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College of Engineering

Department of Mechanical
Engineering
MCE 651- Advanced Engineering
Materials
Fall 2016
AECC Sensitivity to probe alignment in
circular features (1st Draft)

Zain Ali (51102)

Dr. Basil Darras

5th December 2016

Abstract
Cold Rod Expansion is a popular procedure done on aircraft holes to improve the fatigue life of
aircraft components. The procedure is done by inserting a sleeve on a rod which is then inserted
into the hole that needs to be expanded. The rod is pulled back using a hydraulic machine which
then pushes on the sleeve to expand the hole. This process induces compressive residual stresses
within the specimen which in turn improves the fatigue life of the aircraft component. Previous
studies indicate that there is a relation between the Apparent Eddy Current Conductivity (AECC)
of a material and the residual stresses that are present within that material. This relation is really
useful in predicting the fatigue life of the material without using destructive means, hence it is an
active area of research in the Non-destructive Testing (NDT) field. The main purpose of this
project is to investigate the effect of probe alignment within the hole to the AECC of the material
and see how sensitive the AECC is to different probe positions. This will help in finding the best

probe alignment to find the most suitable position for taking measurements when trying to find
out the fatigue life of a material.

Table of Contents
Table of Figures........................................................................................................... 4
Introduction................................................................................................................ 5
Literature Review....................................................................................................... 7
Methodology............................................................................................................. 12
Results and discussion.............................................................................................. 18
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 25
References................................................................................................................ 26

Table of Figures
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

1 Cold Expanded hole [1].................................................................................6


2 Hole edge expansion [2]............................................................................... 7
3 Direct mandrel expansion [2]........................................................................8
4 Ball Expansion [2]......................................................................................... 9
5 Split Sleeve Expansion [2]..........................................................................10
6 Comparison between FE prediction and measured residual stress [4]........11
7 Schematic Diagram..................................................................................... 12
8 Calibration Image........................................................................................ 14
9 Mesh with Angles........................................................................................ 15
10 Impedance to AECC conversion algorithm................................................16
11 Delta vs Frequency................................................................................... 17
12 Real vs Imaginary Impedance plot for 0.079433 (MHz)............................18
13 Linear Regression Plot............................................................................... 19
14 Regression plot for second coil position....................................................20
15 Linear regression for third position...........................................................21
16 Regression plot for the fourth position......................................................22
17 Regression plot for the fifth position.........................................................23
18 Regression plot for the final position.........................................................24

Introduction
Cold hole expansion is a procedure that has applications in the aircraft as well as the railroad
industry. It is an extremely popular method used to induce compressive residual stresses on a
specimen which in turn improves the fatigue life of the structure on which this process has been
done. Fatigue is one of the main causes of failure in aircrafts as generally loads do not reach the
yield point of the material when it is under use.
Fatigue can be defined as continuous cyclic loading that a structure has to bear below its yield
limit. This type of loading over a long period of time causes cracks to propagate within the
structure. When the crack grows large enough, the structure fails. This phenomenon is material
dependent as different materials have various endurance strengths to cyclic loading. A simple
experiment to demonstrate this phenomenon could be shown by using a thin metal wire. Bending
the wire back and forth repeatedly would cause the wire to break.
A similar scenario is what aircrafts generally face. During flight the wings bend up and down
several thousand times a year. The cyclic loading could cause cracks to initiate and eventually
cause the structure to fail. The result of this failure could be catastrophic and many lives could be
lost. This is why it is important to extend the fatigue life of the structure for as long as possible to
save cost on replacement over short periods of time.
Cold expansion works by shielding the hole from these forces by creating a so called zone of
compressive residual stress around it as illustrated by the figure below. The procedure is simple.
After drilling the hole a solid mandrel with a larger diameter then the hole then pull this mandrel
through the hole using a hydraulic puller. When the larger mandrel slips through the hole a
process called plastic deformation happens and the metal around the hole is pre-stressed and

strengthened. The hole now has a zone of residual compressive stress around it and this prevents
cracks from starting.

