Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is a branch of science which deals with energy.
Engineering thermodynamics is modified name of this science when
applied to design and analysis of various energy conversion systems.
Thermodynamics has basically a few fundamental laws and principles
applied to a wide range of problems. Thermodynamics is core to
engineering and allows understanding of the mechanism of energy
conversion. It is really very difficult to identify any area where there is
no interaction in terms of energy and matter. It is a science having its
relevance in every walk of life. Thermodynamics can be classified as
Classical thermodynamics and Statistical thermodynamics. Here in
engineering

systems

analysis

the

classical

thermodynamics

is

employed.
Thermodynamics is the branch of physical science that deals
with the various phenomena of energy and related properties
of matter, especially of the laws of transformations of heat into
other forms of energy and vice-versa. (1 Marks)
Or
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the interaction
between energy and material systems.
Internal combustion engines employed in automobiles are a good
example of the energy conversion equipments where fuel is being
burnt inside the piston cylinder arrangement and chemical energy
liberated by the fuel is used for getting the shaft work from crankshaft.
1. LIST THE APPLICATIONS OF THERMODYNAMICS (3 Marks)
1. Steam& nuclear power plants

Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

2. Internal combustion engines

3. Gas turbines
4. Air conditioning
5. Refrigeration
6. Gas dynamics
7. jet propulsion
8. compressors
9. chemicals power plants
2. DIFFRENCE BETWEEN MACROSCOPIC AND MICROSCOPIC
POINTS OF VIEW
(4 Marks)
Thermodynamic studies are undertaken by the following two different
approaches.
1. Macroscopic approach(Macro mean big or total)
2. Microscopic approach(Micro means small)
Sl

MACROSCOPIC

MICROSCOPIC

no APPROACHES
APPROACHES
1
In this approach a certain The approach considered that
quantity

of

matter

is the system is made up of a

considered without taking in very large number of discrete

to

account

of

events particles known as molecules.

Basic thermodynamics

occurring

at

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

molecular These

molecules

level .In other words this different

approach

to

have

velocities

and

the energies. The values of these

thermodynamics

is energies

are

constantly

concerned with gross or over changing with time. This is

all behavior. This is known as known
classical thermodynamics.
2

as

statistical

thermodynamics.

The analysis of macroscopic The behavior of the system is

system

requires

simple found

mathematical formula.

by

using

statistical

methods as the number of

molecules
advanced

very

large.

statistical

mathematical

So
and

methods

are

needed to explain the changes

3

in the system.
The values of the properties The properties like velocities,
of

the

system

average values.

are

their momentum, impulse, kinetic

energy etc... Which describe
the molecule cannot be easily
measured by instruments.

In order to describe a system Large numbers of variables

only a few properties are are
needed.

needed

to

describe

system. So the approach is

complicated.

3. DEFINE Marks)

SYSTEM, BOUNDARY AND SURROUNDINGS (3

Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

System - A system is a finite quantity of matter or a prescribed region

of space (Refer Fig)
Boundary - The actual or hypothetical envelope enclosing the system
is the boundary of the system. The boundary may be fixed or it may
move, as and when a system containing a gas is compressed or
expanded. The boundary may be real or imaginary.
Surroundings- Everything outside the boundary is the surroundings.

Fig-The System

4. LIST THE THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS (3 Marks)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Closed System ( Control Mass)

Open System ( Control Volume)
Isolated System
Adiabatic System
Homogeneous System
Heterogeneous System

Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

Closed System or (Control Mass): (2 Marks)

A closed system (also known as a control mass) consists of a fixed

amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. That is, no mass
can enter or leave a closed system, as shown in Fig. But energy, in the
form of heat or work, can cross the boundary; and the volume of a
closed system does not have to be fixed.
Open System (Control Volume) (2 Marks)

Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

An open system is one in which matter flows into or out of the system.
Most of the engineering systems are open. The boundaries of a control
volume are called a control surface.
Isolated System (2 Marks)

An isolated system is that system which exchanges neither energy nor

matter with any other system or with environment.
Adiabatic System (1 Marks)
An adiabatic system is one which is thermally insulated from its
surroundings. It can, however, exchange work with its surroundings. If
it does not, it becomes an isolated system.
Phase (1 Marks)
A phase is a quantity of matter which is homogeneous throughout in
chemical composition and physical structure.
Homogeneous System (1 Marks)
A system which consists of a single phase is termed as homogeneous
system.
Examples: Mixture of air and water vapour.
Heterogeneous System (1 Marks)
A system which consists of two or more phases is called a
heterogeneous system.

Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

Examples: Water plus steam, ice plus water and water plus oil.
5. LIST AND EXPLAIN THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUMS

(4

Marks)
A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if the temperature and
pressure at all points are same; there should be no velocity gradient;
the chemical equilibrium is also necessary.
A system in thermodynamic equilibrium satisfies:
1. Mechanical equilibrium (no unbalanced forces)
2. Thermal equilibrium (no temperature differences)
3. Chemical equilibrium (no chemical reaction)
Thermal equilibrium- The temperature of the system does not
change with time and has same value at all points of the system.
Mechanical equilibrium- There are no unbalanced forces within the
system or between the surroundings. The pressure in the system is
same at all points and does not change with respect to time.
Chemical equilibrium- No chemical reaction takes place in the
system and the chemical composition which is same throughout the
system does not vary with time.
6. EXPLAIN PROPERTIES OF SYSTEMS (3 Marks)
Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Some familiar
properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
1. Intensive properties. These properties do not depend on the mass
of the system.
Examples: Temperature and pressure.
2. Extensive properties. These properties depend on the mass of the
system.

Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

Example: Volume.
Extensive properties are often divided by mass associated with them to
obtain the intensive properties. For example, if the volume of a system
of mass m is V, then the specific volume of matter within the system is
V/m which is an intensive property.
FOR EXAMPLE.... to illustrate the difference between extensive and
intensive properties, consider an amount of matter that is uniform in
temperature, and imagine that it is composed of several parts, as
illustrated in Fig. The mass of the whole is the sum of the masses of
the parts, and the overall volume is the sum of the volumes of the
parts. However, the temperature of the whole is not the sum of the
temperatures of the parts; it is the same for each part. Mass and
volume are extensive, but temperature is intensive.

7. EXPLAIN POINT AND PATH FUNCTIONS (4 Marks)

Point function

Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

When two properties can

be

located

on

the

thermodynamic diagram,
then those properties are
called point function. For
example

pressure,

temperature, volume are

the point function since
these can be located on the thermodynamic diagram as shown in fig
and their change can be written as difference between their end
states.
Change in volume dv= V2-V1
Change in pressure dp=P2-P1
Path function
There are certain quantities which cannot be located on the
thermodynamic diagram by point and also whose change cannot be
written as the difference between their end states. The change in their
values given by the area under the thermodynamic diagram. Such a
quantities are called path function. For example heat and work
Change in heat

Work done

Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

8. DEFINE STATE AND PROCESS (2 Marks)

STATE
State is the condition of the system at an instant of time as described
or measured by its properties. Or each unique condition of a system is
called a state.
PROCESS
Whenever one or more of the properties of a system change, a change
in the state of the system occurs.
states

through

which

the

The path of the succession of

system

passes

is

called

the

thermodynamic process.

One

example

of

thermodynamic

process

is

increasing

the

temperature of a fluid while maintaining a constant pressure.

A process may be non-flow and flow process
A process may be non-flow in which a fixed mass within the defined
boundary is undergoing a change of state.

10

Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

Example: A substance which is being heated in a closed cylinder

undergoes a non-flow process. Closed systems undergo non-flow
processes.
A process may be a flow process in which mass is entering and
leaving through the boundary of an open system. In a steady flow
process mass is crossing the boundary from surroundings at entry, and
an equal mass is crossing the boundary at the exit so that the total
mass of the system remains constant.

9. EXPLAIN QUASI-STATIC PROCESSES AND NON QUASI-STATIC

PROCESSES
(3+3 = 6 Marks)
Or
Reversible process and Irreversible process
Quasi-static Processes {Quasi-infinite slowness}
A quasi-static process is also called a reversible process. This
process is a succession of equilibrium states and infinite slowness is its
characteristic feature.
Let consider a system of gas contained in a cylinder as shown in fig.
the system initially is in equilibrium state, represented by the p1, v1,

11

Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

and t1. The weights on the piston just balanced the upward force
exerted by the gas. If is removed, there will be an

unbalanced force between the system and the surrounding, and under
gas pressure, the piston will move up till it hits the stops.
stops
weight
final state
p2

v2

p1

t2
piston

weight
intial state
gas
p1 v1 t1

boundary

p2

v1

v2

Transition b/wtwo equilibriumstates by an unblanced forces & pv diagram

The system again comes to an equilibrium state, being described by

the properties p2, v2, t2.but the intermediate states passed through by
the system are nonequilibrium states which cannot be described by
thermodynamics coordinates. Fig shows position 1 and 2 as initial and
final equilibrium states joined by a dotted line, which got no meaning
otherwise.

12

Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

weights

stops

4
3
2

final state
p2

v2
4
3
1

p1

t2
weights

gas
p1 v1 t1

Quasi-static process

piston

intial state

Equillibriumstates

p2

boundary

2
v1

v2

Infinitly slow Transition b/wtwo equilibriumstates & pv diagram

Now if the single weight on the piston is made up of many very small
pieces of weight as shown in fig and these weights removed one by
one very slowly from top of the piston, at any instant of the upward
travel of the piston, if the gas system is isolated, the departure of the
state of the system from the thermodynamics equilibrium state will be
infinitesimally small. So every state passed through by the system will
be an equilibrium state. Such a process, which is but a locus of all the
equilibrium state, is known as Quasi-static Processes. It is also called
as reversible process.
Examples. Some examples of nearly reversible processes are :
(i) Frictionless relative motion.
(ii) Expansion and compression of spring.
(iii) Frictionless adiabatic expansion or compression of fluid.
(iv) Polytropic expansion or compression of fluid.

