Unit 1b Citation Referencing Citation Focus Answers

Center for Language Studies, UNIMAS
PBI 1092: Advanced Academic English (AE2)
Learning Unit 1b: CITATION, REFERENCING & CITATION

FOCUS
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
differentiate between citing and referencing.
cite and write references based on APA referencing style
cite sources with the intended focus on the information or author
order citations appropriately depending on topic and purpose
choose the correct verb tense and format for information and author prominent
citations.
use a variety of verbs and tenses to present reported findings as facts or tentative
results.
This learning unit contains four sections:
A. Introducing Citation and Referencing
B. Citation Styles
C. Referencing Styles
D. Citation Focus
(There are 10 tasks for you to do, so you have to set aside enough time to do all of them carefully.
This module is critical for your preparation for the assignments and the final exam.)
A. Introducing Citation and Referencing
Read the text and answer the questions that follow.
Malaysian Graduates Employability Skills

Gurvinder Kaur Gurcharan Singh (Universiti Tun Abdul Razak)
Sharan Kaur Garib Singh (Universiti Malaya)
A survey conducted by the Malaysian Government revealed that about 60,000 Malaysian
graduates were unemployed due to a lack of experience, poor English, poor communication
skills, and because they had pursued studies irrelevant to the market place (Zahratul, 2005).
The research further mentioned that the typical unemployed graduate was female, mainly
from the Malay ethnic group, and from the lower income group. Most unemployed graduates
had majored in business studies or information technology. A total of 81 percent of the
unemployed graduates had attended public universities where the medium of instruction in
many courses was the Malay Language. According to Wong and Zainol (2005), 70 percent of
graduates from public universities and institutions of higher learning are still unemployed.
This is in contrast with 26 percent from private institutions of higher learning and 34 percent
who are foreign graduates (Suresh, 2006).
The general consensus among Malaysian employers indicates that Malaysian graduates are
well trained in their areas of specialization but unfortunately they lack the soft skills
(Nurita, Shaharudin, & Ainon, 2004). This deficit in graduate skills has also been
acknowledged by the UK government with respect to its graduates (Dickinson, 2000).
Lawrence (2002) adds that America is also experiencing the same problem (p. 289).
Studies of employers have repeatedly stressed the priority which they give to personal
transferable skills (Dearing Committee, 1997). Employers today are looking for graduates
not only with specific skills and knowledge but with the ability to be proactive to identify and
AE2_SEM1_2015/16-LU1b-CITATIONS, REFERENCING & CITATION FOCUS
13

respond to problems. In Malaysia, more employers are searching for graduates who not only
have good academic results but also possess communication, problem solving, and
interpersonal skills as well as the ability to be flexible (Nurita et al, 2004). These soft skills
(also known as employability skills) are foundation skills that apply across the board, no
matter what job the employee is performing (Lawrence, 2002).
Baxter and Young (1982) have indicated that employers need entry level workers who are
dependable and trustworthy, have basic communication, thinking and problem solving skills,
and have the desire to learn and advance their ability to work as part of a team, and possess a
proper attitude. These skills have been defined as those needed by todays students in a report
published by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO) (2006). Graduates are required to master employability skills, also called
foundation skills, and competencies in order to find meaningful work. Foundation skills are
basic skills, thinking skills, and personal qualities, while competencies include resource,
interpersonal, information, systems, and technology competencies (UNESCO, 2006).
(Excerpt adapted from Singh, G. K. G., & Singh, S. K. G. (2008). Malaysian graduates
employability skills. Unitar E-Journal, 4(1), 15-45. Retrieved from http://www.teoeducation.com/teophotos/albums/userpics/GurvinderMalaysianGraduate_1.pdf)
References
Baxter, M., &Young, J. L. (1982). What do employers expect from high school graduates?
New York, NY: Pearson.
Dearing Committee (1997). Higher education in the learning society. Report of National
Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education. London, UK: Oxford.
Dickinson, M. (2000). Giving undergraduates managerial experience. Education and
Training, 42(2), 159-169.
Lawrence, T. (2002). Teaching and assessing employability skills through skills in the USA.
In E. Meyer (Ed.) Proceedings of Research and Development in the Workplace. 7th
American Conference on Workplace Quality and Professional Development (pp. 285294). Hillsdale, NJ: New Jersey City University.
Nurita Juhdi, Shaharudin Ahmad, & Ainon Abdullah (2004). Perceived employability skills
of graduating students: Implications for SMEs. Journal of Human Resource
Management, 4, 525-539.
Suresh, R. (2006). Employability of private domestic versus foreign educated Malaysian
graduates. Work, Employment & Society, 54, 243-256.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) (2006). Skills
for employment in the 21st Century. Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO Bangkok Asia and
Pacific Regional Bureau for Education. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/
images/0021/002157/215706e.pdf
Voss, R., Gruber, T., & Szmigin, I. (2007). Service quality in higher education: The role of
student expectations. Journal of Business Research, 60(9), 949-959.
14

Wong, Y. S., & Zainol Hasim (2005). What next? Employability of Malaysian graduates in
the private and government sectors. Selangor, Malaysia: Pelanduk Publications.
Zahratul Abdul Rais (2005, November 10). 60,000 Malaysian Graduates Unemployed. New
Straits Times, pp. 3-4.
1. A citation is a reference to the source of

Task 1
information (books, journal articles etc.)
Answer the questions that follow as quickly asmentioned
you can. in your written text.
2. A paraphrase involves presenting ideas
1. What is a citation?
from selected sources of information in
your own words as part of your written
2. What are the differences between a quotation
text.and a paraphrase?
3. A quotation refers to word/s from a source
3. List the number of citations in the Singh and
(2008)which
text? is included as part of
of Singh
information
your written text.
4. List the citations that are mentioned twice
text?
4. in
9 the
citations
5. 2 - (Joseph, Yakhou, & Stone,
5. How many of the citations are quotations and
how many are
paraphrases?
2005)/Joseph
et al.
(2005); (Taylor &
Baker, 1994)/Taylor and Baker 1994)
6. How are the references organized in the6.reference
list? 0; Paraphrases - 9
Quotations
7. alphabetical order
7. Where is the indentation in each of source
listed in the references?
8. Indented
9. Voss,
R., Gruber,
& Szmigin, I. (2007).
8. Which reference(s) should be deleted from
the reference
list?T.,
Why?
Not used.
Remember - when you use ideas from other sources in your academic
essays, you must acknowledge those sources. This is intellectual
honesty, giving credit to the person(s) who did the work. Academia
requires that such sources be acknowledged and identified, and
respected. If you use another writers ideas and you do not
acknowledge it, this is called plagiarism. It is equivalent to cheating
and is a very serious offence in academia. If you are caught
plagiarising, disciplinary action will be taken against you.
15