Figure 1 Cold Expanded hole [1]

The residual stresses created by cold expansion significantly increase fatigue life by reducing the
stress intensity factor and crack growth life by reducing the applied stress ratio at the hole. The
magnitude of the peak residual compressive circumferential stress is about equal to the
compressive yield stress for the material. The compressive stress zone spans one radius to one
diameter from the edge of the hole, for diameters up to 1/2 inch for most materials. A balancing
zone of tensile stresses lies beyond the circumferential compressive stress zone. The Cold
Expansion method is also used to install rivet less nut plates, blind fasteners, bushings, liners,
and fittings in both metal and composite applications. [1]

Literature Review
Over the years different methods have been implemented to carry out cold hole expansion. Four
of these methods widely used in the industry today are discussed in great detail by Yucan et.al
[2]. The first method which is discussed is the Hole edge expansion. This procedure is carried
out by means of a high-hardness tapered indenter or a rigid ball to extrude or hammer the hole
edge under the action of axial force F. During this process the material undergoes plastic
deformation near the edge of the hole which generates a zone of negative compressive residual
stress around the hole edge. However, this procedure has some limitations due to the fact that the
middle part of the hole wall is not directly strengthened, thus limiting the fatigue gain effect
resulting from it. Therefore, this method is not suitable for thick-plate connecting holes, and only
used for strengthening of holes in sheet metal parts. The figure below illustrates the Hole edge
expansion process:

Figure 2 Hole edge expansion [2]

Another popular method used for cold hole expansion is the Direct mandrel expansion. This
method is one of the oldest methods developed to improve the fatigue life in the aviation
industry. In this way, the cold expansion process consists of pushing a pre-lubricated tapered
mandrel through the hole from the entrance side of a specimen and removing it from the other
side (as illustrated in Fig 3. below). The hole is expanded to the extent the severe plastic
deformation occurs in the specimen. Once the mandrel is removed, the surrounding elastic
material attempts to return to its undeformed state, producing a proper distribution of
compressive residual stresses around the fastener hole. This residual stress is useful as it
improves the fatigue life of the material. Since there is direct contact between the hole this
method also helps in making the hole smoother.

Figure 3 Direct mandrel expansion [2]

The third most popular technique is called the Ball expansion (see figure below). The ball
expansion process is carried out by inserting a prelubricated and oversized hard steel ball from
one side of the holed plate, and then followed by the removal of the ball from the other side. Due
to producing a localized interference ring between the steel ball and the hole surface, the friction
is smaller in comparison with the mandrel expansion method. This feature helps in using this
method for improve the fatigue life of small holes on alloy steel plates. Due to producing a

localized residual tensile ring at the entry side of the hole, the beneficial effect on fatigue life
from this method is smaller in comparison with other expansion methods. However, a double
ball expansion can be used to significantly increase the number of cycles the material can endure.

Figure 4 Ball Expansion [2]

The final most popular technique is called "Split sleeve expansion In this technique, a solid
tapered mandrel and an internally lubricated stainless steel split sleeve are utilized. The split
sleeve is placed over the mandrel, and the mandrel/sleeve assembly is then inserted into an
accurately sized hole. Plastic deformation of the material is generated when the part of the
mandrel with a larger diameter moves through the sleeve. When the mandrel is withdrawn from
the sleeve, some elastic recovery can take place, and the split sleeve is removed from the hole
after cold expansion, leaving a permanent enlargement of the hole and a desired compressive
residual stress. Because of the existence of the split in the sleeve, a small raised pip is formed on
the bore of the hole surface. A reaming operation to size the hole accurately is carried out after
cold working which removes the pip and also avoids the occurrence of cracks near the pip.

Figure 5 Split Sleeve Expansion [2]

Since AECC measurements are frequency dependent (less frequency results in more depth) [3] it
is important that the residual stress profile is properly analyzed. This basically means that it is
important to find out at what thickness the specimen has maximum residual stress. This gives us
the frequency range in which the experiments should be conducted in. An experiment conducted
by Zhao et.al [4] shows this residual stress profile.
The cold extrusion experiments were performed on ultrahigh strength steel plates with a
thickness of 4 mm with the diameter of the hole being 6mm. The residual stress profile was
measured using the X-ray measuring method. The test standard which was used was GB77042008. The residual stress around the cold extrusion hole surface of the specimen was determined
by using X-ray stress analyzer of type X-305A. An HVS-1000 Digital Micro Hardness Tester
was used to measure the hardness around the hole surface of the specimen along the radial
direction. The experiment was also simulated using a FE model and the graph comparing the two
results is shown below:

Figure 6 Comparison between FE prediction and measured residual stress [4]

The circular points are the ones resulting from the measurement whereas the triangular points
represent the FE model. As shown in the graph the area of maximum residual stress is around
425MPa and occurs at a thickness of around 1mm. The residual stress around the cold extrusion
hole surface of the specimen was simulated and compared to the experimental measurement
results. Cubic Spline method was used to execute data-fitting in a piecewise fashion, because of
the integration of stress, the simulated stress is a little higher than measured one. However, the
simulated residual stress level and distribution profile showed a good agreement with the
experimental data; this confirms that the FE model is valid and accurate.

Methodology
Due to lack of resources the results displayed are done on comsol. To further simplify the
problem a symmetric study was conducted on half the sample. This is possible due to the fact
that the material is a homogenous one. The figure below illustrates the schematic of the problem
at hand.

Figure 7 Schematic Diagram

Where:
Hcoil= coil height (cm)
Hcd= Horizontal center difference (cm)
Vcd= Vertical center difference (cm)
Ts= sample thickness (cm)
Docd= outer coil diameter (cm)

Dicd = inner coil diameter (cm)


Ds=sample diameter (cm)
Another important factor to consider is the calibration blocks. It is extremely important to
determine whether to use a linear four point calibration or a higher order six point calibration.
For the four point calibration block four different blocks are required with the following
calibration:

1
1
2
2

D1
D2
D1
D2

Where 1=30 (%IACS), 2=34 (%IACS) and D1 , D2 are 1cm and 1.0508cm respectively. The
sample diameters will be in between these two values. The calibration will create a mesh which
is illustrated in the figure below.

Figure 8 Calibration Image

The four exterior points are generated by the calibration blocks and the point in between in an
arbitrary point generated by the sample block. Since the comsol results and the experiments
measure impedance an algorithm is required to convert those impedance values to AECC. Note
in the figure above the conductivity lines as well the length (l) lines are at an arbitrary angle. So
it is necessary to set a reference so that that arbitrary angle is rotated so that its value is 0. The
following figures show the angles that are involved in the mesh (figure 8) and the algorithm that
is used to convert these impedances to AECC.

Figure 9 Mesh with Angles

Figure 10 Impedance to AECC conversion algorithm

For the purpose of this project only the impedance values are calculated and the frequency range
is determined for the four-point linear calibration.
The penetration depth is related on the inspection frequency by the following relation:

= standard penetration depth (mm)


= magnetic permeability (H/mm)
f= inspection frequency (Hz)
=Electrical Conductivity (%IACS)
Based on the equation above the following graph shows the penetration depth with respect to the
frequency where = 1.25x10-6 , = 30,32,34 and f=1-1000000000 (Hz).

Delta vs Frequency
100
10

Delta (mm)

1
0.1
0.01
0
0.00

0.00

1.00

Frequency (Mhz)

Figure 11 Delta vs Frequency

1000.00

Results and discussion


On comsol the parameters mentioned below are set and the simulation is run each time with a
higher diameter (range shown below) to simulate lift-off. The impedance values were the
recorded and a linear regression plot was made to determine the type of calibration to use.
Based on the schematic shown above the probe was placed in six different regions for the first
region the dimensions are
Vcd= 0
Dic=0.75 cm
Doc=0.95cm
Ds= 1-1.0445cm with increments of 0.00635cm
Ts= 1cm
Hcoil= 0.5 cm
Hcd= Dic /2

Real vs Imaginary Impedance


18
17
16

f(x) = - 6.21x + 31.31


R = 1

Imaginary 15
14
13
2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

Real

Figure 12 Real vs Imaginary Impedance plot for 0.079433 (MHz)

2.8

Linear Regression
1.2
1
0.8

R2 0.6
0.4
0.2
0

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

Frequency (MHz)

Figure 13 Linear Regression Plot

Based on the regression graph above for a linear four-point calibration can be implemented in the
regions where the regression is near 1 this. The graph above is desirable because the maximum
residual stress occur for a cold expanded hole at a depth of 1mm which according to fig 11 gives
an approximate value of 0.01 (MHz) so a linear calibration can be applied instead of a more
complicated six-point higher order calibration.
For the second position (concentric):
Vcd= 0
Dic=0.75 cm
Doc=0.95cm
Ds= 1-1.0445cm with increments of 0.00635cm
Ts= 1cm
Hcoil= 0.5 cm
Hcd= 0

