CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

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One of the most promising renewable energy sources characterized by a huge potential of
conversion into electrical power is the solar energy. The conversion of solar radiation into
electrical energy by Photo-Voltaic (PV) effect is a very promising technology, being clean,
silent and reliable, with very small maintenance costs and small ecological impact. The
interest in the Photo Voltaic conversion systems is visibly reflected by the exponential
increase of sales in this market segment with a strong growth projection for the next decades.
According to recent market research reports carried out by European Photovoltaic Industry
Association (EPIA), the total installed power of PV conversion equipment increased from
about 1 GW in 2001up to nearly 23 GW in 2009.
The continuous evolution of the technology determined a sustained increase of the conversion
efficiency of PV panels, but nonetheless the most part of the commercial panels have
efficiencies no more than 20%. A constant research preoccupation of the technical community
involved in the solar energy harnessing technology refers to various solutions to increase the
PV panels conversion efficiency. Among PV efficiency improving solutions we can mention:
solar tracking, optimization of solar cells geometry, enhancement of light trapping capability,
use of new materials, etc. The output power produced by the PV panels depends strongly on
the incident light radiation.
The continuous modification of the sun-earth relative position determines a continuously
changing of incident radiation on a fixed PV panel. The point of maximum received energy is
reached when the direction of solar radiation is perpendicular on the panel surface. Thus an
increase of the output energy of a given PV panel can be obtained by mounting the panel on a
solar tracking device that follows the sun trajectory. Unlike the classical fixed PV panels, the
mobile ones driven by solar trackers are kept under optimum insolation for all positions of the
Sun, boosting thus the PV conversion efficiency of the system. The output energy of PV
panels equipped with solar trackers may increase with tens of percents, especially during the
summer when the energy harnessed from the sun is more important. Photo-Voltaic or PV cells,
known commonly as solar cells, convert the energy from sunlight into DC electricity. PVs
offer added advantages over other renewable energy sources in that they give off no noise and
require practically no maintenance. A tracking system must be able to follow the sun with a
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certain degree of accuracy, return the collector to its original position at the end of the day and
also track during periods of cloud over.
The major components of this system are as follows.

Light dependent resistor

Microcontroller.
Output mechanical transducer (stepper motor)

1.1 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

Fig 1: Block Diagram

Almost all circuits encountered on electronic equipment (computers, TV, radio, industrial
control equipment, etc.) are mounted on printed circuit boards. Close inspection of a PCB
reveals that it contains a series of copper tracks printed on one or both sides of a fiber glass
board. The copper tracks form the wiring patternrequired to link the circuit devices according
to a given circuit diagram. Hence, to construct a circuit the necessity of connecting insulated
wires between components is eliminated, resulting in a cleaner arrangement and providing
mechanical support for components. Moreover, the copper tracks are highly conductive and
the whole PCB can be easily reproduced for mass production with increased reliability.

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CHAPTER 2
FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

The basic purpose of feasibility study or survey is to determine whether the whole process of
systems analysis leading to computerization would be worth the effort for the organization.
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The feasibility study results in the preparation of a report called the feasibility study/Survey
report which is prepared for consideration. It contains the following details:
A proposed solution to the problems including alternate solutions considered.
Rough estimates on the cost/benefits analysis if the solution is implemented.
Approximate time, effort and cost estimates for completion of the project.
Feasibility study refers to the study carried out to determine whether
computerization would be worth the effort or not.

2.1 TECHINICAL FEASIBILITY:

In the feasibility study first step is that the organization or company has to decide that
what technologies are suitable to develop by considering existing system. Here in this
application we will use Android SDK .These are free software that can be downloaded from
internet.

2.2 ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY

It refers to the benefits or Outcomes we are deriving from the product as compared to
the total cost we are spending for developing the product. If the benefits are more or less the
same as the older system, then it is not feasible to develop the product.
In the present system, the development of new product greatly enhances the accuracy of the
system and cuts short the various delays. The errors can be greatly reduced and at the same
time providing a great level of security. Here we dont need any additional equipment except
memory of required capacity.

2.3 OPERATIONAL FEASIBILITY

Since Apps is easy to use for any level of users (novice to expert). It will be live available for
24X7 and 365 days once uploaded at Play Store. Operation and maintenance is also easy.

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CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE RESEARCH

This chapter aims to provide a brief knowledge of Solar Panel, Solar Tracker and the
components which made up Solar Tracker.
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3.1 Technology of Solar Panel

Solar panels are devices that convert light into electricity. They are called solar after the sun
because the sun is the most powerful source of the light available for use. They are sometimes
called photovoltaic which means "light-electricity". Solar cells or PV cells rely on the
photovoltaic effect to absorb the energy of the sun and cause current to flow between two
oppositely charge layers.A solar panel is a collection of solar cells. Although each solar cell
provides a relatively small amount of power, many solar cells spread over a large area can
provide enough power to be useful. To get the most power, solar panels have to be pointed
directly at the Sun.The development of solar cell technology begins with 1839 research of
French physicist Antoine-Cesar Becquerel. He observed the photovoltaic effect while
experimenting with a solid electrode in an electrolyte solution. After that he saw a voltage
developed when light fell upon the electrode.
According to Encyclopaedia Britannica the first genuine for solar panel was built around 1883
by Charles Fritts. He used junctions formed by coating selenium (a semiconductor) with an
extremely thin layer of gold. Crystalline silicon and gallium arsenide are typical choices of
materials for solar panels. Gallium arsenide crystals are grown especially for photovoltaic use,
but silicon crystals are available in less-expensive standard ingots, which are produced mainly
for consumption in the microelectronics industry. Norways Renewable Energy Corporation
has confirmed that it will build a solar manufacturing plant in Singapore by 2010 - the largest
in the world. This plant will be able to produce products that can generate up to 1.5 Giga watts
of energy every year. That is enough to power several million households at any one time.
Last year the world as a whole produced products that could generate just 2 GW in total.

3.2 Evolution of Solar Tracker

Since the sun moves across the sky throughout the day, in order to receive the best angle of
exposure to sunlight for collection energy. A tracking mechanism is often incorporated into the
solar arrays to keep the array pointed towards the sun. A solar tracker is a device onto which
solar panels are fitted which tracks the motion of the sun across the sky ensuring that the
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maximum amount of sunlight strikes the panels throughout the day. When compare to the
price of the PV solar panels, the cost of a solar tracker is relatively low. Most photovoltaic
solar panels are fitted in a fixed location- for example on the sloping roof of a house, or on
framework fixed to the ground. Since the sun moves across the sky though the day, this is far
from an ideal solution. Solar panels are usually set up to be in full direct sunshine at the
middle of the day facing South in the Northern Hemisphere, or North in the Southern
Hemisphere. Therefore morning and evening sunlight hits the panels at an acute angle
reducing the total amount of electricity which can be generated each day.

