Management and Leadership Skills Series

PPC
ASME Professional
Practice
Curriculum
Management &
Leadership Skills Series
Volume 11
PPC
ASME Professional Practice Curriculum
The ASME Professional Practice Curriculum:
The ASME PPC is an on-line program of study for engineering students and early
career engineers that will supplement the formal college/university engineering curriculum in helping you be better prepared for entry into and early advancement in
the engineering profession. This book is the printed version of the PPC online.
It is a major aim of ASME to help colleges of engineering guide the development of
students and teach the principles of engineering practice and professionalism without overburdening an already full undergraduate curriculum. The PPC Online is
meant to supplement the formal college/university engineering curriculum and aid
engineering faculty in better preparing graduates for entry into and early advancement in the engineering profession.
The ASME PPC Online is a joint project of the Board on Professional Development
and the Board on Engineering Education and is funded by the ASME Foundation.
Its existence is made possible through the valuable expertise and support of the
following contributors.
Visit us at http://www.professionalpractice.asme.org
2003 - 2009 ASME International. All Rights Reserved.
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The Project Management Series

The Product Management Series
Writing Winning Proposals
The Engineering Design Series
Sustainability Series
Business & Legal Series
Entrepreneurial Series
Career Transition Series
Sales and Marketing for Engineers
Communications Series
Management & Leadership Skills Series
Industry Series
PPC
Management & Leadership Skills Series

Volume 11
Management Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Team Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Diversity in the Workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Leadership Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Leadership Styles & Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Critical Thinking & Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . 99
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Part 1: Communicating Effectively
Part 2: Motivating Employees
15
Part 3: Managing Performance
17
Part 4: Diversity: The Changing World of Work
21
Part 5: Managing Meetings
22
Part 6: Managing Time
26
Part 7: Conclusion
28
Resources
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Introduction
Overview
Educational Goals
Advancing from a non-managerial position to management can be a difficult transition. While going from full-time engineering work into management is a common
career path., the skills required to be an effective manager are different from those
of a good engineer. Unfortunately, the conventional wisdom that the best predictor
of future success is past success is useless here. Past success in a nonmanagerial role has limited, though important, value in predicting how well someone will perform as a manager. This is simply because managerial work is different from non-managerial work.
Before becoming a manager, much of your work has probably been technical in
nature, requiring expertise in your specific engineering function, and perhaps a
broader knowledge of engineering as a whole. You also needed a conceptual
sense of the interdependencies of the various knowledge and skills areas in producing the desired outcome or output. As a manager, however, you will be expected to place more emphasis on human behavior and have a more highly developed set of interpersonal skills. These include skills such as listening, providing
constructive feedback on employee's performance, competency in dealing with
difficult people, and sometimes orchestrating complicated team dynamics. All this
takes place while you continue to meet your own personal work goals and guide
the people you manage towards theirs.
After completing this

module, you should be able
to:
Understand the basics

of effective communication
Identify and use appropriate motivators for
employees
Develop a personal
plan for ongoing performance management
Plan a meeting
Choose techniques to
better manage your
time.
Your role as a manager will also require that you become a strong conceptual thinker, with ability to analyze unstructured situations and to interpret information needed for effective decision making. Much of what you will be
confronted with will be characterized by the ambiguity and complexity inherent in human interactions, compared to
technical certainties. You will be dealing with a diversity of talents, needs, goals, styles and cultures as you grow in
your role as a manager.
Some sage once quipped, "Yesterday I couldn't even spell manager. Today, I are one!" This pretty well sums up
the dismay of many who are taking on the multiple roles and responsibilities of managing people within an organizational setting for the first time. Though that reaction may be somewhat expected, the good news is that there are
many tools available to help you conquer that initial response. The information here lays the groundwork for an
effective, productive management experience.
This module will increase your confidence in approaching this new role with a heightened sense of your own abilities to apply positive, productive behaviors and help you make informed choices in navigating the sometimes
choppy seas of managerial responsibility. In this module, we'll focus on the human relations skills of communicating, motivating and managing employees, and dealing with diversity in the workplace. We'll then discuss the more
technical skills of managing meetings and your time effectively. It will provide you with a look at some of the key
tools and concepts that are a part of any good manager's repertoire in today's increasingly diverse and increasingly
global companies.
Let's get started!
What is a Manager?
In the most simplistic sense, a manager is someone who gets things done! Chances are you are not really new to
the game of management. You've managed your academic success, your career up to now and, importantly, you
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are probably engaged in some process, some project, where you are expected to
manage at least a portion of it. Just because you haven't had the job title doesn't
mean that you have not had to develop and rely upon many of the skills that are essential to good management. The challenge is to break these skills down, scrutinize
them, understand them, and then learn how to apply the appropriate ones to the
complex task of managing others. Some of good management could well be classified as "common sense," but truly effective management involves much more. Common sense is required, but so are some concrete skills that can be learned. This
leads us to a refinement of the definition of manager: someone who gets things
done through others!
Good management is linked directly to the overall success of the organization, and
is essentially about two things-namely, managing the task and managing the work
lives of the people who accomplish the task. The effective manager knows how to
do both at the same time. As a manager, you will be challenged to be effective-that
is, doing the "right job"-and to be efficient-that is, doing the "job right." The module
will show you how to do them both simultaneously and to do them well.
Management Functions
Henri Fayol (1841-1925), a turn-of-the-century French engineer and management theorist who worked in a mining
and metallurgical company, put forth the notion that management is essentially about the following four things:
1. Planning
2. Organizin
3. Controlling
4. Leading
Planning is the decision on the courses of action to be taken at any given point. It involves gathering information,
generating alternatives, and then making an informed decision based upon the information available to you.
Organizing concerns how you use all the resources at your disposal: people, materials, information and organizational systems.
Controlling is about managing performance. It begins with imparting a clear understanding of goals, roles, responsibilities and desired outcomes. Once this has been accomplished, you as manager can follow what has been
termed the 80-20 rule, which states that eighty percent of your success is determined by 20 percent of what you
do. Because you don't have the time, resources, nor perhaps even the requisite skills to do everything, the baseline clarity you have established at the front end of the project allows you to select the twenty-percent of your overall responsibilities that you know you do well. You then trust those you manage to achieve the other 80 percent.
That's the part you will measure and control.
Leading requires that you be able to clearly articulate what you expect from those you manage. Motivating them
towards delivering their best is at the heart of leading. This requires that you be an effective communicator. We will
discuss that later in the module.
A word of caution: There is no one best way to manage. Good managers come in a variety of personalities, backgrounds, appearances, styles and mind-sets. Each brings to bear unique personal experiences and skills. The
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more you know about good management, the more you are able to select those tools and approaches that align
with your own uniqueness and are, therefore, most likely to make you a successful manager. The most important
thing to consider is that your job as a manager is centered on people, and your own success will largely depend on
the extent that you value them, develop them, motivate them, and celebrate them.
Becoming a successful manager will require that you develop three broad categories of skills:
1. Conceptual
2. Technical
3. Human Relations
Conceptual skills refer to your ability to see the big picture. In other words, you will need to understand how each
action, each task, each deliverable, feeds into the ultimate outputs of your organization.
Technical skills are probably the ones that, as a new manager, you are most familiar with. As an entry-level manager, you are likely to have a closer working knowledge of the technology and skills required by those who report
to you. You may be called upon to assist them in either acquiring these skills or utilizing them to achieve the desired outcomes. As you move up the organizational chain, a direct, hands-on knowledge of technical skills becomes less necessary.
Human relations skills are the glue that holds everything else together. You must be able to get along well with
others, communicate effectively, be a good coach, deliver constructive feedback, guide performance, and sometimes even make difficult choices about whether a particular individual should continue on the team.
Communicating Effectively
Overview
Among the many human relations skills, the ability to communicate clearly and effectively is crucial to your success as a manager. For a lengthier discussion of communication, you may refer to the PPC module Communication Skills, http://
www.professionalpractice.asme.org/communications/commskills/index.htm.
Good communication skills help achieve your desired results when you:
1. Write or speak to individuals or groups;
2. Train, instruct, and motivate your employees;
3. Convey information and views to your peers or managers; or
4. Brainstorm, debate and develop ideas.
Remember, everyone communicates all the time. Even when you say nothing, you
are communicating something. When working toward effective communication, it is important to understand what
impact the various components of communication have on your success as a manager. What is it that makes one
way to communicate better than another? There are times when we get a reaction that we dont expect. What
causes that? When we break down the components, we can see that there are three major elements:
1. Verbal, the words we choose;
2. Vocal, the way we say them, such as tone, pitch or volume of voice;
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3. Visual, body language, facial expression, eye movement, gesturing.
Each of these components provides a part of the overall effectiveness of communication. If you are able to use all
three parts, you will have the greatest chance to be understood. When you are able to use only one or two, you
run a greater risk of being misunderstood.
Spoken information is most effective when you:
Want to exchange information;

Are trying to solve problems;
Expect or desire questions or clarifications; or
Want to hear the listeners reaction and see his body language so you can respond accordingly.
Written communication is most effective when you:
Have specific details that must be communicated;

Want to get the same information to a variety of people; or
Want to have a record of your information, instructions, etc.
Selecting a Communications Style

Various communication style best fits different situations:
Directive communication tells others a fact, instruction, etc. (e.g., Do this, The deadline is). It should be
clear and goal-oriented. It doesnt necessarily require response or encourage participation. Directive communication gives your point more emphasis by making it clear when youre directing and not suggesting.
Important: Review your directive communications before delivering them to insure clarity and avoid offense or unintended meanings.
Read e-mails and memos before sending them;

Ask someone you trust to review sensitive e-mails and memos before you send them;
Outline spoken directions before you give them, to be sure that all your points are covered;
Ask for questions to make sure that your directive communications are understood.
Consultative communication implies that both parties are collaborating (e.g., Lets see if we can, Do you think
we should), It emphasizes we instead of I, it uses questions, and it encourages participation. Consultative
communication usually makes others more likely to pay attention and to cooperate. It shows respect for the knowledge, views and contributions of others. Finally, it motivates others to pay close attention to what you say or write,
so that they can form an appropriate response.
Plan your consultative communications:
Know what you want to achieve;

Question others directly to seek their input;
Show respect for the contributions of others, even if you disagree.
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Communicating via e-mail:
Probably the form of communication that is most likely to be misunderstood is one that, in the often frantic day of a
manager, you will use most often: e-mail. In deciding to communicate via e-mail there are three things you'll want
to consider:
1. What to send: First, be sure that the message you're sending is appropriate to send in writing. Remember, email is a permanent record and can be forwarded to others and can be used as evidence in a legal sense. There
are informal messages and formal messages. It's the latter that can be most misunderstood because of the nature
of appearing to "speak" in absolutes. Bear in mind, however, that informal doesn't equate to "vague" any more than
"formal" necessarily equates to "absolute" or "definitive."
2. How to word the message: Because you are not there to interpret the visual clues that might help you gauge the
impact of your message, an ambiguous e-mail can lead to misunderstanding. The trick is to word your message
clearly and with the perspective of the receiver in mind. Try to word your e-mail so that the message is delivered as
you intend, regardless of the mood or circumstances of the receiver.
3. Who should receive it: Finally, before sending it, take some time to consider who should get your e-mail. Include
only those people who actually need to receive the information contained in your message. You can do a selfassessment of your communication skills.
Communications Skills Inventory List
Read through the list of activities and decide whether you are utilizing each one enough or whether you need to do
it more or less. Mark an X for each item in the appropriate blank. Some activities that you feel are important many
not be listed. You can add those items in the blank spaces.
Present
Performance
Sufficient
1.
Making clear statements
2.
Being brief and concise
3.
Being forceful
4.
Drawing others out
5.
Listening alertly
6.
Checking out assumptions
7.
Writing clearly & effectively
Need to
Do More
Need to
Do Less
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Communications Tips
PLAN your communications:
Know what you want to accomplish.
Outline your plans and points in a clear, orderly manner.
Keep your communication brief and simple.
Limit your topics to avoid information overload.
Dont make assumptions about the knowledge your audience may already have. They may not.
Consider in advance how your communication will be received and how to offset any negative reactions.
CHOOSE your words carefully:
Use conversational language in speech and in writing.
Phrase things positively (Do), rather than negatively (Dont).
Present instructions in a step-by-step format.
Explain the why, not just the what.
Restate your key points for emphasis.
Minimize use of jargon that may be misinterpreted or misunderstood.
CHECK for understanding:
Encourage questions and feedback.
Follow up to test understanding.
Effective Listening
"We were given two ears but only one mouth, because listening is twice as hard as talking."
Expressing our wants, feelings, thoughts and opinions clearly and effectively is only half of the communication
process needed for interpersonal effectiveness. The other half is listening and understanding what others communicate to us. If there is one skill near the top of your "manager's preparedness list," it's active listening. Active listening is not simply being quiet and maintaining an attentive demeanor; it involves the very real task of focusing not
only on what's being expressed, but the meaning "beneath" the words as well.
When a person decides to communicate with another person, the purpose is to fulfill a need. The person wants
something, feels discomfort, and/or has feelings or thoughts about something. In deciding to communicate, people
select the method or code that they believe will effectively deliver the message to the other person. The code used
to send the message can be either verbal or nonverbal. When the other person receives the coded message, they
go through the process of decoding or interpreting it for understanding and meaning. Effective communication exists between two people when the receiver interprets and understands the sender's message in the same way the
sender intended it.
Sources of Difficulty from the Speaker:
Voice volume too low to be heard;

Making the message too complex, either by including too many unnecessary details or too many issues;
Getting lost, forgetting your point or the purpose of the interaction;
Body language or nonverbal elements contradicting or interfering with the verbal message, such as smiling
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when anger or hurt is being expressed;

Paying too much attention to how the other person is receiving the message, or how the person might react;
and
Using a very private code or unconventional method for delivering the message.
Sources of Difficulty from the Listener:
Being preoccupied and not listening;

Being so interested in what you want to say that you listen mainly to find an opening to get the floor;
Formulating or imagining your own rebuttal to what the speaker is saying;
Imposing your own personal beliefs onto what is being said;
Evaluating and making judgments about the speaker or the message;
Not asking for clarification when you know that you do not understand.
The Three Basic Listening Modes

1. Competitive or Combative Listening occurs when we are more interested in promoting our own point of view than in understanding or exploring someone else's
view. Debating falls into this category. We either listen for openings to take the floor,
or for flaws or weak points that we can attack. As we pretend to pay attention, we
are impatiently waiting for an opening, or internally formulating our rebuttal and planning the devastating comeback that will destroy their argument and make us the
victor.
2. In Passive or Attentive Listening, we are genuinely interested in hearing and understanding the other person's point of view. We are attentive and passively listen.
We assume that we heard and understand correctly, but stay passive and do not
verify it.
3. Active or Reflective Listening is the single most useful and important listening
mode. In active listening, we are also genuinely interested in understanding what the
other person is thinking, feeling, wanting or what the message means, and we are
active in checking out our understanding before we respond with our own new message. We restate or paraphrase our understanding of their message and reflect it
back to the sender for verification. This verification or feedback process is what distinguishes active listening and makes it effective.
Levels of Communication
Listening effectively is difficult because people vary in their communication skills and in how clearly they express
themselves. In addition, they often have different needs, wants and purposes for interacting. The different types of
interaction or levels of communication also add to the difficulty. These are:
1. Clichs
2. Facts
3. Thoughts and beliefs
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4. Feelings and emotions

As a listener, we attend to the level that we think is most important. Failing to recognize which level is most relevant and important to the speaker can lead to a kind of crossed wires where the two people are not on the same
wavelength. The purpose of the contact and the nature of our relationship with the person will usually determine
what level or levels are appropriate and important for the particular interaction. Note the different requirements in
the following situations:
Youre lost, and you ask a stranger for directions;

Your child comes to you crying;
You are in trouble and someone offers to help;
You are attending a product review meeting, and the project is behind schedule;
Opposing council is cross-examining you in court.
If we dont address the appropriate elements, we will not be very effective. We can actually make the situation
worse. For example: if your direct report is telling you about his or her fears about layoff rumors and you ignore that
and focus on the need to be even more productive without acknowledging the feelings, he or she will likely become
even more upset and less able to work effectively.
To emphasize once again, there is a real distinction between merely hearing the words and actually listening for
the message. When we listen effectively we understand what the person is thinking and/or feeling, from the other
persons own perspective. It is as if we were standing in the other persons shoes, seeing through the others eyes
and listening through that person's ears. Our own viewpoint may be different and we may not necessarily agree
with the person, but as we listen, we understand from the other's perspective. To listen effectively, we must be actively involved in the communication process, and not just listening passively.
We all act and respond on the basis of our understanding. All too often there is a misunderstanding that neither of
us is aware of. With active listening, if a misunderstanding has occurred, it will be identified immediately through
the feedback process, and the communication can be clarified before any further misunderstanding occurs.
LISTENING TIPS
Depending on the purpose of the interaction and your understanding of what is relevant, you should reflect
back the other persons:
Account of the facts;
Thoughts and beliefs;
Feelings and emotions;
Wants, needs or motivation;
Hopes and expectations.

Dont interrupt the speaker.
Try to determine the speakers key message.
Dont do or think about something else.
Wait until the speaker has finished to form your response.
Ask questions about anything thats unclear.
Restate key points to be sure you have understood.
Respond to the speakers feelings and attitudes as well as the message.
Be empathetic and nonjudgmental.
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Benefits of Active Listening
Sometimes people just need to be heard and acknowledged before they are willing to consider an alternative
or soften their position.
It is often easier for a person to listen and consider another persons position when he knows the other is listening and considering his position.
It helps people to spot the flaws in their own reasoning when they hear it played back without criticism.
It also helps identify areas of agreement so the areas of disagreement are put in perspective and are diminished rather than magnified.
Reflecting back the basics of what we hear each other say helps give each a chance to become aware of the
different information levels below the surface. This helps to bring issues into the open where they can be more
readily resolved.
Become a more effective listener. Practice the active listening techniques and make active listening one of your
primary communication skills.
Motivating Employees
News Flash! Standing over someone and pronouncing in silvery tones words that
on the surface seem to convey high praise, but just beneath the surfaceand really,
really apparent to your employeethat its your way or the highway, is not motivation. This type of command-and-control style is a passing relic. Oh, youll get your
short-term objectives, but the long-term impact will be resentment, hostility, and demotivation.
Frederick Herzberg, a behavioral scientist, developed a motivation theory specifically for the workplace. He called it the Motivator-Hygiene Theory. Its divided into
two parts and stresses that some job factors lead to satisfaction while others can
only prevent satisfaction. Herzbergs 1959 book, Motivation to Work, originally focused on 200 Pittsburgh engineers and accountants.
Herzberg called the elements of work that are necessary but not sufficient for employee motivation hygiene or maintenance factors. If these are lacking or seriously
flawed, then it will be difficult for an employee to feel satisfied on the job, no matter
how cool the job itself is. Hygiene factors include:
Pay
Status
Security
Working Conditions
Fringe Benefits
Policies and Administrative Processes
Interpersonal Relations
Obviously, as a manager, you will be able to control some of these factors, and others you will not be able to control. Where there is dissatisfaction around elements of the workplace that you cannot directly impact, there are
nevertheless things that you can do. The following suggestions are ways of working through some of this dissatisfaction:
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1. Acknowledge the situation: In some instances, the mere fact that you pay attention, acknowledge the situation, and discuss it will go a long way towards eliminating the dissatisfaction.
2. Communicate: Explaining why certain situations have occurred and discussing it with staff provides understanding and often alleviates dissatisfaction.
3. Work toward a solution together: Meeting with your direct reports and jointly charting a course are important for minimizing dissatisfaction.
4. Take action: Sometimes taking action and getting results are the only ways to satisfy an employee. If action is not a realistic option, you should communicate this fact.
Herzberg believed that in a work environment, attention to these hygiene factors relates to the context of a job
and will tend to eliminate job dissatisfaction if available in proper form for the individuals. However, though they
can, in the short term, facilitate job satisfaction, they do not by themselves act as motivators. For this, you need
the presence of motivation factorsthings that you as a manager can do to meet your employees need to feel that
each can achieve self-esteem and confidence on the job. These motivation factors are:
Achievement, or assignments that have defined parameters and success metrics

Responsibility
Meaningfulness in the work assigned
Recognition for accomplishments
Opportunities for growth and advancement
An important thing to consider is that what motivates you may not be what motivates your employees. Everyone is
motivated differently, and there will be a mix of motivational factors among your staff. Some will be motivated by
meaningfulness, while others will respond more to recognition. Your job will be to do whatever it takes to provide
opportunities and assignments for your employees that will tap into their personal motivational factors whenever
possible.
Some helpful guidelines:
Be mindful of selecting motivators, and not de-motivators.

