155

A Conceptualisation of
Emotion within Art and
Design Education: A Creative,
Learning and ProductOrientated Triadic Schema
David Spendlove

Abstract
There is a resurgence of interest in the powerful
concept of emotion in current educational policy
and practice. This article calls for the recognition
and conceptualisation of a triadic schema for
theorising the location of emotion within a creative educational experience. The schema represents emotion within three domains within
current practice: Person, Process and Product.
The principal focus of the article is pupils aged
516 and consideration is given to the application
of the conceptualised schema within art and
design education as represented by the national
curriculum statement of importance. The central
hypothesis of the work is that greater recognition
of an emotional dimension within a triadic schema
developing emotional capacity in students to
engage in a creative process (person); stimulating
emotional engagement through appropriate
learning contexts (process) and facilitating the
emotional interfacing with outcomes (product)
will help conceptualise the powerful interrelationship between emotion, creativity and learning.

Based upon an extensive synthesised literature

review a schema, developed through abductive
reasoning and grounded theory, ultimately
conceptualises the overarching theme of emotion
within a creative, learning and product-orientated
experience within the primary and secondary
stages of Englands education system.

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Introduction
Within this article, a conceptualised triadic
schema is hypothesised for identifying the location of emotion within a creative, learning and
product-orientated experience in art and design
education. Based upon an extensive literature
review that has been synthesised and juxtaposed
with the broad aspirational aims of the subject a
schema, based upon abductive reasoning and
grounded theory [1], helps conceptualise the
overarching theme of emotion within a creative
and learning experience within: art and design
education, within the primary (age 511) and
secondary (1116) stages of the English education system as represented by the national curriculum statement of importance.
The triadic schema offers an additional opportunity in meta-theorising how the achievement of
the broad aspirational aims of the subject as
outlined in the statement of importance [2] can
be achieved through recognising the powerful
overarching concept of emotion within three
domains: Person, Process, Product.
The article is presented in three parts with the
first part examining the contemporary discourse
relating to emotion. The second part identifies
the methodology used to establish the schema
and identifies the three stages of the schema.
The final part examines the literature relating to
each facet of the schema. The central tenet of
this article is the recognition of emotion within a
three-stage, triadic, conceptual schema for metatheorising the place of emotion within a creative,
learning and product-orientated experience.
Emotion
The past decade has seen increasing discourse
relating to the place of emotion within education
policy and practice. Part of this upsurge in awareness has resulted from Golemans [3] synthesised work resulting in the popularisation of
emotion through the term emotional intelligence. In general, this has characterised a resurgence of interest in the powerful concept of
emotion in current educational practice [4]. The
concepts of emotional literacy [5] emotional
competence [6], critical emotional literacy [7],
emotional intelligence [8] socio-emotional learn-

ing [9] emotional capital [10] and emotional

creativity [11] are examples of this phenomena.
This revival of interest does, however, have a firm
foundation based within the 1950s socioemotional learning movement, which stemmed from
the work of humanistic psychologists such as
Maslow and Rogers [12] and there is now a growing recognition of the importance of emotions in
teaching and learning which has often been
ignored by the rational technicism of the government reforms of the 1980s and 1990s [13]. The
upsurge in attention to emotion is now evolving
into policy with the Department for Education
and Skills (DfES) placing emotional wellbeing at
the heart of the Every Child Matters [14]
programme as well as commissioning research
to identify how childrens emotional and social
competence and well being could most effectively be developed [15]. Much of this enthusiasm stems from the anticipated gains in
increased inclusion, pupil learning and ultimately
leading to greater social cohesion.
History has, however, largely viewed emotion
as a phylogenetically primitive response, closely
attuned to physiological arousal and divorced
from higher thought processes [16]. Sharp has
identified the concept of emotional literacy as
the ability to recognise, understand, handle and
appropriately express emotions. Put succinctly, it
means using your emotions to help yourself and
others to succeed [17]. Increasingly this has
gained currency within the UK education system
as an antidote to the consuming pressures generated by an anxiety inducing, competitive educational system and, as Williams [18] suggests, in
response to the systematic neglect of emotion.
Whilst acknowledging the emotional literacy
concept as a powerful argument, it represents
only one facet of the triadic schema presented.
Critical emotional literacy [19] offers a critical
pedagogy of discomfort and encourages
students to leave behind their beliefs and habits
to engage in the risky areas of contradictory and
ambiguous ethical and moral differences. Boler
[20] recognises the need for students to step
outside of the comfort zone to enter a zone of
uncertainty. Again, the author would subscribe to
the notion of critical emotional literacy as a

