CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the study of the composition, structure, properties, and

reactivity of matter, especially of atomic and molecular systems.
It is the science dealing with the composition that matter undergoes.
It is also closely related to biology not only because living organism are
made of material subtances but also because life itself is essentially a
complicated system of interrelated chemical processes.
HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY
PREHISTORIC TIMES -BEGINNING OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA (BLACK
MAGIC)
1700 BC King Hammurabi's reign over Babylon
Known metals were recorded and listed in conjunction with heavenly bodies.
430 BC Democritus of ancient Greece
Democritus proclaims the atom to be the simplest unit of matter. All matter
was composed of atoms.
300 BC Aristotle of ancient Greece
Aristotle declares the existence of only four elements: fire, air, water and
earth. All matter is made up of these four elements and matter had four
properties: hot, cold, dry and wet.
BEGINNING OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA - END OF 17TH CENTURY
(ALCHEMY)
300 BC - 300 AD The Advent of the Alchemists
Influenced greatly by Aristotle's ideas, alchemists attempted to transmute
cheap metals to gold. The substance used for this conversion was called the
Philosopher's Stone.
13th Century (1200's) - 15th Century (1400's)
Failure of the Gold Business
Although Pope John XXII issued an edict against gold-making, the gold
business continued. Despite the alchemists' efforts, transmutation of cheap
metals to gold never happened within this time period.

1520 Elixir of Life

Alchemists not only wanted to convert metals to gold, but they also wanted
to find a chemical concoction that would enable people to live longer and
cure all ailments. This elixir of life never happened either.

End of 17th Century Death of Alchemy

The disproving of Aristotle's four-elements theory and the publishing of the
book, The Skeptical Chemist (by Robert Boyle), combined to destroy this
early form of chemistry.

END OF 17TH
CHEMISTRY)

CENTURY

MID

19TH

CENTURY

(TRADITIONAL

1700's Phlogiston Theory Coulomb's Law

Johann J. Beecher believed in a substance called phlogiston. When a
substance is burned, phlogiston was supposedly added from the air to the
flame of the burning object. In some substances, a product is produced. For
example, calx of mercury plus phlogiston gives the product of mercury.
Charles Coulomb discovered that given two particles separated by a certain
distance, the force of attraction or repulsion is directly proportional to the
product of the two charges and is inversely proportional to the distance
between the two charges.
1774-1794 Disproving of the Phlogiston Theory
Joseph Priestley heated calx of mercury, collected the colorless gas and
burned different substances in this colorless gas. Priestley called the gas
"dephlogisticated air", but it was actually oxygen. It was Antoine Lavoisier
who disproved the Phlogiston Theory. He renamed the "dephlogisticated air"
oxygen when he realized that the oxygen was the part of air that combines
with substances as they burn. Because of Lavoisier's work, Lavoisier is now
called the "Father of Modern Chemistry".
1803 Dalton's Atomic Theory
John Dalton publishes his Atomic Theory which states that all matter is
composed of atoms, which are small and indivisible.
MID 19TH CENTURY - PRESENT (MODERN CHEMISTRY OR 20TH
CENTURY CHEMISTRY)
1854 Vacuum Tube
Heinrich Geissler creates the first vacuum tube.
1879 Cathode Rays