Dont rely on just one form of recognition. Different people are motivated by different rewards. (Different
strokes...)
Dont rely on just one form of motivation for a consistently excellent individual performer; the recognition will
lose its value as a motivator.
Be cautious about giving added work as a form of recognition, because some people may construe this as
punishment, not reward, or wont be able to sustain consistently high performance because of increased responsibility.
Use promised raises and bonuses sparingly, because you may not be able to deliver on these. Besides,
money may not motivate some employees as much as other rewards (e.g., time off).
Select a form of recognition that the employee will value. For instance, some people may be pleased to receive a
coffee mug with company logo on it; others will think its trivial, and therefore de-motivating,
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3
Managing Performance
Overview
Your primary responsibility as a manager is to achieve results through others. Motivating employees is an important component of your managerial responsibilities, but
it doesnt tell the whole story. You must also manage their performance. The benefits to be gained from effectively managing their performance are tremendous; employees are the most important assets of your company.
Performance management is the ongoing process of working with your direct reports
in a partnership for the purpose of helping them (and you!) to be successful. Its
centered on constant communication for the benefit of the organization and the individual, and is an ongoing process punctuated by formal periodic review sessions.
Since the formal performance appraisal can occur only about four times a year, and is more commonly, an annual
event, it should be used in combination with on-going informal feedback. In this way, nothing in the formal appraisal process will come as a surprise to the employee.
These informal sessions provide an opportunity to discuss performance in a routine manner. Problems can be discussed before it is too late to fix them. In addition, your direct reportsnot to mention you, the manager---become
comfortable participating in these discussions simply because they are part of routine, frequently occurring discussions.
The goal of performance management is to facilitate the achievement of individual goals that ultimately impact organizational and bottom-line objectives. Once youve reviewed this section, you might want to go back and familiarize yourself with your companys system for managing employee performance. Youll find that the tools presented in this section may be applied to any system, but it is important that you consistently follow the policies and
procedures of your companys own performance management process.
For a new manager, the most difficult step in performance management can be taking the first stepovercoming
resistance to what can feel like an overwhelming process. It becomes a far more manageable process when it is
shared with the employee. In this case, the managers responsibilities are:
Initiating the conversations about the performance management plan;

Identifying the most critical objectives;
Insuring that responsibilities for work are fairly distributed.
The employees responsibilities include:
Clearly understanding what is expected;

Letting you know when the objectives are unrealistic and why;
Establishing his or her own specific objectives within the guidelines established by the manager;
Reflecting on and writing personal developmental objectives.
Setting Objectives
An important element in performance planning is the setting of objectives that reflect consensus between you and
your direct report. These need to be clearly stated targets with as much specificity as possible. An effective way of
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establishing well-written, thoughtful objectives is the "SMART" approach:
SPECIFIC
MEASURABLE
ATTAINABLE
RELEVANT
TRACKABLE
Exactly what is expected from the employee? This

should be stated clearly so that both you and your
direct report will know what needs to be done.
How will your direct report know that he or she has
achieved the desired outcome? What does the measurement indicate? How will you ascertain the results?
Is the objective realistic, attainable, and appropriate
for the individual in that position?
Are the desired results relevant for the individual,
given knowledge, skills, experience, internal and external conditions, etc.?
How will progress be tracked? Is there a time frame
for achievement?
Record Keeping
In most companies, the human resources department maintains an official file for all
employees. You, the manager, need to keep a different kind of file, containing all
the information for your direct report that affects the performance evaluations, including the following:
Documentation of all conversations regarding performance;

Written records of comments from customers (internal and external) about the
individuals performance;
Documentation of observations you have made of the individual;
Letters of commendation
E-mailed comments on performance or work;
Comments from your own manager about the individuals performance.
Coaching
An essential component of performance management--and a skill that you will want to master--is coaching. What,
exactly, is coaching? Coaching is a powerful mechanism for maintaining and improving performance, developing
new skills and enthusiasm, and enhancing job satisfaction.
Coaching benefits both you and your direct report. Informal one-on-one coaching takes little time, but provides substantial payoffs in performance and morale. It helps the struggling performers who may require aid in mastering
skills; they benefit from encouragement in their efforts. It also assists average performers by providing new direction for higher goal achievement. And it provides needed recognition for high performers so that it's clear that the
manager notices and values their individual contributions.
Effective coaching is interactive. You, the manager, discuss and advise; you don't lecture and berate. You encourage participation by asking questions; seeking insights and collaboration from your direct report, listening actively,
and paying attention to body language. Importantly, you should follow up by noting improvements. Continue to give
feedback to let your employees know that their work is valued. Coaching can be one of your most satisfying roles
as a manager. This one-on-one guidance, direction, and recognition helps your direct reports know that you notice
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and care about their performance and want to help them succeed.
Related to and sometimes confused with coaching is mentoring. In the business setting, the goal of mentoring is to
foster a climate for an employee to reach his or her full potential by helping to identify and eliminate barriers to effective performance and career success. This is particularly true for new hires entering an organization. Some
companies have established formal mentoring programs as a management strategy for developing employees. For
an introduction to mentoring, check out the PPC module "Mentoring," at http://www.professionalpractice.asme.org/
transition/mentoring/index.htm.
COACHING TOOLS
Observe continuously what employees do and how they do it.
Take time to provide daily feedback on performance.
Let employees know what they did well and what could be improved as soon as possible after an observed incident or behavior.
Guide employees by identifying not just the specific desired behavior but also the desired results.
Give your employees the benefit of your experience and expertise.
Encourage employees to share their experience and insights.
Be willing to explore options.
Show tact when coaching for improved performance.
Work with top performers to keep up high standards and find new challenges.
Use coaching to improve and develop your employees, not to punish.
Be positive about the job, the employee and the organization.
Ask questions and listen actively.
Delegating
As you master the skills associated with good management and get a stronger grasp of your new responsibilities
as a manager, you can begin to evaluate which work you must be directly responsible for and, just as important,
what you can delegate to others. As you begin to delegate effectively, you provide others the opportunity to grow,
develop, and be recognized as individual contributors to your organizations goals. Delegation is a key performance management tool because it will help you to improve performance of your direct reports, your department and
your organization.
There are many benefits of effective delegation. Along with the personal benefits you derive from reducing your
own work load and the attendant stresses, there are also many business reasons to learn to delegate. Some of
these are:
More work can be accomplished;

Direct reports become more involved;
Remote locations can be more effectively managed;
It contributes to the development of direct reports;
It builds a high-performance team;
It draws upon the strengths of the entire organization;
Work is done at the lowest possible cost in staff time.
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What Tasks Can Be Effectively Delegated?
Delegation takes practice. Knowing what kinds of tasks can be delegated is the first step on the learning curve. In
fact, it is the key. Here are some suggestions on the kinds of tasks that can be delegated:
Tasks closely related to the work employees are already doing;

Tasks with clearly defined procedures and end results;
Repetitive tasks that fit into the normal work flow;
Tasks that enable employees to develop themselves;
Routine and necessary tasks including detail work and information gathering;
Work where others are more qualified, such as proofing, research, and specialized technical work.
It is important to realize that not everything can or should be delegated. However, every new manager needs to
watch for opportunities to delegate and do it whenever possible. Here are some tips for effective delegation.
Tips for Effective Delegating
1. Don't fall into the 'I can do it quicker and better' syndrome
2. Clarify the task in your own mind.
3. Write an outline or sketch of what you want.
4. Enlist the help of the person youre delegating to.
5. Get your employee to write out any instructions that you give verbally.
6. Write out your own instructions in full detail.
7. Don't be a perfectionist.
8. Put the date and time the work is due on your requests.
9. Log tasks on a job tracking sheet.
10. Follow up.
11. Acknowledge good jobs, no matter how small.
12. Allow employees to use their own methods.
Discipline and Termination

One of the most uncomfortableand often the least understoodaspects of managing is how to use discipline and, at times, how to terminate the employment relationship. The most important thing to remember about discipline is that it should be
a corrective measure, not a punitive one. Knowing the rules and standards in use
by your companythe offenses that warrant disciplinary procedures and the steps
that will be followed---is important if your are to administer discipline fairly and consistently. Also, it is important to apprise your direct reports of these policies and procedures so that they may make informed choices regarding workplace behaviors
and performance.
Make all your employees subject to the same rules and disciplinary procedures.
Dont overlook some employees offenses or come down particularly hard on others.
This also means not using discipline to get even or to make a point that should be
made through corrective feedback and coaching. Make sure you clearly and carefully document any disciplinary action. Documentation is critical to tracking behavioral turnaround as well as in presenting a defensible scenario when termination
may be warranted. Again, documentation protects you, the company and your employee.
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Bear in mind that it is illegal to discipline employees or retaliate because they:
Complain about working conditions, safety or wage issues;

Carry their concerns about you to Human Resources;
File a claim against you or the company alleging some managerial misstep or organizational infraction;
Participate in union activities; or
Take time to serve in the military reserves or on a jury.
Remember also to make discipline appropriate to the infraction in terms of its seriousness, prior conduct, and
consistency in comparison with similar infractions. When an employee has done something that warrants discipline, speak with that employee as soon after the offense as possible. This will go a long way towards minimizing
any perception that the discipline is coming for no apparent reason or that a particular behavior has been sanctioned because there was no immediate repercussion.
Below are a few types of rules that protect employees from harm and keep the workplace functioning productively
and in compliance with the law. Enforcing them protects everyone, employer and employees alike.
Safety rules that prevent accident and injuries;

Rules that ban illegal and dangerous activities, such as working under the influence of alcohol or drugs; violence, etc.;
Behavioral rules that prohibit discrimination, sexual harassment, and other offensive and sometimes illegal
practices;
Work standards that hold all employees to the same standards.
Progressive Discipline
Most companies have some kind of progressive discipline procedure designed to correct dysfunctional employee
behavior. These procedures are generally communicated in the employee handbook or may be available for review in the human resources department. Follow your corrective discipline procedures carefully, demonstrating
that you take the rules seriously and make it clear to your employee that you are committed to helping him or her
turn around negative behaviors. However, never promise that correcting the problem will automatically save the
employees job. You may later have other reasons for discharging the employee.
Diversity: The Changing World of Work
There is a profound shift taking place in the corporate mindset. Employment equity is no longer simply a matter of
conscience; it is a way of insuring a competitive advantage in the global marketplace.
The following are among important workforce diversity trends that you as a manager should be aware of:
According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the number of African-American, Asian- American, Hispanic, and
American Indians working in this country made up only 7.6% of the workforce fifty years ago. By 2000, that
percentage more than doubled to 16%.
Women are slowly commanding more leadership roles in the workplace, though they still only account for
15.7% of corporate officers, according to the most recent findings of Catalyst, the New York-based nonprofit
research organization that focuses on women in business.
Beyond race, ethnicity, gender, and age, there are more cultural groups that cannot be ignored. Gays and lesbians, people with disabilities and older workers also represent critical workforce resources and potential markets for todays companies.
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More information on diversity can be found in the PPC module Workplace Diversity, http://www.professionalpractice.asme.org/communications/diversity/index.htm
The value of a diverse workforce lies in how effectively it is managed. Managing
diversity is all about creating an environment in which everyone can achieve full potential. It is about creating an organization geared toward strong business performance that values and supports a broad range of abilities, talents and perspectives. .
Some Helpful Hints About Diversity
Diversity values differences, but doesnt stereotype.
Stereotypes tend to be limiting and are often negative (e.g., lazy, indecisive; good at details but not the big picture);
They fail to recognize individual differences;
They usually reflect lack of exposure to members of stereotyped groups.
Diversity is not about Affirmative Action or a Quota System.
Diversity accepts peoples differences rather than focusing on them;

It applies to all members of the workforce, including white males;
Diversity creates a level playing field for all employees.
Employers benefit from the differences of a diverse workforce.
Individuals with different backgrounds may contribute different perspectives to a project, not lower abilities;
Different experiences, skills, approaches, talents, and perspectives benefit all organizational functions;
Diversity enables employers to make the most of employees differences rather than worrying about them.
Managing Meetings
Overview
One of your major responsibilities as a manager will be facilitating meetings. Like it or not, we live in a society of
meetings. The reasons for holding meetings are as plentiful as the number of hours spent actually meeting. Research shows that the average individual in our society will sit through nine thousand hours of meetings in a lifetimeover 375 days, more than a yearand that organizations will spend millions of dollars on these meetings.
For a complete coverage of meeting management, please refer to the PPC module Conducting Effective Meetings at
http://www.professionalpractice.asme.org/communications/meetings/index.htm
Meetings are a critical tool for getting things done in your organization. When done well, they can save you and
the organization a great deal of time and resources. But the truth is, most of us tend to anticipate meetings with
dread, and in many cases, for good reason. Some frequently voiced complaints regarding meetings are:
Unnecessary and a waste of time;

No real agenda;
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No clear reason for the meeting;

Lots of politicking and territorial squabbles;
Insufficient planning;
Absence of individuals essential to any real decision-making.
The good news is that there are techniques you can learn to plan, organize and conduct productive meetings, to maximize participation, prevent problems and complaints, and achieve your desired outcomes.
There are many kinds of meetings. Among the most common are:
Brainstorming meetings;
Planning meetings;
Information sharing meetings; and
Debriefings.
Every meeting, besides having a task with desired outcomes, can also be viewed as having two dimensions: process and content. Attention to both is essential for a successful meeting.
Content refers to what is talked about at the meeting, the agenda topics, information, opinions, decisions, action and plans--- the task of the meeting.
Process refers to how the meeting proceeds, how the group works together to accomplish the task and to build
and maintain cohesiveness---the method for the meeting.
There are five essential keys to leading meetings:

1. Planningall the things you must do to prepare for the meeting. There are nine steps to planning your
meeting. (See below.);
2. Startinghow you set the tone and create the climate for the meeting;
3. Focusingkeeping the meeting on track;
4. Facilitatingthe things you can do to involve participants, be supportive, resolve conflict, and manage differences; and
5. Concludingthe way you end the meeting to assure that participants feel satisfied with the outcomes and
that follow-up actions will be carried out.
Planning
Thorough planning is critical to the success of your meeting. "Failing to plan is planning to fail," as the axiom
states. At first, working through the nine steps listed below may seem like a tedious process, but soon you will become accustomed to preparing for a meeting this way, and the steps will become automatic.
The Nine Steps of Planning a Meeting:
1. Clarify the task of the meeting
2. Define the desired outcomes
3. Design the sequence of meeting activities
4. Determine who should attend, roles and ground rules
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5. Decide when to meet, when to end
6. Determine logistics, equipment, and administrative matters, and notify participants
7. Complete the agenda
8. Communicate the agenda to participants
9. Set up the meeting room
It's important that the purpose of the meeting-what you want to achieve-- be determined and clearly communicated
to all attendees. Include the purpose in your agenda. Written objectives can help organize the meeting. Plan and
communication the time and location for the meeting well enough in advance that if there are any scheduling conflicts, these may be addressed.
Determining the right people to attend a given meeting is at the heart of the success of the meeting. Invite only
those who have a contribution to make or who will benefit from or be impacted by the information shared. Diversity
of viewpoint is also essential. A room full of heads all nodding at the same scripted moment doesn't tend to yield
truly creative results. Finally, consider the size of the group. Too many people becomes unwieldy; too few produces sparse debate and a scarcity of ideas.
Focusing and Facilitating

One of the major problems in leading a meeting is keeping it focused on the task. Fortunately, there are many
ways to assure that the meeting adheres to the agenda and to deal with irrelevancies, tangents, interruptions, etc.
1) Lead your meeting through the agenda. Remember, it's your meeting and you are
the leader. Use a style of leadership appropriate to the task, the situation and the
willingness and ability of the participants.
2) Introduce each agenda item individually. Designate time allotted and desired outcomes.
3) Keep the discussion on task
4) Focus attention by using charts, overheads, easels or other visual aids
5) Maintain a "Bin List" of important items not relevant to the present discussion
6) At the end of each agenda item, briefly: a. Summarize what was accomplished and/or decided; b. Identify unfinished business and what to do; c. Check for clarity and agreement.
Dealing with Counter-Productive Behavior

Most meetings have at least one: that person who simply will not stay on task or allow the meeting to progress
along a steady path of problem-solving and decision-making. Here are some techniques that will help minimize the
strain that counterproductive behavior can impose on your meeting:
Keep calm and feel assertive;
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Use active listening techniques; paraphrase; summarize;

Look for the value of the input and acknowledge it;
Refer to the ground rules, agenda, tasks, and/or desired outcomes and indicate that the behavior appears to
be taking the group away from its task or is counter to the ground rules. Ask the individual to describe how the
behavior relates to the task at hand;
Use a Bin List to record an irrelevant topic;
Describe the behavior and how it disrupts. Use an I statement: When you keep interrupting, I feel frustrated, because we are trying to finish our task today;
Ask for cooperation and state what you want;
Interrupt the meeting to ask for process observations from the group (e.g., How might this meeting be more
effective? or How does (the counterproductive behavior) hinder or help this meeting?
As a last resort, discuss the behavior in private.
Managing Differences and Resolving Conflict

Differences of opinion, of world-view and of style, can drive a meeting in two different directions: (1) towards incredibly creative and rich-problem solving; (2) or towards total chaos. You want the former. The latter can be avoided, or at least controlled, by applying the following techniques:
Encourage diverse views to improve quality and creativity;

Be sure that minority points of view are heard;
Focus on ideas rather than personalities;
Suggest that each speaker paraphrase the previous speaker before presenting
his or her own viewpoint;
Set aside a special meeting to deal directly with any conflict;
Learn and teach the group positive methods for resolving conflict or negotiating differences.
Resolving Conflict
Define common ground, areas of agreement, common goals;

Isolate points of disagreement, asking each side to make clear statements and paraphrase everything that is said;
Brainstorm or research alternatives to reach agreed-on goals or common ground and diminish differences; allow sufficient time for alternatives to be generated and discussed;
Decide by consensus on suitable solutions and actions;
Plan for evaluation of ideas and/or solutions;
Refocus the meeting.
Its good to remember, even when you are not leading the meeting, that everybody attending plays an important
role. Be prepared; be participative; and be enthusiastic. Others will follow your example. The PPC module
Negotiation goes into further detail about conflict resolution. http://www.professionalpractice.asme.org/
communications/negotiation/index.htm
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6
Managing Time
Where does the time go? How many times a day do you hear that one? In fact,
how many times a day to you ask that one? Well, one wag suggested the following
estimates for that time-honored query. The typical lifetime can be accounted for
this way:
2.5 years driving a car (unless you commute by bus or subway);
6 months waiting at red lights (unless youre using public transit);
5 years waiting in line;
6 years eating (possibly after waiting in line for your menu item);
2 years trying to return phone calls to people who never seem to be in;
1 year looking for misplaced objects;
23 years in bed (thats right, one third of your life, assuming you live to age
69);
7 years in the bathroom (less time if you share the only bathroom);
8 months opening junk mail (make that 2 years, if you get lots of catalogs).
If youre counting, this tongue-in-cheek analysis accounts for over 50 years of your
life, without even designating time for work and leisure. You might call these activities maintenance tasks, since they are things we all do, more or less, to survive. In other words, they maintain
value in our lives. Some of them are optional, and waste time, like opening junk mail or leafing through those catalogs!
Take a minute and consider some of the maintenance tasks you have to do in your job as a manager: paperwork,
returning phone calls, attending some meetings, looking at e-mail. What else might be on your personal list? Are
they all necessary, or are some of them really time wasters (for a list of time-wasters, click here (ELI: Link to
Time_Waste.doc). You might want to adjust the time you devote to these various elements.
Other tasks are improvement tasks. Rather than maintain value, they add value by moving you closer to your
longer-term ambitions. Improvement tasks can include things like exercising, building stronger relationships with
family and friends, learning new skills, traveling, and so on. These are things we dont absolutely have to do, but
by doing them, we enhance the quality of our lives. We grow and prosper.
You certainly arent obligated to do improvement tasks, but you certainly should if you want to grow, make things
better, and thrive in your work and personal life. What are some of the improvement tasks you do as a manager:
coaching, training, establishing development goals, teambuilding? Are there any others on your personal list? Are
there some that youd like to do but just cant find the time?
Effective time management is crucial to accomplishing the organizations tasks as well as avoiding wasting valuable organizational assets. It can help you achieve the following:
Define your own productive day as a manager.

Identify and reduce your day-stealers.
Influence how other people use your time at work.
Determine whats most important in your job.
Use a flexible scheduling plan to make the right choices about how you spend your time.
Time in the organization is constant and irreversible. Nothing can be substituted for time. Worse yet, once lost, it
can never be regained. As a manager, you will have constant demands on your time. To be effective, you need to
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manage it well. The trick is how to do this without becoming a slave to itso focused on the techniques of managing time that you accomplish little else: a time management junky! A more useful approach is to analyze how you
manage your time and to implement a few time-saving methods that will gain you the most benefit.
Managing time effectively is an essential management skill that allows you to finish each day with a sense of accomplishment and not a sense of frustration. Every task you take on requires time to accomplish, and the better
you manage your time, the better will be your performanceas a manager and as the engineer of your own career.
Time Management Techniques

Make your time count by considering some of the following techniques:
1.
Create some planning and organizing time at the start of each day.
Review your to-do list;
Organize the materials and information you need;
Return e-mails and phone calls promptly.
2. Start the day with confidence that you can control your time.
A defeatist attitude guarantees that the time will slip away.
3. Identify the time of day when you feel most motivated and energetic.
Try to schedule your most complex tasks for that time.
4.
Use some time management techniques.

Tackle the most difficult job first;
Break daunting tasks into pieces;
Try to complete each task that you start, instead of jumping from one to another;
Schedule meetings only when necessary;
Follow meeting agendas and schedules frequently;
Give your employees authority to make minor decisions for you;
Read paper and E-mail messages only once; then file, pass on, or throw away;
Ask to be removed from distribution lists that are irrelevant to you;
Go only to meetings where your attendance is mandatory.
5. Reward yourself in some way for completing to-do lists and managing time more effectively.
You deserve it!
Time Savers:
Handle correspondence expeditiously with quick, short letters and memos;

Manage the decision making process, not decisions;
Establish daily, short-term, mid-term, and long-term priorities;
Concentrate on doing only one task at a time;
Throw unneeded things away;
Establish personal deadlines and ones for the organization;
Do not waste other people's time;
Insure all meetings have a purpose, have a time limit, and include only essential people;
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Get rid of busywork;

Maintain accurate calendars; abide by them;
Know when to stop a task, policy, or procedure;
Delegate everything possible and empower subordinates;
Keep things simple;.
Insure time is set aside to accomplish high priority tasks;
Set aside time for reflection;
Use checklists and to-do lists;
Adjust priorities as a result of new tasks.
Conclusion
So, where does all this leave you? Hopefully, with some useful insights and tools to
help you hit the ground running in your new role as a manager. Some of the ideas
are instinctive and some will require you to move into unfamiliar territory. Consequently, you may feel a bit tentative and awkward at first. Don't be afraid. There's a
good chance that one of the reasons that you were asked to be a manager is because some other manager recognized in you good managerial aptitude. Trust your
instincts and don't be afraid to try new things. All the skills-building exercises in the
world are only as useful as your willingness to be creative, take risks, and be a continuous learner.
With these tools in your skills portfolio, you can look forward to the challenges and
unique satisfactions of professional management.
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Resources
1. Adams, Howard, and Shiela Scott. Merntoring Resource Guide: A Reference Manual. The GEM Program, 1995.
2. Adviser, Teacher, Role Model, Friend: On Being a Mentor to Students in Science and Engineering. National
Academy of Science, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. National Academy Press, 1997.
3. Cohen, Dr. Norman H. Principles of Adult Mentoring. HRD Press, 1998. Zey, Michael. "Building a successful
mentoring program." Training Progams Maagazine, 1990
4. A Handbook of Structured Experiences for Human Relations Training. Volume 9
5. Edited by J. William Pfeiffer. Pfeiffer & Co., San Diego, CA. 1983
6. ASTD Trainer Sourcebook: Coaching; Dennis C. Kinlaw. McGraw Hill. 1996
7. Management Skills for New Managers; C.W. Ellis; American Management Association; New York. 2004
8. Modified excerpt from Scarecrow Workshop's 'Time: To Make the Most of Your Day' Instructor Guide. J. D. Neal
and Associates, Inc., 2003
9. Teach Yourself Management Skills in 24 Hours; Patricia Buhler. 2001
10. The 1999 Training Annual. Volume 1. Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer. 1999.
11. The 10-Minute Human Resources Trainer; BLR, Inc; Old Saybrook, CT. 1999.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
31
Part 1: Mentoring Skills and Guidelines
32
Part 2: Mentoring at Work
35
Part 3: Mentoring and Undergraduates
36
Part 4: Respect for Differences
39
Part 5: E-Mentoring
42
Part 6: Finding a Mentor
42
Part 7: Conclusion
43
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Mentoring
Introduction
As an engineering professional, you are most likely to be faced with two kinds of
mentoring relationships: in your company or sharing what you have learned and
experienced with students.
This module will discuss the benefits of mentoring: to you, your company, and to
people you mentor during your career. If you are interested in being mentored, this
module will help you select a mentor and get the most out of the mentoring relationship. Well talk about what mentoring is, offer suggestions on how to be a good
mentor, and provide guidance on mentoring in specific situations: in the workplace,
with university students, and electronic mentoring.
Mentoring relationships work well when the protg and mentor can identify with one
another. But this is not to say that mentors and protgs with different backgrounds
cannot form effective relationships. The mentoring relationship may require both you and your protg to relate to
each other outside your comfort zones. This is a real opportunity for personal growth for both of you, so well describe ways to embrace diversity in your mentoring.
If you are interested in being mentored, this module will offer suggestions for selecting a mentor and getting the
most out of the mentoring relationship.
What is a Mentor?
The term mentor is rooted in Greek mythology. Odysseus entrusted his son, Telemachus, to his close friend,
Mentor, to act as advisor and counselor to the youth while Odysseus was away fighting the Trojan War. The more
current notion of mentoring is of a mutually beneficial and rewarding relationship, usually between an experienced
individual and a less seasoned protg in what has been described by author Gordon F. Shea as a developmental, caring, sharing, and helpful relationship where one person invests time, know-how, and effort in enhancing another persons growth, knowledge, and skills, and responds to critical needs in the life of that person in ways that
prepare the individual for greater productivity in the future.
In simpler terms, mentoring is a process that links experienced persons (mentors) with those less experienced
(protgs) in a paired relationship that benefits each. It is also a nurturing process. A mentor can be a source of
information and a thoughtful guide through the complexities of unspoken, but potentially career-enhancing or career-limiting, organizational norms.
Benefits of Mentoring
Mentoring isnt simply a noble gesture of social correctness. Mentoring is good business, enhancing an organizations recruitment and retention efforts. Enlightened businesses understand that strong mentoring programs represent one of the most cost-effective ways of first, attracting the best and brightest of the dwindling supply of young
engineers, and then, importantly, capitalizing on the increasingly diverse workforce to convey and enhance the collective corporate knowledge and rich traditions for continued success. Mentoring helps develop great leaders and
it helps those leaders develop leaders. It can assist in furthering the cause of workplace diversity, increase retention of talent, reduce turnover and enhance creative problem solving. Finally, as part of a companys management
development strategy, mentoring helps shape future leaders through continuous learning, personal development
and career enhancement.
Mentoring benefits both the mentor and the protg. Benefits for the protg include:
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Mentoring benefits both the mentor and the protg. Benefits for the protg include:
Higher performance and productivity;
Higher career satisfaction;
Increased knowledge, both technical and professional;
Long-term, targeted career development;
Increased likelihood of success;
Access to the pipeline (be it into engineering studies or into a successful career path);
Better insights into the informal rules;
Awareness of new idea and new contacts; and
Guidance in dealing with problem situations.
As a mentor, you gain information and satisfaction in satisfaction in several ways:
Sense of pride in seeing your protg learn and grow;

New knowledge about interpersonal skills, cultural diversity and personal development;
An opportunity to model productive corporate citizenship;
Personal satisfaction that comes from being relied upon;
A sense of personal value that comes from being of service to others;
Mentoring Skills and Guidelines
Jumpstart the Mentoring Relationship

There is no single formula for good mentoring; mentoring styles and activities are as varied as human relationships. Different protgs will require different amounts and kinds of attention, advice, information, and encouragement. Some will feel comfortable approaching you; others will be shy, intimidated, or reluctant to seek help. A good
mentor is approachable and available. At the same time, effective mentoring need not always require large
amounts of time. You can provide great help in just a few minutes by making the right suggestion or asking the
right question.
To facilitate getting to know one another, it is important for you to build rapport with your protg. This process
takes time; if done in a comfortable and consistent manner, it will keep the relationship interesting and meaningful.
Some suggestions for building rapport with your protg:
Establish regular times for meeting together.
Make a list of items to be covered with your protg during meetings.
Help your protg chart progress in areas that need improvement.
Introduce your protg to sources of information and contacts.
Share success factors from your own personal experiences.
Model good professional behavior.
Once youve established rapport with your protg, you should facilitate a conversation in which you set mutual
expectations as well as responsibilities for the relationship. The goal is to come to consensus on:
Goals and responsibilities;
Ground rules for the mentoring relationship;
Meeting schedule; and
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Protocol for engaging each other.
Initially, as with any relationship, there may be a test period and some initial tensions. Common problems that may
arise are:
Feelings of threat exist regarding the new relationship.
Your protg doesnt keep to the terms of the relationship.
You and your protg dont see eye to eye on certain issues.
Either you or your protg feels time pressures.
There is poor communication.
The key to moving beyond these obstacles is open, frank, non-judgmental discussion--and the sooner the better.
Profiling the Protg

One of the critical roles that you will play as a mentor in the initial stages of your relationship with your protg is profiling getting to know him or her. During this
process, your job will be to skillfully ask your protg a series of questions designed
to ascertain their current level of functioning and relevant background history. It is
essential that you ask these pertinent questions in a sensitive manner, so as not to
offend your protg and to ensure that you gain as much information as possible.
When profiling is conducted correctly, the knowledge received from the activity can
serve as the foundation for building a solid mentoring relationship. While the following list is not comprehensive, it does detail some important topics to cover during the
profiling process and should, therefore, serve as an effective springboard for a profiling session.
Academic Background
What types of academic subject matter has the protg been exposed to?
Where was the protg educated?
What content areas does the protg desire to learn more about?
What are the protgs academic strengths? Areas of weakness?
Life Experiences
Has the protg had other work experiences?

