An Electrical Device for Analyzing Oil-reservoir Behavior

By W. A. BRUCE, * JUNIOR MEMBER A.I.M.E.

(Austin Meeting, October 1942)

ABSTRACT

THIS paper covers the theory and present

state of development of an apparatus for the
nonmathematical analysis of complex problems
of reservoir and well behavior.
At the present stage of development of this
apparatus, it is capable of solving the waterdrive problem of any reservoir performance for
which a mathematical solution has been presented in the literature, either on the basis of
steady or unsteady-state flow analysis.
The theory is presented for the extension of
the scope of this analyzer along the lines of the
present development. The resulting apparatus
should be able to solve reservoir-performance
problems previously thought too difficult for
practical solution by mathematical means.
As an illustration of its operation and present
scope, the analysis of a reservoir problem and
synthesis of expected performance is presented.

the block can be used. In analyzing

reservoir behavior from this point of view
by mathematical means, a set of simultaneous difference equations would be obtained
(two for each block), which must be solved
or combined into a partial differential equation. In the method to be described here,
instead of solving these sets of equations
analytically, electrical units are constructed, which will behave in respect to
the flow of electricity exactly as the
reservoir units behave under various conditions of fluid flow. The electrical units are
then wired together in the same way that
the reservoir units are connected naturally
by virtue of their geometrical locations and
shapes.
FLUID-FLOW EQUATIONS

INTRODUCTION

In this methodt of analyzing problems

of petroleum-reservoir and well behavior,
the porous continuum of the reservoir is
assumed to be divided into small blocks,
or units. Each block is assumed to be small
enough so that for a material balance on the
fluids in the block an average pressure for
Manuscript received at the office of the
Institute Sept. 28, I942. Issued in PETROLEUM
TECHNOLOGY, January I943.
Research Engineer, Carter Oil Co., Tulsa,
Okla.
t This method of analysis was conceived
after the author had made a detailed examination of apparatus designed and constructed
by Dr. Victor Paschkis,',' of Columbia University, for solving heat-flow problems. Dr.
Paschkis brought to this country ideas on solution of unsteady-state heat-transfer problems
by electrical means developed by C. L. Beuken 3,4
and himself. Lewis A. Pipes' recently has applied these same general principles to the solution of impact problems.
References are at the end of the paper.

Consider a block in a reservoir. Assume

that reservoir fluid (or fluids) is flowing
in at one face and out at the opposite face,
and that the block is small enough so that
at all points the stream lines are within one
degree of perpendicular to the face.
Furthermore, assume that the pressure,
PI, at the upstream face (Fig. I) is not
more than one per cent greater than P2
the pressure at the downstream face.
A material balance will show that the
mass of fluid flowing out less the mass of
fluid flowing in will equal the change in
density times the fluid volume. This is
expressed in the equation:

II2

W. A. BR UC!':

case to the fluid case is complete. In order

that the analogy may be quantitatively
exact and that current may be equivalent
to fluid flow, and pressure equivalent to
electrical potential, certain functional relations must be established.

Darcy's law gives the second equation:

Q
k Ap
-=-A--'Y
v
L
in which Q is the average mass rate of flow,
which, by the assumptions above, may be
PI -

01 -

Cff):
,
I

Pz

--.-'/~- --- - 0 2

FIG. I.-POROUS-MEDIUM UNIT.

FIG. 2.-ELECTRICAL UNIT.

either QI or Q2' L is the length of the block

and A is the area of the face.
Suppose that 'Y is some function of pressure alone and q refers to volume rate.
Then the fluid equations may be written:

Vol d'Y
dt

ql - q2 =

--.y

PI - P2

vL
kA q

and these equations are true within the

limit of the assumptions already made.
ELECTRICAL ANALOGY

Now consider an electrical circuit as

shown in Fig. 2.
The electrical C-unit acts as a device for
storage of electrical charge just as reservoir
rock acts as storage for reservoir fluids.
Hence, if current i l flows in and a greater
current i2 flows out of the unit, this difference in current must come from charge
stored in the C-unit. If the unit is arranged
so that for a net charge withdrawal there
will be a corresponding reduction of potential, the qualitative analogy of this electric

The necessary relationship between

voltage and current in the C-unit may be
written
i l - i2 = CEF(E,t)
[51
in which F(E,t) is some arbitrary function
of voltage and time, depending upon the
nature of the C-unit, and C E is .1 capacitance," although not the commonly known
dielectric capacitance.
In the general case, the C-unit must be
made so that Eq. 5 is analytically equivalent to Eq. 3; hence, it must be that

