Course: CE 401 (Water Resources Engineering)

Hydrology

Hydrology as a Science

Hydrology is the science that treats the waters of the earth, their
occurrence, circulation and distribution, their chemical and physical
properties, and their reaction with their environment, including their
relation to living things
The domain of hydrology embraces the full life history of water on the
earth

Hydrologic Cycle

Hydrology as a Profession
A profession is a calling requiring specialized knowledge, which has as
its prime purpose the rendering of a public service

What hydrologists do:

Water availability and use water withdrawal and instream uses
Water Control flood and drought mitigation
Pollution Control point and nonpoint sources

Schematic Representation of Rainfall-Runoff

Process on Land Surface

Hydrologic Cycle

Important Processes

Global Hydrological Cycle

Precipitation
Runoff
Infiltration
Evaporation
Evapotranspiration

Sub-surface flow
Ground water flow
Abstractions
Stream flow

Earth system hydrological cycle

Global water balance

Units are in volume per year relative to precipitation on
land (119,000 km3/yr) which is 100 units
Precipitation
800 mm (31 in)

Atmospheric moisture flow

316 mm (12 in)

Precipitation
Evaporation
1270 mm (50 in) 1400 mm (55 in)

Evaporation
480 mm (19 in)
Outflow
320 mm (12 in)

Land (148.7 km2)

(29% of earth area)

(Values relative to land

area)

Ocean (361.3 km2)

(71% of earth area)

Residence Time

Problems with Hydrological Cycle

1. Short Circuit of some process

Residence time:

Some process will pass through another one without

going through all the process

Average travel time for water to pass through a subsystem of the hydrologic
cycle
Tr = S/Q
where S is Storage; Q is flow rate

Rain on sea and ocean ????

2. Time of occurrence of each process

Example: Residence time of global atmospheric moisture

This is controlled by climatic conditions

If the processes are not persistent then very difficult to
estimate or predict the hydrological variables

Volume (storage) of atmospheric water: 12,900 km3

Flow rate of moisture from the atmosphere as precipitation = 577,000 km3/yr
Tr = 12,900/577,000 = 0.022 yr = 8.2 days

Note: The very short residence time for moisture in the atmosphere is one
reason why weather cannot be forecasted accurately more than a few days
ahead!

Hydrological Systems
Prior to 1970, each process is considered as independent
process
Later on, the systems approach used to deal it in a integrated
manner
Hydrological model studies have been carried out
to know more details about each process and their
interactions

3. Intensity and frequency of each process

All are time dependent

Some process occurs frequently causes for flood and
drought
Some process occurs in a cyclic pattern (trend)

MODELS
Model: Characteristic representation of the prototype
Scale up or scale down models
Purpose is to understand the behavior of individual components and
their interactions with other components in a system, and to select the
components and/or to find the relationship

Types of Models:

Iconic models
Analog models
Physical models
Mathematical models

A systematic evaluation of water budget of any area of the

country leads to the conclusion that water can be used more
efficiently

Mathematical Models in Hydrology

Physical Models

Based On

Prototype

- Model

Model type

1. Physical Process

Conceptual Models

2. Values

Deterministic

3. Based on Process

4. Geometry (or)
Space

Hydrologic Budget

Empirical Models

Probabilistic

Stationary

Lumped

Stochastic

Fuzzy

Non-stationary

Distributed (geometric distribution

probabilistic distribution)

5. Relationship of
Variable

Linear Model

6. Time (Day, Hr.,

Month, Year)

Time Based

Event Based

7. Based on Variable
Used

Single variate

Multivariate

8. Based on generation

Single Site

Multisite

Non-linear Model

Example: The storage in a river reach at a specified time is 3 ha-m. At the

same instant, the inflow to the reach is 15 m3/s and outflow is 20 m3/s. One
hour later, the inflow is 20 m3/s and outflow is 20.5 m3/s. Determine the
change in storage?

Hydrologic Budget / Water balance

Mathematical statement of hydrologic cycle
Inflow outflow = change in storage

Initial storage S1 = 3 ha m = 30000 m3

Initial inflow I1
= 15 m3/s
Initial outflow O1 = 20 m3/s.
Time period = 1 hr = 3600 sec
Final inflow I2
= 20 m3/s
Final outflow O2 = 20.5 m3/s.
Change in storage?

Average inflow over a period of time

Change in storage over a period of time
System
Average outflow over a period of time

(1)
Change in storage = - 9900 m3
Final storage = 20,100 m3

(2)

Hydrologic Water budget

In hydrologic cycle : the moisture is constantly circulating between the land,

the ocean, and the atmosphere
Water budget on land: Accounting of inflow, outflow and storage
Water budget equation gives
-balance of gains & losses of water in the region
and water stored
Surface water only

P R E T (Gi Go) I = S

In general

Water Budget & Precipitation

P R E T G I = S
Where, P= precipitation,
R= runoff,
E= evaporation,
T= transpiration,
I = Infiltration
G= groundwater flux,
S= change in storage

P
R

Gi

Go
I

Hydrologic Cycle

Distribution of Earths Water

In hydrologic cycle, the

moisture is constantly
circulating between the land,
the ocean, & the atmosphere

Components of Hydrological Cycle

1. Water storage in oceans

9. Evaporation

2. Sublimation

10. Evapotranspiration

3. Water in the atmosphere

11. Condensation

4. Precipitation

12. Water storage in ice & snow

5. Snowmelt runoff to streams

6. Streamflow
7. Infiltration
8. Ground-water discharge

13. Surface runoff

14. Freshwater storage
15. Ground-water storage
16. Springs

1386 Billion m3

35 Billion m3
24.4 billion m3 is contained in frozen ice caps
and only the remaining 10.6 billion m3 is
fresh/liquid.

Watershed

Space and time scales in hydrology

Space

The area of land draining into a stream or a water course

at a given location is known as catchment area or
drainage basin or watershed.

