
Remove energy from the

air before it enters the
passenger cabin
0.6
-20
Condenser (Cabin Air) Temperature, TL, oC
261
Real Versus Idealized Cycles

Modifications to the Cycle
Overview
Viscous losses (affects P)

Heat losses (affects T)
Compressor losses (affects T, P)
Superheating
Subcooling
262
Windshield Defrosting
Computational Fluid Dynamics Study
Ashok Kumar, M. and Kanniah, K., "Computational Investigation for Flow and Heat Transfer Characteristics of
Automobile Windshield with Impinging Slot Jets," SAE Technical Paper 2012-01-1219, 2012, doi:10.4271/201201-1219.
263
Parameters Investigated
264
Velocity Vectors
265
Velocity Vectors
266
Velocity Vectors
267
Velocity Vectors
Ashok Kumar, M. and Kanniah, K., "Computational Investigation for Flow and Heat Transfer Characteristics of Automobile Windshield with
Impinging Slot Jets," SAE Technical Paper 2012-01-1219, 2012, doi:10.4271/2012-01-1219.
268
Contours of Velocities
269
Contours of Turbulent Kinetic Energy
270
Contours of Local Nusselt Number
271
Average Nusselt Number for Different Designs
272
Average Nusselt Number Versus Reynolds Number
273
Best Practices 1/5

Heat Transfer Standpoint
1. Experiments and simulations should be carried out under controlled conditions as
far as possible, to minimize difference between the two.
2. The accuracy of simulations should be adequate to make sound engineering
decisions, no more no less. Modeling is often a compromise between resources
and accuracy. For example the minimum mesh that will give acceptable accuracy
should be used. As another example a turbulence model of minimum complexity
that can capture the essence should be used.
3. A certain degree of empiricism in simulations is unavoidable, sometimes more
than we would like. This is true when the physics is complex. There are numerous
examples boiling, quenching, porous media, wall functions, turbulence modeling,
thermo-mechanical fatigue etc.
4. It is important that a best practice document is maintained and periodically
updated. Such a document would capture the requirements of the application,
provide boundary conditions, material properties and other model specifications
to ensure consistent analysis.
5. Whenever one can computationally afford it, the low Reynolds number wall
treatment together with a mesh yielding a low y+ ~ 1 should be used. Wall
functions are second best; should be avoided when possible.
274
Best Practices 2/5

6. Using heat transfer coefficients provided by CFD codes when the energy equation
is not solved is fraught with danger. Best avoided. See slides #54-57.
7. The only possible exception to the above is to use the HTC for qualitatively
examining design choices using relatively cheaper CFD (i.e. without the energy
equation)
8. The local heat transfer coefficient given by equation (3)is recommended for studies
involving transfer of HTC from a CFD code to another code (i.e. FEA).
9. As far as possible, temperature dependent thermo-physical properties (viscosity,
thermal conductivity and specific heat) ought to be used. In the case of density,
the dependence on both temperature and pressure need to be used. This is
particularly important for in-cylinder simulation.
10. It is also necessary that all three thermo-physical properties are specified as
function of temperature to ensure correct Prandtl number.
11. In case the temperature dependence of thermo-physical properties cannot be
specified, then, all three should be set to constant values values that correspond
to the same temperature again to ensure correct Prandtl number.
275
Best Practices 3/5

12. Avoid constant wall temperature boundary conditions to avoid physically
unrealistic situations. An excellent example is two walls, at different temperatures,
in contact with each other. Instead use a convective heat transfer boundary
condition via a hypothetical fluid whose reference temperature is set equal to the
desired wall temperature together with a very high heat transfer coefficient.
13. Geometric fidelity between hardware and the computational mesh is crucial to
obtaining accurate results. Acceptable level of geometry precision should be used
during CAD preparation. The CFD practitioner should be wary of compromising
the geometry in favor of grid generation expediency, particularly in applications
where he or she has little previous experience. A best practice document should
define this for every application.
14. When a tetrahedral mesh is used, a layer of prism cells should be used, aligned
parallel to the solid surface.
15. A mass flow outlet boundary condition should not be used.
16. Default model parameters (such as under-relaxation, convergence criteria etc.)
should be used. There are sometimes subtleties underpinning these values and
may not readily apparent to the user.
276
Best Practices 4/5

17. When possible, the computational domain should include regions well upstream
and downstream of the region of (heat transfer)interest to minimize user-specified
boundary conditions from exerting an undue influence on the solution.
18. The mesh must capture the geometry of the component with sufficient fidelity.
19. A boundary layer mesh must be used to resolve the near wall gradients.
20. In spray modeling, tune constants until mass balance is satisfied.

