Unit I

INTRODUCTION
UNIT OBJECTIVES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

To define history
To describe the uses or importance of history
To identify the sources of history
To explain the major views or philosophies in the study of history
To differentiate the various approaches in the study of Philippine
history
6. To give reasons for interpreting Philippine history from the Filipino point
of view
7. To justify the need to study history in order to understand ones
national identity

I. HISTORY DEFINED
A. Traditional Definitions
1. History is the record of the past.
2. History is a record of the human past from the time written records
began to appear.
a. The above definitions are weak because they view history as
based merely on written
records.
b. According to Gottschalk, history is actuality; hence it must study the
past as it
happened: This demands that the historian abandon the present.
The practical value
of studying and using the past to understand the present is lost.
History is studied,
written, and taught for its own sake.
c. Interviews or oral history and oral traditions, and cultural artifacts
are not
considered.
d. This notion of no written record, no history has confined history to
the literate and
articulate and has resulted in the production of historiographies
from upper-class
male
perspectives.
B. MODERN DEFINITION
1. History is the reconstruction of the past based on written records, oral
history, cultural
artifacts and folk traditions.
2. It is the imaginative reconstruction of the past, the study of events
concerning people in the past.
3. Aside from the recording, a historian should do two other important
tasks:
a. To interpret facts in an orderly and intelligible manner, and
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b. To discover patterns and trends which govern the behavior of people

and of nations, and to make generalizations of these.
4. Therefore history is the interpretative and imaginative study of surviving
records of the past, either written or unwritten, in order to determine
the meaning and scope of human existence.

II.

USES OR IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY

A. BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN THE PRESENT AND THE PAST

The present being the result of the past, the Philippines and the
Filipinos are what they are today because of what happened in times
past. The nature and the extent of contemporary problems in the
country can best be understood in the light of their historical roots.
Thus, knowing the past improves the understanding of the present.
B. EXPLAINGING CAUSES OF THINGS AND EVENTS
No other discipline can provide explanations for causes of events
and/or developments. For example, there is no ways to explain why the
state-side mentality among Filipinos is very strong. The question is
What was in the past that brought about this mentality?
C. PROJECTING THE FUTURE
Events and developments in the future may be envisioned using
lessons of history as bases. Circumstances in the past have been
observed to contribute to the unfolding of a significant event. Taking
stock of similarities or parallels between the past and the present also
leads to consideration of likely possibilities or scenarios in future.
History allows us to speculate intelligently about the future. Present
and future intelligent action springs from sound knowledge of the past.
D. INTERPRETING CONDITIONS OF A GIVEN SPACE AND TIME
History is the only branch of knowledge that can provide information
and corresponding interpretation of periods of history. The coming of
the United States to the Philippines may be explained by going back to
the events before 1898 and finding out what factors contributed to rise
of the United States as an imperialist power.
E. PROMOTING NATIONALISM AND PATRIOTISM
History is the best area of human knowledge that can help in
promoting nationalism and patriotism. It inspires and develops a sense
of national pride and a sense of devotion to country by recording the
exploits and struggles of forefathers to win freedom and independence.
History affirms the fact that Filipinos posses many positive traits and a
very rich culture.

III.

SOURCE OF HISTORY
A. WRITTEN OR INSCRIBED SOURCES
1. Birth and death certificates
2. Marriage certificates
3. Directories
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4. Church records
5. Letters and diaries
6. Local newspapers
7. Census reports
8. Title deeds
9. Surveyors notes
10.
School records
11.
Government records
12.
Business records
13.
Police records
14.
Books
15.
Souvenir programs
16.
Hospital records
17.
Inscriptions e.g. Laguna Copper Plate, Inscription dated A.D.
900
B. GRAPHIC/VISUAL MATERIALS AND ARTIFACTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Photographs
Heirlooms and keepsakes
Arts and crafts
Tools, weapons and utensils
Old structures and landmarks
Skeletal remains with funerary furniture and paraphernalia

C. FOLKLORE/ORAL LITERATURE
D. ORAL HISTORY THROUGH INTERVIEWS

IV. MAJOR VIEWS OR PHILOSOPHIES IN THE STUDY OF

HISTORY
Views or philosophies of history are ways of interpreting and explaining
historical developments and interplay of personages, places, time, and
events.
A. CYCLICAL VIEW
1. History repeats itself.
2. All human events occur in cycles.
3. Its famous exponents were Herodotus and Spengler.
4. This view was popular from the time of Herodotus (5th century B.C.),
B. PROVIDENTIAL VIEW
1. History is determined by God
2. It consists of recording the death struggle between good and evil.
3. Man is relegated to the role of a pawn in a game of high stakes.
4. The providential view became widespread during the Middle Ages,
and its foremost exponent was St. Augustine.
C. PROGRESSIVE VIEW OR LINEAR VIEW (Collingwood, 1966;
Gottschalk, 1964)
1. This view regards mankind as responsible for the advancement of
civilization. It places complete faith in human abilities rather than in
divine intervention.
2. Mankind is getting better and better.
3. Bousset, Vico, Leibnitz, and Marx were leading exponents.

4. This view holds that each new generation build upon the
achievements of the preceding; it must be better (Leibnitzs Law of
Continuity) because it has with which to start.
D. RELATIVIST VIEW (Gagnon, 1982, ch.1; Hunt, 1989, ch.1
1. History classifies and groups together facts about the past in terms
of current needs or contemporary concerns. History creates its own
subject. (Febvre)
2. Each new situation implies a reinterpretation of the past thus,
relationship to the past is in a constant state of change (Dumont).
This implies the subjective nature of historical knowledge.
3. History does not deal with causal analysis cause-and-effect but
on discourse. (Foucalts Deconstruction) This view states that one
does not have a fixed theory or fixed position against which
historical data could be measured.
4. This view states that one does not have a fixed theory or fixed
position against which historical data could be measured.

V. VARIOUS APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF

PHILIPPINE HISTORY
(Cruz, 1982: 16-26; Larkin, 1979: 1-17)

A. Clerico - Imperialist school

1. History of Gods grand design.
2. This approach emerged with the coming of the Spaniards.
3. Catholicism is the instrument of God to redeem the native inhabitants
from the clutches of Satan.
4. No interpretation is needed because everything is willed by God.
5. The representatives of this school were Pigafetta, Loarca, Placecia,
Concepion, Zuiga, etc, who were all medievalistic in outlook and
greatly influenced by St. Augustines providential theory of history.
B. Assimilationist View
1. The rise of secularism and nationalism and the new ideologies of
Enlightenment brought about this view.
2. God was now secularized and used in defense of the Filipinos right as
human beings who should be treated with dignity and respect. If
everything was created by God, was not the Filipino the equal of the
Spaniards? It, therefore, preached equality between Filipinos and
Spaniards.
3. This view was assimilationist because it aimed at uniting the people to
prepare them for membership in the Spanish community of nations.
C. Nationalist School
1. This was the product of a crisis-situation created by the Philippine
Revolution and the American invasion that eventually led to the
Filipino-American War. The outbreak of the Philippine Revolution and
the subsequent Filipino-American War strengthened the natives
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nationalistic resolve to win their freedom from colonial yoke. Thus,

even the assimilationists abandoned their goal of making the
Philippines part of Spain and became truly a nationalist school when
they clamored for freedom.
2. The school aimed to influence the destiny of the Filipino nation by
pushing for independence either for the individual or for the nation.
D. Democratic-Imperialist School
1. Dominated by the idea of the superiority of American culture, this
school reduced majority of the Filipinos to a silent backdrop and
passive recipient of the blessings of American civilization.
2. The school was inspired by the introduction of democracy and the
secular idea of Americans Manifest Destiny. Its object was to
rewrite Philippine history from the time of the U.S. divinely-inspired
intervention and the manifest superiority of Americas
benevolent occupation. Americas Manifest Destiny was based
on the convection of Americans that their civilization was superior
and that all others in Asia, Africa, and South America were inferior.
The United States believed that its singular destiny was to
undertake the advancement of mankind and so it brought its
civilization to other parts of the world. Its mission could be
efficiently carried out through physical expansion. The Americans
could then educate, civilize, and train the Filipinos in the art of
democratic government.
3. The exponents were American writers themselves.
E. NATIONALIST-REALIST TRANSITION SCHOOL
1. History was viewed as a reconstruction of the past as reflected in
records, written, collected, analyzed, and synthesized by
historians.`
2. The school approximated the ideal of history as art. History is art
because it involves the creative and imaginative reconstruction of
the past. The mere presentation of facts does not constitute history
but a chronicle. Thus, facts have to be interpreted and recreated to
make a historical narrative.
3. Biography, politics, society, culture, and institutions were studied
with the singular nationalistic orientation of instilling pride in being
a Filipino by emphasizing native greatness and accomplishments.
4. While their nationalism was genuine enough, members of this
school nevertheless displayed colonial mentality by recognizing
Spanish and American influences that benefited the Filipinos.
5. The school stressed the role of the ilustrado in nation-building.
6. The exponents were Medina, Benitez, Zafra, and Zaide.
F. PURE NATIONALISTIC SCHOOL
1. Started by Agoncillo and expounded by Salazar et al., this view was
referred to as Pantayong Pananaw.
2. The main idea was to study philippine history from the Filipino point
of view.
3. The history of the inarticulate (peasants, workers, cultural
commnunities, women, children) was included and the exponents
were Scott, Ileto, and Camagay.
4. The view was revolutionary as it was a logical reaction to foreigndominated and ilustrado-centered theme of philippine history.
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5. It emphasized the importance of history in nation-building.

G. LEFTIST - SOCIALIST OR MARXIST VIEW
1. Using analysis, the advocates stressed that history is a science,
capable of being controlled, influenced, and predicted.
2. The view was a universalistic extension of the class conflict theme
and it regarded history as the history of economic classes, their
rise, fall, dominance, and exploitation.
VI. REASONS FOR INTERPRETING PHILIPPINE HISTORY FROM A
FILIPINO POINT OF VIEW
A. FOREIGN INTERPRETATION IS BIASED AND PREJUDICIAL

1. The judgment of Philippine history takes into account the colonial

masters interest.
2. Filipino cultures and historical development are judged on the basis of
the foreigners own
cultural development and history.
3. Although objectivity cannot be really achieved in the writing of history, in
all considerations,
a Filipinos view of his history is better than that of his colonial masters.
B.
THE FILIPINOS HAVE GREATER FAMILIARITY WITH AND
UNDERSTANDING OF THEIR OWN
CULTURE AND HISTORY.
1. It can be argued that Filipinos know their history, culture, and identity
better thah foreign
historians do.
2. Filipinos are more familiar with the historical roots of their problems.
C. THE FILIPINO POINT OF VIEW CAN HELP PROMOTE NATIONALISM
AND PATRIOTISM

VII. HISTORY AS A TOOL IN UNDERSTANDING NATIONAL IDENTITY

A. It can help in tracing the roots of the Filipino people.
B. It serves as a tool in identifying commonalities in their culture and
experiences.
C. It points out the need for nationalism and patritism in nation-building.

Unit II
THE SETTING
UNIT OBJECTIVES:

1. To point out the strategic location of the philippines in relation to other

countries in
Southeast Asia and the world
2. To explain different theories about the geological and geographical
foundations of the
Philippines
3. To determine the important geographic features and characteristics of
the Philippine
archipelago.
4. To determine how the countrys geographic characteristics have
influenced the development pf Philippine history and culture.

I.
A.

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
LOCATION
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1. The Philippines is situated in the Southeast section of Asia.

2. It is bounded in the north by Taiwan, in the west by the South China Sea, in
the east by the Pacific Ocean, and in the south by the Celebes Sea.
3. It is included in the Asia-Pacific rim.
4. It lies slightly a little above the equator.
B. CHARACTER OF THE LAND

1. It is an archipelago consisting of about 7,107 islands and islets.

a. This explains the weakness of the Filipinos sense of nationalism, the
diverse language spoken in the country, the strong sense of
regionalism, and the existence of subcultures throughout the island.
b. This archipelagic character, however, has resulted in the maritime
orientation of the inhabitants, making them expert sailors and
navigators, and famous boat-builders. It has brought about the
development of the fishing industry in the country.
2. The Philippines stretches almost a thousand miles from north to south.
3. It has a land surface area of 114,830 square statute miles.
4. It is mountainous and has a several active, as well as dormant volcanoes.
a. It has seven mountain range, the greatest of which is the Sierra Madre in
north-central Luzon. The highest peak is Mount Apo in Davao, which is
9,690 feet high. Other peaks are Mount Madya-as in Panay, Banahaw,
Makiling, and San Cristobal in Laguna, Arayat in Pampanga, Mayon and
Pulog in Bicol, and Halcon in Mindoro.
b. The country has more than 50 volcanoes, some of which are active.The
greatest is Mount Mayon known for its perfect cone. Another famous
volcano in the country is Taal Volcano, the smallest volcano on earth.
5. It is also riverine with a good numder of river systems.
a. Nearly all islands of the country are crisscrossed by rivers, some of which
are navigable. Thesr rivers are the Cagayan, the Jalaur and Panay rivers in
Panay; Rio Grande de Pampanga, the Agno and the Pasig rivers in Luzon;
the Agusan and Lanao rivers in northern Mindanao; and the famous
Underground River in Palawan.
b. Through time, rivers have served multiple functions for Filipinos. They
have been used as highways of transportation and communication,
especially for trade and commerce. They provide food for the people. They
also provide opportunities for people in the rural areas to socialize with
each other as when they wash together on the river banks.
c. Also significant is the fact that the Filipinos established their settlements
along the banks of the rivers. Today, many towns and cities in the
Philippines are situated along river systems.
6. The Philippines has a tropical climate.

II. THEORIES REGARDING THE GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL

FOUNDATIONS OF THE
ARCHIPELAGO
A. SCIENTIFIC THEORIES
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1. The Continental Drift theory

It argues that the Philippines came from the breaking of a vast mass of
land and the drifting away of broken pieces from each other. The larger
ones turned into continents while the smaller bits and pieces
constituted themselves into islands and archipelagos, including the
Philippines.
2. Land Bridges theory
It contends that the Philippines was once connected to mainland Asia
by means of land bridges. During the post-geological age, about
25,000 years ago, the worlds ice melted, causing the level of the seas
to rise. This resulted in the submerging of the lower regions of the
earth, including the land-bridges, thereby separating the Philippines
from the Asian mainland.
3. The islands of the Philippines resulted from the faulting and folding of the
earths crust brought about by violent earthquakes. Faulting is a break in
the continuity of the earths strata or vein, while folding is literally the
folding of the curvature of the strata.
4. The volcanic origin theory
Some geologist, notably Dr. Bailey Willis, asserted the volcanic origin of
the Philippines. As sea-volcanoes erupted in remote epochs, island
emerged above the waters, thereby forming an archipelago.
5. The Philippines as a remnant of a vast continent.
Certain geographical scientist opined that the Philippines was a
remnant of a vast continent in the Pacific which sank beneath the
waters. This lost Pacific continent was called Mu or Lemuria.
B. MYTHICAL ORIGIN
The Filipinos like other societies have certain myths. Among them are:
1. Divine creation this is tied to the myth that Filipinos are the chosen
people of God. Therefore, even the archipelago was especially created by
Him.
2. Quarrel between the sky and the sea
Once upon a time there was no land. There were only the sky, the sea,
and a flying bird. For a long time, the bird flew and flew, without resting,
because it had no place to rest on. One day the tired bird incited a
quarrel between the sea and the sky. The sea hurled big waves against
the sky. The sky rose higher and higher to escape the foaming waves.
The sea continued to hurl the waves to greater heights. The angry sky
then threw down boulders of rocks upon the raging sea. Out of these
rocks came the Philippines.
3. The giant tale
A long, long time ago, the world was a vast ball of solid rock borne by a
mighty giant on his shoulders. For untold ages, he carried his burden
patiently. But one day he became tired and let his burden slide down his
shoulders. As the rock fell, it crashed to pieces. Out of the fragments
rose the continents and islands, including the Philippines.

III.

IMPORTANT GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES

A. TOPOGRAPHY
8

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The Philippines is rugged land traversed by mountain ranges.

It has an irregular coastline.
It has extensive coastal plains, arable valleys, and deltas.
It has navigable rivers and cascading waterfalls.
Generally mountainous, the country has seven mountain ranges.
The greatest is the Sierra Madre in Luzon and the highest peak is
Mount Apo in Mindanao which is 9,690 feet high.
6. The lowest part is the Philippine Deep situated about 45 miles
northeast of Mindanao which is 34,218 feet below sea level.
B. COASTLINE, RIVERS, AND LAKES
1. The county has an extensive coastline longer than that of
continental United States.
2. The sea coasts of the islands are indented with numerous bays,
harbors, gulfs, and coves.
3. The Philippines has numerous lakes. The largest is the Laguna de
Bay. Others of significant size are Lake Lanao in Lanao del Sur, Taal
Lake in Batangas, Lake Naujan in Mindoro, and Lake Bito in Leyte.
The lakes and rivers in the country, however, are no longer in their
pristine state. Continuous denudations of forest areas and siltation
have alarmingly lowered the water level in these rivers and lakes,
and the water has become polluted.
C. WATERFALLS AND MINERAL SPRINGS
1. The Philippines has many waterfalls. The most famous is Pagsanjan
Falls in Laguna, one of the countrys main tourist attractions. The
largest waterfall, on the other hand, is the Botocan Falls, also in
Laguna. The Hinulugan Falls in Antipolo, Rizal, is rich in legendary
lore. In Mindanao, the most important waterfall is the Maria Cristina
Falls in Lanao del Norte.
2. Mineral springs or spas are plentiful in the Philippines. The wellknown spas are found on Pagsanjan, Pasol, Los Baos in Laguna; in
Pandi and Marilao, Bulacan; in Lemery and Nasugbu, Batangas; in
Goa, Camarines Sur; in Magunjal, Ilocos Sur; and in Murcia, Negros
Occedental.
3. As potential source of power, the best in the country is the Maria
Cristina Falls in Lanao del Norte.
The lessening in the volume of water in rivers and lakes brought
about by the alarming denudation of forested areas has also
drastically reduced their potential for food, industrial use and for
tourist attraction.
D. FAUNA
1. The Philippines abounds in animal life.
2. Three unique mammals exist in the country:
a. The tarsius, the smallest monkey in the world, found only in
Bohol
b. The tamaraw, a cross between the carabao and boar, found
only in Mindoro
c. The mouse deer, smallest deer on earth, found in Palawan.
3. More than 750 species of birds in the Philippines have been
identified. The most famous is the monkey-eating eagle, one of
the biggest eagles known to man.
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4. About 25,000 species of insects are known to exist in the

country.
E. FLORA
1. The Philippines has approximately 10,000 species of flowering
plants and ferns.
2. It has one of the richest collection of orchids in the whole world
with over 900 species.
F. FOREST COVER AND ARABLE LAND
1. The Philippine forested areas are now limited.
2. Dipterocarp (mahony)forest are endagered. According to atellite
maps taken in 1988, only 900,000 hectares of forest are left due
to kaingin, logging, and other expliotative activities.
3. In the same satellite maps, 17% or 5 million hectares of arable
land are damaged. A steady erosion of topsoil is noted.
G.FISHERIES AND MARINE RESOURCES
1. At least 2,000 species of fish are said to be found in Philippine
waters.
2. The smallest fish in the world is Pandaka Pygmaea, which is
found in Manila Bay.
3. In the country are 10,000 species of shells knoen to science.
4. Very good fishing grounds are found in Manila Bay, Laguna,
Bantayan Channel in Cebu, Estancia in Iloilo, Malampaya Sound
in Palawan, the Sulu Sea, and the waters of Basilan in
Zamboanga.
5. Despite the existence of rich fishing grounds in the country, the
fish catch has speedily dwindled because of destructive methods
of fishing, like the use of dynamites and cyanide, fine-meshed
net, and muro-ami (disturbing coral reefs to draw the fish out).
6. Because of the conversion of mangrove areas to fish pens and
fishponds, the Philippines has been stripped of 402,000 hectares
of mangroves, depriving different species of fish as safe haven
on which to lay their eggs. Coastal zones, therefore, have
become ecologically brittle.
H.

MINERAL RESOURCES

1. The metallic minerals found in the Philippines are gold, iron,

copper, silver,
platinum, chromium, manganese, lead, and zinc.
2. The non-metallic minerals are coal, petroleum, asbestos, clay,
gypsum, lime,
salt, sulfur, marble, and adobe stone.
I.

SCENIC BEAUTIES

1. The country is gifted with beautiful beaches, rippling seas of

crystalline waters,
cool towering highlands, and rolling valleys.
2. The crowning glory is the Ifugao rice terraces in Northern
Luzon.
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3. Other Philippine wonders are Boracay, the Pangasinan Falls,

the Crystal Caves
in Baguio, the Salts Spring of Nueva Vizcaya, the Montalban
Caves in Rizal, the
Maria Cristina Falls in Lanao, the Mayon Volcano in Albay, the
Taal V olcano in
Batangas, the Underground River in Palawan, and the hundred
isles of
Lingayen Gulf, Pangasinan.
4. The natural beauties of the Philippines have lost much of their
pristine nature
because of unbriddled exploitation and the lack of clear cut
direction in the tourism industry of the country.
J. THE ROLE OF THE CONCEPT OF STEWARDSHIP
Two views on the relationship of human beings to their
environment prevail. The
traditional view is that man is the master of his world and he is
free to dispose
of what he can find around him. Resources are unlimited and
without end. The
modern view holds that man is the steward of his natural
environment, and he is
responsible for it. Resources are finite and exhaustible, hence,
the need for
sustainable development. Man must take care of the
environment to sustain
himself and the others, as well as the succeeding generations.

IV. INFLUENCES OR EFFECTS OF GEOGRAPHY ON THE

HISTORY AND CULTURE OF THE
FILIPINOS
A. OCCUPATIONAL INFLUENCE
1. The primary livelihood activities were farming and fishing due to
the archipelagic
and topographic features of the country.
2.
Boat-building was developed.
3.
Filipinos became expert sailors and navigators.
4.
Because of forested areas and the presence of varied fauna,
Filipinos invented
and fabricated different traps and hunting implements.
5.
Abundance of clay enabled Filipinos to go into pottery making.
B. CULTURAL INFLUENCE
1. Diverse languages developed because of relative isolation of
cultures from one another and of differences in the physical
environment.
2. Sub-cultures developed throughout the archipelago. Variations
in the physical environment led to different occupation and
11

experiences in life resulting in the development of a wide

spectrum of cultural traits and practices in language, costume,
food, utensils, marriage practices, rituals, and others. The
outcome is existence of ethno-linguistic groups throughout the
length of the archipelago and of societies with different degrees
of development.
3. Culture contacts were made with early traders- Chinese, Indian,
Arab, and Southeast Asian. These contacts were significant
because they brought about cultural borrowings thereby
enriching Filipino culture.
C. SOCIO-POLITICAL EFFECTS

1. A sense of regionalism and sectionalism developed.

2. It delayed the birth of nationalism.
3. Filipinos were subjugated by foreign invaders because of
geographical
isolation and lack of cohesion.
4. Development of the upland and lowland communities was
uneven.
Lowland and coastal communities had greater contacts
with the outside world through trade and maritime
explorations making them more informed and more open
to change. They usually had surplus production because of
wet farming activity. Thus, lowland communities developed
faster than upland communities which remained relatively
isolated.

