Professional Documents
Culture Documents
)
Optimum temperature: 10, expected range: 8-15C
Modified atmosphere considerations:
Reduced 02
Increased CO 2
7-12'fr)
Beneficial level:
Retardation of senescence.
lower respiration rate
Slight
Moderate
Injurious level:
<1%
>20%
High
Benefits:
Injury symptoms:
Potential for injury:
Commercial use or potential:
Remarks:
Maintenance of high relative humidity is essential to minimising water loss and darkening of the
skin.
Selected References
lium lappaceulII L.). Philippines Agriculturist, 55,
322-332.
Mohamed. S. am! Othman. E. 1988. Effect of packaging and modified atmosphcrc on the shelf life of
rambutan (Nephe/ium lappaceum). PeJ1anika, I I.
217-228.
O'Hare, T.J. and Prasad, A, 1992, Unpuhlished data.
Postharvest Horticulture Group, DP!, Brisbane,
Queensland, Australia,
Lam, P.E .. , Kosiyachinda. S .. Lizada. M.C.C., Mendoza, D.B., Prabawati. S. and Lee. S.K. 1987.
Postharvest physiology and storage of rambutan.
In: Lam, P.E. and Kosiyachinda, S., cd .. Rambutan:
fruit development, postharvest physiology and
marketing in ASEAN. ASEAN Food Handling
Bureau, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Mendoza, D.B., Jr., Pantastico, Er.B. and Javier, F.B.
1972. Storage and handling of rambutan (Nephe-
249
250
Principles of MAP
MAP is a dynamic systelIl during which respiration and
permeation occur simultaneously. Factors affecting both
respiration and permeation must be considered when
251
252
254
Perforation Effects
Perforated films enable MAP that allows the build up of
H20-saturation with only a slight change in 02' CO 2,
and C 2H 4 (Geeson 1989; Ben-Yehoshua 1991). These
facts may be explained by considering the number of
relevant molecules in gas exchange of bell-pepper fruit.
One kg of pepper evolves 79 x 1020 molecules of H 20
and 3.0 x 10 20 molecules of CO 2 and consumes 3.0 x
10 20 molccules of 02 per hour at 17C and 85% RH.
Thus, for each molecule of CO 2 or 02' 26 molecules of
H20 arc available for exchange. Furthermore, the access
of each one of these molecules to the pores is similar and
the molecular weight of these gases. which detemlines
their relative rate of movement. is also quite similar.
Consequently, although most of the molecules moving
out arc those of water, the large number of water molecules available for movement still allows the build up of
the ambient RH to be nearly saturated. However. these
pores are able to allow the relative small number of 02
and CO 2 available for movement to be exchanged so
that the pores prevent markcd changcs in thc conccntrations of 02' and CO 2 ,
Perforation retains many of the good results of sealing
in reduction of water loss and alleviation of water stress,
without the possible deleterious effects of anaerobiosis
such as off-Ilavours. fermentation. or CO 2 damage.
Furthermore, perforation of polyolefin film enabled
255
Packaging Modelling
In order to reduce the time needed to develop a package,
the use of packaging parameter prediction. i.e. a mathematical model, is highly desirable. Such a model may
replace the method of 'Pack and Pray' with planned and
programmed research attempting to match the best film
to the commodity. Mathematical models based on the
characteristics of films needed to generate or maintain
optimum internal concentrations of metabolic gases
would help greatly to maximise storage life of perishable produce. Such information would be valuable to
manufacturers and users of films by helping them to
assess and establish priorities in the selection, development, and synthesis of packaging materials. Several
models have been discussed in the recent literature
(Cameron et a1. 1989; Emond et a1. 1991; Mannapperuma et a1. 1989; Lee et al. 1991). All are based on earlier
work by other researchers.
The first step in modelling the packaging system is to
find mathematical equations that adequately describe
the processes of respiration and permeation. The package permeability to the gases is treated in most models
as a physical process which obeys Fick's Law, i.e. the
rate of material exchange between the internal and
external atmospheres is proportional to the concentration difference in these two compartments.
