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Abstract
The ability to calculate the delta-ferrite content expressed in terms of Ferrite Number (FN) has proven very
valuable in assessing the performance and predicting microstructure of austenitic stainless steel. 300 series of austenitic
stainless steel is primarily monophasic at room temperature. These grades of steels generally solidify during welding as
a mixture of austenite and ferrite. During cooling of austenitic stainless steel, the ferrite almost fully transforms to
austenite, but there could be retention of delta ferrite in the weld metal. However, the variation in chemical composition
of weld metal directly affects on precipitation of delta ferrite. It significantly influences both the mechanical properties
and welding characteristics of the steel. This paper presents the formation of delta ferrite, significant of ferrite content on
weld microstructure and mechanical properties. This paper presents a chronological review from the first predictive
diagram as Strauss Maurer diagram, Schaefflers diagram, and Delongs diagram, WRC's diagram up to the latest
mathematical model and measurement methods, for determining the content of delta ferrite in steel.
Keywords: Austenitic stainless steel, Constitution Diagrams, Delta ferrite, Ferritoscope, Neural Network.
1. Introduction
Achievements in steel refining technology and analysis techniques over the past decade have made it
possible to strictly control the chemical composition of Grade 300 austenitic stainless series. Minor changes in
the percentage of alloying elements and trace elements can noticeably affect performance, weldability,
machinability, corrosion resistance, and surface finish, several subgroup specifications have been developed
within the AISI specification [28]. The excellent corrosion resistance and high temperature strength of the
newest austenitic grade of 304 steel, places 300 series at the forefront of metallurgical technology [76]. While
solidification, the welded microstructure of austenitic stainless steel is either fully austenitic, or mixture of
austenite with little amount of ferrite along solidification grain and subgrain boundaries [43]. To control the
structure of 304 stainless steel weld deposits and amount of delta ferrite in weld is important because the
microstructure of the steel influences many of its properties [64]. Adverse effects of delta ferrite might include
increase in magnetic permeability of alloys containing ferrite, or reduction in impact strength during long-time
high-temperature service through an increase in the rate of sigma phase formation which leads to hot cracking
and embrittlement [24].
For designating the ferrite content of steel weld metal Ferrite Number (FN) is an arbitrary
standardized value. Several diagrams had been advanced to explain the formulation of ferrite number in weld.
The Ferrite Number approach was built up in order to minimize the huge variation in ferrite levels determined
on welds when measured using different techniques [23]. The ferrite level is important to assure minimum
exposure to solidification cracking when depositing austenitic stainless steel weld metal. To prevent weld
from corrosion resistance the lower ferrite number is essential, while balancing higher ferrite content to avoid
solidification cracking in the weld deposition [55]. Due to limitations in the recognizable methods, various
researchers had shown their scientific and technological interest towards the prediction and measurement of
ferrite number in austenitic stainless steel welds [70]. Study showed no significant differences in the content
of delta ferrite in relation to different methods of determining the delta ferrite [72].
The purpose of this review is to present a chronology of the different methods that researchers have
proposed for prediction of formation ferrite number with particular emphasis on formation and role of delta
ferrite on 300 series austenitic stainless steel weldments along with influence of phase transformations. It
includes predictive and measurement methods as well as merits and drawbacks of the presently used methods
are also considered.
23
Figure 1 Pseudobinary section of the FeCrNi ternary diagram at 70% Fe, showing solidification modes
[39], Figure 2 Schematic of solidification behavior and ferrite morphologies [9]
In cooling from the molten state austenitic stainless weld metal of normal carbon content solidifies
first as a mixture of delta ferrite and austenite, most of the ferrite subsequently transforms to austenite as the
deposit cools through a temperature range just below the delta ferrite region[10,51]. The ferrite does not
instantaneously transform, but does so gradually over a short period of time. Theoretically the transformation
could be avoided almost completely if the deposit could be instantaneously quenched from the just frozen
state to black heat, which would result in a much higher percentage of ferrite [52]. Practically, the final
amount of delta ferrite in virtually all weld metal depends only to a rather minor degree upon the cooling rate
[10,45].
3. Significant of ferrite content
The Welding Research Council (WRC) Subcommittee on Welding Stainless Steel adopted FN as its
value for measuring ferrite in 1973 [16], and its method for calibration is specified by the AWS A4.2 and ISO
8249 standards [9]. FN approximates the "volume percent ferrite"[12]. Minimum ferrite content at levels
below 8 FN is necessary to avoid hot cracking in stainless steel welds. Hot cracking in 304 austenitic stainless
steel is amplified by low-melting eutectics containing impurities such as S, P, Si, N. It could be diminished by
small increase in Carbon, Nitrogen, Chromium, Nickel, and Silicon or by substantial increase in Manganese
content [55]. The amount of ferrite in the weld metal also controls the micro structural evolution during high
temperature service, corrosion and stress corrosion resistance. The low temperature toughness of the weld
metal is also related to the weld metal ferrite content [44].
1.
The hot cracking sensitivity gain increased as ferrite content is increasing and which has inverse
effect on, the ductility because of martensite formation and thus the potential for fracture increases [45].
2.
The ductility of ferrite at high temperatures is greater than that of austenite, allowing relaxation of
thermal stresses [63].
24
25
Figure 4 Schaeffler diagram of 1947, with the Maurer-Strauss curve , Figure 5 Schaeffler diagram of 1948, with linear boundaries [56,57]
26
27
Figure 8 DeLong diagram of 1973, introducing the concept of Ferrite Number [13,14]
4.1.5 WRC-1988 and WRC-1992 Diagrams
In order to improve the accuracy of ferrite prediction in stainless steel weld metal, the subcommittee on
Welding Stainless Steel of the Welding Research Council initiated an attempt to revise and expand the
Schaeffler and DeLong diagrams. In 1988, in a study funded by WRC, Siewert et al. [49] proposed a new
predictive diagram, which covered an expanded range of compositions, from 0 to 100 FN, compared to the 0
to 18 FN range of the DeLong diagram. It was a result of an extremely large database of welds (approximately
950) gathered from electrode manufacturers, research institutes and the literature. WRC-1988 diagram also
included boundaries that defined the solidification modes [25].
New equivalency formulas were developed which removed the manganese coefficient from the nickel
equivalent, thereby eliminating the systematic overestimation of FN in highly alloyed weld metals. The WRC1988 equivalency formulas are given as:
Creq=Cr+Mo+0.7Nb
Nieq=Ni+35C+20N
(1.9)
Soon after, Lake proposed the addition of a copper coefficient with value from 0.25 to 0.30, in the Nickelequivalent formula [41]. Various researchers tracked Lakes study and planned their estimations for the
copper coefficient, in order to add them in the Schaeffler and DeLong nickel-equivalents. In 1992, Kotecki,
using Lakes data as a basis, proposed a coefficient of 0.25 for copper in the nickel-equivalent formula [2938]. Kotecki and Siewert also proposed a new diagram, which included the coefficient 0.25 for copper in the
nickel-equivalent formula [34]. The WRC-1992 diagram diagram has been widely accepted worldwide and
has replaced the DeLong diagram in the ASME code.
Nieq=Ni+35C+20N+0.25Cu
(1.10)
28
Also worthy of mention is the research carried out in 2007 by Anderson et al. regarding the influence of
molybdenum on ferrite content of stainless steel welds [2].
FN = 48.53 13.85 C + 12.73 Si + 1.16 Mn + 3.89Cr 3.14 Ni + 4.60 Mo + 10.10 Cu 20.36 N
(1.11)
29
(1.15)
30
31
32
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