Study Notes : Biology

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMAL CELL

Animal Cell

Plant Cell

Cell wall:

Absent

Present (formed of
cellulose)

Shape:

Round (irregular shape)

Rectangular
shape)

Vacuole:

One or more small vacuoles

(much smaller than plant
cells).

One, large central

vacuole taking up
90% of cell volume.

Centrioles:

Present in all animal cells

Only present in lower

plant forms.

Chloroplast:

Animal cells
chloroplasts

Cytoplasm:

Present

Present

Endoplasmic
Reticulum
(Smooth
and
Rough):

Present

Present

Ribosomes:

Present

Present

Mitochondria:

Present

Present

Plastids:

Absent

Present

Golgi
Apparatus:

Present

Present

Plasma
Membrane:

only cell membrane

cell wall and a cell

membrane

don't

have

(fixed

Plant cells have

chloroplasts because
they make their own
food

Animal Cell

Plant Cell

Microtubules/
Microfilaments:

Present

Present

Flagella:

May be found in some cells

May be found in
some cells

Lysosomes:

Lysosomes
cytoplasm.

Nucleus:

Present

Present

Cilia:

Present

It is very rare

occur

in

Lysosomes
not evident.

usually

What are minerals?

Minerals are inorganic substances or chemical elements that forms one of the important nutrient
groups needed by human body for proper growth and development of the body.
On the basis of requirement of minerals by human body Minerals are classified into two groups Major
mineral (or Macro-minerals) and Trace minerals
(Micro-minerals)

What is difference between Micro minerals and macro minerals?

Major minerals or Macro-minerals are minerals which human body needs in large quantity.
There are mainly seven Macro-minerals these are calcium, phosphorus, sulphur, potassium, chloride,
sodiumand magnesium.
Trace minerals or micro-minerals are minerals which human body needs in small quantity.
There are ten trace minerals and these are are: iron, fluorine, zinc, copper, manganese, iodine, cobalt,
selenium, chromium, and molybdenum.
Important points for minerals
About Macro minerals
Calcium is the bodys most abundant mineral in human body and makes up approximately 2% of a
persons total body weight in bones and teeth.
Phosphorus is the bodys second most abundant mineral
Potassium is the third most abundant mineral in the body
Sulphur is the fourth most abundant body mineral.
Sodium and chloride are the fifth most abundant minerals in the body
Magnesium is the sixth most abundant mineral in the body and last of the major minerals.
About micro-minerals
Iron is the most abundant trace mineral, in human body

Zinc is the second most abundant trace mineral, in human body.

List of Minerals needed in our food for proper

growth and development of the body
Major dietary
sources of
Minerals

Major functions
of minerals
in the body

Symptoms of
deficiency

Calcium(Ca)

Dairy products, dark

green vegetables,
legumes

Bone and
tooth formation,
blood clotting
nerve and
muscles function

Retarded growth,
possibly loss
of bone mass

Phosphorus(P)

Dairy products,
meats, grains

Bone and tooth formation

acid-base balance, nucleotide
synthesis

Weakness, loss of
minerals from
bone
,calcium loss

Sulphur(S)

Proteins
from many sources

Components of certain amino

acids

Symptoms of
protein deficiency

Potassium(K)

Meats, dairy products,

many fruits and
vegetable ,grains

Acid-base balance,
water balance,
nerve function

Muscular weakness,
paralysis,
nausea, heart failure

Chlorine(Cl)

Table salt

Acid base balance,

formation
of gastric juices,
nerve function,
osmotic balance

Muscle cramps,
reduced appetite

Sodium(Na)

Table salt

Acid-base balance,
water balance,
nerve function

Muscle cramps,
reduced appetite

Magnesium(Mg)

Whole grains, green

leafy vegetables

Co-factor,ATP bioenergetics

Nervous
system disturbances

Iron(Fe)

Meats, eggs, legumes, Components ofhaemoglobin

Iron-deficiency
whole grains, green leafy and of electron carriers in energy anaemia, weakness
vegetables
metabolism;enzyme cofactor
,impaired immunity

Fluorine(F)

Drinking water, tea,

seafood

Zinc(Zn)

Growth failure,
scaly
Components of certain digestive
Meats, seafoods, grains
skininflammation,
enzymes and other proteins
reproductive failure
impairedimmunity

Minerals

Copper(Cu)

Maintenance of
tooth (and probably bone)
structure

Seafood, nuts, legumes, Enzyme cofactor in iron

organ meats
metabolism, melanin synthesis,

High
frequency of tooth
decay

Anaemia, bone and

cardiovascular

electron transport

changes

Manganese (Mn)

Nuts, grains,
vegetables, fruits, tea

Enzyme co-factor

Abnormal bone and

cartilage

Iodine(I)

Seafood, dairy
products ,iodized salt

Components of thyroid hormones

Goitre(enlarged
thyroid)

Cobalt(Co)

Meats and
dairy products

Components of vitamin B12

None ,except
asB12 deficiency

Selenium(Se)

Seafood, meats, whole

grains

Enzyme co-factor;
antioxidant functioningin
closeassociationwith vitamin E

Chromium(Cr)

Brewers
Involved in
yeast,liver,seafood,
glucose and energy metabolism
meats,some vegetables

Impaired glucose
metabolism

Molybdenum(Mo)

Legumes,rains,some
vegetables

Disorder in excretion
of nitrogen containing
compounds

Enzyme cofactor

Muscle pain, possibly

heart muscle
deterioration

Botany: It deals with the study of plants.

Zoology: It deals with the study of animals.
Microbiology: It deals with the study of micro-organisms.
Taxonomy: It deals with the identification nomenclature and classification of the living
organisms.
Morphology: It deals with the study of external structure and form of living organisms.
Anatomy: It deals with the study of the gross internal structure of living organisms with naked
eyes.
Histology: It deals with the study of the minute structures of the tissue with the help of
microscopes.
Cytology: It deals with the study of form and detailed structure of individual cells.
Physiology: It deals with functioning of the organisms E.g. Digestion, excretion, growth etc.
Embryology: It deals with the study of changes or events leading to fertilization and
development of embryo.
Ecology: It deals with the study of changes or events on environment that influences the living
organisms.
Evolution: It deals with the study of modern form of organisms from primitive and simpler
forms.

Genetics: It deals with the study of heredity and variation in living organisms.
Paleontology: It deals with the study of life at it exists in the past, based on the fossil remains
of prehistoric organisms.
Anthropology: It deals with the study of origin, development, cultural and social condition and
customs of present and past races of mankind.
Exobiology: It deals with the study of possibility of life in outer space.
Applied Biology: It deals with the study of living organisms concerning welfare and betterment
of mankind.
Limnology: It deals with the study of fresh water and their inhabitants.
Cryobiology: It deals with the study of effects of life at very low temperature.
Phylogeny: It deals with the evolution of an organism.
Ontogeny: It deals with the study of organisms course of development starting from the
embryo.
Molecular Biology: It deals with the study of nature and arrangement of molecules and their
interactions that control and bring about various activities of protoplasm E.g. structure and
functions of DNA and RNA.
Karyology: It deals with the study of Nucleus.

