UNIT-V

Smoke meters :

1.HARTRIDGE SMOKE METER OR OBSCURATION METHOD FOR SMOKE

MEASURING:

2.BOSCH SMOKE METER (OR) SPOT SAMPLING TYPE SMOKE METER:

3.CONTINUOUS FILERING TYPE SMOKE METER:

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY DETECTOR/ANALYSER:

Principle :
It works on the principle of Wheatstone Bridge
Each gas has a known thermal conductivity - how well heat transfers through it. Thermal
conductivity is measured with a sensor that employs four matched filaments that change
resistance according to the thermal conductivity of the gas passing over it.
The sensor uses four matched filaments that change resistance according to the thermal
conductivity of the gas passing over it. These four filaments are connected in a Wheatstone
Bridge configuration as shown
When all four resistances are the same, VOUT is zero and the bridge is considered balanced.
When zeroing, the reference gas is passed over all the filaments, the resistances will be the
same (because filaments are matched) and the bridge is balanced. When the sample gas is
passed over half of the bridge, then VOUTs value correlates to the content of the sample gas
in the reference.
This change id because of the difference in the capacity of the sample and reference gases to
absorb heat (thermal conductivity differences)
The change in the temperature, changes the resistance and hence the current in circuit
The detector is a four element Katharometer having two elements situated in the reference
gas and two elements in the sample gas shown in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2. Cut-away view of the thermal conductivity sensor.

Advantages :
It is simple,rugged and inexpensive
Non destructive to the sample
gases that may be measured using this technique are: Co2,O2,Argon etc
Dis-dvantages:
It has low sensitivity

ORSAT APARATUS: (ANALYSIS OF FLUE GASES)

Flue gases are the outlet gases obtained when a fuel is burned with air in
combustion equipments like engines and boilers. Based on the fuel composition flue gases
are formed, a fuel having carbon and hydrogen compounds generates flue gas containing
oxides of carbon and hydrogen because the oxygen in air burns with components that
release heat energy and resulting the combusted materials.
In construction of fire heater, boilers, combustion engines and combustor the
outlet is given out with a cylinder shape chimney so that the hot flue gases are ejected into
the atmosphere. In design and calculating the performance of the above equipments the flue
gas is used for analysis which help to determine the composition of the carbon dioxide,
oxygen, nitrogen and carbon monoxide.
Based on this analysis results the fuel inlet flow rate, air flow rate and burner are
controlled to get the efficiency of the fired heaters. By the following presentation the flue
gas analysis can be demonstrated by using Orsat apparatus, of course this is a standard piece
of equipment.
Typical flue gas analyzers measure the quantity of carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide and oxygen by a chemical absorption principle. Based on the absorption factor
of these three components their respective absorbing solutions are selected in three different
bulb compartments. When the gas is passed into these bulbs consecutively, where each
component is separated in sequence that helps to know the volume drop from initial flue gas
volume.
Water vapor in flue gas removed by adsorption on solid calcium chloride and then passed
into three pipettes. The sequence of absorption should always be started from CO 2, O2 and
CO if the absorption solutions are ammoniacal cuprous chloride; alkaline pyrogalic acid and
KOH were selected as reagent in the Orsat apparatus analyser.
Gas then passed into KOH (potassium hydroxide) solution pipette to absorb
CO2 to form potassium carbonate by the reaction 2KOH + CO2 K2CO3+ H2O at
ambient conditions.
After confirming no change in the volume of reservoir than gas led to alkaline
pyrogallic acid containing pipette to absorb oxygen by the reaction:
2C6H3(OH)3(pyrogallol) + 2KOH(saturated alkaline)+ O2 4H2O + 2C5H3OCOOK
and a physical color change is observed.
Finally carbon monoxide is absorbed by ammoniacal cuprous chloride pipette by

the reaction,
2CuCl + 2CO (in NH3 solution) [CuCl(CO)]2

GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY (GC)

It is the most suitable method by which the amount of each exhaust HYDROCARBON can
be measured.