Largest scale Globe

Smallest scale drainage basin

In between, continental, regional etc.

A catchment area is separated from its neighbouring areas

by a ridge or divide.

Time
Range from fraction of an hour to year
Depends upon the purpose of the study and problem involved.
Hourly, daily, weekly, ten-daily, fortnightly, monthly, seasonal and
annual scales are very common.

Source: http://seawa.ca/state-of-the-watershed/what-is-a-watershed/

Hydrologic budget

Meteorology

Water budget on land: Accounting of inflow, outflow and storage

Water budget equation gives
-balance of gains & losses of water in the region
and water stored
Surface water only

P R E T (Gi Go) I = S
In general

P R E T G I = S
Where, P= precipitation,
R= runoff,
E= evaporation,
T= transpiration,
I = Infiltration
G= groundwater flux,
S= change in storage

P
R
I

Gi

Weather

Climate

Parameters with
smaller time
(today)

Parameters
averaged over a
period of time

Go
Weather is what conditions of the atmosphere are over a short period of time, and
climate is how the atmosphere "behaves" over relatively long periods of time

Precipitation is the link between atmosphere and earth

If G=0 and ET is constant

P R ET = 0

Important meteorological Variables

Temperature (Min. & Max. Temp)

Relative humidity (Min. & Max. Temp)
Wind speed
Sunshine hours
Radiation
Evaporation

Measurement of Meteorological Variables

Temperature

-Thermometers

atmospheric pressure

-Barometer

Humidity

-Hygrometer

Wind speed

-Anemometer

Sunshine hours

-Parheliometer

Radiation

-Pyranometer

Evaporation

-Evaporimeter

Precipitation

-Raingauge
Synoptic Automatic
Weather Station

Relative Humidity
Relative humidity (RH) is a term used to describe the amount of water
vapor in a mixture of air and water vapor.
The RH of an air-water mixture is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure
of water vapor (H2O) in the mixture to the saturated vapor pressure of
water at a prescribed temperature.

Wind Speed
An anemometer is a device used for
measuring wind speed, and is a common
weather station instrument.

Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage.

Measured using Psychrometers

Sunshine
recorder

Sunshine
recorder

Diagram of a Parheliometer or
Cambell-Stokes recorder
Parheliometer

Radiation

Sunshine recorder

Solar radiation can be measured with

pyranometers, radiometers or
solarimeters.

The record cards are made from

a special board with a matt
turquoise finish on which even
weak sunlight produces a clearly
visible trace.
There are three types of cards to
correspond to the behaviour of
the sun at different seasons:
long curved for use in summer,
straight for use near the equinoxes
short curved for use in winter.

The instruments contain a sensor installed

on a horizontal surface that measures the
intensity of the total solar radiation,
(i.e., both direct and diffuse radiation from
cloudy conditions).

Pyranometers

The sensor is often protected and kept in a

dry atmosphere by a glass dome that should
be regularly wiped clean

All are marked with hourly

intervals, and may be used in
either the northern or the
southern hemisphere.

Precipitation Measurement
(depth to which rainfall water would stand on an area if all the
rain were collected on it)
Raingauge
Cylindrical-vessel assembly kept in the open to collect rain

Nonrecording Gauges
Recording Gauges

Precipitation

Water vapor

Two important Process in Precipitation

P = f (t, ws, RH, )

Fraction of water vapor in atmosphere is very small as

compared to the other gases
But very important for life
Precipitation is derived form of this atmospheric water
Water vapor obeys gas laws
Principle sources are evaporation from ocean, sea and water
bodies
Measures as atmospheric humidity

Two processes
Ice crystal process

Coalescence process

Ice crystal exists together with water

droplets at subfreezing temp.(-40oc)

small cloud droplets increase their size

due to contact with other through
collisions

the dust particles (clay minerals, organic

and ordinary ocean salts) serves as the
freezing nuclei

fall velocity at equilibrium are

proportional to the square of radius of
droplets

the ice crystals grow in size

hence large size fall at greater velocity

and results in collisions

with increase in size they tend to fall

down due to gravity

very large droplets > 7mm diameter tend

to break into small droplets

this is basis for artificial rain or cloud

seeding

very important in tropical regions.