INVENTION AND DISCOVERIES

1. Archimedes

- Archimedean law, lever and specific gravity..

2. Bacquarrel

- Radio-activity of uranium.

3. J.L.Baird

- Television.

4. Benjamin Franklin

- Lightning conductor.

5. H.J.Bhabha

- Research in cosmic rays and quantum theory.

6. Binet

- Intelligence tests.

7. J.C. Bose

- Crescograph.

8. S.N. Bose

- Discovery of nuclear particles Boson.

9. Bohr

- Electron Theory, Atomic structure.

10.Bunsen

- Spectroscope.

11.Bushwell

- Submarine.

12.Carothers

- Nylon Plastics.

13.Cavendish

- Discovery of hydrogen, rare gases

14.Charles Darwin

- Theory of Evolution; Origin of Species.

15.Curie Madame

- Radium.

Some Important Facts About Human Eye

Dear Sa'ians,
Today we are providing the important Short notes on FACTS ABOUT HUMAN EYE with the help of
diagram, so that all SA'ians having clearly vision about the frequently ask topic .HUMAN EYE in
various exams.

Least distance of distinct vision is 25 cm.

Defects of human eye and the remedies :

Myopia or short sightedness : A person suffering from myopia can see the near objects clearly
while far objects are not clear.
Causes :
Elongation of eye ball along the axis.
Shortening of focal length of eye lens.
Over stretching of ciliary muscles beyond the elastic limit.
Remedy : Diverging lens is used.

Hyperopia or hypermetropia or longsightedness : A person suffering from hypermetropia can see

the distant objects clearly but not the near objects.
Causes:
Shortening of eye ball along the axis.
Increase in the focal length of eye lens.
Stiffening of ciliary muscles.
Remedy : A converging lens is used.

Presbyopia : This defect is generally found in elderly person. Due to stiffening of ciliary muscles,
eye looses much of its accommodating power. As a result distant as well as nearby objects can not
be seen.
Remedy:two separate lens or a bifocal lens is used.

Astigmatism : This defect arises due to difference in the radius of curvature of cornea in the
different planes. As a result rays from an object in one plane are brought to focus by eye in another
plane.
Remedy: cylindrical lens is used.
Some Important Points About HUMAN EYE:
dispersion-The phenomenon by which, a ray of light splits into its constituent colours, when passed
through a transparent medium, is known as dispersion.
The sun gives out white light. It is the largest source of polychromatic light.
Myopia is caused due to the
1) Shortening of the eyeball
2) Increase in focal length of the eye-lens.
The ability of the eye lens to change its focal length to focus the images of all the objects, distant
or nearby on the retina is known as the power of accommodation.
The eye lens changes its focal length by changing its thickness with the help of its ciliary muscles.
The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in metres.

Blood Components and Functions

Component
Red Blood
Cells or
Erythrocytes
White Blood
Cells or
Leukocytes
Platelets or
Thrombocytes
Plasma

Function
They carry the protein hemoglobin, which transports oxygen from the
lungs to the rest of the body
They are primarily responsible for protecting the body from infection.
They help the blood clotting process (or coagulation) by gathering at the
site of an injury.
It is the liquid component of blood and transports blood cells throughout
the body along with nutrients, waste products, antibodies, clotting
proteins, chemical messengers such as hormones, and proteins that help
maintain the body's fluid balance

Types of White Blood Vessels (Leukocytes)

Name
Basophil
Eosinophil
Lymphocyte
Monocyte
Neutrophil

Function
Normal white blood cell which increase with bone marrow damage,
parasitic infections, or allergic reactions.
A type of white blood cell that controls mechanism associated with
allergies and defends the body from infection by parasites and bacteria.
Two types T lymphocytes which help regulate the function of other
immune cells and directly attacks infected cells and tumors and B
lymphocytes which make antibodies.
A white blood cell that ingests bacteria and foreign particles.
The most common type of white blood cell, which helps the body fight

infection.

Types of Blood Vessels and Functions

Blood Vessel
Arteries
Veins
Capillary

Function
Artery carry oxygenated blood under high pressure from the heart to
other parts of the body.
Veins carry deoxygenated blood from the organs and tissues back to the
heart.
Capillaries connect arteries and veins.

Main Blood Vessels and Functions

Type of Blood
Vessel

Artery

Vein

Name of Blood
Vessel
Aorta
Coronary
Artery
Pulmonary
Artery
Superior Vena
Cava
Inferior Vena
Cava
Coronary Vein
Pulmonary
Veins

Function
Largest and principal artery which circulates
oxygenated blood to all parts of the body through
its branches.
A branch of Aorta which supplies oxygenated
blood to the heart tissues.
Only artery which carries deoxygenated blood. It
carries blood from the heart to the lungs for
purification.
This vein returns deoxygenated blood from the
head, arms and thorax to the heart.
This vein returns deoxygenated blood from the
abdomen and legs to the heart.
This vein returns deoxygenated blood from the
heart muscles to the heart.
Four pulmonary veins, two from each lung carry
oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart.

Blood Group Relation between Parents and Child

Mothers's
Blood
Group

A
B
AB
O

A
A or O
A, B, AB, O
A, B or AB
A or O

Father's Blood Group

B
AB
A, B, AB, O
A, Bor AB
B or O
A, B or AB
A, B or AB
A, B or AB
B or O
A or B
Child's Blood Group

O
A or O
B or O
A or B
O

Disorder relating to blood

Main
disorder

Anaemia

Specific
Irondeficiency
Anaemia
Vitamindeficienc
y
Anaemia
Aplastic
Anaemia
Hemolytic
Anaemia
Sickle Cell
Anaemia

Bleeding
Disorders

von
Willebrand
Disease
Haemophilia

Leukemia

Brief details
Results from deficiency of iron usually due to blood loss
or poor nutrition.
Results from low levels of Vitamin B12 or folic acid due
to poor nutrition.
Occurs when the body stops making enough red blood
cells. This may be due to viral infections, exposure to
toxic chemicals, drugs, and autoimmune diseases.
Occurs when abnormal breakdown of red blood cells
takes place.
It is a hereditary blood disorder, in which red blood cells
taking a rigid, sickle shape. This decreases the cells'
flexibility and may result in lifethreatening
complications.
It is the most common hereditary coagulation
abnormality that results when the blood lacks von
Willebrand factor, a protein that helps the blood to clot.
It is a rare, usually inherited, bleeding disorder
characterised by body's inability to control blood
clotting or coagulation. It results from a genetic defect in
Xchromosome.
Characterised by rapid production of abnormal white
blood cells which cannot fight infection and also impair

Blood
Cancers

Lymphoma

Myeloma

the ability of the bone marrow to produce red blood cells

and platelets.
Lymphoma is a type of blood cancer that occurs when
lymphocytes, the white blood cells that form a part of
the immune system, divide faster than normal cells or
live longer than they are supposed to.
This type of cancer targets the plasma cells which
produce antibodies, thus weaken the immune system of
the body.