B. Citation Styles
The cartoonist stated that his

resolution this year is not to work
so hard.
To attribute information to authoritative sources, you can either quote directly or paraphrase
(write in your own words). This unit will describe the use of direct quotations while the next
unit (1c) will deal with paraphrasing.
For citations involving direct quotations, the amount of text quoted determines the style
used. When citing, ALWAYS provide the author, year, and specific page number(s). Study
the following examples of direct quotations.
(1) Short quotations
Quotations fewer than 40 words are incorporated into the paragraph. For example:
Marketers know that toddlers and preschool children have considerable purchase influence
and can successfully negotiate purchases through what marketers term the nag factor or
pester power (McNeal, 1999, p. 75).
OR
McNeal (1999) reported that marketers know that toddlers and preschool children have
considerable purchase influence and can successfully negotiate purchases through what
marketers term the nag factor or pester power (p. 75).
Reference
McNeal, J. (1999). The kids market: Myth and realities. Ithaca, NY: Paramount Market
Publishing.
(The sample citation is taken from Story, M., & French, S. (2004). Food advertising and marketing directed
at children and adolescents in the US. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity,
1(3), 109-142.)
16

WHAT IS UNIQUE ABOUT THE QUOTATION ABOVE?
Note:
Double quotation marks are used.
The page number must be indicated. Use pp. if the quotation is found on two
pages. Leave a space after p. Or pp.
The full-stop is at the end of the sentence after the citation.
Long quotations
Long quotations of 40 words or more are placed in a paragraph, indented inch from the
left margin.
In the history of higher education research, one of the more intriguing ways of
dealing with context has been phenomenography, which by treating the data as a
single transcript consciously attempts to strip out context from the analysis. As
Ashwin (2009) explains
This research focuses on examining the qualitatively different ways of experiencing
these phenomena within a group. Thus it does not examine individuals conception of
these phenomena but rather examines the number of qualitatively different ways in
which a particular phenomenon is experienced within a group. (p. 32)
Reference
Ashwin, P. (2009). Analyzing teaching-learning interactions in higher education. London, UK:
Continuum.
(The sample long quotation is taken from Clegg, S., & Stevenson, J. (2013): The interview reconsidered:
Context, genre, reflexivity and interpretation in sociological approaches to interviews in higher education
research, Higher Education Research & Development, 32(1), 5-16.)
OR
In forming multiple national identities, it is thought that transmigrants will also be better
equipped to withstand sometimes overwhelming social, economic and political pressures
encountered in their daily lives. Engaging in transnational practices may result in
an institutional expression of multiple belonging, where the country of origin becomes
a source of identity, the country of residence a source of rights, and the emerging
transnational space, a space of political action combining the two or more countries.
(Kastoryano, 2000, p. 311)
17

Reference
Kastoryano, R. (2000). Settlement, transnational communities and citizenship. International
Social Science Journal, 52(165), 307-312.
(The sample long quotation is taken from Lam, T., & Yeoh, B. S. A. (2004). Negotiating home and national
identity: Chinese-Malaysian transmigrants in Singapore. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 45(2), 141-164.)
WHAT IS UNIQUE ABOUT THE QUOTATION ABOVE?

Note:
No quotation marks are used.
Begin the quotation on a new line from the text as indented block
paragraph ( inch from margin).
Text quoted is double-spaced.
The full-stop is at the end of the sentence before the citation.
(2) Citing same author(s) several times in the same paragraph

When the same author is cited multiple times in the same paragraph and the authors name
is part of the narrative, you do not have to include the year in subsequent author-focus
(non-parenthetical) citation. However, you must include the year in all parenthetical
citations. Example:
A study by Tunon and Brydges (2007) found that the quality of the two sets of citations were
comparable. The subjective rubric developed by Tunon and Brydges helped establish this.
The study went on to show a difference between academic programs. Their results indicated
clearly that some academic programs were better in highlighting the need to acknowledge
others works while some failed miserably (Tunon & Brydges, 2007).
(3) Citing two or more works within the same parentheses
When several research articles have similar information, you can write a general statement
that covers the results of those articles and put the studies in the same parenthesis, as
shown in the box below.
A survey of recent articles published on AIDS shows a growing interest in developing reliable
research methods to test high-risk groups, such as drug abusers and prostitutes (Broadhead
& Heckathorn, 1994; Carlson et al., 1994; Steiner, Lemke, & Roffman, 1994).
Note:
List the works by different authors in alphabetical order but do not change the
order of names for a particular article. E.g., Do NOT change Steiner, Lemke
and Roffman (1994) to Lemke, Roffman and Steiner (1994).
If the works are by the same author, you can write something like this:
Several studies (Johnson, 1991a, 1991b, 1991c; Singh, 1983) have been conducted on
18

(4) Citing and Referencing Malay names
The APA publication style does not specifically deal with Malay names but Malay
researchers who publish internationally usually follow APA conventions and use their fathers
name as the surname. Note that bt and bin are not included.
Reference
Wiantoro, S., Maryanto, I., & Abdullah, M. T. (2012). Phylogeny and phylogeography of
Myotis muricola (Gray, 1846) (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) from the West and East of
Wallaces Line inferred from partial MtDNA cytochrome b gene. Journal of Tropical
Agricultural Science, 35(2), 271-292.
*Abdullah, M. T. is actually Mohd Tajuddin bin Abdullah.
However, for some Malaysian publications, the Malaysian convention may be used. In this
case, cite the Malay names in full in the text and in the reference list.
In the text and the reference list, Mazmi Maarof would be written in full. She would be cited
as (Mazmi Maarof, 2012).
C. Referencing Styles
For APA style, the cited sources are listed alphabetically at the end of the article.
Each entry takes the form of hanging indent the first line of every entry is always aligned
with the margin. If the entry covers two (or more lines), the second (and subsequent) line(s)
are indented.
19

REFERENCE STYLE: AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA) 6thEdition
In this ARW course, the reference style is based on the American Psychological
Association Sixth (6th) edition.
Here are samples of how referencing and in-text citation are done using the APA style (6th
edition). Study each type carefully and think about the unique characteristics.
(a) Books
Variants
Citations
(Used in the text)
Reference List
(Appears at the end in alphabetical order)
1 author
The theory was first

propounded in
1993 (Comfort, 1997).
General format:
Author, A. (Year). Title of the book.
Place of publication: Publisher name.
OR
(Note: Only the first letter of the first word in the

title and subtitle are capitalised except for
proper nouns or acronyms e.g. Malaysia, Asia,
AIDS)
Comfort (1997) claimed

that the theory was first
propounded in 1993.
Comfort, A. (1997). A good age. London,

UK: Mitchell Beazley.
Daft, R. L. (2012). New era of management
(12 ed.). Nashville, TN: Cengage
Learning.
(Note: Place of publication MUST include
city/town/state (where applicable) and
country. However, for the United States
ONLY the city/town and State are required
Do NOT write the country. The name of the
state MUST be abbreviated. For example
CA (California), TN (Tennesse), TX (Texas).
For a list of the U.S. states and the
abbreviations please refer to:
http://www.50states.com/abbreviations.htm
#.UvB1eftJeJ6)
20