William Crookes made headway in modern atomic theory when he used the
vacuum tube made by Heinrich Geissler to discover cathode rays. Crookes
created a glass vacuum tube which had a zinc sulfide coating on the inside of
one end, a metal cathode imbedded in the other end and a metal anode in
the shape of a cross in the middle of the tube. When electricity was run
through the apparatus, an image of the cross appeared and the zinc sulfide
glowed. Crookes hypothesized that there must have been rays coming from
the cathode which caused the zinc sulfide to fluoresce and the cross to
create a shadow and these rays were called cathode rays.
1885 The Proton
Eugene Goldstein discovered positive particles by using a tube filled with
hydrogen gas (this tube was similar to Thomson's tube...see 1897). The
positive particle had a charge equal and opposite to the electron. It also had
a mass of 1.66E-24 grams or one atomic mass unit. The positive particle was
named the proton.
1895 X-rays
Wilhelm Roentgen accidentally discovered x-rays while researching the glow
produced by cathode rays. Roentgen performed his research on cathode rays
within a dark room and during his research, he noticed that a bottle of
barium platinocyanide was glowing on a shelf. He discovered that the rays
that were causing the fluorescence could also pass through glass, cardboard
and walls. The rays were called x-rays.
1896 Pitchblend
Henri Becquerel was studying the fluorescence of pitchblend when he
discovered a property of the pitchblend compound. Pitchblend gave a
fluorescent light with or without the aid of sunlight.
1897 The Electron and Its Properties
Radioactive Elements
J.J. Thomson placed the Crookes' tube within a magnetic field. He found that
the cathode rays were negatively charged and that each charge had a mass
ratio of 1.759E8 coulombs per gram. He concluded that all atoms have this
negative charge (through more experiments) and he renamed the cathode
rays electrons. His model of the atom showed a sphere of positively charged
material with negative electrons stuck in it. Thomson received the 1906
Nobel Prize in physics.
Marie Curie discovered uranium and thorium within pitchblend. She then
continued to discover two previously unknown elements: radium and
polonium. These two new elements were also found in pitchblend. She
received two nobel prizes for her discovery; one was in chemistry while the
other was in physics.

1909 Mass of the Electron

Robert Millikan discovered the mass of an electron by introducing charged oil
droplets into an electrically charged field. The charge of the electron was
found to be 1.602E-19 coulombs. Using Thomson's mass ration, Millikan
found the mass of one electron to be 9.11E-28 grams. Millikan received the
1932 Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery.
1911 Three Types of Radioactivity
Ernest Rutherford sent a radioactive source through a magnetic field. Some
of the radioactivity was deflected to the positive plate; some of it was
deflected to the negative plate; and the rest went through the magnetic field
without deflection. Thus, there were three types of radioactivity: alpha
particles (+), beta particles (-) and gamma rays (neutral). By performing
other experiments and using this information, Rutherford created an atomic
model different from Thomson's. Rutherford believed that the atom was
mostly empty space. It contains an extremely tiny, dense positively charged
nucleus (full of protons) and the nucleus is surrounded by electrons traveling
at extremely high speeds. The Thomson model was thrown out after the
introduction of the Rutherford model.

1914 Protons within a Nucleus

Henry Moseley attempts to use x-rays to determine the number of protons in
the nucleus of each atom. He was unsuccessful because the neutron had not
been discovered yet.
1932 The Neutron
Neutron Bombardment and Nuclear Fission
James Chadwick discovers the neutron.
Enrico Fermi bombards elements with neutrons and produces elements of
the next highest atomic number. Nuclear fission occurred when Fermi
bombarded uranium with neutrons. He received the 1938 Nobel Prize in
physics.
1934 Artificial Radioactive Elements
Irene Curie and Frederic Joliot-Curie discovered that radioactive elements
could be created artificially in the lab with the bombardment of alpha
particles on certain elements. They were given the 1935 Nobel Prize.
1940's Manhattan Project
Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi both warned the United States about
Germany's extensive research on atomic fission reaction. Below the football

field at the University of Chicago, the United States developed the very first
working nuclear fission reactor. The Manhattan Project was in process.

BRANCHES OF THE CHEMISTRY

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Organic chemistry involves the study of the structure, properties, and
preparation of chemical compounds that consist primarily of carbon and
hydrogen.
Organic chemistry overlaps with many areas including

Medicinal chemistry the design, development, and synthesis of

medicinal drugs. It overlaps with pharmacology (the study of drug
action).

Organometallic chemistry the study of chemical compounds

containing bonds between carbon and a metal.

Polymer chemistry the study of the chemistry of polymers.

Physical organic chemistry the study of the interrelationships

between structure and reactivity in organic molecules.

Stereochemistry the study of the spatial arrangements of atoms in

molecules and their effects on the chemical and physical properties of
substances.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and behaviour of
inorganic compounds.
It covers all chemical compounds except organic compounds.
Inorganic chemists study things such as crystal structures, minerals, metals,
catalysts, and most elements in the Periodic Table.
Branches of inorganic chemistry include:

Bioinorganic chemistry the study of the interaction of metal ions

with living tissue, mainly through their direct effect on enzyme activity.

Geochemistry the study of the chemical composition and changes

in rocks, minerals, and atmosphere of the earth or a celestial body.