Blood & Circulatory System

Blood & Circulatory System

The main functions of blood are to transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, nutrients, hormones
and waste around the body. Blood also fights infection and regulates temperature.
Composition of blood:
1. Plasma constitutes for about 54% of our blood. 92% of it is water.
2. White blood cells and platelets constitute for about 1% of our blood.
3. Red blood cells constitute for about 45% of our blood.
Red blood cells have a biconcave shape and are involved in the transportation of oxygen
by haemoglobin (haem=iron-containing), they are made in the bone marrow,they have no
nucleus, they last for approximately 120 days and are then broken down into pigments
called bilirubin and biliverdin in the liver.(N.B. oxyhaemoglobin =oxygen rich haemoglobin,
deoxyhaemoglobin=low oxygen haemoglobin)
White blood cells are divided into 2 types: monocytes are involved in recognising anything that is
foreign and ingesting the foreign particle by phagocytosis whereas lymphocytes are involved in the
production of antibodies which inactivate and immobilise pathogens. White blood cells
have nuclei and are also made in the bone marrow.
Platelets are small fragments without nuclei and last just 7 days. They are essential in clotting
blood.
Blood groups consist of A, B, AB and O groups. People in the AB blood group are known as
universal recipients because they can receive blood from any group. People in the O group are
known as universal donors because they can give blood to anybody, although the most common
blood group they can only receive blood from their own group.

Deep vein thrombosis(DVT) are swollen areas caused by unwanted clotting in veins due to a lack of
movement on long journeys.(flight socks may prevent DVT)

Circulatory System
Open circulatory systems allow the blood flow out of the vessels before returning to the heart via
ostia. (no veins involved)E.g. insects
Closed circulatory systems dont allow the blood to leave the blood vessels E.g. humans
advantages include faster and controlled delivery of oxygen and nutrients which allow for longer
periods of activity.
Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart in powerful pulses. They have
thick walls small lumens and no valves.
Endothelium is the innermost layer of blood vessels that consists of just a single layer of cells.
Veins are blood vessels that carry blood to the heart in an even flow. They have thin walls large
lumens and valves.
Capillaries are tiny blood vessels with walls just one cell thick, they carry blood from arterioles to
venules through tissues releasing nutrients and removing wastes.

The
The
The
The
The

human circulatory system consists of two circuits systemic and pulmonary.

coronary artery carries blood to the heart muscle from the aorta. (coronary vein )
hepatic artery carries blood to the liver. (hepatic vein)
renal arteries carry blood to the kidneys. (renal veins)
mesenteric arteries carry blood to the small and large intestines.

 The carotid arteries supply blood to the head. (jugular veins)

The subclavian arteries supply blood to the arms. (subclavian veins)
The iliac arteries carry blood to the legs. (iliac veins)
A portal system is a network of capillaries in one organ or tissue joined to another network of
capillaries in another organ or tissue via a vein or veins.
A pulse is the alternate contraction and relaxation of an artery as blood passes through it.
Blood pressure is the force blood exerts on the walls of blood vessels.
A sphygmomanometer is used for measuring blood pressure(normally 120/80 mmHg)
Atherosclerosis is the hardening of artery walls due to a build-up of fatty deposits.
Smoking causes heart rate and blood pressure to increase. Diet high in saturated fats increase
blood pressure and atherosclerosis. Exercise helps lower blood pressure.

Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system returns extracellular fluid(ECF) or interstitial fluid caused by plasma leaking
from capillaries to the bloodstream.
Lymph is a clear liquid that is collected around cells and is transported by the lymphatic system
back to the bloodstream. o Lymph vessels are narrow, dead ending tubes that transport lymph and
are present in every tissue and organ throughout the

Lymph nodes are small spherical-shaped organs of the lymphatic system that contain many white
blood cells. o Functions of the lymphatic system:
1. Filters lymph white blood cells in lymph nodes remove bacteria and viruses.
2. Absorb fat from small intestine lymph vessels throughout the wall of the digestive system absorb
lipids.
3. Maturation of certain white blood cells lymphocytes mature and become fully active in the
thymus.
4. Fighting infection white blood cells produce antibodies to kill bacteria and viruses.

SHORT NOTES ON TYPES OF DISEASES

List of Diseases caused by Virus, Bacteria, Protozoa and Worm:

CAUSED

1. Chicken pox It is caused by Varicella-zoster virus.

2. Small Pox It is caused by Variola virus.
3. Common Cold -It is caused by Rhinovirus.
4.
AIDS
(Acquired
Immunono
Deficiency
Syndrome) - It is caused by Human Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV).
5. Measles -It is caused by Measles virus.
6. Mumps -It is caused by Mumps virus.
7. Rabies - It is caused by Rabies virus (Rhabdoviridae
family).
8. Dengue fever -It is caused by Dengue virus.
9. Viral encephalitis It is an inflammation of the
brain. It is caused by rabies virus, Herpessimplex, polio
virus, measles virus, and JC virus.

DISEASE CAUSED BY BACTERIA:

DISEASE
BY VIRUSES:

1. Whooping Cough It is caused by a bacterium

called Bordetella pertussis.
2.
Diphtheria
- It
is
caused
by
Corynebacteriumdiphtheriae.
3. Cholera - It is caused by Vibrio cholerae.
4. Leprosy - It is caused by Mycobacterium leprae.
5.
Pneumonia-It
is
caused
by
Streptococcus
pneumoniae.
6. Tetanus -It is caused by Clostridium tetani.
7. Typhoid - It is caused by Salmonella typhi.
8. Tuberculosis -It is caused by Mycobacterium
tuberculosis.
9. Plague - It is caused by Yersinia pestis.
DISEASE CAUSED BY PROTOZOANS:

1. Malaria

2.Amoebic
dysentery
3.
Sleeping
sickness
4. Kala azar

It
is
spread
by
Anopheles
mosquitoes.
The
Plasmodium
parasite that causes malaria is
neither a virus nor a bacteria
It
is
caused
by
Entamoebahistolytica.
It is caused by Trypanosomabrucei.

it is a single

celled parasite that

multiplies in red blood
cells of humans.

It is caused by Leishmaniadonovani.

DISEASE CAUSED BY WORMS

1. Tapeworn

2. Filariasis

3. Pinworm

They are intestinal parasites.

