Topic 1 Experimental Techniques

The Particulate Nature of Matter States of Matter

I.

There are three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas

All matter is made up of tiny particles that are too small to be seen by the naked eye.
The particles are arranged in a different way in each state of matter. Particles also move in
a different way in each state of matter.
We can change the state of matter by changing the amount of energy its particles have.

(1) Comparison between the three states of matter

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Particles in
substance

Space between
particles

Close together
Touching one another

Close together
Touching one another

Far apart

Arrangment of
particles

Regular, repeating pattern

Irrregular

Irregular

Movement of
particles

Vibrate around their fixed

position but do not move
apart

Move around and slide past Move freely and collide

each other
with each other

Forces between
particles

Stronger than in liquid

Not as strong as in solid

Non-existant

Shape

Fixed shape

Take the shape of their

container

Take the shape of their

container

Compression

Cannot be compressed

Cannot be compressed

Can be compressed

(2) Changes of state

Melting

The change of state from solid to liquid at a definite temperature

Endothermic

Boiling or
evaporation

The change from liquid state to gaseous state at a definite

temperature

Endothermic

Freezing or
solidification

The change from liquid state to solid state at a definite

temperature

Exothermic

Condensation

The change from gaseous state to liquid state at a definite

temperature

Exothermic

Sublimation

The direct change from the solid state to the gaseous state
without passing by the liquid state
Example: Solid carbon dioxide, iodine and ammonium chloride

Exothermic

Kinetic theory of matter

Matter is made up of tiny invisible particles that are in constant motion in gases and liquids.
The lighter the particle the faster it moves. As temperature increases, the particles move faster.

Brownian motion : Particles in fluids both liquids and gases move randomly. This is called
Brownian motion. They do this because they are bombarded by the other moving particles in the
fluid. Larger particles can be moved by light, fast-moving molecules.
Brownian motion is named after Robert Brown, who first observed this in 1827. He used a
microscope to look at pollen grains moving randomly in water. At this point, he could not
explain why this occurred. But in 1905, physicist Albert Einstein explained that the pollen
grains were being moved by individual water molecules. This confirmed that atoms and
molecules did exist. Brownian motion is actually an evidence for particle theory.
(3) Diffusion
Diffusion is the conitinous movement of particles from one place to another to fill the space
available for them.
Diffusion occurs in both liquids and gases.
a) Diffusion in gases
Example 1:
Diffusion of Bromine

A colored gas, heavier than air (greater density), is put into the bottom gas jar and a second gas
jar of lower density colorless air is placed over it separated with a glass cover.
If the glass cover is removed then the colorless air diffuses down into the colored brown gas and
the brown one diffuses up into the air.

This is a clear evidence for diffusion due to the random continuous movement of all the gas
particles. Initially, the net movement of one type of particle is from a reigon of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration (down a diffusion gradient). When fully mixed,
no further color change distribution is observed BUT the random particle movement continues.
Example 2:

Formation of ammonium chloride

This experiment depends on the reaction between ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases to form
a white solid of ammonium chloride.
NH3 (g) + HCl (g) NH4Cl (s
A piece of cotton wool soaked in concnetrated ammonia solution(a source of ammonia gas) is
placed at the end of a long glass tube and another piece of cotton wool soaked in concetrated
hydrochloric acid (a source of hydrogen chloride gas) is placed at the other end of the tube. The
tube is closed with rubber stoppers to stop the poisonous gases escaping.
After few minutes, a white ring of ammonium chloride is formed closer to the hydrochloric acid
end.
Although the gas particles move at a speed of several hundred meters per second at room
temperature, yet it takes a few minutes for the white ring to form.
This occurs because the gas particles are in random motion where they collide with one another
and with the walls of the tube so many collisions are needed for the white ring to become visible.
The white ring is formed closer to the hydrochloric acid end because ammonia particles (17
g/mole) are lighter than hydrogen chloride particles (36.5 g/mole) and so they move faster.
The experiment was repeated using concenrated hydrobromic acid instead of hydrochloric acid.
It was noticed that the white ring was formed even closer to the hydrobromic acid side. This
occurs because hydrogen bromide particles (81 g/mole) are much heavier than hydrogen chloride
particles and travel much slower.