UNIT III
EARLY PHILIPPINES TO 1570 A.D.
UNIT OBJECTIVES:
1. To present various theories concerning the peopling of the
Philippines in early times.
2. To compare and contrast the historical and cultural implications of
these theories.
3. To describe the early Philippine trade patterns and their significance
in the diffusion of cultures in the islands.
4. To discuss the significance and implications of the spread of Islam in
the Philippines.
5. To describe Philippine cultures prior to the coming of the Spaniards.
I.THEORIES CONCERNING THE PEOPLING OF THE
PHILIPPINES
A. Mythological and Legendary
The early Spanish friar-chroniclers recorded the following
fantastic theories on the origin of the Filipinos (Francisco, 1783,
vol.5, pp.129-130).
1. The ancestors of Filipinos sprang from the soil like wild plants.
2. The early Filipinos were created by the sun who said to be their
father.
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3. They were produced from certain base metals by the magic of

alchemists.
4. Another story of origin is about a god and goddess who were so
lonely they decided to bake people out of clay. The first and
second attempts were failures because they were not rightly
cooked. From those came the black race and the white race. The
third attempt was just perfect and out of the rightly baked clay
figures came the Filipinos.
5. In still another history, Lalake and Babae stepped out of a
bamboo nodule after a bird had pecked on it. The two got
married and had many children. The children proved to be so
lazy that Lalake got angry and chased them with a stick. They
fled to escape the fathers wrath. Some ran a short distance and
remained in the country, while others fled to far-away regions.
Those who stayed in the country became friends.
B. ARCHAELOGICAL AND SCIENTIFIC THEORIES
1. The Land Bridge theory
a. It was theorized that during the Pleistocene or Ice Age,
the waters surrounding what is now the Philippines fell
about 156 feet below the present level, exposing a vast
area land connected to mainland.
b. These land bridges were used by a group of people to
reach the Philippines.
c. This theory was disputed by Dr. Fritjof Voss. A German
scientist, who asserted that the Philippines was never part
of mainland Asia. According to Dr. Voss, the Philippines
could not have been connected by the land bridge since
scientific studies done in the 1960s on the thickness of the
earths crust showed that the 35-kilometer thick crust
underneath China did not extend to the Philippines.
2. The Negritos as the aboriginal inhabitants of the Philippines.
a. Negritos moved to the Philippines by means of land
bridges, 25,000
to 30,000 years ago.
b. This theory was severely criticized by F. Landa Jocano, a
Filipino Anthropologist, Who believed that fossil evidences
of ancient men showed that they went not only to the
Philippines but also to New Guinea, Java, Borneo, and
Australia. Moreover, there was no way of telling whether or
not they were Negritos
c. Tabon Man. The Tabon Man, the earliest fossil remains of
a human being in the Philippines, was discovered. It could
not be ascertained, however, if he was Negrito.
3. The Waves of Migration theory

13

a. Advanced by H. Otley Beyer, the theory states that the

coming of people to the Philippines occurred in waves of
migrations.
b. Majority of Filipinos today are descendants of Malays
who came in the Archipelago in at least three waves from
200 B.C to about 1500 A.D.
c. Aside from Negritos and Malays, Indonesians settlers in
the Philippines had also come in two waves about 3,500 to
5,000 years ago.
d. The waves of migration theory was questioned by
Jocano and young anthropologists because the discovery
of the Tabon man in Palawan in 1962 showed conclusively
that man came to the Philippines as early as 21,000 or
22,000 years ago, whereas migration to the Malay
Peninsula was dated to be around 5,000 B.C. only.

4. The theory that present Filipinos are results of a long process

of evolution.
a. This was theorized by Jocano.
b. The present Filipinos, Indonesians, and Malays of
Malaysia are end
results of both the long process of
evolution and later movements of people.
c. The difference among these people are due to
differences in their responses to their environment. The
similarities found among them are to adjustment to the
environment.
II. EARLY TRADE CONTACTS
A. Inter-island and Intra-island Trading
1. Early Filipinos traded among themselves. Those in coastal
areas bartered with one another and also exchanged goods
with people in upland areas. Going inland was not difficult
because rivers were navigable.
2. Aside from intra-island economic activity, commercial
exchanges between and among islands in the Philippines
also developed. This facilitated by the maritime orientation
of Filipinos and ready availability of boats.
B. Relation with the Orang Dampuans, Banjarmasin, Siam,
and Tonkin
1. The Orang Dampuans or Men from Champa were from
Southern Annam. They came to the Southern part of the
Philippines between 900 and 1200 A.D. and established
14

trading posts in Sulu, resulting in a flourishing trade

between that place and Southern Annam.
2. The men of Banjar, on the other hand, were from
Banjarmasin in Borneo. Through a diplomatic coup. They
succeeded in putting Sulu under their influence. Under
them, Sulu developed into an emporium visited by trading
ships from all over Southern Asia and China.
3. Trade with Siam and Tonkin developed in the middle of the
14th century. Traders from these places exchanged their
porcelain products for Philippine native wares.
C. RELATIONS WITH THE INDIANS AND THE CHINESE
1. Trade relations with the Chinese started in the 10th
century(A.D. 982 is the year given in the Sung annals)
and reached its zenith in the 4th and 5th centuries.
2. Trade relations of the Philippines with the Indians reached
its peak in the late 13th century. Dr. Juan Francisco
however asserted that trade with India may have
happened directly, through Indianized Southeast Asians.
3. The Chinese writer Chao Ju- Kua, sometime between 1209
and 1214, described the Chinese trade with Ma-I
(presumably Mindoro) and praised the honesty of the
Filipinos.
4. Early Chinese trading junks brought goods and immigrants
to the Philippines.
5. For a brief period under the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644),
China exercised nominal suzerainty over the Philippines,
and some Filipinos paid tribute to China.
6. The last Filipino tribute embassy came to China in 1421,
according to the Ming-Shih or dynastic annals of the Ming.
D. EARLY RELATIONS WITH JAPAN
1. Historical records show that Japanese pirates (wako),
kingdom builders, and settlers had come to Luzon before
and immediately after the Spanish colonization.
2. Japanese traders, especially those from Nagasaki,
frequently visited Philippine shores and bartered Japanese
goods for Filipino gold, pearls, and native earthen jars.
3. Certain shipwrecked Japanese sailors and immigrants
settled in the Philippines and intermarried with Filipinos.
4. According to Japanese records, the early Spaniards found
Japanese settlements in Manila and Agoo, La Union
Province.
E. EARLY RELATIONS WITH ARABS
1. In 1380, according to the tarsilas (Muslim chronicles), the
Arab missionary-scholar Mudum landed in Sulu and there
laid the foundation of Islam in the Philippines.
2. In 1390 Rajah Baginda, prince of Menankabaw, Sumatra,
led an army of Muslim invaders to Sulu and overcame
native opposition with firearms.

15

3. Abu Bakr, Muslim leader from Palembang, Sumatra,

reached Sulu in 1450 and married the daughter of Rajah
Baginda.
4. The Muslim conquest of Maguindanao was attributed to
Sharif Kubungsuan, Muslim leader of Johore, who landed in
Cotabato in 1475. He married a native princess and
founded the first Muslim sultanate of Maguindanao.
Kabungsuan as sultan of Maguindanao had larger domain
than the Sultanate of Maguindanao was also instrumental
in the Islamization of Mindanao.

III. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE INTRODUCTION OF ISLAM

A.

UNIFICATION OF MINDANAO
1. The spread of Islam in the south led to the establishment of a

common religion.
Viewed as a way of life, Islam promoted commonality I cultura
traits and practices among its followers.
2. The introduction of Islam resulted in the founding of the
sultanate system of
government which further facilitated the unification of
the people.
3. Islam promoted a common language Arabic, the official
language of the
religion.
4. In the 16th century, it brought about close correspondence
between the royal
houses of Sulu and Brunei.
B.
THE SPREAD OF ISLAM TO THE VISAYAS AND LUZON
1. The kingdoms of Rajah Soliman and Rajah Lakandula in Tondo
and Manila
were claimed to be under the sway of Islam. The influence
of Islam was also
seen in Mindoro and Batangas.
2. If not for the arrival of the Spaniards, Islam could have
established itself in
the northern part of the Philippines.

C.
THE SUCCESSFUL RESISTANCE OF THE MUSLIMS TO
SPANISH
COLONIALISM
1. The Spaniards repeatedly tried to put Mindanao and
Sulu under their control, but they failed miserably
because of the widespread resistance of the Muslim
Filipinos. They employed Christianized native
mercenaries, especially from the Visayas, in their
campaigns against the so-called Moros, but this was
not effective. Spanish manpower was divided and
seriously limited by resistance and disturbances in other
parts of the archipelago.
2. Alliances were formed among different Muslim groups to
fight against the Spaniards.

16

3. Enmity and animosity further developed between

Muslim and Christian Filipinos who helped the
Spaniards.
D. THE PRESENT SECESSIONIST MOVEMENT IN MINDANAO AND SULU,
AND THE PROTRACTED CONFLICT BETWEEN THE PHILIPPINE
GOVERNMENT AND THE MORO REBELS CAN BE UNDERSTOOD AS
PARTLY AN OFFSHOT OF EARLIER CONFLICTS BETWEEN CHRISTIANS
AND MUSLIMS.

IV.

PRE-SPANISH PHILIPPINE CULTURE

A. CLOTHING
1. The male attire consisted of the upper and lower pieces.
a.The upper part was a collarless, short-sleeved jacket, the color of
which indicated the rank of the wearer. For instance, the datu wore a
red jacket.
b.The lower part, called bahag, consisted of a strip of colored cloth
wrapped about the waist and between the legs to cover the private
parts.
c.The male had a headgear consisting of a piece of a cloth, called
putong, which was wrapped around his head.
2. The female dress also consisted of two parts.
a. The upper part called baro or camisa, was a jacket with sleeves,
while the lower part,
called saya by the Tagalogs and Patadyong by the Visayans, was a
loose skirt.
b.A piece of red or white cloth, called tapis, was usually wrapped
around the waist.
B. ORNAMENTS
1. Both men and women had a weakness for personal adornment.
2. They wore jewels of gold, carnelian, pearl, as well as colored glass.
3. Their ornaments consisted of armlets, pendants, bracelets, gold, rings,
earrings and even
Leglets.
4.Since gold was a common commodity, both men and women inserted
gold fillings on their
teeth as ornament.
5. Like other people of the Pacific, the early Filipinos, both males and
femles, were fond of tatooing their bodies in various designs.
a. For men, tatoos were signs of valor and manly attributes. For
women, tatoos enhanced beauty.
b. According to old Spanish chronicles, the ancient Bisayans were the
most tatooed inhabitants of the Philippines. For this reason, they were called
Pintados (painted people), and the Visayas, the Islas de los Pintados (islands
of painted people).
C.HOUSES
1. There is no basic difference between the present barrio house and the
ancient one.
2. The ancient house, just like the present nipa house, was made of wood,
bamboo, nipa
palm and/or cogon grass.
3.The houses were generally elevated from the ground with the lower
portion used as storage for farm or fishing implements and enclosure for pigs,
chickens, and ducks.

17

4.Some Filipinos built their houses on tree-tops for better protection

against the enemy. These were the Ilongots and Kalingas of Northern Luzon and the
Bagobos and Mandayas of Mindanao.
5.The Bajaos or Sea Gypsies of Sulu, on the other hand, made their
houses on boats for they were sea-roving people whose life depended upon the
water of the seas.
6.The general settlement patern in the lowlands was linear in character.
Houses lined up along the river banks. Upland, the dwellings were scattered and
quite distant from each other, except for two or three houses clustered together.
Even if houses were distant from each other, the rrequirement was for shouts to be
heard between two houses, to insure security among neighbors.
D.SOCIAL CLASSES
1. According to William Henry Scott(1994), the four types of social
organizations in the islands prior to the coming of the Spaniards and the Spanish
contact were the:
1)Classless society (Hanunuo, Ilongot,Tiruray, Sulod, Batak)
2)Warrior societies ()
3) Petty plutocracies(Ifugao, Bontok, Kankanay, Ibaloi)
4) Principalities ( Sulu and flood plains of Pulangi River, Cotabato)
2. The rest of Philippine society was divided into three classes: the nobles, the
freemen, and the dependents. Stratification of these social classes was not
absolute, for there exited no caste system. A noble could fall to the level of slaveryk
while a slave could rise to freedom. In ther words, there was a high level of social
mobility in early Philippine society.
3. The nobles consisting of chiefs and their families, enjoyed great political and
social rights in the barangays. In the tagalog region, they usually carried the title of
gat or lakan.
4. Next to the nobles were the freemen, called maharlika by the Tagalogs and
timawa by the Visayas.
5. Occupying the lowest statum were dependents called alipin by the Tagalogs,
olipon by the Bisayans, adipon by the Ilocanos.
6.

Among the ancient Tagalogs, two kinds of dependents existed.

a. The aliping namamahay, who were essentialy serfs rather than slaves
because they hav their own propery, lived in their houses, could marry without their
masters consent, and could not be sold.
b. The aliping sagigilid, the real dependents or slaves who owned no
property, lived in their masters houses, could not marry without their masters
consent, and could be sold anytime.
7.

Among the ancient Bisayans, the dependents were of three kinds:

a. the tumataban who worked in the masters house when summoned to do

so
b. the tumarampuk who worked one day for his master
c. the ayuey who worked three days for his lord.
8.

A dependent could emancipate himself/herself and ecome free though

a.
b.
c.

purchase
marriage, and
voluntary action of the master to lberate his slave.
18

E.

WOMENS POSITION IN EARLY SOCIETY

1. Women occupied a high positions in early Philippine society.
2. Early laws and customs recognized them as the equal of men.
a. They could own and inherit property.
b. They could engage in trade and industry.
c. They could inherit the chieftaincy and rule barangays if they were
daughters of datus with
no son.
d. The prestigious position of the Babaylan was often occupied by women.
There is a
preponderance of priestesses based on the existence of local terms in
various part of the
country.
e. They can demand that their husbands use penis pins or penis rings.
3. The mother in the family enjoyed the exclusive privilege of naming the
children.
4. As a sign of deep respect, the men, when accompanying women, walked
behind them.
F.
PERSONAL HABITS
1. Early Filipinos were clean and neat in their personal habits.
a. They bathed regularly for cleanliness and pleasure. This will explain why
early seattlements were situated along the river banks.
b. They took good care of their hair by washing it carefully with water and
gogo and anointing it with perfumed oils.
c.
Upon walking in the morning, the Filipinos rinsed mouth and clean their
teeth. They use fibrous husk of the betel-nut as toothbrush, and salt
and water as toothpaste.
2. The early Filipinos were also clean in their homes.
a. They swept their houses on regular basis with brooms made from midribs
of the coconut
leaves.
b. They kept a vessel full of water with a coconut scooper at the door of
every house so that
everybody can wash himself before entering the house.
G.MARRIAGE CUSTOMS
1. Generally, a man belonging to one class married a woman of the same
class. Nevertheless, this custom was not rigid, and it was possible for a noble
go marry a dependent, and a dependent to marry outside his rank.
2. Except for Muslims, the early Filipinos generally practiced monogamy. In
certain cases, however, men are allowed to as many wives as they could
support, but the first wife was always considered the legitimate spouse.
3. Only the children of wife were regarded legitimate and legal heirs,
whereas the children of their women were not considered as such and
therefore, were barred from inheriting any property.
4. Marriage was usually arranged by parents even during the young age of
the boy and the girl.
5. There were two prerequisites to marriage: first, the lovers servitude to
the girls family, and, the dowry, which was a sum of money, gold, property,
or anything of value given by the man to the girls parents.
19

6. Divorce was resorted to in case of marital troubles. The grounds for

divorce were:
a. adultery on the part of the wife
b. desertion on the part of the husband
c. loss of affection
d. cruelty
e. insanity
f. childishness
g. lack of sexual satisfaction
Any couple who divorced each other could remarry if they so decided.
7. If the married couple belonged to different classes, say a freeman and a
dependent, their children were equally divided among the parents in so far
as social status was concerned. Thus if the father was a freeman, the eldest,
the third, the fifth, the seventh, and so on, whether male or female belonged
to the father. The second, the fourth, the sixth, the eighth, and so on,
belonged to the mother.
H.

GOVERNMENT

1. The government of the pre-Spanish Filipino was patriarchal in form.

There are two models here, namely, the
a. barangay which was a socio-quasi political/administrative unit, and
the
b. sultanate which was more elaborate with a central authority.
2. The unit of administratiion was the barangay which was a
settlement consisting of 30 to 100 families.
3. The early barangays were independent from each other. Each was
ruled by a datu or raha who obtained his position by
a. inheritance, being the son of the datu
b. wisdom
c. physical powers and courage
d. wealth
4. The datu had wide powers, for he excercised all functions of
government, but he was not an absolute leader nor a ruler. He was assisted
by elders who advised him on important matter. According to Renato
Constantino(1975), the two types of political leaders at that time were the:
a. leader with clear administrative function and the
b. leader with undefined function and position
5. Inter-baranganic relations consisted of agreements for commerce and
friendship or alliance. Agreements were necessary because wars between
barangays existed.
The cause of conflicts between barangays, according to Loarca( in
Jocano, 1975) were:
a. When onr goes to another village and there is put to death without
cause;
b. When their wives are stolen from them; and
c. When they go in friendly manner to any village and there under the
guise of friendship are wronged or maltreated.
I. LAWS
1.Laws were either customary or written
20

a.The customary or oral laws were customs and traditions handed down
orally from generation to generation.
b.The written laws were promulgated by the datus, particularly in
Islamic communities.
2.Among the subjects covered in ancient Filipino laws were family relations,
properly rights, inheritance, contracts, partnerships, loans, ususry. Crimes
and their punishment, adoption and divorce.
3.Those considered as major crimes were rape, incest, murder, witchcraft,
insult, trespassing, sacrilegious acts, and larceny. A person guilty of any
these crimes was punished by death or by heavy fine.
4. Minor crimes, on the otherhand, consisted of such misdemeanors ass
adultery, cheating, petty theft, perjury, disturbance of peace at night by
singing, and destroying documents owned by a chief. These misdemeanors
were punished by exposure to ants, by a small fine, by flogging, by cuttng
the fingers of one hand, or by swimming for a number of hours.

J.

JUDICIAL PROCESS

1. All trials in pri-Spanish Philippines were held in public.

2. The litigant-plaintiff and defendant pleaded their own case and had
to present their own witness.
3. Before testifying, the witness took an oath to tell the truth and
nothing but the ruth.
4. The barangay court decided the case in favor of the litigant who
had presented more proof than the other.
5. Disputes between datus, or between residents of different
barangays, were sometimes settled by arbitration, with some datus
or elders from other barangays serving as arbiters or mediators.
6. Whenever a case cannot be readily decided upon by the barangay
court, a trial ny ordeal was resorted to. This was especially true in
criminal cases.It was believed that the gods protected the innocent
and punished the guilty. Thus, an accused person who was
innocent was believed to succed in the ordeals bacause the gods
made it so.
7. In Muslim communities, civil and criminal cases were decided upon
by the local Islamic courts. Feuds and disputes however involved
protracted bloody confrontations between families and clans.
8. According to Loarca (in Jocano, 1975), three ordeals were utilized
by the court to find out the guilty person namely:
a. The river ordeal where suspected persons were made to plunge
into the river with their spears, and he who rose to the surface
first was adjudged guilty.
b. The boiling water ordeal where all suspected persons were
ordered to pick a stone placed in a pot of boiling water, and he
whose arm or hand was burned the most was believed to be
guilty.
c. The candle ordeal where each of suspected persons was given a
candle of the same size, and he whose candlelight died first was
considered guilty.
K. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICES

21

1. Pre-spanish Filipinos, with the exception of Muslims, were

animistic.
2. They worshipped a supreme god, called Bathala by Tagalogs.
3. The supreme god stood at the head of the pantheon of
numerous minor gods and goddesses.
4. The early Filipinos believed in spirits called anitos or diwatas
who were either good or bad.
5. The religious leaders were called babaylan, baylana, or
katalonan. In Muslim areas, they were called imam or pandita.They
served as herbalists. Psychologists and psychiatrists, fortune tellers,
and advisers of the datu.
6. Early Filipinos were worships of nature and of ancestors. It is
here that the concept of mariit comes into play. Certain places,
landmarks, and trees have to be respected or have become restricted
(taboo) because these are inhabited by spirits.
7. Ancient Filipinos believed in an after life and subscribed to the
idea of heaven and hell. The Panayanons, for example, believed that
souls travel in a river, thus, they used coffin shapped like boats.
8. Disease or illness was attributed to the environment spirits and
the soul-spirits of dead relatives.
L . DIVINATION AND MAGIC CHARMS
1. Early Filipinos were fond of interpreting signs in nature as good or
bad omens depending upon circumstances. Among these are
sounds of insects and animals, flight of the birds, and barking of
the dogs.
2. They believed in black magic and sorcerers who could victimize
people.
3. They believed in aswang(witches) and manoghiwit (sorcerers)
and many more who destroy or harm them.
4. They also believed in the efficacy of anting-anting or amulets as
well as lumay or gayuma (love potion).
M. ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
1. Agriculture, then as now, was the main source of livelihood.
There were two types of cultivation: kaingin or the slash-and- burn and
wet rice farming, making use of water.
2. Irrigation ditches were used.
3. A system of public and private land holding was observed. The
less arable lands were considered public property and could, therefore,
be tilled freely by anybody. The cultivated productive lands, on the
otherhand, were cosidered the private preserve of datus and nobles.
4. Because of the abundance of coconut and nipa palms,
precolonial Filipinos fermented the sap of these palms into tuba for
drinking and for making venigar.
5. Aside from agriculture and fishing, early Filipinos had other
indutries like poultry, stock-raising, lumbering and ship-building,
pottery making, and weaving.
22

6. Mining was developed before the coming of Spaniards.

7. Because currency was not in use then, the pre-Spanish Filipinos
used the barter system in business transactions.
N. LANGUAGES
1. More than a hundred languages and dialets exist in the
Philippines. Some of these( Tagalog, Iloko, Pangasinan, Pampanga,
Sugbuhanon, Hiligaynon, Samarnon or Waray, and Magindanao) may be
considered major languages.
2. The pre- Spanish Filipinos had a syllabary made of seventeen
symbols, three vowels and fourteen consonants.
3. They wrote on bark of trees, leaves, and bamboo nodes using
knives, daggers, pointed sticks or iron as pens. They utilized colored sap of
trees and fruit as ink.

O. LITERATURE
1. Pre-Spanish Filipinos had oral and wriiten literature. Oral
literature is still extant among the Hanunuo and Tagbanua of Mindoro, and
the Palawani of Palawan.
2. Their literature consisted of proverbs, sayings, riddles, epics,
myths, and legends.
P. MUSIC AND DANCE
1.Ages before the advent of the Spanish colornizers, the
Filipinos already had their own musical instruments, songs and dances.
2. The most popular musical instruments was the kudyapi which
resembled a guitar.
3. Other native musical instruments were the harp of the
Bontok Igorots and the Negritos, the nose flute of people in the mountainous
areas of Luzon, the bronze gong of Igorots, the sharkskin drum of the
Tagbanwas of Palawan, the Bisayan bamboo drum, the Muslim bronze gongs
and xylophone, the shell trumpet of the Bisayas, the Bisayan bamboo flute,
and many others.
4. The musical lore of ancient Filipinos was quite extensive. It
included love songs, religious songs, rice-planting songs, harveting songs,
rowing songs, battle-songs, vending songs, and others.
5. Early Filipinos also had colorful folk dances for every
occasion. Most ancient folk dances were performed with participants singing
at the same time.
Q.

ARTS

23

1. Native artistry is found in beads, amulets, braceles, earrings, and

other body ornaments made of gold, green jade, red carnelian, and other
attractive stones.
2. Early Filipinos dyed and ornamented their clothes with designss of
picturesque colors.
3. Painting was evident in the early Filipino tattoo art where the
artists painted on both male and female bodies gorgeous designs
representing the sun, the stars, the flowers and plants, the crocodiles, the
birds, and various geometrical figures.
4. In early times, Filipino sculptors also carved statues of anitos in
wood, gold, ivory, stone, and crocodiles teeth. They also made fanciful
carvings on the handle of bolos, knives, daggers, and on shields and boats.
5. The Muslims, particularly the Maranaos of Lanao, had excellent
woven products and creative ornamental and decorative brass arts.
6. Muslim art dealt generally with metal. Ifugao art, on the other, was
focused on wood-carving.

24

UNIT IV

THE FORMATION OF PHILIPPINE

COLONIAL SOCIETY, 1570-1762

UNIT OBJECTIVES:
1. To find out and explain the various factors that led to the Spanish
colonization of the Philippines.
2. To identify and explain the instruments of pacification and exploitation
employed by the Spaniards.
3. To analyze patterns of Filipino responses to Spanish colonial rule.
4. To point out the effects of the Spanish colonization of the country.
I.FACTORS THAT LET TO SPANISH COLONIZATION OF THE
PHILIPPINES
A. ECONOMIC
1. Accumulation of capital and the development of banking in Europe.
a. Rise of lending houses (i.e., House of Fugger in Germany and
House of Medical in
Italy).
b. Ensuing zeal for more trade beyond confines of Western Europe.
2. The desire for spices
In the west, spices in demand to improve insipid European food and
to preserve meat during winter time. Exposure to eastern, food and spices
grown in the east changed the
Westerners taste preferences. Desire for
spices became a major motivation for
early Portuguese and Spanish
expeditions to the East.
3. The search for new trade routes by Spain and Portugal
a. European trade with the East was carried through three principal
trade (silk) routes.
These routes were dangerous to men and goods,
and entailed much time, money
and effort. In 1453,
25

Constantinople fell, and the routes were closed to Europe.