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CHAPTER 4
REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS

The system services and goals are established by consultation with system user. They are then
defined in details and serve as a system specification. System requirement are those on which
the system runs.

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4.1 HARDWARER EQUIREMENT

Semiconductors
Resistors
Presets
Diodes
Motors
Capacitor
Transistor
LEDs
Switches

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CHAPTER 5
SYSTEM ANALYSIS & DESIGN

5.1 SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE

The Systems development life cycle (SDLC), sometimes referred to as the Application
development life-cycle, is used in systems engineering, information systems and software
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engineering, and represents a process for creating or altering information systems, and the
models and methodologies that people use to develop these systems.
The Systems development life-cycle is a methodology that also forms the framework for
planning and controlling the creation, testing, and delivery of an information system.
SDLC can be described along a spectrum of agile to iterative to sequential. Agile
methodologies, such as XP and Scrum, focus on lightweight processes which allow for rapid
changes (without necessarily following as Rational Unified Process and dynamic systems
development method, focus on limited project scope and expanding or improving products by
multiple iterations. Sequential or big-design-up-front (BDUF) models, such as Waterfall focus
on complete and correct planning to guide large projects and risks to successful and
predictable results. Other models, such as Anamorphic Development tend to focus on a form
of development that is guided by project scope and adaptive iterations of feature development.
In project management a project can be defined both with a project life cycle (PLC) and an
SDLC, during which slightly different activities occur. According to Taylor (2004) "the project
life cycle encompasses all the activities of the project while the systems development life
cycle focuses on realizing the product requirements
SDLC (systems development life cycle) is used during the development of an IT project, it
describes the different stages involved in the project from the drawing board, through the
completion of the project.

Systems development phases :

The System Development Life Cycle framework provides a sequence of
activities for system designers and developers to follow. It consists of a set
of steps or phases in which each phase of the SDLC uses the results of the
previous one.

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Fig no: 2(SDLC)

The SDLC adheres to important phases that are essential for developers, such
as planning, analysis, design, and implementation, and are explained in the section below. It
includes evaluation of present system, information gathering, and feasibility study and request
approval. A number of system development life cycle (SDLC) models have been created:
waterfall, fountain, spiral, build and fix, rapid prototyping, incremental, and synchronize and
stabilize. The oldest of these, and the best known, is the waterfall model: a sequence of stages
in which the output of each stage becomes the input for the next. These stages can be
characterized and divided up in different ways, including the following:

Preliminary Analysis: The objective of phase 1 is to conduct a preliminary analysis,

propose alternative solutions, describe costs and benefits and submit a preliminary plan with
recommendations.
Propose alternative solutions: In digging into the organization's objectives and specific
problems, you may have already covered some solutions. Alternate proposals may come from
interviewing employees, clients, suppliers, and/or consultants. You can also study what
competitors are doing. With this data, you will have three choices: leave the system as is,
improve it, or develop a new system cost.
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Systems analysis, requirements definition: Defines project goals into defined functions
and operation of the intended application. Analyzes end-user information needs.

Systems design: Describes desired features and operations in detail, including screen
layouts, business rules, process diagrams, pseudo code and other documentation.

Development: The real code is written here.

Integration and testing: Brings all the pieces together into a special testing
environment, then checks for errors, bugs and interoperability.

Acceptance, installation, deployment: The final stage of initial development, where

the software is put into production and runs actual business.

Maintenance: During the maintenance stage of the SDLC, the system is assessed to
ensure it does not become obsolete. This is also where changes are made to initial software. It
involves continuous evaluation of the system in terms of its performance.

Evaluation: Some companies do not view this as an official stage of the SDLC, but is
it an important part of the life cycle. Evaluation step is an extension of the Maintenance stage,
and may be referred to in some circles as Post-implementation Review. This is where the
system that was developed, as well as the entire process, is evaluated.

Disposal Phase: In this phase, plans are developed for discarding system
information, hardware and software in making the transition to a new system. The purpose
here is to properly move, archive, discard or destroy information, hardware and software that
is being replaced, in a matter that prevents any possibility of unauthorized disclosure of
sensitive data. The disposal activities ensure proper migration to a new system. Particular
emphasis is given to proper preservation and archival of data processed by the previous
system. All of this should be done in accordance with the organization's security requirements.

INTRODUCTION
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System analysis is the process of gathering and interpreting facts, diagnosing problems and
using the information to recommend improvements on the system. System analysis is a
problem solving activity that requires intensive communication between the system users and
system developers.
The conclusion is an understanding of how the system functions. This system is called the
existing system. Now, the existing system is subjected to close study and the problem areas
are identified. The designer now functions as a problem solver and tries to sort out the
difficulties that the enterprise faces. The solutions are given as a proposal. The proposal is
then weighed with the existing system analytically and the best one is selected. The proposal
is presented to the user for an endorsement by the user. The proposal is reviewed on user
request and suitable changes are made. This loop ends as soon as the user is satisfied with the
proposal.

5.2 EXISTING SYSTEM

The existing RAC website is static which makes it less interactive. It doesnt have a database
connectivity. Moreover candidate didnt have an access to the details of the RAC through the
site, hence they were not updated about the latest events.