Nuclear chemistry the study of radioactive substances.

Organometallic chemistry the study of chemical compounds

containing bonds between carbon and a metal.

Solid-state chemistry the study of the synthesis, structure, and

properties of solid materials.

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
Analytical
chemistry involves
the
qualitative
and
determination of the chemical components of substances.

quantitative

Examples of areas using analytical chemistry include:

Forensic chemistry the application of chemical

techniques, and methods to the investigation of crime.

Environmental chemistry the study of the chemical and

biochemical phenomena that occur in the environment.It relies heavily
on analytical chemistry and includes atmospheric, aquatic, and soil
chemistry.

Bioanalytical Chemistry the examination of biological materials

such as blood, urine, hair, saliva, and sweat to detect the presence of
specific drugs.

principles,

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Physical Chemistry the study of the effect of chemical structure on the
physical properties of a substance.
Physical chemists typically study the rate of a chemical reaction, the
interaction of molecules with radiation, and the calculation of structures and
properties.
Sub-branches of physical chemistry include:

Photochemistry the study of the chemical changes caused by

light.

Surface chemistry the study of chemical reactions at surfaces of

substances. It includes topics like adsorption, heterogeneous catalysis,
formation
of
colloids,
corrosion,
electrode
processes,
and
chromatography.

Chemical kinetics the study of the rates of chemical reactions, the

factors affecting those rates, and the mechanism by which the
reactions proceed.

Quantum chemistry the mathematical description of the motion

and interaction of subatomic particles. It incorporates quantization of
energy, wave-particle duality, the uncertainty principle, and their
relationship to chemical processes.

Spectroscopy the use of the absorption, emission, or scattering of

electromagnetic radiation by matter to study the matter or the
chemical processes it undergoes.

BIOCHEMISTRY
Biochemistry is the study of chemical reactions that take place in living
things. It tries to explain them in chemical terms.
Biochemical research includes cancer and stem cell biology, infectious
disease, and cell membrane and structural biology.
It spans molecular biology, genetics, biochemical pharmacology, clinical
biochemistry, and agricultural biochemistry.

Molecular biology the study of the interactions between the

various systems of a cell, such as the different types of DNA, RNA, and
protein biosynthesis.

Genetics the study of genes, heredity, and variation in living

organisms.

Pharmacology the study of mechanisms of drug action and the

influence of drugs on an organism.

Toxicology a sub-branch of pharmacology that studies the effects of

poisons on living organisms.

Clinical biochemistry the study of the changes that disease

causes in the chemical composition and biochemical processes of the
body.

Agricultural biochemistry the study of the chemistry that occurs

in plants, animals, and microorganisms.

FAMOUS SCIENTISTS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTRIONS IN THE FIELD OF

CHEMISTRY
Marie Curie (18671934)
Famous For: Discovery of Radium and Polonium
Marie Curie received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911 for her discovery
of radium and polonium. She was able to isolate and study the compounds
and nature of radium.

John Dalton (17661844)

Famous For: Identification and presenting the atomic theory
Recognized for his work on the atomic theory and research on color
blindness. He successfully identified chemical compounds and reactions
affected by interaction of atoms with one another.
Michael Faraday (17911867)
Famous For: His contributions in electrochemistry and electromagnetism
Faradays extensive work in the field of Chemistry includes the study chloring
and carbon, both of which he discovered. In addition he made the earliest
type of what we know today as the Bunsen burner. He was the first to
identify would known as nanoparticles in mettalic form.
Rosalind Franklin (19201958)
Famous For: Discovery of the DNA structure in genetics
Rosalind Elsie Franklin and her contributions to science involve the study of
the structures of coal, graphite, DNA, RNA, and viruses in understing their
molecular structures.
Robert Boyle (16271691)
Famous For: Being the first Modern Chemist. Boyle was the one of the
earliest men to apply the scientific method in chemistry and physics. His
book, The Sceptical Chymyst, is considered a foundational source of
literature on the field of chemistry.
Dmitri Mendeleev (18341907)
Famous For: Creating the table of elements used in chemistry and physics. In
addition to the creation of the periodic table, Mendeleev work on the
spectroscope and the capillarity of liquids, both of which continue to be used
to this day. Politics got in the way of Dmitri from receiving the Nobel Prize in
1906.
Mario Molina (1943)
Famous For: Discovered the ozone hole in the Antarctic
As one of three recipients of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995, Molina codiscovered the harm that chlorofluorocarbons had on the ozone layer.
Fritz Haber (1868-1934)
Famous For: Being the Father of Chemical Warfare and synthesizing
ammonia used in fertilizers and explosives
Recipient of the Nobel Prize in 1918, Haber was responsible for the
development of the synthesizing process of ammonia. He has been referred