However, the Sultan of Egypt allowed the Venetians, who had been allies and
supporters of the Muslims against the Greeks, to use the
southern route that ended
in Cairo, upon payment of certain
duties. The Venetians thus gained a monopoly in
the
distribution of eastern goods to the rest of Europe.
b. Located in the westernmost seaboard of the continent, Spain and
Portugal found it
easier to meet the challenges of maritime
expansion than the rest of Western Europe
did.
c. Their search for a new trade route was accompanied by a strong
missionary purpose.
B.

POLITICAL

1. The crusades (1096-1272) originally were a religious adventure to

regain the Holy Land
from the Muslims. Later they developed into a highly
commercial enterprise.
a. The crusades brought the Europeans into closed touch with the
superior and
sophisticated civilizations of the East.
b. This content stimulated not only European interest in Oriental
culture but also the
demand for its goods and products.
2. The Fall of Constantinople (1453)
a. On May 29, 1453, the city of Constantinople, which played a vital
role in the trade of
Europe with the Orient, fell into the hands of
Sultan Mohammed II and his Ottoman
warriors.
b. As a result of this conquest, the trade routes to the East were
blocked; hence,
discovery of new routes to Asia became an
imperative necessity.
3. The reconquista and the desire to spread Catholicism
a. The reconquista, or the movement to destroy Muslim power in the
Iberian
Peninsula, ended with the capture of Granada in
1492.
b. The spirit of the reconquista was manifested in the attempts of
Spain and Portugal
to colonize and convent attempts of Spain
and Portugal to colonize and convent
pagan lands to
Catholicism
4. The Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494.
a.

This treaty divided non-Christian lands into two spheres:

one for Spain, and the other for Portugal.

b. The demarcation line was drawn 370 leagues west of Cape Verde
Islands. All lands
already discovered and still to be discovered east
26

of the line belonged to Portugal,

Spain.

and those west of the line, to

c. This influenced Magellan to sail westward. In the end, it led him to

re-discover the
Philippines.
5. The leadership of Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal
a. He inspired the maritime explorations of the 15th century.
b. He gathered about him the best geographers and sailors of Europe.
c. He established an observatory, a chapel, and nautical school.
d. He sent out expedition after expedition to uncharted waters of the
African coast.
C.

SCIENTIFIC AND SECULAR PURSUITS

1. Renaissance revival of learning

It put emphasis on scientific, secular and artistic pursuits rather than

the religious. It advanced geographical knowledge, among them:
a. Aristotles theory of the sphericity of the earth
b. Compilation of a 17-volume geography of world as it was known in
the days of Emperor Augustus, by Strabo, celebrated Roman
geographer at the beginning of the Christian era.
c. The renowed work on world geography by Ptolemy (c. 150 A.D.),
Greek geographer in Alexandria
d. The infusion of greater life into geographical science by such works.

2. Humanism
Being the dominant philosophy of the 16th century, humanism eroded
the binding
power of religion and stressed the development of mind
and heart, rather than the soul.
3. The discovery and invention of more technologically-advanced
navigational
instruments:
a. mariners compass - used by Italian navigators at the beginning of
the 13th century.
According to Hookham (1970:193), the Chinese had known about
magnetic polarity
since the 3rd century A.D. and the compass
(in China, a south-seeking needle) in
their trade with
th
Southeast Asia by the early 12 century, several decades before its
introduction to Europeans by Arab marines.
b. astrolabe a device for measuring the elevation of the pole star
above the sea
horizon
c. portolani sailing charts made available by the invention of the
printing press
d. quadrant device for measuring altitude
27

e.
D.

sextant an instrument for determining latitude and longitude

OTHER FACTORS
1. Early travels to the East
a. Travels of Franciscan fathers like Carpini (1192-1252),

William (1215-1270), Odoric (1286-1331) to the East which

inflamed European
interest in the Orient and its fabled
treasures.
b. Travel of Ibn Batuta (1304-1378), Sheik of Morocco, through India,
Malaysia, China,
from 1325 to 1353.
c. The travels of Marco Polo in China and Southeast Asia.
2. Early Portuguese and Spanish voyages
a. Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomew Diaz (1487).
b. Discovery of America by
Columbus (1492).
c. Discovery of a route going to Calicut, India by Vasco da Gama
(1498).
d. Capture of Goa, India by Albuquerque (1510).
e. Exploration and conquest of the Moluccas and the Malay Peninsula
by the
Portuguese (1511).
f. Missionary exploits of St. Frances Xavier in Southeast Asia, Japan
and China.
g. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Balboa (1513).

3. Improvements in military and in ship-building technology

More seaworthy ocean-going vessels and warships were built.
a. This enabled the European colonizers to organize a well-equipped
military force.
b. It made easy the conquest of the natives through the use of
firearms and cannons.
c. It encouraged the Europeans to organize more expeditions to the
East.

II. THE PACIFICATION AND EXPLOITATION OF THE

FILIPINOS BY THE SPANIARDS
A. CAUSES OF THE SUBJUGATION OF FILIPINOS
1. The military might of the Spaniards
The Spanish conquistadores were mostly experienced soldiers.
a. They were well-armed vis--vis the natives.
b. The Spanish soldiers wore helmets and body armor.
2. The policy of attraction
a. One of the most effective strategies employed by the Spaniards
in obtaining the support of local chiefs was by exempting them
from tributes and polo.
28

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

b. The Spaniards bribed the Filipinos by giving them gifts or

exempting them from tributes and polo.
c. They concluded blood compacts with native rulers. The first
blood compact was between Magellan and Kulambo in Limasawa
in 1521.
d. Another one with Humabon took place in Cebu in the succeeding
days.
e. Legaspi also had a blood compact with Urrao of Samar, and
Katuna and Gala of Bohol in 1565.
The method of divide and conquer
a. This was effective in facilitating the conquest of the natives who,
in the first place, lived in fragmented autonomous units called
barangays.
b. It made the Spaniards realize that the Filipinos were disunited.
c. The Spaniards befriended certain groups of Filipinos and used
them in subjugating other natives.
The crucial rule of Christianity
a. The colonization of the Philippines is viewed as the conquest of
the sword and the cross.
b. Catholic missionaries proved to be effective colonizers when they
converted first the native chiefs and family members to the
catholic faith.
c. The converted natives became fanatics and began to follow
blindly the dictates of the Spaniards.
d. This blind obedience became associated with salvation.
e. The Filipinos began to practice a syncretic blend of religion that is
presently referred to as Folk Christianity. The friars allowed the
natives to go on with some folk beliefs and practices like
sacrificial offering, use of incense, etc.
The lack of unity among Filipinos
a. Early settlements and communities lacked contacts and
meaningful relationship except for occasional trade exchanges.
Moreover, barangays were actually autonomous units.
b. Some barangays warred with each other.
c. Differences were noted between the Islamized inhabitants of
Mindanao and Sulu, and the animistic people of Luzon and the
Visayas.
d. The archipelago was characterized by language diversity.
e. National sentiment was non-existent.
Filipino hospitality
Because of their sense of hospitality, the Filipinos tried to be friendly
with the Spaniards.
a. The natives hospitable attitude was indicate of their familiarity
with other groups of people coming from outside the archipelago.
b. The Filipinos sense of hospitality may also explain their
acceptance of the catholic religion.
The reduction and plaza complex
a. Christianized natives were required to put up their dwellings in a
particular area where they could be within hearing distance of
the church bells (bajo de campana).
b. Central to this residential area were the church or the chapel and
the plaza.
29

c. The church and the plaza became the center of all significant
activities of the natives from birth to death, and beyond death.
d. Those who refused to put up their houses in this Spanishcontrolled area were referred to as remontados, cimarrones,
ladrones, monteses, or tulisanes.
e. The church and the plaza became the stage of theater upon
which the natives were magnetized through the fiesta
celebration, flores de mayo and santacruzan, the sinakulo and
moro-moro, the tolling of the church bells, and the explosion of
firecrackers.
f. The plaza also became witness to the injustices, oppression and
exploitation suffered by Filipinos in the hands of the colonial
masters.
B. THE INSTRUMENTS OF EXPLOITATION AND CONTROL
1. The Encomienda System
The term encomienda is taken from the Spanish verb, encomendar,
which means to entrust or to assign responsibility to a person. In
the Philippines, a certain area of land with its inhabitants, was
assigned to a particular Spanish and he was given the responsibility
to collect tribute and to utilize the people in government and church
projects.
a. The system became a source of abuse and corruption because
the encomendero was free to raise the amount of tribute to be
collected from the people.
b. The natives who were not able to pay the tribute were forced to
flee to the mountain. These people were called by the Spaniards
as remontados or tulisanes.
c. In times when gold was plentiful and money (reales) was scarce,
encomenderos collected money; but if there was plenty of
money and gold was inadequate, they collected gold. Thus at
times, the Filipinos were forced to buy gold to pay for their
tribute. Furthermore, if harvest of farm products was bountiful,
the encomendero collected the products. This forced those who
did not have farms to look for places where they can secure farm
products.
2. The imposition of taxes
a. The taxes imposed on the natives were of thee kinds:
Direct taxes that referred to the tribute and the tax
income; indirect taxes that included the bandala and the;
Custom tax; and the fees that covered the not so common
products like wine, tobacco, betel nut, firecrackers, and
opium.
b. From 1570 onward, the tax was set at 8 reales but one could also
pay in gold, blanket, textile materials, palay, etc. Later, the 8
reales was raised to 15 reales. The Filipinos paid the taxes until
the 19th century.
c. Aside from the tribute, a special tax of real or rice called
samboangan or donativo de Zamboanga was imposed to
suppress Moro attacks, particularly in the Spanish controlled
30

Zamboanga. This was implemented by the Spaniards from 1635

up to middle part of the 19th century.
d. There was also the vinta. Collected by the Spaniards from 1781
to 1851 to adequately prepare the vintas in defense of coastal
areas from Moro pirates .
e. The collection of tribute continued until 1884 when it was
replaced by the yearly purchase of a cedula personal. The
amount of the cedula was based on the race and social pisition of
the person. The aim of the cedula was similar to the tribute and
that was to recognize and authority of the king of Spain.
3. The Poloy Servicos
The Spanish masters initiated steps to create projects for selfenrichment. One of these was the polo y servicios or forced labor
that began in 1580. Native Indios and mestizos from 16 years old
were forced to work for 40 days every year. In 1884, labor was
reduced to 15 days.
a. The laborers or polistas were made to work in the construction of
bridges, roads , churches and convents boats, and other
projects.
b. The others were sent to the forest to cut trees or to work mines.
c. The worst cases were of those assingned as rowers of Spanish
ships because this meant long periods of being away from their
families.
d. The only way out of the polo was the payment of a falla which
was 1 real everyday for forty days.
e. The polo led to the decline of communities because of the
departure of the men. Agrcultural production suffered because
nobody was left to tend the farm. The result was starvation and
death, and the forced separation of family members.
f. The polo was also a source of corruption. The officials conscripted
polistas in excess of the number needed by the colonial
government. The, they pocketed the money paid by those who
wanted to evade the forced labor.
g. The natives were also arbitrarily conscripted to serve in the
military.
4. The role of the traditional leader
a. The effective control and administrator of the Spanish colonial
government would not have been achieved if not for the help of
the native leaders.
b. The responsibilities assigned to traditional leaders in the
implementation of the tribute , polo and bandala had put them
on the side of the Spaniards.
c. Their use of position to benefit and enrich themselves had
brought about a wide cleavage between the traditional leaders
and the people, politically and economically. In short, the datus
who governed became pillars of the colonial administrator by
serving as intermediaries.
5. The only sea vessel that served to link the Philippines and the
Americans before the 19th century was thr Galleon de Manila or Nao
de China. In years time, one ship would sail to Acapulco de Juarez

31

and then back to the Philippines. Another ship would also sail from
Acapulo to Manila and back.
a. Only a few individuals benefited from this lucrative trade as it
was established as a monopoly. These were the governorgeneral, traders, those with consular duties and rights, the
Spaniards residing in Manila, and the religious orders.
b. The natives did not benefit from galleon trade. Instead, they
suffered because they were forced to man galleons as sailors and
rowers, and in some cases they built the galleons through forced
labor.
c. The Philippines served as trans-shipment or distribution center.
6. Other government monopolies
To make the colonial economy sufficient for the needs of the
Spanish administration, Governor General Basco started the
monopoly on a number of products, resulting in added suffering
for Filipinos.
a. The ilocanos were adversely affrected by the monoply on tobacco
which started in 1781, and on wine in 1786. For a long time, the
Ilocanus had been cultivating tobacco and they used it anytime
they wanted. They also manufactured basi or rice wine for their
own consumption. But with the introduction of the government
monopoly, they were not allowed to do this anymore. To drink
basi, they had to from the government.
b. The cultivation and marketing of tobacco was put under the
supervision and control of the Spaniards. The natives were
required quotas and were fined if they failed to follow the
requirements of the Spaniards. All their produce had to be sold to
the government, and, particularlly, nothing was left to them.
c. The payment for tobacco and other products was usually in the
form of a promissory note. This note had to be exchanged at a
high discount with government officials and bussinessmen who
were licensed to seel all the needed products in the province.
Most often, these bussinessmen would sell the products to
common people at exorbitant prices.
d. The farmers were also victims of the dishonesty and cheating of
agents of the government who determined that a particular
bundle of tobacco leaves was of low grade quality despite its
being first class. Then, these agents would certify to the
government that the same bundle of tobacco is of high quality
and they would pocket the excess payment.
e. The most serious effect, especially of the monopoly of tobacco,
was widespread starvation particularly in the Ilocos region.
Ilocano farmers were told to plant tobacco and were deprived of
cultivating rice and corn resulting in a sharp decrease in food
production. Another form of monopoly was the bandala which
involved the forced selling of requisitioned products, most
especially palay, tobacco, and the coconut oil. This resulted in
widespread suffering because most of the time, the people did
not receive payment but only promissory notes.

32

III. PATTERNS OF FILIPINO RESPONSES TO SPANISH RULE

A. THE INITIAL RESISTANCE AND SUBSEQUENT SUBJUGATION OF
LOWLAND COMMUNITIES
1. Due to the physical and demographic conditions of the archipelago, the
Spaniards succeeded in eventually subjugating the inhabitants of the
coastal communities in Luzon and the Visayas.
2. The lack of understanding of the natives made it difficult for them to
wage an effective resistance against the Spanish invaders.
3. The areas that came under the effective control of the Spaniards were
the centers of population. The outlying territories remained relatively
free of Spanish control up to about the middle part of the 18 th century.
B. THE OPPOSITION OF THE MOROS
1. When Magellan arrived in 1521, the sultanates of Sulu and
Maguindanao were working to extend their influence and control over
the coastal areas in the north.
2. During the time of Legaspi, the strongest opposition to him came from
Manila whose ruler was Muslim prince, Rajah Soliman.
3. If not for the timely arrival of the Spaniards, it is possible that the
whole archipelago could have fallen under the influence of Islam.
4. Prior to the coming of the Spaniards, there was animosity between the
Sultan of Maguindanao. The campaign of the Spaniards against them,
however, resulted in their unity and they declared jihad (holy war)
against the foreign invaders and the Christianized Indios. One major
outcome of this was the frequent raids conducted by the Moros on
Christianized settlements of the Visayas.
5. In many cases, on a short-term basis, the Spaniards were successful in
their campaigns but, in the long run, they failed because they did not
succeed in occupying Mindanao and Sulu.
C. THE SUCCESSFUL AVOIDANCE OF ETHNIC COMMUNITIES
1. Some groups of people fled to the upland areas to avoid Spanish
colonization. Others followed later because of Spanish exploitation and
injustices.
2. Through time, the number of people that fled to the mountains
increased and they were not subjected to Spanish influences. Thus,
they were able to preserve their culture.
3. Because the number of those who were put under colonial control was
greater than those who fled and remained free, the latter became
known as the cultural minority. This cultural minority is seldom
included in history books because they led a life outside the control of
colonization.

IV. EFFECTS OF THE SPANISH COLONIZATION OF THE PHILIPPINES

A. SOCIO-ECONOMIC
1. Imposition of the tribute, bandala, and cedula personal.
2. Requirements of polo y servicios.
3. Establishment of government monopolies.
4. Limited agricultural and commercial development.
a. During Gov. Gen. Jose de Bascos administration in the late 18 th
century, incentives were given through cash prizes and medals of
recognition for achievements in farming indigo, spices, cotton,
mulberry for silk production, bee-keeping, mining, and inventions.
b. Though the so-called Royal Economic Society of Friends of the
Country (1780-1895), a ban on slaughtering carabao was
33

introduced in 1782 to conserve this draft animal. A silversmith

and gold beaters guild was formed in 1783, and the first paper
mill was constructed in the Philippines in 1825.
c. As a whole, however, the economic reforms did not benefit the
Filipinos. Instead, they led to more misery because Filipinos were
forced to plant much-prized cash export crops from which they
did not have any direct benefit.
5. Improvements in the public utilities and communications.
a. The Ferrocaril de Manila was the only railway line in the
archipelago. It was 120 miles long, and was constructed mainly
through Filipino labor in the 1890s.
b. Horse-drawn and steam-powered street cars were used in
Manila, and the calesa and carretela elsewhere.
c. Bridges were constructed in many parts of the country.
d. Telephone service in the country began; Manila in 1890 and Iloilo
in 1894.
e. Telegraph lines were put up as early as 1872.
f. The public lighting system in Manila was established in 1814,
followed by other cities much later.
B. POLITICAL
1. Loss of freedom on the part of the Filipinos.
2. The establishment of the highly centralized government and
bureaucratic set-up
a. On the national level, the Spanish king governed through the
Consejo de las Indias, and the governor- general, his sole
spokesperson and representatives. The seat of power was in Manila.
b. On the provincial level, the alcalde mayor headed the alcadia or
provincial, the pacified provinces and districts. The unpacified zones
or corregimientos, on the other hand, were headed by corregidores.
Only a Spaniard could be an alcalde mayor or a Corregidor.
c. On the municipal level, the little governor or gobernadorcillo (later
replaced by the capitan municipal in 1894) headed the municipio or
pueblo. Any Spaniard, Filipino or Chinese mestizo could be a
gobernadorcillo.
d. The barrio government, on its part, rested on the cabeza de
barangay whose main function was the collection of taxes and other
contributions.
3. The high influence of the catholic church on the state
a. The colonial administration of the Philippines was popularly viewed
as reflective of the union of the church and state. From the very
start of the Spanish occupation of the country, the ecclesiastics
were already involved in administering the affairs of the state. This
was because in many occupied and pacified places, the only
Spaniard present was the Spanish parish priest. Thus, by virtue of
his position and because of circumstances, he acted as
representative of the Spanish government and, consequently,
performed the functions and duties of an administrative official.
b. This particular role of the Spanish priest in colonial administration
was given a de facto recognition because the Spanish king served
also as the royal patron of the Roman Catholic church. This made
him essentially responsible in advancing Catholicism in the colonies
of Spain.
c. The high influence of the church in the state was exposed by
Filipino reformers, among them Marcelo H. del Pilar who referred to
the situation in the Philippines as la soberania monacal (monastic
supremacy) or la frailocracia (friarocracy), because the Spanish
34

friars or monastic orders ruled supreme, even over government

matters.
C. EDUCATIONAL
1. Boys colleges and secondary schools for both boys and girls were
established, but were initially exclusive for sons and daughters of
Spaniards.
2. A free compulsory publicly-supported system of primary schools came
with the Educational Decree of 1863, simultaneous with the
establishment of a mens normal school to prepare future schoolmasters.
3. A lot of problems, however, confronted the educational system
implemented by the Spaniards by the Philippines. Among those pointed
out by in his Noli Me Tangere were:
a. Absence of basic textbooks
b. Lack of school building
c. Employment of corporal punishment
d. Emphasis on rote-learning
e. Humiliation of students by teachers
f. Lack of opportunity for students to really develop themselves
D. SOCIO-CULTURAL RESULTS
1. The adoption of Spanish surnames and first names.
Majority of the Filipinos adopted Spanish names especially as a result of
a decree issued by Gov. Gen. Narciso Claveria in 1849. The ddecree
llisted Spanish family names from which the natives chose their own
surnames. This made it easier for the Spaniards to identify individuals
and families for taxation and other purposes.
2. The change in the manner of Filipino dressing.
One of the more apparent changes was the use by men of trousers in
place of the pre-Spanish bahag. The women, on the other hand,
continued to wear more or less the same pieces of clothing they wore in
pre-Spanish times. Hats, shoes, and slippers came into use.
3. The emergence of the mestizo class due to intermarriage and sexual
liaison between Filipinos and Spaniards.
4. The influence of the Spanish language and the Latin alphabet.
a. The Filipinos, especially those belonging to the upper classes, began
to speak the Spanish language. Even the less fortunate learned to
speak a little Spanish. By and large, Philippine major languages have
been influenced by Spanish terms and phrases.
b. The Latin or Western alphabet also replaced the pre- Spanish
syllabary of the Filipinos, except among a few native groups like the
Mangyans of Mindoro and the Palawanis of Palawan.
c. The Spaniards were not really interested in making most Filipinos
learn Spanish, for that would hasten understanding among the latter
and make it more difficult for the rulers to keep them in subjugation.
5. The adoption of the Gregorian calendar and the Western method of
keeping and counting time.
6. The introduction of Spanish music and dances.
7. The popularity of Spanish dishes like adobo, mechado, puchero,
menudo, etc.
8. The over-all cultural alienation of the Filipinos brought about by colonial
mentality.
E. RELIGIOUS
1. The introduction of Roman Catholicism which influenced Filipino life in
profound ways.
Catholicism enhanced monotheistic worship among the Filipinos. Most
of the natives, because of their conversation, went to the same church
and observed the same religious ceremonies and rituals. This brought
35

about increased direct interaction and facilitated understanding among

them. On the other hand, the spread of Catholicism widened the gap
between its followers and those that practiced Islam.
2. The holding of Catholic fiestas and other religious holidays.
Although fiestas provided amusement and rest for the people and
provided occasion for getting together, they were frequently costly
affairs. Thus, many Filipino families spent in a single day a part or the
whole of their savings during the year.
3. The construction of churches and convents.
The spread of Catholicism brought about the necessity of putting up
churches and convents which made effective use of native labor
through the polo.
4. The advent of religious literature and art.
a. The kind of literature and art that developed in the Philippines
during the Spanish was mostly religious in character.
b. Among the types of literature were the cenaculo, a religious play
which depicted the passion and death of Christ; the comedia, a cloak
and dagger play; the moro-moro, a melodrama involving clashes
between the Christians and the Muslims; the awit and the corridor,
or metrical romances; and the passion play.
c. Forms of art such as painting and sculpture, on the other hand, were
used chiefly for religious purposes.
d. The best Filipino sculptors devoted their talents to images or scenes
depicting religious themes.

36

UNIT V
THE FORMATION OF PHILIPPINE COLONIAL
SOCIETY, 1762-1896
UNIT OBJECTIVES:
1. To identify the factors that led to the development of Filipino
nationalism.
2. To show the patterns of economic developments in the
Philippines as they were influenced by new forms of global
trade and communications.
3. To identify and explain the causes and significance of the
reform movement in the Philippines.
4. To explain the factors leading to the Philippine Revolution.
I.CONTRIBUTORY FACTORS IN THE POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, AND
INTELLECTUAL AWAKENING OF THE FILIPINOS
A. OPPRESIVE COLONIAL POLICIES AND THE NATIVES
RESPONSES
1.

Common grievances

a. The Spanish friars committed abuses and exploitation such as

excessive
interference in the natives daily life, corporal punishment for
the slightest
offense, sexual molestations of native women, onerous fees
that passed as
religious obligations, land grabbing, and the natives virtual
reduction to slave and
servant of the friar.
b. The native resisted excessive impositions of forced labor and
taxes, confiscation
of properties, and the policy of reduccion (policy movement).
2.

The early uprisings

a. Prior to the 1986 Revolution, the Filipinos had staged more

than 100 revolts due
to untold grievances against the Spaniards.
b. Although these early uprising did not bring about any
significant result, yet the
experiences, according to Constantino, were not a total loss.
Participation in

37

revolts made the Filipinos aware of their strength and gave them
an education
in struggle (1975:108).
c.
Each successive uprising was a step in the peoples
awakening. Each local revolt
was a contribution to national consciousness.
d. Agoncillo, on his part, pointed out that while the revolts
failed, their almost
regular outbreak in the country century after century clearly
indicated existing
and persisting dissatisfaction with Spanish rule. (1976:131).
B.
1.