Amount of precipitable water

Amount of water contained in a column of atmosphere extending from earth
surface
All water cannot be removed from atmosphere by natural processes
if P = precipitable water normally measured in cm or mm or inches

Forms of Precipitation
(all forms of water that reach the earth from the atmosphere)
Rainfall: in form of water drops of sizes larger
than 0.5 mm, max. 6mm
Light rain trace to 2.5 mm/h
Moderate rain 2.5 mm/h to 7.5 mm/h
Heavy rain - > 7.5 mm/h

P = w dh
where, w = absolute humidity,
h= thickness of column or atmospheric height
W=

w1dh1 + w2dh2

Drizzle: fine sprinkle of numerous water

droplets of size less than 0.5 mm and intensity
less than 1mm/h
Snowfall: ice crystals combine to form flakes
Initial density varies from 0.06-0.15 g/cm3

If thickness has varying relative humidity

4

Forms of Precipitation contd.,

Glaze: water drops freeze to form an ice
coating

Weather Systems for Precipitation

Front: interface between warm and cold air masses

Sleet: frozen raindrops of transparent

grains (when rain falls through air at
subfreezing temperature)
Hail: showery precipitation in the form
of irregular pellets or lumps of ice of
size more than 8mm.

A cold front

Closer view of Warm and cold masses

Weather Systems for Precipitation

Cyclone: large low pressure region with circular wind motion
Tropical cyclone: wind system with intensively strong depression
with MSL pressures ~ 915mbars
Called cyclone in India
Hurricane in USA
Typhoon in South-East Asia
Extra tropical cyclone:
outside the tropical zone
Associated with frontal system
Strong counter-clockwise wind circulation in the northern
hemisphere

Representation of rainfall, pressure and wind

speed distribution in a cyclone
INSAT-1D
image of a
Cyclone in
Orissa coast on
Oct 29th 1999

Types of Precipitation
Based on mechanism of production/formation, precipitation
is classified as:
Cyclonic precipitation

Types of Precipitation

It results from lifting of air masses converging into low-pressure

area of cyclone

Convective precipitation
Rise in packet of warm air (lesser density) due to localized
heating, undergoes cooling and results in Precipitation

Orographic precipitation
Moist air masses lifted up to higher altitudes due to presence of
mountains, undergo cooling, condensation and precipitation

Characteristics of Precipitation on India

Thunder storms
Generally different from other types of precipitation due to its electrical
nature
These storms characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic
effect on the Earth's atmosphere
Local in nature, but very much productive & results in intense rainfall
(significant in local & urban drainage works)
Thunderstorms occur in association with a type of cloud known as a
cumulonimbus
Develops from vertical air movement associated with tense surface heating or
orographic effects

1. South-west monsoon (June-September)

The south-west monsoon (monsoon) is the principal rainy season of India (Over
75% of the annual rainfall)

The onset of monsoon is

accompanied by high southwesterly winds at speeds of 30-70
kmph and low-pressure regions at
the advancing edge.
The weather is generally cloudy
with frequent spells of rainfall

Onset of southwest monsoon

Withdrawn of southwest monsoon

73

74

Characteristics of Precipitation on India

1. South-west monsoon (June-September)
2. Transition-I, Post-monsoon (October-November)

Due to formation of low-pressure areas in the Bay of Bengal, a north-easterly

flow of air mass picks up moisture in the Bay of Bengal and strikes at coast of
peninsula (Tamil Nadu) and causes rainfall

3. Winter season (December-February)

Western disturbances cause moderate to heavy rain and/or snow (about 25cm)
in the Himalayas, and Jammu & Kashmir
Low pressure areas in the Bay of Bengal cause 10-12 cm of rainfall in
Tamilnadu/Kerala

4. Transition-II, Pre-monsoon, (March-May)

Fig. South-West monsoon
rainfall (cm) over India

There is less rainfall in India in this season

Convective cells cause some thunderstorms mainly in Kerala, West Bengal
and Assam.
Some cyclone activity also occurs dominantly on the east coast of India

Precipitation
The basic source of water in India is rainfall (over most parts of the
country) and snowfall (especially in the northern region)
The average annual rainfall for the country is about 119.4 cm

Indias Water Budget

With countrys geographical area of 3.28 x 106 km2 , it may results
in an equivalent volume of 3916 km3
Together with snowfall (which is not yet fully assessed), the annual
resources may be approximated to 4000 km3.
Fig. Annual rainfall (cm)
over India

Out of this, 700 km3 is lost to the atmosphere, 2150 km3 is soaked
into the ground and the balance 1150 km3 becomes the direct
surface runoff to the streams.

Measurement
(depth to which rainfall water would stand on an area if all the
rain were collected on it)
Raingauge
Cylindrical-vessel assembly kept in the open to collect rain

Measurement of Rainfall

Nonrecording Gauges
Recording Gauges

Non-recording Gauge
(Symons Gauge)

Recording Gauges
Nonrecording raingauges gives amount of rainfall only but not
any information about its intensity or its and starting and ending
time.
Recording raingauges provide continuous record of rainfall and
fulfill the mentioned gaps stated above.
There are several recording
raingauges
Tipping-Bucket Type
Weighing Bucket Gauge
Natural Syphon (or Float Type)
Gauge

84

Recording Gauges
Tipping-Bucket Type
This is a 30.5cm size raingauge.
The catch from the funnel falls
into one pair of small buckets.
These buckets are so balanced
that when 0.25mm of rainfall
collects in one bucket, it tips and
brings the other one in position.
The tipping actuates an electrically
driven pen to trace a record on a
clock-work driven chart

Recording Gauges
2. Weighing Bucket Gauge
In this raingauge rainwater from the
funnel empties into a bucket mounted on
a weighing scale.
The weight of the bucket and its contents
are recorded on a clock-work driven chart.
This instrument gives a plot of
accumulated rainfall against elapsed time,
(i.e., the Mass Curve of rainfall).