21. When standard wall functions are used, acceptable values of y+ should be used.
22. As far as possible, the boundary location and shape should be chosen such that
there is no flow reversal and lateral gradients are minimized.
23. The mesh should be refined in regions of high gradients, i.e. near leading and
trailing edges of blades etc.
24. When using wall functions, it is necessary to follow the guidelines provided by the
software supplier regarding the mesh size at the walls and therefore y+.
277
Best Practices 5/5

25. In vehicle under-hood and under-body modeling, since the exhaust system is the
primary source of heat, should be modeled with due diligence. The exhaust flow
should be a part of the model so that the heat transfer across the exhaust system
walls is a part of the solution instead of a prescribed (and therefore ad-hoc to
some extent) wall temperature boundary condition.
26. In thin components such as thermal shields, the lateral heat conduction must be
included into the simulation.
27. The surface emissivity of components should be chosen with due diligence, since
results are strongly influenced by this parameter. The emissivity can vary widely
from one location to another on the surface. Surface oxidation, corrosion, paint
chipping, presence of dirt or moisture etc. can significantly increase the emissivity
to close to 1. This becomes problematic with thermal shields whose clean, new
surface emissivity can be of the order of 0.05.
278
Simulation and Measurement Challenges

Engine HT critical to meet future fuel economy and emissions goals
Limited availability of direct measurements of instantaneous
temperature and heat flux
Difficulty of separating the effects of heat transfer from combustion
In-cylinder wall heat flux predictions can be off two- or three-fold.
Improved in-cylinder wall functions are needed.
Pre-requisite of predicting flow and chemical reactions accurately.
Engine and geometry data
Piston, ring(s) and valve motions
Contact resistances: Piston, ring(s), liner

Contact resistances: Valve, seat
Measurements are expensive
Model validation efforts are expensive
Model enhancement efforts are expensive

In-depth skill(s) required for success
Should consortium of organizations pool resources?
279
Other HT Problems
Engine Waste Heat Recovery
Engine Warm-up fuel economy penalty due to friction

Heat Exchangers : Radiators, oil cooler, EGR cooler, after cooler,
transmission
Quenching of cast parts after solidification during heat treatment
Cooling system: CHT with nucleate boiling, thermal stress, fatigue

Cooling system: that takes advantage of boiling
Lubrication system: Predict temperatures (oil life & viscosity)
Battery Cooling
Compact Heat Exchangers
280
Thank You
281

Automotive Heat Transfer Modeling and Simulation

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Automotive Heat Transfer

Engine and exhaust components

Interaction with under-hood components

Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning

Engine Component Heat Transfer

Exhaust System Heat Transfer

Engine In-Cylinder Heat Transfer

Passenger Compartment human comfort

Best Practices and Challenges

Four Cylinder Engine

Four Stroke Cycle (Otto) Animation

Otto and Diesel Cycles

Two Stroke Cycle Animation

1. Power (Expansion) Red

1 Manifolds: collects exhaust gases from the cylinders

Quantify the properties of the end states of a substance due to transfer

What is heat transfer?

Energy transfer driven by a temperature difference; how it takes place

When do heat transfer considerations arise in practice?

Whenever we measure temperatures Experimental View

Simulation and Experiment

Simulation and Experiment

Drive Design & Development

is characterized by best practices

provides acceptable accuracy for engineering purposes

has been validated and

is documented in detail to reduce engineer-engineer variability

Validate Models (CFD, FEA etc.)

General Simulation Paths 1/2

Computational Domain Component level (example in-cylinder)

General Simulation Paths 2/2

Engine Cycle Simulation:

Phenomenological Balance Expressions

No Spatial Resolution Single Cell

Work horse of engine design & development for decades

Two general manifestations:

1) Fuel Rate Cylinder Pressures (Engine Cycle Simulation)

2) Cylinder Pressures Fuel Rate (Heat Release Analysis)

Originally developed by testing engineers in the seventies at engine OEMs

Under predicts heat transfer

Analysis Cost Low/Medium

a key enabler in the development of general purpose CFD codes

Heat Transfer CFD

Convection Heat Transfer

Thermo-physical (laminar) properties: , cp, k and

If above properties are f(T) two-way coupling between V and T

Bejan, A., Convection Heat Transfer, John Wiley, 1984.

Modelling Turbulent Flows

1. Launder, B. E. and Spalding, D. B., Mathematical Models of Turbulence, Academic, 1972.

1. Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, 6th edition, McGraw-Hill, 1968.

Dimensionless Energy Equation

Dimensionless Groups determined by

Buckingham Pi Theorem problematic if relevant variables are omitted

Bejan, A., Convection Heat Transfer, John Wiley, 1984.

Conjugate Heat Transfer

In Conjugate Heat Transfer the fluid domain and structural

Conjugate Heat Transfer

Surface Energy Balance

distance between cell centre and wall

temperature of the solid in the solid cell centre

Thermal BC for a transient FEA heat

Tw temperature at the fluid/solid interface (wall)

Radiation Heat Transfer