Thermal Analysis

University of Minnesota
Nanosat-5 Program

University of Minnesota
107 Akerman Hall
110 Union Street SE
Minneapolis, MN 55455

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April 2008

Signatures

Prepared by:
Dave Hauth, Chuck Hisamoto, Mike Legatt
Thermal Analysis Team

Date

Robert Cacic
Thermal Control Lead

Date

Donald Horkheimer
REA, SY, ADNCS Team

Date

Ellie Fields
Project Manager

Date

Approval:

Approval:

Approval:

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Revisions
Revision
Description
Date Approval
Initial Release 7/2007 7/2007
Initial Release 1/2008 1/2008
A
CDR Revision 4/2008 4/2008

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Contents
1 Nomenclature

2 Overview

3 Requirements

4 Theory
4.1 Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Reflected Solar Radiation(Albedo)
4.2.3 Earth Infrared Radiation . . . . . .
4.2.4 Reradiating to Space . . . . . . . .

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5 Analysis
5.1 First Order Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Steady State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.2 First Order Transient Model . . . . . . . .
5.2 Finite Element Analysis (FEA) . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 Thermal Boundary Conditions . . . . . .
5.2.2 Preliminary ANSYS Analysis: Hot Case .
5.2.3 Preliminary ANSYS Analysis: Cold Case
5.3 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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6 Recommendations for Future Work

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7 References

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8 Appendix A: Satellite Component Profiles

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9 Appendix B: First Order Steady State Analysis using Excel

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10 Appendix C: First Order Transient Analysis using MatLab/Simulink

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11 Appendix D: Determination of Thermal Boundary Conditions

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Nomenclature

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Overview

The thermal environment in which Goldeneye operates is dependent on orbit,

hardware, satellite operational mode, and time. Since the orbit of Goldeneye is not
known prior to launch phase, it must be capable of operating in diverse thermal
environments. Whatever the thermal environment, Goldeneye must meet strict
requirements set forth by the AFRL. To accomplish this Goldeneye employs methods of thermal control.
The purpose of the thermal analysis is to ensure the effect of the space environment combined with onboard heat generation/dissipation meets structural and
instrumentation requirements. The analysis will provide temperature estimates for
Goldeneyes structure and instrumentation. These estimates, analyzed against
instrumentation specifications and Air Force Research Lab (AFRL) requirements,
will determine the degree to which thermal control is necessary, possibly incorporating design modifications and recommendations for improved thermal performance.

Requirements

The reliable operation of electrical components is critical for the nominal operation
or Goldeneye. For this to occur, the components must be maintained within their
operating temperature range or within their storage temperature range when nonoperational. These ranges are manufacturer specified, or in some case may be
determined in house by the respective subsystems of Goldeneye.
Goldeneye will provide a complete profile for all on-board electrically operating
components as well as all relevant material props. A complete profile will include:
at a minimum, a simplified model including nodes at each temperature critical satellite component
for each node, the following temperature limits must be defined
1. Operating Temperature: The temperature at which the component will
function and meet all requirements.
2. Non-Operating Temperature: Component specifications are not required
to be met. Component can be exposed in a power off mode. If turned
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to power on mode, damage must not occur.

3. Survival Temperature: Permanent damage to the component.
4. Safety Temperature: Potential for catastrophic damage.
a list of payload external properties; surface area, material, absorptivity,
emissivity as specified by the AFRL in the Nanosat-5 Users Guide (See
appendix A for complete profile).

Theory

Conventional heat transfer propagates via three modes: conduction, convection

and radiation. Due to the extremely low atmospheric density, or vacuum, encountered above a 200 km orbit, convection heat transfer, which is only possible
through the interaction of a fluid over a surface, can be neglected. Thus the thermal environment in which Goldeneye operates is governed by conduction and
radiation heat transfer only.

4.1

Conduction

Conduction occurs in all materials due to energy transfer through molecular vibrations within the material. The second law of thermodynamics dictates that all heat
transfer occurs from hot, or high energy, to cold, or lower energy, environments.
Thus temperature gradients across a body are required for conductive heat transfer.

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4.2

April 2008

Radiation

Unlike conduction, radiation heat transfer does not need a material through which
to propagate and can occur in the presence of a vacuum. Because of this it is the
only significant means of transferring energy to the spacecraft. As shown in figure
1, a satellite in orbit receives energy from three radiation sources: Solar Radiation,
Earth Infrared, Earth Albedo, and satellite to space radiation.