5.3 PROPOSED SYSTEM

In order to make the site dynamic and more interactive we have tried to include a database
link to RAC website. Hence the recruiters have been provided with the facility to post their
eligibility criteria, vacancies and salary packages. In response to which a candidate can submit
his willingness to appear for the drive along with his personal details

5.4 THE ARCHITECTURAL MODELS

Fig.3: THE SYSTEM ARCHITECTURAL MODEL

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 Phase 1: Classic
In the classic model, note how all layers are held within the application itself. This
architecture would be very awkward to maintain in a large-scale environment unless extreme
care was taken to fully encapsulate or modularize the code. Because Phase 1 of the Duwamish
Books sample focuses on a small retail operation, this type of design is perfectly acceptable.
It's easy to develop and, in the limited environment of a single retail outlet, easy to maintain.
In Phase 1, we deliver the basic functionality and documentation of the code and design
issues.
Phase 2: Two-tier
Phase 2 moves to a two-tier design, as we break out the data access code into its own layer. By
breaking out this layer, we make multiple-user access to the data much easier to work with.
The developer does not have to worry about record locking, or shared data, because all data
access is encapsulated and controlled within the new tier.
Phase 3 and Phase 3.5: Logical three-tier and physical three-tier
The business rules layer contains not only rules that determine what to do with data, but also
how and when to do it. For an application to become scalable, it is often necessary to split the
business rules layer into two separate layers: the client-side business logic, which we call
workflow, and the server-side business logic. Although we describe these layers as client and
serverside, the actual physical implementations can vary. Generally, workflow rules govern
user input and other processes on the client, while business logic controls the manipulation
and flow of data on the server.
Phase 4: A Windows-based application
Phase 4 of the Duwamish Books sample is the culmination of the migration from a desktop
model to a distributed n-tier model implemented as a Web application. In Phase 4, we offer
three client types aimed at different browser types. We also break out the workflow logic from
the client application. client-side processing (depending on the client type), and a COM
component.

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CHAPTER 6
COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

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6.1 Solar Tracker

Solar Tracker is basically a device onto which solar panels are fitted which tracks the motion
of the sun across the sky ensuring that the maximum amount of sunlight strikes the panels
throughout the day. After finding the sunlight, the tracker will try to navigate through the path
ensuring the best sunlight is detected. The design of the Solar Tracker requires many
components. The design and construction of it could be divided into six main parts that would
need to work together harmoniously to achieve a smooth run for the Solar Tracker, each with
their main function. They are:

Methods of Tracker Mount

Methods of Drives

Sensor and Sensor Controller

Motor and Motor Controller

Tracker Solving Algorithm

Data Acquisition/Interface Card

6.2 Methods of Tracker Mount

1. Single axis solar trackers
Single axis solar trackers can either have a horizontal or a vertical axle. The horizontal type is
used in tropical regions where the sun gets very high at noon, but the days are short. The
vertical type is used in high latitudes where the sun does not get very high, but summer days
can be very long. The single axis tracking system is the simplest solution and the most
common one used.
2. Double axis solar trackers
Double axis solar trackers have both a horizontal and a vertical axle and so can track the Sun's
apparent motion exactly anywhere in the World . This type of system is used to control

astronomical telescopes, and so there is plenty of software available to automatically predict

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and track the motion of the sun across the sky.By tracking the sun, the efficiency of the solar
panels can be increased by 30-40%.The dual axis tracking system is also used for
concentrating a solar reflector toward the concentrator on heliostat systems.

6.3 Methods of Drive

1. Active Trackers
Active Trackers use motors and gear trains to direct the tracker as commanded by a
controller responding to the solar direction. Light-sensing trackers typically have two photo
sensors, such as photodiodes, configured differentially so that they output a null when
receiving the same light flux. Mechanically, they should be omnidirectional and are aimed 90
degrees apart. This will cause the steepest part of their cosine transfer functions to balance at
the steepest part, which translates into maximum sensitivity.
2. Passive Trackers
Passive Trackers use a low boiling point compressed gas fluid that is driven to one side or the
other by solar heat creating gas pressure to cause the tracker to move in response to an
imbalance.

6.4 Sensors
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can
be read by an observer or by an instrument.
1. Light Dependent Resistor
Light Dependent Resistor is made of a high-resistance semiconductor. It can also be referred
to as a photoconductor. If light falling on the device is of the high enough frequency, photons
absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the
conduction band. The resulting free electron conducts electricity, thereby lowering resistance.
Hence, Light Dependent Resistors is very useful in light sensor circuits. LDR is very high-

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resistance, sometimes as high as 10M, when they are illuminated with light resistance drops
dramatically.

2. Photodiode
Photodiode is a light sensor which has a high speed and high sensitive silicon PIN
photodiode in a miniature flat plastic package. A photodiode is designed to be responsive to
optical input. Due to its waterclear epoxy the device is sensitive to visible and infrared
radiation. The large active area combined with a flat case gives a high sensitivity at a wide
viewing angle. Photodiodes can be used in either zero bias or reverse bias. In zero bias, light
falling on the diode causes a voltage to develop across the device, leading to a current in the
forward bias direction. This is called the photovoltaic effect, and is the basis for solar cells - in
fact a solar cell is just a large number of big, cheap photodiodes. Diodes usually have
extremely high resistance when reverse biased. This resistance is reduced when light of an
appropriate frequency shines on the junction. Hence, a reverse biased diode can be used as a
detector by monitoring the current running through it. Circuits based on this effect are more
sensitive to light than ones based on the photovoltaic effect.

6.5 Motor
Motor is use to drive the Solar Tracker to the best angle of exposure of light. For this section,
we are using stepper motor.
Stepper Motor
Features

Linear speed control of stepper motor

Control of acceleration, deceleration, max speed and number of steps to move
Driven by one timer interrupt
Full - or half-stepping driving mode
Supports all AVR devices with 16bit timer

Introduction
This application note describes how to implement an exact linear speed controller for stepper
motors. The stepper motor is an electromagnetic device that converts digital pulses into
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mechanical shaft rotation. Many advantages are achieved usingthis kind of motors, such as
higher simplicity, since no brushes or contacts arepresent, low cost, high reliability, high
torque at low speeds, and high accuracy ofmotion. Many systems with stepper motors need to
control the acceleration/deceleration when changing the speed. This application note presents
a driver witha demo application, capable of controlling acceleration as well as position
andspeed.