It cannot live on its own. It
survives within the intestine of
an animal including human.
It is caused by thread

It is caused by small, thin,

white
roundworm
called
Enterobiusvermicularis.

General Science Study Notes

Science - Question
The temperature at

Answer
-273 degree Celsius

like filarial nematode worms. Most

cases of filaria are caused by the
parasite
known
as
Wuchereriabancrofti.

which all
substances have
zero thermal
energy?
Any substance
which when added
to a reaction, alters
the rate of the
reaction but
remains chemically
unchanged at the
end of the process
is called?
The study of the
inter-relations
of animals and
plants with their
environment is
called?
Study of insects is
called?
A unit used to
express the focal
power of optical
lenses?
The velocity that a
body with less
mass must achieve
in order to escape
from the
gravitational
attraction of a more
massive body is
called?
Laughing gas is
chemically known
as?
The blood
vessels carrying
blood from the
heart to various
parts of the body is
called?
The distance
travelled by light in
one year is called?
The rate of change
of position of a
body with respect

Catalyst

Ecology

Entomology
Dioptre

Escape Velocity

Nitrous Oxide
Artery

Light year
Velocity

to time in a
particular direction
and is a vector
quantity is called:
An organism which
derives its
nourishment from
another living
organism is called?
Newton's which law
states that the rate
of change of
momentum of a
body is directly
proportional to the
force applied and
takes place in the
direction in which
the force acts?
Which is the
world's first manmade satellite?
Which planet is the
brightest of all the
planets?
Small pieces of
solid matter which
are found scattered
in the interplanetary space of
the solar system
are known as?
The largest gland in
the body which is
dark red in colour
is?
Inadequate
secretion of Insulin
hormone causes
which disease?
Common cold,
Influenza,
Chickenpox and
Measles are caused
due to the attack of
Virus or Bacteria?
In which
atmospheric layer
is the

Parasite

Newton's second law

of motion

Sputnik-I
Venus
Meteoroids

Liver

Diabetes

Virus

Ionosphere

communication
satellite located?
The scientific
principle behind
'Fiber Optics' is?

Total internal reflectio

n of light

Name of site- Harappa

Year of Excavation-1921
Excavator -Daya Ram Sahni
Montgomery district of Punjab (Now in Pakistan) on the left bank of Ravi river
City followed grid planning.
Two rows of six granaries.
Dancing Natraja (stone)
Only place having evidences of coffin burial.
no. of Cemetery H and cemetery R - 37.
Name of site -Mohenjo-Daro
Year of Excavation -1922
Excavator -RD Banerjee
Larkana district in Sindh on the right bank of Indus (Now in Pakistan)
City followed grid planning.
A large granary, great bath and a collage.
Human skeletons showing invasion andmassacre.
Evidence of horse comes iron superficial level.
A piece of woven cotton along with spindle whorls and needles.
A bearded man in steatite and a bronze dancing girl are found.
Town was flooded more than seven times.
A seal representing Mother Goddess with a plant growing from her wombe and a woman to be
sacrificed by a man with a knife.

Name of site -Sutkagendor

Year of Excavation -1927
Excavator -RL. Stein
Situated in Baluchistan on Dask river
Trade point between Harappa and Babylon, to mature phase.
Citadel was fortified, Evidence of horse
Name of site -Chanhudaro
Year of Excavation -1931
Excavator -N Gopal Majumdar, Mackey
Situated in Sindh on the bank of left Indus
The city has no citadel.
Famous for bead makers shop.
A small pot, possibly an inkpot.
Foot prints of a dog chasing a cat.
Evidence of copper or bronze tools of carts with seated drivers.
Three different cultural layers-Indus, Jhukar and Jhangar.

Name of site -Amri

Year of Excavation -1935

Excavator -NG Majumdar

Situated in Sindh on the bank of Indus
Evidence of antelope.

Name of site -Kalibangan

Year of Excavation -1953
Excavator -A Ghosh
Situated in Rajasthan on the left bank ofGhaggar
Shows both Pre-Harappan and Harappan phase.
Evidence of Furrowed land.
Evidence of seven fire altars and camel bones.
Many houses had their own well.
Kalibangan stands for black bangles.
Evidence of wooden furrow.
Evidence of two types of burials (i) Burials in a rectangular grave and (ii) Burials in a circular
grave.

Name of site -Kot Diji

Year of Excavation -1953
Excavator -Razal Ahmed
Situated on the left bank of Indus
Wheel made painted pottery.
Trace of a defensive wall and well aligned streets.
Knowledge of metallurgy, artistic toys etc.
Five figurines of mother Goddess discovered.

Name of site -Rangpur

Year of Excavation -1953
Excavator -MS Vats, BB Lal and SR Rao
Situated on the left bank of Mahar river (Gujarat)
Rice was cultivated

Name of site -Ropar

Year of Excavation -1953
Excavator -YD Sharma
Situated in Punjab on the banks of Sutlej
Evidence of burying a dog below the human burial.
One example of rectangular mud rick chamber was noticed.
Fivefold cultureHarappan, PGW, NBP, Kushana-Gupta and Medieval.

Lothal
1953
SR Rao
A tiled floor which bears intersecting design of circles.
Remains of rice husk (other than Rangpur).
Evidence of horse from a terracotta figurine.
A ship designed on a seal.
Beads and trade ports. A Terracotta ship.
An instrument for measuring angles, pointing to modern days compass.
Houses with entrances on the main street a unique feature as the houses of all other Harappan
cities had side entries.
First man-made port in the world and a dock.
Evidence of joint burial.
A jar depicting scene from the story cunning fox of Panchatantra.

Alamgirpur
1958
YD Sharma
Situated in Meerut on the bank of Hindon River
The impression of cloth on a trough is discovered.
Usually considered to be Eastern boundary of the Indus culture.

Surkotada
1964
JP Joshi
Situated in Kutch (Bhuj) (Gujarat)
Bones of horse, bead making shops.

Banawali
1974
RS Bisht
Situated in Hissar (Haryana)
A jar depicting scene from the story cunning fox of panchatantra.
Show both Pre-Harappan and Harappan phase.
Good quantity of barley found here.
Pottery.
Balakot
1963 - 76
George F Dales Situated in the Arabian Sea
Remain of Pre-Harappan and Harappan Civilisation.

The mounds rise to the height of about 9.7 m and are spread 2.8 sq. hectare of area. Beads
manufactures and shales industry.