Figure 1: On-orbit heat sources

4.2.1

Solar Radiation

The main source of energy for a spacecraft in orbit is from the sun, which radiates
at black body temperature of 5777K. The sun emits light waves nearly exclusively
in what is termed the solar spectrum, consisting of wave lengths between 0.3 to 3
m. Due to the elliptical orbit of the earth around the incoming solar radiation seen
by the earth, or a satellite near the varies by about 6.9 percent annually with the
mean flux of 1367 W/m2 , a minimum flux of 1322 W/m2 and a maximum flux of
1414 W/m2 .

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4.2.2

April 2008

Reflected Solar Radiation(Albedo)

When energy strikes a material in the form of a light wave its energy can be either
absorbed (), reflected () or transmitted ( ). Since the earth is not opaque it
does transmit any light and thus the energy absorbed and reflected must be 100
percent of that received from the sun, or + = 1. That being the case, a certain
percentage of the solar energy which hits the earth is then reflected back to space
(albedo), some of which will land upon Goldeneye as it orbits the earth. This
reflected energy is not constant but instead dependent upon the ground covering
at each local location on the earths surface. Snow for example has an albedo
of 0.7, while green groundcover has an albedo of about 0.2. For Goldeneyes
thermal analysis a table of average albedo for latitudes of 10 degrees was used to
determine the transient albedo flux on the satellite as it traversed its orbit.
4.2.3

Earth Infrared Radiation

In order to maintain a thermal equilibrium a body must re-radiate as much energy

as it absorbed. A body radiates energy in a certain wavelength spectrum depending on it black body temperature, where the hotter the temperature the shorter the
wavelength emitted. Since earth is much colder than the sun at a black body temperature that ranges from an average of 135 K to an average of 262 K it re-emits
energy with a much longer wavelength, which happens to be in the IR spectrum.
The earths IR emission changes for different localized areas on its surface due to
temperature difference around the globe. Similar to albedo values, a table of average IR fluxes for ever 10 degrees of latitude was used to determine the transient
IR flux on Goldeneye as it traversed its orbit through different latitudes.
4.2.4

Reradiating to Space

Just as the earth radiates energy to space so as to maintain a thermal equilibrium

so will Goldeneye discharge to space some of the incoming radiation is receives
from the sun and the earth (albedo and IR). All radiation to space will be governed
by the black body radiative heat transfer equation:
4
4
Q = A(Tsurf
ace Tamb )

Where Tsurf ace is the temperature of the local surface of the spacecraft and Tamb
is the ambient temperature of space at -270 C. There is one limitation on this
equation, it is assuming that the viewfactor to space is 1 at all times, which is
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not the case as each face sees a portion of the earth as well as space. Thus
the time dependent viewfactors between each face of Goldeneye and space must
be calculated for each time step of the orbit. The process for doing this will be
explained in the analysis section of the report.

Analysis

5.1

First Order Approximation

To obtain a first order steady state estimate of worst case scenarios, we used the
following approximations:
1. Goldeneye is a sphere of surface area equal to that of the actual satellite.
2. Negligable transient effects.
3. Consider only steady state hot and cold.
Hot- Goldeneye is directly between Sun and Earth. Neglect starshine
and Moonshine.
Cold- Earth directly between satellite and Sun. Neglect starshine and
Moonshine.
4. Satellite has Aluminum external surface.
5. Convection- Negligible since the mass densities of LEO orbit are on the order
of 1.9x10 9kg/m3 (150km orbit) to 3.3x10 12kg/m3 (450km orbit).
6. Near equatorial orbit ( = 0)
5.1.1

Steady State

Initial steady state estimates for worst case hot and worst case cold temperatures
have been determined for 27 different orbital conditions using Excel program. The
27 orbital configuration were obtained by varying 3 possible altitudes, power dissipations, and solar constants. The method to determine the temperatures is such
that relations with altitude, solar constant, electrical power, emissivity, and absorptivity can be observed. For example it was shown that electrical power dissipation
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has a much more pronounced effect on worst case cold than on worst case hot.
For these initial analyses actual satellite temperatures will be within the worst case
range due to the fact a spacecraft is not in eclipse for the entire orbit. Upon completion the thermal analysis will identify components, via a detailed transient thermal model, need thermal control.
Brown, Charles D. [1] derives the worst case hot and worst case cold temperature equations to be as follows:

Of 27 orbital cases, one was the hottest, three were the coldest.
Table 2. First Order Steady State

See appendix B for raw data.

