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Some of the problems leading to the development of Quantum Mechanics are listed here.
Black Body Radiation: Classical physics predicted that hot objects would instantly radiate away
all their heat into electromagnetic waves. The calculation, which was based on Maxwell's
equations and Statistical Mechanics, showed that the radiation rate went to infinity as the EM
wavelength went to zero, ``The Ultraviolet Catastrophe''. Planck solved the problem by
postulating that EM energy was emitted in quanta with .
The Photoelectric Effect: When light was used to knock electrons out of solids, the results were
completely different than expected from Maxwell's equations. The measurements were easy to
explain (for Einstein) if light is made up of particles with the energies Planck postulated.
Atoms: After Rutherford found that the positive charge in atoms was concentrated in a very tiny
nucleus, classical physics predicted that the atomic electrons orbiting the nucleus would radiate
their energy away and spiral into the nucleus. This clearly did not happen. The energy radiated
by atoms also came out in quantized amounts in contradiction to the predictions of classical
physics. The Bohr Atom postulated an angular momentum quantization rule, for , that gave the
right result for hydrogen, but turned out to be wrong since the ground state of hydrogen has
zero angular momentum. It took a full understanding of Quantum Mechanics to explain the
atomic energy spectra.
Compton Scattering: When light was scattered off electrons, it behaved just like a
particle but changes wave length in the scattering; more evidence for the particle
nature of light and Plank's postulate.
Waves and Particles: In diffraction experiments,light was shown to behave like a
wave while in experiments like the Photoelectric effect, light behaved like a
particle. More difficult diffraction experiments showed that electrons (as well as
the other particles) also behaved like a wave, yet we can only detect an integer
number of electrons (or photons).
Wave-Matter Duality
Dual Nature of Light.
De-Broglie Hypothesis.
Matter Waves.
Uncertainty Principle & Applications.
De-Broglies Hypothesis
COMPOSITION OF UNIVERSE
RADIATION
MATTER
=
DUAL NATURE
ESTABLISHED
PARTICLE NATURE
h
mv
Derivation
on the basis of analogy with photons, :
Other expressions..
In terms of kinetic energy
h = 6.67 x 10-34 Js
h = 6.67 x 10-34 Js
m = 100g = 0.1kg
m = 9.1x10-31kg
v = 30m/s
v = 3 x 107m/s
h 6.67 x10 34
=
=
= 2.22 1034 m
mv
0.1 30
h
6.67x1034
=
=
= 0.24
31
7
mv 9.1x10 x3x10
Wave Packet
Schrodinger postulated that a moving material particle is
not equivalent to a single wave train but equivalent to a
wave packet.
A wave packet consists of a group of waves slightly
differing in their wavelengths, velocities and phases. these
component waves will superimpose in such a way that the
average velocity of component waves is less than the
velocity of light.
The velocity of such wave packet is called group velocity vg
and the velocity of the individual waves forming the wavepacket is called phase velocity
Group Velocity:
( x)(p )
Matter Wave?????
A wave is associated with time and space variation of
a physical quantity.
Sound
Light
In the similar sense, it is of interest to look for the physical quantity whose
space and time variation results in a propagating matter wave. The
interpretation to the matter wave was given by Max Born in 1926.
According to him, at any position defined by coordinates (x,y,z) in the
region (where matter wave is spread) and at a given time t, the absolute
square of the amplitude is directly proportional to the probability of
finding the particle at that position at the given time. The amplitude of the
matter wave, also called wavefunction, itself can be a complex quantity
and does not carry any physical meaning.
Wave-function (
)
The quantity whose variation constitutes matter waves is Wave-function.
It is denoted by Greek symbol
Representation of Wave-Function: The wave-function itself has no physical
interpretation and can even be a complex quantity
Representation of Probability: The square of its absolute value is
proportional to the probability of finding the particle at a given position and
time. Hence
( x, y , z , t )
dV P( x, y, z , t )
Normalized Wave-Function
Mostly it is convenient to have square of absolute value of wave function at
any position and at any time, to be equal to the probability of finding the
particle at that position and time. For this purpose we proceed as follows:
( x, y, z, t )
dV = N
( x, y, z, t )
1
( x , y , z , t ) dV = 1
N
dV = 1
( x, y , z , t ) =
1
( x , y , z , t ) = Normalized Wavefuncti on
N
1
= Normalizat ion constant
N
Schrodingers Equation
In order to account for matter waves, Austrian physicist Erwin
Schrodinger in 1926 developed partial differential equations called
Schrodinger equations based on analogy with classical relation
between physical optics (waves) and geometrical optics (rays). The
waves corresponded to the matter waves while particle played the role
of rays.