Mannapperuma et al. (1989) developed a model for
MAP in equilibrium conditions and showed that in this
case there is a linear relation between oxygen and CO 2
concentrations, subject to a constant respiratory quotient.
Lee et al. (1991) were the first MAP modellers to treat
respiration as a biochemical phenomenom in terms of
enzyme kinetics. They assumed that CO 2 plays the role
of inhibitor of the enzymatic reaction, and used the
equation for uncompetitive inhibition mechanism. In
this case, the rate of reaction (r) is equal to
Surface Coatings
Types of coatings
The practical application of coatings to fruits and vegetables after harvest has a long history. In China, as early
as the 12th or 13th century, oranges, mandarins, and persimmons were dipped in molten waxes (see Zhuang
1986). Nevertheless, coatings did not attain commercial
256
257
References
Aharoni, N.. [)vir, 0 .. Aharon. Z .. Gur. G .. Noi, M. and Lev.
M. 1990. Modified atmosphere in film package to improve
storahility of asparagus. Research Progress Report of lnsti-
258
of cucumber and bell pepper fruits. Journal uf Food Processing and Preservation, 15, ~5<)3('X.
EI Ghaouth, A" Arul. L Grl'nieL J. and ,\ssel in, A. 1<)<)2.
Antil'tlllgal activity of ehitosan on two postharvest pathogl'l1s of strawlX'rry fruits. Phytopathology, Xl, 39X-,102.
U-(ioorani, M.A. and SommCf. N.F. I ')X I. Effects of modilied atmospheres on postharvcst pathogens of fruits and
vegetables. Horticultural Review, 3, 412-46X.
Emond, J.R" Castaigne, S .. Goudin, C.J. and Dcssilkgs, D.
1991. Mathematical modeling of gas cxchange in illodified
atmospherc packaging. Journal of American Society I()J"
Agricultural Engineering. 34,23<)-245.
Farooqi, W.A .. Ahmad, M.S. and Zain ul Abdin 19XX. Effect
of wax-coatings on the physiological and biochemical
aspects of 'kinnow' fruits. Pakistan Journal of Scientific and
Industrial Research, 31. 142-145.
Cieeson, J.D. 19X<). Modified atmusphne packaging of fruits
and vegetables. Acta Horticultural', 25X, 143 ISO.
Geeson, J.D. and Smith, S. ,,1. 19X9. Rl'tardation of apple
ri[X'ning during distrihution hy thl' use of I1lodified atmospheres. Acta Horticultural', 2SX, 245 253.
(ieeson, J.D .. Everson, H.P. and Browne, K. M. 19XX. Microp,:rforated films for fresh producl'. Grower, 10<), 3134.
(iel'son, .1.0 .. George, I'.M" Smith, S.\'1. and Sharples, R.O.
1991. TIle response of unripc Conkrence pe,lrs to Illodified
atmosphere retai I packaging. Intl'mational Journal of Food
Science and Technology. 26,215 223.
(il'nigeorgis, C. I<)X5. Microhial and sarcty implications of the
use of moditled atlllosphL'res to extend the storage life of
fresh tlsh and meat. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 1,237 251,
GCHTis, L. (i.M. and Peppcil'n\)os, fI.W. 1<)<)2. Modified
atmosphere and vacuulll packaging to extend the shelf life
of respiring food products. IlortTechnology, 2, 303 309,
Grierson. W. and Wardowski, W, F. I <)7X. Relative humidity
erfects on the postharvl'st life of fruits and vegetables,
Hortscience, 15,570 574.
Hintlian, C.R. and Hotchkiss, J.H. I <)X(l. TIw sakty of modilied atmosphere packaging: a review. Food Technology, 40,
70-76.
ilirano, S. and Nagao, N. 1981.). Efkcts of chit os an, plTtic acid,
lysozyme allLi chitinase on the growth of scveral phytopathogens. Agricultural Biological Chemistry, 53, 30653066.
Kader, A.A., Zagory, D. and Kl'Ibel. E.D. 191'(9. Modified
n,
250
some aminosugars on growth of various soilborne phytopathogenic fungi. Phytopathology Z .. I II. 82-90.