Dholavira
1985-90
RS Bisht
Situated in Rann of Kutch (Gujarat)
Seven cultural stages. Latest site to be discovered
Remains of horse.
Largest site.
Three parts of city are citadel, middle twon and Lenten town
Unique water management.
Rakhigarhi
1963
Prof Surajbhan
Drishdavati (Hissar district Haryana) on Ghaggar river
Two distinct cultures i.e, early Harappan and mature Harappan.
One of the largest Harappan site provincial capital.
Smart Facts
. Until 1920s. Indian History began with the advent of Aryans, as no information was available to
reconstruct the history of India before that.
. The efforts of the Indian Archaeologist of the first half of the 20th Century have pushed back the
starting point of the study of Indian History.
. The earliest recorded reference to the civilisaiton is given by Charles Masson, who visited the site
Harappa in 1826 and wrote about a running brick castle but its significance was not realized until
much later.
. In 1857, the British Authorities used Harappan bricks in the construction of East Indian Railway
line connecting Karachi and Lahore.
. In 1912, Harappan seals with then unknown symbols were discovered by J Fleet which trigged an
excavation campaign under Sir John Marshall in (1921-22), resulting in the discovery of a hitherto
unknown civilization by Dayaram Sahni. By 1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro was excavated, but minor
campaigns continued, such as that led by Mortimer Wheeler in 1950.

Notes On Pre-Historic Period

Dear Readers,
Here we are providing you a brief about ancient history of Man kind from pre - historic period.
This topic will be useful for you in Railway Recruitment Exam.
Ancient

India

Ancient India can be studied under other heads like Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and
Chalcolithic period based on the type of stone/ metal tools people used.There were activities of
proto humans (Homo erectus) in the Indian subcontinent 20 lakh years (2 million years) ago, and of
Homo sapiens since 70,000 BC. But they were gathers/hunters.The first inhabitants of Indian
subcontinent might have been tribals like Nagas (North-East), Santhals (East-India), Bhils (Central
India), Gonds (Central India), Todas (South India) etc. Most of them are speakers of the Austric, pre-

Dravidian languages, such as Munda and Gondvi. Dravidians and Aryans are believed to be
immigrants who came later to the sub-continent.
Paleolithic

Period

(2

million

BC

10,000

BC)

Fire,
Tools made up of lime stone,
Ostrich Eggs,
Important Paleolithic sites : Bhimbetka (M.P), Hunsgi, Kurnool Caves, Narmada Valley (Hathnora,
M.P), Kaladgi Basin
Mesolithic

Period

(10,000

BC

8,000

BC)

4,000

BC)

Major Climatic Change happened

Domestication of animals ie Cattle rearing started
Microliths found at Brahmagiri (Mysore), Narmada, Vindya, Gujarat
Neolithic

Period

(8000

BC

Agriculture Started,
Wheel discovered,
Inamgaon = An early village,
Important Neolithic Sites : Burzahom(Kashmir), Gufkral(Kashmir), Mehrgarh(Pakistan),
Chirand(Bihar), Daojali Hading(Tripura/Assam), Koldihwa(UP), Mahagara(UP), Hallur(AP),
Paiyampalli(AP), Maski, Kodekal, Sangana Kaller, Utnur, Takkala Kota.
NB: Megalithic Sites: Brahmagiri, Adichanallur
Chalcolithic

Period

(4000

BC

1,500

BC)

Copper Age, can be considered part of Bronze Age. (Bronze = Copper + Tin)
Indus Valley Civilization (BC 2700 BC 1900).
Also cultures at Brahmagiri, Navada Toli (Narmada region), Mahishadal (W.Bengal), Chirand (Ganga
region)
Iron

Age

(BC

1500

BC

200)

Vedic Period (Arrival of Aryans ie. BC 1600 BC 600) Nearly 1000 years (Basic books of Hinduism, ie
Vedas were composed, might have written down later.)
Later

Vedic

Age

1000-600

- Later Vedic Age- Also known as PGW (Painted Grey Ware)- Iron Age
- They knew two seas- The Arabian and the Indian Ocean
- Gandak was known as 'Sadanira'
- Position of Women Declined
- Earliest reference to four ashrams or four stages of life- found in 'Jabala Upanishad'
Society

BC)

Eight Types of Marriages

1. Brahma: Marriage of a duly dowried girl to a man of the same verna.
2. Daiva: Father gives the daughter to the priest as a part of his fee.
3. Arsa: A Token bride price of a cow and a bull is given as dowry.
4. Prajapati: Marriage- without dowry and bride price.
5. Gandharva: By consent of two parties analogous to modern love marriage.
6. Asura: Marriage by Purchase
7. Rakshsa: Marriage by Capture
8. Paishacha: Seduction of a girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk.
Marriage on the Basis of Varna
1. Anuloma: Marriage of a man in his verna or below his verna
2. Pratiloma: Marriage of a girl or woman in lower rank than his own verna.
Polity
The term 'Rastra' First appeared in this period.
Economy: Rice is called 'Vrihi'
- Niksha, Satmana, Krsnala-were used as convenient units of values, but were not coins.
Four Types of Pottery
- Black and Red ware
- Black and Slipped ware
- Painted grey ware
- Red ware
Religion:
Prajapati ( the creator) comes to occupy supreme position.
- Rudra and Vishnu gained their position
Vedas: First
three
vedas
are
called
"Trayi"-three

fold

knowledge.

Rigveda: Recited by Priest 'Hotri'-1028 Hyms (10 Mandals) -Atraya and Kaushitak Brahamns are
attached to it.
Samveda: Receited by Priest 'Udgatri'- All the verses except 75 taken from Rigveda- Tandayam and
Janmejaya Brahamns are attached to it.
Yajur Veda: Receited by 'Ardhyawahu'- Procedure for performance of sacrifice. Shatpath and
Taitriya Brahamns are attached to it.
Athrva Veda: Magical Formulae and sacrifices
Brahamnas: Science of Sacrifice
Aranyaks: Forest Books: Meant for forest dwelling hermits
Upanishads: Upanishad means the inner or mystic teaching. The term Upanishad is derived from
upa (near), ni (down) and s(h)ad (to sit), i.e., sitting down near. Groups of pupils sit near the
teacher to learn from him the secret doctrine. In the quietude of the forest hermitages
Vedangas
- Shiksha ( Phonetics)
- Kalpa ( Ritualistic Science)

- Jyotish ( Astronomy)
- Vyakarana ( Grammar)
- Nirukta ( Etymology)
- Chhanda (Metrics)
(Nirukta from Yaksha is the oldest Indian Linguistic Text)
Sutra:
Shranta Sutra: Large public sacrifices
Guhya Sutra: Birth, Naming, Marriages
Salva Sutra: Measurement
Upaveda:
- Aurveda
- Dhaurveda
- Gandharvaveda
- Shilpaveda
Rituals and Sacrifices
Rajasuya: Royal consecration, conferred supreme powers on him
Ashwamedha:Horse Sacrifice' that King Dasharath is supposed to have performed.
Vajpaye: Race of horces (chariots)
Vritasyoma: to convert a Nishd into Arya
1. Kolleru Lake - Andhra Pradesh
Largest lake in India.
Located between Krishna and Godavari delta.