What life experience has the protg had that makes him/her unique?
What mechanisms does the protg use to cope with stressful situations?
Cultural Background
What stance does the protg take on issues of assimilation?

What cultural values does the protg hold that are different/similar to yours?
How does the protg interact with those of different cultural backgrounds?
Has the protg had to deal with discrimination? How did he/she handle the situation?
Workplace Knowledge
Does the protg understand the organizational climate of the organization?

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What is the protgs work/leadership style?

What other types of work experiences has the protg had?
Value System
What is the protgs work ethic?

How effective are the protgs time management skills?
What place does corporate integrity hold in the protgs value system?
Enhancing the Mentoring Relationship

The mentoring relationship can afford you and your protg the opportunity to work together to expand and develop the protgs technical skills, career knowledge and professionalism. Your role is to give your protg the
EDGE by providing the 3 Ps:
PROCESS: How-to strategies for problem solving.
PERMISSION: The OK to function; to try new ideas.
PROTECTION: Shield from outside attacks; create a trusting environment.
In developing and maintaining the mentoring relationship it is important for you to remember the following concepts:
Mentors encourage personal growth and development.
Mentors are positive influences.
Mentors help build self confidence.
Mentors are open and honest; they have no hidden agendas.
Mentors demonstrate a caring demeanor.
Mentors understand that everyone likes a compliment.
Mentors dont extinguish hope; they inspire.
Mentors maintain professionalism at all times.
Mentors are willing to set aside time.
Mentors build trust.
Mentors maintain confidentiality.
The Importance of Periodic Evaluation

You may wonder whether you are making a difference in your protg's life. It may be years before he or she realizes the positive effects of your mentoring, so you may not be able to recognize that you are having an impact. To
alleviate the situation, it is helpful to periodically assess your mentoring relationship. Together with your protg,
periodically re-examine your objectives to determine if you are both benefiting from the relationship and if it is
meeting the expectations you set during your first sessions. You may discover that you want to revise your expectations and goals.
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2
Mentoring at Work
Mentoring New Employees

Let's begin by taking a look at business organizations. In the corporate setting, the goal of mentoring is to foster a
climate for the protg to reach his or her full potential by helping to identify and eliminate barriers to effective performance and career success. This is particularly true for new hires entering an organization. Companies have established formal mentoring programs as a management strategy for developing employees. They use mentoring to:
1. Transition new employees into the workplace.
2. Transmit corporate culture.
3. Develop a cadre of technical experts that are capable of assuming managerial roles.
4. Transmit needed skills.
5. Enhance employee career development.
6. Improve the workplace climate.
7. Facilitate diversity awareness.
8. Engage more staff in developing new employees.
9. Improve lines of communication.
There may be others that are important to your organization, and you should reflect on these before you assume
your role as a mentor.
D.J. Levinson (1975) identified six areas that a person new to an organization must learn:
1. The politics of the organization;
2. The norms, standards, values, ideology, history and heroes/heroines of the organization;
3. The skills and competencies necessary for succession to the next immediate step in the organization;
4. The path to advancement and the blind alley;
5. The acceptable methods for gaining viability in the organization; and
6. The characteristic stumbling-blocks in the organization and the personal failure patterns.
Employees new to an organization are expected to adapt quickly, become productive, and find a niche in what is
known as the "on the job transition phase"- the first eight months or so of employment. This involves:
1. TRANSITION: moving from outsider to insider
2. ACCLIMATION: adapting to the workplace
3. ACCEPTANCE: gaining approval from colleagues.
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mentor is the foundation upon which an effective mentoring alliance is built. Your major role as a mentor is to assist your protg in acquiring those skills and competencies necessary to succeed. Specifically, you should:
Assist in the professional growth and development of your protg;

Accept your protg as a legitimate co-worker who has potential for high performance;
Legitimize your protg with the organization and with other colleagues;
Communicate with your protg in an open and honest manner;
Give sound, constructive and critical reviews of your protgs progress toward established goals, free
of judgmental bias;
Serve as a resource to your protg in handling problems that may arise;
Be an advocate for your protg by acting as sponsor; and
Introduce your protg to professional/career opportunities and advancement.
As a mentor, you will help facilitate and foster the development of your protg through TEACHING, COACHING,
COUNSELING, and CHAMPIONING.
You TEACH workplace skills to help your protg develop technically.

You COACH through comments, support, encouragement and even criticism about attitude, abilities,
work habits, talent and behavior.
You COUNSEL by helping your protg evaluate career options, develop skill building strategies, improve professionally, and identify interests and values.
You CHAMPION your protg by becoming an advocate, showcasing your protgs talents and securing resources to advance your protg professionally.
Effective mentoring means throwing out the life line of support that affirms your protgs status of belonging and
potential for success.
In a good mentoring relationship, you, as the senior partner, can be a role model through both your words and your
actions. By who you are, you provide a personal window for the protg on a possible career future. Your ethical,
scientific, and professional behavior all leave a strong impression on him or her, as does your attitude toward your
work.
Communicate your feelings about your career. Share your frustrations as well as your enthusiasms. When something excites you, tell your protg why. Communicate the importance of mentoring and your hope that they will
some day be mentors themselves.
A new employee might see or understand only a part of what you doprobably your scientific or engineering activities. Take the time to raise other topics that you are comfortable in discussing. What is a typical day, week, or
weekend like for you? What does it feel like to do what you do? You might want to talk about administrative, entrepreneurial, or civic activities; family obligations or the challenge of a dual-career partnership; and your goal of balancing the professional and personal aspects of life.
Mentoring Undergraduates
Whether you are a faculty member or working in research or industry, mentoring students is a meaningful and valuable experience. You can inspire young adults to pursue careers in technical fields by mentoring them individually
or through organizations such as FIRST Lego League and Robotics competition, JETS, and Girl/Boy Scouts. We'll
focus here on mentoring students at the university levels.
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Mentoring
If you are called upon to mentor an undergrad, one of your goals will be to assist
him or her to gain a feel for the many different careers in science and engineering.
Early exposure to a range of courses, summer job or internships, and work-study
experience can help students find the right major and envision subsequent goals.
Performing a well-planned research project can help them understand the practice
of science and engineering and add value to their education regardless of career
choice.
Many young students lack sufficient experience to imagine what kind of work they
might do as professionals. Don't assume that students know something just because
it is obvious to you. Take a step back, and remember how little you knew at the time.
One of your goals for your student protg is to provide a "map" of the terrain and a "travelers' guide" to the professional universe they may some day encounter.
When mentoring an undergrad, you may be asked to help select courses, suggest work experience, and to provide
guidance as they consider the many science or engineering careers that are available.
1. EARLY CONCERNS. An undergrad may enjoy math or science without knowing how to choose a major. Gently
probe the student's level of interest and most-satisfying activities. Pay special attention to motivation, which might
be more important than background in deciding a student's success or failure. Suggest early exposure to a range
of courses, summer jobs or internships, and work study experiences.
2. COURSE WORK AND ACADEMIC GOALS. Discuss career goals and career choices to help your protg determine an academic course of action. Suggest electives that may provide other career directions. Urge the protg to seek practical experience.
3. UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH. Encourage undergraduate students to perform a research project. Ask them
questions to determine their fitness and preparedness for a given research project to avoid a recipe for failure. Research that is too advanced, poorly conceptualized or improperly executed may be worse than no research experience at all.
4. CONTEMPLATING GRADUATE SCHOOL. The usual indicators of readiness for a successful graduate experience are course records, test scores, and success in undergraduate research. But, don't be afraid to use your instinct and your own experience. The truly energized and motivated student will probably find a way to succeed.
Mentoring Graduate Students

The career advice for undergrad mentoring is true for grad mentoring as well. A primary goal for students should
be to finish their degree program in a timely fashion, and this will probably form the core of your relationship with
your grad student protg.
1. Encourage due diligence in investigating and selecting a graduate program. (campus visits; web site; speaking
with current students and faculty; reading publications by faculty; etc.)
2. Encourage students to be carefully selective in choosing a research advisor. Compatibility of mentoring style
with a student's own personality and needs is essential.
3. What students should you accept? Remind yourself and the students you are considering mentoring of the importance of personal chemistry. Handling more than one student at a time may or may not be a viable approach.
4. Choosing a degree program. Many students fresh out of undergrad school are unable to visualize a career path.
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Remind them that careers evolve slowly. Probe to uncover interests, skills and passions. Keep in mind the option
of combining science and engineering degrees with other, non-technical degrees such as the MBA, JD or MD.
5. Choosing a research topic. Urge the student to think through a topic in advance, to imagine a thesis title, list hypotheses to test and perhaps expected outcomes, and write a full proposal.
6. Making good progress. Part of the mentor's job is to teach careful planning and use of time. Discuss with the
student his or her responsibilities and agree on time lines. Monitor progress and discuss lapses.
The Council on Graduate Schools provides a useful summary of a mentor's multiple roles: Mentors are:
ADVISORS, people with career experience willing to share their knowledge;
SUPPORTERS, people who give emotional and moral encouragement;
TUTORS, people who give specific feedback on one's performance;
MASTERS, in the sense of employers to whom one is apprenticed;
SPONSORS, sources of information about and aid in obtaining opportunities;
MODELS, of identity, of the kind of person one should be to be an academic.
In general, an effective mentoring relationship is characterized by mutual respect, trust, understanding, and empathy. Good mentors are good listeners, good observers and good problem solvers. They make an effort to know,
accept and respect the goals and interests of a student. Most important, they are constantly looking for ways to
establish an environment in which the student's accomplishment is limited only by the extent of his or her own talent.
There are seven important tasks that you will want to consider as you embark upon your mentoring relationship:
1. Engage graduate students in ongoing conversations.
2. Demystify graduate school.
3. Provide constructive and supportive feedback.
4. Provide encouragement and support.
5. Help foster networks.
6. Look out for the student's interests.
7. Treat the student with respect.
8. Provide a personal touch.
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Mentoring
4
Respect for Differences
Overview
Although the mentoring relationship does not guarantee agreement about all problems or issues, it does encourage a rational means of reducing misinterpretation due
to unfounded assumptions or nave expectations. Important differences that might
impact the mentoring relationship, such as ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, and
socio-economic background, should be approached from several perspectives.
Those differences that foster stereotyping by either participant will obviously require
exploration, because they can limit the development of a meaningful mentor-protg
relationship, and thereby detract from the accomplishment of the protg's goals.
The recognition that people contain a multitude of legitimate, positive, and exciting differences should be considered an intrinsically valuable part of the learning experience.
For you as a mentor, attention to the development of your own competence in interpersonal behavior will enable
you to utilize the mentoring dialogue with enhanced knowledge and sensitivity. By your own example, you can
demonstrate for a protg the critical skills that enable individuals to discuss a variety of ideas, attitudes, and positions, and to work through different views of a problem, solutions, and decisions in the complex environment of
workplaces and campuses. The PPC module Communication Skills offers a detailed discussion of this.
This approach can create an extremely valuable context for constructive debate, and even when the inevitable occurs-when all concerned do not share mutual views or agree that every idea is feasible workable, or even desirable, they can still engage in serious discussion without reducing differences of opinion to merely insincere or suspicious motives.
Mentoring Underrepresented Minorities

African Americans, Hispanics, and American Indians as a group make up about 23% of the US population, but only
about 6% of the Engineering workforce. Many minority-group students are deterred from careers in science and
engineering by inadequate preparation, a scarcity of role models, low expectations on the part of others, and unfamiliarity with the culture and idiom of science and engineering. Mentors can often be effective through a style that
not only welcomes, nurtures and encourages questions, but also challenges students to develop critical thinking,
self discipline, and good study habits.
Expectations for minority group students in science have traditionally been too low, and this can have an adverse
effect on achievement. If you have an opportunity to mentor a minority young person, make it clear early on that
you consider them capable of and expect the highest level of achievement. Be aware of minority support organizations such as NACME, GEM, AICES, and NSBE, and of appropriate role models in your own company or professional associations, and encourage your protg to become involved in them.
On campuses, students from historically underrepresented groups can feel particularly isolated and alienated from
other students in their departments, especially if the composition of a program is highly homogenous. While you
may be limited in your ability to resolve or even understand all the feelings of isolation that a student of color may
feel, there are things you can do to lessen these feelings and, by doing so, strengthen your relationship with the
student:
Be aware of students who seem to be finding it particularly difficult to take active roles in academic or social
settings and find ways to include them. Take the initiative to talk with them. Ask them about their research in 2003 - 2009 ASME International. All Rights Reserved.
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Mentoring
terests, hobbies and activities outside of school.

Introduce your student protg to your own colleagues or acquaintances with complementary interests.
Assist your student protg identify the wealth of organizations within or outside the University that might provide them with a sense of community. Some examples are cultural and religious groups, as well as professional associations.
Be mindful of some the potential for differences between your experiences and background and those of your
student protg. Instead of assuming that certain experiences are the norm, question whether race, gender, or
other characteristics provide different perspectives from what you may be accustomed to or often hear expressed.
Take an inventory of your own cultural biases, and be sensitive to the potential of stereotyping to seriously
impact the building of a positive, productive relationship with your protg. The Diversity in the Workplace
module contains some exercises you can use to take a personal inventory.
Cross-Gender Mentoring
Gender difference can constitute a significant obstacle to a successful mentoring
relationship. One of the reasons for this is that, historically, males have dominated
most positions of significant authority and power. The classic portrait of the mentor
as a seasoned and expert traveler on the workplace road therefore featured a male
rather than a female as the representative role model and career advocate.
Males often avoid situations that might involve younger females as protges because of inherent sexual implications. Also, females may be reluctant to approach
males as potential mentors because such requests may be misinterpreted, as well
as viewed as suspicious, generate gossip, and stigmatize both mentor and
protge. You may discover that you are able to avoid much of these dynamics by
working through a company- or university-sponsored mentoring program, where there are clearly defined objectives and guidelines, and established mechanisms in place for immediate and effective intervention into issues if
they arise.
In math, physics, computer science, and engineering, females tend to be underrepresented at all levels. If you
have a protge from these fields, be aware that they could need extra support. Wait for cues from your protge,
however, to avoid appearing to single her out for special treatment.
Sexual Harrassment
If you mentor someone of the opposite sex, extra sensitivity is required to avoid the appearance of sexual harassment. Inappropriate closeness between mentors and proteges will produce personal, ethical, and legal consequences not only for the persons involved but for the organizations and institutions of which they are a part. Be
guided by common sense and knowledge of your own circumstances:
1. Is it inappropriate to invite your protg to your home?
2. During meetings, should you keep the office door closed (for privacy) or open (to avoid the appearance of intimacy)?
3. Make an effort to forestall misunderstanding by practicing clear communication.
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Mentoring Those with Disabilities
Obviously, individuals with disabilities have different needs and concerns depending
upon the types of disability they have. For example, someone who is visually impaired has different needs than someone who uses a wheelchair or who is hearing
impaired. Needs will also vary depending upon whether disabilities have existed
since birth or developed later in life. Those with disabilities - and this is particularly
true for students - often fear that they may appear to be too dependent, or become
too dependent, if they ask for help. This is especially true for those who have experienced the fairly recent onset of a disability and are unaccustomed to asking for help,
as well as for those who have disabilities that are invisible to others, such as individuals with learning disabilities, chronic pain, or psychological illnesses. Students
with physical, mental, emotional, or learning disabilities constitute 9% of first-year
students with planned majors in science and engineering.
Some simple rules can enhance your effectiveness as a mentor of someone with a disability:
Be careful not to underestimate the potential of a disabled person. They are as capable and are as successful
in performing the same jobs as those without disabilities. Be mindful also that persons with disabilities may
have their own cultural background issues that cut across race, ethnicity, gender and other diversity groupings.
As a mentor, you can be instrumental in helping a disabled protg locate the special assistance that may be
needed, depending upon the disability. They are entitled to this assistance and must be made to feel on a par
with others in terms of access to all that the organization or institution has to offer. Most establishments have
specialists in ADA issues who might provide help in securing needed assistance or accommodations.
And finally, remember to consult the expert: the disabled protg.
Sexual Orientation
Being out as a lesbian, gay, bisexual or trans-gendered (LGBT) individual, whether
in the workplace or as a student or faculty member, is not a one-time event, but instead is a decision the person experiences each time he/she enters a new situation.
LGBT individuals face a burden of having to assess the personal, social and political
ramifications of disclosing their sexual orientation each time they do so. Here are a
couple of helpful suggestions for establishing and maintaining a mentoring relationship in which the sexual orientation of your protg does not create an artificial barrier to success:
Be sensitive to whether you are making anti-gay comments and discuss how
they may be offensive to others.
Be aware that examples you and others are using may be based on heterosexual experiences. For example, when talking about families, don't talk as if every family is composed of a husband, wife, and children. Simply using a word like "spouse and partner" instead of just "spouse" can go a long
way in making LGBT individuals feel they are represented in the discussion.
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5
E-Mentoring
Electronic mentoring via the Internet has been shown to be a convenient way to
connect larger numbers of students with prospective mentors. Over the past few
years, there has been a proliferation of Internet-based mentoring programs targeting
high school girls in science and technology, linking them with corporate mentors and
role models to encourage and sustain their interests in science and technologybased fields. There are clearly pros and cons to mentoring via the Internet. On the
plus side, electronic mentoring:
Gives students access to the expertise of specialists in various fields of interests.

Provides mentors with immediate access to students' work.
Increases opportunities for students to express their ideas and receive feedback.
Is place independent - providing access and collaboration with experts, regardless of the geographical location.
On the minus side, protg and mentor have less of an opportunity to establish a one-on-one rapport that is often
the very heart of a successful mentoring relationship, as well as being essential to sustaining it over time.
One of the most widely respected of the e-mentoring programs is Mentornet, an award-winning nonprofit ementoring network that addresses the retention and success of women in engineering, science and mathematics.
Founded in 1997, MentorNet provides highly motivated protgs from many of the world's top colleges and universities with positive, one-on-one, email-based mentoring relationships with mentors from industry and academia.
Another is Telementoring, a three-year project that draws on the strengths of telecommunications technology to
build on-line communities of support among female high school students, professional women in technical fields,
parents, and teachers. ASME's eMentoring program is available to all ASME members with 5 years or less work
experience in the engineering field.
In the words of a mentor with MentorNet, "E-mentors are perfectly suited to help students work through [career]
decisions and to explore issues of work-life balance; issues which are coming to the forefront for women in their
mid-late 20s (or beyond), who are just about to enter the workforce."
Finding a Mentor
You may be in a situation where there is no formal mentoring program in place, yet
you would like to have a mentor. If you are working in a large laboratory or institutions, it can be difficult to develop a close relationship with your faculty adviser or
laboratory director. You might have to find your mentor elsewhere-perhaps a fellow
student, another faculty member, a wise friend, or another person with experience
who offers continuing guidance and support.
You can sign up for an e-mentoring program, such as the ones listed above.
ASME's eMentoring program is available to all ASME members with 5 years or less
work experience in the engineering field. Participating in this program will give you
the opportunity to interact with an experienced engineer in your chosen field. There
are over 300 Mentors with expertise in Aerospace, Biomechanics, Design Engineer-
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ing, Manufacturing, Petroleum, Plant, Power, Waste Management, Pressure Vessels & Piping, Nuclear Engineering, Process Industries, Management, Engineering Sales & Marketing and more.
Conclusion: The Mentors Pledge
If the mentorship is to have a positive influence on the protg, the mentoring relationship must be personalized
and thereby focused to meet the developmental needs of your protg. To maintain integrity and professionalism
in such an alliance, begin your mentoring relationship by making the following pledge:
To maintain confidentiality at all times.