2 authors
Madden and Hogan (1997,

p.17) stated that the
method should be used to
achieve consistency.
OR
The method should be
used to achieve
consistency (Madden &
Hogan, 1997, p. 45).
Cohen and Cohen (1983)
suggested that when the
missing pattern is nonsystematic the missing rate
should be kept under 10%
Researchers should keep
the non-systematic
missing patterns below
10% (Cohen & Cohen,
1983, p. 25)
3 to 5
authors
Madden, R., & Hogan, T. (1997). The
definition of disability in Australia:

Moving towards national consistency.
Canberra, Australia: Australian Institute of
Health and Welfare.
Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied
multiple regression/correlation analysis

for the behavioural sciences. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
For citation (3 to 5 authors)
For referencing 3 to 5 authors
Cite all authors the first

time the reference occurs.
Guerin, Labor, Morgan,
Reesman, and Willingham
(2005) found
Guerin, M., Labor, K., Morgan, B., Reesman,

L., & Willingham, P. (2005). Introduction to
chemical engineering. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill.
(List the last names of all the 5 authors)
OR
(Guerin, Labor,
Morgan, Reesman, &
Willingham , 2005)
In subsequent citations,
include only the surname
of the first author followed
by et al. and the year.
Guerin et al. (2005) found
Or
. (Guerin et al., 2005)
21

6 or more
authors
Immediately use et al.

without listing the authors.
6 or more authors [List the first six

authors, and the last author No & is
used]
Rodgers et al. (1996)

OR
(Rodgers et al., 1996, p.
35)
No author
(Employment the
Professional Way,
2000)
OR
the book Employment the
Professional Way (2000)
Rodgers, F. H., Choi, M. J., Angeli, L. L.,

Harland, A. A., Stamos, J. A., Thomas, S. T.,
. . . Rubin, L. H. (2009). Web site usability
for the blind and low-vision user. Mason,
OH: Thomson South Western.
Employment the professional way: A guide to

understanding the Australian job search
process for professionally qualified
migrants. (2000). Carlton, Australia:
Australian Multicultural Foundation.
(When no author is present, the title of the book
replaces the authors place. The title should be
written in full in the reference list)
(Choose maximum the first

5 words of the title and it
should be italicised the
letters of main words are
capitalised)
Author Chinese
and
English
names
Foo (1983)
Author Chinese
Names
Chu (1995)
Multiple
works by
same author
cited at the
same time
E.g.
Name: Vincent Foo Hiap
Khian.
Cite the surname only
E.g.
Name: Chu Chin Ning
Cite the surname only
University research
(Brown, 1982, 1988) has
indicated that
Foo, V. H. K. (1983). Sarawak: Mini episodes

of the past. Shah Alam, Malaysia: Fajar
Bakti.
Chu, C. N. (1995). Simulated counter-current
adsorption processes: A comparison of

modeling strategies. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press.
Brown, P. (1982). Corals in the Capricorn

group. Rockhampton, Australia: Central
Queensland University.
Brown, P. (1988). The effects of anchor on
corals. Rockhampton, Australia: Central
Queensland University.
Order chronologically in the reference list (the
older comes first).
Multiple
works
published in
the
In recent reports (Napier,

1993a, 1993b)
Napier, A. (1993a). Fatal storm. Sydney,

Australia: Allen & Unwin.
Use a/b etc. to differentiate
Napier, A. (1993b). Survival at sea. Sydney,
22

same year
by the
same author
between works in same

year.
Author as
sole author
in one
citation, and
first author of
a group in
another
citation
Berndt (1999)
Berndt and Keefe (1995)
Australia: Allen & Unwin.

Order alphabetically by title in the reference list
(e.g. F comes first before S).
Berndt, T. J. (1999). Friends influence on
students adjustment to school. New York,
NY: Pearson.
Berndt, T. J., & Keefe, K. (1995). Friends
influence on adolescents adjustment to

school. New York, NY: Pearson.
List the entry with one author first.

Authors with
the same last
name but
different
works
(E. Johnson, 2001; L.

Johnson, 1998)
Johnson, E. (2001). Important rules in

negotiating. Chicago, IL: University of
Chicago Press.
Use first initials with the

last names to prevent
confusion. If same last
name but belongs to the
same work, the initials are
not needed.
Johnson, L. (1998). The new Grove dictionary

of music and musicians. New York, NY:
Grove.
Kastenbaum (1993)
Books with
Editor(s)
OR
(Kastenbaum, 1993)
Different
Editions
Renton (2004)
Kastenbaum, R. (Ed.). (1993). Encyclopedia of

adult development. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx
Press.
(If multiple editors, use Eds. Note: E is
capitalised)
Renton, N. (2004). Compendium of good
writing (3rd ed.). Milton, Canada: John
Wiley & Sons.
OR
(Renton, 2004)
Article or
chapter
in an edited
book
(Different
chapters
written by
different
authors)
As discussed by Blaxter
(1976)
(Note: No full stop after the title. The full stop

comes after the edition. The edition should be
in number format and not spelled out)
General Format:
Author, A., & Author, B. (Year of publication).
Title of chapter. In F. Editor & G. Editor
(Eds.), Title of book (pages of chapter).
Location: Publisher.
Blaxter, M. (1976). Social class and health
inequalities. In C. Carter, & J. Peel (Eds.),
Equalities and inequalities in health (pp.
120-135). London, UK: Academic Press.
Take note of the list of names of editors for the
edited book. The initial comes before the last
name. E.g., C. Carter.
For authors, the initial comes after the last
23

name, as usual. e.g. Blaxter, M.
The italics is used to highlight the important
information. The title of the edited book is
italicised, not the book chapter because if the
edited book can be found, then the chapter can
be easily located.
The page number of the chapter is provided
after the title with p. (single page) or pp.
(multiple pages).
Electronic
Book
(eBooks)
DeHuff (2011) mentions

that
OR
DeHuff (2011)
DeHuff, E. W. (2011). Taytays tales:

Traditional Pueblo Indian tales. Retrieved
from http://digital.library.upe
nn.edu/women/dehuff/taytay/taytay.html
Ensure the link to the eBook is provided.
EBooks should be in proper format with pages
and not merely a webpage.
Book by
Organisation
s or
Institutions
Ministry of Health Malaysia

(2011) reported that.
OR
(Ministry of Health
Malaysia, 2011).
(The name of the
organisations or
institutions is used as the
author)
Ministry of Health Malaysia. (2011). AIDS

prevention manual. Putrajaya, Malaysia:
Pelanduk Publication.
Department of Statistics Malaysia, Sarawak
(2012). Monthly statistical bulletin
Sarawak: May 2012. Kuching, Malaysia:
Department of Statistics Malaysia.
American Psychological Association (2009).
Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th ed.).
Washington, DC: The American
Psychological Association
Are the following references for books accurate?

