OptoElectronic Devices

Made By:
Gaurav Kothari
Mentor: Prof. A Das Gupta
Indian Institute Of Technology Kanpur

Outline
Radiometry And Photometry

Radiation Source:

Controllable
Uncontrollable

Photovoltaic Devices:

Photodiodes & Its Characteristics

Photoresistors , its Specifications & its Applications
Phototransistors & its Uses
Solid State Lighting
Solar Cells:

Photovoltaic Cells ,Modules & Systems

Operations
Photocurrent & Quantum efficiency
Structure & Its Functioning
Solar Cell Compared to Battery

Optoelectronics Devices

Outline contd
Electroluminescence based device:
LEDs ,its Operations & Applications
Solid State Lighting
Laser:

Absorption & Emission

Elements Of Laser Optics
Feedback & Tuning Method In A Laser
Laser Diode

Optical Sensors
Optocouplers & Its Applications

Summary
References

Optoelectronics Devices

Optoelectronics Devices

Radiation Sources

Controllable

Un-Controllable

Controllable : Can exercise full control by selecting

operational parameters. Ex- LEDs, Incandescent
bulbs & Fluorescent Panels.
Un-Controllable : Little Control over performance. ExCRTs & Electroluminescent Displays.
Optoelectronics Devices

Photodiode Construction
p-type layer is formed by thermal
diffusion or ion implantation of
doping material (usually Boron).
Metal contacts are applied to the
front & back surface.
Front surface acts as anode while
back surface as cathode.
Active area coated with either
silicon nitride, or silicon dioxide for
protection & serve as anti reflection
coating.
Thickness of coating optimised for
particular irradiation wavelengths
Optoelectronics Devices

Photovoltaic Devices

Optoelectronics Devices

Photovoltaic Devices

Optoelectronics Devices

Photovoltaic Devices

Optoelectronics Devices

Photovoltaic Devices

Optoelectronics Devices

10

Photovoltaic Effect
Photons In Electrons Out

Optoelectronics Devices

11

Solar Cells
Structure & Its Functioning

Convert Light into Electrical Energy

basically just P-N junction photodiodes with
a very large light-sensitive area.

The photovoltaic effect, which causes the

cell to convert light directly into electrical
energy, occurs in the three energyconversion layers.

top junction layer (made of N- type

semiconductor).
core of the device; this is the absorber
layer (the P-N junction).
back junction layer (made of P-type
semiconductor).
Optoelectronics Devices

12

Structure & Its Functioning contd

There are two additional layers : these

are the electrical contact layers.
layer on the face of the cell where light
enters is generally present in some
grid pattern. Grids are good electrical
conductors, but are generally not
transparent to light.
back layer must be a very good
electrical conductor, so it is always
made of metal.
The cell is covered with a thin layer of
dielectric material - the anti-reflection
coating, ARC - to minimise light
reflection from the top surface.

Optoelectronics Devices

13

Photovoltaic Cells ,Modules & Systems

a)
b)
c)
d)

Photovoltaic cell showing surface contact patterns.

Cells are usually connected in series to give a standard dc voltage of 12V.
Module are connected in series in strings & then in parallel into an array.
Photovoltaic array integrated with components for charge regulation and
storage.
Optoelectronics Devices

14

 Operation

Solar cells are characterized by a maximum

Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) at zero output
current and a Short Circuit Current (Isc) at
zero output voltage. Since power can be
computed via this equation:

P=I*V

Then with one term at zero these conditions

(V = Voc / I = 0, V = 0 / I = Isc ) also represent
zero power. So ,a combination of less than
maximum current and voltage can be found
that maximizes the power produced (called,
the "maximum power point")

Optoelectronics Devices

15

Photocurrent & Quantum Efficiency

Jsc=q bs(E)QE(E) dE
where Jsc =photocurrent density
QE=probability that incident photon of energy E will deliver one electron to an
external circuit.
bs=no. of photons with energy in the range E and E+dE
q= electronic charge
FF= JmVm/JscVoc

Where FF= Fill Factor is the ratio of a solar (photovoltaic) cell's actual power to
its power if both current and voltage were at their maxima.
Jm, Vmare current density & voltage at maximum power limit.

=JscVocFF/Ps
Where =power efficiency
Ps=incident light power density

Optoelectronics Devices

16

Solar Cell compared to Battery

Battery

Solar Cell

Delivers constant current for

any given illumination level.
Voltage largely determined
by the resistance of loads.
Essentially a current source.

Delivers constant emf at

different levels of current drain
Essentially a voltage source.

Optoelectronics Devices

17

Applications Of Solar Cell

Rural Electrification: Water Pumping, Domestic
Supply,Lighting etc.