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prerequisite of creative educational practices and

believes that it is also commensurate with stage
one (person) of the triadic schema (Figure 1).
Boler argues that within a culture of inquiry a
central focus must be to recognise the way in
which emotions define how and what one
chooses to see, and conversely, not to see. She
calls this the pedagogy of discomfort, because
this process is fraught with emotional landmines
[21]. Critical emotional literacy entails creating
spaces for epistemological and emotional problematisations of individual and collective
emotions, histories, and sense of self, and
encourages critical respect for difference in
examining the nature and effects. It could be
argued that without such practice of critical
enquiry art and design education can become a
sterile and deprived activity.
In order to engage in both emotional literacy
and critical emotional literacy there has to be
sufficient pedagogical investment to facilitate
personal growth, ownership and self-esteem
[22]. As in any learning situation, success is made
much more likely if the learners self-esteem is
high. It can be argued that this is all the more
important where the outcome of the learning
process is not predetermined in terms of the
precise, tangible outcome as in the execution of
a creative and learning orientated challenge
commensurate with the three stages outlined. In
such circumstances, individuals need the
personal capacity to deal with their emotions,
which would include dealing with uncertainty and
risk of failure along with a capacity to be speculative, generative and critically reflective.
This would be consistent with Salovey and
Mayers definition of emotional intelligence as
the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them,
and to use this information to guide ones thinking and actions [23]. Having identified emotional
literacy and critical emotional literacy as commensurate with stage one (person) of the triadic
schema it could also be conceived that emotional
intelligence is equally appropriate to stage one as
well as to stage three (product) of the schema.
Stage two of the schema represents emotion
within the learning process. For some this has

often been disregarded and considered as an

unnecessary diversion from the principal goal of
raising standards and illustrates the paradox
between schooling as performance and education as exploration [24].
Emotional development has been seen as unnecessary, as an extra that is just too hard to fit in given
the constraints of the national curriculum, as
already existing in Circle Time or Personal and
Social Development, or as something that relates
exclusively to children in difficulty [25].
Beyond school, the concept of emotional development is made all the more urgent by what
Mestrovic describes as the post-emotional society which proffers a new hybrid of intellectualized, mechanical, mass produced emotions [that]
has appeared on the world scene and which
results in pre-packaged, manufactured emotions
a happy meal the McDonaldization of
emotions consumed by the masses [26].
Mestrovic reflects that in the previous generations, society would react to events with either
deep emotional empathy or antipathy, however in
todays post-emotional society they respond with
ambivalence and intellectual rationalisation creating a lack of engagement and superficial existence. It can be argued that with stage two of the
schema process that there has to be an investment in emotional engagement within the learning process through the use of appropriate
contexts.
Methodology
Huberman and Miles [27] define the abductive
reasoning adopted in the qualitative methodology undertaken in the development of the Person,
Process, Product conceptual schema as existing
in three sub-processes: data reduction, data
display and conclusion.
Data reduction was characterised by extensive literature searches executed within the fields
of: socioemotional learning; general psychology;
educational psychology; cognitive psychology;
design and emotion; arts; philosophy; science;
education; pedagogy; sociology; neurophysiology; behaviour and brain sciences; gender stud-

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ies; creativity; business; E-Learning; consumer