EXTERNAL POLITICAL FORCES

Progressive European ideologies

a. The ideas of the Enlightenment or Age or Reason (17 th and 18th century)
swept European
countries for some time. These were the tenets of individual liberty and
greater freedom
empowered by thinkers like John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau.

b. The French Revolution fostered the ideas of liberty, equality and

fraternity that led to the
growth of liberalism in Western Europe, including Spain.
c.
Liberalism in Spain had significant repercussions in her colonies.
Especially the Philippines.
d.
The triumph of the liberals in Spain produced the Cadiz Constitution of
1812 which
extended the rights of man not only to Spaniards in the Peninsula but
also to all subjects
Spain.
e.
Liberalism spread in the Philippines with the coming of liberals and of
pertinent reading
materials.
C.
1.

19TH CENTURY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Opening of the Philippines to international commerce.

a. The change from mercantilism to laissez-faire brought about economic

transformation in the
Philippines specifically the development of new classes and the alteration
of the existing social
order.
b. The galleon trade ended in 1813. The Royal Philippine Co. which was
monopolistic, even if it
promoted export crops was abolished in 1834.
38

c. The expansion of Philippine trade and the opening of Philippine ports

(Iloilo, Cebu, Sual in
Pangasinan, Zamboanga) outside of Manila stimulated foreign demand
for Philippine products
and encouraged agricultural production in the Philippines.
d. Traditional Philippine exports changed radically with the rapid
development and
regionalization of cash crops such as sugar (Iloilo and Negros), tobacco
(Ilocos), hemp (Bicol),
indigo, rice (Central Luzon), and coffee (Batangas).
2.

The rise of the middle class

a. Greater economic activity in the Philippines brought about by its opening
to world trade
resulted in some prosperity.

b. Prosperity was obtained by at least a few Filipinos and mestizos who

actively sought new
economic opportunities.
c.
The Filipinos and mestizos improved in economic status and thus
formed the middle class.
d.
The middle class provided the national leadership needed even
th
before the 19 century.
3.
Improvements in transportation and communication facilities brought about by
demands of
expanded commercial activity.
a.

Construction of roads and bridges

b.

Improvement of the mail service

c.
Improvement in transportation and communication facilities which made
the natives more
aware of their common plight.
4.

Opening of the Suez Canal in 1896

a.

It shortened the route between the Philippines and Europe.

b.
It encouraged a greater number of Spaniards and other Europeans to
come to the
Philippines.
c.
Among them were liberals from whom Filipinos learned about liberalism
and political
development In Europe.
d.
More Filipinos traveled to Spain and other parts of Europe because travel
time was reduced.
5.

The establishment of British and American business firms in the Philippines

a. By the 1880s England and her possessions had become the principal
trading partners of the
39

Philippines, with the United States coming in second.

b.
The entry of English textiles destroyed the local weaving industry,
particularly in Iloilo. The local
sinamay, jusi, pia) could not complete with the much cheaper products
of Englands textile
mills. From being the daily wear of the people, the local textile products
became luxuries only
the rich can afford.
c.
English owned banks in Manila, Iloilo, and Cebu such as the Hongkong and
Shanghai Bank and the
Chartered Bank, were established.

D. 19TH CENTURY POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS

1. Secularization and Filipinization
a. A long quarrel between regulars and seculars over parish
assignments and supervisory rights came about, first involving only the
Spanish and a few native priests.
b. Economic development, however, brought about an increase in the
number of native
priest. Priesthood, at that time, was the best road to
status and economic affluence.
c. The expulsion of Jesuits from the Philippines in 1768 resulted in the
shortage of priests
in the country, and this required fast tracking of
training for local priests.
d. The Royal Decree of 1774 ordering the secularization of parishes
encouraged more
natives to enter priesthood.
e. More native secular priests were given parishes of their own.
f. When the policy of desecularization was adopted and implemented,
many native priests
were affected. This situation was aggravated by the
return of the Jesuits in 1859 and the
consequent reallocation of missions
among the various orders.
g. The Filipino priests reacted with resentment at the injustice and
discrimination they
were subjected to. This sharpened their awareness of
their separate national identity
which their parishioners also became
conscious about.
h. The leaders of this secularization movement were Fathers Burgos,
Gomez, and Zamora.
2. The liberal administration of Gov. Gen. Carlos Maria de la Torre
a. Being a liberal, de la Torre passed a number of decrees granting
certain individual rights
to the natives.
b. The Filipino experienced how it was to live under a liberal regime.
40

3. The Cavite Mutiny and Martyrdom of BURGOMZA

a. Unrest broke out during the tenure of the conservative Spanish
Governor General
Rafael de Izquierdo, who replaced de la Torre.
Izquierdo promptly suspended or personas sospechosas the persons who
had supported de la Torres policies.
b. The workers at Fort San Felipe in Cavite had enjoyed exemption from
tribute and forced
labor since 1740. When Izquierdo abolished these
privileges abruptly, the men in the fort mutinied.
c. The three priests, Burgos, Gomez, Zamora, suspected as behind the
Mutiny, were
arrested, given a mock trial, and publicly garroted. All three
protested their innocence to the end.

II. PATTERNS OF PHILIPPINE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

A THE ADOPTION OF A LIBERAL ECONOMIC POLICY (LAISSEZ-FAIR)
1 The galleon trade and other government monopolies were
abolished.
2 There were more or less systematic efforts to develop the
agricultural resources of the islands and the attempt to widen the
commercial contacts of the colony by opening direct trade with
Spain and other countries.
3 Production of cash crops such as sugar, indigo, tobacco, and hemp
was encouraged, providing new sources of revenue and diminishing
dependence on Mexican subsidy.
B THE PHILIPPINE IN WORLD COMMERCE AND ITS ECONOMIC
TRANSFORMATION
1 Foreign firms, mostly British and Americans, came and engaged in
export trade.
2 British and American firms exported raw materials and imported
manufactured products, especially great quantities of textiles and
needed machinery for sugar production.
3 The opening of the Philippine to world trade led to the dissolution of
the traditional economy of many regions and the monetization of
the economy. The significant result was the regional specialization
of crops sugar in Western Visayas, tobacco in the Ilocos region,
hemp in the Bicol area, etc.
4 Foreign consulates were established in the Philippines to oversee
economic activities.
5 Serviced-owned facilities like hotels, restaurants, theaters, etc
emerged.
6 Banco Espaol Filipino de Isabel II and two British-owned banks
(Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corp. and Chartered Bank) were
put up.
7 The Chinese in the country became capitalists and middle men.
They disturbed imports, purchased local produce for export, and
dominated retail trade.
8 The mestizos grew in affluence.
a In the competition between the Chinese and the mestizos, the
latter had the advantage of greater mobility because they were
41

c
d
e

III.

not subjected to the residence requirement and other

restrictions.
Their economic influence far exceeded their numerical strength
because they were concentrated in the most economically
develop parts of the country.
The mestizos were retail merchants artisans, and even
wholesalers landowners.
The development of Iloilo, Cebu, and other Visayan ports was
largely due to smestizo activity.
The new economic opportunities opened by the export-crop
economy also benefited members of the native principalla,
although to a lesser extent than the commercially minded
mestizos.
The advent of the flourishing domestic and international trade
led to the emergence of an entrepreneurial class, composed
mainly of Spaniards, Chinese, mestizos, and urbanized natives.
By the closing decade of the 19th century when the Philippine
was becoming a nation, a new elite composed of mestizos and
urbanized natives had already taken over from the old
principalla. The use of honorary Don and Doa enhanced the
social standing of the elite.

THE REFORM MOVEMENT

A CONCEPT OF NATIONHOOD
1. The role of the middle class
a The middle class, composed of Spanish and Chinese mestizos,
and natives rose to a position of power and eventually became
leaders in finance and education.
b The Spanish authorities looked down upon them, for they did not
belong to the inner circle of peninsulares or Spaniards born in
Spain, and insulares, Spaniards born in the Philippines.
c Prior to the 1870s, those called Filipinos were the insulares or
creoles. Thusin the beginning, the term Filipino had a racial had
elitist connotation.
d The term Filipinos was appropriated by the middle class who had
Hispanized themselves.
e Thwarted in their attempts to win a place in the sun and feeling
oppressed by the abuse and arrogance of colonial officials anf
friars, the middle class started the movement for reforms.
f The masses, Indios, looked upon the middle class with suspicion
due to the perceived arrogance and insolence of the latter.
g Between the contempt of the Spaniards and the suspicion of the
Indios, the middle class sided with the latter. It was thus that the
Filipino middle class and the Natives came to work hand-inhand with the former leading the latter by the hand.
2. The nature of the Reform Movement
a. Although attempts to expose the evils of Spanish colonialism,
particularly the abuses of the friars , were made within the
Philippines, the principal propaganda effort was exerted in
Spain. The hope was for the Spanish government to be aware of
42

what was really happening in the Phillipines so that some reforms

might be granted.
b. There was no clamor for independence, as refomists believed
that the Filipinos would be better off if the country became a
province of Spain.
c. The assimilation of the Phillipines to Spain was to be
accomplished in a peaceful manner.
3. The Great Reformists
a. Three groups formed the nucleus of the movement for reforms.
The first was the group of suspected filibusteros including
creoles and Spanish mestizo in the wake of the Cavite Mutiny of
the 1872. The second group was composed of young men sent to
Spain for their studies, like Jose Rizal. The third consisted of
refuges who left the Philippines to escape the persecution.
Among this group, the most prominent were Graciano Lopez
jaena and Marcelo H. Del Pilar.
b. The reformist established in Barcelona in December 1888, a
purely Filipino organization, La Solidaridad. The group came up
with publication of the same name in 1889 and this became the
principal organ of the Propaganda Movement for more than five
years.
B.The Result And Significance Of The Propaganda Movement
1. The failure of the movement
a. The mother country was too pre-occupied with its own internal
problems to pay
attention to the so-called Philippine problem.
b. The friars were too powerful even in Spain to be sidetracked by
Spanish authorities.
c. The organization established in the Philippines whose purpose
was to campaign for reforms did not have sufficient means with
which carry out their aims.
d. There was lack if funds so that even the publication of the La
Solidaridad was jeoparized.
e. The propagandadists were also divided due to lack of unity,
difference of opinion, petty jealousies, and personal ambitions.
The result was the weakening if ties that bound them together.
2. The significance of the Movement
a. Although the propagandist had limited influence for they
wrote in Spanish and although censorship seriously hampered
the circulation of propaganda materials, the movements
effects on the Revolution cannot be discounted.
b.
Restricted copies of La Solidaridad and of Rizals novels
reached the local ilustrados, who came to lead the
revolutionary forces in their own provinces.
c. Attempts of colonial government to stop the entry and
distribution of Propaganda materials highlighted the very lack
of freedom that the propagandists were condemning.
d. Because what the propagandists wrote were accurate
reflections of reality, a feeling of empathy developed among
43

the people. The articulation of feelings of oppression

heightened the fervor of the people.
e. Since its failure led to the founding of the revolutionary
Katipunan with separatist aims, in a way, therefore, the
Reform Movement was a success.
IV. FACTORS LEADING TO THE PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION OF 1896
A. UNDERLYING FACTORS
1. The influence of the Propaganda Movement
2. The Role of Masonry
a. The Filipino propagandists in Spain affiliated with masonic lodges in
Spain.
b. These lodges became the focus of propaganda activities in Spain
and were responsible for the masonic movement.
c. The masonic movement was anti-friar.
d. The Filipino masons in Spain were responsible for the organization
of masonic lodges in the Philippines which in turn helped to fund
propaganda work in Spain.
e. At the outbreak of the 1896 Revolution, Masonry was already
deeply entrenched in the Philippines. Though not directly
responsible for the revolution, it served as a pattern for the
methods of organization of the Katipunan. The founder himself,
Andres Bonifacio, was a mason.
3.La Liga Filipina July 3, 1892
a. This was organized by Jose Rizal upon his return to the Philippines
in July 3, 1892.
b. It constituted a forward step in the reformist ideas of the times
because it sought to involve the people directly in the reform movement.
c. Among those attracted to the Liga was Bonifacio who became one of
the founders of the organization.
d. The primary aim of the Liga was to unite the whole archipelago into
one compact, vigorous and homogenous body. In these sense, Rizal was
already imagining a nation.
e. The Spanish authorities considered the Liga as dangerous and on
July 6, 1892, Rizal was arrested and subsequently deported to Dapitan.
4. The split
a. The Liga was quite active only in the first few months then it lay low
due to the arrest and deportation of its leader, Rizal.
b. Some members became convinced that peaceful agitation for reform
was futile. The conservatives formed the Cuerpo de Compromisarios
which pledged to continue supporting La Solidaridad while the radicals led
by Bonifacio devoted themselves to a new secret society, the Katipunan,
which he oraganized soon after the arrest of Rizal.
5. Centuries of oppression, exploitation, and the land question
a.Colonial oppression caused common suffering among the people.
Because of the incessant struggles over the centuries and, increasing
misery, and because Bonifacios call for separation from was a simple and
direct solution to their problem, the peasants quickly rallied to the
revolutionary struggle.
b. Greater awarness of common deprivation and oppression was
made possibleby economic progress in Manila. The convergence of
thousands of exploited workers in a single place necessarily developed in
them recognition of their solidarity and of their interest as Filipinos.
c. In the rural areas, the economic progress of the 19 th century
depressed the living standards of the masses. The successful
44

development of cash crops for export intensified exploitaion and suffering,

and strengthened the feudal nature of Philippine economy.
d. Deep resentment was felt against the land grabbing activities of
the friars and their exploitative practices. The Spaniards were viewed as
models of hypocrisy. The gravity of the land question was manifested by
the fact that revolts were directed against those with extensive friar
estates.
B. IMMEDIATE CAUSES
1. The economic depression during the period 1891-1895
a. Unstable currency and exchange fluctuations were especially hard on the
Filipino laborer and the small producer.
b. The prices of sugar and hemp fell disastrously while the prices of imported
goods rose because of the unfavorable exchange. Scarcity plus the higher cost of
importation raised the prices of rice, thus compounding the peoples difficulties.
2. The drought and locust infestation in Central Luzon in June and July 1896
a.Despite the calamities, the friar landowners refused to condone even parts
of the rent and in certain cases even demanded an increase.
b. Misery and desperation drove the peasants of Luzon to the cause of
revolution.
3. The convergence of grievances between the middle class and the masses
a. The economic crisis that aggravated the unrest of the masses also affected
the native middle class and a few of the upper class.
b. Filipino professionals and university graduates were seldom appointed to
government positions. Finding employment was also difficult because of racial
discrimination.
c. The grievances of each class converged to form one common stream of
protest. Conditions were ripe for a revolution.
4. The Katipunan
a. Under the leadership of Bonifacio, the Katipunan laid down three
fundamental objectives:
1)the political objective was to work for the separation of the
Philippines from Spain;
2) the moral objective was to teach good manners, hygiene,
good morals, and to attack obscurantism, religious fanaticism,
and weakness of character;
3) the civic aim was to develop self-help and concern for the
defense of the poor and the oppressed.
b. From its inception, the Katipunan set itself in the task of arousing national feeling
and working for the deliverance of the Filipino people as a whole from Spanish
oppression and friar despotism. Believing that only a united people could achieve its
own redemption, the Katipunan sought to lay the basis for this unity by fostering by
a stronger love of country and encouraging mutual aid.
c. the Katipunan ideology, according of a people just discovering themselves. It was
a call for a struggle, for sepration. While it was a cry for independence, it was also a
demand for democracy among Filipinos because they were not the equals of
Spaniards (1975 : 166).
V. PREPARATION FOR THE REVOLUTIONARY STRUGGLE

A. RECRUITMENT, PROPAGANDA AND EXPANSION

1. Preparations for armed struggle proceeded apace with
recruitment and gathering of arms.
2. The propaganda aspect of the movement was handled by Emilio
Jacinto who edited the Katipunans newspaper, Kalayaan.
3. The Katipunan tried to enlist the aid of wealthy Filipinos but
failed. Angry and disappointed, Bonifacio and Jacinto decided to
manufacture fictitious documents implicating a list of rich
Filipinos as heavy contributors to the Katipunan.
4. The womens chapter of the Katipunan was established.
45

5. Jacinto prepared the Kartilla ng Katipunan, a primer used to

indoctrinate the members of the Katipunan in its ideals.
6. Pio Valenzuela was sent to Dapitan by Bonifacio tp consult Rizal
on the impending revolution. Rizal advised against staging a
premature revolution on the ground that Filipinos were not
prepared and they lacked arms.
7. An attempt was made to seek the aid of the Japanese, but this
failed because the Japanese were not willing to commit their
country to the revolutionary plans of the Katipunan. They had
just fought a major conflict the Sino-Japanese War(1894-1895).
8. The Katipuneros stole rifles and pistols from the Spanish
maestranza (arsenal).
B. THE DISCOVERY OF THE KATIPUNAN AND THE START OF THE
REVOLUTION

1. The betrayal of Teodoro Patio on August 19, 1896.

2. The arrest and imprisonment of hundreds of Katipuneros and
of those being connected with the movement.
3. The Die is Cast Cry of Pugadlawin (August 23, 1896) or Cry
of Balintawak (August 26, 1896)

Unit VI

THE TRANSITIONAL SOCIETY:

FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE
FILIPINO-AMERICAN
WAR
UNIT OBJECTIVES:
1. To trace the developments leading to the establishment of the Malolos
Republic after the outbreak of the revolution
2. To analyze the weakness of the Philippine Revolution
3. To describe the forms of American involvement in the Philippine
Revolution
4. To trace the developments leading to the Filipino-American Hostilities
5. To form generalizations regarding the impact of the Philippine
Revolution on Philippine society
I. THE PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION
A. THE DISCOVERY OF THE KKK

1.

Circumstances that led to the discovery of the KKK

a. The publication and dissemination of the first and only issue of the
Kalayaan, with I
ts revolutionary content, raised the consciousness of the masses

and
consequently increased the membership of the KKK. Henceforth, it
was difficult for
the KKK to remain secret.
b. The new members met nightly and this aroused the suspicion of
Spanish authorities.
The friars reported rumors of nightly meetings to GovernadorGeneral Ramon Blanco who did not act upon the reports for he was
not symphathetic to friars. However, he banished the prominent
men of Malolos, Bulacan, in 1895 and those of Taal, Batangas, in
1896. (Agoncillo, 1990 : 169)
c. A misunderstanding between two Katipuneros working in the
Spanish-owned Diario
46

de Manila led to the discovery of the KKK. Teodoro Pateo, to

extract revenge on
Apolonio de la Cruz, revealed the existence of the KKK to his sister,
and later to Fr.
Mariano Gil on August 19, 1896. Incriminating proofs were
discovered and turned
over to the police who were now convinced that an underground
society existed
whose aim was to overthrow the government.
2. Results/Implications of the discovery
a. Mass arrests of Filipino suspects followed the disclosure of
the KKK. Prominent men were jailed and some were executed. On September
12, 1896 thirteen men were executed in Cavite (The Thirteen Martyrs of
Cavite). Rizal was executed in Bagumbayan on December 30. The reign of
terror only swelled the forces of the revolution.
b. Due to the untimely discovery of the KKK, Bonifacio had no
other recourse but to take to the field. In spite of lack of
arms and ammunitions, Bonifacio and his men decided to
fight the Spaniards. On August 23, 1896, Bonifacio and his
men tore their cedulas to symbolize their determination to
overthrow the Spanish government. This event is known as
the Cry of Pugadlawin.(There are other versions of the
Cry. For one, there is the Cry of Balintawak.)
c. Though they were poorly armed and lacked military
training, Bonifacio and his men engaged the Spaniards in
several skirmishes. Bonifacio did not possess military skills
and his encounters with the Spaniards ended in defeat,
affecting his reputation.
d. The revolution spread to other places and provinces. Gen.
Blanco declared martial law in Manila, Cavite, Laguna,
Batangas, Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, and Nueva Ecija.
Bataan, Zambales and the two Camarines provinces also
joined the revolution. Hundreds were arrested and jailed.
B. FACTIONALISM
1. Magdalo-Magdiwang Rivalry
a. Two factions existed in Cavite even before the outbreak of the
Revolution. The Magdalo was headed by Baldomero
Aguinaldo, Emilios cousin, while the Magdiwang was led by
Magdiwang was led by Mariano Alvarez, Bonifacios uncle-inlaw.
b. When the revolution broke out, Cavite became the hotbed of
the rebellion. The rebels, led Emilio Aguinaldo, defeated the
Spanish forces in several encounters. Inspired by victory,
Aguinaldo issued manifestos informing Filipinos that a
provisional government has been established in towns that
have been pacified. He also asked the Filipinos to fight and
recognize the new Government of the Revolution.
(Constantino, 1975:181). These manifestos indicated that
Aguinaldo and the Magdalo Council wanted the leadership of
the revolution.
c. The two factions fought the Spaniards separately. Magdiwang
defended towns under its jurisdiction while Magdalo did the
same for its own towns. The rivalry led to a series of military
reverses early in 1897.

47

d. Military defeat led the Magdiwang to invite Bonifacio to settle

the rivalry between the two councils. The Magdalo faction
wanted to replace the KKK with a new government because its
existence was exposed and was no longer in keeping with the
demands of the time. The Magdalo was also thinking of a new
leadership. On the other hand, the Magdiwang wanted to
retain the KKK because it already had a constitution and bylaws.
2. Tejeros Convention
a. On March 22, 1897, the assembled leaders at Tejeros
decided to replace the KKK with a new government.
b. This was followed by the election of officials. Emilio
Aguinaldo was elected president in absentia, and
Bonifacio, Secretary of Interior. However, Daniel Tirona
questioned Bonifacios election. This led to Bonifacios
annulling all that had been approved and resolved.
3.The Naic Military Agreement
a.At Naic, Bonifacio and his men drew up another
document which provided for the establishment of a government
independent of, and separate from that at Tejeros.
b.An army was also organized by persuasion or
force and a military commander of their own choice was to take
command of it. (Agoncillo, 1990:179)
c.The document meant a split in the ranks of the
revolutionists.
4. Trial and Execution of Bonifacio
a. Bonifacio and his brothers were ordered arrested by Aguinaldo.
The Council of War found the Bonifcio brothers guilty of treason and
sedition in spite of insufficient evidence to prove their guilt.
c. The brothers were executed in Mt. Tala on May 10, 1897.
d. With Bonifacios death, Aguinaldo assumed the sole leadership of
the revolution.
C. COMPROMISE WITH THE SPANIARDS
1. Pact of Biak-na- Bato
a) By the middle of May 1897, the Spaniards had retaken
Cavite. Aguinaldo left Cavite and established himself and
his forces at Biak-na-Bato. From his hideout, Aguinaldo
established the Biak-na-Bato Republic in July.
b) He also issued a proclamation in which he listed
revolutionary demands, such as representation in the
Spanish Cortes (which was an abandonment of the KKK
aim under Bonifacio independence from Spain), the
expulsion of friars, and the return to Filipinos of lands the
friars appropriated for themselves.
c) In August, Pedro Paterno offered his services as mediator
between the Filipinos and Spaniards. The result was the
Pact of Biak-na-Bato which provided among others the
voluntary exile abroad of Aguinaldo and his men in return
for the sum of P800,000 to be paid in three installments:
a. P400,000 to Aguinaldo upon his departure from Biak-naBato,
b. P200,000 when the arms surrendered by the
revolutionist reached 700, and
c. The remaining P200,000 when the Te Deum was sung
and general amnesty proclaimed by the governor. An
additional sum of P900,000 was to be paid by Gov.
48

Primo de Rivera to families of non-combatant Filipinos

who suffered during the conflict.
2. Results /Significance
a. Aguinaldo and his men left for Hongkong while his
generals left behind at Biak-na-Bato surrendered the arms
given up by the rebels.
b. Clashes between Spaniards and Filipinos continued,
however, because both sides were suspicious of each
other.
c. The departure of Aguinaldo did not end the struggle.
General Francisco Makabulos of Tarlac established o
provisional government until a general government of the
Republic in these islands shall again be established.
d. Revolutionary forces continued the fight in Pampanga,
Laguna, Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, Camarines Norte,
La Union and Ilocos Sur.
e. The Pact of Biak-na-bato ended the conflict between
Aguinaldos group and the Spaniards but the people
continued the struggle. Thus ended the First Phase of the
Philippine Revolution led by Aguinaldo.
f. An implication of the Pact was that all those who would
continue to go against Spain would be considered bandits
and criminals.
D.