86

10

Natural Syphon Gauge

Telemetering Raingauges

3. Natural Syphon (or Float Type) Gauge

The rainfall collected by a funnel shaped
collector is led into a float chamber causing
a float to rise
As the float rises, a pen attached to the float
through a lever system records the
elevation of the float on a rotating drum
driven by a clock-work mechanism.
A syphon mechanism empties the float
chamber when the float has reached a preset maximum level.
This type of raingauge is adopted by the
Bureau of Indian Standards (IS: 52351969).
The vertical lines in the chart correspond to
sudden emptying of the float chamber by
syphonic action, which resets the pen to
zero level
If there is no rainfall, the pen traces a
horizontal line

The telemetering-rain gauge is used to

transmit measurements of precipitation
through electric or radio signals.
The tipping-bucket type raingauge, being
ideally suited, the sensor device consists of a
system with two tilting baskets, which fill
alternatively with water from the collecting
funnel, establishing the electric contact.
The number of tilting is proportional to the
quantity of precipitation occurred.

87

Radar Measurement of Rainfall

The meteorological radar is the powerful instrument
for measuring the area extent, location and
movement of rainstorm.
The radar emits a regular succession of pulse of
electromagnetic radiation in a narrow beam so that
when the raindrops intercept a radar beam, its
intensity can easily be known by the amount of
reflected (scattered) energy.

88

Sample chart of a recording type rain gauge

station

Features of radar rainfall measurements

Precipitation in mm

The energy returned is called the return power (Pr) and

its display on the radarscope is called an echo.
The brightness of the echo is an indication of the
magnitude of the return power.

Find:

Solution
1. The hourly precipitation as read from the chart will be as follows:

1. Hourly precipitation
2. Daily precipitation
3. Time when the siphon was operated
4. Period of no precipitation
5. Maximum intensity of precipitation

Time

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

Cumulative ppt
(mm)

0.25

0.5

2.5

4.9

7.4

8.5

Precipitation (mm)

0.25

0.25

0.5

1.5

1.5

0.9

1.1

1.4

1.1

Time

20

21

22

23

24

Cumulative ppt
(mm)

10

0.5

1.8

2.8

4.2

6.5

7.5

Precipitation
(mm)

1.5

0.5

0.5

0.8

1.4

1.8

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

11

2. Total daily precipitation: 10.0 + 8.0 = 18.0 mm.

3. Time when siphon operated: 20 h, i.e. 8 p.m.
4. Time of no precipitation: 13 14
14 15
23
34
Total 4 h
5. Maximum intensity: 1.8 mm/h from 1 to 2 h

Rain Gauge Network & Data

Processing

Raingauge Network

Rain gauge Network

The catching area of a rain gauge is very small as compared to

the areal extent of a storm

WMO Recommendation
Flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and Tropical zones

To get a representative picture of a storm over a catchment, the

number of rain gauges should be as large as possible.

Ideal 1 station for 600-900 km2

Acceptable 1 station for 900-3000km2

But, the economic considerations to a large extent and other

considerations such as topography, accessibility to some extent
restrict the number of gauges to be maintained in the catchment

Mountainous regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical

zones
Ideal 1 station for 100-250 km2

It is desired to have optimum density of raingauges to get

reasonably accurate information about storms in the area

Acceptable 1 station for 250-1000km2

Arid and polar zones

1 station for 1500-10,000 km2 depending on the feasibility

95

IS : 4987-1968 recommendations

Adequacy of Rain gauge Stations

Optimal No. of stations

In Plains:
1 station per 520 km2

Regions of avg. elevation 1000m:

1 station per 260-390 km2

Hilly areas with heavy rainfall

1 station per 130 km2

Also suggested that 10% of the raingauge stations should be

equipped with self-recording gauges to know the intensities of
rainfall.

12

Preparation of Data

Problem

Continuity and Consistency

Normal Annual rainfall: average annual precipitation at any station,

Example: A catchment has six rain gauge stations. In a year, the

annual rainfall recorded by the gauges are as follows:
Station
Rainfall (cm)

say based on a specific 30-years of records

82.6

102.9

180.3

110.3

98.8

136.7

Estimation of Missing Data

Arithmetic average method

For a 10% error in the estimation of the mean rainfall, calculate the
optimum number of stations in the catchment
Ans: m=6
Average = 118.6, Std.Dev = 35.04, Cv= 0.295
Optimum number of rain gauge = 8.7 9 stations

Normal ratio method

Used when the variation in rainfall is more than 10%

where
Pi = ith station precipitation,
Ni = ith station normal precipitation
M = total number of stations