GC is used for the detailed analysis of exhaust gas mixture and for a define
identification of the different components present in the mixture.
Chromatography is carried out to separate an often complex sample mixture into its
individual components and to obtain information in terms of:

Qualitative analysis:
Which components are present in the sample? The identification of individual sample
components can be assessed from the chromatogram. A parameter that provides
information for the identification of a sample component is the retention time.
Quantitative analysis:
How much of each compound is present? Quantitative analysis involves measuring

the amount - the concentration - of sample components. Concentrations can be

determined from the peak area or the peak height in the chromatogram.

Chromatography is a dynamic separation process based on differences in the rates of

migration of different compounds through a column containing an immobilised
phase. Migration is induced by a continuous flow of the mobile phase through the
column.

In general chromatography is based on the selective distribution of the different

components between two phases. One of the phases, the stationary phase, is held
immobilised inside the column while the other phase, the mobile phase travels
through the column, flowing through the stationary phase. Compounds that exhibit a
higher affinity for the stationary phase will travel more slowly than compounds
exhibiting a lower affinity. The different sample components travel at different speed
through the column and are eluted from the column at different times. The column
should be sufficiently long to obtain the desired degree of separation.

Gas chromatographic separation is based on:

Distribution (In gas-liquid chromatography, GLC)

Adsorption (In gas-solid chromatography, GSC)

Size exclusion (Molsieves)

The most important of the instrument is COLUMN.its a packed tube containg a solid or a
liquid phase which have certain absorbing properties.
With a solid stationary phase it is called as ADSORPTION CHROPMOTOGRAPHY
With a LIQUID stationary phase it is called as PARTITION CHROPMOTOGRAPHY
WHICH INVOLVES ANALYSIS OF EXHAUST GAS
HYDRCARBONS
The sample gas is injected into an inert gas stream called the carrier gas
//add attachment//
Particles separating@column as shown in fig:

PARTICULATE MEASUREMENT:
Particulate Emission Measurement For measurement of particulate emissions, the gas is
diluted with air in a dilution tunnel and, a sample is continuously collected from the diluted
gas and filtered to collect particulate matter. The mass of the collected PM is measured to
determine specific PM emissions in terms of g/km or g/kWh.
The dilution tunnels are of two types
1. Full flow dilution tunnel
2. Partial flow,

1.Full flow dilution tunnels :

In the full flow system, entire exhaust of the engine/vehicle is diluted with the
filtered room air. The full flow system is quite large in size and expensive. A fullflow double dilution tunnel is shown schematically in Fig. 4.16 . For small
engines/vehicles only the primary dilution tunnel is used. For the large engines to
provide the desired dilution ratio, the gas is diluted again in the secondary dilution
tunnel. The sample is withdrawn for measurements from the secondary dilution
tunnel in the large engines. The dilution ratio is maintained around 10:1. The
temperature of the diluted exhaust gases at the primary filter is maintained at 325 K
or less by a heat exchanger. The flow rate of diluted gas is kept constant during the
test by a CVS system.
After thorough mixing of exhaust and air in the dilution tunnel, a constant flow rate
sample is extracted that is filtered through a Teflon coated glass fibre filter. The mass
of particulate is determined by weighing the particulate mass collected on the filter. A
reference filter is used to determine the particulate mass in the dilution air for
correction of PM measurement for the background PM. The filter papers are
conditioned before and after filtration to prevent condensation of any moisture or
deposition of foreign particulate matter from atmosphere. With the full flow dilution

tunnel and CVS system, gaseous pollutants are also measured simultaneously with
particulates

2. PARTIAL FLOW dilution tunnels :

In the partial-flow system, only a small part of the exhaust stream is diluted. To withdraw a
true representative of the exhaust gas the following systems have been developed; Isokinetic
sampling systems Flow controlled systems with concentration measurement, and Flow
controlled systems with flow measurement In an isokinetic system, the gas velocity in the
sampling tube which leads the sampled exhaust gas to dilution tunnel is kept same in
magnitude as the velocity of the bulk exhaust gas stream. In this way, an undisturbed and
uniform exhaust gas sample flow at the inlet of sampling probe is obtained. An isokinetic
system is shown schematically in Fig. 4.15. Raw exhaust gas is transferred from the exhaust
pipe to the dilution tunnel (DT) through isokinetic sampling probe (ISP) and the transfer
tube. The differential pressure of the exhaust gas between exhaust pipe and inlet to the
probe is measured with a pressure transducer. The signal is fed to a flow controller that
controls the suction blower and, a differential pressure of zero at the tip of probe is
maintained. Under these conditions, exhaust gas velocities in the exhaust pipe and probe are
identical and the flow through isokinetic probe is a constant fraction of the exhaust flow.
The sampling rate can be obtained by the ratio of cross sectional areas of probe and the