research; learning and instruction; science, art,
music and technology education. Specific
searches were also carried out using ERIC, the
Australian Educational Index and the British
Educational Index. The significant amount of
literature was then distilled and synthesised.
The data reduction stage was carried out and
juxtaposed with the second stage of heuristic
data display and analysis. Appropriate literature
was coded facilitating the emergent grounded
conceptualisation [28] which enabled grouping
into diagrammatic clusters using CMAP concept
mapping software. This represented an organised, compressed assembly of information that
permits conclusion drawing and/or action taking
[29] and enabled the noticing of relevant phenomena [30]. Further analysis was carried out congruent with Deys [31] systematic and developmental model and Teschs [32] cyclical and reflexive
process in which the three fields: person, process and product emerged.
The benefit of such conceptualised data
reduction in the form of a schema is that the
resultant synthesised outcome can subsequently
be used for data complication. Therefore the
resulting schema, although a reduction of information, facilitates the opportunity to expand,
transform and reconceptualise data opening up
more diverse analytical possibilities [33].
A three-stage schema
The central tenet of this article is the recognition
of emotion within a three-stage, triadic, conceptual schema for meta-theorising the place of
emotion within a creative, learning and outcome
(product) orientated curriculum experience. The
recognition of the emotional dimension is based
around three interlinked and often fluid domains:
Developing emotional capacity in students to
engage in a creative process (person); stimulating
emotional engagement through appropriate
learning contexts (process); facilitating the
emotional interfacing with creative outcomes
(product).
The conceptual triadic schema synthesises
the argument, based extensively upon recent
literature, that the effective development of art

and design education requires complete engagement where learners accept emotional ownership
of their creative work (person), are given increasing emotional responsibility for their own learning
within an emotionally engaging supportive and
flexible framework (process) whilst enabling them
to take emotional responsibility for the outcomes
of their creative endeavours (product).

Emotion and creativity person

Kress argues for a curriculum for instability where
risk and uncertainty are both welcome. Without
both elements, education becomes orientated
towards the reproduction of existing practice and
defines itself as content:
Reproduction is no longer a plausible metaphor
for institutional education and its curricula. When
tomorrow is unlikely to be like today and when the
day after tomorrow is definitely going to be unlike
yesterday, curricular aims and guiding metaphors
have to be reset. The metaphor that I have chosen
for myself, for some time now is that of design
[34].
The concept of risk, however, is a largely understudied construct in the educational literature
[35] yet it is considered to be a prerequisite of the
creative process.
When envisaging a learner who is creative in
the fields of art and design there is an expectation

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that they are capable of dealing with uncertainty,

risk taking, reflecting upon their own performance, learning in different contexts and speculating and creating within a creative process. Whilst
engaging in this process they are also developing
a broad repertoire of creativity, skills, knowledge
and understanding. Although this is a highly desirable list of elements relating to capability, the
personal attributes required by a learner to achieve
these outcomes are hugely ambitious and
emotionally challenging to the individual learner.
When the context of that creative endeavour
is within a performance orientated schooling
culture it can be further argued that the uncertainty and risk taking are doubled (rather than
shared), as the teacher and the learner will be
equally uncertain of the outcome and achievement of any given creative challenge therefore
requiring a significant emotional investment on
both parts. Indeed, it can be argued that creativity
can only occur in such circumstances and that
uncertainty and risk taking are essential prerequisites in order for creativity to take place. To exist in
such an uncertain state and to be willing to take
risks in pursuit of authenticity requires the
emotional capacity to do so. By being creative,
novel, the creator is expressing a set of values
and beliefs about the world. Ultimately to be creative is an expression of the self [36]. Such
expressions and convictions require an emotional
capacity, self-efficacy [37] or creative self-efficacy
[38]. In certain instances, the emotional state
relating to creative experiences can be related to
what Csikszentmihlyi [39] has termed the experience of flow: a strong, positive emotional state
that bears strong, intrinsic motivational potential.
To take risks and deal with uncertainty in order to
be innovative further requires the management
of emotional discomfort that comes with not
always knowing how to proceed. Henderson [40]
has identified that inventors expressed a profound
level of emotional experience as part of their creative process. Though many emotions were
mentioned, the inventors spoke repeatedly and
consistently about their enjoyment of innovation
work. Shaw [41] emphasised that negative
emotions are a normal part of the creative process as well. One theory relating to this level of

emotional discomfort is proposed by Runco [42]