Professional Applications:
Ocean Navigation Aids: many lighthouses and most buoys are
now powered by solar cells.
Telecommunication systems: radio transceivers on mountain
tops, or telephone boxes can be solar powered.
Remote monitoring and control: scientific research stations,
seismic recording, weather stations, etc. use very little power
which, in combination with a dependable battery, is provided
reliably by a small PV module.
Electric Power Generation In Space: the space array also have a
high power-to-weight ratio.
Optoelectronics Devices

18

Advantages Of Solar Cells

There are no fuel costs or fuel supply problems.

The equipment can usually operate unattended.
Solar cells are very reliable and require little

maintenance.

Optoelectronics Devices

19

Electroluminescence
Electroluminescence is
the conversion of
electrical energy into light.
How does that work?

Optoelectronics Devices

20

Direct And Indirect Band gap

Semiconductor

In a direct bandgap semiconductors

minimum energy of the conduction band lies directly above the maximum energy of the
valence band in momentum space.
electrons at the conduction-band minimum can combine directly with holes at the valence
band maximum, while conserving momentum.
The energy of the recombination across the bandgap will be emitted in the form of a
photon of light. This is radiative recombination, also called spontaneous emission.
The prime example of a direct bandgap semiconductor is gallium arsenidea material
commonly used in laser diodes.

In indirect bandgap semiconductors such as crystalline silicon,

the momentum of the conduction band minimum and valence band maximum are not the
same, so a direct transition across the bandgap does not conserve momentum and is
forbidden.
Recombination occurs with the mediation of a third body, such as a phonon or a
crystallographic defect, which allows for conservation of momentum.
These recombinations will often release the bandgap energy as phonons, instead of
photons, and thus do not emit light. As such, light emission from indirect semiconductors is
very inefficient and weak. There are new techniques to improve the light emission by
Optoelectronics Devices
21
indirect semiconductors.

Direct And Indirect Band gap Semiconductor contd

E-k diagram illustrating a) Photon absorption in a direct bandgap

semiconductor
b) Photon absorption in an indirect bandgap semiconductor assisted by
phonon absorption and
c) Photon absorption in an indirect bandgap semiconductor assisted by
phonon emission.
Optoelectronics Devices

22

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

What is an LED?
A p-n junction diode that emits light under forward-bias conditions due
to the energy that is released when electrons and holes recombine.
The color of the light emitted depends on the bandgap of the material.
Why they are used?
Less power
Releases less heat
Last longer than incandescent
Material Used
GaN grown on a Sapphire Substrate

Optoelectronics Devices

23

Optoelectronics Devices

24

Evolution Of LED

Optoelectronics Devices

25

Solid State Lighting

utilizes light-emitting diodes (LEDs), organic
light-emitting diodes (OLED), or polymer lightemitting diodes (PLED) as sources of
illumination
"solid state" refers to the fact that light in an
LED is emitted from a solid objecta block of
semiconductor
Optoelectronics Devices

26

Why Solid State Lighting

Compared to incandescent lighting, however, SSL
creates visible light with reduced heat generation or
parasitic energy dissipation.
In addition, its solid-state nature provides for greater
resistance to shock, vibration, and wear, thereby
increasing its lifespan significantly.

Optoelectronics Devices

27

Phosphor Configuration in White LEDs

Phosphor absorbs short wavelength emission from
LED and down converts it to long wavelength
emission.
Example: Blue GaInN LED is pumped with YAG:Ce3+
yellow phosphor.
Phosphor density and thickness is chosen such that
fraction of blue light is transmitted.

Optoelectronics Devices

28

Typical Arrangements Of Phosphor in

White LED Lamps

Placement & arrangement of

phosphors are important for :

Figure a:

Luminous Source Efficiency.

Color rendering Index Of white Led
Lamps.
Non-uniform Distribution.
Color variation for different view angles.

Figure b:

Thickness uniformity.
Due to which color variation at different
viewing angles is drastically reduced.

Optoelectronics Devices

29

Typical Arrangements Of Phosphor in White LED

Lamps contd
For the configurations a & b, phosphors are closely distributed
around the chip due to which:
Light Emitted from phosphor directly impinges on LED chip.
Contacts & Bonding Metal of LED chip are absorptive at
phosphorescence wavelength.This isue is severe.

Figure c:
Phosphor layer at large distance from LED chip.This reduces:
Operating Temperature for phosphor which in turn improves lifetime.