exhaust pipe. The dilution airflow rate is measured with the flow meter. The dilution ratio is
calculated from the dilution air flow rate and exhaust sample to total exhaust flow ratio.

UNIT-III
CATALYTIC CONVERTERS:

Regardless of how perfect the engine is operating, there will always be some harmful
by-products of combustion. This is what necessitates the use of a Three-Way
Catalytic (TWC) Converter. This device is located in-line with the exhaust system
and is used to cause a desirable chemical reaction to take place in the exhaust flow.
Essentially, the catalytic converter is used to complete the oxidation process for
hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO), in addition to reducing oxides of
nitrogen (NOx) back to simple nitrogen and carbon dioxide

Operation:
As engine exhaust gases flow through the converter passageways, they contact the coated
surface which initiate the catalytic process. As exhaust and catalyst temperatures rise, the
following reaction occurs: oOxides of nitrogen ( NOx) are reduced into simple nitrogen
(N2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) o Hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) are
oxidized to create water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) Catalyst operating efficiency is
greatly affected by two factors; operating temperature and feed gas composition. The
catalyst begins to operate at around 550' F.(300' C.). However, efficient purification does not
take place until the catalyst reaches at least 415'C. (750' F.) . Also, the converter feed gasses
(engine-out exhaust gases) must alternate rapidly between high CO content, to reduce NOx
emissions, and high O2 content, to oxidize HC and CO emissions.

THERMAL REACTOR
Thermal reactors have been shown to be an effective means of reducing exhaust gas
pollutants from automobile engines. Used for oxidation of CO and HC

PARTICULATE TRAPS or Diesel PARTICULATE filter(DPF)

Diesel particulate traps are devices that physically capture diesel particulates to prevent their release
to the atmosphere. Some of diesel filter materials which have been developed show quite
impressive filtration efficiencies, frequently in excess of 90%, as well as acceptable mechanical and
thermal durability. In fact, diesel traps are the most effective control technology for the reduction of
particulate emissions with high efficiencies. More precisely, due to the particle deposition
mechanisms utilized in these devices, traps are effective in controlling the solid fraction of diesel
particulates, including elemental carbon (soot) and the related black smoke emission.
The most common design of diesel particulate filter is the wall-flow monolith shown below. It is an
extruded, usually cylindrical ceramic structure with many small, parallel channels running in the
axial direction. the wall-flow monoliths are made of ceramics of higher and more precisely
controlled porosity,
. In this cellular structure, alternate cells are plugged at one end and open at the opposite end. The
exhaust gas enters the cells that are open at the upstream end and flows through the porous walls to
the adjacent cells. The adjacent cells are open at the downstream end from where the filtered gas
exits .to the atmosphere. Flow path of gas through walls of the filter is also shown below

//NOTE: PM-Particulate Matter//

The pressure drop across the filter increases as the particulates build up. A mean of
regenerating system (i.e. burning off the particles) the trap is required to restore the filter to
the initial state. A temperature of at least 450C is required for ignition and the exhaust
temperature is usually below this. To regenerate, the engine injects a tiny amount of fuel
during the exhaust stroke to increase the temperature of the exhaust gases. This is done
automatically and the driver does not notice anything.
Efficiency of the filters decrease with time, as some ash and sulphur is always left in the
filter.
DPF Material :
DPF material should be chemically inert and have low thermal expansion and high melting
temperature. Porous cordierite ceramic has been commonly used for diesel particulate
filters. Its melting temperature is The soot burns without catalyst at a temperature of .
However, if the soot starts to burn uncontrollably the DPF may
experience temperature of 1300 C or higher resulting in melting of the ceramic filter.
Typical temperatures achieved in the ceramic filter when soot gets burned are shown on Fig
6.15 for a 100 and a 200 cpsi DPF. Due to lower thermal capacity of the 100cpsi DPF,

higher ceramic temperatures result when soot deposited on the DPF is burned. To overcome
possible meltdown due to uncontrolled regeneration of DPF more advanced materials
withstanding even higher temperature are required.