To develop with the protg a plan of action.
To move beyond race, gender, sexual orientation, disability and other "differences" to build support and assistance.
To spend time building a comfortable rapport with your protg.
To be as open-minded as possible, but acknowledge reality.
To avoid cloning-encourage self-reliance where the protg learns to function independently.
To offer advice and counsel free of personal bias and prejudices.
To handle requests for assistance in a timely fashion.
To withdraw from the relationship if it is ineffective or inappropriate.
To function in a climate that promotes personal worth, equity, and dignity.
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Team Building
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
45
Part 1: Types of Teams
46
Part 2: Developing a Team
47
Part 3: Requirements for an Effective Team
47
Part 4: When Should a Team Form
48
Part 5: Who Should Be on the Team
48
Part 6: Stages of Team Formation
51
Part 7: Getting Started
51
Part 8: Pitfalls
53
Part 9: The Virtual Team
54
Part 10: Conclusion
56
Resources
57
Quiz
58
Quiz: Answer Key
61
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Team Building
Introduction
You are likely to find yourself working on at least one team during your career;
serving on a team can be an enormously rewarding experience, allowing you to
more fully develop your potential. It can also be enormously frustrating, if the team
is dysfunctional or doesn't have a clearly defined purpose, for example. Despite
their potential pitfalls, more and more, organizations are utilizing teams to tackle
the issues and problems facing them.
Understanding what makes a team effective and being a good team player make
you a more valuable employee as well as increase your chances for enjoyment
and satisfaction in your career. This module will introduce you to concepts of team
building and offer you strategies for ensuring that teams with which you are involved are as successful as possible.
Our lives abound with examples of teams - from basketball to study groups to accident investigation boards. In the engineering world, teams are formed to handle
projects, processes, and designs, and may be ongoing or temporary. Examples of
project teams include proposal writing teams (to learn more about proposal writing, check out the PPC module Writing Winning Proposals: An Introduction) and
problem solving or accident investigation teams, such as the Columbia Accident
Investigation Board. Process teams may be ongoing functional teams responsible
for maintaining functional processes such as assembly plant management, or temporary process improvement or reengineering teams, responsible for improving or
optimizing process by which a product or service is delivered. Design teams are
those responsible for the design and development of new products or processes.
Educational Goals
After you have completed
this module, you should:
Understand why and how
a team achieves its objectives.
Be familiar with the four
different types of teams.
Know how to start a team.
Recognize pitfalls in the
team process.
Understand the special
challenges facing virtual
teams.
Understand the importance of teams.
A team is a group of people coming together to collaborate on a task for which they are mutually accountable; it is
not just a collection of people grouped together for administrative convenience. To become a team, a group must
have:
Shared responsibility
Shared information
Unity of purpose
A clearly defined objective
Authority (power)
A useful team outperforms a group and outperforms all reasonable expectations of its individual members. That is,
a team produces synergy, where one plus one equals a lot more than two! Good team members are deeply committed to each other's personal growth and success, as well as that of the team.
Team members not only cooperate in all aspects of their mutual tasks and goals; they share in what are traditionally thought of as management functions, such as planning, organizing, setting performance goals, assessing the
team's performance, developing their own strategies to manage change, and securing their own resources. An
ideal team offers three major benefits to an organization:
It maximizes the organization's human resources. Members help and lead each other and share in each
other's successes and failures. Members are more willing to take chances, because they do not shoulder all
the blame for failures, and they enjoy the satisfaction of the group's successes.
A team will outperform a group of individuals because of the synergistic effect of a team.
There is continuous improvement, as team members pull together and push aside their personal conflicts.
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You might wonder what makes a team so successful when its members are the same people who already work for
the organization. Experts who have studied teams say the benefits to the individual - less stress because of shared
responsibilities, and feelings of involvement and accomplishment - result in increased productivity, increased quality of work, increased employee morale, reduced cost, reduced losses and, ultimately, increased profits.
Let's look at the elements of a successful team and how to form one.
Types of Teams
Regardless of their particular engineering function (process, design, or product), teams

are usually grouped into four different types. Each is different in its structure, in the behavior it demands from its members, in its strengths, in its vulnerabilities, its limitations,
its requirements, and above all, in what it can do and should be used for.
Functional teams - Members work within their principal function or discipline. Primary
responsibility for the project is the manager of the functional team whose team members report to the manager.
The strengths of this structure are that people work in their area of specialization, facilitating technical excellence, and that the manager is more aware of the project tasks. The weakness is that the specialists often lack breadth and use the same "best" solution over and over.
Cross-functional teams - A project manager works with a liaison from each function (e.g., engineering, marketing,
etc.) to determine member responsibilities and coordinate team activities. An example is a team organized to review a company's web design, with members from each department told they are responsible for representing department interests and that they must attend team meetings.
The strength of this structure is that there is an overseeing manager to ensure that tasks are completed, so there is
better communication and coordination than with a functional team. The weakness is that members are still under
the control of their own rather than the project manager, so they are probably not as focused as they should be on
the team goals.
Autonomous teams - Individuals from different functional areas are formally assigned to (and often located with)
the project team. The project leader is an influential member in the organization, and has complete control over the
responsibilities of team members. The team that is most likely to produce a genuine innovation like the personal
computer 15 years ago is probably an autonomous team.
The major benefit of this structure is its focus on results. The team is dedicated to making the project successful,
so it will likely develop products or processes quickly and efficiently. The disadvantage is that the team can be isolated from the traditional organization, so its solutions can be difficult to sell to the rest of the organization.
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2
Developing a Team
Successful teams are those that make better use of a workforce. When workers at any level of an organization participate in teams, they learn to solve problems as they participate in decision-making, and develop an understanding of the company's objectives and work practices. Thus the entire organization, from top to bottom, becomes
more skilled.
Forming a team requires careful attention, though, or these benefits will not be realized. To form an effective team,
you must understand its elements as well as when it should form and who should be chosen to serve.
Requirements for an Effective Team
An effective team operates in an atmosphere where:

There is commitment to the team and to a common goal.
Team members cooperate and collaborate.
There are procedures for discussion and decision-making.
Communication is open, honest and frequent.
There is a process for managing conflict.
Commitment - Team members, as well as managers throughout the organization, must

be committed to helping the team achieve its goals.
Cooperation and collaboration - Team members must feel that they are working for
and with each other by recognizing and sharing their skills and knowledge.
Discussion and decision-making procedures Team decisions can be made by the
leader, a selected minority of the team (e.g., those with expertise on the question) or a
majority, or the team can reach a consensus, in which everyone agrees to the decision
to some degree. Whatever the team chooses, all members must be clear about what
the team is to decide, how they will make the decision, and who will be accountable.
Open, honest, frequent communication - Successful teams develop effective communication processes (You
may want to check out the PPC Communication Skills module). That means team members understand and employ the following communication skills, which engender trust and a sense of belonging in its members:
Listening
Questioning
Persuading
Respecting the opinion of others
Helping
Sharing ideas
Conflict management process Conflict is an inevitable ingredient of the decision-making process, but it can destroy the process if it is not man-
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aged correctly. These six steps can help a team work through its conflicts.
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
Step 5:
Step 6:
Clarify and identify the cause of conflict, then try to understand each others point of view.
Find common goals on which all members can agree.
Determine what the teams options are.
Identify and remove barriers to consensus.
Find a solution that everyone can accept.
Make sure all parties understand what the solution means to them.
When Should a Team Form?
A team should only be formed if the organization needs a coordinated effort to achieve a
specific outcome. Teams are particularly good, for example, at developing innovative
solutions to unfamiliar problems, such as when no established procedure exists. If your
organization has any of the following problems, it may be time to form a team to address
them:
Loss of productivity
Customer complaints
Personnel conflicts
Lack of clear goals
Confusion about assignments
Lack of innovation or risk-taking
Ineffective meetings (The PPC Conducting Effective Meetings module helps you avoid these!)
Lack of initiative
Poor communication
Lack of trust
Employees feel their work is not recognized
Employees do not understand or agree with decisions that are made
Who Should be on the Team?
While it might be tempting to form a team of people who see things as you do, it is also counterproductive. Rather,
you should look for a balance of people to overcome one anothers weaknesses and provide breadth of perspective.
Different personalities are suited to different tasks, so many companies use the Meyers-Briggs personality test to
assess their employees styles and build teams with a good balance of personalities. The Meyers-Briggs test indicates how people behave and contribute in a work environment. It is based on the works of Carl Jung, and recognizes four areas where personality affects workplace behavior:
1. How a person interacts with people (Extrovert vs. Introvert) - Extroverts tend to gain energy from their surroundings. They direct high energy outward and often act first and think later. They are social and expressive, and they
like to be around people. They are motivated by their surroundings of people and things, and are often deenergized when cutoff from interaction.
Introverts, on the other hand, gain energy by processing information internally, and direct their energies inward.
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They are usually quiet, thoughtful, introspective and perceptive, and they often think
before they act. They are much more comfortable spending time alone, and often need
that quiet time to recharge.
2. How a person processes information (Sensory vs. Intuition) - Those who prefer to use
their five senses to process information are sensory. They like to deal with facts and
concepts in the present. Their memory is rich in details of facts and past experience.
They are straightforward and realistic, and they want clear and concrete information.
Intuitive people are those who seek to understand or interpret information as part of a pattern, context, or theory.
They are more focused on the future. They admire creativity, and are more focused on ideas and the big picture.
They are comfortable with ambiguous and roundabout thoughts.
3. How a person evaluates information (Thinking vs. Feeling) - Those who tend to use logical, cause-and-effect
strategies are thinkers. Thinkers search for facts and logic when making a decision. They are objective, direct, analytical and systematic. They are naturally critical in their analysis, so they accept conflict as a fact of life. Thinkers
are motivated by achievements.
By contrast, feelers use a hierarchy based on values to make decisions. They are warm, friendly, sensitive and
diplomatic. They seek consensus and popular opinions because they do not like conflict. Feelers try very hard to
please others, and are motivated by peoples responses, especially appreciation.
4. How a person approaches his or her work (Judgment vs. Perception) - Those who work best when they can plan
their work and follow the plan are judgers. They have the following characteristics:
Serious and formal

Time-conscious
Like to make plans
Like to work first, play later
Find completing projects satisfying
By contrast, perceivers adapt well to changing situations. They have these characteristics:
Playful and casual

Unaware of time or date
Like to wait-and-see
Like to play first, work later
Find starting projects satisfying
When you assemble a team, it is very important that you include people from all four of these groups, or you will
not have the synergistic effect you seek. A team without judgers, for example, would be great at the beginning of
the project, but would probably never finish. The goal is to have the right mix of personality types, so the team as a
whole can overcome the shortcomings of individuals and move forward.
You should also be sure the people on your team are willing to share information in order to improve the integration
of ideas. You must consider their skill levels and willingness to learn in five areas:
Technical abilities: training, skills, experience

Personal attributes: standards, values, initiatives, organizational identification
Interpersonal behaviors: influence, sensitivity, supportiveness of others, trustworthiness
Administrative skills: planning, organizing, implementing, delegating, evaluating
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Communication skills: dialogue skills, presentation skills, reading and writing skills (Our communication
skills module can help with these)
Working Together with People of Different Styles

Intuitive Type Needs a Sensitive Type To:
Bring up pertinent facts.
Apply experience to problems.
Read the fine print in a contract.
Notice what needs attention now.
Gain patience.
Keep track of essential detail.
Face difficulties with realism.
Remind others that the joys of the present are important.
Sensing Type Needs An Intuitive Type To:
Bring up new possibilities; supply ingenuity in solving problems.
Read the signs of coming change; see how to prepare for the future.
Have enthusiasm; tackle difficulties with zest.
Watch for new essentials.
Show that the joys of the future are worth working for.
Feeling Types Needs a Thinking Type To:
Analyze and Organize.
Find flaws in advance.
Reform what needs reforming.
Hold consistently to a policy.
Weigh the law and the evidence.
Fire people when necessary.
Stand firm against opposition.
Thinking Type Needs a Feeling Type To:
Persuade and Conciliate.
Forecast how others will feel.
Arouse enthusiasm.
Teach.
Sell.
Advertise.
Appreciate the thinker.
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6
Stages of Team Formation
There are four stages of team development, form, storm, norm and perform, as described below.
When a team forms, members meet and often express their expectations, concerns or
anxieties about what is about to happen. The team sets goals, identifies members
strengths, and discusses the limits within which it will operate. In successful teams, each
member will come to feel during this phase that they are becoming part of the team, and
that their particular talents or skills are needed and valued. During this phase, they must
answer for themselves:
Why am I participating on the team?

What will I personally gain from participating?
What do I specifically have to offer the team?
This stage is an orientation in which team members get acquainted, break the ice and test each other to see
which behaviors are acceptable. Conflict is seldom voiced directly. Since the team is new, members may be
guarded in expressing their opinions, especially those who are more nervous or subordinate.
The storm stage, which is the most difficult to get through, is characterized by conflict and disagreement as personalities emerge. Factions form, personalities clash, and very little communication occurs because no one is listening and some are still unwilling to talk openly. During this stage, the group might set unrealistic goals because it
cannot reach good compromises.
At the norm stage, conflict has been resolved and harmony emerges. In this new spirit of friendliness, openness
and cooperation, members begin to feel secure in expressing their views. The most significant improvement is that
people start listening to each other. They determine how effective communication can be maintained even when
disagreements occur, and they establish work methods that are recognized by the whole team. Team members
agree on who has the power, who is the leader, and what team members roles are.
When a team is able to perform its work effectively and productively, it has reached the fourth stage and is a real
team. Members are honest with one another and act as a cohesive unit. The teams effectiveness, which began at
a level slightly below the sum of the individuals' and then dropped to its lowest point during the storm stage, should
now be much higher than it was before the team process began. This elevated performance level is the main justification for teams.
After a team has achieved its goals, members must ramp down their activities, analyze their performance and determine how to be more effective in the future. In some cases, the team will be disbanded once it has carried out its
responsibilities, and this can be difficult for some members who might have grown close in the process.
Getting Started
Team members must believe their team has an urgent and worthwhile purpose, and it up to you, as leader, to establish that sense of urgency and direction when you start your team. The more urgent and meaningful the goal is,
the more likely it is that a successful team will emerge.
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Establish Ground Rules
All teams develop rules of conduct to help them achieve their goals. These rules must
apply to every member of the team, or they are ineffective. Common ground rules require that members:
Be prompt, attend all meetings, and do not tolerate interruptions such as telephone calls.
Keep discussion free and open - no sacred cows.
Do not share personal revelations with people outside the team.
Take an analytical approach, in which facts are friendly.
Do not take cheap shots or point fingers at one another. Be honest but diplomatic in their criticism, and respect peoples comments.
Share responsibilities and work.
Focus on problems and situations, not on individuals.
Use consensus to make decisions.
Agree on the meaning of important vocabulary.
Share appropriate information.
Treat people equally.
Stay focused and on top during meetings (see Conducting Effective Meetings).
Keep Members Informed
Challenge your team with fresh facts and information, which helps members set clearer goals.
Grow Together
Teams must spend a lot of time together, both scheduled and unscheduled, especially in the beginning. Creative
insights require impromptu and casual interactions. Allow time for this.
Reinforcement Works Wonders
Recognize and reward desired behaviors. If a shy person speaks up, for example, praise the person. The chances
are that praise will encourage him or her to do it again, which is good for the team as a whole.
Other Tips for Team Leaders (and Members):
Use all your leadership tools of coaching, counseling, mentoring and tutoring. (For a discussion of leadership, check out the PPC Leadership module)
Show your team that you are committed and loyal to them, and that you trust in and are proud of them.
Share the credit.
Create subcommittees and give them decision-making authority.
Take turns having a different member lead the meetings.
Speak last in discussions, after you've heard from the others.
Clearly delineate when you're expressing your opinion, as opposed to the opinion of the organization or of
the team.
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8
Pitfalls
The long-term success of a team depends upon how it deals with failure. Every failure
should be viewed as a learning opportunity and explored by the team. The purpose is
not to attribute blame, which is shared by the whole team, but to examine the causes
and to devise a mechanism that prevents the failure from reoccurring. Here are some
common causes of failure:
Confused and Conflicting Goals - When team members do not understand or share the
common goal, then they do not work toward it.
Unresolved Roles and Responsibilities - When team members are not clear about their
roles and responsibilities, they lack a sense of accountability and might not complete
their task.
Lack of Team Trust - When team members do not trust each other or their team leaders, they undermine the
team's efforts. They might withhold or doubt information, and that will prevent the project from moving forward
smoothly.
Lack of Support - When the team does not have the support of an organization's managers, it often cannot achieve
its goals.
Lack of Communication - If team members do not share their ideas, the team will not be able to make informed
decisions.
Negative attitudes - While it is important to maintain a certain amount of critical objectivity when making decisions
and exploring options, it is detrimental to the team if a critical or negative attitude prevails.
Deadlock - If the team is split on an issue, members must find common ground in order to reach a compromise.
Before doing that, however, the team should decide how important the issue is and allot time accordingly.
Losing the Big Picture - As each small point is discussed, the larger picture can be obscured. Thus it is useful to
remind the team frequently of where it began, where it is at the moment, and where it should be going.
Failing to Explore Alternatives - First ideas are not always best. The team should always generate a list of ideas
before picking one.
In addition to these pitfalls, there can be areas of resistance in the organization, among managers, and within individuals that can undermine a team.
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9
The Virtual Team
Members of a virtual team share a common purpose, but are separated by distance,
time, and organizational boundaries. In such a team, members are linked only by communication technologies. A software development team, for example, could have members in the United States, India, Taiwan, and Brazil. Their only communication might be
through the Internet, the telephone, and videoconferences.
Virtual teams face unique challenges at every stage of their development. Even more
than with conventional teams, their best opportunity for success is at the beginning
stages of team development, when they must do the following:
1. Establish their purpose - This is the most important step. Each team member documents his or her understanding of the teams purpose, its importance to the business,
and their expected individual contribution. These descriptions are circulated throughout
the team, and a virtual meeting is convened to discuss these documents. A team version is then created and circulated for review with the team's sponsor.
2. Clarify member expectations - This can be accomplished with a questionnaire that asks questions such as:
What is the purpose or mission of the team?
What outcome is needed or expected from the team's performance?
How will we know when the team's work is completed? Milestones?
To whom does the team report and how often?
What resources are provided to support the team?
Responses are compiled, summarized and stored in the team's archive for future reference.
3. Understand one another - If team members understand each others skills, expertise and weaknesses, they can
make the best use of these skills and know when to seek outside help. The team should create a template with
background information on each member, then dedicate a meeting to discussing the information and planning how
to exploit each members strengths.
4. Establish roles and responsibilities - The team leader must outline the roles and responsibilities of individual
team members, then reach an understanding with each member before sharing the information with the entire
team. The team then meets to discuss its roles, and adjustments are made, if necessary.
5. Building rapport - Virtual teams are at a significant disadvantage because they lack the regular, face-to-face social contact that builds relationships and promotes the trust that makes a team effective. Instead, they must hold
some informal activities or exercises so they get to know one another better. They can hold a meeting in which
they discuss a subject that is unrelated to work (e.g., favorite hobbies), for example.
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10
Conclusion
In todays competitive market, organizations want more from their employees; they want
employees who can participate in teams to help them achieve greater success. Leaders know that teams offer many advantages over the more traditional distribution of labor, and can provide richer, more diverse solutions to problems. Consequently, todays
engineer needs to understand the importance of team skills and teamwork to be successful.
Successful teams can be characterized using the PRIDE acronym, which summarizes
much of what we have discussed in this module.
PRIDE principles
Purpose: have a common purpose and goal
Respect: act with mutual respect, trust and support
Individuals: recognize and respect the differences which enhance creativity and collective imagination
Discussion: all teams need open, honest and frequent discussions
Excellence: team should strive for excellence
We have discussed different components and characteristics of teams and teamwork. Obviously, every team is
unique. Hopefully, you now have a basic understanding of the complexity of teamwork so you can recognize the
elements for and contribute to successful teams throughout your career.
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Resources
Effective Teaming for Increased Productivity, Cass Tang, ASME Career Development Series, 1999. Available free
to ASME members at http://www.asme.org/education/prodev/careerseries.htm
Other Related Career Development Series Courses: * Communication Skills: Breaking Down the Barriers * Conducting Effective Meetings
Teams and Teamwork, developed at The Ohio State University under the NSF sponsored Gateway Coalition
(grant EEC-9109794). Contributing members include Gary Kinzel, Project supervisor, and Phuong Pham and Matt
Detrick, Primary authors Spiegel & Torres, Manager's official guide to Teamworking Otto, Kevin, Kristin Wood,
Product Design, Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey, 2001
Steven Wheelwright and Kim Clark, Revolutionizing Product Development, The Free Press, New York, 1992
www.knowyourtype.com
www.bham.wednet.edu/mod8team.htmLeadership, Donald Clark. Copyright 2001, All Rights Reserved, May 15,
2001: Version 1
Shareware material, see http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/documents/leadershipshareware.html
donclark@nwlink.com
The Keirsey Temperament Sorter II, Prometheus Nemesis Books, P.O. Box 2748, Del Mar, CA 92014, (800)
754-0039 or (760) 632-1575. Information and on-line tool also available on the web at http://keirsey.com/.
O. Kroeger and J. M. Thuesen. Type Talk at Work, Tilden Press, New York, NY, 1992.
Susan Willis Zoglio, Teams at Work: 7 Keys to Success, Tower Hill Press, 1993. An action guide for team members to strengthen performance. A step-by-step approach to identifying the key elements of effective teams.
"Teams at Work" offers a clear model for diagnosing and strengthening a team. This book provides practical tools
to help team members master concepts and put their knowledge into action.
P. Scholtes, B. Joiner, and B. Streibel, The Team Handbook, 2nd Ed., Oriel Inc., 1996. The Team Handbook has
been the reference of choice for team leaders and team advisors for many years. Many call it their "team bible."
Proven. Practical. The Team Handbook Second Edition is an even better resource for accomplishing the work of
teams in your organization. The new edition of this classic takes you beyond improvement teams to work teams
and the teams of today. We've kept the easy-to-use format and powerful content that led more than 800,000 users
to success with teams.
M. Brassard and D. Ritter, The Memory Jogger II: A Pocket Guide of Tools for Continuous Improvement and
Effective Planning, Oriel Inc., 1994. The Memory Jogger II is an easy-to-use pocket guide that describes tools to
help you make continuous improvements in an organization. The tools help people at all levels participate in identifying and solving problems; eliminating rework; streamlining processes; improving cross-functional communication;
decreasing costs; and measuring results. The guide supports organization-wide consistency and participation in
creating organizational breakthroughs and improvements. It measures 3.5" x 5.5".
S. Woodring and D. Zigarmi, The Team Leader's Idea-A-Day Guide : 250 Ways to Make Your Team More Effective and Productive - Every Working Day of the Year, Dartnell Corp., 1997.
Stewart Levine, Getting to Resolution: Turning Conflict into Collaboration, Berret-Koehler Publisher, 1998.
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Quiz
1. In order to be a team, a group of people must have: I. A common objective, defined according to their own departmental goals; II. Shared information; III. Shared responsibility.
a. All of the above
b. I and II
c. II and III
d. I and III
2. What is the difference between a team and a group of people working on a project?
a. Team members come from multiple departments
b. Teams are continuously improving
c. Teams are synergistic
d. Teams have a common goal
3. Which type of team is most likely to successfully solve a production problem spanning several departments involving poor quality control?
a. Functional
b. Lightweight
c. Heavyweight
d. Autonomous
4. Which of these problems signal the need to form a team? I. Several new engineers have been hired, and the
old engineers and the new engineers arent getting along; II. On three separate occasions, production employ
ees have produced low-quality products because they were not properly trained on newly-installed equipment;
III. There is a company-wide joke that employees can either work or they can go to meetings.
a. II.
b. I., II. and II.
c. I., and II.
d. None of the above
5. When forming a team, you should choose:
a. People who think and work the way you do, so that the team will not waste time clashing on logistical issues
b. The most skilled or knowledgeable person from each of the needed departments, regardless of personality
or work style
c. People you like the best from each of the needed departments
d. A mix of personality types, so they can overcome one anothers shortcomings
6. Which skills should you look for in team members?
a. Communications and interpersonal skills
b. Administrative skills
c. Technical skills
d. All of the above
7. The first three stages of group development, forming, storming and norming, are important because they:
a. Allow people to voice and resolve conflicts so they can better work together
b. Establish the ground rules for the team so a minimum of time will be wasted and the team can be more
productive
c. Involves lots of social events, so the team can develop a sense of community
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d. All of the above
8. If a team member behaves in a non-productive, negative way, you the leader should:
a. Defer to the ground rules that the team has established
b. Tell the person in a private meeting later that his behavior is unproductive and that he should either
stop or excuse himself from the team
c. Explicitly raise the issue with the team and ask how members want to deal with it
d. Give the person more responsibility, so that he will feel a greater sense of ownership in the team
9. In the middle of an unpleasant storming session, a secretary interrupts to tell you that the company district
manager wants to speak to you immediately. You should:
a. Tell the secretary that you do not accept phone calls during team meetings
b. Excuse yourself from the meeting and designate someone else to lead.
c. Ask the secretary to transfer the call to the meeting room, then tell the district manager that you will
return the call when the team meeting is over
d. Firmly tell the secretary that interruptions will not be tolerated under any circumstances
10. For your annual review, you are asked to list some of your more important accomplishments. In your position
as leader of a team, you proposed a solution that has proven to be enormously successful. You should:
a. Take full credit. Though it was proposed in a team setting, it was your idea and you deserve to get the
recognition and perhaps financial reward it carries.
b. Make no mention of it. It was the result of a team effort, and you have no right to take personal credit.
c. List it as one of the groups accomplishments. As a member of the group you have a right to share in
the credit.
d. List it as one of the groups accomplishments, and give yourself personal credit for assembling and
leading a successful team.
11. Your team is split down the middle on how to resolve a manufacturing issue. The team should:
a. Implement the solutions one at a time, to see which works
b. Establish a procedure within the team to resolve the issue
c. Enlist the help of people outside the team to resolve the conflict. For example, the choices might be
presented to certain affected employees or to upper management.
d. Revisit the facts and stimulate new discussion, so people have another opportunity to consider their
decisions.
12. Why do virtual teams face a bigger challenge than other teams?
a. They might be from different cultures, and might therefore have different norms
b. They might never have face-to-face communication
c. They may be in different time zones
d. All of the above
13. After a successful team has accomplished its goal, which of the following would you expect its members to do?
I. Have frequent reunions; II. Experience a sense of loss; III. Consult with one another on other problems as
they arise, even though they might work in different departments; IV. Return to their regular jobs and interact
only as they did before the team formed?
a. IV.
b. II. and III.
c. II. and IV.
d. I. and III.
14. Which problem could only be solved by an effective team?
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a. Several new engineers have been hired, and the old engineers and the new engineers arent getting
along
b. On three separate occasions, production employees have produced low-quality products because they
were not properly trained on equipment installed by the engineering department
c. There is a general sense among employees that their opinions are not valued and that management is
not behind them
d. A customer recently received a shipment of defective product
15. If a problem can be resolved by a single person, why may it be better to use a team rather than a single
person?
a. A single person can carry out a task more efficiently than a group of people
b. Involving people who will implement the solution will provide better motivation, and therefore improve
implementation
c. A team will always solve a problem better, because it has a broader understanding of a problem than
any individual can have
d. By involving more people, a greater understanding of and commitment to the organizations goals develops throughout the organization
e. b, c and d
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Quiz: Answer Key
1. C
2. C
3. D
4. B
5. D
6. D
7. A
8. A
9. A
10. D
11. B
12. D
13. B
14. C
15. E
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Diversity in the Workplace
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
63
Part 1: The Case for Diversity
66
Part 2: The Benefits of Diversity
67
Part 3: Strategies for Promoting Diversity
68
Part 4: What You Can Do About Diversity
73
Part 5: Case Studies in Diversity
75
Part 6: Conclusion
76
Resources
77
Quiz
79
Quiz: Answer Key
81
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Introduction
What is Workplace Diversity?