Optoelectronics Devices

30

Absorption & Emission

Optoelectronics Devices

31

Elements Of Laser Optics

Er=E0e-2r2/r02
Where E0=irradiance at the center of
the beam(W/m2,lm/m2)
Er=irradiance at the distance r from the
center
Beam Edge=where the irradiance falls
to 1/e2
r0= distance to the beam edge

D0=4/*
Where D0=waist Diameter
=wavelength of the radiation
=divergence angle

Optoelectronics Devices

32

Principle Of Laser Operation

For N1<N0 :Absorption takes place

For N1=N0 :Called Two-Level Saturation, material looks like transparent.
For N1>N0 :Population Inversion occurs, stimulated emission takes place and
the applied radiation is amplified.
Optoelectronics Devices

33

Feedback & Tuning Method In A Laser

Optoelectronics Devices

34

Semi-Conducting Laser

Optoelectronics Devices

35

Laser Diode
Laser diode is an LED,
with an added optical
activity that provides
feedback & generates
stimulated emission.
Starting Device: Edge
emitting LED. Radiation
from the edges escape in
an elliptical cone pattern.
Laser Diode Types:
Double heterostructure
lasers
Quantum well lasers
Quantum cascade lasers
Distributed feedback lasers
Vertical-Cavity Surface
Emitting Laser
Optoelectronics Devices

36

Double Heterostructure Laser

A type of laser in which a layer of GaAs, for
example, is sandwiched between two layers of
the ternary compound AlGaAs which has a
wider energy gap than GaAs and also a lower
refractive index.
Both N-n-P and N-p-P structures show the
same behaviour, where N and P represent the
wider bandgap semiconductor according to
carrier type.
Optoelectronics Devices

37

Quantum Well Laser

quantum well structure would alter the density of states of the
semiconductor, and result in an improved semiconductor laser
requiring fewer electrons and electron holes to reach laser
threshold.
Laser wavelength could be changed merely by changing the
thickness of the thin quantum well layers, whereas in the
conventional laser a change in wavelength requires a change
in layer composition.
Superior performance characteristics compared to the
standard double heterostructure lasers.
active layers are thin enough (e.g., about 1 to 50 nanometres)
to separate the quantum levels of electrons confined therein.
threshold reductions resulting from modification of the density
of electron states.
Optoelectronics Devices

38

Quantum Well Laser contd..

Quantum well lasers require fewer electrons and holes
to reach threshold than conventional double
heterostructure lasers.
Moreover, since quantum efficiency (photons-out per
electrons-in) is largely limited by optical absorption by
the electrons and holes, very high quantum efficiencies
can be achieved with the quantum well laser.
To compensate for the reduction in active layer
thickness, a small number of identical quantum wells
are often used. This is called a multi-quantum well
laser.

Optoelectronics Devices

39

Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting

Laser (VCSEL)
Optical activity between two layered distributed
bragg reflector,formed during epitaxial growth.
Permits accurate wavelength control in design.
Improved reliability due to unexposed active
regions.
Reduced operating current due to small active
area.
Narrow divigent circular beam as compared to
elliptical beam in Edge - Emitting Laser.
Optoelectronics Devices

40

Challenges Facing VCSEL

Technology
Emission at shorter(<635nm) & Longer
wavelengths(>1000nm).
Increasing Single Mode Power.
Higher Bandwidth.(>40Gbit/s)
Added Functionality.
Wavelength Tunability.
More Robust Performance.
Optoelectronics Devices

41

Opto Couplers

An Optocoupler has a source that is

optically coupled to a receiver.
Electrical Insulation in input & Output
Circuitry.

Insulation resistance of the order of

ohms.

Capacitance less than a

picofarad.

Isolation Voltage Strength of several

Kilovolts.

1012

Often called as Optoisolators.

It has two separate circuits:
Input Circuit contains a radiant source.
Flux from this source is coupled to a
detector i.e part of the output circuitry
,here called the receiver.

Optoelectronics Devices

42

Summary

Radiometry & Photometry:

1W=683 lm at 555nm according to C.I.E standard.

Switch a relay by the action of Photoresistors.

Phototransistors as tachometer and optical receiver.

Three layers of Solar Cell :N-type,p-n Junction,P-type.

Solar Cells :A solar cell is a device that transforms the electron traffic
across the bandgap into electric current.

Open circuit Voltage

Short circuit Current
Maximum Power Point
Fill Factor - FF= JmVm/JscVoc
=JscVocFF/Ps

Optoelectronics Devices

43

Summary contd..

Electroluminescence is the conversion of electrical energy into light.

LED: radiation emitted when electrons and holes combine.
Applications as voltage level sensor , Tristate polarity Indicator and logic
probe.

White Light as future light sources.

Basic Principle Of Laser: Stimulated Emission.
Laser Diode- Diode with an optical cavity for feedback & stimulated
Emission.

Optical Sensors orientation w.r.t source and misalignment in

frequency changes its efficiency.
Optoisolators: Combination of photodiode and phototransistor.

Optoelectronics Devices

44

References:

Optoelectronics by Endel Uiga

Devices for Optoelectronics by Wallace B. Leigh
Optoelectronic devices and circuits by Samuel Weber.
World Of Knowledge : Internet

Optoelectronics Devices

45

Optoelectronics Devices

46