5.1.2

First Order Transient Model

Steady state worst case scenarios complete, a more accurate model is needed to
further refine values. The approach will be a slightly modified version of the transient model for Nanosat 4. The transient model makes the following assumptions:
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1. No radiation heat transfer between component boxes and the satellite surface.
2. Box components, and individual boxes are modeled as one larger box and
referred to as payload.
3. Ignore Moonshine, Starshine.
4. Albedo=.3
5. All of satellites outside surface is at the same temperature.
6. Satellite is made entirely of Aluminum 6061.
7. Assume emissivity is independent of emission angle relative to emitting surface.
8. Near equatorial orbit ( = 0).
The following equations were modeled in MatLab and Simulink to provide the
first order transient model:
Heat Transfer between Payload and Satellite Surface

Heat transfer between Satellite Surface and Space Environment

The model and function can be found in apppendix C.

The worst case orbits obtained from first order steady state model were used
as the inputs for the first order transient thermal Simulink model. These boundary conditions are included in appendix B. The results of the transient thermal
Simulink simulations were as follows:

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Table 3. First Order Transient

Figure 2: Hot case: Payload temperature vs. time for first order transient model.

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Figure 3: Cold case: Payload temperature vs. time for first order transient model.
Note the constant temoerature for the beta=90 degree hot case and the harmonic behavior of the cold case.
Also note for the hot case, the first order steady state model was an average
of 3.8 C cooler than the first order transient model. In the cold case, the first order
steady state model was an average of 85.5 C cooler than the first order transient
model. The large amount of the deviation in the cold case results are likely due to
the fact that the transient model takes into account the eclipsing of the orbit, while
the steady state does not.
Under the stated assumptions, we now use the present transient model to identify
payload components which may need thermal control:
Radios - The two radios may need to be cooled via a method such as radiation
fins.
Batteries - The batteries may need to be cooled via a method such as radiation
fins and heated via a method such as electric patch heaters.
Computer - The computer may need to be cooled via a method such as radiation
fins.
An additional guideline is given in the thermal teleconference[7]. It suggests any
board which uses at least 1 Watt of power will need a heat sink. This immedi14

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ately makes suspect the batteries, radios(up to 13W), GPS receiver(2.1-2.6W),

and computer(1.7W).

5.2

Finite Element Analysis (FEA)

Upon obtaining the external boundary conditions from the orbit propagation and
time dependent view factor code and model described above, those boundary
conditions, as well as the boundary conditions due to the heat load, were input
into ANSYS. ANSYS is a FEM modeling software package capable of several
different thermal analyses, including steady state and transient cases.
5.2.1

Thermal Boundary Conditions

Given thermal boundary conditions ANSYS can be used to find the time history
of satellite component temperatures. This implies that the boundary conditions
be accurate in order for the finitet element solution to be accurate. In the on-orbit
environment there are five sources of heat trasnsfer to consider, solar radiation,
Earth Albedo, satellite reradiation, Earth IR radiaiton,as explained and illustrated
above. With the exception of solar radiation, all three radiation sources require
a view factor to be calculated. Depending on the orbit, this view factor is a function of date, attitude, altitude, and position. These view factors, Fspacecraf tEarth ,
Fspacecraf tEarthAlbedo , and Fspacecraf tspace can be quantitatively solved for in the thermal boundary condition MatLab/Simulink model shown in appendix D. The view
factors to space can also be solved for within the model Because the flux to space
is dependent on satellite surface temperature, ANSYS must be used to solve for
flux to space. This requires the view factor to space vs. time be known.
The model takes as inputs, date, time, orbital parameters, initial spacecraft attitude, solar cell properties, and runtime. Using an orbit propogator[2] the model
the spacecrafts position history can be computed. Using Eulers Equations, the
spacecrafts attitude is propogated at each time step as well. Having obtained position and orientation the model calculates view factors for each face of the satellite
as quadruple integrals. These view factors are then used to calculate heat fluxes
for each face due to solar radiation, Earth IR, and Earth Albedo. Since total satellite face heat fluxes as well as view factors are known. All the nmajor thermal
boundary conditions of the spacercraft can be tabulated vs. time. It is this tabuated time history that is used to input thermal boundary conditions into ANSYS
for FEA. The MatLab code used to calculate the thermal boundary conditions is
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shown in appendix D.
Note that because the thermal boundary condition code takes 2 to 3 hours per
one orbit to run, efficient use of the code requires one already know which orbit
is hot and which is cold. To determine which orbit was hot and which was cold
we used a beta analysis[3]. Looking at the illustration below, the definition of beta
angle becomes clearer. Beta is a funciton of date, right ascension, inclination. A

Figure 4: Beta angle visualization; observer is the Sun looking at a spacecraft in

Earth orbit.
larger beta angle means more sunlight. However, this is only true up until a certain
beta angle called beta star[3]. Beta star is the angle at which the spacecraft no
longer enters the Earths eclipse during an orbit. Any orbit with a beta greater than
beta star will always be in sunlight.

