www.ym3a.

com

U214A

) (chapter 1 -12

:
?http://www.ym3a.com/vb/showthread.php
t=139818

A linguistic toolkit
+
english in the world

A linguistic toolkit
english in the world


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3- 2 -1 A linguistic toolkit

el120

Chapter 1
:



sound
sounds = sequences of vowels and consonants
then
Combination of meaningless sounds will create
words that have meaning

and you knew Grapheme (letter) to phoneme

(sound unit)correspondence is not one to one in
English. (letter c can be /s/ or /k/ ; /f/ can be spelled
ph , gh, f, ..)


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group of sounds produce words

Words are a meaningful string of sounds.

group of words produce Sentences

and we have to knew , Sentence meaning deals
with a proposition, while word meaning refers to
the dictionary listing.

..



:
Ali love sawsan see book milk

..
so we need a system of combining words into
sentences to indicate a relationship of meaning
it is Grammar


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chapter 2
Different meanings of the word mean in everyday
use:
a.She means well. intention
b.Smoke usually means fire. indication, index of
c. *means a snowflake or means a star.
Communication / representation through icon
d. Danke means Thank you.
In Mathematics, < means smaller than.
Communication/ representation through symbols
(p.11) where there is no natural resemblance to
the thing they represent . (e.g. The name Karim
in Arabic doesnt mean the person is generous).

I think it is clear

different between sense and reference

Sense is the meaning that a word has within the
language system (in general),
reference is the meaning a word has when it is
used to pick out something in the real world (on a
particular occasion).


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:

as sens


as reference

el120
:
Synonymy : words are synonyms when they have
)the same sense. (hard& difficult

Hyponymy : one word entails the other. e.g. house
is a hyponym of building and building is a
superordinate.
..


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= building
Antonymy: words are antonyms when they have a
relationship of oppositeness.
a.Gradable antonyms : very hot, quite hot, not so
hot
b.Binary antonyms: hot cold

chapter 3
Word Classes = Parts of Speech
Open word classes
Noun: book, Sara
Adjective: happy, fast
Adverb: quickly, fast, happily, soon
Verb: eat, swim, feel

Closed Word Classes

Pronoun: I, you, he, she, it, they, we/ me, you,
him, her, it, them, us/ my-mine, your-yours, his, her
hers, its, their-theirs, our-ours; myself, yourself,
himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves.


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Preposition on, in, above, under, with, over, of, off,

up
Determiner the, a, an / this, that, these, those/
each, many, few, all, three, most

Closed Word Open word classes

Classes
Open word classes

facebook
Closed Word Classes
I .. I
you you

..
:
DVD

for fun

good luck


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chapter 4 + 5
el 120
Morphology

Morphology: is the study of word formation. The

basic unit in the study of morphology is morpheme.
A word consists of one or more morpheme as in
unkindness = [un + kind + ness

Morphology morpheme
morpheme

:
( unkindness = ( un + kind + ness

morpheme


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What is a morpheme?
Morphemes are the smallest unit of grammar that
has meaning... p. 26

morpheme :
-Free morphemes
-Bound morphemes

- Free morphemes: it is also called stem or root. It

is has a meaning and it can stand in its own. And it
is lexical words with meaning like: (noun, verb,
adjective, and adverb) for example: run, walk,
quickly, and cat
When free morphemes are combined with other
free morphemes, they form compounds
[toothbrush, upload
free morphemes

root
:
class

room
classroom
class free morphemes


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:
tooth
brush
toothbrush
free morphemes tooth

..
: morphemes
-Bound morphemes

.Bound morphemes: never occurs on its own

it is cannot stand on its own.They need to join a
root word to become meaningful
free morphemes Bound morphemes
Bound morphemes

) ( root
:
un

happy
unhappy
.