C F(E )
E
,t

Vol d'Y(E)
'Y(E) dt

[6]

This expression makes Eqs. 3 and 5 alike

except for variables.
The resistance to fluid flow is expressed
by Eq. 4 as vL/ kA. Similarly, the resistance
to electrical flow is given by

in which i is average current. A comparison

between Eqs. 4 and 7 shows that
RE = vL/kA

[8]

114

ELECTRICAL DEVICE FOR ANALYZING OIL-RESERVOIR BEHAVIOR

must be the value set for the electrical

resistance.

is analogous to the relationship for the

reservoir unit, which is

ANALYZER FOR SINGLE-PHASE

COMPRESSIBLE lIQUID

The relation between density and pressure in a single-phase compressible liquid is

'Y = 'Y oec(p-pol

[9]*

The fluid equations can be written for

the three independent orthogonal coordinates and the result is six simultaneous

~
FIG. 3.-PART OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL ELECTRICAL REPRESENTATION.

in which c is compressibility. This becomes,

when differentiated:
[10]

Combine this with Eq. 6, to give

11 -

~2 =

f Vo cdE
dt

[II]

This is the analytical definition of an

electrical condenser whose capacitance CE ,
is
Hence, for this case the C-unit becomes
a simple condenser because
.

21 -

12

C dE
Edt

Applies over a wide pressure range for

liquid phase, water, and oil and over a short
range for two-phase oil and gas being released
from solution.

equations for each block. Similarly, an

electrical circuit can be constructed having
six simultaneous equations necessary to
represent its behavior. Since these equations are identical in form to the fluid
eauations, the behavior of the complete
electrical circuit is analogous to the behavior of the entire fluid system. Fig. 3
indicates the network for representation
for compressible liquid.
In the figure each focal point represents
the center of a block at which it is assumed
the expansion of the fluid is taking place.
This focal center is the place to tie in the
C-unit, which for compressible liquids is a
condenser. The expanding fluid must get
out of the block through the porous medium; hence every block is connected to
every other block by a resistance.
The number of focal centers depends
upon the accuracy desired and the varia-

w.

A. BRUCE

tiOllS observed because, as described above,

each block must be small enough so that
the assumption that p, an average pressure,
can be used to replace PIx, Ply, Pie, or

lIS

tion that at some distance the isopotentials

become circles, a circular electrode is made
to coincide with the isopotential as far from
the wells as the size of the model will

FIG. 4.-POOL UNIT.

P2x, P2y, P2', the pressures at the x, y, z faces

of the block.
WATER-DRIVE UNIT

The water-drive treatment of a pool is

strictly a problem of the flow of a compressible liquid, and if the formation is
uniform in thickness a two-dimensional
treatment may be considered, though this
restriction is by no means necessary. Any
geometrical complexity could be taken into
account.
Suppose a field is as the one shown in
Fig. 4. It is a simple matter, with an ordinary electric model, to show that isopotentials going away from the wells
become nearly circles eventually, no matter
what the well pattern may be.
A well pattern is set up in a low-conductivity electric model, and, on the .assump-

permit. Current is put into this outside

electrode and taken out, the electrodes
representing the wells in accordance with
well-production rates. Then the area between the outside circle and the wells is
explored, isopotentials are drawn in as
shown and resistance between them is
measured. The isopotentials are drawn
close enough together so that the zone
between two may be considered as a unit.
The equations for fluid behavior in each
unit are:

and

[16]
in which RF is the measured resistance to
fluid flow.
Each unit may then be replaced by a

II6

ELECTRICAL DEVICE FOR ANALYZING OIL-RESERVOIR BEHAVIOR

condenser and resistor and the whole

system can he connected as indicated in
Fig. 5. The measurements with the electric

water drive ends in an outcrop that is

known to he feo hy water, this can be
simulaleo hy a hattery of constant voltage.
INPUT

FIG.

FIG.

5.-WATER-DRIVE UNITS.