Theory
Stepper motor
This application note covers the theory about linear speed ramp stepper motor controlas well
as the realization of the controller itself. It is assumed that the reader isfamiliar with basic
stepper motor operation, but a summary of the most relevant topicswill be given.
Bipolar vs. Unipolar stepper motors
The two common types of stepper motors are the bipolar motor and the Unipolar motor. The
bipolar and unipolar motors are similar, except that the Unipolar has acentre tap on each
winding as shown in Figure 4.4

Fig 4: Bipolar and Unipolar stepper Motor

Unipolar stepper motor
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Stepper motors are very accurate motors that are commonly used in computer diskdrives,
printers and clocks. Unlike dc motors, which spin round freely when power isapplied, stepper
motors require that their power supply be continuously pulsed inspecific patterns. For each
pulse the stepper motor moves around one step often 15 degrees giving 24 steps in a full
revolution.There are two main types of stepper motors - Unipolar and Bipolar. Unipolar
motorsusually have four coils which are switched on and off in a particular sequence.
Bipolarmotors have two coils in which the current flow is reversed in a similar sequence. Each
of the four coils in a Unipolar stepper motor must be switched on and off in acertain order to
make the motor turn. Many microprocessor systems use four outputlines to control the stepper
motor, each output line controlling the power to one of thecoils. As the stepper motor operates
at 5V, the standard transistor circuit is required toswitch each coil. As the coils create a back
emf when switched off, a suppression diodeon each coil is also required. The table below
show the four different steps required tomake the motor turn.
Table 1: Unipolar stepper motor operation
Step
1
2
3
4
1

Coil 1
1
1
0
0
1

Coil 2
0
0
1
1
0

Coil 3
1
0
0
1
1

Coil 4
0
1
1
0
0

Look carefully at the table 6.1 and notice that a pattern is visible. Coil 2 is always the opposite
or logical NOT of coil 1. The same applies for coils 3 and 4. It is thereforepossible to cut
down the number of microcontroller pins required to just two by theuse of two additional
NOT gates.Fortunately the Darlington driver IC ULN2003 can be used to provide both the
NOT and Darlington driver circuits. It also contains the back emf suppression diodes so no
external diodes are required.
Bipolar Stepper motor

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The bipolar stepper motor has two coils that must be controlled so that the currentflows in
different directions through the coils in a certain order. The changing magneticfields that these
coils create cause the rotor of the motor to move around in steps.
The bipolar motor needs current to be driven in both directions through the windings, and a
full bridge driver is needed as shown in Figure 6.5 (a). The centre tap on the Unipolar motor
allows a simpler driving circuit shown in Figure 6.5 (b), limiting the current flow to one
direction. The main drawback with the Unipolar motor is the limited capability to energize all
windings at any time, resulting in a lower torque compared to the bipolar motor. The Unipolar
stepper motor can be used as a bipolar motor by disconnecting the centre tap.

(a)

(b)

Fig 5: Bipolar and Unipolar drivers with MOS transistors

Implementation
A working implementation written in C is included with this application note.
Fulldocumentation of the source code and compilation information is found by opening the
readme.html file included with the source code. The demo application demonstrates linear
speed control of a stepper motor. The user can control the stepper motor speed profile by
issuing different commands using the serial port, and the AVR will drive the connected stepper
motor accordingly. The demo application is divided in three major blocks, as shown in the

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block diagram in Figure 4.6. There is one file for each block and also a file for UART routines
used by the main routine.

Fig 6: Block diagram of demo application

Main c has a menu and a command interface, giving the user control of the stepper motor by a
terminal connected to the serial line. Speed controller c calculates the needed data and
generates step pulses to make the stepper motor follow the desired speed profile.Smdriver.c
counts the steps and outputs the correct signals to control the steppermotor.
Timer interrupt
The timer interrupt generates the step pulses calls the function Step Counter ( ) and is only
running when the stepper motor is moving. The timer interrupt will operate in four different
states according to the speed profile shown in Figure 6.7 and this behaviour is realized with a
state machine in the timer interrupt shown in Figure 6.8.

Fig 7:Operating states for different speed profile parts

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Fig 8: State machine for timer interrupt

When the application starts or when the stepper motor is stopped the state-machineremains in
the state STOP. When setup calculations are done, a new state is set and the timer interrupt is
enabled. When moving more than one step the state-machinegoes to ACCEL. If moving only
1 step, the state is changed to DECEL.When the state is changed to ACCEL, the application
accelerates the stepper motoruntil eitherthe desired speed is reached and the state is changed
to RUN, ordeceleration must start, changing the state to DECEL.When the state is set to RUN,
the stepper motor is kept at constant speed untildeceleration must start, then the state is
changed to DECEL.Itwill stay in DECEL and decelerate until the speed reaches zero desired
number of steps. The state is then changed to STOP.

6.6 Microcontroller
A microcontroller is a single chip that contains the processor, non-volatile memory for the
program, volatile memory for input and output, a clock and an I/O control unit also called a
computer on a chip, billions of microcontroller units are embedded each year in a myriad of
products from toys to appliances to automobiles. For example, a single vehicle can use 70 or
more microcontrollers. The following picture describes a general block diagram of
microcontroller.

Features
High-performance, Low-power AVR 8-bit Microcontroller
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Advanced RISC Architecture

131 Powerful Instructions Most Single-clock Cycle Execution

32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers
Fully Static Operation
Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16 MHz
On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier

High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments

16K Bytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory

512 Bytes EEPROM
1K Byte Internal SRAM
Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM
Data retention: 20 years at 85C/100 years at 25C
Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits
In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program
True Read-While-Write Operation

Programming Lock for Software Security

JTAG Interface

Boundary-scan Capabilities According to the JTAG Standard

Extensive On-chip Debug Support
Programming of Flash, EEPROM, Fuses, and Lock Bits through the JTAG
Interface

Peripheral Features

Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescalers and Compare Modes

One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescalers, Compare Mode, and
Capture
Mode

Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator

Four PWM Channels
8-channel, 10-bit ADC
8 Single-ended Channels
7 Differential Channels in TQFP Package Only
2 Differential Channels with Programmable Gain at 1x, 10x, or 200x

Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface

Programmable Serial USART
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Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface

Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator
On-chip Analog Comparator

Special Microcontroller Features

Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection

Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator
External and Internal Interrupt Sources
Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down,
Standby
and Extended Standby

I/O and Packages

32 Programmable I/O Lines

40-pin PDIP, 44-lead TQFP, and 44-pad QFN/MLF

Operating Voltages

2.7 - 5.5V for ATmega16L

4.5 - 5.5V for ATmega16

Speed Grades

0 - 8 MHz for ATmega16L

0 - 16 MHz for ATmega16

Power Consumption @ 1 MHz, 3V, and 25C for ATmega16L

Active: 1.1 mA
Idle Mode: 0.35 mA
Power-down Mode: < 1 A

ATmega16:
The ATmega16is a low-power, high-performance advance RISC8-bit microcontroller with
32K bytes of in-system programmable Flashmemory. The on-chip Flash allows the program
memory to be reprogrammedin-system or by a conventional non-volatile memory
programmer. Bycombining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on
amonolithic chip, the Atmel ATmega16is a powerful microcontroller, whichprovides a highly
flexible and

cost-effective solution

to many, embeddedcontrol applications. The

ATmega16provides the following standard features:32K bytes of Flash, 1024 byte of

EEPROM & 2KB INTERNAL S RAM ,32 I/O lines,Watchdog timer, two data pointers, two
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16-bit timer/counters, a six-vectortwo-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, onchip oscillator,8-channel 10 bit ADC and clock circuitry. In addition, the ATmega16is
designedwith static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports twosoftware
selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU whileallowing the RAM,
timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system tocontinue functioning. The Power-down
mode saves the RAM con-tents butfreezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions
until the next interrupt.