(a) W. R Leonard. & M. H. Crawford (Ed.). (2002). Human biology of pastoral populations.
New York NY. Cambridge University Press.
Leonard, W. R., & Crawford, M. H. (Eds.). (2002). Human biology of pastoral
populations. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
(b) O'Neil, J. M. and Egan, J. (2002), Men's and women's gender role journeys: A metaphor
for healing, transition, and transformation (pp. 107-123). B. R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender
issues across the life cycle. Oxford, UK: Springer.
O'Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (2002). Men's and women's gender role journeys: A metaphor
or healing, transition, and transformation. In B. R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues
across the life cycle (pp. 107-123). Oxford, UK: Springer.
24

(c) National Fire Protection Association. (2009). Fundamentals of fire fighting skills (Second
Edition). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett
National Fire Protection Association. (2009). Fundamentals of fire fighting skills (2nd ed.).
Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.
(b). Journals
Variants
Citations
(Used in the text)
Reference List
Journal Article in
print version
Whitmeyer (2000)
OR
(Whitmeyer, 2000)
General format:
Author, A. (2000). Title of the article. Journal
Name, Volume(Number), pages of the
article.
(Note: the
listing of
multiple
authors is
the same as
books)
Whitmeyer, J. M. (2000). Power through

appointment. Social Science Research,
29(3), 535-555.
Note: For journal articles, Journal Name and
Volume are italicised and not the title of the
article. As for the journal number, not all
journals provide number, in such case, provide
volume only.
Journal Article in
print and
electronic
version
Journal InternetOnly
Article
Potter (2000)
OR
(Potter, 2000)
Potter, H. (2000). Marketing principles

International Economics, 29, 535-555.
(Sopensky, 2002)
OR
Sopensky (2002)
Sopensky, E. (2002). Ice rink becomes hot

business. Austin Business Journal, 3(4).
Retrieved from http://www.bizjournals.
com/austin/stories/2002/10/14/small b1.html
Article no
Author
Its a growing problem in

the U.K.
(Anorexia Nervosa,
1969)
Anorexia nervosa. (1969). British Medical

Journal, 1, 529-530.
When no author, cite the

title with quotation marks.
25

Are the following references for journals accurate?
(a) Fearon, J. D., & Laitin, D. D. (2003). Power Balance Of Ethnicity In Civil Wars.
International politics review, 97(4), pp. 256-276.
Fearon, J. D., & Laitin, D. D. (2003). Power Balance Of Ethnicity In Civil Wars.
International Politics Review, 97(4), 256-276.
(b) Delfabbro, P., Winefield, T., Trainor, S., Dollard, M., Anderson, S., Metzer, J.,
Williams, S., Bachman, D., & Hammarstrom, A. (2006). Peer bullying in international
primary and secondary schools: Prevalence and psychosocial profiles. International
Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(1), 71-90.
Delfabbro, P., Winefield, T., Trainor, S., Dollard, M., Anderson, S., Metzer, J.,
Hammarstrom, A. (2006). Peer bullying in international primary and
secondary schools: Prevalence and psychosocial profiles. International
Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(1), 71-90.
(c) C., Xu, & Y., Ding, (2014) An exploratory study of pauses in computer-assisted EFL
writing. Language Learning & Technology, 18(3). Retrieved 16th January 2015 from
http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2014/xuding.pdf
Xu, C., & Ding, Y., (2014). An exploratory study of pauses in computer-assisted EFL
writing. Language Learning & Technology, 18(3). Retrieved from http://llt.
msu.edu/issues/october2014/xuding.pdf
(c) Secondary Sources

Variants
Citations
(Used in the text)
Reference List
Book
including neuralgia
(Carini & Hogan as cited
in Thibodeau & Patton,
2002, p. 45)
Thibodeau, G. A., & Patton, K. T. (Eds.).

(2002).The human body in health and
disease. St. Louis, MO: Mosby Publishing.
OR
Carini and Hogans study
(as cited in
Thibodeau & Patton, 2002,
p. 45)
Record the book that you actually sourced and

NOT the reference for the secondary sources.
Carini and Hogans study

(as cited in Patton, 2002).
OR
origins of neuralgia
Patton, K. T. (2002). Neuralgia and

headaches. Science, 400, 2153-2155.
Journal
article
26

(Carini &
Hogan as cited in Patton,
2002, p. 2154).
Record the journal that you actually sourced.
(d). Encyclopaedias
Variants
Printed
Online
Citations
(Used in the text)
Ho (1993)
OR
(Ho, 1993)
Reference List
Ho, R. (1993). Singapore. In The new
encyclopedia Britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501508). Chicago, IL: Encyclopedia Britannica.
Feminism (n.d.)
OR
(Feminism, n.d.)
Feminism. (n.d.) In Encyclopedia Britannica

online. Retrieved from http://www.
britannica.com/EB checked/topic
/724633/feminism
(n.d. is used for documents

without publication date)
(e). Dictionary
Variants
Printed
Wiki
Citations
(Used in the text)
Sadie (1980)
OR
(Sadie, 1980)
Accuracy of information in
Wikis (e.g. Wikipedia)
cannot be verified
Reference List
Sadie, S. (Ed.). (1980). The new Grove
dictionary of music and musicians (6th ed.,
Vols. 1-20). London, UK: Macmillan.
OLPC Peru/Arahuay. (n.d.). Retrieved from the
OLPC Wiki:http://wiki.laptop.org/go/
OLPC_Peru/Arahuay
Citation from Wiki is

discouraged.
(f). Thesis.
Variants
Citations
(Used in the text)
Reference List
Thesis from
online
Database
(Biswas, 2008)
OR
Biswas (2008)
Biswas, S. (2008). Dopamine D3 receptor: A
neuroprotective treatment target in

Parkinson's disease. Retrieved from
ProQuest Digital Dissertations. (AAT
3295214)
Unpublished
Thesis
(Santini, 2008)
OR
Santini (2008)
Santini, S. N. (2008). Research methods for

business: A skill building approach.
(Unpublished masters thesis). University of
Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Healey, D. (2005). Attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder and
27

creativity: An investigation into their
relationship. (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation). University of Canterbury,
Christchurch, New Zealand.
(g). Magazines.
Variants
Citations
(Used in the text)
Reference List
1 author
Posner (1993)
OR
(Posner, 1993)
Martinez-Conde, S., & Macknick, S. L. (2007,

August). Windows on the mind. Scientific
American, 297(2), 56-63.
(Do not provide month/date

as given in the reference
list)
Posner, M. I. (1993, October 29). Seeing the

mind. Science, 262, 673-674.
(Note: listing
of multiple
authors is
the same as
books)
For magazines that are published MONTHLY,

the date of publication consists only of year
and month
For magazines that are published WEEKLY,
the exact date of publication is provided.
In the case when exact date is not given,

provide the year and the month. If volume is
not given (e.g. 262 in the example above) then
you can omit it.
(h). Newspapers
Variants
Citations
(Used in the text)
Reference List
1 author
Scultz (2005)
Scultz, S. (2005, December 28). Calls made to

strengthen state energy policies. The
Country Today, pp.1A-2A.
(Note: listing
of multiple
authors is
the same as
books)
Note: pp. is used for multiple pages and p. is

used for single page.
No author
New drug appears (1993)
Online
(Choose the title of the

article as author, maximum
the first 5 words)
Parker-Pope (2008)
New drug appears to sharply cut risk of death

from heart failure. (1993, July 15). The
Washington Post, p. A12.
Parker-Pope, T. (2008, May 6). Psychiatry
handbook linked to drug industry. The New
28

York Times. Retrieved from http://www.
nytimes.com
(i). Reports
Variants
Citations
(Used in the text)
Malaysia Department of
Health (1992)
Reference List
Malaysia Department of Health. (1992). The
health consequence of smoking. Kuala
Lumpur: Jabatan Percetakan Negara.
Report from
a private
organisation
American Psychiatric
Association (2000)
American Psychiatric Association. (2000).
Report from
a special
committee
Dearing Committee (1997).
Online
Ministry of Education (n.d.)
Lecture or
publicly
delivered
paper
Ministry of Education (n.d.)
Government
report
Practice guidelines for the treatment of

patients with eating disorders (2nd ed.).
Washington, DC: APA.