THE REVOLUTION IN THE VISAYAS

1. The KKK in Aklan

a. In 1895, Candido Iban and Francisco Del Castillo, KKK members, bought a
printing press for KKK
with the money that they won in a lottery. Upon the
direction of Bonifacio, the two men
organized a KKK chapter in Aklan (once part
of Capiz) in early January 1897. The two recruited a thousand men. Many enlisted
because they thought the two leaders had anting-anting or
amulet.
b. In March 1897, del Castillo and his men marched to Kalibo to fight the
Spaniards. When he demanded their surrender, the Spaniards shot him to
death.
c. After the death, Col. Ricardo Monet, head of the Spanish toops, proclaimed
amnesty. Around 180
Katipuneros surrendered. The Spaniards detained 21 of
them but later released two upon the intercession of their influential relatives and
friends. The Nineteen Martyrs of Aklan were
executed on March 23, 1897.
d. The revolution did not with del Castillos death. The revolutionaries
continued fighting but were
defeated in many encounters. Although it was
short-lived, the KKK in Aklan contributed to the
raising of peoples
consciousness to the fact that freedom is worth fighting for.
f. Aguinaldo sent an expeditionary force to Aklan under Gen. Ananias Diokno
in November 1898.
At the time tension was brewing between the Filipinos and
the Americans.
2.

Capiz
a. In Capiz, the revolutionaries were led by Esteban Contreras.

49

b. He engaged in a guerrilla type of warfare because of lack of arms and

ammunitions.
3. Iloilo
a. Revolutionary activities in Iloilo began with the establishment of the Comite
Conspirador in Molo
in March 1898. After the American victory over the
Spanish fleet in Manila Bay, the Ilonggo elite who had earlier supported the
Spaniards, organized the Committee sent out agents to secure funds to purchase
arms. It also sent out emissaries to other provinces on Panay and the rest of the
Visayas, and tried to establish contact with the Malolos Republic.
b. As agreed upon by Ilonggo leaders, the general uprising took place on
October 28, 1898. The
revolucionarios, under Gen. Martin Delgado, defeated the
Spaniards. The Ilonggos established
the Revolutionary Government of the Visayas
which was inaugurated on November 17, 1898 at Sta. Barbara. In this occasion,
the Philippine flag was raised for the first time in Iloilo province.
c. The Spanish government in Iloilo (the capital of the Spanish government
was transferred to Iloilo after the Spaniards were defeated in Luzon by the
Americans), besieged by revolutionary troops,
evacuated Iloilo City. On
Christmas day, victorious Filipino troops entered the city.
4. Antique
a. Aguinaldo sent an expeditionary force to Antique under the command of
Gen. Leandro Fullon in
September 1898. There were no signs of revolutionary
activities before Fullons arrival.
b. Fullon took control of almost all towns of northern Antique.
c. In November, the Spaniards gave up San Jose, the capital of Antique.
5. Negros Occidental
a. In Negros Occidental, the babaylanes, led by Dionisio Magbuelas, popularly
known as Papa Isio,
began to harass Spanish forces in 1896.
b. When the elite of Negros Occidental decided to fight against the Spaniards,
the babylanes
assisted them. Aniceto Lacson and Juan Araneta, both belonging
to the elite, led a successful
revolution against the Spaniards. They established
a Provisional Government, and later the
Republic of Negros.
6. Cebu
a. In Cebu in 1898, a revolutionary committee was formed.
b. In April, the revolutionaries under Leon Quilat marched to province.
However, Spanish reinforcements came and the Spaniards were able to retake the
major towns.
E. AMERICAN INVOLVEMENT IN THE PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION
1. a. Theodore Roosevelt, one of the influential imperialists at that time, wanted
war between the U.S.
and Spain to justify the expansion of the U.S. Navy. He
made plants to make the U.S. Navy
second only to the British fleet. When he
became Assistant Secretary of the Navy, he worked for
the appointment of
Commodore George Dewey (who shared his expansionist interests) as commander
of the Asiatic Fleet. He ordered Dewey to station his fleet in Hongkong in case
50

American goes to war against Spain. He believed that war would put the U.S.
in the ranks of
world power. (Karnow, 1989: 89)
b. In the last decades of the 19 th century, economic boom transformed
America into a foremost manufacturer of consumer goods and an industrial giant.
New outlets for American capital had to be opened and sources of raw materials
had to be tapped.
c. The United States, a latecomer in colonialism, wanted a share of the
Chinese melonwhich at that time was divided by European powers. The U.S
proposed an Open Door Policy, to preserve the territorial and administrative
entity of China against the encroachment of European and Japanese imperialists. In
reality, the purpose was to protect American interests there.
2. Spanish-American War
a. The Cuban revolution against Spain gave the U.S an opportunity to take
control over Cuba and the Philippines. American imperialists were able to
influence American public opinion against Spain.
b. The explosion of the battleship Maine in Havana harbor further added to the
indignation of the Americans who demanded war against Spain. The U.S
Congress declared war against Spain on April 25, 1898.
c. Commodore George Dewey and his fleet sailed from Hongkong to Manila. On
May 1, 1898, Deweys forces defeated the Spanish fleet under Admiral
Patricio Montojo in the Battle of Manila Bay. After the battle, Dewey blockaded
Manila Bay did not land his troops in Manila due to insufficient number.
3. Aguinaldo and the American Consuls
a. In Singapore, the American consul, E. Spencer Pratt,
contacted Aguinaldo and persuaded him to side with the
Americans against the Spaniards. He assured Aguinaldo that
since the U.S had no intention to possess Cuba which was
their neighbor, it was more likely that the U.S would not take
possession of the Philippines which was 10,000 miles away.
b. Pratt also arranged for Aguinaldos return to Hongkong.
There, the American Consul Rounseville Wildman facilitated
his return to the Philippines. Before he left, Aguinaldo gave
Wildman P117,000.00 to purchase arms and ammunitions.
Wildman delivered only P50,000.00 worth of weapons. The
second shipment was never realized. Wildman had advised
Aguinaldo to establish a dictatorial form of government first,
and after the war, to establish a government similar to that
of the United States.
4. Aguinaldos return to the Philippines
a. Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines aboard the McCulloch. He
reached Cavite on May 19, 1898. He was taken to the Olympia,
Deweys flagship where the two men had a conference.
Aguinaldo alleged that Dewey assured him that the U .S would
recogni ze Philippine independence. Dewey wouldd later deny
making such a promise.
b. Aguinaldo issued proclamations which called on people to join
the revolution again. (It should be noted that in the absence of
Aguinaldo, the people continued the struggle under different
leaders). His proclamations indicated that he was reassuming
the leadership of the revolution.
5. Mock Battle of Manila

51

a. American troops began arriving in the Philippines in June. By the

end of July, there were over 10,000 troops. With their arrival, the
Americans were ready to take Manila.
b. Dewey, however, thought that diplomacy would work. He
negotiated with the Spaniards. The result was the secret
agreement between the Spaniards and Americans.
c. The Spanish governor, Fermin Jaudenes, agreed to surrender
Manila on the condition that there should be a mock battle. This
was to satisfy the Spanish code of honor. He also insisted that
Filipino troops be excluded from participating in the surrender of
the city. The American officers, Dewey and Gen. Wesley Merritt,
accepted the terms even if it meant going against Aguinaldo,
their ally.
d. Since then, Filipino leaders grew suspicious of Americas true
intentions.

II. THE MALOLOS REPUBLIC

A. DEVELOPMENTS LEADING TO ITS ESTABLISHMENT
1. Establishments of the Dictatorial Government
a. Upon his return to the Philippines, Aguinaldo established
the Dictatorial Government on May 24, 1898.
b. This government was temporary in nature.
2.Declarations of Philippine Independence
a.Aguinaldo declared Philippine Independence on June
12, 1898 in Kawit, Cavite.Part of the declaration states under the
protection of the Mighty and Humane North American Nation . . .
According to Constantino, this statement implied that the United States
was a protector of that independence.
b. The occasion also marked the raising of the Philippine
national flag for the first time.
3. Reorganization of the Local Government
a. On June 18,1898, Aguinaldo issued a decree, prepared by his
adviser, Apolinario Mabini to reorganize the local government in
provinces already freed from Spanish control. Electors were prominent
members of society. They elected the town chief, the headman for
each barrio, and three delegates.
b. The decree also provided for the election of delegates from each
province which was to constitute the Revolutionary Congress.
4. Establishment of the Revolutionary Government
a. On June 23 1898, Aguinaldo issued a decree replacing the Dictatorial
Government with a Revolutionary Government whose objective is to
struggle for independence of the Philippines until she is recognized by
free nations of the earth.
b. The decree also provided for the creation of Congress.
5. Malolos Congress
a. Aguinaldo summoned the Revolutionary to assemble at Barasoain
Church. The members of the Congress came from the elite.
b. The Congress convened after electing its officers.
c. The first significant act of the Congress was the ratification of the
independence proclaimed at Kawit.
d. The Congress also proposed to draft a constitution, a move that
Mabini opposed on the grounds that Congress was not convoked to
frame a constitution. The majority under the leadership of Paterno
overruled Mabini.

52

e. A committee was created to draft the constitution. On October 8

1898, Felipe Calderon presented the draft of his constitution. The
constitution was sent to Aguinaldo for approval.
f. On January 21, 1899, Aguinaldo promulgated the Malolos
Constitution.
6. The Malolos Republic
a. On January 23, 1899, the Philippine Republic was inaugurated at
Barasoain church with Aguinaldo as President.
b. Aguinaldo issued a decree granting pardon to all Spanish prisoners
who were not members of the Spanish regular army.
B. MALOLOS REPUBLIC
1. Provisions
a. Its government was popular, representative and responsible with
three distinct branches - - executive, legislative, and judicial.
b. Legislative powers were vested in the Assembl of Representatives
composed of delegates elected according to law.
c. It provided for the separation of Church and State.
d. The administration of justice was vestef in the Supreme Court.
2. Unique Features
a. The Assembly or the legislative branch was superior to either the
executive or judicial branch.
b. It provided for a Permanent Commission to sit as legislative body
when the Assembly was not in session.
c. It established a unicameral legislature.

III. FILIPINO-AMERICAN HOSTILITIES

A.DEVELOPMENT LEADING TO HOSTILITIES
1. Arrival of American troops
a. After the Battle of Manila Bay, the Americans waited for
reinforcements. Dewey had only some 2,000 men so he waited for
more troops for the attck against Manila. The troops arrives in three
waves:on June 30, under Gen. Thomas Anderson, on July 17, under
Gen. Francis Greene;and on July 31, under Gen. Arthur MacArthur.
American troops numbered 10,964 in all under Gen. Wesley Merritt.
(Constantino, 1975:214)
b. Before the arrival of reinforcements, the American maintained
friendly relations with the Filipinos, giving Aguinaldo the respect due a
head of state. After the arrival of American troops, the officers avoided
Aguinaldo. There was no doubt that the Americans had used Filipino
troops to fight against the Spaniards.
2. American insistence on the evacuation of Filipino troops from strategic
points along the Manila Bay area.
a. In Early summer of 1898, Gen. Antonio Lunas troops had dug 14
miles of trenches around Manila. (Karnow, 1989 :115). The Spaniards
were blocked from escaping by sea because of Deweys ships. The
Filipinos rebels put Manila under siege, cutting off the water and food
supply of the inhabitants. Elsewhere, Filipino troops were victorious
and by the end of June, they had control of Luzon except Manila.
b. Gen. Merritt delegated Gen Greene to approach Noriel, the Filipino
commander nearest Manila with an unofficial offer. The Americans
would give the Filipinos some pieces of artillery in exchange for giving
up a sector south of Manila. Aguinaldo agreed on the condition t6hat
53

Merritt sign the request. Greene promised to deliver the receipt after
the withdrawal of Filipino troops. Both receipt and the artillery pieces
were not delivered by Greene. (Karnow, 1989 : 122)
3. The secret agreement between the Americans and the Spaniards
a. The agreement provided that the Spaniards and Americans would
fight a mock battle, after which the Spaniards would surrender to the
Americans.
b. The phony battle on August 13, 1898 would not have been fought
had Dewey not cut off the cable between Manila and the outside world.
The protocol of Peace providing for the cessation of hostilities was
signed by U.S President McKinley the day before the battle.
4.

The refusal of the Americans to allow Filipinos troops to enter Manila

after the Mock Battle.
As part of conditions set by Gov. Jaudenes in the secret agreement,
the Americans did
not allow Filipino troops to enter the city after its
surrender

5.

American limitation of areas to be occupied by Filipinos troops to enter

the city after the
mock battle.

The Americans designated areas outside of Manila which Filipino

troops were to occupy.
6.

Treaty of Paris
a.

The treaty ended the Spanish-American War.

b.
Spain ceded the Philippines to the U.S and in return would
receive $20,000,000 as payment for improvements made in
the colony.
7.

McKinleys Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation

a.

On December 21, 1898, President McKinley issue his

Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation which formally indicated
American intention to annex the Philippines.

b.

Gen. Elwell Otis, who had replaced Gen. Merritt, published the
proclamation only on January 4, 1899 after changing some
inflammatory terms such as sovereignty, with milder words to
diffuse the tension brought about by the American breach of
agreement with the Filipino leaders. This was because he knew
the Filipinos were in a bad mood due to the strained situation
between Americans and Filipinos. The full text of the
proclamation was, however, published in Iloilo by Gen. Marcus
Miller.

c.

Filipino leaders attacked the Proclamation. Aguinaldo issued a

proclamation protesting the intrusion of the U.S on the
sovereignty of the Islands. At the same time, tried to relax the
tension by inviting the Americans to a conference for
adjustment of the conflicting political interests.

54

d.
8.
a.
Filipino soldier.

The Americans pretended to be willing to consider Filipino

wishes but in reality were waiting for the arrival of more troops.
The San Juan Bridge Incident
On the night of February 4, 1899, Private Willie Grayson shot a

b.
The next day, without attempting to investigate the incident,
Gen.MacArthur ordered his troops to wage war against the Filipinos.

B. AMERICAN MILITARY CAMPAIGN

1.

The Americans took control of towns south of Manila.

2.

They also advanced north, forcing Aguinaldo to evacuate

Malolos and move his headquarters to Nueva Ecija. Later,
Aguinaldo would move his capital to Tarlac and Bayombong,
Nueva Viscaya.

3.

The Americans in many encounters defeated the Filipino troops.

They had superior military weapons (Gatling guns, Krag rifles,
etc.) and strategies and a disciplined army.

4.

Before the outbreak of hostilities, the Ilonggo revolutionary army

had occupied Iloilo City after Spanish troops evacuated the city.
When Americans warships, under the command of Gen. Marcus
Miller, appeared at Iloilo harbor, the Ilonggo troops under Gen.
Martin Delgado, refused the American request to land. Because
Miller was ordered by Gen. Elwell Otis to avoid conflict at this
time, American troops were forced to stay aboard their ships for
44 days. American writers called this event the Iloilo Fiasco.
With the outbreak of the hostilities, American troops finally
landed in Iloilo. The Americans took Iloilo but only after costly
battles. For eight months since the fighting in February, the
Ilonggos, led by Gen. Delgado, prevented American advance into
the interior towns of Iloilo. In 1901, many revolutionary leaders
surrendered to the Americans.

5.

Cebu surrendered to the Americans on February 22, 1899;

Negros welcomed American occupation when the FilipinoAmerican hostilities broke out; Antique was occupied in January
1900 in spite of the resistance of the revolutionist and civilians.

6.

The Americans pursued Aguinaldo, with the idea that his capture
would end hostilities. Aguinaldo was determined not to be
captured. He marched through difficult terrain day and night,
finally reaching Palanan, Isabela on September 6 1900. In
Aguinaldos flight to the north, Gen. Gregorio del Pilar defended
Tirad Pass to delay the American pursuit. Del Pilar and many of
his men died at the Pass. Aguinaldo was eventually captured in
March 1901 by Col. Frederick Funston with the help of some
Macabebe scouts and two former officers in the Filipino Army.

55

7.

The Filipinos were defeated by Americans in many encounters.

The troops were poorly armed, poorly trained, poorly fed, and
had little discipline. Internal strife beset their ranks. Gen.
Antonio Luna, angry at the insubordination of Gen. Tomas
Mascardo left Calumpet, Bulacan, with his artillery and troops,
resulting in the fall of the town. He wanted the Kawit Company
disarmed for military insubordination since the members
insisted that they took orders only from Aguinaldo. Lunas advice
was ignored by Aguinaldo. In June 1899, members of the Kawit
Company assassinated Luna in Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija.

IV. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION

A. BIRTH OF THE FILIPINO NATION AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE
AGUINALDO-LED
PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC
The Philippine Revolution gave birth to a Filipino nation. In the struggle
against the colonizers, Filipino nationalism which developed in the 19 th
century as a result of economic, political, social and religious factors,
matured rapidly into a movement for independence. Aguinaldo
declared independence and Malolos Republic was established in 1899.
B.

POWER STRUGGLE AND THE TRIUMPH OF THE ILUSTRADO

The Revolution which began as a struggle of the masses ended up with
the illustrado at the helm. Aguinaldo appointed the elite as members of
his cabinet and as delegates to the Malolos Congress.

C. FOUNDING OF THE FILIPINO NATIONAL CHURCH

1.

The leadership of Gregorio Aglipay

a.

In the second phase of the revolution which began with

Aguinaldos return from Hongkong, Manila Archbishop
Bernardino Nozaleda commissioned Father Gregorio
Aglipay to convince Filipino rebels to lay down their arms.
Aglipay was unable to persuade the rebels to do so.

b.

Aguinaldo asked Aglipay to join the revolutionary forces.

When Aglipay could not get through Nozaleda who was
trapped in Intramuros that was besieged by revolutionary
forces, he went to Cavite and joined Aguinaldos group.
He was given the title Military Chaplain and in October
1898, Aguinaldo appointed him Military Vicar General.

c.

Aglipay urged the Filipino clergy to support the

revolutionary struggle and proposed the creation of a
council which would work for the Filipinization of the
Church but which would remain loyal to the Vatican.

d.

Aglipay convened an Ecclesiastical Assembly in Paniqui,

Tarlac, in October. A temporary constitution for the Filipino
Catholic Church was adopted by the Assembly which also
declared its intention to remain loyal to the Pope. The
Assembly however stated that any foreign bishop would
56

not be recognized by the Filipino Church unless he had the

approval of the majority of Filipino clergy. Naturally, the
Catholic Church could not accept this position.
2. The role of Apolinario Mabini
Mabini, a determined nationalist, issued a manifesto to the
Filipino clergy exhorting them to organize a Filipino National
Church. This Church, manned by the Filipino clergy in all
positions, was to cooperate with the Filipino government.
3. Racial prejudice and discrimination against the Filipino Clergy
a.

Centuries of racial prejudice and discrimination resulted in

the restlessness of the Filipino clergy The Spanish friars
believed that the Filipinos were racially inferior and
incompetent. Hence, they were not qualified to administer
parishes.

b.

In the second half of the 19th century, the Filipino secular

clergy were already well trained and competent and they
thought that they should be given parishes.

c.

The Filipino clergy sided with the revolutionary

government because they saw an opportunity to attain
power and authority which the friars denied them. Thus,
the Filipino clergy joined the revolution to take the place
of the friars.(Agoncillo, 1990 : 243)

4. The pro- friars bias of Mons. Placido Chapelle

a.

The Apostolic Delegate to the Philippines, Mons.

Chapelle, an American, made known his intention to
dominate the Filipino clergy and restore the friars to their
parishes.

b.
He insulted the Filipino clergy by calling them
incompetent.
Because of this, many Filipino priests decided to join a
national church that would be independent of Rome.
5. The proposal of Isabelo de los Reyes
The founder of the Union Obrera Democratica, Isabelo de
los Reyes, proposed to his members the establishment of
the Iglesia Filipina Independiente with Aglipay as Supreme
Bishop. Although reluctant at first, Aglipay accepted the
position.
D. END OF THE SPANISH RULE IN THE PHILIPPINES
1.

Aguinaldo who returned to the Philippines from Hongkong,

resumed the struggle against the Spaniards.

2.

He declared independence on June 12, 1898.

3.

By the end of end of June, Filipinos forces controlled most of

Luzon except Manila. When the Treaty of Paris, signed on
57

December 10, 1898, cede the Philippines to the U.S, Spain had
only few remaining isolated outposts in the country.
(Constantino, 1975 : 219)
4.

Constantino writes The Filipino people had won their war of

liberation. On their own, without the help of any foreign power,
they had put an end to the hated Spanish rule over their land. It
was really a peoples victory, not only because it was the people
who supplied the manpower and contributed the casualties in
the actual battles, but also because the soldiers of the
Revolution found spontaneous and overwhelming support
among the masses everywhere.

UNIT VII

AMERICAN COLONIALISM
IN THE PHILIPPINES: 1901 1946
UNIT OBJECTIVES:
1. To identify and explain the reasons for American expansionism
2. To identify and explain the various instruments of pacification used by
Americans in the
Philippines
3. To explain the nature of the relationship between Filipino and American
leadership
4.
To distinguish the different forms of Filipino resistance to American
colonialism
5. To describe the campaigns undertaken by the Filipinos for independence
6. To identify and explain the problems faced by the Commonwealth of the
Philippines
7.
To assess the significance and impact of the Japanese Occupation on
Philippine society
8. To analyze the nature of Philippine Liberation
9. To assess the results of American colonialism
58

RATION ALE OF AMERICAN EXPANSIONISM

A MANIFEST DESTINY
1 Americans believed that it is their duty to bring the benefits of
civilization to ignorant people abroad through conversation or
conquest. Inspired by their power, they believed that they had
the white mans burden to care for their title brown brother.
2 Proponents of Manifest Destiny anchored their arguments on
Charles Darwins theory of survival of the fittest to support
the racial superiority of Americans. (Karnow, 1989: 81)
B ECONOMIC FACTOR
1 The last decade of the 19th century saw a phenomenal growth
in American industries. Foreign markets had to be found to
absorb the increase in manufactured goods. Markets and
sources of raw materials were vital to be expanding American
economy. Thus, territorial expansion became a must for
Americans. Commodore Matthew Perry forced Japan to open
its doors: the Americans took Pago-Pago from the Germans
and intervened in Hawaii. They also wanted the sliced of the
Chinese melon.
2 Americans also believed that new outlets for American capital
and fresh opportunities for their business interest had to be
found and develop outside of the U.S.
3 American diplomats assigned in some Asian countries lobbied
for the retention of the Philippines. Like the imperialists at
home, they thought that the Philippines could become a
springboard for American expansion and supremacy in Asia,
particularly China. For a strong economic presence in Asia, the
U.S. needed a base from where it could expand trade and
commerce.
C POLITICAL
1 The U.S. desired colonies for power and glory. It wanted to
play a role in the power politics in the Pacific.
2 American felt a rush of national pride coupled with a sense of
moral purpose for spreading their civilization. The Philippines
would be their first colony. (Karnow, 1989: 80)
D RELIGIOUS
1 The American Catholic Church favored the annexation of
Philippines because it was the only way to protect its
economic interests. During the revolution, the revolutionary
government had taken possession of Church properties. If the
Americans took over, the Church could retain its power and
properties.
2 American Protestant groups also approved annexation. They
saw the Philippines as fertile ground for spreading
Protestantism. The Philippines could also be a springboard for
American evangelization in Asia, especially China.
E MILITARY
The Philippines would be a base for American operations in
Asia to protect American economic and political interests.