2. Sambhar Lake - Rajasthan

India's largest inland salt lake.
Mahabharata mentions the Sambhar Lake as part of the kingdom of the demon king Brishparva.
3. Pushkar Lake - Rajasthan
Located in the town of Pushkar in Ajmer district of the Rajasthan.
Pushkar Lake is a sacred lake of the Hindus.
4. Wular Lake - Jammu Kashmir
Largest Freshwater Lake in India.
Lake Basin was formed as a result of tectonic activity and is fed by the Jhelum River.
5. Pulicat Lake- Andhra Pradesh
Second largest brackish water lake or lagoon in India.
The large spindle-shaped barrier island named Sriharikota separates the lake from the Bay of
Bengal.
The island is home to the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, the launch site of India's successful first
lunar space mission, the Chandrayaan-1.
6. Loktak Lake -Manipur
Largest freshwater lake in North -East India
KeibulLamjao the only floating national park in the world floats over it, which is the last natural refuge
of the endangered sangai or Manipur brow-antlered deer.
7. Sasthamcotta Lake - Kerala
Largest fresh water lake in Kerala.

The purity of the lake water for drinking use is attributed to the presence of large population of larva
called cavaborus that consumes bacteria in the lake water.
8. Vembanad Lake -Kerala
Longest lake in India, and the largest lake in the state of Kerala.
The Nehru Trophy Boat Race is conducted in a portion of the lake.
9. Chilka Lake -Odisha
It is the largest coastal lagoon in India and the second largest lagoon in the world.
Chilika Lake is the largest wintering ground for migratory birds, on the Indian sub-continent.
10. Dal Lake - Jammu Kashmir
Dal Lake is a lake in Srinagar and is integral to tourism known as the "Jewel in the crown of Kashmir"
or "Srinagar's Jewel".
Asia's largest Tulip garden is on the banks of Dal Lake.
Mughal gardens, Shalimar Bagh and the NishatBagh are on the banks of Dal Lake.
11. Nalsarover Lake- Gujarat
The lake - Nalsarovar - and the wetlands around it were declared a bird sanctuary in 1969.
12. Tsomgo Lake - Sikkim
Tsongmo Lake or Changu Lake, is a glacial lake in the East Sikkim.
The lake is the venue for the Guru Purnima festival in which Jhakris of Sikkim assemble at the lake
area to derive benefits from the healing qualities of the lake waters.
13. Bhimtal Lake - Uttarakhand
It is the largest lake in Kumaon region, known as the "lake district of India".
It is a "C" shaped lake.
14. Barapani Lake- Meghalaya
Barapani or Umiam Lake is in Shillong.
The origin of Lake in 1965 is due to the UmiamUmtru Hydro Electric Power Project, the first Hydel
power project in the North-east region of India.
15. Nainital Lake - Uttarakhand
Kidney shaped or crescent shaped.
Situated in the Nainital district called the Lake District of India.
16. Periyar Lake -Kerala
Periyar Lake is formed by the construction of the dam across the Mullaperiyar River in 1895.
The notable elephant reserve and a tiger reserve, Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary is located on the banks
of PeriyarLake.
17. Hussain Sagar Lake - Telengana
The lake is in Hyderabad, built by Hazrat Hussain Shah Wali in 1562, during the rule of Ibrahim
QuliQutub Shah.
Connects the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad.
A major attraction at the Hussain Sagar is the 16 meter high, 350 tonne monolithic Buddha statue on
the 'Rock of Gibraltar' installed at the center of the lake.

18. Salim Ali Lake - Maharashtra

It has been renamed after the great ornithologist, naturalist Salim Ali and also known as birdman of
India.
Salim Ali Sarovar (lake) popularly known as Salim Ali Talab is located near Delhi Gate, opposite
HimayatBagh, Aurangabad.
19. Kanwar Lake- Bihar
The KanwarTaal or KabarTaal Lake is Asia's largest freshwater oxbow lake.
20. Nakki Lake - Rajasthan
'Nakki Lake is situated in the Indian hill station of Mount Abu in Aravalli range.
Mahatma Gandhi's ashes were immersed in this Holy Lake on 12 February 1948 and Gandhi Ghat
was constructed.
21. Bhojtar Lake- Madhya Pradesh
Also known as Upper Lake lies on the western side of the capital city of Madhya Pradesh, Bhopal.
Largest artificial lake in Asia.
Types of Mountains
There are three main types of mountains: Fold Mountains, fault block mountains, and volcanic
mountains. They get their names from how they were formed.
Fold Mountains:Fold Mountains are formed when two plates run into each other or collide. The force
of the two plates running into each other causes the Earth's crust to crumple and fold. Many of the
world's great mountain ranges are Fold Mountains Including the Andes, Himalayas, and the Rockies.

Fault-block Mountains:Fault-block Mountains are formed along Faults where some large
blocks of rock are forced upwards while others are forced down. The higher area is sometimes
called a "Horst" and the lower a "graben" (see the picture below). The Sierra Nevada
Mountains in the western United States are fault block mountains.

Volcanic mountains: Mountains that are caused by volcanic activity are called volcanic
mountains. There are two main type of volcanic mountains: volcanoes and Dome Mountains.
Volcanoes are formed when magma erupts all the way to the surface of the Earth. The magma
will harden on the Earth's surface, forming mountain.

Dome Mountains are formed when a large amount of magma builds up below the Earth's
surface. This forces the rock above the magma to bulge out, forming a mountain. Examples of
volcanic mountains include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount
Mauna Loa in Hawaii.
Mountain Features and Feature Description
Arte: A narrow ridge formed when two glaciers erode opposite sidesof a mountain.
Cirque: A bowl shaped depression formed by the head of a glacier usually at the foot of a mountain.
Crag: A mass of rock that projects outward from a rock face or cliff. Face the side of a mountain that
is very steep.
Glacier:A mountain glacier is formed by compacted snow into ice.
Leeward side:the leeward side of a mountain is opposite the windward side. It is protected from the
wind and rain by the mountain.
Horn: A horn is a sharp peak formed from multiple glaciers.
Moraine: A collection of rocks and dirt left behindby glaciers.
Pass: A valley or path between mountains.
Peak: The highest point of a mountain.
Ridge: A long narrow top of a mountain or series of mountains.
Slope: The side of a mountain

Tropical Evergreen

These forests are found in the western slope of the Western Ghats, hills of the north-eastern region
and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. They are found in warm and humid areas with an annual
precipitation of over 200 cm and mean annual temperature above 22 degree celcius.
Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified, with layers closer to the ground and are covered with
shrubs and creepers, with short structured trees followed by tall variety of trees. In these forests, trees
reach great heights up to 60 m or above. There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves,
flowering and fruition. As such these forests appear green all the year round. Species found in these
forests include rosewood, mahogany,ebony, etc.

