1) Trap crop:

A trap crop is a plant that attracts agricultural creatures usually insects, away from nearby crops. This
form ofcompanion planting can save the main crop from decimation by pests without the use of
pesticides. Trap crops can be planted around the circumference of the field to be protected, or interspersed
among them, for example being planted every ninth row.
Example: Alfalfa planted in strips among cotton, to draw away lygus bugs, while castor beans surround
the field, ortobacco is planted in strips among it, to protect from the budworm Heliothis.
2) Difference between Bio-fertilizer and Organic fertilizer:
Bio fertilizers are microbial inoculants consisting of living cells of micro-organism like bacteria, algae
and fungi alone or combination which may help in increasing crop productivity. Biological activities are
markedly enhanced by microbial interactions in the rhizosphere of plants.
Whereas, organic fertilizers are obtained from animal sources such as animal manure or plant sources like
green manure. For example, vermicomposting is a simple biotechnological process of composting, in
which certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of waste conversion and produce a
better end product.
3) Algalization:
Venkataraman (1961) coined the term 'algalization' to denote the process of application of blue-green
algal culture in field as biofertilizer.
Successful establishment of desired algae in the rice fields has been found to form a source of slow
release of nitrogen for the crop plants. They have also been found to protect a part of the applied fertilizer
nitrogen from being lost. Studies using N15 have been shown that the nitrogen fixed by the blue green
algae is actually taken up by the crop plants.
4) Bt-cotton:
Bt
cotton is
a genetically
modified
organism (GMO) cotton variety,
which
produces
an insecticide to bollworm. It is produced by Monsanto. Strains of the bacterium Bacillus
thuringiensis produce over 200 different Bt toxins, each harmful to different insects. The Bt cotton variety
contains a foreign gene obtained from bacillus thuringiensis. This bacterial gene, introduced genetically
into the cotton seeds, protects the plants from bollworm (A. lepidoptora), a major pest of cotton. The
worm feeding on the leaves of a BT cotton plant becomes lethargic and sleepy, thereby causing less
damage to the plant.
5) Fusogen:
Cellcell fusogens are glycoproteins that facilitate the fusion of cell to cell membranes. Cell-cell fusion is
critical for the merging of gamete genomes and development of organs in multicelluar organisms. It drives
cell membrane protrustions and fusogenic protein engagement.
6) Nif-gene:
The nif genes are genes encoding enzymes involved in the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen into a form
ofnitrogen available to living organisms. The primary enzyme encoded by the nif genes is

the nitrogenase complex which is in charge of converting atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to other nitrogen
forms such as ammonia which the organism can use for various purposes.
7) Example of Cyanobacteria:
Gloeocapsa, a cyanobacterium that lives in small colonies
Merismopedia, a flat, sheet-like colonial cyanobacterium.
Lyngbya, a filamentous cyanobacterium.
Oscillatoria, another filamentous cyanobacterium.
8) Advantages of Pure line selection:
Merits of pureline selection are listed below Easy and cheap method of crop improvement
Rapid method, lines are usually genetically fixed and yield trials can be immediately conducted.
Plants in such variety react in similar fashion to environmental conditions, means they are uniform
in performance and at the same time in appearance too.
Maximum possible improvement over the original variety can be achieved
Useful in improving low heritability traits as selection is based on progeny performance
9) YEM medium:
YEM broth is widely used for the cultivation of Agrobacterium species and other soil microorganisms.

10) Organoleptic evaluation of crude drug:

11) Demerits of Pure line selection:

Demerits of pureline selection are given below

Pure lines have poor adaptability due to narrow genetic base, just opposite to mass selected
variety
Superior genotypes can only be isolated from the mixed population. This selection is
powerless to bring changes in hereditary factors i.e. to develop new genotype.
Mostly popular or in fact limited to self pollinated spp. only
Time and space consuming
More expensive yield trials have to be conducted than in mass selection

12) Advantages and Disadvantages of Mass Selection

Advantages

Varieties developed by mass selection have wide adaptability, wide genetic base and stability.
Rapid, simple and least expensive of plant-breeding procedures.
Retains considerable genetic variability
Of use for the improvement of land races.

Disadvantages

Variation exists in variety developed by mass selection. Phenotype of these varieties is not as
uniform as pure line varieties.
To test the homozygosity of plants progeny test is always required, as without progeny testing
selected types will show segregation in next generation.
Less improvement as compared to pureline selection.
Limited use in improvement of self fertilizing crops.
Varieties difficult to identify in seed certification programme than purelines.
Only effective for characters with high heritability.
Only those varieties which show genetic variation can be improved by this method, as it uses
variability present in population