Linear Regression
5000000
0
-5000000
-10000000

R2 -15000000
-20000000
-25000000
-30000000
-35000000

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

Frequency (MHz)

Figure 14 Regression plot for second coil position

The graph above is a far more desirable result as here a four-point linear calibration can be
applied throughout. However it is important to note that the probe is right in the center of the
sample so this position may not be accurate in a practical sense for large sample diameters.
For the third position:
Vcd= - Hcoil
Dic=0.75 cm
Doc=0.95cm
Ds= 1-1.0445cm with increments of 0.00635cm
Ts= 1cm
Hcoil= 0.5 cm
Hcd= 0

Linear Regression
200000000
0
-200000000
Linear Regression

R2 -400000000
-600000000
-800000000
-10000000000

0.01

100 10000

Frequecy (MHz)

Figure 15 Linear regression for third position

The graph above has a similar trend as the previous graph which indicates that the vertical centre
difference has minimum effect on the impedance readings.
For the fourth position:
Vcd= - Hcoil
Dic=0.75 cm
Doc=0.95cm
Ds= 1-1.0445cm with increments of 0.00635cm
Ts= 1cm
Hcoil= 0.5 cm
Hcd= Dic /2

Linear Regression
1.2
1
0.8

R2 0.6
0.4
0.2
0

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

Frequency (MHz)

Figure 16 Regression plot for the fourth position

This figure is similar to figure 13 as the probe is now closer to the sample. Again it shows the the
main contribution to the impedance is by how close the probe is to the sample.
For the fifth position:
Vcd= (Ts /2)- Hcoil
Dic=0.75 cm
Doc=0.95cm
Ds= 1-1.0445cm with increments of 0.00635cm
Ts= 1cm
Hcoil= 0.5 cm
Hcd= Dic /2

Linear Regression
1.2
1
0.8

R2 0.6
0.4
0.2
0

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

Frequency (MHz)

Figure 17 Regression plot for the fifth position

This figure further strengthens the conclusion that the impedance is dependent on the closeness
of the probe to the sample. The regions in which the linear four-point calibration are the same as
the other ones in which the probe is close to the sample.
For the sixth and final position:
Vcd= (Ts /2)- Hcoil
Dic=0.75 cm
Doc=0.95cm
Ds= 1-1.0445cm with increments of 0.00635cm
Ts= 1cm
Hcoil= 0.5 cm
Hcd= 0

Linear Regression
20000000
0
-20000000
-40000000

R2

-60000000
-80000000
-100000000
-120000000

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

Frequency (MHz)

Figure 18 Regression plot for the final position

Here the probe has moved away from the sample again which is why it is following this
particular trend which is shown in figures 14 and 15.

Conclusion
Based on the results shown above the most appropriate position for the probe is fourth one as the
linear regression in that position is the closest to one and since the desirable calibration process is
the four-point calibration system. However, a practical experiment has to be conducted to verify
whether or not this measurement technique is suitable or even possible for measuring the residual
stresses in cold expanded holes as lift off in the radial direction has never been done before. Past
research has always used AECC to measure residual stresses in the longitudinal direction.

References
[1]"What is Cold Expansion? Fatigue Technology", Fatiguetech.com. [Online].
Available: http://www.fatiguetech.com/about-cold-expansion.asp. [Accessed:
16- Nov- 2016].
[2]Y. Fu, E. Ge, H. Su, J. Xu and R. Li, "Cold expansion technology of connection holes
in aircraft structures: A review and prospect", Chinese Journal of Aeronautics,
vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 961-973, 2015.
[3]B. Abu-Nabah and P. Nagy, "High-frequency eddy current conductivity
spectroscopy for residual stress profiling in surface-treated nickel-base
superalloys", NDT & E International, vol. 40, no. 5, pp. 405-418, 2007.
[4]C. Zhao, H. Hu, Y. Zhou, Y. Gao, X. Ren and Q. Yang, "Experimental and numerical
investigation of residual stresses around cold extrusion hole of ultrahigh
strength steel", Materials & Design, vol. 50, pp. 78-84, 2013.

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