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..
Bound morphemes
Affixes :
Affixes: Bound morphemes are grammar units that
need to join a root word to become meaningful,
and it can come at the beginning of the word [un,
im] and at the end of it [ness, ly]

Affixes
:
-Prefixes
-Suffixes
Prefixes: An Affix [Bound morphemes] that is
added at the beginning of the rood word as [un]
unhappy
Affix )) (( root
word
: un
Suffixes: An Affix [Bound morphemes] that is added
at the end of the root word as [ness] kindness
Affix )) (( root
word
: ness


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" Derivation "

:
Derivation involves adding a bound morpheme to a
stem to form a new word
with a different meaning : disagree;
and very few morphemes will produce a different
part of speech:
er player (changing play from a verb into a noun.)
;
be befriend (changing friend from noun into a
verb) ,
post post-war (changing war from a noun into an
adj.) ;
-ness sadness (changing sad from a adj. into
noun) ;

Derivation Affixes

..
When you change the word class, or the meaning
of the word, you have((( derived))) a new word.
When you create a new word , by unexpectedly,
unconventionally changing the word class of an


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existing word, that is((( conversion))) , e.g. bigged/

AOUism, cakeage, smellify

..
Affixes
inflections: they dont change the word class or
meaning
:
Inflectional affixes in English:
See Table 4.1 p. 31
Plural s
Possessive s
Present tense ed
Past participle en or ed
Present participle ing
Comparative er
Superlative est

..

allomorphs
p.g 31


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Alternative forms of the same morpheme (say of

the past participle en & ed) are called allomorphs .


allomorphs morpheme
..
S
boy ..
boys
S

box ..
boxes
es
allomorphs morpheme

watched , happened ed
driven en


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chapter 5
Collocation

Collocation is the tendency of words to keep

company with each other (p.32)
Collocation is useful to understand how there are
some restrictions that may apply on the choice
of words that go together while there would be or
high probability of occurrence(p.32) options.
or we can say
In any given context, there are some words which
have a high probability of occurrence, and other
words which have an extremely low probability,
e.g. escape collocate (match) with clutches in
She could not escape from his clutches (p. 32)

tooth brush


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coffee goes with table;

home goes with owner / work
and so on

:
Even words with incongruous (not in harmony)
senses may collocate; collocation can sometimes
arise when speakers are trying to produce
colourful language. For instance you can describe
someone as being as useful as a chocolate
teapot; or faster than greased lightning.
On the other hand, words with congruous senses
do not necessarily collocate (see table 5.1, p. 33)

collocate
.
"
' ""

collocate (33 5.1 )
:


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-- It was full of difficult/tricky/ hard words. {but not

knotty words}
-- She hit a difficult/tricky/ hard/ knotty problem

Difficult hard
tough tricky knotty testing
Difficult

Ali read difficult book.

She Facing difficult Problem.
people live in difficult world.
sara write difficult words.
knotty ..

She Facing a knotty Problem.

people live in knotty world.
..

Computers now help us predict and learn about the

frequency of word collocations
But internet word searches will give responses


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indicating multiple meanings and uses of the same

word.
+
word collocations


:
Based on the word combinations, a word may
adopt a different sense. hard in
?a) What is hard water
is different from
b) This is a hard surface.
or
c) This is a hard problem

knotty

hard
hard water

hard


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water

hard
water
.

Idioms
Idioms:
are when words not necessarily expected to be
combined together are linked tightly and function
as single unit.
" " Idioms

.
:

.
..


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..

we just got there in the nick of ................



time

time
in the nick of time
.

An idiom refers to an instance where the words of

the utterance do not give their literal meanings. It
differs from collocation in two main respects:
1- The meaning of an idiom is not predictable from
the meaning of the words it contains, e.g. take
someone to the cleanser means to cheat someone
of all their money (p. 36)
2- Idioms form is relatively fixed, i.e. you can not
change the grammar of them as with other
expressions, p. 36


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: collocation idiom
1 -

35
Take someone to the cinema
can be worked out from the meaning Take and
cinema
but the meaning of
- Take someone to the cleaners
Cannot be deduced in this way ; we just have to
know that it means to cheat someone of all their
money.