b) Diffusion in liquids
Diffusion in liquids is much slower than dissusion in gases because liquid particles move much
slower than gaseous particles.
Examples:
1. Potassium permenganate crystals, KMnO4, in a beaker of water

Molecules of water collide with the particles of KMnO4. As the particles are spread out by
the movement of water molecules, the color slowly diffuses throughout the liquid.
After a few days, the particles have mixed completely with water.
Diffusion occurs more rapidly if the liquid is hot. This is because the particles in a hot liquid
have more kinetic energy than a cold liquid. These particles move more rapidly, thus
spreading out more quickly throughout the liquid.
2. Dropping instant coffee particles into a cup of hot water and not stirring it. The brown color
of the coffee slowly spreads through all the water.

3. When few blue crystals of copper (II) sulphate is put in water, after one week the water
turns into a blue solution

II.

Measurments
During the study of chemistry many experiments are carried out. It is very important to use the
correct appartus for the required task and to be able to read the apparatus correctly.
1. Time
Time is measured using a clock as a wall clock. Sometimes a wrist wacth or a stopwatch is
used

Recorded time: 1 minute and 22 seconds

2. Temperature
Temperature is generally measured using a thermometer that has inetrvals of 10C.

26.00C

22.00C

3. Mass
Mass is measured using a balance or scale.

4. Volume
i.

Volume of liquids
The volume of liquid is measured with burettes, pipettes or measuring cylinders
depending on the accuracy and the quantities needed.
a) Burette
It is used to measure variable volumes of liquids up to 50 cm3.
Each reading is taken to the nearest 0.05 cm3.

17.10 cm3
3

cm

25.50

b) Pipette
It is used to measure accurate volumes of liquids.
The common capcaities of a pipette are: 5, 10, 25 and 50 cm3.

c) Measuring cylinder
It is used to measure approximate volumes of liquids.

ii.

Volume of gases
The volume of a gas is measured using a gas syringe that measures the volume
accurately.
34.0 cm3

III.

Elements, Compounds and mixtures

Atom

Example Helium atoms, He

The smallest particle of matter

Element
A substance which is made from only one
type of atoms.
It cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical processes

Examples:
1. Neon, Ne

2. Oxygen gas, O2

Compound
A substance made up of two or more
elements which are chemically combined
together.
It ia made from molecules which are
composed of more than one type of
element.
A compound is a completely new material
that will have totally different properties
from the elements that made it.
A compound cannot be separated by
physical methods.

Examples
1. Water, H2O

2. Hydrogen chloride, HCl

Mixture
A collection of at least two or more
elements or compounds which are not
chemically bonded together.

Examples
1. Mixture of helium,He, and argon atoms, Ar

A mixture can be separated by physical

methods.
2. Mixture of hydrogen molecules, H2, and helium
atoms

IV.

Separation Techniques
Physical Methods for Separating Substances
The separation technique that is used depends on the type of substances that need separating.
You need to be able to select the suitable method to separate a given mixture. The key to this is
to look for differences in the properties of the components of the mixture such as their state,
solubility, melting/ boiling point and so on. Then pick the method that best takes advantage of
this difference.
1. Filtration
This method is used to separate an insoluble solid from a mixture of the solid and liquid.
Example: Separation of a mixture of sand and water
The mixture of the solid and liquid is poured into a filter paper in a funnel (as shown
below). The liquid flows through the filter paper and into the flask. The liquid collected in
the flask is called the filtrate. The solid that remains in the filter paper is called the residue.
The residue can be dried by spreading it out on the filter paper and either allowing the liquid
to evaporate or placing it in an oven.

Evaporation
This method is used to separate a dissolved substance from its solution.
Example: Sodium chloride from an aqueous solution of sodium chloride in water.