Ref: K.Subramanya

Example
The normal annual rainfall (cm) in four stations is 80.97 (A), 67.59 (B),
76.28(C) and 92.01 (D). The last station (D) was not operated in a particular
year. Find the missing data if annual rainfall in other three stations are 91.11
(A), 72.23 (B), and 79.89(C) respectively.
Ans:
By arithmetic average method:

Contd
Inverse distance method
Computing of weights of the surrounding rain gauges
The distances are computed by establishing a set of axes running
through the missing data station
The distance Di2= (xi-x0)2+(yi-y0)2
The weight of the ith station, Wi = (1/ Di2 )/( 1/ Di2 )

= 81.08 cm
By normal ratio method:

=99.41 cm

Test of Consistency of Record

Numerous factors could affect the consistency of the record at a
given station

damage and replacement of a raingauge

change in the gauge location or elevation
growth of high vegetation or construction of a building
change in measurement procedure, or
human, mechanical, or electrical error in taking readings

Double Mass Curve

MC
Ma

A method called Double Mass Curve is used for adjusting

inconsistent data.

13

Example
Year

Station A

Year

other
station

1985

177

143

1986

144

132

1987

178

146

1988

162

147

1989

194

161

1990

168

155

1991

196

152

1992

144

117

1993

160

128

1994

196

193

1995

141

156

1996

158

164

1997

145

155

1998

132

143

1999

95

115

2000

148

135

2001

142

163

2002

140

135

2003

130

143

2004

137

130

2005

130

146

2006

163

161

Station A other statn

Cumulative
of A

other stations

2006

163

161

163

161

Double Mass Curve Steps:

2005

130

146

293

307

2004

137

130

430

437

1. Arrange the data in chronologically

descending order

2003

130

143

560

580

2002

140

135

700

2001

142

163

842

878

2000

148

135

990

1013

1999

95

115

1085

1128

1998

132

143

1217

1271

1997

145

155

1362

1426

1996

158

164

1520

1590

1995

141

156

1661

1746

1994

196

193

1857

1939

1993

160

128

2017

2067

1992

144

117

2161

2184

1991

196

152

2357

2336

1990

168

155

2525

2491

1989

194

161

2719

2652

1988

162

147

2881

2799

1987

178

146

3059

2945

1986

144

132

3203

3077

1985

177

143

3380

3220

2. Find cumulative of station A

3. Find cumulative of other stations
4. Plot the graph, station A in Y axis and others
in X axis
5. Locate the points and mark the year on it
6. Join the points
7. Find the point where the line changes its
slope.
8. Adjust the old records so that they form the
current straight line trend.

Check the results by listing the values in

chronologically ascending order

715

Rainfall mass curve

Data presentation
Example:

Collected data from raingauges need to be presented in an

organised manner.
1. Rainfall mass curve
Rainfall mass curve is a plot of accumulated rainfall against time,
plotted in chronological order.
Data obtained from floating type and weighing bucket type raingauge
are of this form.

2. Hyetograph

Time (min)
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
135
150

Cum. Rainfall (mm)

0
12
15
31
41
45
47
52
60
62
62

A hyetograph is a plot of intensity of rainfall against the time interval

The hyetograph is derived from the mass curve and presented as a bar
chart

Rainfall mass curve

Slope of the curve at a particular time give the rainfall intensity at that
time.
Rainfall intensity,
111

110

Data presentation

Point Rainfall

2. Hyetograph
A hyetograph is a plot of intensity of rainfall against the time interval.
The hyetograph is derived from the mass curve and presented as a bar
chart.
Example:
Time
(min)

Cum.
Rainfall
(mm)

Inc.
Rainfall
(mm)

Intensity
(mm/h)

0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
135
150

0
12
15
31
41
45
47
52
60
62
62

12
3
16
10
4
2
5
8
2
0

48
12
64
40
16
8
20
32
8
0

Point rainfall refers to the rainfall data of a station

Daily
Weekly
Monthly
Seasonal
annual

112

14

Data presentation
Collected data from raingauges need to
be presented in an organised manner.
1. Rainfall mass curve

Precipitation
Data Presentation

Rainfall mass curve is a plot of

accumulated rainfall against time, plotted in
chronological order.
Data obtained from floating type and
weighing bucket type raingauge are of this
form.

2. Hyetograph
A hyetograph is a plot of intensity of
rainfall against the time interval
The hyetograph is derived from the mass
curve and presented as a bar chart
115

Mean precipitation over an area

Arithmetical-Mean Method

In general rain gauges will give point rainfall information at

various locations in a catchment.
The average precipitation over a catchment can be estimated:
Arithmetical-Mean Method
Thiessen polygon-Mean Method
Isohyetal Method
Average rainfall = 35.02 cm

Thiessen Polygon method

Example: Thiessen method

This involves determining the area of influence for each station, rather than
assuming a straight-line variation.
Locate all rainfall stations on a
base map and record the rainfall
amount.