..
Take someone to the cinema

Take someone to the cleaners

!
cleaners


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..

2 -
36 .
..
Put a sock in it meaning shut up or be quit
!1 put a sock in it
2 Put some sock in it.
3 It's time to put a sock in it.
4 A sock was put in it.
5 You need to put a sock in it.
6 They are putting a sock in it.
Sentence 1,3 and 5 seem perfectly acceptable,
while the other sentence except perhaps used as a
joke. such grammatical restriction are typical
feature of idioms.


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5-3-1 Put a sock in it

" "

.

.. ..

The meaning of an idiom is not predictable from

the meaning of the words it contains (p.37)4

..
The literal translation of idioms doesnt work at
all, and so, most idioms when translated will be
senseless in other languages.
)The form of an idiom is relatively fixed.(p37
-

.
)." (P37 " -
Some claim that idioms are absolutely fixed, but


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creative use of idioms is very frequent in everyday

conversations a whole bag of chips on his
)shoulders instead of a chip on his shoulder(p.37
For sometimes idioms, a literal translation makes
sense too.
)land on your feet (p.37


:
' ' '
) "(P.37
.
) (P.37

That's it
..

..

Chapter 6


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..
..
formal stander English
:

) (
Formal setting (meeting, class, work),
Usually((( written))) Professional/ Specialized Lexis
informal colloquial
:





.
Unplanned/ Usually ((( spoken )))/ Sometimes
written Tweets, Chats
..

Language Variation
:
accent


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Accent : the way in which a person pronounces the

sounds of their language .
pronunciation


:
..
.
As we knew
Different accents could be used for Standard
English Dialect

Dialect
dialect +

Dialect : a language variety that is characteristic of

a particular group of speakers, with grammatical
and lexical features .
Dialects change because they are not passed on
accurately from generation to generation, and
because of different regional and ethnic influences;
words changing meaning, new words added, old
words dying.

6 ..


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Chapter 7
What is grammar?
We internalize our grammar, and we use it
spontaneously when we are using vocabulary to
label, such as adding -s for plural, past tense
forms, derivational morphemes (as un-{happy}) or
compound words {wheelbarrow, suitcase} (p.46)

( S)
..

The relationships we make in our communication ,

that is relationships of word order and word
formation are grammatical relations of syntax &
morphology.


.

grammar
Grammar: the system of rules for forming


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)sentences in a language . it is includes (syntax

)and (morphology
.
)( )(

..
morphology

He work(s) as a doctor.
He work(ed) as a doctor.
) (s
) (
) (ed
) (
..



..

Old English: Thou hierst --You (singular) hear

Ye hiere --You (plural) hear
Old English even changed the form of the


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the angel--se engel [subject]

of the angel--thaes engeles / angels
the angels--tha engelas [object]
the angel--se engel [subject]
I think it is clear

See examples below from :Early Modern English

(Milton & Shakespeares time)
oHim followd Rimmon. / Dragon followed Rimmon.
ohim there they found. / Satan there the angels
found.
oMen calld him Mulciber. /Men called Satan
Mulciber.

It is clear which is the subject (who did the action)

and which is the object (and to whom) when the
pronouns are used, but it gets confusing when
nouns replace them. The third sentence is clearer
because it follows Modern English word order


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?Clear
morphology
syntax

Syntax : is not only word order but how words are

grouped together . Syntax is not only a matter of
stringing words along like beads. It involves words
that together in groups, and then groups that go
together with other groups.
syntax:
syntax .
.

.

..

Turning the sentences into questions will be

helpful in understanding more about word
)groupings. (see pp.48-9
-She can find a copy of the antique book.


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-She has worked in this company for six years.

-Painkillers are helpful after an operation.
To form a question, you can replace the first word
and move it after the second word.
But that doesnt always work.
7 .

Chapter 8

a meta-language.
basic technical terms that enable you to talk
about sentence structure a meta-language.

" verb phrase object subject
"

a meta-language.


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clauses

..
clause: It is the basic building block of a sentence.