Figure 5: Beta star:the beta angle at which the Earth no longer eclipses the spacecraft for a given altitude.

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Figure 6: Example analysis for Cylinder in Low Earth Orbit. Note how maximum
heat transfer to the satellite occurs at beta=beta star.
Hot Case:
When albedo is considered along with sunlight, as shown in the illustration above
for a cylicnder in Low Earth Orbit, the hottest orbit is not beta=90 as might be intuitive but it occurs at beta=beta star. Also, to maximize heat transfer to the satellite
from Earth IR, the lowest orbit is needed. These two conditions mean that the hot
case orbit is the lowest Low Earth Orbit possible at beta=beta star.
Cold Case:
Determining the cold case orbit is not so clear since any orbit can be at the beta=0
degree condition at some point in the year. Two case are presently being analyzed. A 500km and 1000km polar orbit at beta=0 degree. Also, a 500km and
1000km orbit at inclination of 23.5 degrees. 23.5 degrees being the latitude of
central Floridas launch complexes.

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5.2.2

April 2008

Preliminary ANSYS Analysis: Hot Case

Hot Case: Preliminary FEA thermal analysis using ANSYS has been completed
for a steady state hot condition using the following assumptions and simplifications
Solar constant of 1414W/m2
Constant heat flux obtained from averaging of time dependent net heat flux
on each face over a 6 orbit period, using the hot case boundary conditions.
No re-radiation between internal components of satellite (i.e. from one component box to another).
Area averaging of exposed aluminum and solar panel surface areas to obtain
an area averaged absorptivity and emissivity for each external satellite face.
Latitude averaging of earth albedo and IR fluxes in increments of 10 deg
latitude.
Disregarding conduction along electrical wires from solar panels to component boxes.
All components operating with nominal power loads and heat generation
(See Appendix A)
Simulated time was sufficient to reach steady state.
A constantly nadir pointed attitude with the same satellite face pointed in the
direction of the velocity at all times.
This preliminary analysis assumes a constant heat flux on each face with conduction being the only means of heat transfer within the satellite. This analysis does
incorporate the viewfactors between each face of the satellite and space. Internal
view factors were removed to shorten simulation time. Simulation with view factors
included did not obtain a solution after 4.5 days.
Results
Overall satellite: Max temperature occured on the solar panel constantly facing
the sun. This panel also had the radio component box(26Watts) moiunted to the
isogrid to simulate worst case conditions. Results shown below.

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Figure 7: Top view of satellite showing solar panel temperatures.

This preliminary analysis assumes a constant heat flux on each face with conduction being the only means of heat transfer within the satellite. This analysis
does incorporate the viewfactors between each face of the satellite and space,
calculated via the MatLab thermal boundary condition code. Internal view factors
were removed to shorten simulation time. With view factors included, simulation
did not obtain a solution after 4.5 days.

5.2.3

Preliminary ANSYS Analysis: Cold Case

Cold Case: Preliminary analysis using ANSYS is currently being attempted for a
baseline transient cold case condition for a two orbit time period using the following assumptions and simplifications
Solar constant of 1322W/m2
No re-radiation between internal components of satellite (i.e. from one component box to another).
Area averaging of exposed aluminum and solar panel surface areas to obtain
an area averaged absorptivity and emissivity for each external satellite face.

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Figure 8: Radio component box: The Radios were modeled as being continously
on producing 26 Watts and being attached to the hottest side if the spacecraft. The
results are shown below. Note that 60
circC operating temperature is exceeded.
Latitude averaging of earth albedo and IR fluxes in increments of 10 deg
latitude.
Disregarding conduction along electrical wires from solar panels to component boxes.
All components operating with nominal power loads and heat generation
(See Appendix A).
This preliminary analysis assumes a constant heat flux on each face with conduction being the only means of heat transfer within the satellite. This analysis does
incorporate the viewfactors between each face of the satellite and space, calculated via the MatLab thermal boundary condition code. Internal view factors were
removed to shorten simulation time. With view factors included, simulation did not
obtain a solution after 4.5 days.
Results
As the cold case involves transient boundary conditions and requires simulated
run times on the order of 3 orbits with complex meshes, the analysis has yet to
evaluate all results. Where as the hot csae parallels a steady state case, the cold
case certainly does not since it enters into eclipse every orbit.