to at times as the Father or Chemical Warfare in which he developed

chlorine and poisonous gases during the Great War, WW I.
Svante Arrhenius (1859-1927)
Famous For: Theory of the Greenhouse Effect and founder on the science of
Physical Chemistry
Arrhenius advanced the theory to help explain the ice age which resulted
in what is known as the greenhouse effect. He also provided the Arrhenius
equation which is a formula to calculate reaction rates when the temperature
is raised on certain chemicals.
Frederick Sanger (1918)
Famous For: Successful determination of base sequences in nucleic acids
The research work undertaken by Frederick Sanger involved his successful
sequencing of DNA, insulin, and RNA. He was awarded the Nobel Prize two
times, both for his work in chemistry, in 1958 and in 1980. He was able to
establish a baseline in the determination of base sequences in nuclein
acids.
Thomas Graham (1805-1869)
Famous For: His work on the diffusion of gases and the application of dialysis.
The discovery of Graham on the use of dialysis has its roots on his study of
colloids. He was able to separate crystalloids from colloids using a dialyzer.
His work on the diffusion of gases has become to be known as Grahams law.
Louis Pasteur (18221895)
Famous For: The process of Pasteurization and creation of Vaccines for Rabies
and Anthrax
In addition to developing the process of Pasteurization, Louis Pasteur
discovered the assymetrical molecular structure on certain crytals. He made
some of the earliest vaccines for rabies and anthrax, and the reduction of a
bacterial infection in what is known as puerperal fever.
George Washington Carver (18641943)
Famous For: Promoting alternative crops to cotton, such as peanuts,
soybeans, sweet potatoes
George Washington Carver found different crops to use instead of cotton. He
used peanuts, soybeans, sweet potatoes to keep the land productive. His
intention was to keep the poor farmers healthy and productive.
Antoine Lavoisier (17431794)
Famous For: Being the Father of Modern Chemistry

Lavoisier was able to show the relationship between oxygen and metal,
resulting in rust. He also was able to show the role of oxygen in plant
respiration and in animals. It was he who showed that water was made of
hydrogen and oxygen, and that air was composed mainly of oxygen and
nitrogen in its gaseous state.
Linus Pauling (19011994)
Famous For: His work in molecular biology and quantum chemistry
A recipient of the Nobel Prize in the field of chemistry in 1954. His work in
the field of chemistry is chronicled in his book The Nature of the Chemical
Bond is believed as one of the most foundational books on chemistry.
Otto Hahn (18791968)
Famous For: Being the Father of Nuclear Chemistry
Hahn was one of the earliest men to work in the field of radiochemistry and
radioactivity. During one of his experiments, he founded what is known as
Applied Radiochemistry which eventually led to nuclear chemistry.
Humphry Davy (17781829)
Famous For: The discovery for earth based alkaline metals and alkali
Humphrey Davys contribution can be summarized in his discoveries on the
nature of chlorine and iodine in its natural state. In addition, people
remember for his identifying earth based alkaline metals and alkali itsel.
Stanislao Cannizzaro (1826-1910)
Famous For: The Cannizzaro reaction
Cannizzaro worked extensively on organic chemistry in addition to his
explanation which on how certain chemical reactions take place certain
elements lact the hydrogen atom. This is named aptly as the Cannizaro
reaction.
FAMOUS
FILIPINO
SCIENTISTS
AND
CONTRIBUTION IN THE FIELD OF CHEMISTRY