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Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

(v) Isothermal expansion or compression.

(vi) Electrolysis.
Examples. Some examples of nearly irreversible process are.
(i) Relative motion with friction

(ii) Combustion

(iii) Diffusion

(iv) Free expansion

(v) Throttling

(vi) Electricity flow through a

resistance
(vii) Heat transfer

10.DEFINE
Marks)
CYCLE

14

CYCLE,

(viii) Plastic deformation

DIATHERMIC WALL,

ADIABATIC

WALL

(2

Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

Any process or series of processes whose end states are identical is

termed a cycle.
Or
If, at the end of the process, the properties have returned to their
original values, the system has undergone a cyclic process or a
cycle.
The path refers to the series of state changes through which the
system passes during a process.
Diathermic wall- The wall which permits to flow of heat is known as
Diathermic wall (Q 0 .
Adiabatic wall- The wall which not permits to flow of heat is known as
Adiabatic wall (Q=0)

11. DEFINE TEMPERATURE AND EXPLAIN ZEROTH LAW OF

THERMODYNAMICS
(1+ 3 = 4 Marks)
TEMPERATURE
The temperature is a thermal state of a body which distinguishes a hot
body from a cold body.

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Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

Instruments for measuring ordinary temperatures are known as

thermometers and those for measuring high temperatures are known
as pyrometers.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two systems are each
equal in temperature to a third, they are equal in temperature to each
other.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if the bodies A and B are in

thermal equilibrium with a third body C separately then the two bodies
A and B shall also be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
12.EXPLAIN TEMPERATURE SCALES (4 Marks)
Celsius Scale or Centigrade Scale- Anders Celsius gave this Celsius
or Centigrade scale using ice point of 0C as the lower fixed point and
steam point of 100C as upper fixed point for developing the scale.
Fahrenheit Scale- Fahrenheit gave another temperature scale known
as Fahrenheit scale and has the lower fixed point as 32 F and the upper
fixed point as 212 F.

16

Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

Rankine scale- Rankine scale was developed by William John

MacQuorn Rankine, a Scottish engineer. It is denoted by letter R. It is
related to Fahrenheit scale as given below.

Kelvin Scale- Kelvin scale proposed by Lord Kelvin is very commonly

used in thermodynamic analysis. It also defines the absolute zero
temperature. Zero degree Kelvin or absolute zero temperature is taken
as 273.15C. It is denoted by letter K.

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Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

13. EXPLAIN CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER (5 Marks)

In its original state the glass bulb is full of air and the mercury levels
are the same. A mark(X) is made against the glass to record this.

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Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

When the bulb is placed in a hot liquid for a temperature reading, the
air in the bulb expands, pushing the mercury down on the left and up
on the right.
To get the air in the flask back to its original volume, the movable tube
is lowered until the mercury is at the level previously marked.
There is now a level difference (head) h between the two tubes. This is
a measure of the pressure of the gas without taking account of
atmospheric pressure pA. So accounting for atmospheric pressure, the
pressure p of the gas at temperature is:

It follows that the temperature of the gas, is given by:

where p0 and p100 are pressures at 0oC & 100oCrespectively.

EXAMPLES

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Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

1. Determine the human body temperature in degree Celsius (C) if

the temperature in Fahrenheit is 98.6F. (2 Marks)

2 A temperature scale is being developed using the following

relation.

Where p is thermometric property and a and b are constants.

Determine celsius temperature corresponding to thermometric
property of 6.5, if ice point and steam point give thermometric
property value of 3 and 8. (5 Marks)

20

Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

3 In a thermoelectric thermometer for tC temperature, the emf is

given as;

Thermometer is having reference junction at ice point and is calibrated

at ice point and steam points. What temperature shall be shown by the
thermometer for a substance at 30C? (5 Marks)

4. Estimate the % variation in temperature reading from a

thermocouple having its test junction in gas and other
reference junction at ice point. The temperature of gas using
gas thermometer is found 50C. Thermocouple is calibrated
with emf varying linearly between ice point and steam point.
When thermocouples test junction is kept in gas at tC and
reference junction at ice point, the e.m.f. produced in mill volts
is,
(5 Marks)

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Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

5. A temperature scale of certain thermometer is given by the

relation
t = a ln p + b
where a and b are constants and p is the thermometric property of the
fluid in the thermometer. If at the ice point and steam point the
thermometric properties are found to be 1.5 and 7.5 respectively what
will be the temperature corresponding to the thermometric property of
3.5 on Celsius scale. (5 Marks)

22

Basic thermodynamics

Unit 1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions

6. A thermocouple with test junction at tC on gas thermometer

scale and reference junction at ice point gives the e.m.f. as (5
Marks)

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