Clause: a grammatical unit consisting of a verb
phrase together with any associated elements such
as subject, object or adverbial.

clause
clause

..
clause

.. verb

Almost all sentences are built from only five basic

elements


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Subject: Who or what is doing something

Verb: provides information about doing
something .
Complement/ Predicative: (What? What like?) is
an element that doesnt bring in a new participant
but describes an existing participant.
Object: Direct Object (Who(m)?What?) = the
element which is affected by the action ; Indirect
Object (Who to? Who for?) =the element which
receives benefits by the action .
Adverbial: provides information about when,
where, how and why. Adverbials can occur in any
clause pattern .

..

..

clause
..
clause ..


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verb clause-
) V ): read run stop
.. order

verb + subject clause-

) S V ) : sanad eating a young man shouting
+
verb sanad subject
eating
Who or what is subject
doing something

verb + object + subject clause-

) S V O) : she was wearing a dress
+ +
was verb she subject


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a dress object wearing

object : the element which is
affected by the action
Verb

: Direct Object - Indirect Object object

.

Indirect Object clause :

)(S V OO

Complement verb + + clause-

subject
) S V C) : he feel happy
+ +
Feel verb he subject
happy Complement

54 Complement

..


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clause

Adverbial
Adverbial: provides information about when,
where, how and why. Adverbials can occur in any
clause pattern .

when, where, how and why
..
He ate diner well
How did he eat diner ?
Well
So (well) is adverb

Sara fights for her life
Why do sara fight ?
For her life
So (for her life ) is adverb


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..

clause
Clause
Clauses can be simple, but can also be joined by
coordination where both sentences are of equal
status, or subordination where one clause is
dependent on the other, that is cannot stand on its
own.
Clauses are joined together by conjunctions
coordinators [and, but, so, yet] or subordinators
[if, when, even if, although, because, after, before,
so that. . . ].

two clauses
coordination

and, but, so, yet
subordination


if, when,
even if, although, because, after, before, so that.
passive


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.. 8

Chapter 9
Verb phrases

A verb phrase is a group of one or more words
which together function as a verb


DVD +
A linguistic toolkit

:
tenses-
object-

- tenses


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In English there are two tenses, past & present.

Tense is a system of modifying the form of a
verb to show distinctions of time (past and
present). It helps to set an action, event or
situation in time

..
.
:

-A verb that is marked for tense is called a finite

verb
-A verb that is not marked for tense is called a nonfinite verb

tense finite verb

tense non-finite verb

:
she ( left ) early
he ( is walking ) down the road
{finite}


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finite

how to ( get ) to class

) waiting ) for the reservation to be confirmed
}{non finite


non finite
non finite
to
look like noun

non finite
finite

-object

When a verb takes an object it is called transitive

)(bring, give, control, share, borrow, take,


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. When a verb doesnt take an object it is called

intransitive (wait, stand, fall, struggle)

-transitive ( object )
-intransitive
:
transitive :
he gives a money

intransitive :
she sleeps

..
they run the program
he run quickly
transitive intransitive

( action )
action .. copular


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Verbs that fit this pattern [such as be, look, keep,

seem] are called copular
:
( You look ( kind of tired
( The salesman is ( an electrical engineer

..
..
model : may ,must , can ,would , might
perfect : has , have , had
progressive : is , are , be , been , were , was
passive : been , being
lexical verb : living , eat ,sleeping,washed

been passive
progressive
passive

:


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passive
passive Been
progressive ing been

..