Fig 9: Pin Diagram

OverviewThe ATmega16 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVRenhanced RISC
architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the ATmega16
achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz allowing the system designed to optimize
power consumption versus processing speed.
Pin Descriptions
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VCC Digital supply voltage

GND Ground
Port A (PA7 - PA0)

Port A serves as the analog inputs to the A/D Converter.Port A also

serves as an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port, if the A/D Converter is not used. Port pinscan
provide internal pull-up resistors. The Port A output buffers have symmetricaldrive
characteristics with both high sink and source capability. When pins PA0 to PA7are used as
inputs and are externally pulled low, they will source current if the internal pull-upresistors are
activated. The Port A pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,even if the
clock is not running.
Port B (PB7 - PB0) Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors.
The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if
the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition
becomes active, even if the clock is not running.
Port C (PC7 - PC0) Port C is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors.
The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if
the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition
becomes active, even if the clock is not running. If the JTAG interface isenabled, the pull-up
resistors on pins PC5(TDI), PC3(TMS) and PC2(TCK) will be activated even if a reset occurs.
Port D (PD7 - PD0) Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors.
The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that areexternally pulled low will source current if the
pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes
active, even if the clock is not running.
RESET Reset Input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will
generate a reset, even if the clock is not running.
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XTAL1Input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.
XTAL2Output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier.
AVCC AVCC is the supply voltage pin for Port A and the A/D Converter. It should be
externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be
connected to VCC through a low-pass filter.
AREF AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.
Alternate Functions of Port A
Port A has an alternate function as analog input for the ADC as shown in Table 6.2. If some
PortApins are configured as outputs, it is essential that these do not switch when a conversion
is inprogress. This might corrupt the result of the conversion.
Table 2: Port A Pins Alternate Functions
Port Pin
PA7
PA6
PA5
PA4
PA3
PA2
PA1
PA0

Alternate Function
ADC7 (ADC input channel 7)
ADC6 (ADC input channel 6)
ADC5 (ADC input channel 5)
ADC4 (ADC input channel 4)
ADC3 (ADC input channel 3)
ADC2 (ADC input channel 2)
ADC1 (ADC input channel 1)
ADC0 (ADC input channel 0)

The alternate pin configuration of Port B is as follows:

SCK Port B, Bit 7
SCK: Master Clock output, Slave Clock input pin for SPI channel. When the SPI is enabled as
aSlave, this pin is configured as an input regardless of the setting of DDB7. When the SPI
isenabled as a Master, the data direction of this pin is controlled by DDB7. When the pin is
forcedby the SPI to be an input, the pull-up can still be controlled by the PORTB7 bit.
MISO Port B, Bit 6

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MISO: Master Data input, Slave Data output pin for SPI channel. When the SPI is enabled as
aMaster, this pin is configured as an input regardless of the setting of DDB6. When the SPI
isenabled as a Slave, the data direction of this pin is controlled by DDB6. When the pin is
forcedby the SPI to be an input, the pull-up can still be controlled by the PORTB6 bit.

MOSI Port B, Bit 5

MOSI: SPI Master Data output, Slave Data input for SPI channel. When the SPI is enabled as
aSlave, this pin is configured as an input regardless of the setting of DDB5. When the SPI
isenabled as a Master, the data direction of this pin is controlled by DDB5. When the pin is
forcedby the SPI to be an input, the pull-up can still be controlled by the PORTB5 bit.

SS Port B, Bit 4
SS: Slave Select input. When the SPI is enabled as a Slave, this pin is configured as an
inputregardless of the setting of DDB4. As a Slave, the SPI is activated when this pin is driven
low.When the SPI is enabled as a Master, the data direction of this pin is controlled by DDB4.
Whenthe pin is forced by the SPI to be an input, the pull-up can still be controlled by the
PORTB4 bit.

AIN1/OC0 Port B, Bit 3

AIN1, Analog Comparator Negative Input Configure the port pin as input with the internal
pull-upswitched off to avoid the digital port function from interfering with the function of the
analogcomparator.OC0, Output Compare Match output: The PB3 pin can serve as an external
output for theTimer/Counter0 Compare Match. The PB3 pin has to be configured as an output
to serve this function. The OC0 pin is also the output pin for the PWM mode timerfunction.

AIN0/INT2 Port B, Bit 2

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AIN0, Analog Comparator Positive input Configure the port pin as input with the internal
pull-upswitched off to avoid the digital port function from interfering with the function of the
AnalogComparator.INT2, External Interrupt Source 2: The PB2 pin can serve as an external
interrupt source to theMCU.
T1 Port B, Bit 1
T1, Timer/Counter1 Counter Source.
T0/XCK Port B, Bit 0
T0 Timer/Counter0 Counter Source XCK USART External Clock. The Data Direction
Register DDB0 controls whether the clock is output DDB0 set or input DDB0 cleared. The
XCK pin is active only when the USART operatesin Synchronous mode.
The alternate pin configuration of Port C is as follows:
TOSC2 Port C, Bit 7
TOSC2, Timer Oscillator pin 2: When the AS2 bit in ASSR is set one to enable
asynchronousclocking of Timer/Counter2, pin PC7 is disconnected from the port, and
becomes the invertingoutput of the Oscillator amplifier. In this mode, a Crystal Oscillator is
connected to this pin, and the pin cannot be used as an I/O pin.
TOSC1 Port C, Bit 6
TOSC1, Timer Oscillator pin 1: When the AS2 bit in ASSR is set one to enable
asynchronousclocking of Timer/Counter2, pin PC6 is disconnected from the port, and
becomes the input of theinverting Oscillator amplifier. In this mode, a Crystal Oscillator is
connected to this pin, and thepin cannot be used as an I/O pin.
TDI Port C, Bit 5
TDI, JTAG Test Data In: Serial input data to be shifted in to the Instruction Register or Data
Register. When the JTAG interface is enabled, this pin cannot be used as an I/O pin.
TDO Port C, Bit 4

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TDO, JTAG Test Data Out: Serial output data from Instruction Register or Data Register.
Whenthe JTAG interface is enabled, this pin cannot be used as an I/O pin.The TD0 pin is tristated unless TAP states that shifts out data are entered.
TMS Port C, Bit 3
TMS, JTAG Test Mode Select: This pin is used for navigating through the TAP-controller
statemachine. When the JTAG interface is enabled, this pin cannot be used as an I/O pin.