Temkin-Gorodeiski. N .. Shapiro. B .. Apc1baum. A .. Grinocrg.
S. and Rosenberger. L 1990. Erfect of postharvest treatments on storability of eggplants. Research Progress Report
of Institute for Technology and Storage of Agricultural
Products. ARO. IsraeL No. 248. II I.
Walker-Simmons. M., Hadwiger, L. and Ryan. CA. 1983.
Chitosan and pectic polysaccharides both induce the accu-
260
Quality Parameters
Visual appearance
Fruit size is a major determinant of plant yield, but is
llf'tcn not quantified despite its importance as a quality
parameter. Many production factors will affect size,
usually through assimilate production and competition,
and there is a strong relationship between fruit number
and size. Fruit si/l' is also important in firmness and
physiological disurders. These arc c,lllsidered later in
the paper.
Fruit shape can be an important quality component
when this deviates from consumer preferences. Tern~
perature, particularly during early fruit development,
can cause variations in fruit shape in 'Shamouti' oran,~'"
(Monselisc and Goren 191'17). TemperatuIe, high pota'.
sium (K). soil type, rootstock. and ).'ihnerellin (G.'
application can also cause unclcsrrabk thick peel and
puffiness in citrus (Pantastico 1975; Monselisc and
Goren 19R7), Cytokinin and GA application during
early fruit development can alter apple fruit shape (Williams and Stahly 1969)' and Cultar spray appl ication
to avocado may have similar cl'fccts. '\ utritional and
261
Flavour
Flavour is intluenced by assimilate supply and competition, so that factors such as tree health and lcaf:fruit
262
Physiological disorders
Physiological disorders encompass a range of symptoms. but are often a result of cell membrane and wall
dysfunctilln. l'ausing tissue "ollapse and symptoms such
as hitter pit. senescent hrea~down. water core. blossom
end rot. and varillLls tissue browning disorders (Shcar
1(75). They arc m(lre olkn expressed alkr low telilperature. prolonged storage (i.e, chilling injury) bccause llf
Disease
A number of production practices can directly intluence the capacity of fruit to retard pathogen establishment or growth. Preharvest Ca sprays and postharvest
infiltration have been shClwn to decrease postharvest
264
Conclusions
In most cascs. illLTeased qualitv comes at a price, for
example throu.dl c',lTllpromises between yield and size.
size and firmness. and size and storage potential. There
may also be several ways llf achieving similar improvements in quality. and a number of production practices
may bc syner,l!istic. Ellects on dirl'ct costs of production
arc also likely. Therefore, production systems that
impinge on quality should be considered in light of
2()5
References
Abou-A/i/, A.B .. Desauki. I. and EI-Tanahy. M.M. 1975.
[Effect of nitrogen nutrition and storage temperature on
avocado fruit hehaviour during 'torage.] Garknhauwissenschart. 40. 22\-227.
Autio. W.R .. Bramlage. W.J. and Weis. S. ! 9~6. Predicting
postharvest disorders of 'Cox's Orange Pippin' and 'Bramley's Seedling' apples hy regression equations. Journal of
the American Society for Horticultural Science. II I. 738742.
Baldr). J., Dougan. J. and Howard. G.E. 1982. The effecl of
nutritional lreatments on post-harvest quality and tlavour of
Valencia oranges. Journal of Horticultural Science. 57.
239-242.
Beverly, R.B .. Latimer, J.G. and Smittle, D.A. 199.1. Preharvest
physiological and cultural efkcls (In postharvest quality. In:
Shcwfelt. R.L. and Prussia. S.E. cd .. Postharvest handling:
A systems approach. San Diego. Academic Press. 74--9K.
266
Joshi. G.D. and Limaye. V.I'. 19)\h. Efkets of tree location and
fmit weight on spongy tiSSll': OL'Currcnce in Alphonso
mango. Journal of the Maharashtra Agriculture University.
I 1. 104.
Katrodia. J.S. 19X5. Spongy tissuc in mango
causcs and
control measures. Acta Horticultural'. 2.11. 11 14 X26.