who has identified that creative tensions can exist
when one experiences the emotional discomfort
of attempting to reconcile a problem. For many,
this tension will generate sufficient emotion to
mobilize a creative energy directed at resolving
this discord through creative expression, exploration, discovery, or invention [43]. Russ [44] has
neatly conceptualised this as five affective processes found in the expressed emotional processes of highly creative people. These include:
access to affect laden thoughts, openness to
affect states, affective pleasure in challenge,
affective pleasure in problem solving, and cognitive integration of affective material.
Within the person stage of the triadic schema,
it can be argued that emotion and self-esteem
are inexorably intertwined within the creative
process. As such, full regard has to be considered in facilitating sufficient emotional underpinning that engenders a genuine spirit of uncertainty, risk taking and creative endeavour within
the learner. As previously stated, the hypothesis
for this article is that without an overt recognition
of the place of emotion, self-understanding and
self-esteem within any activity intended to
develop creative capability, that learning will ultimately be inhibited and lack true effectiveness in
terms of developing capability through the nurturing of genuine creative responses.
Emotion and learning process
It is recognised that learning is a dynamic,
complex and multifaceted process and that a
vast array of factors have to be considered in
place to ensure learning is taking place. Whilst
acknowledging this within the context of the
second stage of the conceptual schema, the
process of learning, attention is drawn to the
overarching Vygotskian principles of meaning
and sense both being tied to emotional experience and where emotion-infused mental images
and inner speech become the learners focus of
attention [45]. Within this context two specific
areas of the emotional dimension of learning are
considered: firstly the emotional climate for the
learner; secondly, the context of emotional
engagement within each subject.

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Opposite page:
Figure 1
Triadic schema:
Person, Process,
Product

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David Spendlove

Jeffrey & Woods [46] draw attention to the need

for trust in a creative classroom. They both believe
that the emotional climate of the classroom
needs to offer each learner personal confidence
and security. Ahn [47] suggests this is partially
achieved through teacher modelling of emotional
expression, reaction and regulation, which, intentional or unintentional, teaches learners the
nature of emotions, their expressions and how to
regulate negative and positive emotion. Within
the creative classroom environment this would
be illustrated through the teacher modelling their
emotional capacity to deal with uncertainty and
risk, their emotional engagement with the topic
and the reinforcement and nurturing of pupils
emotional behaviours.
This is a powerful prerequisite for facilitating
creative approaches within a learning environment, particularly when aligned with the first
stage (person) of the schema. Unfortunately,
within many traditional classroom environments
insufficient attention is given to this aspect of
learning. Neither is it the case that opportunities
for what Boekaerts [48] describes as self-regulated learning are adequately exploited. Students
are cognitively, emotionally, and socially dependent on their teachers who formulate the learning
goals, determine which type of interaction is
allowed, and generally coerce their pupils to
adjust to the learning environment they have
created. Significant research has also shown that
negative emotions, such as anxiety, fear, irritation,
shame, and guilt hinder learning, because they
temporarily narrow the scope of attention, cognition, and action [49]. Hennessey [50] has considered this within socialisation and situational
factors, the external determinants, of education
and its impact upon creativity when learning. In
particular, she has explored the direct motivational orientation of an individual and the impact
upon creative performance. This work extends
Amabiles [51] Intrinsic Motivation Theory Principle of Creativity which ultimately defines that
intrinsic, emotionally engaging, activities are
highly conducive to creative acts whilst extrinsic
motivation is almost always detrimental. Regardless of the age group, these findings have
remained consistent and from which Hennessey

[52] has identified five sure-fire killers of intrinsic

motivation and creativity: expected reward,
expected evaluation, surveillance, time limits and
completion.
Whilst identifying the necessity for creating a
suitably emotionally supportive environment for
a self-regulated, creative and learning experience
within the process domain, a second focus
predominantly the emotional engagement
through child centred learning contexts needs to
be considered. Swift [53] has stressed the need
for greater emphasis on authentic and contextualised learning within art and design education
and this includes personal and cultural authenticity leading to emotional engagement [54]. Such
interest impels growth-oriented behaviours,
exploration, learning and creativity increasing
the likelihood for successful adaptation [55]. Hill
identifies the broader aspects of authentic learning and recognizes that learning involves the
body as centrally as the mind and embraces
cognitive, emotional, physical, and social dimensions [56]. Leder et al. [57] also regards an
aesthetic experience as a cognitive process
accompanied by a continuously upgrading affective state that are appraised and which results in
a (aesthetic) changing emotional state. Such
uplifting emotional engagement links directly to
motivation and the desire to be further exposed
to such practices. Therefore, the self-rewarding
nature of art processing can explain why artists
producing new and innovative styles guarantees
that challenging aesthetic and emotional experiences remains possible.
The emotional state of participant learners has
also been found [58] to be a good predictor for
ratings of pleasantness of aesthetic experience in
that positive judgements were made under
conditions of positive mood. Temme [59] has
shown that the context and quantity of information about a piece of art affects aesthetic and
emotional experiences in museums, identifying
that appreciation can be enhanced by explicit
contextual information about the artists and their
cultural background. Kreitler & Kreitler [60]
described this emotional state as a moment of
homeostasis or what Csikszentmihlyi [61] has
described as flow. Fredrickson [62] has reviewed