Measure the fraction of the catchment area

in each polygon (i.e., Thiessen constant),
multiply by the rainfall catch at the station
within the polygon and sum to get the
catchment average.

total area (1230 ha)

Connect each station by

straight lines with the several
nearest stations to form a series
of triangles.
Draw perpendicular bisectors
on each of these lines and
extend them to the intersect
with other bisectors, thus
forming a series of irregular
polygons

Thiessen Polygons

Thiessen constant = area of each rain gauge influence / total area (1230 ha)

15

Isohyetal method

Isohyetal method
The most basic method of representing the spatial distribution.
Locate all rainfall stations on a base map
and record the rainfall amount.
Draw isohyets (lines of equal rainfall) by
proportioning the distances between
adjacent gauges according to differences
in catch.
Then calculate the mean precipitation for
the area corresponding to each isohyet.
Calculate the fraction of catchment area
under each isohyet, multiply by the mean
precipitation for that area and sum to get
the catchment average.

This is generally the most accurate

method, but is also the most laborious.

Mean Rainfall = 43225/1230 = 35.14 cm

Types of curves used in Hydrological Analysis

Depth-area-duration (DAD) curves
Average Depth Area curves
Max. rainfall-area curves (DA)
Max. rainfall-duration curves (AD)

Precipitation
Types of Curves used Hydrological Analysis

Intensity-Duration-frequency (IDF)
curves
Max. Intensity-duration (ID) curves

Depth-Area Relationships

Depth-Area-Duration curves & its Importance

The DAD curves gives relationship between maximum Depth of
rainfall, over a given Area of catchment, for a given Duration of the

The areal distribution characteristics of a storm of given

duration is reflected in its depth-area relation
For a specific duration, average depth:

rainfall
A storm of given duration (over a certain area) never produces uniform
rainfall depth over the entire area.
Storm usually has a centre, where maximum rainfall (P0) is always
larger than the average depth of rainfall P for whole area.
Generally, the difference (P0-P) increases with increase in area and
decreases with increase in the duration.
Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) analysis helps to find the maximum depth
of precipitation for different durations corresponding to different areal
extents
DAD curves are essential to develop design storms, for use in

computing the design flood in hydrological design of major

hydraulic structures, dams etc.

For a rainfall of a given duration,

the average depth decreases with
the area in an exponential fashion
P =average rainfall depth in cm over an
area A in km2;
Po = highest amount of rainfall in cm at
storm centre
K and n are constants for a given region
Typical values of K and n for storms in North India

Duration

1 day

0.0008526

0.6614

2 days

0.0009877

0.6306

3 days

0.001745

0.5961

16

IDF curve by frequency analysis

Intensity-Duration-Frequency Relationship

IDF relation can be established

By frequency analysis or empirical formula
For frequency analysis, a minimum of 20 years data is desirable
Steps for establishing IDF relationship by Frequency Analysis

An IDF curve gives the expected rainfall intensity of a given

duration of storm having desired frequency of occurrence.
Frequency is expressed in terms of return period(T), which is the
average time interval between rainfall events that equal or exceed
the given (design) magnitude

1. Annual maximum data series preparation.

From the available rainfall data, rainfall series for different durations
(e.g.,1-hour, 2-hour, 6-hour, 12- hour and 24-hour) are identified and for
each selected duration, the annual maximum rainfall depths are calculated
2. Fitting the probability distribution
A suitable probability distribution is fitted to the each selected duration
data series. Generally Gumbels Extreme Value Type-I distribution, is
used for IDF relationships.
3. Determining the rainfall depths by using frequency factors, or using the
CDF of the distribution.
Using frequency factors:

Duration (min)

Example

IDF curve by empirical formula

Problem: Considering 33 years of Bangalore rainfall data, an IDF curve is

Empirically it is expressed as

to be formulated for the duration of 1-hour, 2-hour, 6-hour, 12- hour and 24hour and for return periods of 2-year, 5-year, 10-year, 50-year and 100-year.
Table: Max. Rainfall (mm) for different durations.
Year 1H
2H
6H
12H 24H Year
1969 44.5 61.6 104.1 112.3 115.9 1987
1970 37
48.2 62.5 69.6 92.7 1988
1971 41
52.9 81.4 86.9 98.7 1989
1972 30
40
53.9 57.8 65.2 1990
1973 40.5 53.9 55.5 72.4 89.8 1991
1974 52.4 62.4 83.2 93.4 152.5 1992
1975 59.6 94
95.1 95.1 95.3 1994
1976 22.1 42.9 61.6 64.5 71.7 1994
1977 42.2 44.5 47.5 60
61.9 1995
1978 35.5 36.8 52.1 54.2 57.5 1996
1979 59.5 117 132.5 135.6 135.6 1997
1980 48.2 57
82
86.8 89.1 1998
1981 41.7 58.6 64.5 65.1 68.5 1999
1982 37.3 43.8 50.5 76.2 77.2 2000
1983 37
60.4 70.5 72
75.2 2001
1984 60.2 74.1 76.6 121.9 122.4 2003
1986 65.2 73.7 97.9 103.9 104.2

where,
I = intensity (e.g., cm/hr)
D = duration (hours)
K, x, a, n are constants for a given catchment