\\;1\
in relation to fruit
Lilada. \1.C. 1991. l'ostharVc'st rhysiology of the l11ango [(.'vicw. Acta }lprticultural'. 291.437--453.
207
99,540-542.
Vorstcr, L.L. and Bezuilknhout. J..1. 1988. Docs zinc playa roil'
in reducing pulp spoe South African Avocado (,roWLTS
Association Yearhook, I 1,60.
Vorstef. L.L., Tocril'n, J.C. and Bez.uidenhout. .J..I. 19P.7. A
storage tCI11[K'raturc regime for South African export avocados. South African A vocad" Growns Association Yearbook, 10, 146- 149.
Wainwright, H. ami Burhage, ,'y.1.B. 19P''!. Physiological disor
ders in mango (,'v/llngijcra indim I .. ) fruit. Journal of Horti
cultural Science, 64, 125 135.
Williams, M.W. and Stahly. 1969. Effects of cytokinins and
gibherellins on shape of 'Delicious' apple fruits . .Iou!11al of
the American Society for Ilorticultural Science, 94,17 19.
Wills, R.B.H. and Tirmazi, S.I.H. 1979. Effect of calcium and
other ll1incrais on ripening of tOl1latt)t's. /\ustraiiall Journa!
of Plant Physiology, 6, 221 227.
Wills, R.B,H .. Yucn, M.C.C .. Sahari, Laksmi. L.ll.S. anL!
Suyanti, 1988. Effect of calclllln infiliration on dclaYlJ
ripening: of thrcc mango l'ultivars in li1(hml'SI<t. i\SEA;\i
Food Journal. 4, 67 68.
Winsor, G.W. 1979. Some factors affl'ctillg tlrl' LJl1alil\ and
composition oftomatocs. Acta ilortieultural', 'I.', 3.\5 ."l(,.
Witllcy, G.W., Hofman, 1'..1. and Wolstcnholml'. B.~. ! l)l)()a.
Effect of cultivar. trcc vigour and fruit po"itioll 011 calciulll
acculllulation in avocado fruiL SCil'lllia Horticultural'. j4.
2(19278.
- I 99()b. Mineral distributiun ill avocado trl'l'S with rclLTl'Ill'l'
to calciulIl cycling and fruit quality. Scil'ntla lIorticultural'.
44,279 29 I.
Yugaratllam, N. and Johnson, D.S. 1')X2. Thl' application on
fuliar spra):s containing nitrogen. magnesium, line aull
boron to apple trees. 11.Elkcts on thc III !1ll'ra I cornpositi()n
and ljuality of the fruit. Journal of Horticultural Science, 57,
IWIM.
Young, T.W. 1957. 'Softnosc', a physiological disordl'f 111
mango fruits. Proceedings 01 the Florida Sti!te /-lorticultllral
Society, 7(), 280-2R.l.
Young, T.W. ,md Miner. .1.T. 1961. Rl'iationsliip of nltr1l!,cn
and calCium to SoHNosc disordn ill 1ll,11l~" Irulh. I'w
ceedings of the American Society I'm ilortll'ultural :'lleIK,'.
78, 20 i-2()8.
Young, T.W .. Koo, R.C..I. and Miner, .I.T. 1%2. Ull''''' u:
nitrogl'll. potassium and cakiufll fl,rtili/alion Oil K~'[l( lll:tI1
got''., on dc-cr, acid, sand) St)il. Pr()cccdinf'~ 01 thi..' FI(lrld~t
SUIL' ilorticultural Society. 7), .1(,4-371.
A great deal of commonality was evident in the research described in the presentations in
this session. These included a pragmatic approach to the subject in that the research was
largely problem solving and orientated to market needs. This seems to reflect an attitude
common and developing in many areas that economic considerations should be
paramount. The papers illustrated several common approaches which included the
disparate nature of postharvest as a scientific discipline embracing Illetabolism and
biochemistry, through consideration of disease development and control, to the technology
and engineering which must be developed to bring these factors into the industry.
Presentations were authoritative and comprehensively covered subjects, usually starting
with historical perspectives and evaluating the present state of knowledge on which to
determine priorities for research.