2. Crystallization
(a) Method 1
A solid which dissolved in a liquid is called a solution and can be separated by
crystallization.
The dissolved substance is called the solute.
The liquid used for dissolving is called the solvent.

Method 1
1. Heat the solution in an evaporating dish directly on a flame till most of the liquid
evaporates.
2. Transfer the evaporating dish over a steam bath. Heat gently till all the liquid
evaporates (do not boil dry).
3. Leave to cool.
Method 2:
1. Heat the solution in an evaporating dish directly on a flame till most of the liquid
evaporates.
2. Transfer the evaporating dish over a steam bath. Heat gently till the crystallization
point.
Crystallization point is checked by dipping a cold glass rod in the solution from time to
time and checking for the formation of crystals.
3. Leave to cool.
4. Filter off the crystals.
5. Dry the crystals between two filter papers without pressing.

3. Simple distillation
This method is used to separate a pure liquid from a solution or two miscible liquids with
very close boiling points.
Example: Separation of pure water from a solution of sodium chloride.
The mixture is heated until the liquid with the lowest boiling point boils, the vapours then
condense on the cold surface of the condenser and the liquid is collected.
The collected liquid is called the distillate. It has been distilled. The condenser has cold
water running through a jacket around the outside to keep the temperature below the boiling
point of the vapor.

4. Fractional distillation
This method is used to separate two or more miscible liquids with close boiling points.
Examples:

Separation of a mixture of water and ethanol

Fermentation is the production of ethanol. It occurs when yeast breaks
down sugars in the absence of oxygen. Fermentation is used to make
alcoholic drinks, such as beer and wine. Carbon dioxide gas is also
produced during fermentation:
glucose (sugar) ethanol (alcohol) + carbon dioxide

Ethanol produced by fermentation is separated from water by

fermentation.
The solution is heated until it boils. The liquid with the lowest boiling point boils first
and becomes a vapor (gas). The vapor is cooled in the condenser until the temperature falls
below the boiling point when it condenses back into a liquid which is collected in a
container.
The use of a fractionating column, or tower, provides cold surfaces on which vapours can
condense. A vapours of different constituents of the mixture rise up the tower, condensation
takes place at different positions in the tower. The vapour of the less volatile component (
higher boiling point) will condense to a higher extent. As a result, the most volatile
component leaves the tower first and passes through the condenser. The other components
will follow, until all the parts of the mixture leave the original flask and condense separately
in different containers.

Note:
The composition of the vapour which leaves the tower will not be 100 % pure, it will be
higher in the more volatile component than the original mixture.

5. Separating funnel
A separating funnel is used to separate two immiscible liquids (liquids that do not mix in
each other.)
A separating funnel is a glass funnel with a tap at the bottom.
How is a separating funnel used?

The mixture of liquids is placed inside the separating funnel and a container is put under it.
The liquid with the lower density floats on top. When the tap is opened, the liquid with the
higher density starts to flow through the separating funnel into the container. The tap is then
closed just before the liquid with the lower density starts to flow through. The liquid with
the lower density remaining in the separating funnel can then be drained into a different
container to separate the two liquids.

6. Chromatography
Chromatography is used to separate mixtures. There are many different kinds of
chromatography, but they all depend on the same principles.
The mixture is dissolved in a fluid (called the mobile phase or solvent) and allowed to pass
through a second material (called the stationary phase or filter paper).
A simple example of chromatography is paper chromatography. Paper chromatography can
be used to identify amino acids as well as components of a colored mixture, for example the
coloring agents (chemicals) in food or ink. As a matter of fact, paper chromatography is used
by the food industry and forensic science.
Example: Separation of black ink into its components.

