Nichomachean Ethics

Book I
1097b20-1098a20

Happiness is the highest human good achievable through action.

Since happiness is a certain sort of activity of the soul in accord with complete virtue, we must examine virtue; for
that will perhaps also be a way to study happiness better (1102a5).

What is happiness?
*According to Aristotle, happiness is not an emotion or a feeling. Happiness is the activity of your soul
(i.e., character) involving right reason, right appetites, and right actions. This is to say, happiness is the
virtuous state of ones soul.
Happiness, in this text is the imperfect translation of eudaimonia. eu (good) + daimon (spirit)

What is the relationship between telos and virtue?

telos: (1) telos is the specific function or purpose for which a thing is meant to fulfill; (2) the end or goal
for which a thing is meant to complete. Synonyms: telos, purpose, function, end, goal. See the examples
below.
virtue: when a thing fulfills its specific function (or telos), it has reached a level of excellence and
strength specific to the kind of being it is. This fulfillment of ones telos is called virtue.
According to Aristotle, each kind of thing has a specific function. Dogs, cats, mice, flies, trees, flowers,
water, atoms, cells, etc. each have their own specific functions. A clock does not have the same function
as the eye or a flute player.

Each thing below has a specific function to accomplish:

1. Carpenter
-The function of a carpenter is to do woodwork.
-If a carpenter does poor woodwork, he fails to fulfill his function.
-A virtuous/excellent carpenter fulfills his function when he does good work.
2. Clock
-The function of a clock is to tell time.
-If a clock is broken it cannot tell time. It thus fails to fulfill its function.
-A clock is virtuous or excellent when it fulfills its function by telling time.
3. Flute player
-The function of a flautist is to play the flute.
-Flautists who do not practice will not play well. They do not fulfill their function.
-A flautist is virtuous/excellent when she plays the flute well (which is her telos).
4. Eye
-The function of an eye is to see.
-If an eye is blind it cannot see. It thus fails to fulfill its function.
-An eye is virtuous or excellent when it fulfills its function by seeing well.

Aristotle asks: What is the specific function of a human being?

-If we are to find the human function or telos, we must find a function specific to humans (just as
we found a specific function for the above examples). So, Aristotle examines the components
that make up the human soul.

Two Components of the Human Soul:

(1) Rational component: reason (or intellect) the knowing part of the soul: this rational component is
specific to humans. Reason gives people the ability to have knowledge of the true and the good.
We have found, then, that the human function is activity of the soul in accord with reason or requiring
reason (1098a8).
Moreover, we take the human function to be a certain kind of life, and take this life to be activity and
actions of the soul that involve reason; hence the function of the excellent man is to do this well and finely
(1098a13).

(2) Non-rational component:

(a) Appetites/Desires: This component of the soul is not specific to humans. Animals also have
appetites. Aristotle sometimes refers to the appetites as the animalistic part of the soul.
Even though the appetites are considered non-rational, they do have the capacity to
listen to reason. In other words, the appetites can be informed by reason so that they
desire what is true and good in accordance with right reason. This is what we commonly
called self-control.
If the appetites are not steered by right reason, and are left to themselves, they will
likely pursue base things that will disorder the soul. When this occurs, reason lacks
control over the appetites.
(b) Nutrition and Growth: this component of the soul is also not specific to humans. Plants and
animals (i.e., all living things) have this ability to take in nutrients and to grow. Aristotle
sometimes refers to this component as the vegetative or plant-like part of the soul.
- This component of the soul does not share in the life of reason or the moral life at all.
Note, this is why nutrition and growth do not comprise part of our character (but reason
and appetites do). Nutrition and growth are simply the biological component of us which
allows the heart to beat, blood to pump, bones to grow, cells to take in and transmit
nutrients, etc.
Reason is the unique characteristic of human nature. Aristotles ethics will concentrate on trying to understand
how we can best order our souls so that right reason rules over our appetites and actions. When the soul is thus
ordered, the person can fulfill her tripartite function (which is to know, desire, and act according to the true and the
good). In doing so, the soul finds that regardless of what one faces in life, if one has a virtuous character, one retains
an interior harmony within the soul (i.e., happiness). Think of Socratess peaceful state in the face of an unjust
trial and death.

Three Kinds of Lives: Ch. 5

1. Life of pleasure:
-The many and the vulgar conceive the good as pleasure. They therefore pursue a life
which seeks to gratify our desire for pleasure.
-A life dedicated to the pursuit of pleasure makes reason a slave to the appetites.
-Aristotle says that this kind of life is fit for grazing animals.
2. Life of (political) activity:
-Cultivated people pursue this kind of life. They conceive the good as honor and
therefore often get into politics.
-Yet, honor is dependent on those doing the honoring rather than on those being honored.
3. Life of contemplation:
-This is the highest kind of life. It pursue wisdom for its own sake. It is the life of study. -It is what we call the theoretical life, a life dedicated to the pursuit of knowledge.
theoria = to behold or contemplate
The Blessed Life:
Ch. 11: 1100b20-1101a10
A virtuous person can be in a state of eudaimonia regardless of good or bad fortune. A virtuous
person with much good fortune is blessed. His good fortune is an adornment to his happiness but
is not the source of happiness. The source of happiness is the harmony of the virtuous soul.
*Those who equate happiness with honor, pleasure, wealth, fame, reputation, power,
good looks, etc. are mistaken about the source of happiness. They think that the source is
in something external from them when the source is really within themthe state of their
soul. (See 1095a15-20; Book 1, Ch. 4)
A virtuous person with much misfortune is not blessed, but he is still in the state of eudaimonia.
Happiness, in Aristotles sense, is not an emotion or feeling, but is the harmony between reason,
appetites, and actions of the soul. So, even in the midst of a sad event, one can still possess this
harmony. Again, Socrates had misfortune; yet, he was likely the happiest person when compared
to everyone else.
As Aristotle states, even [in misfortune] what is fine shines through, whenever someone bears
many severe misfortune with good temper, not because he feels no distress, but because he is
noble and magnanimous.
*Note, one can feel distress, sadness, anxiety, etc., but still possess a harmony within
your soul. It is precisely because happiness is not an emotion but the harmonious state of
a virtuous soul that one can experience negative feelings while still maintaining a genuine
state of happiness.

Other Issues from Book I: The Relationship between Ethics, Happiness, and Politics
chs. 2,4,7,9,13
1. According to Aristotle, what is the highest human science that can be studied? Why?
(1094a25-1094b5)

2. What is the ultimate goal (telos) of political science? (1095a14-20, 1102a5-15)

3. Most people agree that happiness is the ultimate goal in life. But what do they disagree on?
(Ch. 4, 1095a15-25)

4. How is the true politician like the medical doctor? Why does Aristotle think that the politician
has an even nobler role to play in society? (1102a15-25)