TCK Port C, Bit 2

TCK, JTAG Test Clock: JTAG operation is synchronous to TCK. When the JTAG interface is
enabled, this pin cannot be used as an I/O pin.
SDA Port C, Bit 1
SDA, Two-wire Serial Interface Data: When the TWEN bit in TWCR is set one to enable
theTwo-wire Serial Interface, pin PC1 is disconnected from the port and becomes the Serial
DataI/O pin for the Two-wire Serial Interface. In this mode, there is a spike filter on the pin to
suppressspikes shorter than 50 ns on the input signal, and the pin is driven by an open drain
driverwith slew-rate limitation. When this pin is used by the Two-wire Serial Interface, the
pull-up canstill be controlled by the PORTC1 bit.
SCL Port C, Bit 0
SCL, Two-wire Serial Interface Clock: When the TWEN bit in TWCR is set one to enable
theTwo-wire Serial Interface, pin PC0 is disconnected from the port and becomes the Serial
ClockI/O pin for the Two-wire Serial Interface. In this mode, there is a spike filter on the pin
to suppressspikes shorter than 50 ns on the input signal, and the pin is driven by an open drain
driverwith slew-rate limitation. When this pin is used by the Two-wire Serial Interface, the
pull-up canstill be controlled by the PORTC0 bit.

6.7 LCD Display

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A Liquid Crystal Display is an electronic device that can beused to show numbers or text.
There are two main typesof LCD display, numeric display and alphanumeric text displays.The
display is made up of a number of shaped crystals. In numeric displays thesecrystals are
shaped into bars, and in alphanumeric displays the crystals are simplyarranged into patterns
of dots. Each crystal has an individual electrical connection sothat each crystal can be
controlled independently. When the crystal is off i.e. whenno current is passed through the
crystal, the crystal reflect the same amount of light asthe background material, and so the
crystals cannot be seen. However when the crystalhas an electric current passed through it, it
changes shape and so absorbs more light.This makes the crystal appear darker to the human
eye - and so the shape of the dot orbar can be seen against the background.

6.8 TRANSFORMER:
A transformeris a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit toanother through
inductively coupled conductors - the transformer's coils or windings. Except for air-core
transformers, the conductors are commonlywound around a single iron-rich core, or around
separate but magneticallycoupledcores. A varying current in the first or primary winding
creates avarying magnetic field in the core of the transformer. This varying magnetic field
induces a varying electromotive force or voltage in the secondary winding. This effect is
called mutual induction.
If a load is connected to the secondary circuit, electric charge will flow in thesecondary
winding of the transformer and transfer energy from the primarycircuit to the load connected
in the secondary circuit.The secondary induced voltage VS, of an ideal transformer, is scaled
from theprimary VPby a factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in
theirrespective windings:
Ns Vs
=
Np Vp
By appropriate selection of the numbers of turns, a transformer thus allows analternating
voltage to be stepped up - by making NS more than NPorstepped down, by making it.

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BASIC PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER

In its most basic form a transformer consists of:

A primary coil or winding.

A secondary coil or winding.
A core that supports the coils or windings.

THE COMPONENTS OF A TRANSFORMER

Two coils of wire are wound on some type of core material. Insome cases the coils of wire are
wound on a cylindrical or rectangularcardboard form. In effect, the core material is air and the
transformer is calledan air-core transformer. Transformers used at low frequencies, such as
50hertz and 400 hertz, require a core of low-reluctance magnetic material,usually iron. This
type of transformer is called an iron-core transformer.Most power transformers are of the ironcore type. The principle parts of atransformer and their functions are: The core, which
provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux.The Primary winding, this receives energy from
the ac source.The secondary winding, this receives energy from the primary windingand
delivers it to the load. The enclosure, this protects the above components from dirt,
moisture,and mechanical damage.

6.9 BRIDGE RECTIFIER

A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achievefull-wave
rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown
and with single component bridges where the diodebridge is wired internally.
Basic operation
According to the conventional model of current flow originally established byBenjamin
Franklin and still followed by most engineers today, current is assumed to flow through
electrical conductors from the positive to the negative pole. In actuality, free electrons in a
conductor nearly always flowfrom the negative to the positive pole. In the vast majority of
applications,however, the actualdirection of current flow is irrelevant. Therefore, in
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thediscussion below the conventional model is retained.In the diagrams below, when the input
connected to the left corner of thediamond is positive, and the input connected to the right
corner is negative,current flows from the upper supply terminal to the right along the
red(positive) path to the output, and returns to the lower supply terminal via theblue (negative)
path.

Output smoothing
For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wavebridge serves to
convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of acapacitor may be desired because the
bridge alone supplies an output of fixedpolarity but continuously varying or pulsating
magnitude.

Fig 10: Bridge rectifier in parallel capacitor at the output

The function of this capacitor, known as a reservoir capacitor is to lessen the variation in the
rectified AC output voltage waveform from the bridge. One explanation of smoothing is that
the capacitor provides a low impedance path to the AC component of the output, reducing the
AC voltage across, and AC current through, the resistive load. In less technical terms, any
drop in the output voltage and current of the bridgetends to be cancelled by loss of charge in
the capacitor. This charge flows out asadditional current through the load. Thus the change of
load current andvoltage is reduced relative to what would occur without the
capacitor.Increases of voltage correspondingly store excess charge in the capacitor,
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thusmoderating the change in output voltage / current.The simplified circuit shown has a welldeserved reputation for beingdangerous, because, in some applications, the capacitor can
retain a lethalcharge after the AC power source is removed. If supplying a dangerous voltage,a
practical circuit should include a reliable way to safely discharge thecapacitor. If the normal
load cannot be guaranteed to perform this function,perhaps because it can be disconnected, the
circuit should include a bleederresistor connected as close as practical across the capacitor.
This resistorshould consume a current large enough to discharge the capacitor in areasonable
time, but small enough to minimize unnecessary power waste.Because a bleeder sets a
minimum current drain, the regulation of the circuit,defined as percentage voltage change
from minimum to maximum load, isimproved. However in many cases the improvement is of
insignificantmagnitude.capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant = RC
where Cand R are the capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long as the load resistor
is large enough so that this time constant is much longer than the timeof one ripple cycle, the
above configuration will produce a smoothed DCvoltage across the load.
In some designs, a series resistor at the load side of the capacitor is added. Thesmoothing can
then be improved by adding additional stages of capacitorresistor pairs, often done only for
sub-supplies to critical high-gain circuits thattend to be sensitive to supply voltage noise. The
idealized waveforms shown above are seen for both voltage and current when the load on the
bridge is resistive. When the load includes a smoothing capacitor, both the voltage and the
current waveforms will be greatly changed. While the voltage is smoothed, as described
above, current will flow through the bridge only during the time when the input voltage is
greater than the capacitor voltage. For example, if the load draws an average current of n
Amps, and the diodes conduct for 10% of the time, the average diode current during
conduction must be 10n Amps.