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the literature on the effect that positive emotions,

such as joy, contentment, satisfaction, anticipated pride, and challenge have upon information processing. She suggests that positive
emotions temporarily create a broader mindset
and prompt individuals to expand the self, share
information with others, and push themselves to
their limits. Such emotions, however, can often
be debilitated by barren and inappropriate
contexts, which de-contextualise the learning
and de-motivate the student. Therefore, as appropriate contexts provide a means for engaging and
motivating, inappropriate and tokenistic societal
and cultural contexts become unfortunate
distractions and emotionally disempowering.
The use of appropriate emotional learning
contexts is complex and multifaceted and
requires discernment on behalf of the facilitator.
There is, however, a clear imperative for the
prerequisite of providing emotionally stimulated
learning that provides rich and motivating
contexts for situated cognitive and emotional
engagement. Without such contextual emotional
engagement and authenticity the opportunity to
both motivate and engage the student in a creative and learning orientated activity can be lost.
Emotion and output product
The outcomes of a creative and learning orientated process within the context of art and design
education are represented by the product domain
of the conceptualised triadic schema. By using
the term product in this domain, intentionally,
associates the outcomes with responses, services, performances, products, artefacts and so on
that may be produced and that may be available
for both the creator and others to interface with. In
doing this it is recognised that the output from a
creative process may not always be a physical
product such as those listed and may be an output
that results in new thinking, feeling or the development of a new skill, attitude, concept or knowledge. Within the context of the triadic schema,
such responses would only be recognised by the
externalisation and the interfacing of such
outcomes with others. It must, however, be
further acknowledged that tensions clearly do
exist within creative subjects when focusing

purely on outcomes [63] at the expense of true

engagement with a creative process. The central
argument within this article is that for a genuine
creative learning experience resulting in a creative
outcome there has to be a significant investment
within each stage of the schema. Poor practice
with education is often focused for reasons of
expediency purely on the product stages of the
creative process and in doing so bypassing the
essential creative (person) and learning (process)
elements and resulting in embellished rather than
creative outcomes with limited contextualised
learning or emotional engagement. A feature of
the emotional triadic schema is that the creator
has a responsibility to bridge the gap between the
users emotional needs and the emotional
response generated by the outcome and this is
best achieved by investment in each stage of the
schema.
It would also appear a necessity that students
should not only be emotionally aware of the
impact of the products they generate but they
should also be emotionally critical and aware of
the aesthetic emotions and responses created
by the creative products that surround them.
Such products are often varied and complex and
often are notionally developed with some form of
audience or user in mind even if this user is
oneself. Where such outcomes result in products, performances, services or outcomes it is
essential to recognise the emotional determinants within the visceral, hedonic, aesthetic,
cognitive and personal needs, wants and values
of the user, in addition to considering the
emotions that such product have the potential to
generate of the user.
Freedberg [64] has provided numerous examples of the use of art to induce such responses
throughout the Renaissance when painters,
actors and musicians all knew of the so called
theory of response and studied and applied it
deeply and widely. In addition, at the output
stage, there is a further layer of complexity, which
links to the person domain of the schema that
relates to the tensions, uncertainty and risks
associated with creative outcomes being sufficiently inspiring, novel and creative and the interplay within the different domains of the triadic

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schema whereby an initial emotional response