A great deal of confusion exists about what diversity is. Webster's Dictionary defines diversity as the condition of having distinct or unlike elements. In a workplace, this means the variety among people related to such factors as age, culture, education, employee status, family status, function, gender, national origin,
physical appearance, race, regional origin, religion, sexual orientation, and thinking style. Though these differences themselves are undeniable, corporate culture
and society at large often deny them by recognizing and valuing only a narrow
range of differences. While these differences have often been ignored or devalued
in the past, awareness of the role they play in organizational effectiveness has
more recently put the spotlight on diversity.
Valuing diversity means acknowledging that other people, other races, other
voices, and other cultures have as much integrity and as much claim on the world
as you do. It is the recognition that there are other ways of seeing the world, solving problems, and working together.
Educational Goals
After you have completed
this module, you should:
Understand what diversity is and how it

came to be a priority
Know the benefits of
diversity
Be familiar with some
of the ways of implementing diversity initiatives
Learn what you can do
to promote workplace
diversity
Managing diversity means promoting inclusion, creating an environment where all

differences are valued, and in which each employee can develop to her or his full
potential. From a business perspective, managing diversity is valuable because it means an organization gets the
most from its employees. Companies that effectively manage diversity recognize that it is not enough to hire employees from underrepresented groups; they must also provide an environment where all employees are supported
and valued.
History
During the 1960s and 1970s, the U.S. took its first steps toward promoting diversity in the workplace. In 1961,
President John F. Kennedy established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity, the goal of
which was to end discrimination in employment by the government and its contractors. The Civil Rights Act of 1964
went further, prohibiting discrimination in any federal program or activity.
The following year President Johnson went further still, with an executive order to promote equal employment opportunity through "a positive, continuing program in each department and agency." This was a turning point, because it moved from prohibiting the consideration of "race, creed, color or national origin" to acting on the principle
that fairness required more than a commitment to impartial treatment. In 1971, the Nixon Administration took this
one step further in a revised order requiring contractors to develop an affirmative action program with goals and
timetables.
Legal mandates had little effect on attitudes, on behaviors or on subtle discrimination, however. While organizational human resource efforts improved, the behavior of individual employees within organizations often did not.
Moreover, employers found that simply hiring a more diverse workforce did not bring some of the expected benefits. In fact, evidence suggested that management would have to take a more sustained and committed approach
in order to realize the benefits of diversity.
This remedial approach gave way, during the 1980s, with the recognition that diversity should not only be legislated or mandated, but also valued as a business attribute. Training at the time focused on employee attitudes, as
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businesses and government agencies tried to raise awareness of and increase employee sensitivity to diversity
issues.
Mauricio Velasquez, president of Diversity Training Group in Reston, Virginia, believes that the remedial approach
concentrated too much on past wrongs, pointing fingers and creating ripe ground for backlash. By contrast,
Velasquez says, diversity training is forward looking and should focus on the business case for diversity, in which
businesses enjoy benefits from having a diverse workforce. This "business case" approach is expected to accelerate the rate of progress.
Diversity in Engineering
"Until our scientific and technological workplace reflects our diversity, we are not working to our potential as a nation." - Constance A. Morella, Member, US House of Representatives, 8th District, Maryland.
In most countries, the field of engineering has been traditionally occupied by men - in many parts of the world, by
white men. However, demographic trends indicate that the majority of the new entrants into the workforce are
women and minorities. Traditionally, this group has not been targeted for careers in science and engineering. In
the United States, minorities are projected to make up more than 40 percent of new workforce entrants by the year
2008 (BLS, 1999). However, without major changes, they will continue to be dramatically underrepresented in
quantitative fields. In 2000, African Americans comprised less than 5 percent of the workers in mathematical and
computer sciences and under 4 percent of the engineering, physical sciences, and economics workforce. Hispanics made up less than 4 percent of the quantitative disciplines workforce (NSF, 2000).
Equally important as an adequate number of science, engineering, and technological workers is the ability to prepare for the evolving nature of work of the future, including jobs as yet unimagined. To meet the challenge of a
shrinking talent pool, demographic shifts, and a greater demand for engineers, companies have increased interest
in developing recruitment and retention programs targeted toward increasing the diversity of their workforce. To
remain competitive in a global technological society, companies must take serious steps to create a diverse, welltrained and multicultural work force.
The Four Layers of Diversity

Discussions about diversity usually include the four layers of diversity: personality; internal dimensions; external
dimensions; and organizational dimensions. Internal dimensions relate to our physical bodies; external dimension
to our upbringing and socio-economic environment; and organizational dimensions include our histories and environment.
Understanding these layers is important because they influence how we behave and how we view the world. They
reflect our "cultural programming," which teaches us how to interact, solve problems, and give meaning to behavior. It is important, when working with other people, to recognize that different people have different cultural programming, and therefore might do things differently. This might mean something as concrete as dressing differently, or something as intangible as having a different sense of time. The following are some qualities that can vary
among cultures:
1. Sense of Self and Space - In some cultures, such as those of Latin America, people have much smaller
"personal space" than North Americans do. In Britain, by contrast, personal space bubbles tend to be much larger
than in North America.
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2. Communication and Language - About half of interpersonal communication is non-verbal, and this can vary significantly from culture to culture, and even person to person. (The PPC module on Communication Skills provides
information and guidance on effective communication, including nonverbal.) Often we don't even realize how much
is communicated nonverbally.
Look at the following picture. Can you tell which man won the basketball game? See the following page for the correct answer.
Similarly, can you tell whether the woman on the phone is speaking to a male or a female? One study (Hanna and
Wilson, 1998) concluded that women used fewer gestures than men. These authors also stated that women use
fewer gestures when they are with other women than with men (see the following page for answer 1).
(See the bottom of the page for answer 2).

3. Dress and Appearance - Across the globe, proper business attire can mean anything from suits to dashikis.
4. Food and Eating Habits - People from many cultures follow strict dietary rules. Some are vegetarians, some eat no pork, others eat no beef, some don't touch food with the left hand, others don't mix certain foods, such as meats and dairy products. Insensitivity to customs or restrictions can cause offense and potentially ruin a business meeting. If, for example, you leave chopsticks sitting upright in a bowl, you will offend and alienate your hosts, since this resembles incense at a funeral and represents
death.
5. Time - While North Americans view time as linear and finite, people in other parts of the world have other concepts of time.
As a result, many do not share the values of "getting down to business," or being punctual.
Other differences exist in areas such as relationships; beliefs and attitudes; social order and authority; mental processes and learning; and work habits and practices.
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Without examining and understanding the layers that form our filters, we are apt to be victims of our differences,
making unconscious assumptions and encountering inexplicable and frustrating barriers. On the other hand, when
we understand the many influences that have formed our unique filters, we have choices about our behaviour and
about our reaction to others.
(answer 1 - man on the right won the game)
(answer 2 - the woman is talking to a female friend)
The Case for Diversity
Today's economy depends more than ever on the talents of skilled, high-tech workers.
Numerous reports have been issued by education, business, and government, identifying
urgent issues in education and the workforce: the potential for major shortages of qualified workers in quantitatively-based occupations and the associated underrepresentation
of large segments of the population in those fields. Studies have shown that appropriate
investment in preparing the workforce yields approximately four or five to one returns in
economic benefits (Report of the Congressional Commission on the Advancement of
Women and Minorities in Science, Engineering and Technology Development, 2000). We
can invest in efforts that simultaneously increase strengthen economic competitiveness,
address a labor market need and open doors to challenging and rewarding careers.
The goal of workplace diversity is to respond to these realities and to unleash every employee's potential. The
most obvious reason to implement it, then, is to get the most out of a workforce. Additional reasons to diversify a
workforce include:
Talent Shortage
Range of customer needs
Demographics
Globalization
Talent Shortage - In an era of critical skills shortages, organizations are finding that they must attract, retain, motivate and utilize their valuable human assets effectively if they are to be competitive. Diversity management can
reduce unwelcome turnover and reduce absenteeism. Gene Tucker, Director of Equal Employment Opportunity
and Workforce Diversity in Schering-Plough's Pharmaceutical Division, said "In order to ensure that we are competitive with anyone in the global marketplace, we have to be sure that we're getting the best help we can. If you
exclude any particular group, by gender, race, or religion, you would be excluding the person who's going to discover the next blockbuster product or someone who can contribute in another meaningful way in marketing, engineering, or elsewhere."
Range of customer needs - In recent years, organizations have recognized that they can better serve customers
in many different markets with a more diverse workforce. Even if the home base of an organization is located in a
culturally and ethnically homogenous market, there may be substantial numbers of customers located in other,
more diverse communities, either in its home country or abroad.
In communities where other languages dominate, businesses benefit from hiring employees who speak the dominant language, for example. Businesses can also benefit from having diverse workforces design and deliver products in ways that appeal to diverse customers, and from making strategic decisions based on an understanding of
how different groups of customers perceive their organizations.
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Demographics - Data show that people entering the workforce in the next twenty years will be more diverse than
the current workforce. Consider these predictions about the U.S. labor force:
1. By 2006, the average age of the workforce will be 40.5, up from 34.7 in 1979, and while the group of workers
age 45 to 54 will have increased by over 42 percent, the group between 25 and 39 will have shrunk by more than
11 percent.
2. The fastest-growing segments of the workforce will be Asian Americans (40.1 percent increase) and Hispanics
(36.4 percent increase), an increase due primarily to immigration.
3. Women are expected make up approximately 48 percent of the workforce (and 58 percent of college graduates)
in 2006.
These changes are already underway - the numbers of Hispanics in North Carolina grew by 394% between 1990
and 2000, for example - and organizations must be able to keep up with these changes in order to remain relevant
to these new groups of people.
Globalization - Workforce diversity is a critical dimension for those companies seeking to establish themselves as
global enterprises. Ford Motor Company, for example, has manufacturing, assembly and sales facilities in 34 countries and distributes its vehicles through a network of more than 10,500 dealers in more than 200 countries. Consequently, Ford must understand consumer tastes around the world if it is to be successful.
Other reasons to implement diversity include legal and regulatory pressures, external pressure from community,
religious, and political groups, internal employee pressures, and personal commitment.
The Benefits of Diversity
"The diversity debate has shifted from the moral obligation of affirmative action to a business imperative. CEOs, faced with intense competition in global markets, record numbers
of mergers and acquisitions, and the global war for talent, are focusing on how to leverage diversity as their competitive differentiator. "The challenge for many CEOs is to directly infuse their diversity belief systems into the organization. The test for diversity practitioners in many organizations is to overcome diversity resistors and to leverage the
power of the CEO's vision to make diversity happen. " - Dr. Vanessa J. Weaver, "How to
Relate to the New Business Models." Business Week
The business case for diversity in the workplace has been made through bottom line results. Below are some examples of companies enjoying better performance through a diverse workforce.
Improved sales, market share, profits - Corporate diversity efforts are about money, business, and the bottomline, according to Mauricio Velasquez of The Diversity Training Group. Velasquez says his clients implement diversity because it helps them save them money and meet customer expectations.
Examples of improved sales abound. A Petro-Canada site in Vancouver's Chinese community, for example, posted
signs in English and Mandarin in an effort to increase the company's presence within the community. After a team
of sales associates determined they had to be able to speak their customers' language as well, staffing changes
were made accordingly. As a result, kiosk sales increased by 15 percent, and gasoline sales rose from 2.7 million
liters to 3.1 million liters at the Main and Terminal stations between 1991 and 1994. The McGraw-Hill Companies
emphasizes diverse talent management. One example of its talent management strategy is the Associate Develop-
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ment Program (ADP). Since the program began in 1993, it has attracted talented individuals from top MBA business schools who are diverse in race, ethnicity, experience and perspective.
The McGraw-Hill Companies also leverages talent in global markets. Local talent has enabled The McGraw-Hill
Companies to solidify its brand reputation and market share in Latin America due to their teamwork, experience
and knowledge of the needs of the local market.
In the early 1980s, a group of women at Reebok bemoaned the fact that they could not find a good aerobics shoe.
Listening to that complaint, Reebok began marketing aerobics shoes, and within two years went from a $12 milliona-year shoe company to a $3 billion powerhouse. Since then, the company has recognized the importance of diversity, making it a corporate priority. CEO Paul Fireman said that in order to become diverse, a company must
find people with different stories to tell at every level of employment, and then make room for them to talk. Diversity, he has said, does not mean hiring those who are different and then forcing them to behave the same way.
Improved retention, recruitment, and promotion - McDonald's actively recruits older workers for management
jobs and also employs thousands of older workers in its restaurants. CEO Edward Rensi has been quoted as saying that the company finds older workers to be particularly well motivated, with discipline and work habits hard to
find in younger employees.
In 1988, Exxon Chemical initiated a diversity effort at its 2,000-employee plant in Baytown, Texas, forming a group
called Diversity Pioneers, which encourages employees to seek out and understand the differences in the people
around them. Before the initiative, Exxon did not have effective employee promotion policies, despite a good history of recruitment. The Diversity Pioneers implemented a new process for choosing first-line supervisors from the
ranks of technicians and hourly employees. Now, any employee who applies for a supervisor or specialassignment opening is kept informed about the status of the selection process, and if a candidate fails to advance
at any stage of the process, he or she must be given an explanation.
In addition, managers at Exxon frequently salute employees who have been nominated by their peers as having
made a special contribution to the organization's goals.
Decreased complaints and litigation - The costs to an organization of an unhappy employee can go far beyond
low productivity, high turnover or absenteeism. Increasingly, they may include a lengthy public court battle. In
1996, for example, Texaco agreed to allocate $35 million for a Task Force to implement changes in their human
resources programs after being sued for racial discrimination. The plan included revising company recruitment and
hiring procedures to reflect diversity in the workforce, focusing on career development and retention of current employees, and increasing the number of women- and minority-owned business partners.
Other benefits include: an ability to move into emerging markets; improved employee morale; and improved communication between employees and working units.
Strategies for Promoting Diversity
Overview
There are two aspects to achieving diversity. The first is getting there: moving from a non-diverse to a diverse
workforce. The second is managing diversity: ensuring that the benefits are realized while the costs are minimized.
Typical components of a comprehensive diversity initiative include:
Talent Shortage
Range of customer needs
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Demographics
Globalization
Hiring, retaining, and developing great people is the biggest challenge and single greatest key to the success of any business." - Scott McNealy, CEO, Sun Microsystems
Perhaps the most important element is a clear signal from the top of an organization
that commitment to diversity is unequivocal.
Communicating the Mission - Though there are often obvious gaps between the espoused and enacted values
of corporate mission and values statements, such statements are valuable in providing the kind of public commitment that can be used to assess subsequent performance, and they should include.
A clear definition of the diversity initiative's mission statement or statement of commitment

Explanation of the business case showing why the effort is worthy of resources
Explanation of the process itself and its components
Explanation of what individual employees stand to gain through the initiative
Illustration of how the initiative builds on company values and visions
Beyond Words - Of course, leadership goes well beyond words. When Earl Orser of London Life personally led
the Women in Management Program at London Life, he made a clear statement as to its importance. He followed
up with a program to set divisional objectives for recruiting and promoting women. When Courtney Pratt of Noranda assigned the responsibility for conference and events coordination to a woman who was visually impaired,
people understood that senior executives in that organization were serious about pursuing employment diversity.
Commitment includes a dedicated budget for an ongoing diversity management program.
Benchmarking - One of the best ways to create a successful diversity program is to learn from others what works
and what doesn't and to take an honest look at where you are today. Honeywell, for example, designed and conducted a diversity benchmarking study, and invited 33 companies to participate. Twenty-three companies participated in the proprietary study, which examined best practices that support strong and sustainable diversity success.
Honeywell identified the following goals as requiring the greatest investment of commitment: balanced workforce
representation, leadership accountability, addressing diversity as ongoing culture change, and instituting of standards around workplace culture assessments, diversity training and skill-building. Following the benchmark study,
Honeywell laid out a strategic plan for achieving year-over-year improvement in managing diversity and meeting
these goals.
Setting Objectives - While quotas and other numeric measures of diversity do not constitute a diversity initiative,
these measures have some value when they are established and used in the context of a comprehensive program.
Furthermore, it is a cardinal principle of management that people do what is objectified, measured and rewarded,
so an initiative's chances for success are better if diversity management is seen as a mainline business practice.
Self assessment and comparison with benchmarking results can be helpful in determining clear and realistic objectives. Common measures of success include progress along a specified timeline toward parity in the technical
workforce relative to the general workforce population, at different workplace levels and in management, along with
equity in retention, pay, and promotion rates for all employees.
Recruitment - Companies wishing to actively recruit a more diverse workforce can:
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Advertise in ethno-culturally focused media

Establish relationships with community-based ethno-cultural organizations
Recruit at colleges, universities and schools with high minority enrollments, and ensure that recruiting materials
reflect diversity
Use specialized recruitment agencies, databases and services
Provide scholarships and fellowships for undergraduate and graduate women and minorities
Offer internship and co-op programs, especially to members of communities from which they wish to recruit
Participate in outreach to high schools and community colleges
Provide student grants for professional development
Establish relationships with student organizations such as the Society of Women Engineers and the National
Society of Black Engineers
Serving on boards of professional organizations
Fund university grant programs
Train Human Resources personnel in cross-cultural interviewing skills so that they don't screen out potential
recruits because of biased selection methodologies, and review recruitment and selection processes for such
biases
Where appropriate, ensure that recruitment material is available in different languages and is written in ways
that will appeal to minority groups
Mobilize current employees from different backgrounds in a program to increase recruitment and selection
Managing Diversity
In recent years there has been increasing attention paid to the issue of retaining employees who were aggressively recruited to increase diversity in organizations. Companies
are finding the need to make their environment more hospitable to the diverse workers
they have recruited. In some cases this has meant making accommodations for families
by offering job sharing and flexible work hours, and by allowing extended leaves for people to travel back to their countries of origin for family or religious reasons, for example.
It is not unusual to see organizations in which most employees are women, but there are
few or no women in management. In these cases, management needs to examine the
reasons for this, and work to correct them. For example, in cases where degrees and diplomas are used as proxy
variables for required knowledge and skills, an organization can examine the need for those credentials to determine if the person has the skills rather than the degree. This could also apply to immigrants who hold degrees that
are not recognized in the U.S.
There are many avenues open to companies that are serious about maintaining a diverse work force.
Career Development - U.S. companies have begun to provide incentives such as career development programs
to encourage and facilitate the entrance of minorities and women into the management career ladder. A survey of
women engineers indicated these programs are beneficial to women. Including supervisors in a recognition and
reward process increases the programs' effectiveness.
Mentoring Programs - Women and minorities who establish successful engineering careers often have had important mentors who have encouraged them, provided them with advice, and steered them through early phases of
their careers. Several companies have set up mentoring programs that match individuals by career track and discipline. IBM provides a formalized mentoring program fro employees which it sees as a key factor in assisting employees develop within the corporation and assisting IBM in attracting and retaining members of minority groups so
that the company can achieve its diversity goals.
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A mentoring program is more likely to be successful if participants are matched, psychologically as well as by discipline, and the mentor is not in a position of authority over the mentor. Participant preparation is important. A good
orientation for participants includes an overview of the mentoring program; expectations and restrictions of the
mentoring relationship; the level of commitment required (time, energy, and flexibility); guidelines on relationship
management and communication skills; and the benefits and rewards they can expect. A useful approach is to use
real life case studies and discuss how the potential situations could be handled. Involve the employees' managers explain the role of the mentor and the objectives of the program.
Networks - Formal and informal networks offer the opportunity for women and minorities to share experiences,
mentor each other, and learn about the unwritten rules of success. Many companies have assisted in the establishment of these groups and have even come to rely upon them for information and guidance in management. Companies can also support employee participation in professional organizations, such as ASME, NSPE, or WEPAN,
by subsidizing the organization's dues and providing paid time off for professional activities, including networking.
Many organizations provide resources to support groups of individuals who may have difficulty finding appropriate
role models, handling some of the reaction to diversity programs, being assertive in the pursuit of personal growth
opportunities, or coping with ignorance, bigotry and harassment. For example, Prudential Life Insurance's diversity
initiatives began with internal networking groups, such as the Women's Executive Group and Black Executive Forum. Such groups foster an open and positive environment where employees feel they are being valued for the
unique perspective they can bring to the company.
Compensation - Some companies have initiated studies to identify salary disparities. A 1990 study traced 31 to 34
percent of gender differences in current salaries to differences in starting salary. Compensation has a strong influence on the retention of women and minorities, especially at the early stages of their careers. While most students
are not taught about negotiating compensation packages, women and minorities are often even more naive about
the potential impact of what an initial salary has upon subsequent career opportunities.
Family Policies - In an effort to make companies family-friendly for both male and female employees, some companies have implemented creative strategies, such as flexible work schedules and maternity leave. Other strategies include: staggered work schedules; excused absence for emergencies or unpredictable situations; unpaid personal leave for family-related matters; part-time employment; job sharing; vacation carryover; on-site child care;
career-family balancing training; child-care referral; sabbaticals and developing specific accommodations, such as
child-care or literacy programs, for employees with special needs.
Attrition Accountability - Recognizing that the turnover rate for women and minorities is higher than for white
males, companies have begun to examine the trends and identify the problems, using tools such as job satisfaction
surveys and exit interviews. Surveys have the additional benefit of making employees feel that management wants
to address minority and women's perceptions of the company, but it is critical that the company follow up with any
concerns identified to avoid loss of employee morale.
Human Resources Management - When a company pursues diversity, then it should look at the other ways in
which it manages people through human resource policies, practices and processes. When a company hires people of different religions, for example, it should examine its vacation and time-off policies. When it hires women, it
should address questions of flexible hours for family care reasons, and in the process of doing so, may well find
that more flexible hours benefit male as well as female employees.
Diversity Training - Diversity training takes many different forms. In some cases it involves teaching behavioral
norms from various cultures, as well as details of the cultures, such as the nuances of their languages and mannerisms. It can also provide information on how to benefit from diverse perspectives, to see things from others'
points of view and to make appropriate external attributions rather than blaming others for situations. In some
cases, training should also address how to overcome opposition to diversity programs and initiatives. Diversity
seminars or retreats offer employees the opportunity to reflect on their personal diversity journeys, to benchmark
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their institution's progress and to brainstorm with others above diversity issues and effective strategies to address
them.
Training Dos and Don'ts - Training, although not a "quickie," one-shot solution to achieving diversity, is an integral component of a company's diversity management strategy. In order for training to be effective, the issues underlying any change must be recognized in advance and dealt with, or the tensions that are brought to the surface
during the training will come up against traditional organizational behavior. Below is a list of tips on how to improve
training.
It is important that the trainers connect with all the trainees, and acknowledge that they themselves are not free
of prejudice, in order to increase their credibility and the credibility of the program.
Overemphasizing the prejudices of members of dominant groups isn't constructive. It is just as important that
members of minority groups be aware of how their prejudices may be affecting others.
Focus on the positive. Guilt-driven programs, where white males are taught to think of themselves as oppressors or recovering racists, block the goals of the training program. Attempts to make people feel guilty will only
inspire defensiveness and resistance to anything that is said.
Likewise, excess attention paid to misuse of words in diversity training can be overdone, resulting in a loss of
humor.
Diversity training that focuses only on the ills of the past and the goal for the future misses present reality - how
people are and how to make it safe to work now.
Addressing Concerns - Addressing the concerns of those who may have negative reactions to diversity initiatives
and learning how to manage these situations effectively can help make a diversity initiative successful.
Acknowledge that it exists --- get it out into the open.