6.10 REGULATOR IC
It is a three pin IC used as a voltage regulator. It converts unregulated DCcurrent into
regulated DC current. First pin is used for input, second for ground and third pin gives the
rectified and filtered output. It has an inbuilt filtering circuit which removes the ripples present
in the rectified DC obtained from full bridge rectifier circuit.
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Fig11: MCT7805CT voltage regulator

Normally we get fixed output by connecting the voltage regulator at theoutput of the filtered
DC see in above diagram. It can also be used in circuitsto get a low DC voltage from a high
DC voltage for example we use 7805 to get 5V from 12V. There are two types of voltage
regulators 1. fixed voltage regulators 78xx, 79xx 2. Variable voltage regulators in fixed
voltageregulators there is another classification 1. +ve voltage regulators 2.vevoltage
regulators positive voltage regulatorsthis include 78xx voltage regulators. The most
commonly used ones are 7805 and 7812. 7805 givesfixed 5V DC voltage if input voltage is in
7.5V, 20V. 7805is a voltage regulatorintegrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed
linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would
not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a
constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide.
7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be
connectedatinput and output pins depending upon the respective voltage levels.

6.11 The Capacitor Filter

The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. Theapplication of the
simple capacitor filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low
current power supplies for cathode ray and similarelectron tubes, which require very little load
current from the supply. Thecapacitor filter is also used where the power-supply ripple
frequency is notcritical; this frequency can be relatively high. The capacitor C1 shown in
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figure 4.15 is a simple filter connected across the output of the rectifier in parallelwith the
load.
Another thing to keep in mind is that the ripple component E r of the outputvoltage is an ac
voltage and the average output voltage Eavg is the dccomponent of the output. Since the filter
capacitor offers relatively lowimpedance to ac, the majority of the ac component flows
through the filtercapacitor. The ac component is therefore bypassed around the load resistance
and the entire dc componentEavg flows through the loadresistance. This statement can be
clarified by using the formula for X C in a halfwaveand full-wave rectifier. First, you must
establish some values for thecircuit.As you can see from the calculations by doubling the
frequency of therectifier, you reduce the impedance of the capacitor by one-half. This allows
the ac component to pass through the capacitor more easily. As a result, a fullwaverectifier
output is much easier to filter than that of a half-wave rectifier. Remember the smaller the
XCof the filter capacitor with respect to the load resistance the better the filtering action.
Xc

1
2 fC

Since the largest possible capacitor will provide the best filtering.Remember, also, that the
load resistance is an important consideration. If loadresistance is made small, the load current
increases, and the average value of output voltage Eavg decreases. The RC discharge time
constant is a directfunction of the value of the load resistance therefore the rate of
capacitorvoltage discharge is a direct function of the current through the load. The greater load
current the more rapid the discharge of the capacitor andthe lower the average value of output
voltage. For this reason, the simplecapacitive filter is seldom used with rectifier circuits that
must supply arelatively large load current. Using the simple capacitive filter in conjunction
with a full-wave or bridge rectifier provides improved filtering because the increased ripple
frequency decreases the capacitive reactance of the filtercapacitor.

6.12 Light Emitting Diode

An LED is a very simple electronics component which lights up when electricity flows
through it. Since it is a diode, electricity can only flow one way. There is usually a flat section
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on the side of the LED to mark its polarity: this side should be connected to ground. This side
usually also has a shorter leg.In order to prevent too much current flowing through an LED
and damaging it, it should be connected in series with a resistor.

6.13 Resistor
A resistor is a component of a circuit that resists the flow of electrical current. It has two
terminals across which electricity must pass, and it is designed to drop the voltage of the
current as it flows from one terminal to the other. Resistors are primarily used to create and
maintain known safe currents within electrical components. Resistance is measured in ohms,
after Ohm's law. This law states that electrical resistance is equal to the drop in voltage across
the terminals of the resistor divided by the current being applied. A high ohm rating indicates a
high resistance to current. This rating can be written in a number of different ways - for
example, 81R represents 81 ohms, while 81K represents 81,000 ohms. Materials in general
have a characteristic behavior of opposing the flow of electric charge. This opposition is due
to the collisions between electrons that make up the materials. This physical property, or
ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is represented by the symbol R. Resistance
is expressed in ohms which is symbolized by the capital Greek letter omega.
The resistance of any material is dictated by four factors:

Material property-each material will oppose the flow of current differently.

Length-the longer the length, the more is the probability of collisions and, hence, the

larger the resistance.

Cross-sectional area-the larger the area A, the easier it becomes for electrons to flow

and, hence, the lower the resistance.

Temperature-typically, for metals, as temperature increases, the resistance increases.

TYPES OF RESISTER
Different types of resistors have been created to meet different requirements.Some resistors
are shown in Figure 4.23. The primary functions of resistors are to limit current, divide
voltage and dissipate heat. A resistor is either fixed or variable. Most resistors are of the fixed
type that is their resistance remains constant. The two common typesof fixed resistors
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wirewound and composition are shown in Figure 4.24.Wirewound resistors are used when
there is a need to dissipate a large amount of heat while the composition resistors are used
when largeresistance is needed.
RESISTOR COLOUR CODE
Some resistors are physically large enough to have their values printedon them. Other resistors
are too small to have their values printed on them. For such small resistors color coding
provides a way of determining the value of resistance. As shown in Figure 4.25 the color
coding consists of three, four, or five bands of color around the resistor.