Dearing Committee (1997). Higher education
in the learning society. Report of National
Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education.
London, UK: Oxford
Ministry of Education. (n.d.). KBSM
curriculum specification. Retrieved from
http://www.moe. edu.my/kbsmcs.html
Ministry of Education. (n.d.). KBSM
curriculum specification. Retrieved from
http://www.moe. edu.my/kbsmcs.html
(j) World Wide Web documents.

Variants
Citations
(Used in the text)
Document
with author,
published
date and
title.
(Dawson, Smith, Deubert,

& Grey-Smith, 2002).
OR
Dawson, Smith, Deubert
and Grey-Smith (2002)
mentioned
that
Pease
ensure
validity and
reliability of
information.
Html
addresses
that end with
(United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO) (2012)
OR
According to United
Nations Educational,
Reference List
General Format:
Author. (Year). Title of the webpage.
Retrieved from http://www.website.
com/fullpage.html
Dawson, J., Smith, L., Deubert, K., & GreySmith, S. (2002). Trek 6: Referencing, not
plagiarism. Retrieved from http://www.
academicworld.com/ referencingnot plagiarism.html
United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) (2012).
Graduate employability in Asia. Bangkok,
29

.edu, .org.
are generally
more reliable
Scientific and Cultural

Organisation (UNESCO)
When citing organisations
with official abbreviations
to the title for the first time,
state the full name of the
organisation with the
abbreviation in
parentheses (followed by
the year of publication). In
the subsequent citations
state the abbreviation only.
Document
with no
published
date
In the example of United

Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO)
(2012), state UNESCO
(2012) the second time.
(Royal Institute of British
Architects, n.d.)
OR
Royal Institute of British
Architects (n.d.)
Thailand: UNESCO Bangkok Asia and

Pacific Regional Bureau for Education.
Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.
org/images/0021/002157/215706e.pdf
Royal Institute of British Architects. (n.d.).
Shaping the future: Careers in architecture.

Retrieved from http://www.careersinarchitectur
e.net/articles/124.html
(k). Conference Papers

Variants
Citations
(Used in the text)
Reference List
Published in
proceedings
Gibson (2005)
OR
(Gibson, 2005)
Gibson, C. C. (2005). Impact of the larger

social context on the distance learner. In S.
Allsop (Ed.), International Conference on
(Note:
Similar to
Chapter in a
book)
Distance Education: One world many

voices: Quality in open and distance
learning (pp. 279-282). Chicago, IL: Milton
Keynes.
Armstrong, D. B., Fogarty, G. J., & Dingsdag,

D. (2007). Scales measuring characteristics
of small business information systems. In
Tan, W-G (Ed.), Proceedings of Research,
Relevance and Rigour: Coming of age: 18th
Australasian Conference on Information
Systems (pp. 163-171).
Toowoomba, Australia: University of
Southern Queensland.
30

Unpublished
conference
paper.
Portman (2000)
OR
(Portman, 2000)
General Format:
Author, A. (Year, Month). Title of the paper.
Paper presented at the Conference Name,
Location, Country.
Portman, J. (2000, May). Teaching learners
English using video games. Paper
presented at the 3rd International
Conference on Computer-Assisted
Language Learning, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.
If the paper is taken from online source,
Include the URL/web address after the
location.
Taylor, J. A. (2006). Assessment: A tool for
development and engagement in the first
year of university study. Paper presented at
the 9th Pacific Rim in Higher Education
Conference, Griffith, Australia. Retrieved
from http://www.fyhe.com.au/
past_papers/2006/Papers/Taylor.pdf
31

(l). Figures
Variants
Book
Caption (in text)

(Placed under the figure)
General Format
Reference List
Figure X. Descriptive
phrase that serves as title
and description. Reprinted
[or adapted] from Book
Title (page number), by
Author First Initial. Second
Initial. Surname, Year,
Place of Publication:
Publisher. Copyright [Year]
by the Name of Copyright
Holder. Reprinted [or
adapted] with permission.
Example:
Figure 1. Short-term
memory test involving
pictures. Reprinted from
Short-term Memory Loss
(p. 73), by K. M. Pike,
2008, New York, NY:
Mackerlin Press.
Copyright 2008 by the
Association for Memory
Research. Reprinted with
permission.
Journal
article
Pike, K. M. (2008). Short-term memory loss.

New York, NY: Mackerlin Press.
General Format
[or adapted] from Title of
Article, by Author First
Initial. Second Initial.
Surname, Year, Journal
Title, Volume (issue), page
number. Copyright [Year]
Example:
Figure 1. Schematic
drawings of a bird's eye
view of the table (a) and
the test phase of the
choice task (b). Numbers
Wang, S. H., & Kohne, L. (2007). Visual

experience enhances Infants' use of taskrelevant information in an action task
Developmental Psychology, 43(3), 1510 1524
32

Website
represent the dimensions

in centimeters. Adapted
from Visual Experience
Enhances Infants' Use of
Task-Relevant Information
in an Action Task," by S.-h.
Wang and L. Kohne, 2007,
Developmental
Psychology, 43, p. 1515.
Copyright 2003 by the
American Psychological
Association.
General Format
[or adapted] from Title of
Website, by Author First
Initial. Second Initial.
Surname, Year, Retrieved
from URL. Copyright [year]
Example:
Figure 1. An example of
the cobra yoga position.
Reprinted from List of
Yoga Postures, by D. K.
Dawson, 2009, Retrieved
from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
List_of_yoga_postures.
Copyright 2007 by
Pearson. Reprinted with
permission.
Dawson, D. K. (2000). List of yoga postures. ,

Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/List_of_yoga_postures
References
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
American Psychological Association. (2015). APA website. Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association. Retrieved from: http://www.apastyle.org/
Copies of the APA manual are available at CAIS, UNIMAS (Level 1) [call No: BF76.7 .P976 2010].
33