II

OPPOSITION TO AMERICAN EXPANSIONISM

59

III

In the U.S., some people opposed the annexation of the

Philippines; their
number comprised only a small percentage of
the population. (Quirino, 1987: 2091)
A Political leaders like William Jennings Bryan, who was a
Democrat, Sen. Robert LaFollette of Wisconsin, and some New
Imperialists League, opposed annexation.
B The famous writer, Mark Twain and Finley Peter Dunne, a
cartoonist (creator of Mr. Dooley), criticized the American
government.
C Some industries and businessmen also opposed annexation
because they believed in commercial expansion without taking
over a territory.
D Some religious groups, the Quakers and the Unitarians, were not
in favor of annexation.
PACIFICATION TECHNIQUES
The Americans adopted various pacification techniques to end
Filipino resistance
which continued in spite of Aguinaldos capture
in 1901.
A The Sedition Law (1901) made any advocacy for Philippine
independence a crime punishable by long imprisonment or
death. The law also punished by long imprisonment and a fine
any person who would utter seditious words, or speeches, write,
publish or circulate scurrilous libels.
B The Brigandage Act (1902) classified guerrilla fighters as
brigands or ladrones and made membership in an armed group
punishable by death or long imprisonment.
C The Reconcentration Act (1903) forced residents of towns
infested with bandits and brigands to live in designated military
zones. The purpose of this act was to prevent people from giving
aid support to rebels.
D The Flag Law (1907) prohibited to display of all flags, banners,
symbols and other paraphernalia to suppress nationalistic
feelings.
E Uncompromising Filipino nationalists, the Irreconciliables, like
Mabini, Ricarte, and others were deported.
F Political parties which advocated independence were banned.
G The establishment of the public education system with English as
the medium of instruction was one of the best ways of
pacification.
1 It was aimed at making the Filipinos little brown Americans.
2 Military leaders saw education as a means of ending
resistance of the people.
3 Educating the Filipinos with American values and culture
developed pro-American sentiments.
4 With American education, the Filipinos forgot their roots and
their nationalistic goals.
H The American army conducted military campaigns against the
natives.
1 Brigadier General Jacob Smith ordered that Samar be turned
into a howling wilderness. This was the result of the
Balangiga incident.
60

IV

2 Gen Franklin Bell, campaigning in Batangas, ordered the

burning of towns near areas of guerrilla operations. The town
of Barotac Viejo in Iloilo was razed to the ground.
3 The occupation army also committed abuses and atrocities.
Filipinos suspected of being rebels were subjected to water
cure and other forms of torture.
The American also suppressed nationalistic journalism and
literature. Publication such as El Nuevo Dia and El Renacimiento
were subjected to censorship.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FILIPINO AMERICAN

LEADERSHIP
A COLLABORATION AND COMPROMISE
1 It should be noted some of the elite or ilustrados joined the
revolution only when they saw the possibility of success. Their
participation was also characterized by their willingness to
compromise with colonialism, especially to insure their
interests. Many ilustrados who were prominent in the
Aguinaldo government not only collaborated with the
Americans but they also welcomed American rule.
2 In November 1898, the Negros elite organized themselves into
a provisional government which was against the Aguinaldo
government. They thought that the action would be
recognized by Americans as a sign of loyalty. The elite
believed that the island should be under American control.
B ACCOMMODATION
1 American colonial policy was designed to win the support of
the Filipinos, especially the elite, and the American antiimperialists who were against annexation of the Philippines.
The Americans co-opted the Filipinos, that is, they moderated
their colonial policies by accommodating the Filipino elite.
a The elite were rewarded with important positions in the
government. Arellano was appointed Chief-Justice of the
Supreme Court while Tavera and Legarda were named to
the Philippine commission.
b William Howard Taft, the first American Civil Governor of
the Philippines, adopted a policy of attraction designed to
encourage the elite to cooperate with the Americans. His
policy the Philippines for the Filipinos aimed at preparing
the Filipinos for self-government by allowing them to
participate in a popular, democratic form of government.
Taft, however, believed that the Philippines should be
retained until the Filipinos themselves to be capable in
running their own government.
c The Philippine Bill of 1902 (Cooper Act) established the
Philippine Assembly in 1907 which satisfied the ilustrado
desire for political participation.
d The Americans allowed the establishment of the Federal
Party whose platform was annexation. Taft granted the
Federalists a monopoly of official jobs reserved for Filipinos.

61

3. The Americans allowed also implemented Filipinization

or the gradual substitution of American with Filipino
personnel in the government.
a. The Supreme Court, created in 1899, was composed
of nine justices, six of whom were Filipinos. However,
after the Reorganization Act of 1901 and until the
Commonwealth, the number of Filipinos in the
Supreme Court was limited only to three. In the lower
courts, the number of Filipino justices increased.
b. Provincial and municipal governments were under
Filipino control.
c. By 1913, the Philippine Commission was Filipinized.
d. During the term of Governor General Francis B.
Harrison (1913-21), there was rapid Filipinization. By
1921, most bureaus were under the Filipinos. The
Filipinos also held civil service positions.
e. The Jones Law (1916) created an all-Filipino
Legislature.
4. the Municipal Code enacted in 1901 by the Second
Philippine Commission placed the municipal
government under three Filipino officials. The law
also granted suffrage but only to males (21 years old
and above), the propertied and those who could
read, speak and write in English or Spanish.
5. The Americans were also successful in co-opting
the ruling elite in the cultural coomunities.
a. In Mindanao, American teachers and
missionaries provided social services and
education to the natives with the assistance of
local leaders. Sultans and datus were
appoimted as ward leaders, responsible for
the maintenance of peace and order.
b. In the Cordilleras, the Americans used their
military firepower (which impressed the
Ifugaos) and goodwill to establish political
structures in the region. The American
teachers and missionaries provided social
services and education.
c. The Bates Treaty allowed American present in
Sulu. From the point of view of Sulu
leadership, relation with the U.S was
characterized by political coexistence.
Americans were allowed to engage in trade
and commerce but not to intefere with internal
affairs.
d. The Carpenter-Kiram Agreement in 1915
stressed the total sovereignty of the U.S.
over all the territory of the sultanate in all
aspects, except in matters of religion in which
the sultan as titular spiritual head of his
62

people was allowed to exercise ecclesiastical

authority. The agreement further provided
that the exercise of spiritual and religious
freedom must not violate the basic laws of the
U.S. (Agoncillo, 1990:306)

II. FORMS OF FILIPINO RESISTANCE TO AMERICAN RULE

For the Americans and the Filipino elite, the Filipino-American Hostilities ended with
the capture of Aguinaldo. However, vigorous protests and resistance to American
rule continued. Those who resisted were branded by Americans as bandits or
brigands.
A. RESISTANCE OF FORMER OFFICERS OF THE REVOLUTIOBARY ARMY
1. Generals Miguel Malvar and Vicente Lukban continued the war in Batangas
and Samar, respectively.
2. Gen. Luciano San Miguel revived the Katipunan and led the resistance in
Rizal and Bulacan. In Pangasinan, Zambales and Isabela, former members of
the Katipunan continued to fight the Americans.
3. Macario Sakay, Julian Montalan and Cornelio Felizardo led the resistance
forces in the Rizal-Cavite-Laguna-Batangas area. They organized the Tagalog
Republic with Sakay as president.
4. Simeon Ola and Lazaro Toledo led the resistance in Bicol.
5. Artemio Ricarte led a movement to revive the revolution under the
leadership of some of its old officers. He was deported by Americans three
times.
6. General Martin Delgado and other Visayan revolucionarios initially resisted
American rule.
B. RESISTANCE WITH NATIVISTIC FEATURES
1. Many rebel leaders had the support of peasants who believed that their
leaders possessed supernatural powers. These movements were also a
struggle against the local elite who oppressed the peasants.
2. Salvador Felipe, popularly known as Apo Ipe organized a movement
called Santa Iglesia or Holy Church.
3. Ruperto Rios established his own municipal government in Quezon. He
claimed to be the Son of God and gave his men amulets to make them
invulnerable.
4. After the Negros elite sided with Americans, Papa Isio who supported the
elite against the Spanish, continued the struggle. His group, the babaylanes
or pulahanes, burned haciendas owned by pro-American elite.
5. In the first two decades of American rule, pulahan movements emerged in
Panay, Cebu, Leyte and Samar (called Dios-Dios).
6. Armed disturbances took place in Mindanao, specifically in Surigao and
Misamis.
C. THE RESISTANCE OF THE MUSLIM AND OTHER CULTURAL GROUPS
1. While American forces were busy fighting in Luzon and the Visayas,
American policy was to neutralize Muslim resistance. American strategists
decided that the Muslims should not be provoked into joining the rebellion at
least until their victory in Luzon was assured. This was accomplished by the
Bates Treaty of 1899 which asserted that sovereignty of the U.S. over the
whole archipelago of Jolo and its dependencies be declared and
acknowledged. The rights of the Sultan and his datus would be respected
and they would be given monthly salaries. The treaty further provided that no
one would be persecuted for his religious beliefs. Actually, the U.S. had no
63

intention of acknowledging Muslim authority in Mindanao and Sulu. It

unilaterally abolished the Bates Treaty citing the reason that the sultan was
ineffective in controlling the Muslims. (Agoncillo, 1990:304)
2. Resistance prevailed in many areas in Mindanao and Sulu. In Cotabato,
Maguindanao and Lanao, Muslim leaders continued to resist the Americans.
However, some Lanao sultans and datus had earlier accepted the American
offer of peace and political position in the local government. The Americans
campaigned against Panglima Hassan, Pala and others in Sulu.
3. The lumad(natives occupying the mountainous areas), like the Mandayas
and Subanons also rose against the American government.
VI. COLONIAL POLITICS
A. BEGINNINGS
1.

In the early years of their rule, Americans suppressed the

existence of nationalist political parties, allowing only the
Federal Party which favored annexation of the Philippines.

2.

In 1906, the ban was lifted and the Nacionalista Party was
established. With its platform calling for immediate
independence, the Nacionalista Party won the majority of
seats (59 out 80) in the Philippine Assembly which was
established in 1907.

3.

The federalistas reorganized themselves and called their

party Partido Nacional Progresista with eventual
independence as their platform.

4.

In 1914, a small group of Nacionalistas broke away from

the party in protest against the very personal autocratic
government under the Nacionalista. The new party later
emerged with the Progresistas, resulting in the formation of
Partido Democrata which became the opposition party until
1931.

B. THE OSMEA-QUEZON RIFT

1.

With the creation of the Senate under the Jones Law in

1916, Quezon became the Senate President.

2.

Quezon challenged the leadership of Osmea who since the

time of Taft was undisputed leader of the Filipinos. He
criticized Osmeas leadership as dictatorial and he
advocated collective leadership or the distribution of
authority among different agencies and officials of the
government.

3.

Osmea defended his style of leadership- party or

unipersonal leadership- as representative in nature for the
majority party represented public opinion. In spite of
Osmeas offer to give the leadership to Quezon, the latter
established the Partid Nacionalista Colectivista which was
64

4.

considered to be another opposition party. Quezons party

won in the 1922 elections and he became the number one
Filipino leader.
In 1942, the two wings of the Nacionalista Party merged
into a new party, the Partido Nacionalista Consolidado, with
the same political set- up as the original party. Quezon was
now the president and Osmea the vice president of the
party.

C. NATURE/ CHARACTERISTICS OF COLONIAL POLITICS

(Costantino 1975: Chap XVI)
1.

Political parties emphasized independence as platform to

insure political survival. Parties used this stance as means
of getting votes.
2.
There were no ideological differences among parties.
Alliances were based on family ties, friendship,
regionalism, and political necessity.
3.
There were no turncoatism, coalitions and party
splits.

4.

Political parties took care of individual and class interests.

5.

A discrepancy existed in the public and private views of

Filipino officials with regard to economic relations with the
U.S.
a.
When free trade was established in 1909, Quezon the
majority floor leader presented the Assemblys opposition
on the grounds that free trade would cause economic
dependence on the U.S. The Americans convinced Quezon
to withdraw his opposition as it was dangerous to his
career. After a conference with American officials, the
leaders of the Assembly privately agreed to support free
trade.
b.
On the question of independence, Filipino leaders
advocated it publicly as gimmick to win votes, but they
privately admitted to American officials that they were not
in favor of immediate independence. They proposed a
longer transition period to give the Philippines time to
achieve economic independence.

6.

Senator Claro M. Recto hinted of anomalies committed by

the majority party (that is the Nacionalista Party). He
accused the party of keeping secret the management of
funds of independence campaigns, the administration of
finances of government- owned companies, and
65

negotiations with the U.S about the future political status

of the Philippines.

VII. THE CAMPAIGN FOR INDEPENDENCE

A. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
1.

The Americans wanted to duplicate in the Philippines the

ideals of democratic self- rule. They believed that the
Filipinos were not ready for self government and
democracy.

2.

In 1901, the Americans allowed the Filipino to assume

positions in municipal and provincial governments. They
also appointed them to the Philippine Commission and
other government positions.

3.

The establishment of the Philippine Assembly in 1907 gave

the Filipinos legislative powers but under American
supervision and approval.

4.

The Jones Law of 1916 promised independence as soon as

a stable government can be established.It provided for
the reorganization of the Philippine Legislature. A
bicameral legislature was created with a Senate, and a
House of Representative which replaced the Philippine
Assembly.

5.

The Filipino position on independence was not always clear.

Filipino leaders advocated immediate, absolute, complete
independence publicly as this stand was very popular
among the people. In private, they were apprehensive
because they knew that the Philippines was still
economically dependent on the U.S. The Philippine would
lose the preferential tariff arrangements which it enjoyed
under free trade. This ambivalent attitude annoyed
American authorities who thought that independence was
not the real goal of the Filipino leaders.

B. MEASURES EMPLOYED BY THE FILIPINOS TO CAMPAIGN FOR

INDEPENDENCE
1.

The Philippine Assembly (after 1916, the Philippine

Legislature) passed formal resolutions advocating
independence and these were presented by resident
commissioners to the U.S Congress.
66

C.

2.

The Philippine Assembly created the Commission of

Independence in 1918 which was tasked to work for early
independence. The most important undertaking of the
Commission was to send independence missions to the
United States. It also directed a publicity campaign for
independence through the Philippine Press Bureau. They
presented arguments in favor of Philippine independence.

3.

Supreme Council was launched by Quezon to bring all

political parties together for a more active campaign for
independence.

4.

The Philippine Legislature passed the bill proving for a

plebiscite on immediate independence in November 1925.
The purpose of the plebiscite was to show opponents of
Philippine independence in the U.S. that independence
movement was supported by Filipino masses and not only
by a few. Governor-General Leonard Wood vetoed the bill.

RESULTS
1.

American authorities consistently rejected the appeal of

Filipinos for independence in the belief that Filipinos were
not ready for self-government and that it was not the real
desire of their leaders. Independence missions were sent to
the U.S. starting in 1919 but they did not attain their aim. It
was not until 1933 when the Os-Rox (Osmea-Roxas)
Mission brought home an independence law, the HareHawes-Cutting Act. The law provided, among others, a tenyear transition period before independence would be
granted and the retention of commercial, military, and
naval bases in the Philippines by the U.S.

2.

Quezon had the law rejected by the Philippine Legislature

for several reasons.
a.
The law had unfavorable trade and immigration
provisions.
b.
The law allowed the retention of American military
and naval
reservations which could violate Philippine
territorial integrity
and sovereignty.
c.
Another reason was politically motivated: Quezon
refused to
acknowledge the leadership of Osmea and Roxas.
67

3.

Quezon secured another independence law, the TydingsMcDuffieAct. The Philippine Legislature unanimously
accepted the Tydings-McDuffie Act which removed
provisions for military reservations and substituted a
provision for ultimate settlement as to naval and fueling
stations. ( Agoncillo, 1990: 347)

4.

The passage of the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act was promoted

by American interest groups.
a.
Farm groups affected by the economic depression
that hit the U.S. in the 1909s, blamed Philippine exports as
cause of their problems. They considered the unlimited
entry of Philippine products to the U.S. as competition to
their own products. In 1909, the Payne-Aldrich Act provided
for partial free trade (Philippine exports were allowed to
enter the U.S. under specific quota) and in 1913, the
Underwood-Simmons Act established full free trade,
abolishing quota limitations.
b.
The American Federation of Labor and other
patriotic societies favored the granting of Philippine
independence. They believed that Filipino immigration to
the U.S. was of cheap Filipino labor. Filipinos would also
cause a race problem.
c.
The isolationists were worried that the retention of
the Philippines by the U.S. would result in American
involvement in a war with Japan. The Japanese had
territorial ambitions in China.

VIII. THE COMMONWEALTH

A.

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COMMONWEALTH

1.
As provided for in the Independence Law, the Filipinos
elected delegates to the Constitutional Convention to frame a
constitution. The constitution was sent to American President
Franklin D. Roosevelt who approved it on March 23, 1934.
2.
In May, a plebiscite ratified the constitution. This was
followed by an election I September where a re-united
Nacionalista Party (the Quezon and Osmea-Roxas) won.
3.

The commonwealth of the Philippines was inaugurated on

November 15, 1935 with Quezon as President and Osme a as
Vise-President.
B.

PREPARATIONS FOR INDEPENDENCE

1.

National Security

68

a.
The threat of Japanese expansion and the absence of
an adequate defense system prompted Pres. Quezon to
address this concern immediately.
b.
The National Assembly passed Commonwealth Act
No.1- The National Defense Act.
c. Quezon obtained the services of Gen. Douglas MacArthur, retired
Chief of Staff of the
U.S. Army, to set up the Philippine defense system.
MacArthur was named Field Marshall of the Philippine Army.
d. MacArthurs defense plan included the creation of a citizen army to
consist of two
components: a regular force of about 10,000 men,
including the Philippine Constabulary
(PC) and a reserve force to number
400,000 by the end of 10 years. Preparatory Military Training (PMT) would
also be given to elementary, secondary and college students. A Philippine
Navy and Army Air Corps would also be established.
e. Financial constraints and the urgency of other concerns in education,
health, public
works prevented the full realization of the defense plan by
the time, the war, in the
Pacific broke out in 1941.
2. Social Concerns
a. In early May 1935, the Sakdal uprising broke out in Bulacan, Rizal,
Laguna and Cavite. Led
by Benigno Ramos, the movement started as
an anti-Quezon, anti-Nacionalista crusade.
The movement was an
expression of peasant grievances. It directed its attention to the removal of
American rule to solve the land problem. The Sakdalistas protested the
maldistribution of property and the concentration of lands in the hands
of the Church.
b. Even before the Sakdal uprising, there were already peasant and
labor unrest in the
1920s and early thirties.
c. Movements or secret societies with semi-religious characteristics or
colorums emerged
not only in Luzon but also in the Visayas and
Mindanao.
d. Labor and peasant unions such as Congreso Obrero de Filipinas
(C.O.E.), Asemblea
Obrera Federacion del Trabajo, Anak Pawis and Union
de Aparceros de Filipinas were
organized.
e. Quezons policy towards this problem was his Social Justice Program.
Social Justice
meant justice to the common tao, improving his condition
in life by liberating him from oppression and exploitation. Quezons actions
varied from the passage of laws to the
creation of government agencies to
solve the problem.
f. The Social Justice Program was not totally successful. There was
opposition from the
powerful landed class. Although Quezon was
sympathetic to peasants and laborers, he
was also under the influence

69

of the landlords some of whom were members of his cabinet and the
legislature.
g. Quezon also pushed for a system of education that would be
available to many people.
He focused on primary and adult education.
h. The Institution of National Language was created to study the
different Philippine
languages for the purpose of adopting a national
language. In 1937, the institute
recommended the adoption of Tagalog as
the basis of the national language.
3. Economic Development
a. Although free trade economic development, it made the Philippines
dependent on the United States. Agriculture was developed but it was
predominantly export-oriented agriculture, producing crops for the
American market.
b. By 1934, 80% of the total Philippine exports went to the United States
and 65% of Philippine imports were from that country. The economic
progress was dependent on continuance of free trade. (Agoncillo, 1977:
379)
c. The Commonwealth government carried out an economic
readjustment plan which included the following: divesification and
increase in agricultural production, development o natural resources,
expansion of the domestic market, development of transportation and
communication, and idustrialization and development of markets outside
of the United States. (Agoncillo, 1977: 413)
d. Another economic problem was the control of fereigners of important
business in the country. Aside from American and Spaniards, the Chinese
and the Japanese were also active particapation.
e. The National Assembly passed laws such as the Anti-Dummy Law and
an immigration law. The government also granted credit facilities to
Filipinos to enable them to engage in retail activities. The National
Economic Council was created in March 1936 to direct the economic
activities of the Commonwealth.

IX. RESULTS OF AMERICAN OCCUPATION

A. POLITICAL DEMOCRACY
1.
McKinleys instructions to the Taft Commission (Second Philippine
Commission) laid the foundation of American policy in the Philippines.
This policy provided for basic freedoms freedom of religion, feedom
of the press, speech, freedom to assemble peaceably for the redress of
grievances and freedom to except in the early years of American rule
when the Sedition Law and Flag Law were operative.
2. The Americans did not bring democracy to the Philippines but they
made it applicable to all.
70

3. In 1937, the Filipino women achieved political suffrage after a long

and difficult struggle.
4. Traditional concepts were also introduced: public office is a public
trust; government of laws and not of men; the right of every citizen to
an education; dignity of labor; and one man; one vote.
B.

PARTISAN POLITICS

1. The founding of political parties encouraged partisan politics. The

political parties outlined their flatforms, identified issues, and raised
funds for their political machinery.
2. The Filipinos learned the ways of running the government under a
policy of political education.
C.

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION

1. The American established an efficient and non-politacal civil service.

2. According to an article written in Idia and reported in the Manila
Times, the Philippine Civil Service was in many respects superior to the
Indian Civil Service. (Gleek, 1976: 136)
D. TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION
1. The American built roads, harbors, bridges, irrigation, and a modern
transportation and electricity system.
2. More telephones, telegraph lines, and radios linked towns and cities.
3. Postal service was to improved.
4. The establishment of an efficient transportation and communication
network was beneficial to the Filipinos but more so to the Americans.
American materials, tools, equipment, cars, motor, vehicles, and
gasoline were imported from the United States. Thus, the Philippines
was a profitable market for American business.
E.

TRADE, COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY

1. The establishment of free trade in the first decades of American rule

led to increase in foreign and domestic trade.
a. The Payne-Aldrich Act in 1909 provided the entry of Philippine
exports, except rice, to American markets free of duty under certain
quota limitations.
b. In 1913, the Underwood-Simmons Act abolished quota limitations
on Philippine export crops such as sugar, hemp, and tobacco but only
on these products.
2. The Philippine also developed various industries such as textile,
cigar, and mining. Sugar centrals, cordage, fishing and fish-canning
factories, distilleries and coconut mills were put up.
71

3. Althoug free trade brought about economic prosperity, it had

negative effects.
a. The Philippine became a supplier of raw materials and a consumer
of American goods. Agriculture became export-oriented, and industry
import-dependent.
b. Philippine producers concentrated on few specialized export such
as copra, sugar, coconut, hemp and tobacco products, and neglected
essential commodities such as rice.
c. Because of the unlimited entry of American goods, the Filipinos
developed a liking for stateside things which strengthened their
colonial mentality.
d.
F.

Free trade made the Philippines dependent on the United States.

EDUCATION

1. The establishment of a secularized and free public school system

during the first decade of American rule has the greatest and probably
the most lasting effect on the political and cultural development of
Filipinos. (Agoncillo, 1977: 338)
a. The American system stressed democratic traditions and the
practical application of laws.
b. The American also emphasized citizenship training and the
doctrine of character building. Values that would develop character
are honenty, industry thrift, sportmanship and patriotism. (Gleeck,
1976: 29)
c.

Extra-curricular activities such as athletic were encouraged.

2. One of the most lasting contributions of the Americans was the

introduction of English.
a. It made the Filipinos conversant with the outside world, especially
the American world.
b. American words have been adopted into the Philippine ganguages.
c. English is still used as the medium of instruction and the language
of business and government.
3. The University of the Philippines was established in 1908 which
provided the Filipinos with opportunity for higher education. It should
be noted that the Philippines is one the first countries in the world in
which a national university was conceived. Protestant-managed
schools like the Central Philippine University and Silliman University
were also established.
4. From 1903 to 1914, Filipinos with promising scholastic aptitudes
were sent to study in the United States as pensionados. These
government-financed students were indoctrinated in American ways.
72

5. The result of the educational system was the increase of Filipino

literacy. By the time the Commonwealth was established in 1935, the
literacy rate was 65%. (Agoncillo, 1990: 373)
6. According to Constantino, the Filipinos were mis-educated. They
learned American history, culture and values. Filipinos were trained to
become good colonies and good imitators of American ways.
G. PUBLIC HEALTH AND WELFARE
1. The Americans introduced public health and welfare program.
2. They introduced new methods of prevention and treatment of
disease.
3. They established hospitals, leprosaria, and dispensaries.
4. They also provided facilities and asylums for orphans, the insane
and juvenile offenders.
5. Tropical diseases were either eliminated or reduced to effective
control.
6. The standard of living improved.
H.

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RESULTS

1. Colonial mentality, the preference for imported goods, especially

American persisted. Filipinos did not patronize their own products,
resulting in the death of local industries.
2. Because they loved what was foreign, the Filipinos heated their own
ways. They came to love American culture and language. Thus,
according to Agoncillo, the Filipinos suffered a partial loss of their racial
heritage.
3. The Filipinos also embraced the idea of American materialism.
American movies encouraged this idea by showing the American way
of life. Material possessions became the norm in determining success
in life.