THEIR

SIGNIFICANT

Alfredo Santos is a National Scientist born on August 15, 1900, who

devoted his life and career on the study of chemistry of natural harvest and
the properties of Philippine medicinal plants. He has finished a lot of work in
the isolation and elucidation of the phaeantharine and other alkaloids from
Philippine medical plants.
Jose O. Juliano is a famous Filipino scientist born on October 16, 1932,
who became famous for his researches in nuclear chemistry and physics. A
chemist by profession, he was in charge of grain quality research at the
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) from the year 1961 to 1993. He

was also one of the receivers of the The Outstanding Young Men (TOYM)
award in the year 1959 for his involvement in Nuclear Science and became
an affiliate of the American Nuclear Society, American Physical Society and
American Chemical Society.
Amando Kapauan is a Filipino chemist and researcher born on July 4,
1931. He was one of the scientist who initiated investigations in the 1970s
on heavy metal analysis in our environment and among one of those who
first look into the problem of mercury in the environment, and designed the
appropriate equipment for mercury analysis in water, fish and soil.
Anacleto del Rosario was a leading chemist during the Spanish period
and was called as the Father of Laboratory Science in the Philippines. As a
chemist, Del Rosario partly built the commercial names of the manufacturers
of the Ayala distillery where he was successful in producing alcohol from nipa
tuba (wine) that was absolutely free of characteristic odor.
Julian A. Banzon is a Filipino chemist born in Balanga, Bataan on March
25, 1908, who researched methods of producing alternative fuels from
coconut and sugarcanes. He experimented with the production of ethyl
esters fuels from coconut and sugarcanes, and invented a means of
extracting residual coconut oil by a chemical process.
Gerardo Janairo for developing new routes to pharmacologically
interestingorganic compounds which has impact on the synthesis of
antibiotics and analogs.
Concepcion Lozada generation of information and development of
technologiesthat help in the reduction of post harvest losses of tropical fruits
and vegetables.
Fortunato Sevilla III chemical sensors and biosensors used in the
analysis anddevelopment of low cost instrumentation for chemical education.
Elma Llaguno organic pollutants in the environment and humic
substances in soil,sediment and water.
Evelyn Mae Tecson Mendoza molecular mechanism of plant resistant to
pest anddiseases, biochemical factors affecting nutritional quality and
acceptability of plantfoods and biochemical basis of the makapuno
phenotype of coconut.
Beatrice Guevarra natural products especially alkaloid-bearing plants in
thePhilippine rainforest.
COMMON LABORATOY APPARATUS

Beakers are useful as a reaction container or to hold liquid or solid

samples. They are also used to catch liquids from titrations and
filtrates from filtering operation.

Bunsen

Burners

are

sources of heat.

Burets are for addition of a precise volume of liquid. The volume of

liquid added can be determined to the nearest 0.01 mL with practice.

Clay Triangles are placed on a ring attached to a ring stand as

a support for a funnel, crucible, or evaporating dish.

Droppers are for addition of liquids drop by drop.

Erlenmeyer Flasks are useful to contain reactions or to hold liquid

samples. They are also useful to catch filtrates.

Glass Funnels are for funneling liquids from one container to

another or for filtering when equipped with filter paper.

Graduated Cylinders are for measurement of an amount of liquid. The

volume of liquid can be estimated to the nearest 0.1 mL with practice.

Test Tubes are for holding small samples or for containing ll scale reactions.

Volumetric Flasks are used to measure precise

volumes of liquid or to make precise dilutions.

Wash bottles are used for dispensing small

quantities of distilled water.

Watch glasses are for holding small samples or for

covering beakers or evaporating dishes.

Test tube holders are for holding test tubes

tubes should not be touched.

Pipettes - to dispense small andprecise

amount of liquid samples
.

when

Ring stand with Rings are for holding pieces of

glassware in place.

Wire Gauze on a ring supports beakers to be heated by

Bunsen burners.

Balances - to measure the mass of a reagent or a

product.

Spectrophotometers are used to measure the

absorbance or transmittance of a liquid sample.

Fume Hoods are used to ventilate noxious or

harmful gasses.

Research Assignments
in

Natural Science

General Chemistry

Prepared by :

Aizel E. Tallada

BAC- 2B

Submitted to:

Prof. E. Arive

Resources
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/chemistry/chemc2507/navbar/chemhist.html
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/famous-chemists-and-theircontributions.html
file:///C:/Users/LUMISLaptop/Desktop/Common%20apparatus%20and
%20procedures
https://socratic.org/questions/what-are-the-branches-of-chemistry-andtheir-definition