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Classical logic
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Classical logic (or standard logic[1][2]) is an intensively studied and widely used class of formal

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logics. Each logical system in this class shares characteristic properties:[3]

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1. Law of excluded middle and double negative elimination

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2. Law of noncontradiction, and the principle of explosion

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3. Monotonicity of entailment and idempotency of entailment

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4. Commutativity of conjunction

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5. De Morgan duality: every logical operator is dual to another

While not entailed by the preceding conditions, contemporary discussions of classical logic

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normally only include propositional and first-order logics.[4][5] [clarification needed]

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Classical logic was originally devised as a two-level (bivalent) logical system, with simple semantics

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for the levels representing "true" and "false". [clarification needed]

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1 Examples of classical logics

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2 Generalized semantics

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3 Non-classical logics

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4 References

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Page information
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4 References
5 Further reading

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Examples of classical logics

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Aristotle's Organon introduces his theory of syllogisms, which is a logic with a restricted form of
judgments: assertions take one of four forms, All Ps are Q, Some Ps are Q, No Ps are Q, and
Some Ps are not Q. These judgments find themselves if two pairs of two dual operators, and
each operator is the negation of another, relationships that Aristotle summarised with his
square of oppositions. Aristotle explicitly formulated the law of the excluded middle and law of
non-contradiction in justifying his system, although these laws cannot be expressed as

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judgments within the syllogistic framework.

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George Boole's algebraic reformulation of logic, his system of Boolean logic;

The first-order logic found in Gottlob Frege's Begriffsschrift.

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Generalized semantics

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With the advent of algebraic logic it became apparent however that classical propositional calculus

admits other semantics. In Boolean-valued semantics (for classical propositional logic), the truth

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values are the elements of an arbitrary Boolean algebra; "true" corresponds to the maximal

element of the algebra, and "false" corresponds to the minimal element. Intermediate elements of

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the algebra correspond to truth values other than "true" and "false". The principle of bivalence

holds only when the Boolean algebra is taken to be the two-element algebra, which has no

intermediate elements.
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Non-classical logics
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Main article: Non-classical logic

Computability logic is a semantically constructed formal theory of computabilityas opposed to
classical logic, which is a formal theory of truthintegrates and extends classical, linear and
intuitionistic logics.
Many-valued logic, including fuzzy logic, which rejects the law of the excluded middle and allows
as a truth value any real number between 0 and 1.
Intuitionistic logic rejects the law of the excluded middle, double negative elimination, and the
De Morgan's laws;
Linear logic rejects idempotency of entailment as well;
Modal logic extends classical logic with non-truth-functional ("modal") operators.
Paraconsistent logic (e.g., dialetheism and relevance logic) rejects the law of noncontradiction;
Relevance logic, linear logic, and non-monotonic logic reject monotonicity of entailment;
In Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism, Susan Haack divided non-classical logics
into deviant, quasi-deviant, and extended logics.[5]

References

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1. ^ Nicholas Bunnin; Jiyuan Yu (2004). The Blackwell dictionary of Western philosophy

. Wiley-

Blackwell. p. 266. ISBN 978-1-4051-0679-5.

2. ^ L. T. F. Gamut (1991). Logic, language, and meaning, Volume 1: Introduction to Logic

University of Chicago Press. pp. 156157. ISBN 978-0-226-28085-1.

3. ^ Gabbay, Dov, (1994). 'Classical vs non-classical logic'. In D.M. Gabbay, C.J. Hogger, and J.A.
Robinson, (Eds), Handbook of Logic in Artificial Intelligence and Logic Programming, volume 2,
chapter 2.6. Oxford University Press.
4. ^ Shapiro, Stewart (2000). Classical Logic. In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy [Web]. Stanford:
The Metaphysics Research Lab. Retrieved October 28, 2006, from
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http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-classical/
5. ^ a

Haack, Susan, (1996). Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism. Chicago: The

University of Chicago Press.

Further reading

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Graham Priest, An Introduction to Non-Classical Logic: From If to Is, 2nd

Edition, CUP, 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-67026-5

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Warren Goldfard, "Deductive Logic", 1st edition, 2003, ISBN 0-87220-6602

Classical logic

V T E

Law of excluded middle Double negative elimination Law of noncontradiction

Principle of explosion Monotonicity of entailment Idempotency of entailment
Commutativity of conjunction De Morgan's laws Principle of bivalence
Propositional logic Predicate logic

Mathematical logic

V T E

General

Formal language Formation rule Formal system Deductive system Formal proof
Formal semantics Well-formed formula Set Element Class Classical logic Axiom
Natural deduction Rule of inference Relation Theorem Logical consequence
Axiomatic system Type theory Symbol Syntax Theory

Traditional logic

Proposition Inference Argument Validity Cogency Syllogism Square of opposition

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Propositional
calculus
Boolean logic

Boolean functions Propositional calculus Propositional formula Logical connectives

Truth tables Many-valued logic

Predicate logic

First-order Quantifiers Predicate Second-order Monadic predicate calculus

Set Empty set Element Enumeration Extensionality Finite set Infinite set Subset

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Naive set theory

Set theory

Power set Countable set Uncountable set Recursive set Domain Codomain Image
Map Function Relation Ordered pair
Foundations of mathematics ZermeloFraenkel set theory Axiom of choice
General set theory KripkePlatek set theory Von NeumannBernaysGdel set theory
MorseKelley set theory TarskiGrothendieck set theory

Model theory

Model Interpretation Non-standard model Finite model theory Truth value Validity

Proof theory

Formal proof Deductive system Formal system Theorem Logical consequence

Rule of inference Syntax

Computability
theory

Recursion Recursive set Recursively enumerable set Decision problem

ChurchTuring thesis Computable function Primitive recursive function

Categories: Term logic

Classical logic

History of logic

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