Schrodinger equation is the fundamental equation of physics for
describing the quantum mechanical behaviour.
It is a partial differential equation that describes how the wave
function of a physical system evolves over time and space.
It is used to predict analytically the probability of events or outcome
The solution of Sch. Eqn yields quantized energies of the system and
gives the form of wavefunction so that other properties may be
calculated.
( x, t )
dx = 1
(1)
allspace
* ( x, t )
( x, t )
*
( x , t ) + ( x, t )
=0
t
t
all space
( 2)
(x, t) = Ae
i(kx t)
2 p
E
k=
=
;
= 2 =
h
h
The matter wave for a free particle
can be represented by the following :
(x, t) = Ae
i
(px Et)
h
(3)
total energy
=
kinetic
+
potential
,
i.e.
p2
E=
+ V ( x, t )
(4)
2m
From equation (3), we can write:
=
E E = ih
h
t
t
2
2
1 2
2
2
= 2 p
p = h
2
h
x
x 2
(5)
(6)
h (x, t)
(x, t)
ih
=
+V (x, t) (x, t)
2
t
2m x
2
2m
r
(r , t )
= ih
t
r
h2 2
+ V (r , t ) Hamiltonian Operator
2m
r
r
h2 2 r
(r ) + [E V (r )] (r ) = 0
2m
Hamiltonian of the system is given as :
r
h2 2
H =
+ V (r )
2m
which can be rewritten as :
r
r
H (r ) = E (r )
( x, t )
h 2 2 ( x, t )
ih
=
+ V ( x, t ) ( x, t )
2
t
2m
x
( x, t ) = Ae h
( px Et )
= Ae
where ( x) = Ae
2 =e
x
also,
2
iEt
h
iE
=
e
t
h
ipx
h
(2)
2
x
2
iEt
h
(3)
iEt
h
(1)
ipx
h
=e
iEt
h
h 2 2
+ [E V ( x ) ] = 0
2
2 m x
in 3 D
h2
2 + [E V ( x ) ] = 0
2m
h2 2
+ V ( x) = E
2m
h2 2
for free particle, V ( x) = 0
= E
2m
Expectation value:
most probable value
of physical quantity
quantity
Operators
What is an Operator ?
Operator is defined as a mathematical instruction which when
acting on a function transforms it.
Operand
Result
A =
Operator
Basics of Operators
I = Identity operator
O = 0 Null operator
A =
1
B=A
B =
A = Eigen equation
acting
on
the
wavefunction
yields
the
( x , t ) = Ae
ih
= E
t
i
( px Et )
h
E ih
t
ih
= p
x
p ih
x
h2 2
p2
H=
+ V H
+ V
2
2m
2m x
Lx ih y z
y
z
Ly ih z x
z
x
Lz = xp y yp x Lz ih x y
x
y
V (x) =
V (x) = 0
X=0
X=L
(1)
( 2)
( x) = A sin kx + B cos kx
(3)
( x = 0) = 0
( x = L) = 0
(4)
( x = 0) = B = 0
( x) = ASinkx
(5)
Quantization of Energy
The allowed energy values for the particle
obtained from eq. (1) are:
n 2 h 2 n 2 2 h 2
2
En =
=
=
n
E1 (6)
2
2
8mL
2mL
n
0 (x ) dx = A 0 sin L xdx = 1
L
A=
2
L
( x) =
2
nx
sin
L
L
(7 )
Discrete States
E3
E2
E1
3 ( x) =
2 3x
sin
L L
2 ( x) =
2
2x
sin
L
L
1 ( x) =
2
x
sin
L
L
Conclusions
Particle trapped in a rigid box represents a practical situation of tightly
bound electrons in atom or highly bound nucleons in nucleus.
Such a bound particle can possess only certain quantized energies.
The state of particle is defined by quantized energy & allowed wave
function.
Probability distribution of this bound particle varies in different states.
Zero energy is prohibited for a bound particle as it violates the Heisenbergs
uncertainty principle.
If the potential at the surface of the well is taken to be zero then all the
states will be of negative energy which is the characteristic of a bound
system.
The particle, with energy lesser than height of well, has finite although
small probability of being found outside too. This is due to leakage of the
particle through the wall. This phenomenon is called the Tunneling effect.