Task 2
The passage below contains TEN (10) errors in citation. Choose the correct answer
from the options provided below.
Internet use during childhood is meaningfully organized in terms of common online activities
such as playing games, communicating, and visiting websites. 1Marie Johnson (2005)
explained that child development refers to the processes by which children becoming
increasingly capable of complex social, emotional and cognitive behaviours. Findings from
several studies2(Simon, 2003; Jason & Adams, 2004; Yamamoto, 2008) indicated that
children who used the Internet more had higher scores on standardized tests of reading
achievement and higher grade point averages than the children who used the Internet less.
Alternatively, a recent survey that correlated behavioural and psychological aspects of
childrens life with the number of hours spent online, found that those who used the Internet
the most had the weakest interpersonal connections 3 (Sanders, Diego, & Kaplan, 2008).
Approximately one-third of the time that children are online, they report playing games 4
(Livingston & Bober 2002, as cited in Rider, 2004). Highly proficient 10- and 11-year-old
video gamers were noted to possess extremely high levels of self-monitoring, pattern
recognition, and visual memory. DeBell, Henry, and Chapman (2006) concluded that Internet
use promotes cognitive development in children, specifically in the area of visual intelligence
where certain computer activities particularly games may enhance the ability to monitor
several visual stimuli at once, to read diagrams, recognize icons, and visualize spatial
relationships.
Apart from playing games, children are using communication tools such as email, chat, and
instant message frequently when they are online 5(DeBell, Henry, & Chapman, 2006).
Socially anxious children were found to communicate online less than nonsocially anxious
respondents. In addition, a qualitative analysis of adolescent second language learning using
real-time text-based practice revealed that adolescents, who communicated online, compared
to those who did not, used more complex sentences or sentencing involving auxiliaries
beyond expected grammar levels 6(Jason, 1994; 1995). Based on interviews with girls and
analysis of chat room archives, 7Michael, Wong, Kim, Langston, Ang and Hunt (2001)
concluded that female adolescent use of popular electronic communication is resulting in
linguistic innovation within new, virtual social networks in a way that reflects more widereaching changes in the communication landscape.
Several studies have concluded that context (i.e., home, school, and community
characteristics) mediates the developmental impact of Internet use during childhood. For
example, 8Cho and Cheon (a2005, b2005) surveyed families and found that parents
perceived control reduced childrens exposure to negative Internet content. Following
detailed interviews and repeated observations, 9Burnett & Andy (2005) concluded that
creative problem solving was evident in home-based, but not necessarily school-based, use of
the Internet. Hence, the paths of influence between Internet use and child development appear
complex and mediated by ecological forces. There is a need to devise a model to uncover
those forces clearly.
(adapted from Johnson, 2008)
34

1. A.
B.
C.
D.
Johnson (2005)
Johnson, M. (2005)
Marie (2005)
Marie, J. (2005)
2. A.
B.
C.
D.
(Adams & Jason, 2004; Simon, 2003; Yamamoto, 2008)

(Adams & Jason, 2004; Simon, 2003; & Yamamoto, 2008)
(Jason & Adams, 2004; Simon, 2003; Yamamoto, 2008)
(Jason & Adams, 2004; Simon, 2003; & Yamamoto, 2008)
3. A.
B.
C.
D.
(Sanders, Diego, and Kaplan, 2008)

(Sanders, Diego, & Kaplan, 2008, p. 7)
(Sanders, Diego, & Kaplan, p. 7, 2008)
(Sanders, Diego, & Kaplan, 2008, pp. 5)
4. A.
B.
C.
D.
(Livingston & Bober, cited in Rider, 2004)

(Livingston & Bober 2002 as cited in Rider)
(Livingston & Bober as cited in Rider, 2004)
(Livingston & Bober, as cited in Rider, 2004)
5. A.
B.
C.
D.
(Games and Childrens Cognitive Development 2008)

(Games and childrens cognitive development, 2008)
(Games and Childrens Cognitive Development, 2008)*
("Games and Childrens Cognitive Development", 2008)
6. A.
B.
C.
D.
(DeBell, 2006)
(DeBell et al. 2006)
(DeBell et. al, 2006)
(DeBell et al., 2006)
7. A.
B.
C.
D.
(Jason, 1994, 1995)

(Jason, 1994; 1995)
(Jason, 1994 & 1995)
(Jason, 1994a,1995b)
8. A.
B.
C.
D.
Michael et al. (2001)

Michael (et al., 2001)
Michael...Hunt (2001)
Michael ... & Hunt (2001)
9. A.
B.
C.
D.
Cho and Cheon (2005ab)

Cho and Cheon (2005 & 2005)
Cho and Cheon (2005a; 2005b)
Cho and Cheon (2005a, 2005b)
10. A. Andy and Burnett (2005)

B. Andy, and Burnett (2005)
C. Burnett and Andy (2005)
D. Burnett, and Andy (2005)
35

Task 3
The following reference list contains errors (some more than one error).
(i)
Identify the parts which are wrong
(ii)
Correct each error.
Adams, M. (n.d.). What is SWOT analysis. Retrieved May 25, 2011, from
http://www.swotportal.com/info.html
Chatfield, C. (1993). Neural networks: Forecasting Breakthrough or Passing Fad.
International Journal of Forecasting, 9(1), 1-3.
Cohen, J. (1994). The earth is round. American Psychologist, 49(2), pp. 997-1003.
Jobber, D., Hooley, G., and Sanderson, S. (1985). Marketing in a hostile environment: The
British textile industry. Industrial Marketing Management, 14(2), 35-41.
Rowe, G., & Wright, G. (2001). Expert opinions in forecasting role of the Delphi technique.
In Armstrong, J. S. (Ed.) Principles of forecasting: Handbook for researchers and
practitioners (125-144). Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Stevie Gerard, Andy Carol, & Lionel Suarez. (2011). You will never walk alone again.
Blackwell Publishing: Nevada, Texas.
Tan, G., & Lewandowsky, S. (1996, May 26). A comparison of operator trust in humans
versus machines. Paper presented at 5th Cyber Ergonomics Conference, Los Angeles,
California.
NOTE: Always remember that the reference list should be listed in ALPHABETICAL ORDER. E.g.
Starts with Adams, M. (n.d.) and end with Rowe, G. (2001)
References
Adams, M. (n.d.). What is SWOT analysis. Retrieved from http://www.swotportal.
com/info.html
Chatfield, C. (1993). Neural networks: Forecasting breakthrough or passing fad.
International Journal of Forecasting, 9(1), 1-3.
Cohen, J. (1994). The earth is round. American Psychologist, 49(2), 997-1003.
Gerard, S., Carol, A., & Suarez, L. (2011). You will never walk alone again. Nevada, TX: Blackwell
Publishing.
Jobber, D., Hooley, G., & Sanderson, S. (1985). Marketing in a hostile environment: The British
textile industry. Industrial Marketing Management, 14(2), 35-41.
Rowe, G., & Wright, G. (2001). Expert opinions in forecasting role of the Delphi technique. In
J. S. Armstrong (Ed.) Principles of forecasting: Handbook for researchers and
practitioners (pp. 125-144). Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Tan, G., & Lewandowsky, S. (1996, May). A comparison of operator trust in humans versus
machines. Paper presented at 5th Cyber Ergonomics Conference, Los Angeles, USA.
36