PARTICULATE TRAPS or Diesel PARTICULATE filter(DPF) REGENERATION

Due to the low bulk density of diesel particulates, which is typically

below 0.1 g/cm3 (the density depends on the degree of compactness; as an example, a
number of 0.056 g/cm3 diesel particulate filters can quickly accumulate considerable
volumes of soot. Several liters of soot per day may be collected from a heavy-duty
truck or bus engine. The collected particulates would eventually cause excessively
high exhaust gas pressure drop in the filter, which would negatively affect the engine
operation.
Therefore, diesel filter systems have to provide a way of removing
particulates from the filter to restore its soot collection capacity. This removal of
particulates, known as the filter regeneration, can be performed either continuously,
during regular operation of the filter, or periodically, after a pre-determined quantity
of soot has been accumulated.
Soot and other particulate get collected on the filter that although improves the filtration
efficiency, but it results in an increased pressurSe drop across the filter. The pressure loss in
the new and clean filter is about 70 mm H2O for the 0.1 m/s gas velocity in filter channels.
Design considerations limit soot loading to about 10 g/l of filter volume before filter should
be cleaned or regenerated. As the soot is collected upto the limit of 10g/l, pressure drop
increases to 300-350 mm of . An increase of engine backpressure by 350 mm results in 1 %
loss in fuel economy at 65-km/h vehicle speed.
For engine out PM emissions of about 0.25 to 0.33 g/kW-h and engine power output of
about 17 kW/ liter swept volume, 10g/l soot would get collected on DPF in about 2 hours.
Hence, the DPF regeneration should take place approximately every 2 hours. The soot in the
filter is to be burned in-situ.
Burning of soot particles begins at about 540 C. Such high exhaust gas temperatures do
not occur during engine operation for sufficiently long periods of .time. The diesel exhaust
gas temperatures in the exhaust pipe typically reach to about 300C only.
For regeneration of the DPF, therefore additional measures are to be adopted.
Types of Regeneration Systems Regeneration

Regeneration of the DPF to its original clean state has been a challenging task. Two types
of regeneration systems have been investigated and a few developed for employment on
production vehicles
1. Active regeneration
2. Passive regeneration

1.Active DPF Regeneration

A positive source of heat is employed to raise temperature of DPF to about
540 C. When oxidation of soot starts, the exothermic reactions sustain the
combustion of soot particles and the DPF is regenerated. In the active
regeneration systems, sensors are used to monitor pressure drop across the
trap. On receiving the signal from the sensor, the exhaust gas temperature is
increased above 500 C by any one of the following techniques:
Engine throttling
Use of electric heater upstream of filter
Use of burner upstream of filter
Throttling of air reduces airflow that results in decrease of overall air-fuel
ratio, which increases the combustion and exhaust temperatures. However,
engine throttling increases the engine pumping losses which results in loss of
fuel efficiency. Throttling also decreases oxygen concentration in the exhaust
and for oxidation of soot 2-5% oxygen in the exhaust is necessary. Hence, the
extent of throttling is to be controlled. Under normal cruising conditions,
throttling is unable to increase the exhaust temperature to the levels needed for
regeneration. Hence, throttling can work only at high loads, which is
deliberately applied to raise the gas temperatures. It also increases HC, CO
and smoke emissions. Engine throttling as a means of trap regeneration
therefore, has had only a limited success.
For electric filter regeneration, power to the electric heater is
supplied by the engine alternator. A typical truck DPF regeneration system
may require a 3 kW heater. The electric regeneration hence, needs a high
battery back-up or is to be done while the vehicle is in garage, which may not
be accepted by the operators as regeneration is required quite frequently.