Emphasize, through training, communication and actions, that diversity is an inclusive concept and does not
see one group benefiting at the expense of another.
Make sure that there are no "token" appointments made, that the search for qualified candidates is inclusive,
and that the best person for the job is chosen.
Evaluation of Success - Research indicates that the most common measures of diversity program effectiveness
are in the following key areas:
Productivity, growth, and profitability (metrics - employee morale, retention, absenteeism, and market expansion)
Accountability (metrics - checklists, employee attitude surveys, and evaluations)
Demographics (metrics - equal employment opportunity and affirmative action metrics)
To evaluate the success of a diversity initiative, you must first establish a statement of purpose and plan for the
program that includes goals, objectives, and timelines for all aspects of the program, and provide funding and resources for its development and maintenance. An evaluation plan is then based on the program objectives and
statement of purpose, and carried out with a system incorporating regular monitoring, written records (baseline and
throughout the program), and a process for collecting data, such as interviews and surveys.
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4
What You Can Do About Diversity
Identifying Stereotypes
An important first step you can take toward appreciating and reaping the benefits of diversity is to become aware of your own different levels of diversity, i.e., the four layers of diversity. Overcoming your own prejudices is a crucial next step. Stereotypes often stem
lack of information, so it is helpful to learn more about other cultures and other groups.
You can do this by:
Interacting with employees and colleagues from other groups

Reading or watching programs about various cultures
Observing without judging Sharing knowledge and experiences
Spending time in other cultures
You can introduce a discussion of diversity in your workplace or classroom, focusing not only on identifying the
stereotypes and prejudices we all harbor, but on recognizing and appreciating the benefits of diversity in the workplace.
Working Together Across International Lines

In the global economy, it is often necessary to interact with associates or clients in other countries. In that case, the
rules of the game change, and awareness of cultural diversity means something a little different. Though it can
take months or years to feel completely comfortable and conversant in a different country, it is possible with just a
little research to find the basic information that will eradicate the major social blunders. Below are some tips.
Forming Relationships: Only in the Germanic countries will people be as eager to get down to business as in the
U.S. Almost anywhere else in the world, especially in Asian and Latin countries, it's important to first get to know
the person with whom you're dealing, to build a bond of trust.
Information and Communication: If you have no idea how someone from another culture communicates, you
can't possibly negotiate or work together effectively. For example, Asian cultures put a great deal of emphasis on
the concept of face. In order to save face, theirs or yours, you will seldom get a direct answer, especially if it's "no."
You will hear "yes" a great deal, but that doesn't necessarily signify agreement; only acknowledgement.
North Americans are very direct in their speech and avoid implied meanings and innuendos. Latin Americans often
consider such directness uncultured and lacking in refinement. Similarly, North Americans often toot their own
horns, a practice that is anathema in group-oriented cultures such as that of Japan, where people are much more
self-effacing.
When traveling, pay attention to your volume, vocal quality, tone of voice, and posture, since these indicate good
breeding. Learn to listen and to keep in mind that, when in doubt, modesty is the best policy.
Rank and Status: One of the first indicators of rank and status in any culture is appearance. Your dress signals
your self-respect, your respect for the organization you represent, and your respect for the person with whom you
are working. When in doubt, err on the side of conservatism and formality.
Err, too, on the side of age and the masculine gender when in doubt about rank within a group, but don't make the
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mistake of snubbing younger members. In the group-oriented cultures of Asia, decision-making is by consensus
from the bottom up. In Latin cultures, decision-making is usually a very steep top down process.
Greetings and introductions are a clear indicator of status, even in the relatively informal North American culture,
when executed properly. If you haven't mastered the intricacies, stick to the handshake, but don't expect to get the
solid American type. It's gauche in France to pump more than once from the elbow. Remember, too, to have plenty
of bilingual or multilingual business cards on hand, as appropriate.
Learn which cultures place the surname first so you won't be addressing someone with the equivalent of "Mr. Bob."
Never call someone by their first name unless you are specifically asked to do so; virtually nowhere else are people as informal in the manner of address as in the United States. Don't forget the honorifics or titles that go with the
name. In Germany you might use a whole string of titles to address someone, and in Italy it's an honor to be addressed by your profession.
Space: The North American personal bubble of space is much greater than that of an Arab or a Russian, but much
smaller than that of a Briton. Infringing upon another's personal space, or inadvertently backing away when they
enter your comfort zone, can send unintended negative messages. Touching someone is one of the easiest ways
to violate personal space. When touch crosses gender lines, the consequences can be dire. Keep your hands to
yourself.
Time: Attitudes differ about such details as how far in advance to book appointments, and to what extent punctuality matters. Task-oriented, linear Americans, who consider time a commodity to be managed, are easily frustrated
when dealing with relationship-oriented Arabs, Asians, or Latin Americans, who consider time to be flexible, beyond human control, and something to be accepted no matter what. It pays to develop some flexibility to avoid angry outbursts.
Gift Giving: Except in Japan, gift giving is seldom as important as Americans think it is. Giving too much and too
often can be as offensive as giving too little. Always consider to whom you must give gifts, what gifts are appropriate, when you should give them, and how they should be presented. The answers vary from culture to culture, so
be prepared.
Entertaining: As a foreigner, you can expect to be entertained, often quite lavishly. If you're dealing with the Chinese, you are also expected to honor them by reciprocating before the end of your trip. In other cultures the reciprocity may not be as blatant, but may be present nonetheless. Find the answers to the basic questions.
Mind your Manners: Never forget that table manners count everywhere, and that yours may not be theirs. Eating
with chopsticks or with your hands can be the least of it. Slurping, burping and drinking from each other's glass
may be just a few of the acceptable behaviors you encounter.
Taboos and Sensitivities: These vary from culture to culture, and it's your job to learn beforehand what they are.
The most common ones stem from politics, religion, ethnicity, geography, gender or misunderstood humor. Jokes
don't travel or translate well, so as a rule, leave home without them, and you'll be less likely to offend.
The New Golden Rule: The first guiding principle of international interactions is the new Golden Rule, "Do unto
others as they would have you do unto them." That sounds simple, but the effect can be profound because you no
longer set yourself up as the arbiter of acceptable behavior for someone from another culture.
Offense Given and Offense Taken: The second and third guiding principles are opposite sides of the same coin.
Do your homework so you don't give unintentional offense through ignorance of the culture. More important, don't
undermine yourself by taking offense when none was intended, and the other person was simply behaving according to his or her cultural norms.
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Difference: The fourth guiding principle is that every culture is different. Even when certain cultural traits are
similar, the overall combination of behaviors and beliefs is unique to each culture. You can't expect to be successful in the international arena by winging it or by behaving the same way you do on your home turf. Meetings
in international settings are ideal opportunities to broaden your horizons.
Working Together Across Gender Lines

A great deal of attention has been paid lately to the differences in the way men and
women communicate. A number of books have postulated that, generally, women talk to
build connections and intimacy, while men view conversations as negotiations to obtain
the upper hand.
According to this theory, women see life as a community in which the goal is to preserve
intimacy and avoid isolation. Consequently, their conversation focuses on relationships
with family, friends and the people with whom they work. Men, on the other hand, view
life as a hierarchy, in which they are either one-up or one-down. They communicate to
gain status by exhibiting their knowledge or by comparing their possessions (cars, stereo
equipment, etc.), for example.
Men and women tend to deal with conflict differently as well. Women pay more attention
to nonverbal communication, for example. Women also expect that conflicts must be
healed, while many men can have a loud argument at 10 a.m. and then go out for lunch as though nothing happened. While all men and women will not fall into these categories, the communication guidelines represent a
good starting point. The PPC Communication Skills module discusses communication skills in greater depth.
Keeping in mind these differences can help people work with one another across gender lines. Getting along well
with the greatest number of people at work means having the most resources available and functioning better in
an organization, so it is in every employee's best interest to understand how others communicate.
Case Studies in Diversity
IBM: IBM has a century-long diversity heritage based on the philosophy that diversity is the "bridge between the
workplace and the marketplace," and is central to IBM's ability to win in the global marketplace. Diversity permeates every facet of IBM's management and technical operations. For example, 57% of IBM's Board of Directors is
women, multicultural, and/or non-U.S. born. Forty percent of IBM's top 54-member Worldwide Executive Council is
women, multicultural, or non-U.S. born. These women and multicultural executives have significant revenue responsibility. Thirty members of IBM's Worldwide Executive Council are involved in guiding specific corporate-wide
diversity initiatives. They are held accountable for recruitment, retention and advancement of all talent and, most
important, linking IBM's diversity initiatives to the global marketplace.
Levi Strauss & Co.: At Levis Strauss & Co., diversity is a core value. It is an expression of what the company
stands for. It's right for business, communities, and for families. It creates greater tolerance. The company's diversity belief system translates into a four-component diversity strategy that has been instrumental in building their
business:
Sourcing diverse talent

"Empathetic marketing:" "If you are who you serve, [then] you will be a better marketer."
Creativity and innovation
Community involvement
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6
Conclusion
Edgar S. Woolard, Jr., former CEO of Dupont, describes diversity as good for business, citing three major reasons:
Fierce global competition - people of various cultures and nationalities are customers, competitors, employees
and other stakeholders.
Enriched business decisions, new markets - teams with a mixture of gender, racial and ethnic backgrounds
produce multidimensional and innovative decisions.
Recruiting advantage and talent - competition for the most qualified employees including women and minorities
is stiff. Diversity is an effective recruiting tool since the comfortable and supportive environment that can be
developed attracts and retains talented people.
In today's rapidly changing and diversifying world, the leading organizations of the 21st Century will be those that
create a constant stream of innovative goods and services, winning customers and earning loyalty through exceptional performance. No one type of person, or group of people, has all the skills and talents needed to do this. Diversity is not only people who look different - it's also people who have different experiences. Recognizing the business advantages of embracing diversity, many organizations have successfully implemented diversity programs.
Nonetheless, workplace diversity still faces many barriers and challenges. Managing diversity is not easy, and undertaking a diversity initiative can backfire if the program is mismanaged, with long-reaching effects on employee
satisfaction and productivity. Resistance to change among the workforce is usually due to stereotypes based on
lack of information, fear of change, fears of reverse discrimination, and a lack of understanding of the benefits associated with change. Effective training can often alleviate these fears and misunderstandings, increasing the possibility of a successful diversity initiative. Contrary to popular belief, the evidence doesn't support the idea that increasing diversity automatically translates into better performance; rather, it suggests that management must take
a conscious, systemic approach.
Thus, an organization's commitment to diversity must be sustained. This leadership commitment requires the establishment of priorities and realistic objectives, the assessment and development of policies and practices to meet
the particular diversity needs of the organization and the provision of management and employee training and support processes.
You can help yourself as well as your company by developing your own awareness and ability to work effectively
with others, capitalizing on your diverse backgrounds and experiences. The particular benefits of diversity depend
on your individual circumstance. Diversity can help you and your organization: identify and capitalize on opportunities to improve products and services; attract, retain, motivate and utilize talented people effectively; improve the
quality of decision-making at all organizational levels; and reap the many benefits from being perceived as a socially conscious and progressive organization.
There is increasing evidence that emphasis on diversity pays off; there is always a compelling business case for
achieving and managing diversity in the workplace.
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Resources
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http://www.aphis.usda.gov/mb/wfd/define.html
Dane Archer, Exploring Nonverbal Communication, excerpt from a video Retrieved April 6, 2004 from http://
zzyx.ucsc.edu/~archer/intro.html
ASME International, Standardized Leadership Training Program Module 11 (2002). Retrieved March 4, 2004 from
http://www.asme.org/committees/slt/SLT11/11-diversity.ppt
Stephen Cahn, On the History of Affirmative Action (1995), Retrieved April 6, 2004 from http://
aad.english.ucsb.edu/docs/Cahn.html
Corporate Leadership Council, Creating a Diversity Strategy (2003). Retrieved March 5, 2004 from http://
www.corporateleadershipcouncil.com/CLC1YRLDY.pdf
Jeffrey Gandz, A Business Case for Diversity (2001). Retrieved March 4, 2004 from http://
www.equalopportunity.on.ca/eng_g/documents/BusCase.html
Melanie Goetz, Workforce Diversity (2001). Retrieved March 4, 2004 from http://academic.emporia.edu/
smithwil/001fmg456/eja/goetz.html
Patti Hathaway, Avoiding the Gender Fender Benders (1999). Retrieved March 4, 2004 from http://
www.thechangeagent.com/gender.html
Beverley Hill, Equity and Diversity Considerations in Professional Engineering (2003). Retrieved on March 4, 2004
from http://www.ipe103.oil-gas.uwa.edu.au/__data/page/9967/equity_and_diversity.ppt
Lowenstein Sandler Diversity Mission Statement (2004). Retrieved on April 6, 2004 from http://
www.lowenstein.com/recruiting/diversitystatement.html
Mauricio Velasquez, Changes in Diversity Training (1998). Retrieved on April 6, 2004 from http://
www.diversitydtg.com/
Christa Walck, Managing Diversity (2003). Retrieved March 4, 2004 from http://www.sbea.mtu.edu/cwalck/ba3700/
Ch%202%20Managing%20diversity.ppt
International Etiquette Tips, from www.myworktools.com.
"Diversity as Strategy for ASME," A Report from the Board on Diversity and Outreach, February 2004 "Strategies
Used by Companies to Recruit and Retain Women and Minorities in Engineering," retrieved from
www.globalalliancesmet.org on April 4, 2004.
"Land of Plenty: Diversity as America's Competitive Edge in Science, Engineering and Technology," Report of the
Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science, Engineering and Technology Development, 2000.
"Upping the Numbers: Using Research-Based Decision Making to Increase Diversity in the Quantitative Disciplines," Report Commissioned by the GE Fund, 2002.
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Resources:
The following organizations provide information about diversity:
Women in Engineering Programs & Advocates Network at www.wepan.org
The National Action Council for Minorities in Engineering at www.nacme.org
Society for Human Resource Management at www.shrm.org
The Diversity Training Group at www.diversitydtg.com
Diversity in Engineering Links
Women in Engineering Links
ASME's Standardized Leadership Training Module 11 - Diversity. Improving Volunteer Participation by Valuing Differences and Encouraging Inclusiveness. http://www.asme.org/committees/slt/Files/11.htm
A website with links to mentoring organizations: http://www.mentors.ca/mentorlinks.html
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Quiz
1. The most dramatic workforce change since the 1960s is the growing
number of what group in the workforce?
a. Hispanics
b. Seniors (65 and over)
c. African-Americans
d. Women
2. By 2050, close to what fraction of the U.S. population will be made up of Asians, Hispanics, African-Americans,
and other nonwhite groups?
a. One quarter
b. One third
c. One half
d. Two thirds
3. Of the 43 million Americans who have disabilities, 20 million are of working age (16-64). How many were unemployed in 1992?
a. 4 million
b. 10 million
c. 14 million
d. 18 million
4. By the year 2050, what percent of the workforce will be 55 years of age
or older?
a. 15 percent
b. 25 percent
c. 40 percent
d. 50 percent
5. What percentage of the total U.S. population speaks a language other than English at home?
a. 4 percent
b. 14 percent
c. 24 percent
d. 34 percent
6. What are the two most racially and ethnically diverse states in the U.S.?
a. Florida, New York
b. Florida, California
c. New York, California
d. New Mexico, California
7. What are the two least ethnically and racially diverse states?
a. North Dakota, South Dakota
b. Wyoming, Nevada
c. Maine, Vermont
d. Arkansas, Illinois
8. What percent of U.S. working-age women are in the labor market?
a. 55 percent
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b. 65 percent
c. 75 percent
d. 85 percent
9. Which of these best describes the average welfare recipient?
a. An urban African American woman with more than three children
b. An urban African American woman with fewer than three children
c. A rural white woman with two children or fewer
d. An Asian American woman with two children or fewer
10. What percentage of native-born and immigrant Hispanics and Latinos living in the US think new Americans
should learn English?
a. 15 percent
b. 3 percent
c. 90 percent
d. 50 percent
11. According to American Demographics magazine, what percentage of white Americans live in overwhelmingly
white neighborhoods?
a. 90 percent
b. 57 percent
c. 75 percent
d. 15 percent
12. In which of the four layers of diversity is race located?
a. First
b. Second
c. Third
d. Fourth
13. Which of these is not a reason to implement diversity?
a. Legal mandate
b. Talent shortage
c. Unleasing employee potential
d. Reflecting customers
14. In which country could you expect decision making to be made from the
top down?
a. Japan
b. England
c. China
d. Brazil
15. Which of these groups is most likely to view time in the linear way
Americans do?
a. Britons
b. Arabs
c. Asians
d. Latin Americans
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Quiz: Answer Key
1. D
2. C
3. C
4. A
5. B
6. D
7. C
8. C
9. C
10. C
11. A
12. B
13. A
14. D
15. A
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Leadership Principles
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
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Part 1: Communication
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Part 2: Teamwork
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Part 3: Motivation
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Part 4: Diversity
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Part 5: Conflict Resolution
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Part 6: Tactical Proficiency
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Introduction
The basis for effective leadership begins with broad, underlying principles. Today, leaders must know much more
than just technical proficiency - they must be able to communicate, build teams, motivate professionals, embrace
diversity, and resolve conflicts. Leaders must also have a sixth sense for a more subtle category of skills we refer
to as "tactical proficiency," where things such as taking responsibility, decision-making, making committments and
maintaining a team can make all the difference. This module will teach you about the principles of leadership guidelines that many leaders use, regardless of style and personality, to ensure that the objectives are achieved
and employees are satisfied.
Communication
Leadership is About People

Leadership is about people. It's not surprising to find interpersonal skills,
what some call "people skills," at the top of the list of what a leader must
KNOW. All these skills - communicating, team building, supervising,
and counseling - require communication. They're closely related; you
can hardly use one without using the others.
If you take a moment to think about all the training you've received under
the heading "communication," you'll see that it probably falls into four
broad categories: speaking, reading, writing, and listening. You begin
practicing speech early; many children are using words by the age of one. The heavy emphasis on reading and
writing begins in school, if not before. Yet how many times have you been taught how to listen? Of the four forms
of communication, listening is the one in which most people receive the least amount of formal training. Yet for a
leader, it's every bit as important as the others. It often comes first because you must listen and understand before
you can decide what to say.
Business-Like Discussion
When talking to employees, clients and other professionals, keep it a business-like discussion. The following elements reflect features of business-like communication:
Stick to the subject

Listen respectfully
Avoid getting hung up on personalities
Keep an open mind that the other person "may have
something"
Don't lose your temper
Plan the time and place for the discussion
The Importance of Two-Way Communication

There are two common forms of one-way communication that are not necessarily the best way to exchange information: seeing and hearing. The key difference between one-way and two-way communication is that one-way
communication - hearing and seeing something on television, reading a copy of a slide presentation, or even
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Active Listening
An important form of two-way communication is active listening. When you practice active listening, you send signals to the speaker that say, "I'm paying attention." Nod your head every once in a while, as if to say, "Yes, I understand." When you agree with the speaker, you might use an occasional "uh-huh." Look the speaker in the eye.
Give the speaker your full attention. Don't allow yourself to be distracted by looking out the window, checking your
watch, playing with something on your desk, or trying to do more than one thing at a time. Avoid interrupting the
speaker; that's the worst offense of active listening.
The Barriers of Listening

Be aware of barriers to listening. Don't form your response while the other person is still talking. Don't allow yourself to become distracted by the fact that you're angry, or that you have lots of other things you need to be thinking
about. If you give in to these temptations, you'll miss most of what's being said.
Non-Verbal Communication
In face-to-face communication, even in the simplest conversation, there's a great deal going on that has almost
nothing to do with the words being used. Nonverbal communication involves all the signals you send with your
facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language. Effective leaders know that communication includes both
verbal and nonverbal cues. Look for them in this example.
A young mechanical engineer named Ms. Fernandez, new to the Region VIII Operating Board, approaches the
History and Heritage Chair, Mr. Pullman and says, "I have a problem I'd like to talk to you about." Mr. Pullman
makes time - right then if possible - to listen. Stopping, looking Ms. Fernandez in the eye, and asking, "What's
up?" sends many signals: I am concerned about your problem. You're part of the team, and we help each other.
What can I do to help? All these signals, by the way, reinforce good leadership values.
Teamwork
Developing Teams
You've heard that the Society is a team. Just how important is it that people
have a sense of the team? It is very important! The national cause, the purpose of the mission, and al the larger concerns may not be visible from the
meeting room. Regardless of other issues, team members perform for other
people on the team. This is a fundamental truth: people perform because they
don't want to let their teammates down.
Developing teams takes hard work, patience, and quite a bit of interpersonal
skill on the part of the leader, but it's a worthwhile investment. Good teams get
the job done. People who are part of a good team complete the mission on
time with the resources given them and a minimum of wasted effort.
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Good Teams: Highlights
Good teams share several primary characteristics:
They work together to accomplish an objective.