Task 4
Each of the reference below contains ONE (1) error. Circle the option with the error.
1. Rawlings, Carla. (2000). Imagining the impossible. Austin, TX: Blackwell Publishing.
A.
(2000).
B.
Austin, TX:
C.
Rawlings, Carla.
D.
Imagining the impossible.
2. Marvis, K. J., & Davis, M. (2008). Understanding the causes of posterior cortical anthropy.
Journal of Neurology, 13(4), 222-239.
A.
13(4),
B.
222-239.
C.
Journal of Neurology,
D.
Understanding the causes of posterior cortical anthropy.
3. Abdullah, S. (1997). Effect of buffer layer and and external stress on magnetic properties
of films. In Miller, H. L., Rice, C., & Pascal, D. (Eds.), Recent research in applied
physics (pp. 167-280). Washington, DC: Springer.
A.
(Eds.),
B.
(pp. 167-280).
C.
Washington, DC: Springer.
D.
In Miller, H. L., Rice, C., & Pascal, D. (Eds.),
4. Letchumanan, H. (2012, December 20). No Child Left Behind: Words or Action? The Star
Online. Retrieved from http://thestar.com.my
A.
The Star Online.
B.
(2012, December 20).
C.
Retrieved from http://thestar.com.my
D.
No Child Left Behind: Words or Action?
5. Johnson, E. M., Ramanair, J., & Brine, A. (2010). Learning How To Use Technology In
The Classroom. Wellington, New Zealand: Blackwell Publishers.
A.
Johnson, E. M., Ramanair, J., & Brine, A.
B.
Learning How To Use Technology In The Classroom.
C.
Wellington, New Zealand:
D.
Blackwell Publishers.
37

D. CITATION FOCUS
a. Types of Citation
When you cite the work of other authors in your writing, you may choose to focus either on
the information provided by that author or on the author him or herself. The former is called
information prominent and the later is called author prominent.
In an information prominent citation, the information is given primary importance. The
authors name(s) and date of publication are parenthetically included at the end of the
sentence.
Example:
In most deserts of the world, transitions between topographic elements are abrupt
(Smith, 1968)
In an author prominent citation, the authors name is given more emphasis. In author
prominent citations, the authors name serves as the subject of the sentence, followed by the
date in parentheses, and then by the information.
Example:
Leopold (1921) listed foods, but gave no quantitative data.

Information prominent citations are commonly used to signal the beginning of literature
review, where the citations refer to research in general area of your study. As the literature
review continues, the citations refer to studies more closely related to your own, making
author focus citations more common.
The following excerpt is an introduction from a report in the field of ecology. Notice how
Stage II (literature review) supports the background information presented in Stage I
(introducing the topic using generalized participants, i.e., material deposits and desert
ecosystems). Also, take note of how Stage III (specific example 1, i.e. Chihuahuan Desert)
starts, develops and moves on to Stage IV (details about specific example 1).
38

Task 5
Study the excerpt above and indicate whether the writers used information prominent
or author prominent citations for sentence 5-8.
E.
F.
G.
H.
Sentence 5 - information prominent

Sentence 6 - author prominent citation
a. Order of Citations
It is possible to arrange your Stage lI citations in order from those most distantly related
(not very similar) to your study to those most closely related (almost the same topic), as in
the article on desert ecosystems.
In addition, there are other ways to order your citations. For example, in a literature review
describing the history of research in an area, you may arrange your citations in
chronological order (organized based on point in time e.g. Monday, Tuesday,
Wednesday, etc.)).
Or, if you have a large number of citations to include in your literature review, as in a thesis
or dissertation, you can group them according to the different approaches to the research
problem taken by different authors. The citations within each approach can then be ordered
chronologically or from general to specific.
39

Task 6
Look at each of the following examples of Stage II, indicate if the method of ordering
citations used is distant to close, chronological, different approaches or a
combination of these methods in the box given. Read the title carefully to determine
the specific focus of the authors own study.
I.
PROVIDING DIRECTION AND BUILDING COMMITMENT:

TEACHING AS INSTITUTIONAL LEADERSHIP
The conception of teaching as institutional leadership was first proposed

by Waller (1932) who paid explicit attention to the organization of
schools and the roles of teacher and student as defined by the
Method of Ordering:
Chronological
organization. Recent literature on teacher leadership has not really

followed Wallers approach of considering the roles of teachers and
students in school organizations but has more closely resembled what
Waller referred to as personal leadership.
The literature on classroom leadership has also suffered from problems
other than the tendency to deal with personal leadership. There has been
a great deal of conceptual confusion about the dimensions of teacher
behaviour to be examined. Different investigations have used a wide
variety of variables such authoritarian-democratic (Lewin, Lippet &
White, 1939), dominant-integrative (Anderson, 1943), initiating
structure-consideration (Hemphill, 1957), directness-warmth (Dunki &
Biddle, 1974), task oriented-supportive (Cruikshank, 1976), and teacher
structuring-praise (Soar & Soar, 1976).
II.
THE MEASUREMENT OF MOBILITY
The economic literature which discusses mobility and makes some

attempt at measurement broadly falls into two categories. In the first,
Method of Ordering:
Different Approaches
elementary statistical techniques and indices such as rank correlation

coefficient are used to evaluate the changes in relative positions (Allan,
Ernest, & Ginnis, 2002; Strake, & Saunders, 1998; Wold et al., 2004). In
the second category, measures of mobility are a by-product of simple
stochastic specifications of changes over time (Compton, 1990; Singh,
2000; Yang, Yii, & Lee, 1995).
40

III.
SUBSURFACE IRRIGATION AND FERTILIZATION OF FIELD

CORN
Little literature has been published on subsurface irrigation and

fertilization through line emitters. Earl and Jury (1997), Keng et al (2003)
Method of Ordering:
Distant to close
and Jones, Wallace, and Brown (2000) have examined water movement
patterns and root development associated trickle irrigation but in all cases
emitters have been placed at or near the soil surface. Williams and
Hanson (2006) placed perforated plastic tubing 25 to 30 cm below cotton
rows and over a three year period were able to achieve a 10% yield
increase when compared to flood irrigation. Phene (2001) described the
use of line emitters for high frequency irrigation of sweet corn. Yield was
10% higher than obtained with sprinkler irrigation with the use of 50%
less water. Mitchell et al (2002) irrigated field corn with perforated
plastic tubing. Over a three year period yields with subsurface irrigation
averaged 68% more than the non-irrigated control plots.
IV.
ON THE TIME CONSISTENCY OF OPTIMAL POLICY IN A

MONETARY ECONOMY
Method of Ordering:
The time-consistency issue is by no means a new one in economics.