(such as something being unsuitable, annoying
or puzzling) to an existing performance, event,
product or service generates and provokes sufficient emotion and enthusiasm to mobilise a creative energy leading to the attributes identified in
the person domain. Such problem initiation is
well documented by Getz & Lubart [65] and represents an important part of the creative process.
The concept of emotion in art is, however, not
something that is new. Gombrich [66] in his
research has identified four major theories of art
that have emerged over the course of history of
which three have direct links with emotion.
Gombrichs first theory represents simple representation and reproduction of objects in the
world. Gombrichs second theory, a theory of
response, reflects upon the generation specific
reactions and emotions in viewers. Such practices for example, include paintings such as
Michelangelos Final Judgments [67] were
produced to induce respect for religion and fear
of the devil, depicting frightening scenarios and
outcomes that had immense emotional power
over the viewer. Gombrichs third theory is the
commonly held view of art as expression of
something inside the artist. Finally, Gombrichs
fourth theory is a reciprocal mixture of his second
and third theories, where the images produced
by the artist generate in the same artist certain
internal emotional states that then yield further
emotional response that result in outputs that
generate further emotional responses in others.
Emotional state has also been considered to
have a direct relationship with cognitive appraisal
and how artwork is perceived and evaluated [68]
with affective states influencing the way an
artwork is perceived and processed. This results
in more holistic processing when the perceiver is
in a positive mood, and more analytical processing when in a negative state. Callaghan suggests
a further iteration of this in that even young children are capable of discerning art that expresses
various emotions. They may, however, use different criteria than adults when making those
choices. How children make these judgements
appears to be a process of apprenticeship where
young children are ushered into the world of

aesthetic judgment by interacting with adults

who are themselves taking aesthetic stance
toward the paintings that are the object of their
interaction with the child [69]. Specifically results
[70] suggest that childrens judgements of
emotion in art are based on the dimensions of
pleasure/displeasure and degree of arousal, similar to their judgements of emotion expressed in
faces.
Discussion
The theoretical schema presented synthesises
an increasing and diverse body of literature
related to the place of emotion into three domains
related to the person, the process and the product, with the intention that this will be of value in
conceptualising the place of emotion within a
creative, learning and product-orientated art and
design educational experience. Indeed, when
mapped (see Appendix 1) against the art and
design education statement of importance [71] a
convincing argument can be seen as it is clear
the extent to which the subject offers both an
opportunity to develop pupils emotional capability in the output stage whilst benefiting from such
emotional support and contextualisation within
the person and process phases.
To achieve this there has to be sufficient
emotional underpinning within the learner,
person stage, which encourages uncertainty and
nurtures risk taking within a divergent and creative environment.
Within the process learning domain, to be
effective there has to be sufficient emotional
investment in the learner and by the learner. This
can only be achieved through discerning, meaningful and emotionally engaging contexts being
facilitated.
Finally, within the product domain there has to
be emotional consideration for both the outcomes
that evolve from the person and process domains
in addition to considering the emotional needs of
the receiver of such outcomes.
The schema presented in this article is not
offered as a critique of existing practice but as a
means to evolve further enquiry within a potentially rich topic and as such, it would appear
congruous that in other to facilitate the aspira-

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tional aims of a creative, learning and product

orientated experience as outlined by the statement of importance there is a value in both
investment in and recognition of the emotional
domains outlined.

3. Goleman, D. (2004) Emotional Intelligence &

Working With Emotional Intelligence, London.
Bloomsbury.

Appendix 1
Mapping emotional components of the
statement of importance for Art and Design
The statement for Art and Design reads:

5. Sharp, P. & Herrick, E. (2000), Promoting

Emotional Literacy, in Barwick, N. [Ed.] Clinical
Counselling in Schools. London: Routledge.

Art and design stimulates creativity

and imagination
It provides visual, tactile and sensory
experiences and a unique way of
understanding and responding to
the world.
Pupils use colour, form, texture,
pattern and different materials and
processes to communicate what
they see, feel and think.
Through art and design activities
pupils learn to make informed value
judgements and aesthetic and
practical decisions, becoming actively
involved in shaping environments.
They explore ideas and meanings in
the work of artists, craftspeople and
designers.
They learn about the diverse roles and
functions of art, craft and design in
contemporary life and in different
times and cultures.

E1
E3

E3

E2
E3

E2

E1 = Person (Creativity/uncertainty/ risks)

E2 = Process (Learning/ motivation/ contexts)
E3 = Product (Product/ user/ interface).

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