Semi Evergreen Forests

The semi evergreen forests are found in the less rainy parts of these regions. Such forests have a
mixture of evergreen and moist deciduous trees. The under growing climbers provide an evergreen
character to these forests. Main species are white cedar, hillock and kail
The British were aware of the economic value of the forests in India, hence, large scale exploitation of
these forests was started. The structure of forests was also changed. The oak forests in Garhwal and
Kumaon were replaced by pine (chirs) which was needed to lay railway lines. Forests were also
cleared for introducing plantations of tea, rubber and coffee. The British also used timber of
construction activities as it acts as an insulator of heat.
Tropical Deciduous Forests
These are the most widespread forests in India. They are also called the monsoon forests. They
spread over regions which receive rainfall between 70-200 cm. On the basis of the availability of
water, these forests are further divided into moist and dry deciduous
The Moist deciduous forests are more pronounced in the regions which record rainfall between 100200 cm. These forests are found in the north-eastern states along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern
slopes of the Western Ghats and Orissa. Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum and
sandalwood etc. are the main species of these forests.
Dry deciduous
Forest covers vast areas of the country, where rainfall ranges between 70-100 cm.On the wetter
margins, it has a transition to the moist deciduous, while on the drier margins to thorn forests. These
forests are found in rainier areas of the Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. In the
higher rainfall regions of the Peninsular plateau and the northern Indian plain, these forests have a
parkland landscape with open stretches in which teak and other trees interspersed with patches of
grass are common. As the dry season begins, the trees shed their leaves completely and the forest
appears like a vast grassland with naked trees all around Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood,
etc. are the common trees of these forests. In the western and southern part of Rajasthan, vegetation
cover is very scanty due to low rainfall and overgrazing.
Tropical Thorn Forests
Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas which receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These consist of a
variety of grasses and shrubs. It includes semiarid areas of south west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. In these forests, plants remain leafless for most part of
the year and give an expression of scrub vegetation. Important species found are babool, ber, and

wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas, etc. Tussocky grass grows upto a height of 2 m as the
under growth.
Mountain Forests
In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to a corresponding
change in natural vegetation. Mountain forests can be classified into two types, the northern mountain
forests and the southern mountain forests.
The Himalayan ranges show a succession of vegetation from the tropical to the tundra, which change
in with the altitude. Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of the Himalayas. It is succeeded by
the wet temperate type of forests between an altitudes of 1,000-2,000 m. In the higher hill ranges of
north-eastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal and Uttaranchal, evergreen broad leaf trees such as
oak and chestnut are predominant. Between 1,500-1,750m, pine forests are also well-developed in
this zone, with Chirr Pine as a very useful commercial tree. Deodar, a highly valued endemic species
grows mainly in the western part of the Himalayan range. Deodar is a durable wood mainly used in
construction activity. Similarly, the chinar and the walnut, which sustain the famous Kashmir
handicrafts, belong to this zone. Blue pine and spruce appear at altitudes of 2,225-3,048 m.
The southern mountain forests include the forests found in three distinct areas of Peninsular India viz;
the Western Ghats, the Vindhyas and the Nilgiris. As they are closer to the tropics, and only 1,500 m
above the sea level, vegetation is temperate in the higher regions, and subtropical on the lower
regions of the Western Ghats, especially in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The temperate forests
are called Sholas in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani hills. Some of the other trees of this forest of
economic significance include magnolia, laurel, cinchona and wattle. Such forests are also found in
the Satpura and the Maikal ranges.
Littoral and Swamp Forests
India has a rich variety of wetland habitats. About 70 per cent of this comprises areas under paddy
cultivation. The total area of wet land is 3.9 million hectares. Two sites- Chilika Lake (Orissa) and
Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) are protected as water-fowl habitats under the Convention of
Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention).
They consist of a number of salt-tolerant species of plants. Criss crossed by creeks of stagnant water
and tidal flows, these forests give shelter to a wide variety of birds

In India, the mangrove forests spread over 6,740 sq. km which is 7 per cent of the
worlds mangrove forests. They are highly developed in the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands and the Sunderbans of West Bengal. Other areas of significance are the
Mahanadi, the Godavari and the Krishna deltas. These forests too, are being
encroached upon, and hence, need conservation.

Today we are providing you a important Study Notes which is based on Movement of the Earth This
is important for your Upcoming Exams like Railways, SSC CHSl, SSC CPO and SSC CGL 2016.
Rotation: West to east in 24 hours (produces day and night) Line separating light and dark
halves is known as the circle of illumination.
Revolution: Movement around the sun 365 days (produces seasons) Jan 2 Closest to the
sun- called Perihelion.
July 4: Farthest from the sun- called Aphelion.

Eccentricity: (Produces Ice-age and Global Warming) Shape of the earths orbit changes in a
cyclic period running between 90,000-1, 00,000 years.

Precession: This is the conical motion of the axis of the spinning earth, like a spinning top.
Takes about 26,000 years to complete one cycle.

Presently pointing at Pole star.

AD 4000- pointing at Alpha cephai

AD 14,000 pointing at Star vega

Summer Solstice: 21st June: Sun overhead at tropic of cancer.

Winter Solstice: 22nd Dec: Sun overhead at the tropic of Capricorn.

Vernal Equinox: 21st March.

Autumn Equinox: 23rd Sep

Moon
Our moon is 1/4th of the size of Earth.
Blue Moon is said to occur when the second full moon appears within the same month.
Highest Mountain on Moon: Leibnitz: 10,660m
Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin: Set foot on the ocean of Tranquillity
In a calendar year, a maximum of seven eclipses can occur( combining solar and lunar eclipses)
Longitude and Latitudes
Any location on Earth is described by two numbers-its latitude and its longitude. If a pilot or a ship's
captain wants to specify position on a map, these are the coordinates" they would use.

Latitudes
Latitude is a measurement on a globe or map of location north or south of the Equator.Each
degree of latitude is approximately 69 miles (111 km) apart; there is a variation due to the fact
that the earth is not a perfect sphere but an oblate ellipsoid (slightly egg-shaped). To remember
latitude, imagine them as the horizontal rungs of a ladder

("ladder-tude").

The equator is at 0 latitude and separates Earths Northern and Southern hemispheres.

Locations north of the equator have latitudes between 0 (the equator) and 90 N (the
North Pole).

Locations south of the equator have latitudes between 0 (the equator) and 90 S (the
South Pole)

Longitude and Time

The vertical longitude lines are also known as meridians. They converge at the poles and
are widest at the equator (about 69 miles or 111 km apart). Zero degrees longitude is located at
Greenwich, England (0). The degrees continue 180 east and 180 west where they meet and form
the International Date Line in the Pacific Ocean. Greenwich, the site of the British Royal Greenwich
Observatory, was established as the site of the prime meridian by an international conference in
1884.
Earth moves 1 degree in 4 minutes.
Standard meridians differ from Greenwich Meridian by the multiples of 15 degree or
7.5degree.
Russia have 11 time zones

USA and Canada have 5 time zones.