141

A typical IDF curve from empirical formula

Solution

2H
30.80
24.10
26.45
20.00
26.95
31.20
47.00
21.45
22.25
18.40
58.50
28.50
29.30
21.90
30.20
37.05
36.85

6H
17.35
10.42
13.57
8.98
9.25
13.87
15.85
10.27
7.92
8.68
22.08
13.67
10.75
8.42
11.75
12.77
16.32

12H
9.36
5.80
7.24
4.82
6.03
7.78
7.93
5.38
5.00
4.52
11.30
7.23
5.43
6.35
6.00
10.16
8.66

24H
4.83
3.86
4.11
2.72
3.74
6.35
3.97
2.99
2.58
2.40
5.65
3.71
2.85
3.22
3.13
5.10
4.34

Year
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1994
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2003

1H
47.00
148.80
41.70
40.90
41.10
31.40
23.20
23.20
44.20
57.00
50.00
72.10
59.30
62.30
46.80
53.20

2H
27.95
105.40
23.50
35.95
24.65
28.20
19.35
19.35
31.10
37.40
35.55
47.30
31.45
39.15
35.00
43.25

6H
10.80
62.93
8.62
13.28
10.60
12.67
6.98
6.98
12.00
14.30
24.32
18.65
13.72
14.05
15.98
17.68

12H
5.47
36.07
4.48
6.79
7.77
6.80
3.62
3.62
6.02
7.21
15.19
10.04
7.56
7.03
7.99
8.85

6H
64.8
377.6
51.7
79.7
63.6
76
41.9
41.9
72
85.8
145.9
111.9
82.3
84.3
95.9
106.1

12H
65.6
432.8
53.7
81.5
93.2
81.6
43.4
43.4
72.2
86.5
182.3
120.5
90.7
84.3
95.9
106.2

24H
67.5
448.7
78.1
81.6
147
83.1
50.8
50.8
72.4
90.4
191.3
120.5
90.9
97.2
100.8
106.8

Now, the mean and standard deviation for the data for different durations
is calculated as:

Table: Rainfall intensity (mm/hr) for different durations.

1H
44.50
37.00
41.00
30.00
40.50
52.40
59.60
22.10
42.20
35.50
59.50
48.20
41.70
37.30
37.00
60.20
65.20

2H
55.9
210.8
47
71.9
49.3
56.4
38.7
38.7
62.2
74.8
71.1
94.6
62.9
78.3
70
86.5

Continued

First intensity for required durations are calculated.

Year
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1986

1H
47
148.8
41.7
40.9
41.1
31.4
23.2
23.2
44.2
57
50
72.1
59.3
62.3
46.8
53.2

Duration 1H

24H
2.81
18.70
3.25
3.40
6.13
3.46
2.12
2.12
3.02
3.77
7.97
5.02
3.79
4.05
4.20
4.45

Mean
Std. DV

2H

6H

12H 24H

48.7 33.17 14.46 8.05 4.38

21.53 15.9 9.59 5.52 2.86

KT values are calculated for different return periods using Gumbels

distribution

T(years) 2

KT

0.719 1.305 2.592

-0.164

10

50

100
3.137

144
143

17

Continued
The rainfall intensities are calculated using,
Duration
(hour)
1H
2H
6H
12H
24H

2
45.17
30.55
12.89
7.14
3.91

Return period(T)
5
10
50
64.19
76.79 104.51
44.6
53.9
74.36
21.36
26.97 39.31
12.02
15.25 22.36
6.44
8.11
11.79

100
116.23
83.02
44.53
25.37
13.35

Precipitation

Frequency Analysis

IDF curves
Plot the IDF curves using the
above table values

145

Frequency Analysis of Point Rainfall

Return Period
Recurrence interval (or return period)

Uncertainty of Rainfall
The rainfall at a place is a random process, which involves a lot of
uncertainty
This random rainfall arranged in chronological order constitutes a time
series

It is the average interval between the occurrence of a rainfall of

magnitude equal to or greater than a specific value x

where P is the exceedance probability (i.e., chances of occurrence of rainfall of

magnitude equal to or greater than a particular value x)

Frequency analysis
Frequency is the probability of occurrence of a particular extreme
rainfall in that series
The purpose of frequency analysis is to obtain a relation between the
magnitude of the event and its probability of exceedence.
The probability analysis may be made either by empirical or by
analytical methods.

The return period of a rainfall of 24 cm in 24 h is 10 years at station A,

it implies that:
On an average rainfall magnitudes equal to or greater than 20 cm in 24 h occur
once in 10 year
Thus for a long period, say 100 years 10 such events are expected
However it does not mean that in every 10 years one such event is likely, i.e.
periodicity is not implied
The probability of a rainfall of 24 cm in 24 h occurring in any one year at
station A is, 1/T = 1/10 = 0.1

Analytical Methods
The recurrence interval (or return period) of the rainfall magnitude X is
given as

Contd
The Probability of an event of exceedance probability P occurring 2
times in n successive years

P is the exceedance probability - probability of occurrence of rainfall of

magnitude equal to or greater than x , P(X x)
The probability of the event not occurring in a given year is q=(1-P)

The probability of the event of exceedance probability P not occurring

at all in n successive years

The binomial distribution can be used to find the probability of occurrence of the
event r times in n successive years.

The probability of the event of exceedance probability P occurring at

least once in n successive years
Pr,n is probability of a random hydrologic event of given rainfall magnitude and
exceedence probability P occurring r times in n successive years.

18

Solution:

Example
Q.