CHAPTER 7
TESTING& MAINTENANCE

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Testing is a process of devising a set of inputs to a given piece of software that will
cause the software to exercise some portion of its code. The developer of the software can
then check if the results produced by the software are in accordance with his or her
expectations. It includes number of activities such as correcting syntactically and semantically
erroneous system components, detecting as many errors as possible in the software system,
and assuring that the system implementation fulfills system specification.
It ensures the quality, efficiency and reliability of the software, which is measured by
the testing methodology and techniques used for unit, integrated, system testing etc.
The testing should not be too generic containing only definitions. You should give all
the test case designs, reports and results of test cases for unit, integrated, system testing etc.
How debugged your code is and what actions you have taken too improve the code, must, be
explained. Good testing can be measured by criteria such as correctness, reliability, user
friendliness, maintainability, efficiency and portability of software.

We kept following objectives in mind while performing testing:

Good test cases should be designed with a probability of detecting undiscovered errors.
A successful test is one that uncovers yet undiscovered errors.
It should be done with the intention of finding errors.

7.1 TESTING OBJECTIVES

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A numbers of rules that can serve well as testing objectives:

Testing is a process of executing a program with the intent of finding an error.
A good test case is one that has high probabilities of finding an as yet undiscovered
error.
A successful test is one that uncovers an as yet undiscovered error.
Our objective is to design test systematically uncover different classes of errors and do
so with minimum amount of time and effort. Data collected as testing is conducted provide a
good indication of software reliability and some indication of software quality as a whole. But
there is one thing that testing cannot do. Testing cannot show the absence of defects, it can
only show that software defects are present.

TEST INFORMATION FLOW

Information flow for testing follows the pattern described in the figure:
Two classes of input are provided:
A software configuration that includes a software requirement specification, a design
specification, and Source code
A test configuration that include a Test Plane and Procedure, any testing tools that are
to be used, and test cases and there expected results.

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Software Configuration
Test Results

Evolution

Errors
Testing Expected Results

Debug

Model
Error Data Rate

Corrections

Test Configuration
Reliability

Predicted
Reliability

Figure12: Test Information Flow

7.2 TESTING TECHNIQUES AND TESTING STRATEGIES USED

A strategy for software testing integrates software test case design methods into a wellplanned series of steps that result in the successful construction of software. The strategy
provides a road map that describes the steps to be conducted as part of testing.
A strategy for software testing must accommodate low level tests that are necessary to verify
that a small source code segment has been correctly implemented as well as high level tests
that validate major functions against customer requirements.Each of these classes of tests is
described in this section.

UNIT TESTING:
The module interface is tested to ensure that information properly flows into and out of
the program unit under test.
Local data structures are examined to ensure that data stored temporarily maintains its
integrity during all steps in an algorithms execution.
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 All independent paths through the control structure are exercised to ensure that all
statements in a module have been executed at least once.
Boundary conditions are tested to ensure that the module operates properly at
boundaries established to limit or restrict processing.
This type of testing can be conducted in parallel for multiple components.

INTEGRATION TESTING:
Integration testing is systematic technique for constructing the software architecture while at
the same time conducting tests to uncover errors associated with interfacing. The objective is
to take unit tested components and build a program structure that has been dictated by design.

Methods of Testing:
There are different Methods of testing. On the basis of testing methods, there are two types of testing
(a) Black-Box Testing &
(b) White-Box Testing

WHITE-BOX TESTING:
White-box testing is a test case design method that uses the control structure of the procedural design
to derive the test case. Always we are thinking that it is not necessary to execute or checks the loops
and conditions, which results in large number of errors uncovered. With using white-box testing
methods, we have checked that, all independent paths within a function have been executed at least
once. All the logical decisions checked on their true and false side. All loops working correctly at their
boundary values and within their specified conditions. In our coding we test that all the loops works
truly. The one technique of white-box testing is basis path testing.

BLACK-BOX TESTING:
Black-box testing focuses on the functional requirements of the software. That is black- box testing
enables the software engineer to drive sets of input conditions that will fully exercise all functional
Requirements for the program. Black-box testing is not an alternative to white-box testing techniques.

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Rather, it is a complementary approach that is likely to uncover a different class of errors than whitebox methods.

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CHAPTER 8
SNAPSHOTS

Fig 13(a): On side of project

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Fig 13(b): Off side of project

CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
From the design of experimental set up with Micro Controller Based Solar Tracking System
Using Stepper Motor If we compare Tracking by the use of LDR with Fixed Solar Panel
System we found that the efficiency of Micro Controller Based Solar Tracking System is
improved by 30-45% and it was found that all the parts of the experimental setup are giving
good results. The required Power is used to run the motor by using Step-Down T/F by using
220V AC. Moreover, this tracking system does track the sun in a continuous manner. And this
system is more efficient and cost effective in long run. From the results it is found that, by
automatic tracking system, there is 30 % gain in increase of efficiency when compared with

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non-tracking system. The solar tracker can be still enhanced additional features like rain
protection and wind protection which can be done as future work.
Each and every project is never complete as new things are learned further modifications can
be done.

Future Scope
There are always remains an infinite scope of improvement to a system design. Its only the
time and financial constraints that impose a limit on the development. Following are the few
enhancements that may add further value to the system.

REFERENCES
[1] Rizk J. and Chaiko Y. Solar Tracking System: More Efficient Use of Solar Panels, World
Academy of

Science, Engineering and Technology 41 2008.

[2] Filfil Ahmed Nasir, Mohussen Deia Halboot, Dr. Zidan Khamis A. Microcontroller-Based
Sun Path Tracking System, Eng. & Tech. Journal, Vol. 29, No.7, 2011.
[3] Alimazidi Mohammad, Gillispie J, Mazidi, Rolin D. McKinlay, The 8051 Microcontroller
and Embedded Systems, An imprint of Pearson Education.
[4] Mehta V K, Mehta Rohit, Principles of Electronics, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
[5] Balagurusamy E, Programming in ANSI C, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited.

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[6] Damm, J. Issue #17, June/July 1990. An active solar tracking system, Home Brew
Magazine.
[7] Koyuncu B and Balasubramanian K, A microprocessor controlled automatic sun tracker,
IEEE Trans. Consumer Electron., vol. 37, no. 4,pp. 913-917, 1991.
[8] Konar A and Mandal A K, Microprocessor based automatic sun tracker, IEE Proc. Sci.,
Meas. Technol., vol. 138, no. 4, pp. 237-241,1991.

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