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Figure 9: Flight Computer: Mounted on the face with normal coincident with velocity vector. Produces up to 19Watts.

5.3

Future Work

PQR (Proto-Qualification Review)

detailed thermal design
model troublesome components (battery, radio box, etc.)
report detailing design, model, and temperature predictions
FCR (Final Critical Review)
design completion

Recommendations for Future Work

The results, having demonstrated maximum temperatures within two orbits that
exceed the maximum allowable instrument operating limits, indicate a need for
further analysis and/or design modification. High temperatures resulting on the
sun-facing side likely are not only due to experiencing the most direct solar light
exposure, but also may result from the mounting of the internal component box
containing the radio on that face. As the component with the highest power generation, the radio may need to be mounted on a cold face to allow a greater balance
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Figure 10: Inertial Measurement Unit: Mounted on the drag face (opposing the
flight computer) and producing 9.6Watts.
of heat distribution throughout the satellite.
Thermal control methods, often involving fins, have been considered for a few
on-board features, but because there may be more practical methods of heat
distribution, these active forms of control may not be approached at this time.
Instead, the analysis deserves more scrutiny and further testing within ANSYS.
Model complexity limited the capabilities within ANSYS for the runs performed
here and considerations of some importance were ignored, including, foremost,
internal view factors. Careful inspection of the component housings and panels
clearly demonstrate a need for additional heat dissipation, which may occur to a
large degree via internal radiation between boxes, isogrid panels and exterior panels. For instance, an internal radiation from the radio box located on the sun-side
of the satellite may dissipate enough heat to the opposite panel and furthermore
may radiate then to space if these factors are included in the ANSYS analysis. An
ANSYS run including 28 radiative enclosures within the satellite was performed,
but had to be ceased after 4 days of compiling the mathematical model. A simplification of internal view factors may be possible by determining and isolating only
the internal radiative transfer from components generating the most heat or from
sides with the most solar exposure.
A combination of methods may be the middle ground. Relocation of high power
generating instruments to cooler sides with less solar exposure and the ability to
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Figure 11: Component box 2: Mounted on the side opposite the hottest side.
radiate any generated heat internally by the addition of a view factor command
code within ANSYS may provide a more realistic representation of the thermal
performance of the satellite in which heat does not merely build up on closely conducting surfaces, but distributes through a greater number of modes, as it would
realistically in space. This may require higher processing capabilities in which
ANSYS processes can be distributed over a cluster of processors and thus solve
more efficiently. The high degree of non-linearity involved when implementing view
factors for internal radiation may still pose a problem as often, ANSYS seems to
have difficulty solving around those non-linearities. In addition, further refinement
of the mesh and a longer propagation of the orbit may be necessary to allow the
satellite to reach a steady state temperature visualization in ANSYS.

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Figure 12: Battery Box: Mounted on the satellite face opposing nadir(away from
Earth).

References

Bitzer, Tom. Honeycomb Technology. 1997.

Curtis, Howard. Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students. 2005.
Gilmore, David(editor). Spacecraft Thermal Control Handbook. Volume I 2002.
Griffin, Michael and French, James. Space Vehicle Design. 2nd ed. 2004.
Kaminski, Deborah and Jensen, Michael. Introduction to Thermal and Fluids Engineering.
2005.
6. Modest, Michael. Radiative Heat Transfer. 2nd ed. 2003.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Appendix A: Satellite Component Profiles

Satellite hardware component profiles.

Figure 13: Operating temperature ranges required for nominal operations.

Figure 14: Material properties for satellite components.

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Figure 15: Power consumption of major electrcial components.

Appendix B: First Order Steady State Analysis using Excel

Satellite assumed to be a sphere of same mass as Goldeneye, comparable size.

27 Orbital cases analyzed.

Figure 16: Raw results from first order steady state analysis

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Appendix C: First Order Transient Analysis using MatLab/Simulink

Figure 17: Comparision of results:first order transient vs. first order steady state

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Figure 18: MatLab code used in the simulink model for first order transient analysis.

Figure 19: Simulink model used for first order transient analysis.

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Appendix D: Determination of Thermal Boundary Conditions

Figure 20: Simulink model used for thermal boundary conditions.

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Figure 21: Sample results of total thermal flux per face(minus radiation to space)
and view factors per face for radiation to space.

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Thermal Boundary Condition MatLab code used in the Simulink model(rest not
included).

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