Important areas of research needs which were identified included water, minerals, and
gases. Areas relevant to water included the effects of losses on storage and ripening, and
the technology needed to consistently maintain suitablc humidity around the crop. In terms
of minerals and other chcmicals in fruit, the emphasis was on thc need for research into the
harvest quality of crops and how this can interact with postharvest lifc. Establishing
principles in this area would havc implications in plant breeding. Modification of the
chemical content of fruits postharvest also offers a potentially fertile area of research.
Much more information is needed on the effects of gases, particularly thc respiratory
gases, on tropical fruit. Insufficient information is availablc for commercial exploitations
of controlled atmosphere storage for many tropical fruit. Work is needed, among other
things, on cultivar and environmental conditions and how these interact with controlled
and modified atmosphere storage. Systems for the control of the environment around the
fruit need further research, particularly the exploitation of polymer films, so that they can
have greater use within the postharvest fruit industry. To make their lise more predictable,
research is needed into the interaction between these materials and other factors. as well as
on developing new materials and systems of modified atmosphere packaging.
269
Abstract
TIlis paper reviews residue-free methods of disinfestation of tropical fruits against pests of quarantine significance. The most important of these pests in fruits to be exported are fnJit flies. and the basic methods which are
non-chemical and hence meet a residue-free criterion are physical treatments with heat. cold. and irradiation.
Worldwide. there arc more than -'0 species of fruit flies of the family Tephritidae which arc of maJor importance
as quarantin" pests. TIlere are how"vn a number of pests other than fruit 11 ies which arc also of major quarantine
importance. Treatments must have very high levels of efficacy to be fully effective. typically in the range of
99.99% to 99.9968S{ (probit S.7-9). At these levels they must not cause unacl'Cprahlc damag" to fruit. Fruits
differ in their tolerance oj treatments and there is thus scope to choose and manipulate tn:atm"nts for the best
outcomes in economic renllS and product quality. Comhinations of methods arc I'<)ssihle or even a holistic. systems approach in which the contribution of all influences Oil Ix'st survival in the growing and handling system arc
taken into account.
272
Heat
Efficacy Requirements
Countries such as USA and Japan typically require a
disinfestation treatment for fruit flies which causes
mortality almost immediately, or at least before pupation and meets prescribed standards of efficacy. This has
advantages where the commodity must pass a posttreatment inspection, the production history of the commodity is not known, and the likelihood of infestation
cannot be estimated. These treatments may need to
achieve an efficacy of probit 9 or 99.9968(1<.' mortality
(Baker 1939). Probit 9 dosage can be predicted using lh~
regression analysis methods of Finney (1971), provided
that the true response line is linear. For fruit fly experiments where the number of insects treated cannot be
ascertained with certainty - that is, only survivors can
be counted - a variation of prohit ~ll1alyses such as the
'Wadley's Problem Vcrsion' must be used (Wadley
1949). Having predicted probit 9. it is then usual to confirm that it is achievable by treating. withoLll survivors,
30000 or 100000 insects of the most tolerant stage
occurring in or on commercial fruit. One hundred th()u~
sand insects treated, without survivors, deillonstrates
probit 9 mortality at the 95% confidence level (CoLicy
and Chew 19S6).
Another approach to quarantine security is that
adopted by New Zealand, which sets a maximum pest
limit (MPL) the imported commodity must meet (Baker
et al. 19(0). This strategy is a development of the conceptual proposals of Landolt et al. (19S4) who showed
that, for fruit Ilies. acceptable quarantine risk levels
could be based 011 the probahility of a mating pair surviving a shipment.