They execute tasks thoroughly and quickly.
They meet or exceed the standard.
They thrive on demanding challenges.
They learn from their experiences and are proud of their accomplishments.
Team Personality
Teams, like individuals, have different personalities. As with individuals, the leader's job isn't to make teams that
are clones of one another; the job is to make best use of the peculiar talents of the team, maximize the potential of
the unit climate, and motivate aggressive execution.
Team-Building Activities
Team building activities have always been popular, but be careful that you do not divide your members! For example, one Society sponsored social did not work as it was supposed to. Because of accident liability, the Society
chose not to serve liquor, but instead, let members buy it at a cash bar. Many young members were just starting
their career and family and did not have much extra spending money and found the charge per drink high and consequently complained about the party. Meanwhile the members from the higher socioeconomic levels did not find
the drink charge a problem. The two groups also approached the party attire differently. The more affluent group
enjoyed dressing up for the occasion while the rest were annoyed about having to purchase a dress or suit. To
further complicate matters, the affluent group didn't anticipate the needs of or even perceive the problems felt by
their co-members at the Christmas party. A small third faction objected to the party due to the travel requirements
and stayed away from the party. The result was groups of members who became more distant from each other.
This distance further eroded the closeness necessary for building teams. As a result, a Society function that was
designed to build teams actually ended up dividing the members into three camps.
Motivation
Understanding the Power of Motivation

Motivation involves using word and example to give your team the will to accomplish an objective. Motivation grows out of people's confidence in them selves,
their unit, and their leaders. This confidence is born in hard, realistic training; it's
nurtured by constant reinforcement and through the kind of leadership - consistent, hard, and fair - that promotes trust. Remember that trust, like loyalty, is a gift
your team members give you only when you demonstrate that you deserve it.
Motivation also springs from the person's faith in the larger mission of the organization - a sense of being a part of the big picture.
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Empowering People
People want to be recognized for the work they do and want to be empowered. You empower team members
when you train them to do a job, give them the necessary resources and authority, get out of their way, and let
them work. Not only is this a tremendous statement of the trust you have in them; it's one of the best ways to develop them as leaders. Coach and counsel them, both when they succeed and when they fail.
Positive Reinforcement
Part of empowering team members is finding out their needs. Talk to your people: find out what's important to
them, what they want to accomplish, what their personal goals are. Give them feedback that lets them know how
they're doing. Listen carefully so that you know what they mean, not just what they say. Use their feedback when
it makes sense, and if you change something in the organization because of a subordinate's suggestion, let everyone know where the good idea came from. Remember, there's no limit to the amount of good you can do as long
as you don't worry about who gets the credit. Give the credit to those who deserve it and you'll be amazed at the
result.
Giving Praise to Others

You recognize people when you give them credit for the work they do, from a pat on the back to a formal award or
decoration. Don't underestimate the power of a few choice words of praise when a person has done a good job.
Don't hesitate to give out awards - commendations, letters, certificates - when appropriate. (Use good judgment,
however. If you give out a medal for every little thing, pretty soon the award becomes meaningless. Give an
award becomes meaningless. Give an award for the wrong thing and you show you're out of touch.) Napoleon
marveled at the motivational power of properly awarded ribbons and medals. He once said that if he had enough
ribbons, he could rule the world.
Using Rewards
When using rewards, you have many options. Here are some things to consider:
Consult the leadership chain for recommendations.

Choose a reward valued by the person receiving it, one that appeals to the individual's personal pride.
Use the established system of awards (certificates, medals, letters of commendation, bonuses) when appropriate.
Present the award at an appropriate ceremony.
Emphasize its importance. Let others see how hard work is rewarded.
Give rewards promptly.
Praise only good work or honest effort. Giving praise too freely cheapens its effect.
Promote people who get the job done and who influence others to do better work.
Recognize those who meet the standard and improve their performance.
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4
Diversity
Understanding the Power of Diversity

Diversity is about empowering people. It makes an organization effective by capitalizing on all the strengths of each employee. It is not EEO or Affirmative Action.
These are laws and policies. While on the other hand, diversity is understanding,
valuing, and using the differences in every person.
Diversity in Team-Building
Embracing diversity is the first item for building teams. Every team building theory states that to build a great team,
there must be a diverse group of people on the team, that is, you must avoid choosing people who are only like
you. Choosing people like yourself to be on teams is similar to inbreeding - it multiplies the flaws. While on the
other end of the continuum is having an assorted group of individuals which diminishes the flaws of others. Diversity is what builds a teama team will not be built if every member of the team does not embrace diversity.
Synergy and Teamwork

Simply enforcing government regulations will not get you to the best. To obtain that competitive edge you need to
create great work teams by using the full potential of every individual. Teams are much more than a group. A
group is a collection of individuals where each person is working toward his or her own goal, while a team is a collection of individuals working towards a common team goal or vision. This helps to create a synergy effect with
teamsthat is, one plus one equals more than one. An individual, acting alone, can accomplish much; but a group
of people acting together in a unified force can accomplish great wonders. This is because team members understand each other and support each other. Their main goal is to see the team accomplish its mission. Personal
agendas do not get in the way of team agendas. Personal agendas are a huge waste upon an organization's resources because they do not support its goals. By using the synergy effect of teams you create a competitive advantage over other organizations who are using people acting alone. You are getting more for your efforts!
The Process of Acceptance

If team members do not accept others for what they are, they will not be able to use the abilities of others to fill in
their weak areas. Hence, the team effort will fail. Their only goal becomes the ones on their personal agendasto
make them as an individual look good while ignoring the needs of the team and the organization. Embracing diversity is more than tolerating people who are different. It means actively welcoming and involving them by:
Developing an atmosphere in which it is safe for all employees to ask for help. People should not be viewed
as weak if they ask for help. This is what helps to build great teams - joining weakness with strengths to get
the goal accomplished.
Actively seeking information from people from a variety of backgrounds and cultures. Also, including everyone
on the problem solving and decision making process.
Including people who are different than you in informal gatherings such as lunch, coffee breaks, and spur of
the moment meetings.
Creating a team spirit in which every member feels a part.
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5
Conflict Resolution
Learning Conflict Resolution

Many factors underlie conflict between people. These factors include the conflicting
parties' education, social background, experience, and environment. The end result
of variations in these and other factors will be the inability of the people involved to
arrive at agreement on what is right and what is wrong in a particular situation.
Since the approach to handling leadership problems is based on the fact that there
is a cause for every difficulty, we should review some of the most often heard reasons for conflict. They arise as a result of conflict between two or more people, without regard to their level of reporting relationship.
Three Responses to Conflict

Despite the inevitability of conflict, the way people respond to these differences is their choice. People can choose
one of three responses during conflict situations. They can:
Compromise amicable to turn disagreements into agreements,

Continue to privately disagree but fully support the final agreed-upon decision, or
Continue to disruptively disagree.
Resolution in Four Steps

Your objective as a leader is to resolve conflicts in one of the first two ways. Follow these next four steps for successful conflict resolution:
1. Separate misunderstandings from conflicts.
2. Create a positive environment for conflict resolution.
3. Focus on people's interests, not their positions.
4. Communicate clearly.
Separating Misunderstanding
Separate Misunderstandings from Conflicts - Many of the perceived disagreements that occur are not really disagreements but misunderstandings. Misunderstandings can be easily remedied. Before you assume that you
have a conflict, find out what the other person believes about the situation. You may find they are misinformed or
do not have all the facts about the situation and may be willing to change their position. Conversely, you may find
that it is you who misunderstands the situation. In any event, if both of you can come to a quick agreement based
upon a clarification of the facts and assumptions, you have resolved the misunderstanding. If you cannot agree
and there remains a conflict, go to the next step.
Create a Positive Environment

Create a Positive Environment for Conflict Resolution - You can create a positive environment in two ways. First
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separate the problem from the person. Stay problem-oriented by retaining a clear and vigorous focus on the problem and not conveying an adversarial notion that the person is the problem. If you communicate to the other person in the conflict that both of you are part of the team that must collectively solve a problem, then you will be more
effectively frame your attitudes and respond to the upcoming challenge. You still are concerned about the person's
needs, feelings, or emotional condition, but by objectively concentrating on the problem and not personally attacking the other person, you can find solutions that will solve the problem without antagonism. This will, in turn, reduce the tension built up between the two of you.
A Win-Win Attitude
A win-win attitude is so crucial in a leader that everything discussed throughout the remainder of this chapter centers upon finding and applying win-win solutions.
Focus on Peoples Interests

Focus on People's Interests, Not Their Positions - In a conflict situation, you want to resolve it not just with any
agreement at hand but with a durable and fair arrangement in which everyone is reasonable content. To do so, it
is best to focus not on people's positions, which are their stated demands, but on their interests, which are their
real needs. A position is what people state they want, such as more salary, more vacations days, or fewer hours at
work. Individuals view their positions as the best possible solution to their needs. This may or may not be the
case because their position may be embellished to strengthen an argument or they may not be clearly defining
their needs or examining their alternatives. Interests, on the other hand, are the true, underlying reasons behind
why a person wants something. If you both focus only on your own stated positions, you become emotional and
sometimes irreversibly attached to them and will find it difficult to compromise. But if you focus on your interests in
a non-adversarial way, you will develop many more creative solutions that are fair and rewarding to you both.
Communicate Clearly
Good communication builds trust which then helps to resolve conflicts, while ineffective communication will hinder
agreements and complicate problems. Keep a Positive, Agreeable, and Relaxed Attitude - Since emotions will
probably be intense in a conflict situation, it is always best not to be swept up into an atmosphere of anger, fear, or
resentment. Avoid this by recognizing that both of you will be somewhat emotional but that emotions can be kept
in check by understanding them and acknowledging them openly. Begin your discussion with a positive statement,
such as referring to the interests you both have in common. Maintain this positive approach throughout the discussion. By keeping a respectful, empathetic, and caring attitude towards the other person, you will be seen as someone who is interested in resolving the problem. Avoid using you statements; instead use less accusatory I statements. This transfers the focus away from the other person and towards yourself, allowing you to express your
needs and interests while subtly encouraging the other person to express theirs.
Stay on Course
Stay on Course - Once you identify the issues involved in the conflict, avoid lamenting about he what has happened in the past; focus instead on solutions for the future, which is something you have control over.
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Be an Active Listener
Your subordinates want their views heard, so remember to demonstrate visibly that you are actively listening. Remember to allow others to speak without interruption, acknowledging what they say, questioning them when
needed, and repeating exactly the key points to prevent misunderstanding. Whenever anything is unclear or omitted, ask for clarification. There is nothing wrong with occasionally nodding agreement with what is said. This is
assuring because it conveys respect and acknowledges them as a person, even though you may disagree with
some of what they say. Eye contact is particularly important during discussions because it conveys honesty and
trust to the other person.
Prepare Others in Advance of Change

Prepare others in advance for changes affecting them. Change is threatening and a fact of modern life. Review
the impending change and determine the effect on team members. Keep the dissemination of information reasonable and practical. Know the reasons for the change so that explanations are accurate and to the point. When
presenting the information, choose the right time and forum for the communication. Listen and respond to the
questions, suggestions and concerns resulting from the discussions.
Tactical Proficiency
The Importance of Tactical Proficiency

Tactical proficiency is a matter of how leaders conduct their management responsibilities. Problem-solving and decision-making are the two most important skills
that fall under this category. Leaders must be problem-solvers: people who have
both the trainting and assertiveness to approach a variety of personal, technical
and organizational dilemmas. Decision-making is the most important aspect of
the problem-solving process: where leaders must weigh in the costs and benefits
of the actions that are at their disposal. Being decisive means being able to analyze the variables beforehand then make a clear decision to move ahead.
Seek and Take Responsibility

Effective leaders tend to seek responsibility. They look for opportunities where decision-making and analysis are
required. Here are some ways you can take responsiblity:
1. Volunteer to assume new challenges - especially in times of crisis or change.
2. Don't try to shift blame away from your actions, the actions of teammates or subordinates. Be
accountable for your decisions.
3. Look for ways you can improve your organization and make others aware that you would like to assume
responsibility in that area.
Decision-Making
Decision-making is a tactical necessity. An effective decision-maker has the ability to analyze and prioritize information. Decision-makers spend time gathering and understanding data before decisions are made. They do not
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act on impulse or pressure from others, but rather in an objective, logical framework.
Take Care of the Team

Tactical proficiency has much to do with team management. Effective leaders are team-oriented. They take care
of the people for whom they are responsible.
1. Listen to the needs and problems of your teammates.
2. Facilitate your team-mates with the resources, tools and support they need to do their jobs well.
3. Take responsibility for your team-mates and be accountable for them.
4. Ensure that your team has clear, reasonable instructions to follow.
5. Ensure that your team has an excellent working environment.
6. Allow your team continual opportunities for self-improvement, learning and professional development
7. Let your team know that you support them - provide them with encouragement, attention and praise.
The Importance of Keeping Promises

The importance of keeping promises cannot be underestimated. Credibility is lost when leadership fails to keep
promises. Consider the following before making promises and committments to others:
Ensure commitment is realistic and attainable

Keep stakeholders informed of progress
If situations change, and promise cannot be met:
Immediately contact those affected, avoid rumors.
Explain carefully and thoroughly the reasons.
Allow free feedback, consider others
Follow-up with mutually agreed corrective actions.
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Leadership Styles & Attributes
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
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Part 1: Effective Leadership
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Part 2: Selecting Approaches
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Part 3: Standard Attributes
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Part 4: Leadership Orientation
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Part 5: Attitude Characteristics
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Introduction
Great leaders exist in every social role in society. You might have some in mind that
you admire greatly for their leadership effectiveness. What traits and mannerisms do
they have that you would like to incorporate into your own leadership role as you
study leadership skills? Keep in mind that you should assume your own nature and
do not have to perform a drastic personality change to become a good leader.
Effective Leadership
Effective leadership is based on a series of personal qualities and capabilities. For the sake of our discussion, we
will divide these into two categories: styles and attributes. We use the term "style" to describe certain techniques or
approaches that leaders use to implement their vision and objectives. We use the term "attributes" to describe certain qualities or features that are inherently present in the personalities of most effective leaders. Styles and attributes can be learned and developed over the course of time and experience. The table below illustrates examples
of styles and attributes.
Attribute
Style
The ability to communicate effectively to others.
Sensitive to the goals and needs of individuals.
The ability to make decisions.
Proactive Techniques
The ability to organize and manage resources
Open-minded and continually seeks new ways to get

things done.
The ability to solve problems and facilitate conflict

resolution.
Demonstrates an attitude of enthusiasm and "can do"
The ability to foster teamwork
Demonstrates loyalty to the organization
Selecting Approaches
Some leaders develop their styles and attributes in response to conditions in their environemnts. These conditions
may be determined by social, economic or cultural factors. Other leaders learn to utilize different approaches
based upon the situations with which they are confronted. In environments that are highly factionalized, some
leaders may stand out as conciliatory in their ability to bring conflicting parties together. In environments where
change is slow to occur, some leaders may stand out as innovative or revolutionary in their ability to inspire new
ideas. The key concept is to understand where and when a particular style of leadership will be positive and not
destructive.
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Non-Progressive and Slow to Change
In environments where change comes slowly, effective leaders may choose to take on a more engaging role to
enable themselves to stand out. He/she might be more willing to give their own opinion or to generate some form
of dialog by facilitating thought and discussion among their peers and subordinates. Effective leadership may require
some risk-taking with respect to challenging old norms and facilitating change, innovation and alternative or "out of
the box" thinking.
Factionalized Groups, Infighting and Internal Conflict

In environments where groups are factionalized and the organization is plagued with in-fighting, an effective leader
might take on the role of peace-maker or healer. In this case, he/she may assume a more impartial tone. Such
leadership requires skills in listening, negotation and the ability to communicate empathy to all sides in dispute.
This style also requires the ability to bring differing parties together under a series of broad, universally-accepted
objectives.
Organizational Problems and Operational Inadequacies

In environments where a variety of problems exist (operational, service delivery, structural, etc.) effective leaders
assume a problem-solving role that often requires the qualities of decisiveness, careful analysis and the ability to
develop strategic solutions. The problem-solver leader is pragmatic - able to evaluate situations and respond to
them with workable, realistic ideas and a keen understanding of how to balance the variables of time, budgets and
human resources.
Corruption, Indifference and Negative Organizational Image

In environments where corruption, indifference and a poor organizational image exists, effective leaders must be
effective reformers. They must be able to inspire ethics, morality and a sound personal example. These leaders
must communicate a higher set of values and beliefs. They must also be willing to stand behind their principles in
environments that can be hostile, divisive and personally destructive. In the case of indifference, such leaders must
have the charisma to generate awareness and sentiment for the problems they seek to solve.
Limited Group Interaction and Lack of Teamwork

Some environments suffer from limited group interaction - lack of teamwork is also a lack of potential in any organization. In such cases, an effective leader works to "synergize" different groups of people by bringing them together
to facilitate communication, brainstorming and social interaction. This leadership style is designed to melt down
the walls that exist between professionals from different disciplines, cultures and backgrounds.
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3
Standard Attributes
A compilation from the Army Leadership manual lists some excellent attributes from a mental, physical and emotional perspective of great leaders. Click on the categories on the right to reveal each group of attributes:
Mental Attributes
Possess and display will, self-discipline, initiative, judgment, self-confidence, intelligence, common sense, and
cultural awareness.
Think and act quickly and logically, even when there are no clear instructions or the plan falls apart.
Analyze situations
Combine complex ideas to generate feasible courses of action.
Balance resolve and flexibility.
Show a desire to succeed; do not quit in the face of adversity.
Do their fair share.
Balance competing demands.
Embrace and use the talents of all members to build team cohesion.
Physical Attributes
Maintain an appropriate level of physical fitness.

Present a neat and professional appearance.
Meet established norms of personal hygiene, grooming, and cleanliness.
Demonstrate nonverbal expressions and gestures appropriate to the situation.
Are personally energetic.
Continue to function under adverse conditions.
Emotional Attributes
Shows self-confidence.
Remains calm during conditions of stress, chaos and rapid change.
Exercises self-control, balance, and stability.
Maintains positive attitude
Demonstrate mature, responsible behavior that inspires trust and earns respect.
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4
Leadership Orientation
These orientations are described in their extreme definitions and has changed over time to reflect the current business and social environments. Certain orientations are applicable to the situation at hand depending on the scenario. The following orientations reflect leadership styles and attributes:
Democracy/Autocracy
Democratic leaders focus on the team welfare. Their consideration lend themselves to be easily approachable,
relationship oriented and have consideration for team member's feelings. They feel that the team will be more productive if the team needs are met. More job satisfaction is felt in this environment.
Autocratic leaders focus on getting the job done and feel a great deal of personal responsibility for the task. Their
concern is more for the job issues and less on individual issues. Their approach is more to direct and command
rather than collaborate.
Participation/Direction
A participative leader encourages team participation in problem solving and decision making. It is a fact that more
input by various individuals allows for more options for solutions resulting from more access to data, experience
and opinions. This style works well in a rapidly changing environment that is less structured.
Directive leaders determine the approach and then communicate it to their teams. Minimal input is considered
from the team and usually the explanation behind the decision made without them. Leaders tend toward this approach when combination of factors exists such as higher uncertainty, little time is available, or short term increase
in productivity is needed.
Relationship/Task
The leader who sets relationships as a priority recognizes the power of attending to the people side of work. To
ensure quality and productivity, they consider the member's needs. These leaders maintain close, trusting and
open relationships with the members and support their needs.
The task oriented leader structures the work, defines the goals and allocates resources to make deadlines and
quotas. This leader uses a less flexible approach with the team resulting from aggressive timelines or higher risk.
Consideration/Initiation
Considerate leaders solicit the input of the team because they are sensitive to the feels, needs and goals of the
individuals. Before making decisions, these leaders will seek suggestions from the team and consider the impact
that these decisions may have on the team before committing them. These leaders also openly praise and privately correct subordinates thereby creating a trusting and respectful environment.
Initiators are those leaders that start tasks and organize work. They tend to structure the team work and make
many of the decisions. These leaders determine what needs to be done, who does it and how it will be accomplished.
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Proactive/Reactive
A proactive leader takes on and embraces work responsibilities for the entire lifecycle of the task or project. They
will actively seek to improve and use the leadership principals described in this module. Actively monitoring performance and seeking out potential roadblocks and issues that might be encountered, this leader is proactive.
Teams working for this type of leader understand their own level of authority, their responsibilities and work scope.
Having this knowledge and the latitude to get their job done in the manner they choose gives teams the amount of
independence and self-direction that most crave.
Reactive leaders are less aware of impending issues and are made aware of them only when others notify them.
This orientation frequently occurs during a project of great uncertainty, new process or new technology when it is
difficult to foresee all possible issues.
Attitude Characteristics
The following list of attitudes and descriptions reveals more about leadership styles and attributes:
Loyalty to Organization
Organizations place people in positions of leadership because of the leader's good judgment to help them achieve
their goals. Leaders who are loyal to organizations become part of the solution instead of the problem. Complacency is not an option. When issues or problems arise, leaders proactively seek out solutions to keep the workflow
moving toward the goals. Complacency is not an option. Example: A co member approached you to complain
about how the "organization is taking advantage" of teams. You have some choices. You can either join in and
validate her attitude and complain as well or you can support the organization and understand that it must do what
it does to stay competitive. Too often, it is much easier to agree with the person currently in presence to gain their
instant acceptance; however, word tends to spread and others will learn of comments and attitude.
Appreciation of Team Members

Good leaders recognize and acknowledge the talents and capabilities of their subordinates. Many will praise them
publicly when appropriate. These leaders will keep their team members enthused, trained and satisfied and will be
much appreciated by the team. Example: A team and its individuals require validation for the effort they extend.
Positive reinforcement is a more powerful and longer-lasting strategy than punishment for lack of performance. A
good leader will provide regular acknowledgements in the form of verbal commendations, small gifts to the team or
a teambuilding celebration function. Monetary rewards are given as a result of a culmination of recognized successes.
Focus on Solutions
By focusing on the solutions and continuous improvement you and the team will arrive at much better outcomes.
Dwelling on the past to place blame or curtail good decision-making due to fear will prevent team from operating at
its optimum. Instead, understand the cause and move forward proactively with creativity. Example: A team meeting has been called to address the lack of performance of a board that reports to the ASME Board of Governors.
Some team members may start to point the finger at certain individuals and their behavior. Others may want to
skip to a quick fix and either disband the Board or reestablish new membership. A good leader will review the
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Board's original vision and mission and determine how to get from here to the end goals without the interference of
blame or quick fixes (band aids).
Having a We Can Do It! Attitude

The team relies heavily on the motivation of the leader. They depend on the leader to provide hope, direction,
persistence and resources to get the job done. They also need to understand that rewards will be realized through
hard work and dedication. A good leader paves the way by demonstrating these high standards of performance.
Example: A young engineer has been struggling with a problem for a few days and not apparently making productive headway. A good leader will check what the young engineer may need and offer extra resources (literature,
peer assistance, cross-departmental resource advice, etc.) while still relying on the young engineer to retain ownership. This level of confidence inspires people and creates environments that enable and empower them to solve
problems.
Leading with Responsibility and Accountability

The CEO or President of a company has ultimate accountability to the organization and its shareholders to complete the responsibilities assigned or accepted. The CEO, however, depends on the leaders to accept delegation
of authority to go hand-in-hand with the CEO to accomplish the responsibilities with the quality expected and within
budget and schedule. The leader cannot evade accountability for not fulfilling certain responsibilities. They must
accept credit for accomplishing or not accomplishing the goals and, if possible, do a better job the next time. Example: A team is scheduled to release a product the following day. The last revisions of the production environment are happening. One of the team members goes home without thoroughly completing his assignment and the
team must postpone the release. The leader must take responsibility and be accountable for this missed release
date. To openly blame the team member is not accepting responsibility nor being accountable. Instead, the leader
will need to coach the team member in private to better support the team in the future. Similarly, admit mistakes
made, recognizing that no one is perfect. There is a natural tendency to avoid sharing or rationalizing a mistake.
Determine who is affected by the mistake and take corrective action if necessary. Show how mistakes are learning
opportunities as documented "lessons learned" for each project.
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Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
100
Part 1: The eight components of the critical thinking process
101
Part 2: The eight components of the critical thinking process (continues)
103
Part 3: Problem Solving
105
Part 4: Wrap-up: Gems of Critical Thinking
107
Quiz
108
Quiz: Answer Key
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Introduction
What is Critical Thinking?
Educational Goals
The word thinking can describe any number of mental activities. Much of our
natural thinking, when left unchecked, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed, or
downright prejudiced. Yet the quality of our lives depends precisely on the quality
of our thoughts. Critical thinking is that mode of thinking about any given subject
in which the thinker improves the quality of their thinking by skillfully taking
charge of its very structures and by imposing intellectual standards upon them.
However, effective critical thinking involves consideration of the full range of possibilities to a problem, including emotional, cognitive, intellectual and psychological
factors.
Shallow thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of life. Not only academic
success but also success in our work lives depends greatly on solid thinking skills.
It is not sufficient for college graduates to have wide knowledge in their fields.
Successful people are able to apply what they know to the challenges of their jobs.
Todays employers are not looking for walking encyclopedias, but rather for independent decision-makers and problem-solvers.
Critical thinkers have what employers want. A well-cultivated critical thinker
After completion of this

module, you should
Discern between
opinions, observations, and fact
Keep observations
objective and thorough so that factual
and contextual evidence is obtain
Be careful with inferences and assumptions
Keep an open mind
when forming opinions
Be able to generate
constructive alternative viewpoints
Raises vital questions, formulating them clearly and precisely

Gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstractions to interpret
the information
Comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against
relevant standards
Thinks within alternative systems of thought, recognizing implications and
consequences
Communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems
Critical thinking is essential to workplace fairness because we can hold organizational decision-makers accountable and probe behind cliques and rhetoric.
While the above skills clearly apply to our professional environments, they plan an important role in our personal
and civic lives as well. For example, illogical thinking plays a big part in abusive behavior. Other examples for
which critical thinking skills are useful are the manipulative appeals in TV commercials and the rhetoric sometimes
used by corporate, government and other leaders before we accept and act on them. This systematic evaluation
of ideas is appropriate whenever someone makes a claim that is open to question. And, many such claims are
made daily at home, work, and school.
Thus, critical thinking belongs to the category of higher-order thinking skills. Critical thinking is analytical and logical; it evaluates ideas and identifies the most reasonable ones. Critical thinking is clear, precise, accurate, relevant,
consistent, and fair.
In short, critical thinking is self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking that entails effective communication and problem-solving abilities. While thinking in general is a natural activity of human beings,
excellence in thinking must be cultivated and practiced.
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This module provides an overview of critical thinking that can jumpstart and encourages independent thought, promote metacognition, and encourage collaboration. Here you will find information on the critical thinking process,
how to relate the states of cognitive development to logic and critical thinking, and the relationship between logical
problem solving and critical thinking.
The eight components of the critical thinking process
The 8 components that have been identified as part of the critical thinking process include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Perception
Assumption
Emotion
Language
Argument
Fallacy
Logic
Problem Solving
Chapter one will cover the first four, and the remaining four will be covered in Chapter two.
1. Perception
Perception refers to the way we receive and translate our experiences how and what we
think about them. For some, plain yogurt is delicious, while for others it is disgusting.
For the most part, perception is a learned process. Through personal experiences and being told by
others we learn that the sky is blue, water is refreshing, birds sing, sulfur stinks, and chocolate is tasty
at least to some folks. In the workplace, one employee will perceive a co-worker to be a constructive
decision-maker, while at the same time, another sees the same employee as an adversarial roadblock
to progress.
Perception is also a significant filtering system. There is no doubt that we filter information as we select, organize, interpret, and, subsequently, act on it. The question is how we do this. Our perceptions
define how we think.
2. Assumptions
Trying to identify the assumptions that underlie the ideas, beliefs, values, and actions that others and
we take for granted is central to critical thinking. Assumptions are those taken-for-granted values,
common-sense ideas, and stereotypical notions about human nature and social organization that underlie our thoughts and actions. Stemming from our personal and cultural experiences, they pretend to
be givens rather than well-supported arguments. What makes assumptions difficult to detect is that
they are implied rather than expressed; therefore, we are usually not consciously aware of them.
Assumptions are not always bad. In fact, most critical thinkers attest that ALL thinking begins with
some assumptions. For example, when you buy a new car, you assume that it will run without problems for a while. When you go to sleep at night, you assume that your alarm will wake you up in the
morning. When you are employed, you assume that you will receive a paycheck at the end of the
month. Unless there was a good reason not to make these assumptions for example, a defective
alarm clock they would appear as valid.
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Critical thinkers are willing to uncover their own assumptions and those of others. Remember, assumptions depend on the notion that some ideas are so obvious and so taken for granted that they
dont need to be explained. Yet, in many cases, insisting on an explanation reveals that we may need
more factual evidence in order to develop well-supported viewpoints and to come to sound decisions.
The problem with assumptions is that they make us feel comfortable without present beliefs and keep
us from thinking about alternatives. Critical thinkers, however, are able to generate and evaluate alternatives to their taken-for-granted beliefs independently. Purposefully exploring alternative viewpoints
on any given subject is an important characteristic of critical thinkers.
3. Emotion
Rousseau stated, I felt before I thought and e.e. cummings states, Feeling is first. Yet, in our culture, we state, Leave emotion out of it. Clearly, the latter perspective is impossible. Emotions/
feelings are an important aspect of the human experience. They are a critical part of what separates
humans from machines and the lower animals. They are part of everything we do and everything we
think.
Emotions can affect and inspire thought, stated William James, but they can also destroy it. We all
have personal barriers enculturation, ego defenses, self-concept, biases, etc.shaped by our exposure to culture and genetic forces. But to the critical thinker, personal barriers are not walls, merely
hurdles. Critical thinkers dont ignore or deny emotions; as with other forces of influence on our thinking, they accept and manage them.
There is a tremendous amount of recent information and research on the study of human emotion,
particularly as it relates to critical thinking. Some examples include Howard Gardner and eight intelligences, Peter Salovey, John Mayer, and Daniel Goleman and emotional intelligence/quotient; Alice
Isen and positive affect used in problem solving; and numerous findings regarding emotional stimulation in relation to brain activity.
4. Language
Some say that language is the landscape of the mind. Others say that language is the software of our
brain. Whatever the metaphor, it is clear that thinking cannot be separated from language. The philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein referred to this relationship when he said: The limits of my language are
the limits of my life. Furthermore, for the multitude that define thinking itself as expressed thought,
language carries the content and structures the form of the entire thinking process.
We use language for three primary purposes: to inform, explain, and persuade. To a great extent,
critical thinking skill development is an opportunity to increase the ability to persuade through increased insight. Therefore, developing sensitivity to language and its usage can help to foster invaluable insights into ourselves and into others. Such insights can be extremely helpful in understanding
arguments, in uncovering their hidden assumptions, and in detecting their errors.
Language is a system of symbols or wordswith standardized meanings and rules for their usage.
By standardizing the meanings and usage, we are able to communicate. Yet words, though standardized, can signify two kinds of meaning: denotative and connotative. Denotations, that is, the dictionary
meaning, usually mean the same thing to everyone. For example, the word apple denotes the firm,
round, edible fruit of the apple tree.
But words have connotations as well overtones or suggestions beyond their dictionary meanings. A
word can have different connotations for different people. So, depending on our subjective associations, apple might connote Adan and Eve, apple pie, Macintosh computers, or simply good health.
These connotative meanings play an important role in argument. Speakers and writers whose goal it
is to persuade use the possible meanings that their audiences find in words to elicit particular emotions.
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2
The eight components of the critical thinking process (continues)
5. Argument
Many people think that arguing means fighting or quarreling. In the context of critical thinking, however,
this definition does not fit. An argument is simply a claim, used to persuade others, that something is (or is
not) true and should (or should not) be done. When someone gives reasons for believing something
hoping that another person will come to the same conclusion by considering those reasons the discourse
is geared toward persuasion.
Not every claim is an argument. Some statements are merely factual information. For example, to say
that the National Basketball Association USA (NBA) team located in Phoenix, Arizona, is named the
Suns would not qualify as an argument. There is nothing to argue about since it is an easily verifiable fact.
However, the assertion that the Suns are the best (or the worst, or the fastest, or the slowest, or whatever!)
team in the NBA moves into the realm of argument because it involves a disputable claim.
An argument contains three basic elements: an issue, one or more reasons called premises in logic, and
one or more conclusions. Unless you are able to distinguish among the elements of the argument, you are
in danger of succumbing to fallacious arguments.
In the previous example, the issue is whether or not the Phoenix Suns are the best (or the worst, or the
fastest, or the slowest, or whatever!) team in the NBA. Using such a whether or not statement helps you
to isolate the issue in a longer, more complicated argument. Remember, an argument involves a disputable claim, which is the issue to be argued.
The reasons given in an argument to support the conclusion are called premises. As statements that present the evidence, they answer the question why we should believe a claim. Why do I think the Phoenix
Suns are the best team in the NBA? Because they have certain players; the head coach is excellent; they
have depth on the bench; they have shown previous success; and so on.
In someones attempt to persuade, the conclusion is the statement that presents the point to be proven. In
other words, it is essentially the arguers decision about the issue, and it answers the question presented
by the issue. Whether we are reading written material or listening to a friend talk, we should quickly scan
visually or mentally for the conclusion. In fact, we cannot hope to analyze the reasoning unless we can
first identify the conclusion. If someone stopped you by the side of the road and asked, Is this the best
route to get there? you would probably respond, To get where? Similarly, we cant tell if a persons reasoning leads correctly to its destination the point to be provenunless we know what a destination is.
Arguments can be valid or invalid, based on how they are structured. Arguments are not true or false
only premises and conclusions are true or false. The goal of a critical thinker is to develop sound arguments that have both validity (are structured properly) and true premises. When we have a validly structured argument with true premises, we have a sound argument. In sound arguments the conclusion must
be trueand therein lies the beauty and usefulness of logic.
6. Fallacy
Since we use language for the three primary purposes of informing, explaining, and persuading, we must
be careful how we use it. We must make every effort to apply sound reasoning, particularly when language is used to persuade. To be sound, reasoning must satisfy three conditions: (1) it must be valid
(structured properly); (2) the premises must be true; and (3) all relevant information must be included. If
the reasoning fails to satisfy any of these three criteria, it is said to be fallacious.
A fallacy, then, is an incorrect pattern of reasoning.
Remember, finding a fallacy in your own or someone elses reasoning does not mean that the conclusion
is false. It means only that the conclusion has not been sufficiently supported because one or more of the
above three conditions were not satisfied.
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Fallacies can be committed through any of our communication methods, especially in the print, visual, and
sound media.
7. Logic
Traditionally, philosophy has distinguished between two methods of reasoning: deductive logic and inductive logic. In logic, moving from observations to conclusions is called induction. Moving from conclusions
to predictions that something will follow, given a set of circumstances and then verifying the prediction is
called deduction.
Inductive reasoning is characterized by reasoning from diverse facts, probability, generalizations, hypotheses, and analogies, leading to inductive strength. Deductive reasoning is characterized by reasoning from
known facts, certainty, syllogisms, validity, and truth of premises, leading to sound arguments and conclusions. Thus, induction and deduction are two different processes of logical reasoning with different levels of conclusiveness.
8. Problem Solving
Solving logic problems is like solving any problem that we encounter or identify in life.
The following general model for problem solving is suggested:
(1) Read and heed the problem. What is it telling you? What is it asking? Define terms that you do not
understand.
(2) Identify the unknown(s). It is helpful to name these with a symbol. Math uses a letter known as a variable, but any symbol will do.
(3) Identify the knowns. Write down all the information that the problem tells you. Even if you just repeat
the givens in the problem, list them.
(4) Start to identify the relationships between the knowns and the unknowns. This is the critical and creative part of solving a problem. Create a visual aid like a diagram, sketch, table, etc., that allows you to
see the relationships.
(5) Use the relationships identified in step (4) to generate a problem-solving strategy.
(6) Apply the strategy and solve.
(7) If something doesnt seem to work, REPEAT steps 1-6. The secret to problem solving is continuing to
try and learning something new on each successive iteration. The solution will ultimately be reached.
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3
Problem Solving
The ability to solve problems is a basic life skill and is essential to understanding technical subjects. Problemsolving is a subset of critical thinking and employs the same strategies. Although the line between the two is fuzzy,
in general, the goal of problem-solving is to adduce correct solutions to well-structured problems, whereas the goal
of critical thinking is to construct and defend reasonable solutions to ill-structured problems. Basically, problemsolving is the process of reasoning to solutions using more than simple application of previously learned procedures.
Barriers to Problem Solving

Even if you are a practical problem-solver, holding your emotions in check so that you can think clearly may be
difficult at times. Learning styles affect how people learn to solve problems. Some people learn primarily visually,
others aurally, some learn step-by-step, others employ an all-or-nothing process; some cogitate on a problem introspectively, while others find they work problems best when they can discuss them.
There is also evidence that some thinking styles that affect the ability to solve problems are gender-linked. For
example, a marked discrepancy exists between males and females in visualizing the structure of chemical molecules because males are better able to manipulate three-dimensional objects in space. However, females organize and relate data more efficiently than males.
In addition to the emotional and psychological issues outlined above, there are numerous cognitive barriers to
mastering problem-solving. The primary difficulty for many is the inability to identify and use concepts and procedures in analogous but novel situations. The lack of transfer of structure between problems is a significant cognitive difficulty, not only for inexperienced problem-solvers, but also for experts. Successful transfer rests on the
ability to recognize analogies, but even when given an analogy, people often fail to see how to employ it.
In order to understand this phenomenon more concretely, consider the following problem:
A patient has a cancerous tumor. Beams of radiation will destroy
the tumor, but in high doses will also destroy healthy tissue
surrounding the tumor. How can you use radiation to safely
eradicate the tumor?
This structure of this problem follows the general pattern common to all problems. It has a set of facts (tumor, radiation, tissue) and unknowns (ways to administer radiation), together with relationships between them (radiation
destroys tumor and tissue).
Some researchers once gave volunteers the story below and then asked them to solve the tumor problem.
A fortress surrounded by a moat is connected to land by
numerous narrow bridges. An attacking army successfully
captures the fortress by sending only a few soldiers across
each bridge, converging upon it simultaneously.
The story and the problem has exactly the same logical structure, but only a small percentage of subjects were
able to solve the tumor problem after being told the story. The solution is to bombard the tumor from different directions with low-intensity radiation so as not to harm healthy tissue. The convergence of the beams at the tumor
provides sufficient intensity to destroy it. Only when the subjects were overtly prompted to use the fortress story as
an analogy to help them solve the problem were most of them able to solve it.
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The inability to transfer in the absence of prompting may be one of the greatest hurdles for people.
A lack of transfer skills is frequently marked by functional fixedness, the perception that a particular object or concept has only one use. For example, in the tumor problem, students might interpret the word dose as implying
oral medication. Or, they may believe, erroneously, that the word beam implies that there can be only one direction from which radiation can be applied. Since successful transfer may require seeing a familiar concept or procedure in a new way, functional fixedness handicaps the transfer process. Another handicap is superficial transference, where people identify and link words or variables between problems instead of linking deeper, more
meaningful structure. For example, physics experts represent problems in terms of the laws or principles needed
to solve them, e.g., energy equations or Newtons laws of motion. Novices, on the other hand, categorize problems on the basis of superficial features such as whether they involve pulleys, inclined plane or other objects.
Methodological Strategy
Methodological strategies provide a series of steps to help in addressing and solving a new problem. There are
two basic types: algorithmic and heuristic methods.
An algorithmic procedure is a step-by-step prescription for achieving a goal. The mnemonic PEMDAS
(Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication, Division, Addition, and Subtraction) is an algorithm that math students
use to remember the order of operations used in simplifying algebraic expressions. People appreciate algorithms
because they are easily applied. However, some may algorithmize methods they have observed others using
and bring them to bear in a given situation whether applicable or not. Algorithmic methods are limited to low-level
tasks and tend to be domain-specific.
Heuristic methods, general schemes used to derive solutions to problems, are more useful than algorithms. There
are a variety of heuristics that can be useful to students. One method is to use the acronym IDEAL to represent
the five steps usually contained in many solution strategies:
Identify the problem.

Define and represent the problem.
Explore possible solution strategies.
Act on the strategies.
Look back and evaluate.
This scheme is beneficial in a large number of disciplines. People like the IDEAL heuristic because it is easy to
remember and widely applicable. For example, in a composition class, students might follow these steps in developing a response against the argument that Twains Adventures of Huckleberry Finn should be removed from libraries because it is a racist book. Of course, the problem is that banning this book would essentially mean removing a great historical and cultural artifact from circulation. In defining a problem, people would need to determine which passages are offensive to particular audiences. One possible solution strategy might include claiming
that these passages can be used to stimulate discussion on racism, its role in late 19th century America, and how
our culture has changed over the years.
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4
Wrap-up: Gems of Critical Thinking
Critical thinking consists of three steps:

1. Becoming aware that assumptions exist
2. Making assumptions explicit
3. Assessing their accuracy
Do these assumptions make sense?
Do these assumptions fit reality as we understand and live it?
Under what conditions do these assumptions seem to hold true? Under what conditions do they seem
false?
Misconceptions about Critical Thinking
It is a wholly negative process it tears down ideas and puts nothing in their place (rather it is a positive
process to put things in a more realistic perspective)
It will lead to relativistic freeze the inability to make commitments to people, ideas, and structures.
(rather commitments are informed ones)
It seems to involve traumative change one is expected to abandon old assumptions continually. (rather:
some beliefs stay the same they are simply more informed)
CRITICAL THINKING is
How you approach problems, questions, issues and figuring out the best way to get to the truth.
Hypothetical syllogisms (conditional arguments) can have two valid and two invalid structures:
Structures of Syllogisms
Antecedent
(If...statement)
Consequent
(Thenstatement)
Valid
Affirming (modus ponens)
Denying (modus tollens)
Invalid
Denying
Affirming
The five most common fallacies are:
Non Sequitur irrelevant reason premise no relationship to conclusion

Ad hominum persons character attached to discredit arguer rather than argument
Post hoc ergo Propter hoc generalization one event which follows was cause by first
Slippery slope black and white no gray or middle ground argues against 1st step since eventually will
follow through to last one
Appeal to emotion emotional appeals rather than logical reasons to persuade
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Quiz
1. Logic is
a.
b.
c.
d.
Emotional
A fallacy
The study of correct argument
All of the above
2. We notice some stimuli in our environment because they are

a. Repetitious
b. Expected
c. Intense
d. Distinct
e. All of the above
3. Since older people have more life experiences from which to draw, their perceptions are more accurate.
a. True
b. False
4. Which of the following questions does NOT help in testing assumptions?
a. Does the assumption make sense?
b. Does the assumption fit reality?
c. Why do we do the thing we do?
d. What is the best result?
5. Critical thinking requires the abandonment of old assumptions.
a. True
b. False
6. Once we have accepted a viewpoint as sound, we should
a. Hand on to it and take for granted that it works in all situations
b. Periodically think about possible alternatives
c. Constantly question it, because we cant believe in the truth of anything
d. None of the above
7. The best way to present our reasoning is by using
a. Precise language
b. Factual language
c. Informative language
d. All of the above
8. One of the following statements is an issue to be argued. Which one?
a. The Beatles were one of the most successful rock bands in the world.
b. The students agreed that the final exam was rigorous.
c. Phoenix, AZ is one of the fastest growing cities in the United States.
d. Gone with the Wind is the best movie ever made.
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9. A group of three individuals must be selected from six individuals K, O, S, T, V, and W according to the following conditions:
Either K or S, or both, must be selected
Either O or V must be selected, but neither V nor S can be selected with O.
Which of the following is an acceptable selection of individuals?
a. K, O, and S
b. K, S, and T
c. K, S, and V
d. O, S, and V
e. O, T, and V
10. A group of three individuals must be selected from 6 individuals K, O, S, T, V, and W
according to the following conditions:
Either K or S, or both, must be selected
Either O or V must be selected, but neither V nor S can be selected with O
If V is not selected, which pair of individual must be among those selected?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
K and O
K and T
K and W
O and T
O and W
11. Five workers, A, B, C, D, and E are standing in a single-file line.

C is ahead of B in line
E is behind A in line
D is between B and E in line
Each of the following statements is sufficient to determine each workers position in line EXCEPT:
a. B is two places behind A in line
b. D is immediately ahead of A in line
c. E is two places behind D in line
d. C is three places ahead of B in line
e. A is two places ahead of E in line
12. The town of Jamesville includes 10 residents A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and J. Each resident lives on one of
the three streets: Pearson Street, Main Street, or Burk Street. Either three or four residents live on each of
these three streets.
C, E and J all live on different streets
B and I both live on Main Street
D, F, and H all live on the same street
Which of the following must be true?
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a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Exactly three residents live on Pearson Street

Exactly three residents live on Main Street
Exactly three residents live on Burk Street
Exactly four residents live on Pearson Street
Exactly four residents live on Burk Street
13. A commercial grower raises flowers in each of three different growing seasons every year spring, summer
and fall-winter, with the year beginning in spring. Exactly seven different kinds of flowers Q, R, S, T, W, X,
and Z are grown every year. Each kind of flower is grown at least once a year. The flowers are grown according to the following rules: No more than three different kinds of flowers are grown in any one growing season. No kind of flower can be grown for two growing seasons in a row. Q can be grown neither in the fallwinter seasons nor the same growing season as W or X. S and T are always grown in the same growing season as each other. R can be grown in the growing season only if Q was grown in the preceding growing season.
If Z and R alone are grown in the fall-winter season, which of the following must be grown in the preceding spring?
a. Q
b. R
c. S
d. T
e. W
111
PPC

Quiz: Answer Key
1. C
2. E
3. B
4. D
5. B
6. B
7. D
8. D
9. C
10. A
11. E
12. B
13. E

Management and Leadership Skills Series

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PPC

The ASME Professional Practice Curriculum:

2003 - 2009 ASME International. All Rights Reserved.

The ASME Professional Practice Curriculum:

2003 - 2009 ASME International. All Rights Reserved.

The ASME Professional Practice Curriculum:

The Project Management Series

2003 - 2009 ASME International. All Rights Reserved.

The ASME Professional Practice Curriculum:

Management & Leadership Skills Series

2003 - 2009 ASME International. All Rights Reserved.

Part 1: Communicating Effectively

Part 2: Motivating Employees

Part 3: Managing Performance

Part 4: Diversity: The Changing World of Work

Part 5: Managing Meetings

Part 6: Managing Time

2003 - 2009 ASME International. All Rights Reserved.

After completing this

Understand the basics

Want to exchange information;

Written communication is most effective when you:

Have specific details that must be communicated;

Selecting a Communications Style

Read e-mails and memos before sending them;

Know what you want to achieve;

2003 - 2009 ASME International. All Rights Reserved.

Making clear statements

Being brief and concise

Drawing others out

Checking out assumptions

Writing clearly & effectively

2003 - 2009 ASME International. All Rights Reserved.

Voice volume too low to be heard;

2003 - 2009 ASME International. All Rights Reserved.

when anger or hurt is being expressed;

Sources of Difficulty from the Listener:

Being preoccupied and not listening;

The Three Basic Listening Modes

4. Feelings and emotions

Youre lost, and you ask a stranger for directions;

Account of the facts;

Thoughts and beliefs;

Feelings and emotions;

Wants, needs or motivation;

Hopes and expectations.

2003 - 2009 ASME International. All Rights Reserved.

2003 - 2009 ASME International. All Rights Reserved.

Achievement, or assignments that have defined parameters and success metrics

Be mindful of selecting motivators, and not de-motivators.

2003 - 2009 ASME International. All Rights Reserved.

Initiating the conversations about the performance management plan;

The employees responsibilities include:

Clearly understanding what is expected;

2003 - 2009 ASME International. All Rights Reserved.

Exactly what is expected from the employee? This

Documentation of all conversations regarding performance;

2003 - 2009 ASME International. All Rights Reserved.

More work can be accomplished;

2003 - 2009 ASME International. All Rights Reserved.

Tasks closely related to the work employees are already doing;

Discipline and Termination

Complain about working conditions, safety or wage issues;

Safety rules that prevent accident and injuries;