..
Aspect : distinguishes between perfect and
progressive
65

clause

Chapter 10
Noun phrase


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noun Noun phrase

..
noun : it is one of the open word classes. a noun
can be used in contexts like :
there are two ( mistakes ) in the sentence

open word classes example

..

noun
noun phrase
..
noun phrase : a group of one or more words which
together function as a noun
( example : ( the boy ) played ( football
noun phrase subject , object or
the complement of a clause.
noun phrase people, places and
events ..ect

noun phrase


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head head
.. head
head
key ..
. word
. head
head :the key word in the noun phrase that
identifies what the basic entity
example:
this tall boy in the back who look like tom cruise is
friendly
) ( boy head
:
for my birthday , i would like a computer

) ( computer head

head
pronoun noun
:
) he ) would enjoy it


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they) would enjoy something)

Usually when the noun phrase contains a pronoun,

the pronoun occurs alone. But it sometimes has
quantifiers (all of us, some of you, many of them).
Occasionally a pronoun may be modified in other
ways. (little old me, same old you, teachers may
call on you in the back, in the blue shirt and
singers may sing of anyone who had a heart) but
the tendency is for pronouns to occur alone

head

For her gift, we will buy a 19th century style

painting to go with her Victorian decoration.

noun phrase
( we )
( a 19th century style painting to go
with her Victorian decoration )


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noun phrase

..
however long the noun phrase is, there is normally
one key word that identifies what the basic entity
is

head
painting

..
noun head
Determiners
) ( a, an ,the
:
a, the, this, that, every, any, one, for singular form
these, those/ many, some, several, a few, enough,
both, two, three. any, no for plural form


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+ :
countable which means can be either singular or
plural.
:
book - step - school

Uncountable nouns: words that cannot be counted
:
butter - oil - sugar
Determiners :
[the, this, that, all / much, some, a little, enough,
any, no]

her ,his , their Determiners

possessive form can be used as a determiner, such


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as (his book, their problem. Less is a form that can

be used as a determiner, and mostly used for
uncountable nouns, but is more acceptable with
countable nouns too

69

..

:
pre-modifiers and post-modifiers

pre-modifiers : head
post-modifiers : head

pre-modifiers
adjectives noun

Post-modifiers
..


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Prepositional Phrases
Relative Clauses
Infinitives
Present Participles
Past Participles

72 + +
:

Common Post-modifiers:
Prepositional Phrases: which begin with a
preposition; e.g. a detached house with three
bedrooms / the first turn on the left.
Relative Clauses: which begin with words like who,
which, what, where, that reposition; e.g. the only
person who arrived on time/ the only place where
they hold the farmers market.
Infinitives (to + verb): e.g. a difficult problem to
solve / the best way to get to Birmingham.
Present Participles (verb + ing): e.g. bacteria
belonging to the streptococcus family
Past Participles (verb + ed/en): e.g. all the
languages spoken in India/ a city devastated by


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hurricane Katrina.

box 70

..

long noun phrases may also have (subject-verb
concord) which refers to subject verb agreement in
singular or plural form.

10 ..


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chapter 11
Modality: maybe

..
..

. -

..


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Modality
Modality refers to language resources that enable
us to represent information that is non-factual by
indicating how far we regard it as likely or
desirable.
Modality :

In some sentences, the speaker

(a) makes logical deductions relating to the
speakers assessment of whether something is
likely or possible a conclusion can be reached
Epistemic Modality
Shakespeares plays may have been written by
Francis Bacon.
There might be life on Mars. / House prices could
fall next year

.
.


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Or (b) suggests that it would be desirable or

necessary for a certain action to be taken
Denotic Modality
(a) She must be good at Spanish.
(b) She must come and see us before she goes.

''
' .
( ).
( ).

box 76
Epistemic Denotic

bare assertion
bare assertions- that is stat(ing) that something is
the case [factual] without any suggestion that the
information might be open to question

a clause or sentence which states something as

fact withe no hedging .
.


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chapter 12
Words & grammar

%100

..

:
The window is too open
She let me to use her stapler
I encourage students doing these at home

.
The same form( too open )can correctly be used in
too open to fraud, too open about their private
lives, but not with window is too open. Instead we
say window is open too far.


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This has led linguists to recognize the difficulty of

keeping lexis and grammar separate and to look
instead at the way they work together, in what is
know as lexicogrammar


lexicogrammar

lexicogrammar
the way that lexis and grammmar work together to
create meanings in language.


.
the end

*
.