X.

THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION

A.
1.

CAUSES OF JAPANESE EXPANSIONISM

Japan needen territories to accommodate its excess population.

2. As there was no large consumer market at home, Japan had to look

for markets abroad.
3. Being poor in natural resources, Japan needed sources of raw
materials fo fuel her industries.
4. Japan wanted to become a leader of Asian nations. It established the
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Shere where Asian countries would
become cooperating members of the union.
73

5. There was also the resurgence of militarism and ultra nationalism.

B.

THE DECLARATION OF WAR

1.
It was the U.S. that thwarted Japanese ambitions in China and
initiated an embargo on Japan that deprived her of industrial and
consumer goods. Also, the Americans had naval bases in the
Philippines which was an obstacle to the pursuance of Japans
imperialist ambition. Thus, the became Japans principal enemy.
2. The Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 led the
U.S. to declare war on Japan.
3. The Japanese occupied the Philippines in 1942. Japans expansionist
path in Southeast Asia included the Philippines. Before the war, it had
already mining, fishing and lumber investments in the Philippines.
C.
IMPACT OF THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION ON PHILIPPINE
SOCIETY
1. Japan, in its proclamation on January 3, 1942, said that its purpose
in the Philippines was to liberate the Filipinos from the United States. To
win the support and sympathy of the Filipinos, the Japanese promised
to grant the Philippines its independence so long as it cooperates and
recognizes Japans program of establishing a Greater East Asia CoProsperity Sphere. The Japanese thus allowed the establishment of
the Philippine Republic on October 14, 1943.
2. The occupation led to economic hardships. Because of scarcity of
food, those who lived in the cities evacuated to the provinces.
Production was limited and economic activities were lessened. Rice
production declined and its distribution was controlled by a system of
coupons and rationing.
3. Just like the Americans, the Japanese enlisted the support of the
Filipino elite in running the government. They thought that this would
legitimize the government and win popular support for Japanese rule.
(Veneracion, 1987)
a.
Thet wanted American trained leaders like Jose Laurel ( who
served as Secretary of Justice in the prewar cabinet), Claro M. Recto,
Benigno Aguino, Sr., and Jorge Vargas (Quezons Executive Secretary).
b.
Six of the 11 members of the prewar cabinet, 10 or 24 senators,
and about 1/3 of the 98 representatives held key positions under the
Japanese. (Shalom, 1986: 1)
c.
In the Judiciary, the members of the Supreme Court and the Court
of Appeals were the same as those who served the Commonwealth.
(Shalom, 1986: 1)
d. Most of the officers of the Philippine Army (80%) also served under
the Japanese-sponsored Philippine Constabulary. (Shalom, 1986: 1)
74

4.

Some Filipinos collaborated with the Japanese for different reasons.

a. Although many of the rulling elite were loyal to the Americans and
the Commonwealth, they collaborated with the Japanese for this would
mean a continuation of their leadership.
b. Some collaborators were genuinely pro-Japanese. One was Artemio
Ricarte, a former general in the revolution who refused to accept
American rule and was deported. He chose to live in Japan. A former
general of the revolution, Leon Villafuerte, also supported the
Japanese. Another was Benigno Ramos, the leader of the sakdal
movement. He established the Ganap Party, a pro-Japanese
organization.
c.
Others collaborated with the Japanese because it was their
patriotic duty to protect their fellow Filipinos from the harsh policies of
the Japanese.
d. There were also those who collaborated because it was a means of
survival.

5. Traditional elite left their towns and cities fearing for their lives. Many
landlords left their
haciendas because they felt threatened by the
peasants. This resulted in a vacuum in political and social leadership. The
peasants took control of their economic life without the interference of
landlords. Weapons became available and those who had them acquired
power. After the war, especially in the provinces, the traditional elite were
replaced by guerrilla politicians who later took over the municipal and
provincial positions. (Veneracion, 1987)
6.
Because of the brutality and destruction of the Japanese occupation,
guerrilla groups emerged.
a. One was the radical group, Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon
(HUKBALAHAP), which operated in Central and Southern Luzon.
b. Other guerrilla groups such as those I Panay under Macario Peralta
and Tomas Confessor operated with American support and relied on
the promise of eventual liberation of the Philippines by the Americans.
MacArthur promised to liberate the Philippines in his famous statement
I shall return.
7. The Japanese occupation also lead to social and moralbreakdown.
a.
In Capas, Tarlac, many Filipino soldiers died in prison, not only
because of malnutrition and diseases, but because Filipino army
doctors denied them medicines. The relatives of these prisoners sent
food and medicines but these doctors sold the items to the prisoners.
(Agoncillo, 1990: 400) Due to difficult ecocomic conditions, crimes
multiplied. People stole committed holdups in order to survive.

75

b. Filipinos also became vindictive. They commited atrocities against

the Japanese and their collaborators.
8. Filipino women were made sex slaves (comfort women) by the
Japanese army.
9. According to Agoncillo, a new bourgeoisie emerged.
a.
These were people who though not exactly well-bred, had raw
courage and imagination in business and were ruthless enough to deal
with both the Japanese and the Filipinos.
b.
This led to the breakdown of old social-elite class, the old landed,
respectable and wealthy families. Many people who became poor in
the years following the war, would pose problems to the government.
10. Although the Japanese educational policy provided for the teaching of
Nippongo, the Filipinos did not learn the language. Many students dropped
out of school. The Japanese, pretending to encourage the development of
Filipino culture, removed references pertaining to America from textbooks.
11. The brutality of the occupation made many Filipinos appreciate the
Americans. When the Americans returned to the Philippines, the Filipinos
considered them as liberators and were eternally grateful.

XI.

THE LIBERATION
A.

GUERRILLA ACTIVITIES DURING THE WAR

1. After the fall of Corrigidor and Bataan, some Filipino and American
officers organized guerrilla groups.
2. These groups harassed and killed Japanese troops and sabotaged
Japanese war effors.
3. The guerrillas gathered information about Japanese movements,
strengths, weaknesses and other activities and sent these to Gen.
MacArthurs headquarters in Austrilia. The Americans would use the
information in planning for their return to the Philippines.
4.

The guerrillas also killed spies and Japanese sympathizers.

5.
Guerrilla newspapers were circulated to provide truthful news
report which the Filipinos could not get from Japanese-controlled
papers and radio broadcast.
B.

THE RETURN OF THE AMERICANS

1.
The American forces under Gen. MacArthur landed in Leyte in
October 1944.
2.
Landings were also made in Mindoro, Batangas, Lingayen and
Panay.
76

3. The Americans entered Manila in February 1945. By then, Manila

was in ruins, destroyed by blanket bombing by American forces.
Thousands were killed by retreating Japanese forces and American
bombing. Manila was the second most devastated city in the world
(Warsaw, Poland was the first). Other towns and cities in the country
were also in ruins, their destruction caused by Japanese, American and
Filipino forces.
4.
On October 23, 1944, the Commonwealth was reestablished in
Tacloban, Leyte.
5. Gen. MacArthur declared the leberation of the Philippines on July 4,
1945.
C.

NATURE OF PHILIPPINE LIBERATION

1. Constantino contends that the liberation was the reoccupation of

the Philippines by the Americans who reimposed their soveignty.
2.
American policy in the Philippines from the time of the Leyte
landings up to August 1945 was impemented by MacArthur who did
not entertain or did not like interference from other American officials.
He intended to retain full authority and responsiblility over the
Commonwealth government.
3. MacArthurs advisers developed a plan for the administration of civil
affairs during the reoccupation.
a. The Philippine Civil Affairs Unit (PCAU) was created to take care
of relief operations. PCAU officials determined where and to whom
relief would be given. They also established civil goverments in
areas under their control and selected the town and provincial
officials.
b. Under the plan, President Osme could make recommendations
on the choice of provicial officials and town mayors in a province
which was under miliary control. However, MacArthur exercised the
final decision in the selection of officials since recommendees to be
appointed should have the approval of the Counter Intelligence
Corps (CIC), which was under MacArthurs control. The plan also
provided that if the President of the Philippines should be
unavailable, any appointements which otherwise be made by
(him) should be made provisionally on his behalf by the
Commander-in-Chief. (Constantino, 1978: 162) Since the PCAU and
CIC were the first US Army, these two units also chose the town and
provincial officials. In other words, it was not the Philippine
President but the US Army which exercised appointment powers.
4. MacArthur pressured Osmea to restore the Philippine Congress,
many of whose members served under the Japanese- sponsored
government. They passed two bills immediately: one, providing them
77

with backpay for three years of occupation, and the other, naming
MacArthur as the Defender-Liberator and honorary citizen of the
Philippines.
5. MacArthur and his group adopted an anti-Huk policy for they
considered the Hukas as threat to the Commonwealth because of their
communist links.
a. In spite of the fact that the Huks had the most effective guerrilla
group, it was not recognized as legitimate. The U.S. Army entered
towns liberated by Huks and where the Huks had established local
governments, the U.S. Army dismantled these governments and
installed PCAU officials, most of whom were USAFFE guerrilla
leaders.
b. Although the Huks had joined the Americans in fighting the
Japanese, they were disarmed by American Military Police and
USAFFE units. Some of the Huk leaders were arrested.

UNIT VIII

THE MAKING OF A NEO-COLONY:

FROM INDEPENDENCE TO 1972
UNIT OBJECTIVES:
1. To identify postwar economic problems
2. To explain the nature of the collaboration issue
3. To evaluate the causes, growth, and effects of the Hukbalahap
movement
4. To discuss the features of the Filipino-American neocolonial
relations from the administration of Roxas to that of Marcos
5. To identify the causes of economic crises
6. To describe the programs/policies of Philippine presidents from
Roxas to Marcos

I.

POSTWAR ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

The destruction of the war was tremendous. (Agoncillo,

1990)
78

A. Due to loss of property and reduced means of livelihood,

poverty was widespread.
B. Industries such as rice, sugar, and livestock suffered heavy
losses.
C. There was lack of capital to finance and rehabilitate destroyed
equipment and machinery.
D. The destruction of facilities, farm implements, and
transportation limited production.

II.

COLLABORATION ISSUE
A.

U.S. POLICY ON THE COLLABORATION ISSUE WAS

REFLECTED IN THE
PRONOUNCEMENTS OF AMERICAN TOP OFFICIALS.
1. U.S. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt declared in June 1944 that those
who had collaborated with the enemy must be removed from authority
over the political and economic life of the country.
2. MacArthur, while echoing this policy, declared that the U.S. Army
would hold collaborators only for the duration of the war after which
they would be turned over to the Philippine government for
prosecution. His declaration made him the sole American authority
on the collaboration issue. It also insured that his decisions would not
be contradicted by the U.S. government. (Constantino, 1978: 170)

MANY OF THOSE WHO COLLABORATED WERE THE

BUSINESS AND POLITICAL ELITE OF THE COMMONWEALTH. ONE
OF THE MOST PROPONENT WAS SEN. MANUEL ROXAS WHO
HAD HELD VARIOUS POSITIONS IN THE JAPANESE-SPONSORED
GEVERNMENT. ROXAS WAS NOT TREATED LIKE OTHER
COLLABORATORS. HE WAS GIVEN SPECIAL TREATMENT
BECAUSE OF HIS FRIENDSHIP WITH MACARTHUR.
B.

PRESIDENT SERGIO OSMEA TOOK A MODERATE AND

INDECISIVE POSITION ON THE COLLABORATION ISSUE:
D.

1. Some of the collaborators were his friends and allies.

2. He was pressured by political necessity. By taking a moderate
stand, he would win the support of the newly-convened Congress
including his political rival, Roxas.
E. CONGRESS EVENTUALLY PASSED A LAW CREATING A
PEOPLES COURT WHICH WOULD TRY COLLABORATORS.
79

F. WHEN ROXAS BECAME PRESIDENT IN 1946, HE

PROCLAIMED AMNESTY FOR ALL POLITICAL PRISONERS.

III.

THE HUKBALAHAP MOVEMENT

A. ORIGIN
1. The HUKBALAHAP had its roots in the encomienda. At the time of the
encomienda, the Filipinos were subjected to economic exploitation,
oppression and cruelty. When the system was abolished, the friars and
Spanish officials continued the practices of the encomiendero. The
friars increased their landholdings with Filipinos serving as tenants and
agricultural workers.
2. Some Filipinos became lesses and in the 19th century, they became
the native landed aristocracy.
3. Peasant life was characterized by poverty and degradation, a life
that was dependent on landlords.
4. The peasantry remained an exploited class during the American
occupation. The landlords became Americans economic partners and
political allies.
5. Individual freedoms introduced by Americans, the development of
political consciousness, and the influence of socialistic novels
encouraged the lower class to establish aggressive movements.
6. The Philippine Labor Congress became an affiliate of the Red
International Organization of Labor Unions and thus became a
communist union in 1929.
7. A disagreement on matters of policy between the conservative and
communist leaders led to a split in the organization. Crisanto
Evangelista founded the Communist Party.
8. In 1929, Pedro Abad Santos established the Socialist Party. The
Communist and the Socialist Parties merged in 1938, empowering the
peasants and workers of Central Luzon.
9. The atrocities committed by the Japanese, the retreat of the USAFFE
to Bataan, and the collapse of the Filipino-American forces pushed the
peasants to organize an anti-Japanese movement, the HUKBALAHAP.
B.

GROWTH

1. The peasants took over the lands of the landlords who fled to
Manila. This resulted in ill feelings towards the Huks. The peasants, on
the other hand, already harbored negative sentiments towards the
landlords whom they considered their oppressors.
80

2. The Huks were the most effective and efficient fighters against the
Japanese who feared more than any other resistance groups.
3. The Huks liberated some towns in Tarlac, Pampanga, and Nueva
Ecija and placed these areas under their administration. The Philippine
Civil Affairs Unit (PCAU) of the American army later removed the
municipal officials chosen by the Huks.
4. The American authorities disarmed the Huks and ordered their
mass arrests. One of those arrested was Luis Taruc who was later
released.
5. When Roxas was elected president, he campaigned against the
Huks.
a. The Democratic Alliance, a coalition of organizations (guerrilla
groups, notably the Huks, the Pambansang Kaisahan ng mga
Magbubukid, the PKM, and four progressive groups), won six
congressional seats in the 1946 elections through the support of
peasant votes. Its stand was anti-collaborationist and anti-parity.
b. Because of this anti-parity stand, Roxas, through Congress, had
Taruc and other members of the Democratic Alliance unseated. The
Democratic Alliance congressmen were expelled on the grounds that
they committed electoral cheating and terrorism.
c. Roxas also outlawed the Huks and the Pambansang Kaisahan ng
mga Magbubukid in 1948.
6. The Quirino administration granted amnesty to the Huks and the
PKP. However, the amnesty broke down as both sides accused each
other of failure to comply with the agreement. As a result, the Huks
went back to the field.
7. Ramon Magsaysay, Quirinos Secretary of National Defense,
adopted military measures and a policy of attraction to stamp out the
Huk rebellion.
8. In 1954, Taruc surrendered to Magsaysay.
C.

EFFECTS

1. The Huk movement empowered the peasants and the workers

against degradation and poverty.
2. The movement is both a lesson and a warning to the government of
the necessity to implement a genuine land reform program. (Agoncillo,
1990: 460)

IV. NEOCOLONIAL RELATIONS FROM ROXAS TO MARCOS

A. NEOCOLONIALISM DEFINED
81

1. Neolonialism is the alliance between the leading class or classes of

two independent nations which facilitates their ability to maintain a
dominant position over the rest of the population of the weaker of the
two nations. (Shalom, 1986: XIV)
2. Neocolonialism is colonization without an occupation force.
B.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

1. The beginnings of neoloconialism could be traced to the four

decades of American rule. (Shalom, 1986: XV)
a. Americn officials gradually granted political power to the
collaborationist Filipino elite.
b. They also provided the elite access to American markets for
their export crops.
2.

The Philippine Commonwealth was a dependent entity of the U.S.

a. Philippine citizens owned allegiance to the U.S.
b. Government officials were required to take an oath of office
under American auspices.
c. All laws enacted by the Philippine Legislature had to be reported
to the U.S. Congress.
d. The Commonwealths Chief Executive was required to report to
the U.s. President and Congress.
e. Foreign affairs of the Commonwealth were under direct
supervision and control of the U.S.

3. When the Commonwealth was reestablished and the Philippines

was liberated, American officials adopted measures to restore the
political and economic structures of prewar Philippines. They were
assisted by the native elite.
a. The PCAU dismantled the HUKBALAHAP local governments and
turned over their administration to Osmea who was supported by
the elite, some of whom were collaborators.
b. American officials also gave the elite the means by which they
could control the peasants of Central Luzon. For instance, USAFFE
guerrillas conducted a reign of terror against the Huks.
4. Legislations and agreements entered into by the newly-independent
Philippines with the Americans cemented neocolonial relations between
the two countries.
a. The Tydings Rehabilitation Act provided $620 million for the
rehabilitation of the Philippines. However, it stipulated that no
payments I excess of $500 would be made until the Philippines

82

accepted the Bell Trade Relations Act. In short, the rehabilitation or

reconstruction designed by the U.S. had strings attached.
b. The Bell Trade Relations Act provided for free trade relations
between the Philippines and the U.S. for eight years after which
Philippine and U.S. goods would be taxed 5% tariff increase every
year until the full 100% was reached in 1974. The law further
provided the granting of parity rights to Americans, that is, they
would have the same rights as Filipinos in disposing, timber, and
mineral lands. The Americans could also operate public utilities
companies. This provision implied that the Philippine Constitution
had to be amended to accommodate the Americans.
c. The Military Bases Agreement (1947) allowed the U.S. free use of
23 base sites for 99 years, renewable upon expiration. American
officials would also have exclusive authority over all offences or
crimes commited by American personel within the bases or outside
while in performance of official duty. The Agreement undermined
Philippine sovereignty and territorial authority.
d. Under the Military Assistance Pact, the U.S. would furnish arms,
ammunitions, and supplies, train Philippines Military peraonnel, and
set up a Joint U.S. Military Group (JUSMAG) to advise the different
branches of the Philippine armed forces.
C.

THE NATURE OF NEOCOLONIAL RELATIONS

1. American officials assisted and supported Filipino leaders who were

friendly to American interests in their bid for positions in the government.
Shalom cites some cases:
a. Roxas had the support and sponsorship of MacArthur and other
American officials when he ran for the presidency against Osmea.
b. Magsaysay, as early as 1951, was the choice of some American officials
to become the next president. The Americans thus groomed Magsaysay
and insured his victory over Quirino in the 1953 elections.
c. The CIA agents in Manila financed the senatorial candidacy of some of
the Magsaysay boys (Manglapus and Manahan) in the 1959 elections.
Winning the election would give them national exposure as potential
presidential aspirants. The Americans were looking for another
Magsaysay.
d. In the 1953 elections, the CIA burned warehouse where Quirinos
supporters kept bogus ballots.
e. The CIA partly financed the presidential candidacy of Diosdado
Macapagal in 1961.
2. The Americans worked against Filipino nationalists whom they
considered anti-American or those who were politically unreliable ( that is,
they could not be depended upon to protect U.S. interest). The CIA thought
83

of the possibility of assassinating Claro M. Recto, Magsaysays political

rival.
3. Filipino leaders reciprocated American sponsorship by promoting and
supporting American interests in the Philippines, Asia and the world.
a. Roxas campaigned for the amendment of the Philippine Constitution to
enable the Americans to enjoy parity rights.
b. Magsaysay supported American endeavors in Asia. He endorsed the
Taiwan straits Resolutions, hosted the SEATO Conference and had Philippine
government recognized the American-created South Vietnam. (Shalom,
1986)
c. Macapagal instituted total decontrol and devalued the peso after his
election. His decontrol the program had the support of the International
Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and the U.S State Treasury
Departments.
4. Philippine foreign policy often toed the American line as gleaned from its
stand on international issues at the United Nations especially during the
Cold War period.
5. U.S policies in the Philippines were aimed at protecting, preserving and
promoting American interests. These policies were flexible enough to
adjust to changing conditions within the Philippines and the World.
a. The U.S provided economic aid as a counterinsurgency measure to stop
the spread of communism and to strength its allies.
b. In the 1949 economic crisis, the Philippine government was allowed by
the U.S. to impose foreign exchange controls and import restrictions. A
weak Philippine government on the brink of economic collapse would be
the target of the Huks.
c. The Laurel-Langley Agreement altered trade relations between the two
countries as defined in the Bell Trade Relations. It further advanced
American economic interests by extending American rights to all economic
activities. It also provided concessions in terms of tariff modifications to the
Filipino elite who supported American interests.
d. The U.S. also frowned upon the protectionist policy of the Garcia
administration Filipino First policy.
e. In 1969, Marcos devalued the peso and lifted most of the import and
exchange controls as demanded by the IMF and a consortium of U.S. banks.
These were the conditions for credits and rescheduling of Philippine foreign
debts. Marcos also sent the Philippine Civic Action Group (PHILCAG) to
Vietnam to show support for American intervention. The U.S. anxious for
support from its allies, financed the force.

84

f. In the late 1950s, there was a shift from bilateral to multilateral aid. The
IMF, the World Bank other financial institutions provided aid and loans.
Through this, they were able to influence economic policies.
g. The U.S. provided military aid in the form of arms, equipment, and
training. Military advisers of JUSMAG had considerable influence over the
Armed Forces of the Philippines. Military aid was used to maintain regimes
in power. As part of its Public Safety Program, the U.S. provided training
and assistance to local police forces.
h. U.S. policies also favored labor and agrarian reforms to discourage or
prevent unrest from these sectors. Labor unionism, specifically, economic
unionism was encouraged. Labor and land reform legislations were initiated
to address the demands of workers and peasants so that they would not
upset the politico-economic structures. (Constantino, 1978)
6. U.S. influence could also be seen in the presence of American advisers.
Roxas and Magsaysay had American speechwriters and advisers. Quirino
was pressed to accept a CIA agent as intelligence adviser without being
told of his true mission. (Karnow, 1989: 349)
7. The CIA was involved in a number of covert activities.
a. It secretly sponsored a counter-subversion, counter-guerrilla and
psychological warfare school called the Security Training Center.
b. It was involved in numerous projects of rural development for
inellience-gathering purposes.
c. It subsidized the Foreign Correspondents Club in Manila and invested
in the Manila Times.
d. In August 1951, it established the National Movement for Free Election
(NAMFREL) in preparation for the presidential bid of Magsaysay.

V.

THE ECONOMIC CRISES

A. THE 1949 ECONOMIC CRISES
1. In 1949, the Philippines faced a financial crisis: the dollar reserves
were at dangerous levels (only $260 million) and there was a balance
of payment deficit.
2. The crisis was basically caused by the Bell Trade Relations Act
which provided for free trade. As a result, American goods swamped
the country so that by 1948, imports had increased substantially. The
imports drained the Philippines dollar reserves.
3. To address the crises, the U.S. allowed a modification of free trade
and the imposition of the Philippine government of import and
exchange controls.
B.

THE CRISIS OF THE LATE 1960s AND EARLY 1970s

85

1. By the late 1960s, the Philippines was on the verge of another

economic crisis.
a. Foreign debt had been rising, from $174 million in 1960 to $490
million in 1965. By 1971, it stood at over $2 billion. The government
borrowed heavily to finance development programs.
b. To insure his reelection in 1969, Marcos engaged in massive
spending. After his reelection, he devalued the peso and lifted controls
imposed in 1967. He also approved the Philippine Foreign Investment
Act that provided incentives and protection to foreign investors.
(Shalom, 986).
c. According to a Philippine research group, devaluation caused
hardships to 81% of the population. (Shalom, 1986: 143)
2. According to Bello, the crisis was brought about by the intersection
of three developments (1982):
a. The failure of the import substitution strategy as means to sustain
industrialization;
b. The inability of the agricultural sector to meet the countrys basic
food needs; and
c. The growing pressure from foreign capital to liberalize the
economy.