Strotz (1986) appears to be the first one to have raised it in relation to an
Combination of chronology
and different approaches
individual consumer. More recently, however, Kydland and Prescott

(2007) have discovered a family of models exhibiting time inconsistency
where the source of the problem lies in the technology and in the
assumption that people hold rational expectations. Although they briefly
touch upon a monetary economy, the central results of their remarkable
paper are given in a context where money plays no central role.
In the monetary literature, Auernheimer (1996) appears to be the first one
to have noticed that time inconsistency could arise if the government
attempts to maximize the revenue from money creation
41

Task 7
The following citations are taken from Stage ll of the introduction to a research report
from the field of nutrition. The citations are given here in scrambled order. Number
the citations in the order you feel they should appear in the literature review for this
report.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Citations
Young and Storvick (1970) surveyed the food habits of 595 college
freshmen in Oregon and found that the men generally had better
diets than the women.
Litman et al. (1975) reported that green and yellow vegetables and
liver (all nutritionally desirable foods) were not liked by teenagers in
Minnesota public schools. They also found that teachers have almost
no influence on their students' food habits.
Studies of the food habits of young school children have shown that
the diets of grade school children are often deficient in ascorbic acid,
calcium and iron (Lantz et al., 1958; Patterson, 1966).
A review of the literature indicates that food habit studies have been
conducted with students from a variety of different age groups.
Young (1965) examined the nutrition habits of a group of young
school children and found that their mothers lacked information
about the importance of milk and foods rich in ascorbic acid.
Studies done with adolescent children report similar findings
(Ohlson & Hart, 1970; van de Mark & Underwood, 1972).
A number of studies have been conducted using both male and
female college students as subjects.
Order
7
1
3
5
6
Self-Learning Task:
Locate a journal article, thesis, or dissertation reporting research in your major field of study or
an area of interest. Find the Stage II (the review of literature) of the article, photocopy it and try
to check:
1. What is the ordering system of the citations?
2. Look at each citation and determine if it uses author prominent or information prominent
focus. Does the authors choice of focus follow the conventions discussed earlier?
b. Verb Tense and Format for Information and Author Prominent Citations
Citation Focus and Verb Tense
As we have seen, your decision whether to focus Stage II citations on the information or on
the author determines the citation form you use. Similarly, this decision also helps to
determine the verb tense you will use in each citation.
42

Task 8
SEE WHAT YOU ALREADY KNOW Pretest
In the following literature review from a report in the field of education, choose the
best tense for each verb given in parentheses. Then write each verb in the tense you
have chosen in the blank space provided.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
has been
have been
found; reported; found
have noted
ascertained; is
determined
reported
have also studied
43

1. Tense in Information Prominent Citations
When the focus of the citation is on the information, you should write the citation in the
present tense. The present tense is used when the information you are citing is generally
accepted as scientific fact.
2. Tense in Weak Author Prominent Citations

The present perfect tense is used in citations where the focus is on the research area of
several authors. This kind of citation is called weak author prominent.
3. General Statements about the Research

The present perfect tense is also used in general statements that describe the level of
research activity in an area. These statements are often written without citations.
44

4. Tense in Author Prominent Citations
Later in Stage II, you use author prominent citations to report the findings of individual
studies closely related to your own. In these citations the simple past tense is used in the
verb of report.
NOTE:
As you can see from these rules, the progression of verb tenses in your literature
review follows the progression shown in the diagram below. Information prominent
citations with simple present tense in the beginning and moving to the later part with
more author prominent citations with simple past tense.
Note: Now do Task 4 again and see how different your answers are compared to the first
attempt.
45

Task 9
In the following example from the field of psychology, fill in the correct tense for each
Stage II verb given in parentheses.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
has advanced
have shown
showed
found
studied
noted
46

c. Language Conventions to Present Reported Findings
Attitudes and Tense in Reported Findings
Depending on which attitude you take towards the findings of researchers you cite, you may
use present tense, the past tense or various modal auxiliaries.
1. When you believe the findings you are citing are fact, use the timeless present tense in
the complement verb (that is the verb in the part of the sentence giving the findings e.g.
is).
2. When you believe the findings are restricted to the specific study you are citing, use
the past tense in the complement verb (e.g. had).
47

3. If the findings you are citing were seen by the original authors as tentative, or were only
suggestions or proposals rather than findings, use tentative verbs for the verb (e.g.
be) of report and a modal auxiliary with the complement verb (e.g. may).
Notice that in all three of these cases, the verb of report is always in the past tense (e.g.
proposed, suggested, etc.), while the verb tense in the findings part of the sentence varies
according to the authors attitude (e.g. is, was, be).
Task 10
In each excerpt, determine if the author views the reported findings as fact or only
tentative. Then rewrite each excerpt so that it indicates the opposite attitude.
Item
Fact (F)
Tentative (T)
a. Several studies have shown that oats produce more forage than other
F
winter cereal grains (Cassey, 2000; Jones, 1996; Yang, 1999).
Several studies have indicated that oats may produce more forage than other winter cereal grains
(Cassey, 2000; Jones, 1996; Yang, 1999).
b. The regulation of body temperature places demands on the respiratory
F
system which exceeds the needs for gas exchange (Hufakker, 1980).
The regulation of body temperature could place demands on the respiratory system which may
exceed the needs for gas exchange (Hufakker, 1980).
c. The magnetic field may affect both the velocity and temperature
T
distributions of a conducting fluid between two parallel disks (Battaiah
et al, 1979).
The magnetic field affects both the velocity and temperature distributions of a conducting fluid
between two parallel disks (Battaiah et al, 1979).
d. A recent survey suggested that the public may be willing to consider the
T
use of solar systems largely because of their low operating costs
(Jefferson, 2002).
A recent survey confirmed that the public is willing to consider the use of solar systems largely
because of their low operating costs (Jefferson, 2002).
e. Heimeann (1961) reported that sodium applications cause an increase
F
in potassium uptake.
Heimeann (1961) suggested that sodium applications could cause an increase in potassium uptake.
48

Unit 1b Citation Referencing Citation Focus Answers

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Center for Language Studies, UNIMAS

PBI 1092: Advanced Academic English (AE2)

Learning Unit 1b: CITATION, REFERENCING & CITATION

Malaysian Graduates Employability Skills

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1. A citation is a reference to the source of

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The cartoonist stated that his

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WHAT IS UNIQUE ABOUT THE QUOTATION ABOVE?

(2) Citing same author(s) several times in the same paragraph

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The theory was first

(Note: Only the first letter of the first word in the

Comfort (1997) claimed

Comfort, A. (1997). A good age. London,

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Madden and Hogan (1997,

Madden, R., & Hogan, T. (1997). The

definition of disability in Australia:

Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied

multiple regression/correlation analysis

For citation (3 to 5 authors)

For referencing 3 to 5 authors

Cite all authors the first

Guerin, M., Labor, K., Morgan, B., Reesman,

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Immediately use et al.

6 or more authors [List the first six

Rodgers et al. (1996)

Rodgers, F. H., Choi, M. J., Angeli, L. L.,

Employment the professional way: A guide to

(Choose maximum the first

Foo, V. H. K. (1983). Sarawak: Mini episodes

Chu, C. N. (1995). Simulated counter-current

adsorption processes: A comparison of

Brown, P. (1982). Corals in the Capricorn

In recent reports (Napier,

Napier, A. (1993a). Fatal storm. Sydney,

Use a/b etc. to differentiate

Napier, A. (1993b). Survival at sea. Sydney,

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between works in same

Australia: Allen & Unwin.

influence on adolescents adjustment to

List the entry with one author first.

(E. Johnson, 2001; L.

Johnson, E. (2001). Important rules in

Use first initials with the

Johnson, L. (1998). The new Grove dictionary

Kastenbaum, R. (Ed.). (1993). Encyclopedia of

(Note: No full stop after the title. The full stop

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