India has one time zone from 82.5 degree east from the Standard time it is near Allahabad 5
hours and 30 minutes ahead of GMT
The International Date Line
1. 180 degrees meridian is the International Date Line
2. A traveller crossing this date line from east to west will lose a day.
3. A traveller going from west to east will gain a day.

Construction of Earth's Interior

Relative Density= 5.5
Seismic Waves

p-waves or primary waves: Also called longitudinal or compressional waves- like sound
waves- fastest

Secondary waves or S-waves: Also called transverse or distortional waves- like water
ripples- cannot pass through liquid material.

Surface Waves or L waves: Long wave length waves- cause most destruction.

Movement of the Earth.

Rotation: West to east in 24 hours (produces day and night) Line separating light and dark
halves is known as the circle of illumination.

Revolution: Movement around the sun 365 days (produces seasons) Jan 2 Closest to the
sun- called Perihelion.

July 4: Farthest from the sun- called Aphelion.

Eccentricity: (Produces Ice-age and Global Warming) Shape of the earths orbit changes in a
cyclic period running between 90,000-1, 00,000 years.

Precession: This is the conical motion of the axis of the spinning earth, like a spinning top.
Takes about 26,000 years to complete one cycle.

Presently pointing at Pole star.

AD 4000- pointing at Alpha cephai

AD 14,000 pointing at Star vega

Summer Solstice: 21st June: Sun overhead at tropic of cancer.

Winter Solstice: 22nd Dec: Sun overhead at the tropic of Capricorn.

Vernal Equinox: 21st March.

Autumn Equinox: 23rd Sep

Moon
Our moon is 1/4th of the size of Earth.
Blue Moon is said to occur when the second full moon appears within the same month.
Highest Mountain on Moon: Leibnitz: 10,660m
Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin: Set foot on the ocean of Tranquillity
In a calendar year, a maximum of seven eclipses can occur( combining solar and lunar eclipses)
Longitude and Latitudes

Any location on Earth is described by two numbers-its latitude and its longitude. If a pilot or a ship's
captain wants to specify position on a map, these are the coordinates" they would use.

Latitudes
Latitude is a measurement on a globe or map of location north or south of the Equator.Each
degree of latitude is approximately 69 miles (111 km) apart; there is a variation due to the fact
that the earth is not a perfect sphere but an oblate ellipsoid (slightly egg-shaped). To remember
latitude, imagine them as the horizontal rungs of a ladder

("ladder-tude").

The equator is at 0 latitude and separates Earths Northern and Southern hemispheres.

Locations north of the equator have latitudes between 0 (the equator) and 90 N (the
North Pole).

Locations south of the equator have latitudes between 0 (the equator) and 90 S (the
South Pole)

Longitude and Time

The vertical longitude lines are also known as meridians. They converge at the poles and
are widest at the equator (about 69 miles or 111 km apart). Zero degrees longitude is located at
Greenwich, England (0). The degrees continue 180 east and 180 west where they meet and form
the International Date Line in the Pacific Ocean. Greenwich, the site of the British Royal Greenwich
Observatory, was established as the site of the prime meridian by an international conference in
1884.
Earth moves 1 degree in 4 minutes.
Standard meridians differ from Greenwich Meridian by the multiples of 15 degree or
7.5degree.

Russia have 11 time zones

USA and Canada have 5 time zones.

India has one time zone from 82.5 degree east from the Standard time it is near Allahabad 5
hours and 30 minutes ahead of GMT
The International Date Line
1. 180 degrees meridian is the International Date Line
2. A traveller crossing this date line from east to west will lose a day.
3. A traveller going from west to east will gain a day.

Construction of Earth's Interior

Relative Density= 5.5
Seismic Waves

p-waves or primary waves: Also called longitudinal or compressional waves- like sound
waves- fastest

Secondary waves or S-waves: Also called transverse or distortional waves- like water
ripples- cannot pass through liquid material.

Surface Waves or L waves: Long wave length waves- cause most destruction.

FINANCE COMMISSION OF INDIA

A finance commission is set up every five years by the President under Article 280 of the
Constitution. Finance Commission of India came into existence in 1951.It was formed to define the
financial relations between the centre and the state. These recommendations cover a period of
five years. The commission also lays down rules by which the centre should provide grants-in-aid
to states out of the Consolidated Fund of India. It is also required to suggest measures to

augment the resources of states and ways to supplement the resources of panchayats and
municipalities.

Composition

of

the

Fourteenth

Finance

Commission

The Fourteenth Finance Commission has been set up under the Chairmanship of
Dr.Y.V.Reddy
[Former
Governor
Reserve
Bank
of
India].
Other Members of the Commission are:

Ms. SushmaNath [Former Union Finance Secretary],

Dr.M.Govinda Rao [Director, National Institute for Public Finance and Policy, New
Delhi].

Dr.SudiptoMundle, Former Acting Chairman, National Statistical Commission.

Prof Abhijit Sen (Member, Planning Commission) is the part timeMember of the
Fourteenth Finance.

Commission. Shri Ajay Narayan Jha is the Secretary, Fourteenth Finance

Commission.

Qualifications of the Members

The Chairman of the Finance Commission is selected among people who have had the experience of
public affairs. The other four members are selected from people who:

Are, or have been, or are qualified, as judges of High Court, or

Have knowledge of Government finances or accounts, or

Have had experience in administration and financial expertise;

Have special knowledge of economics

Procedure

and

Powers

of

the

Commission:

The Commission has the power determine their own procedure and:

Has all powers of the civil court as per the Court of Civil Procedure, 1908.
Can summon and enforce the attendance of any witness or ask any person to
deliver information or produce a document, which it deems relevant.
Can ask for the production of any public record or document from any court or
office.
Shall be deemed to be a civil court for purposes of Sections 480 and 482 of the
Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898.

Tenure of the 14th Finance Commission:

The Finance Commission is required to give its report by 31st October, 2014.Its recommendations will
cover the five year period commencing from 1st April, 2015.

Among the major recommendation

It includes the centre to share 42% of the divisible pool of tax to the states which
is 10% more than the present share.

It recommended doing away with the distinction between unconditional and

conditional transfers.

Previously the transfers were a mix of conditional and unconditional funds, where
the conditional transfers is given for serving some specific purpose. Here the state
having the flexibility to utilize the conditional transfers as per the needs.

The commission, on deciding the share of states has done away with the
component of previous commission namely, fiscal discipline. Instead it introduced two
new components that are changes in population between 1971 and 2011 and giving
credit to the success in retaining forest cover.

The commission along with recommended on implementation of Goods and

Services Tax and laid out a fiscal road map for the economy.