VI. POLICIES AND PROGRAMS: FROM ROXAS TO MARCOS

(1972)
A. MANUEL ROXAS (1946-1948)
1. Roxas aimed at rebuilding the economy which was destroyed by
the war, the industrialization of the country, the restoration of the rule
of law and government as the arbiter of right among the people, and
saving the country from chaos, corruption and the communists.
2. He issued a proclamation declaring as illegal the existence of the
Huks.
3. He proclaimed general amnesty for guerrillas who killed in line with
the resistance movement against the Japanese.
4. He opened Mindanao for agricultural expansion.
5. Congress passed the Agricultural Tenancy Act.
6. The Philippines entered into several agreements with the U.S.: The
Military Bases Agreement, the Military Assistance Act, and the Treaty of
General Relations.
7. Roxas campaigned for the granting of parity rights to Americans, an
important provision of the Bell Trade Relations Act which
complemented the Tydings Rehabilitation Act.
8. He favored close relations with the U.S.
B. ELPIDIO QUIRINO (1948-1953)
1. Quirinos policies were directed at restoring the faith and
confidence of the people in the government and the restoration of
peace and order.
2. As a policy of attraction, he granted amnesty to all leaders and
members of the Huks and the Pambansang Kaisahan ng mga
86

Magbubukid (PKM). However, the breakdown of the amnesty led

Quirino to undertake an anti-Huk campaign
3. He established a new land reform agency, the Social Amelioration
Commission or the Presidents Action Committee on Social Amelioration.
4. He sent Filipino forces to South Korea in connection with the Korean War
(1950-53), also the first UN war.
5. The Philippines and the U.S. signed the Mutual Defense Treaty in 1951.
6. Due to 1949 economic crisis, he implemented foreign exchange controls
(with U.S.
permission).
7. His foreign policy was aimed at continuing friendly relations with the
countries of the world although his administration favored the U.S.

C. RAMON MAGSAYSAY (1953-1957)

1. Magsaysays avowed intent was to bring freedom and progress to the
barrios. He wanted
to improve the lot of the tao.
2. He initiated programs to bring about rural upliftment and development
such as land for the
landless. He worked for the acquisition of big
estates and opened public agricultural
lands for distribution and sale to
tenant-farmers. He also campaigned to develop
cooperatives and
extend liberalized credit facilities to farmers.
3. He continued the drive against dissidents.
4. Magsaysays policy followed American global policies such as containing
communist expansion.
5. In 1954, the Philippines joined the U.S.-sponsored Southeast Asia Treaty
Organization
(SEATO).
6. In 1954, the Philippines joined the U.S. entered into an agreement, the
Laurel-Langley
Agreement.
7. The Philippines participated in the Bandung Conference of non-aligned
Afro-Asian States in
1955.
D. CARLOS GARCIA (1957-1961)
1. In his inaugural address, Garcia called for austerity more work, more
thrift, more productive investment, less extravagant consumption.
2. He adopted nationalist policies, especially in the economic field. His
banner program included the Filipino First policy.
3. He also aimed at achieving a balanced economy, that is , equal impetus
to agriculture and
industry.
4. Congress enacted the Anti-Subversion Law, which outlawed communism.
5. Under the terms of the Japanese Reparation Treaty, the Japanese
government paid $550 million for the destruction caused by its forces in the
Philippines.
6. The Philippines joined the Association of Southeast Asia (ASA).
7. The Philippines exerted efforts to deal with foreign powers on terms of
sovereign equality.
E. DIOSDADO MACAPAGAL (1961-1965)
1. Macapagal called for honesty, uprightness and simple living.
2. He implemented decontrol, free enterprise and an open door policy to
foreign investors.
(Francisco and Arriola, 1987: 142)
87

3. His socio-economic policies included the restoration of economic stability,

improvement of conditions of the common people by providing employment
opportunities.
4. In 1963, the Agrarian Reform Code was enacted which abolished sharecropping tenancy
and replaced it with leasehold-system.
5. Macapagal changed Philippine Independence Day from July 4 to June 12.
6. The Philippine government filed claims to Sabah in 1962.
7. Macapagal initiated the establishment of the MAPHILINDO, an
organization composed of
peoples of Malay stock. In 1963, the chiefs of
state of the Philippines, Indonesia and the
Federation of Malaya signed
the agreement known as the Manila Accord. The existence of the
organization was short-lived. The Philippines broke off diplomatic relations
with Malaysia over the question of Sabah.
F. FERDINAND MARCOS (1965-1986)
1. Marcos aimed at attaining self-sufficiency in rice production and
diversification programs of
crops, and intensifying the community
development program.
2. One of his objectives was the implementation of the land reform program.
3. He sent a military engineering battalion, with armed support, to Vietnam.
This was a reversal
of his previous stand (When he was Senate President,
he opposed the Macapagal- sponsored bill of sending a battalion to
Vietnam).
4. Marcos adopted a mailed-fist policy (the use or threat of force) and a
socio-economic program in response to the Huk resurgence. There were
remnants of he Huks or
members of the old party, the Partido
Komunista ng pilipinas (PKP).
5. In 1966, Marcos hosted the Manila Summit to help solve the Vietnam War.
6. The Philippines reestablished diplomatic relations with Malaysia in 1966. It
also recognized
Singapore which seceded from the Federation of Malaysia in 1966.
7. The Philippines renewed its claim over Sabah.
8. The Philippine joined the Association of Southeast Nations (ASEAN) in
1967.
9. On September 21, 1972, a year before he was to step down, Marcos
declared Martial Law.

88

Unit IX

CRISIS AND NATIONAL BREAKDOWN:

1972 TO THE PRESENT
UNIT OJECTIVES:
1. To identify the bases for the declaration of Martial Law
2. To describe the features of constitutional authoritarianism and explain
the nature of resistance to it
3. To reconstruct the events leading to the bloodless revolution
4. To assess the state of Philippine society and its attendant problems

I.

MARTIAL LAW

A. BASE FOR THE DECLARATION OF MARTIAL LAW

1.
Marcos declared martial law citing the imminent danger of internal
subversion of the state by communist forces.
a. There was the threat of the growing power of the Communist Party
led by Jose Ma. Sison
and its military arm, the New Peoples Army (NPA). However, the
conclusion of the Philippine Senate report of September 1971 stated
that there existed no clear and present danger of a Communistinspired insurrection or rebellion. Marcos did not also consider the
assestment given by the generals of the Philippine National Security
Council just three days before martial law that the internal security
situation was no worse that it had been for years.(Shalom, 1986 :
171)
b.
In July and August 21 plaza miranda bombing 1972, mysterios
bombing accurred. These
were attributed to communist insurgents but were believed by some
people to have been engineered by government agents.
89

c.
The Security of Defense, Juan Ponce Enrile, was ambushed
according to the US-Marcos
controlled press. In 1986, Enrile revealed that the ambush was fake
and stage-managed by the government.
2.
The late 1960% and the early 1970s saw the rise of student power.
Discontented with the
countrys socio-economic conditions, students organized demonstrations
(parliament of
the streets) against the gorvernment. Massive
demonstrations of students and a sector of the labor class rocked the
country. They were voilently dispered y government troops using teargs,
truncheons, and live bullets, followed by arrests and detentions.
3. The number of the radical left had increased. It gained new adherents in
urban and rural
areas especially among the youth.
4. Marcos also justified martial law because of lawlessness and criminality
like kidnapping,
smuggling, extortion, blackmail, armed robbery, illegal traffic in drugs,
gunrunning, hoarding
and manipulation of prices, corruption in
government, and tax evasion. He wanted to reform Philippine society, to
create a New Society. (Agoncillo, 1990)
B. CONSTITUTIONAL AUTHORITARIANISM
1. Definition
a.
Constitutional authoritarianism respects the limits fixed by the
constitution. Its function is
to respect or restore the traditional, legal order in crisis situations or in
domestic or foreign emergencies. Such an emergency can defined as
serious disturbances or endangering of public safety and order, which
cannot be overcome in normal, constitutional means. (International
Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 1972: 165)
2. Marcos defined constitutional authoritarianism as the government will
discipline and
punish its own, along with the criminal elements. By accepting this
limitation, we serve notice that although ours is a constitutional
authoritarianism, it is not totalitarian, for it will not encroach upon the
private lives of all our citizens. In this space of freedom, the citizen may
behave as he pleases in the pursuit of his private happiness: he may order
or disrupt his life according to his discipline or lack of it. But once he
misuses hi space of freedom by forcing it into the public realm, he will
risk a revolution that may well impose him a totalitarian regime.
2. FEATURES
a. Marcos ruled by presidential decress (PD), general orders and letters
of instructions (LOI).
He abolished Congress.
b.
The civil authorities, not the military, exercised functions of
government. The military
was placed at the hands of Marcos and became politicized.
c. PD No. 6 prescribed rules and regulations regarding discipline in
government service.
d. Marcos proclaimed the entire Philippines land reform area.
90

e.
He ordered the arrest and detention of persons who committed
crimes or offenses
connected with rebellion and insurrection, against society and
government such as kidnapping, smuggling etc.
f. He closed down media, banned strikes, outlawed rumor mongering
and centralized the
Police force. (Francisco and Arriola)
g. On January 17, 1973, Marcos Proclamation No. 1102 declared the
ratification by the
Filipino people of the 1973 Constitution. The new Constitution provided
Marcos the powers of the President and Prime Minister, changed the
form of government from presidential to parliamentary, and abolished
the legislative body.

h. Martial law suppressed the opposition, curbed the power of the oligarch
(but only
those who opposed him) and eliminated elite conflicts. As a, Marcos
weakened his elite
opponents.

C. Resistance to Martial Law

The brutality and excesses of the Marcos dictatorship had become
intolerable by the end of the 1970s. Poverty, political and military abuses,
and graft and corruption drove the people too openly oppose martial law.
1. The membership and military strength of insurgent groups grew. The NPAs
reached 7000 after 10 years of martial law. The Moro National Liberation
Front (MILF), a secessionist movement which had fought government forces
since the early 70ss, had tactical alliance with the NPA.
2. Professionals, businessmen and religious groups joined hands with the left
to fight against the regime.
3. Student groups and the politicized urban poor waged mass actions against
the government. Many others joined the parliament of the streets, and
other protest actions.
4. The Church collaborated with other resistance groups and political
detainees by helping organize grassroots movement (Francisco and Arriola,
1987:178)
5. LABAN (Lakas ng Bayan), an opposition party led by Benigno Aquino,
challenged the governments party in the 1978 elections for the interim
Batasang Pambansa.
D. FOREIGN POLICY
In the light of the U.S. defeat in Vietnam, Marcos adopted a shift in
foreign policy.
1. The Philippines established diplomatic relations with socialist countries
like Germany, Hungary, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and Romania and the
Soviet Union.
2. It also recognized the Peoples Republic of China in 1975, the Democratic
Republic of Vietnam, Jordan and the Democratic Republic of Kampuchea.
3. It ratified the Treaty of Army, Commerce and Navigation with Japan.
91

4. It supported the Arab countries in their search for a just and enduring
peace in the Middle East.
5. It sought to establish closer relations with other Third World countries.
6. The Philippines also negotiated with the U.S. the bases issue. It wanted
the U.S. to pay rent for the use of bases instead of economic and military
aid.
E. LIFTING MARTIAL LAW
1. Due to pressures from the U. S. and to pacify his critics, Marcos lifted
martial law on January
17, 1981.
a. In late 1980, the Ascher Memorandum, a World Bank report on the
Philippines,
noted that martial law increasingly has become liability. Te
international financial instructions were alarmed about the future
stability of the country. Lifting martial law would bring back the
confidence of these foreign institutions. (Bello, 1982: 14)
b. The U.S. saw the possibility of the radicalization of the populace. This
was considered
dangerous to American interests in the Philippines.
c. There was a growing criticism and dissert from Church leaders and
Marcos moderate
opponents.
2. The worsening conditions of the country also propelled Marcos to lift
martial law.
a. Foreign debt had been increasing (five-fold since 1971). By 1986, it
was $26 billion.
b. The standard of living had declined.
c. The gap between the rich and the poor had widened.
d. Corruption was rampant.
e. The abuses of the military continued.
f. There was the endless fighting in Mindanao and the growing influence
of the NPA.
g. Cronyism emerged.
3. In April 1981, a plebiscite approved a proposal of Marcos for a six-year
term

4. Presidential election came in May. Marcos, not surprisingly, won against a

weak opponent.
5. Despite lifting martial law, Marcos continued to exercise near-dictatorial
powers by predated
decrees. His over 1,000 decrees remained in force. Only Marcos and
the National Assembly (which he controlled) could modify these
decrees. (Shalom, 1986: 182)

I.
FACTORS/DEVELOPMENTS LEADING TO THE BLOODLESS
REVOLUTION
A. ECONOMIC CRISIS
1. According to Briones, the following were the causes of economic crisis:
92

a. There was international pressure to borrow. Foreign banks, wallowing

in petrodollars
(revenues of oil-producing countries), lent excessively to developing
countries. The 60s and 70s saw the growth of unregulated and
uncontrolled money market which also encouraged massive lending to
these countries.
b.
Consultants, experts and academics from creditor countries and
international lending
institutions were teaching the developing countries concept of
development. The concept was equated with huge infrastructure
projects which required the hiring of consultants and advisers and
importation of construction machinery and equipment. The developing
countries had to resort to massive borrowings because the foreign
exchange requirements for development were overwhelming.
c. Several global shocks hit the country. Oil prices increased in 1973-74
and 1979-80. These
global shocks resulted in increase in foreign debt. Interest rates in the
U.S also increased. In the Philippines, a one percentage point increase
automatically resulted in 1980-82 resulted in export volume loss.
2. Results
a. During the first year of Martial Law (1972-1976), the Philippine
economy had significant
growth of the Gross National Products (GNP) annually by 6.3%.
However, in 1982, there was zero growth. By 1983, foreign debt had
increased to over $25 billion.
b. in October 1983, the pesos domestic purchasing power (at P14 to
$1) was down to 16
centavos of the 1972 peso. (Arriola and Francisco, 1987: 193)
c. Between 1984 and 1985, strikes averaged one a day.
d. In 1984, inflation was at 40% (Arillo, 1986). Even the employed
found it difficult to make
both ends meet.
e. The four-fold increase in oil prices led to reduction in the workforce.
Tight money and
credit also caused retrenchment and mass lay-off.
f. Crime rates and unemployment rose to alarming levels. There was
mass poverty.
B. ASSASSINATION OF BENIGNO NINOY AQUINO
1. The assassination of Aquino, the outspoken critic of Marcos, shocked
and angered the
Filipinos.
a.
It sparked frequent and massive protest, rallies, marches, and
demonstrations not
only in urban areas, but also in the countryside.
b. Filipinos from all social strata (the rich, the middle class, the poor,
professionals,
workers, unemployed), of different political persuasions (Social
and National Democrats, the Left, etc.), cause-oriented groups,
the laity and the religious marched together attired or ribboned
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in yellow the official color of the Aquino crusade. Filipinos lost

their confidence in the government. (Tatad: 1986: 43)
2. The marches and demonstrations caused capital flight, frightened the
IMF, World Bank,
and creditor banks.
3. The martyrdom of Aquino became the rallying point for the peoples
struggle to be free
of the dictatorship. The protest actions led to the birth of the people
power.
C. POPULAR GRIEVANCES AND DISCONTENT AGAINST THE

MARCOS REGIME
1. The economic crises which resulted in widespread joblessness
increased the ranks of
protesters in the cities. Huge rallies were held in Metro Manila and in
the provinces.
2. Marcos New Society failed in attaining its objectives
a. The regime created a new oligarchy by redistributing the nations
wealth to the
Marcos and Romualdez families and their cronies or associates.
Crony capitalism
damaged the economy.
b. Graft and corruption in high places was rampant and massive. In
1984, the
Commission on Audit (COA) reported 399 malversation cases in
government involving 246 officials.
c. Land Reform, instead of helping the poor, encouraged landlordism.
Because of his
policy of export-oriented agriculture and industrialization, Marcos
issued decrees which provided favorable conditions for corporate
access to peasant lands. Such policy created many cases of mass
evacuation, zoning, massacres, and salvaging.
3. Human rights violations were rampant. From 1972 to the 1980, cases
of arrests,
detention, torture, and extra judicial execution (salvaging) and
unexplained disappearance were numerous.
4. The notorious abuses of the military, the continuing mistreatment of
the poor by the rich,
and the worsening economic and social conditions of the country
contributed to the growth of insurgency. The CPP-NPA conducted raids
on military detachments and police stations. They also ambushed
patrols and convoys of government troops.
4 Mass property and twenty years of powerlessness made
Filipinos angry and restive.
D. SNAP ELECTIONS IN 1986
1. Marcos grudgingly called for special elections, popularly called the
snap elections. He was

94

under heavy attack from his critics and was losing his credibility and
popularity. He wanted to show he world, especially the U.S., that he
could still hold the country.
a.
The Marcos-Tolentino tandem had National Recovery and AntiCommunism as its
platform. Marcos charged Corazon Aquino as walang alam.
b. The Aquino-Laurel team raised the issues of unemployment, high
prices, and
violation of human rights. The battlecry was Sobra na, tama na.
Millions supported the LABAN sign.
c. Inspite of the vigilance of the National Movement for Free
Elections (NAMFREL) and
other groups, cheating and vote-buying prevailed.
2. On February 15, 1986, the Batasang Pambansa proclaimed Marcos as
winner of the
February 7 elections.
3. The Catholic Bishop of the Philippines issued a statement which
declared the elections as
unparalleled fraudulence in their conduct. They called for a non
violent struggle for justice.
4. Aquino called for a boycott of companies owned by Marcos cronies to
be followed by
massive civil disobedience and general strikes.
5. On February 22, 1986, Defense Minister Juan Ponce-Enrile, upon
learning of the plan that
he and members of the Reform the Armed Forces Movement (RAM)
were to be arrested by the military, decided to make a stand at Camp
Aguinaldo. He asked General Fidel Ramos, Vice-Chief of Staff, to join
him. That evening, the two men declared that they would no longer
support the Marcos government.
6. Jaime Cardinal Sin, through Radio Veritas called on the religious and lay
people to go to
Camp Aguinaldo to support the two rebels. Likewise, Agapito Butz
Aguino called cause-oriented groups to march to Camp Aguinaldo.
Thousands of civilians answered the call. Thus began the Bloodless
Revolution or the Snap Revolution (Constantino, 1986). People of all
social classes converged at EDSA. They prayed, sang, cheered, and
faced the tanks and marines.
7. Rebel forces took control of communications, of the air, the sea, and
most of all the
ground forces. By February 24, only a small percentage of the armed
forces remained
loyal to Marcos.
8. On February 25th , Marcos took his oath of office. That evening, the
Marcoses fled. They
were brought by the U.S. Air Force to Hawaii.
9. By virtue of people power, Aquino and Laurel assumed power as
President and VicePresident respectively.
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III. POLICIES AND PROGRAMS: AQUINO, RAMOS, AND ESTRADA

ADMINISTRATIONS
A. CORAZON C. AQUINO (1986-1992)
1. Aquino proclaimed a revolutionary government under a Freedom
Constitution which was
promulgated in March 1986. She directed the drafting of a new
constitution (Proclamation No. 3).
2. The Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG) was
created to recover the
ill-gotten wealth of Marcos and his cronies.
3. Aquino restored democratic institutions. However, her presidency was
threatened and
Challenged by coups and rebellions.
4. The Aquino government implemented a 60-day ceasefire with MNLF.
President Aquino
issued Administrative Order No. 30 creating the Office of the Peace
Commissioner.
5. Aquino adopted a total war policy and directed the military to
implement a comprehensive counter-insurgency program to include
rehabilitation of rebel returnees.
6. The government pushed for the creation of the Autonomous Regions in
Muslim Mindanao
and the cordilleras. It also supported the Local
Government Code and implemented pilot
decentralization projects.
7. The government proposed a Medium Term Development Program. It
aimed at alleviating
poverty, generating more productive employment,
promoting equity and social justice,
and attainment of sustainable
economic growth. It also initiated a short-term recovery
program which
envisioned the creation of jobs in rural areas.
8. Aquino issued Proclamation No. 131 which instituted the
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform
Program (CARP). Executive Order (EQ)
229 provided mechanisms for CARP
implementation. CARP was the
centerpiece of the Aquino administration.
9. The governments economic program was based on free market
economics. It also
allowed import liberalization (lifting tariffs on
imports), deregulation and privatization program. These policies opened
the Philippines to foreign, mostly American, business.
10. In 1987, Aquino approved the Omnibus Investment Code which
provided incentives to foreign investors.
11. Aquino decided to pay all existing debts and resorted to borrowings to
bridge the fiscal deficit. The March 27 Accord rescheduled the $10.3 billion
debt.
12. The Aquino administration also emphasized cooperation and
friendship with the U.S. and other countries.
B. FIDEL V. RAMOS (1992-1998)
1. The Ramos government pursued peace efforts which resulted in
agreements with the MNLF
and the Rebolusyonaryong Alyansang

96

Makabansa. It also initiated negotiations with the

CPP and the Moro
Islamic Liberation Front (MILF).
2. The government dismantled monopolies (telephone, etc.) and cartels.
3. It also deregulated banking and oil industries and liberalized aviation
services.
4. Ramos proposed the Social Reform Agenda (SRA), a framework and action
plan help the
poor help themselves. Land reform was emphasized in the SRA.
5. He proposed the Medium Term Development Plan (1993-1998) which
became the basis of all
Development activities. The plan envisioned people empowerment. As
one of its guiding
principles, the bureaucracy was streamlined.
6. The government allowed 100% foreign equity in mining under terms of
financial and
technical agreements. It also extended land-lease of foreigners from
50 to 75 years.
7. It approved the creation of the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) as an
independent monetary
authority.
8. It also approved the privatization of the government-controlled
corporations. As a result, the
Government achieves the first budget surplus in twenty years in 1994.
9. It undertook improvement and expansion of roads, telecommunications,
transport, energy,
And other infrastructure projects.
10. It initiated programs to protect and preserve the environment.
11. It adopted information technology to improve delivery of sevices.
12. It addressed issues concerning access, equity, and quality in basic
education.
13. Ramos created the Presidential Anti-Crime Commission (PACC) to go after
lawless elements.
14. Foreign policy and dealings were grounded on economic diplomacy.
The Government
emphasized stronger political and economic ties with ASEAN and other
countries.
15. The Philippines government cooperated with the international community
to address issues
Such as international terrorism, transnational crimes, especially global
trade in
Dangerous drugs and illegal traffic and criminal exploitation of women
and children.
16. Like Aquino, he decided to pay all foreign debts. However, he initiated
debt-relief
negotiations with foreign creditors. (Briliantes and Amarles-Ilago, 1994)

IV. STATE OF PHILIPPINE SOCIETY

A. POLITICAL
1. There are ongoing talks with the National Democratic Front (NDF) and
other rebel
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organizations like MILF.

2. The 1987 Constitution has provisions which are not found in the 1935
and 1973
Constitutions. These are the antinuclear provisions, peoples initiative,
sectoral representation, a single six-year term for the president and
vice-president and a maximum of three terms for other officials. In
1996, there were moves to amend the constitution to extend the term
of President Ramos.
3. The Philippines has multi-party system.
4. The Philippines has pursued a more independent foreign policy. It has
forged foreign
relations with other countries without ideological considerations (that
is, not following the U.S. line).
5. It is a member of many regional and global organizations such as the
ASEAN, APEC, and
World Trade Organization (WTO).
6. Under study in the Philippine Senate is the controversial Visiting Forces
Agreement (VFA). In
the proposed agreement, the Philippines will provide access o U.S.
Forces in connection with joint exercises or temporary emergency
deployment during regional crisis.
B. ECONOMIC
1. The Asian regional crisis has not spared the Philippines. Following the
devaluation of the Thai
baht in July 1997, other currencies of Southeast Asia followed suit.
a. Depreciating peso has adversely affected middle class budgets,
falling to 50% in the
Philippines (Time Money, July 1998)
b. Many companies have gone out of business, resulting to
unemployment. As of July
1998, underemployment rate is 23.1% and unemployment rate is
8.7%.
c. Inflation rate is 10%.
2. In the second quarter of 1998, Philippine foreign debt is estimated at
$45.6 billion.
3. From January to September 1998, the national government incurred a
cash budget deficit of
P25.7 billion.
4. In 1997, poverty incidence was estimated at 32.1% of total families.
5. The Philippine economy posted negative growth in the second quarter of
1998.
6. Overseas Filipino workers contribute greatly to the economy through
their dollar
remittances.
C. SOCIAL
1. As of 1994, literacy rate is 93.9%
2. There has been an increase in kidnapping with ransom, prostitution, drug
trafficking, and
other heinous crimes.
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3. The Philippines ranks 98th among the 174 countries in the 1998 Human
Development Report
Day by the United Nations Development Program. (The human
development index or HDI measures a countrys achievements in
terms of life expectancy, educational achievements, and adjusted real
income of its population). According to the report, the Philippines has a
medium HDI.

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