Black ink is placed as a small dot on a filter paper on a line that is drawn in pencil, called
Base line. This line is drawn in pencil not pen so as not to interfere with the experiment.
The paper is then placed in a suitable solvent (water, alcohol or a mixture of both) such
that the level of the solvent is below the base line (to prevent dissolving of the ink before
the experiment starts). If alcohol is used the beaker must be covered with a watch glass to
prevent the loss of alcohol.
As the solvent rises up the filter paper the individual components (dyes) within the ink
spots are separated. Solvent rises by capillary action.
The solvent travels up the filter paper. When it is about 1 cm from the top of the paper we
remove it. Draw another line in pencil to show where the solvent reached. This line is
called the solvent front.
Different dyes travel different distances up the paper.
Due to different solubilities and different molecular adhesion some components move
more than others up the paper, so allowing the separation of the different components.
The sample that travels the longest distance on the chromatogram is the most soluble in
the solvent and least adhering to the paper.

What is the Rf value?

Rf value or Retention Factor is the distance travelled up the paper by a component divided by
the distance travelled up the paper by the solvent, measured from the baseline.
For example, if a component travelled 4 cm and the solvent travelled 10 cm, from the
baseline, then Rf = 4 10 = 04
Sometimes the components are not visible e.g amino acids, the chromatogram can be sprayed
by a suitable locating agent.
In the given example, the substances (solutes) to be analysed were dissolved in a solvent,
this is called the mobile phase because it moves.
The paper material on which the separation takes place is called the stationary or immobile
phase because it doesn't move.
Rf is physical property that can be used to identify certain substances.
Chromatography is not only a technique used to identify it is also used to analyze substances
and check their purity (see interpreting chromatograms)
Interpreting chromatograms:
Consider the following chromatogram:

* Dyes 1,3 and 6 are soluble pure substances . The spot moved up the paper with the
solvent and did not split.
* Dyes 2, 4 and 5 are mixtures of soluble components. The spot moved up with the solvent
and split into more than one spot. The greater the solubility of a component the greater is
its Rf value the larger is the separation from the base line.

* Dyes 2 and 5, 3 and 5, 3 and 6 have a common component same Rf value. Rf value is a
physical constant.
* If a dye sticks to the x on the base line this dye is considered to be insoluble in the
solvent.
V.

The purity of solids and liquids

Chromatography is a criterion of purity for colored dyes.
The best way to check the purity of solids and liquids is points find the melting and boiling
points.
A pure substance has a sharp fixed melting point and boiling point. An impure solid will
have a melting point lower than the pure solid. An impure liquid will have a higher boiling
point than the pure liquid.
Examples:
Pure water boils at 100 while salt water (sodium chloride in water) boils at 102
Pure ice melts at 0 while ice that has salt in it melts at about - 4.

Methods of Purification

1. Purification of impure solids

Example: To separate salt from rock salt.
Steps:
1. Dissolve the solid in a solvent in which it is soluble.
2. Filter the mixture to remove any insoluble substances (impurities) as a residue.
3. Evaporate the solution to reduce its volume then leave the solution to crystallize (refer
to method 1)
4. Filter off the crystals, leave the crystals to dry. The result is a pure solid.

2. Purification of impure liquids

1) Simple distillation
2) Fractional distillation

Working with gases

(1) Collection of gases
Method

Diagram

Examples

Any gas can be

collected by gas
syringe

Any gas

Gases less dense

than air are
collected by
upward delivery.

Hydrogen, H2
Ammonia, NH3

Gases denser
than air are
collected by
downward
delivery

Chlorine, Cl2
Sulphur dioxide, SO2
Hydrogen sulphide, H2S
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2
Carbon dioxide, CO2
Hydrogen chloride, HCl

Gases collected
over water
(gas must be
insoluble in
water)

Oxygen, O2
Hydrogen, H2
Nitrogen, N2

(2) Drying of gases

If a gas is required dry, it can be dried using one of the following drying agents:
1. Anhydrous calcium chloride

2. Concentrated sulfuric acid

It is never used to dry ammonia gas, because ammonia gas is basic and sulfuric acid is
acidic so they will react together.
The most suitable drying agent for ammonia gas is anhydrous calcium chloride.
3. Calcium oxide
4. Silica gel.