Analysis of data on maximum one-day rainfall depth at a catchment

indicated that a depth of 280 mm had a return period of 50 years.
Determine the probability of a one-day rainfall depth equal to or greater than
280 mm at the catchment occurring
(a) Once in 20 successive years
(b) Two times in 15 successive years and
(c) At least once in 20 successive years

Here, P=1/50=0.02
(a) Once in 20 successive years, (i.e., n=20, r=1,)

(b) Two times in 15 successive years , (i.e., n=15, r=2)

(c) At least once in 20 successive years, (i.e., n=20)

Empirical Method

Example

Arrange the given rainfall series in descending order of

magnitude and assign a rank m to them.
Then the probability of an event equal to or exceeded is given
by the plotting position formula.
Weibull formula is one of the
most popular plotting position
formula
The recurrence interval is given
by

Method

California

m/N

Hazen

(m-0.5)/N

Weibull
Chegodayev
Blom
Gringorten

1951
12
1962
9

1952
7.6
1963
10.2

The probability & recurrence intervals of various events are calculated.

0.043
0.087
0.13
0.174
0.217
0.261
0.304
0.348
0.391
0.435
0.478

12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

Rainfall
(cm)
9
8.9
8.9
8.5
8.4
8.3
8
7.8
7.6
7.5
6

1956
8
1967
8.4

1957
12.5
1968
10.8

1958
11.2
1969
10.6

1959
8.9
1970
8.3

1960
8.9
1971
9.5

a) Estimate the 24 h maximum rainfall with return periods of 13 & 50 years

b) What would be the probability of a rainfall of magnitude equal to or
exceeding 10 cm occurring in 24 h at station A

Continued

The exceedance probability is calculated by using weibul formula

1955
9.6
1966
6

(m-3/8)/(N+1/4)

T=1/P
(years)
23
11.5
7.67
5.75
4.6
3.83
3.29
2.88
2.56
2.3
2.09

1954
16
1965
7.5

(m-0.44)/(N+0.12)

P=m/(N+1)

1953
14.3
1964
8.5

m/(N+1)

The data (N=22) are arranged in descending order and assigned the ranks

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

1950
13
1961
7.8

(m-0.3)/(N+0.4)

Rainfall
(cm)
16
14.3
13
12.5
12
11.2
10.8
10.6
10.2
9.6
9.5

Year
Rainfall(cm)
Year
Rainfall(cm)

Continued

Solution:

For a station A, the recorded annual 24 h maximum rainfall are given below

P=m/(N+1)
0.522
0.609
0.652
0.696
0.739
0.783
0.826
0.87
0.913
0.957

T=1/P
(years)
1.92
1.64
1.53
1.44
1.35
1.28
1.21
1.15
1.1
1.05

A graph is plotted between the rainfall magnitudes and the return

period T on a semi-log scale.

a) From the graph:

For return period T = 13
years, rainfall magnitude
is 14.55 cm
For return period T = 50
years rainfall magnitude
is 18.75 cm

b) From the graph

For rainfall = 10 cm,
T = 2.4 years and
P = 1/T = 0.417
161

19

Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP)

PMP is defined as the greatest rainfall for a given duration that is
physically possible over a station.
It is used in design of major hydraulic structure such as spillways in
large dams, to prevent failure of such major structure.
Two methods are available to estimate this rainfall over a station
Meteorological method
Statistical method (based on rainfall data)

Statistically, PMP can be estimated as,

K = frequency factor (may be around 15)
P = average maximum precipitation,
= standard deviation of the max. precipitation

Year

Maximum
intensity
(mm/day)

Year

Maximum
intensity
(mm/day)

Year

Maximum
intensity
(mm/day)

Year

Maximum
intensity
(mm/day)

Example problem on PMP

1976

264.7

1991

399

1977

136.8

1992

215.4

1978

158.9

1993

312.4

1979

170.3

1994

157.2

1980

151.1

1995

180

1981

318.2

1996

171.7

1982

275.6

1997

346.2

1983

253.4

1998

211.5

1984

240.1

1999

134.4

1985

223.6

2000

351.5

1986

194.5

2001

178.2

1987

125.7

2002

186

1988

144.9

2003

192.9

1989

192.1

2004

129.7

1990

150.2

2005

944.2

Find out the value of probable

maximum precipitation
(a) excluding the effect of year
2005 and
(b) including effect of year 2005

Example problem on PMP

1976

264.7

1991

399

1977

136.8

1992

215.4

1978

158.9

1993

312.4

1979

170.3

1994

157.2

1980

151.1

1995

180

1981

318.2

1996

171.7

1982

275.6

1997

346.2

1983

253.4

1998

211.5

1984

240.1

1999

134.4

1985

223.6

2000

351.5

Average=

212.6276

1986

194.5

2001

178.2

Std.Dev=

74.22977

1987

125.7

2002

186

1988

144.9

2003

192.9

1989

192.1

2004

129.7

1990

150.2

2005

944.2

(a) If Rainfall of 2005 is included

Average=

237.0133

Std.Dev=

152.1841

PMP=

2519.775

mm/day

(b) If rainfall of 2005 is not included

PMP=

1326.074

mm/day

20