273
Table l. Quarantine di,inkstation schedule's wilh heat against eggs or larvae of fruit tlies in vanom fruits
Pest species
Fruit
Method
Temperatures
Time
Reference
Mango
Mango
Hot watn
Hot water
4{)DC
46"('
1.5 hours
1.5 hours
A. /udellS (Lacw)
Mango
Hot water
4{,0('
1.5 hours
Mango
Mango
HOI air
Hot water
48(,
40C
1.5-3.5 hours
1.5 hours
A. scrpcnlina (Wiedemann)
f\ 1anllo
Hot water
46C
1.5 hours
41.5-40.5C
4(rA7C
1-2 hours
1.5 hours
Hallman ( 1990)
Sharp ct al. (1989h)
r'v1ango
Papaya
Papaya
Vapour heat
Hot air
Hot water
43YC
4(}-47C
42 and 49C
Mango
Hot water
4()o("
14 hOllrs
5 hours
.10 min +
20 min
1.5 hours
Papaya
Papaya
Hot air
Hot water
45-46C
42 and 49C
(Melon fly)
D. dorsa/is Hendel
(Oriental flllit fly)
5 hours
30 min +
20 min
30 min
30 min
Not known
3 hours
20 hours
5 hours
2 hours +
10 Illin
2 hOllrs +
I () mill
2 hours +
10 min
30 min +
20 min
Not known
45C
45.5C
Not known
43.5(,
Papaya
Papaya
\tlango
Vapour heat
Hot air
Vapour heat
44.5('
45-46C
46C
fvlango
Vapour heat
40.5C
\'lango
Hot air
40.5C
Papaya
Hot water
42 and 49C
Capsicum
Vapour heat
Not known
Mango
Vapour heat
46YC
2 hours +
10min
Zucchini
Vapour heat
45C
2 hours +
30 min
(CuclImber Ily)
274
authors reported that fruit were undamaged at a temperature of 46C for dipping times typically of 90 minutes.
The treatments were acceptable to USDA regulatory
authorities, and were also used as a precautionary treatment on some mangoes exported from Mexico to Japan.
However, Sharp (1985) reported that the trcatment was
not suitable for grapefruit because of fruit damage and
Hallman and Sharp (1990) reached a similar conclusion
for carambolas.
Where hot water dips were used for mangoes of the
variety Kensington in Australia, damage occurred (K.
Jacobi. pers, comm.). This damage involved starch
deposits as granules or lumps in the flesh and was very
similar to that recorded by Esquerra and Lizada (1990)
in Philippine mangoes damaged by vapour-heat treatment. Thercl'ore, hot-water dips require more research in
Australia although ESC. Smith and D. Chin, Berrimah,
Northern Territory. Australia (pers. comm,) showed that
at 47C for 70 minutes a hot-water dip conferred adequate quarantine security against B. aquilonis (May), a
species very closely related to B. (ryoni. Damage was
avoided by holding fruit at ambient temperature for 24
hours after harvest before dipping.
Cold
Few tropical fruits will tolerate the low temperatures
required for quarantine disinfestation against fruit Ilies.
However. tropical species of fruit nics can infest' temperate' fruits. which arc not infrequently grown in
'tropical' areas. Typical practical temperatures for disinfestation arc below 2C at which 16-22 days exposure
may be required by regulatory authorities, depending on
the tly species. This docs not necessarily retlect the true
response of the l1y species. USDA schedules (Anon.
1985) require 16 days treatment at a maximum of 2.2C
against C. CIljJilutll and 22 days against B. tryoni. Recent
research (N. Heather, F. de Lima, and L. Whitfort.
unpublished data) has shown no significant difference in
response between the two species at I. 1C and it is
unlikely that there is any true difference in response at
any cold disinfestation temperature.
Benschoter (1984) developed a treatment schedule
against Anastrepha suspensa (Loew) in grapefruit that
involved a preconditioning time at 10 or 15.5C for 7
days followed by 12 or more days at 1.7e. When fruit
was preconditioned at I (l0c. adult survivors occurred
after 19 days treatmcnt at 1.7C. indicating the possibility of a cold acclimation erfect. About the same numbers
of pupal survivors resulted from preconditioning at both
10 and 15C. but no adults ecloded after the 15C treatment.
Burditt and Balock (I9~5) reported much less tolerance of cold by D. dorsalis and D. cucurbilae. Their data
preclictecl a 10-day treatment time at 2.SoC to achieve
probit 9 mortality. Burikam et al. (1992) confirmed that
275