6.-NETWORK REPRESENTATION OF A POOL.

model did not go beyond R3; hence these

additional values must be determined. It
was noted that isopotential No. 2 was a
circle. If the porous continuum is infinite in
extent, isopotential NO.3 would be a circle
and the resistance between No. 2 and NO.3
would be
v

RF = 27rkb log.

r4

r;

[17l

Furthermore, V. of Eq. IS would be

V.

lnr(r4 2 - r22)

[I8l

If the porous continuum is not large

enough to be assumed infinite, it is simple
to set up an electric model on a sufficiently
large scale to take in the entire continuum.
In such a model the pool would appear as a
very small electrode, but 0I!.ce the isopotentials are found the scale can be
changed.
The next problem is that of terminating
the water drive. In the general case it must
be carried far enough so that there is less
change in potential in the last condenser
than the limiting error. However, if the

If the termination is a pinch-out or a fault,

the units simply stop at the discontinuity,
across which no fluid flow is "Supposed to
take place.
OIL-ZONE UNIT

Two arrangements to handle the oil-zone

problem will be discussed: (I) a network of
resistors and C-units with a terminus at
each well and (2) a sheet of conducting
medium representing the permeable medium with distributed C-units simulating
the expansive ability of the fluid.
In the first system a square array of wells
would be represented as shown in Fig. 6, in
which the distributed capacity of the fluid
system to produce fluid is supposed to be
associated with some circle at a distance
from the well. The resistance from the focal
center represents the resistance to flow of
fluid into the well and is given by
v
r
RF = --log. 27rkb
r",

[I9l

(rw equals the well radius r a distance of

50 ft. or so from the well). This scheme

w.

A. BRUCE

would be reasonably simple to carry out

for a very small pool drilled on a square
pattern, but -if irregular drilling were
followed the complexities would make the
problem tedious.

117

P2 - PI

Q L va
'Ya A kg

= ---

If the gas obeys the law pV = zRT,

'Y. = ('Y./z)(p/P.)

FIG. 7.-ELECTR1CALLY CONDUCTING LIQUID REPRESENTATION OF A POOL.

A second scheme involves the combination of an electric model and the electrical
C-units. The well pattern is laid out on
a -bakelite board over which is put a
layer of slightly conducting water or
glycerin. The wells are represented by
large electrodes such that 80 or 90 per
cent of the well potential drop would be
observed between the radius of the actual
well and the distance corresponding to this
model representation of the well. The
resistance to fluid flow from the radius
represented by the model well to the actual
well bore is taken care of by resistors as
shown in Fig. 7.
Pressures can be corrected either to
average pool pressure or flowing-well
pressure.

Hence,
[22]
Eq. 5 becomes

_.

11 -

12

jV.

(1P- ZIdz)
dp
dp dt

or an electrical C-unit must be designed

that will deliver current, i2 - ir, when
there is a change in pressure or voltage,
- ddE , and it must follow the rule shown
t

in Eq. 23. Such an electrical device can

be made with electronic tubes and associated equipment.
If

~~

may be considered to be constant

ApPLICATION TO GAS FLOW

Consider again a small block through

which gas is flowing with the same general
conditions and assumptions stated in
connection with Fig.!.
If the pressure drop is small and the
mass rate of flow is Q1,

(its variation at Magnolia, Ark., is expected

to be 2 per cent in the next five years) the
instrumentation becomes simpler and
.

11 -

12

.
1

(V. dE
E
de

[]
24

This becomes

f
in which density is the average density
and the subscripts g refer to gas. Also,

l2
It

Ei dt

jV"(E I

E 2)

The left side of this equation represents

1I8

ELECTRICAL DEVICE FOR ANALYZING OIL-RESERVOIR BEHAVIOR

work or integrated power. Hence, a meter

of the watt-hour type arranged to drive a
linear scale potentiometer would represent
the gas-cap unit.
These complexities can be taken care
of in two other ways: (I) manual control
and (2) addition of condensers at discrete
intervals of time in accordance with Eq. 22
or 23.
GAS-CAP PROBLEM

The gas-cap problem, in which both

gas and oil are factors to be considered,
can be in a way similar to those in the
treatment of single-phase gas and liquid.
It is assumed that gravity will provide
segregation and that for the time of the
calculation the relative volumes of gas
cap to oil zone will not thange. This
simplification can be removed by including
differentials of volume in the equations
and also the electrical C-units; or, from
time to time, adding units to the entirely
single-phase parts above and below the gasoil interfaces.
CONVERSION FROM ELECTRICAL TO FLUID
UNITS

The relationships between units are

dictated by the pairs of analogy equations,
3 and 5, 4 and 7
Thus, if it is assumed that the following
numerical relationships will be used,

E/p

CE/CF = m
RE/RF = n

it follows from Eqs. 3 and 5 that

q/i = nil
For the time factor, the form of the function
F(E,t) must be considered, because time is
controlled by the interrelation of the two
elements, resistance and capacitance.
In the case of compressible liquid,
the equation for a condenser and resistor
combine the two factors involved. Thus,

ANALYSIS OF PERFORMANCE AT DIX POOL

The Dix pool, in Jefferson County,

Illinois, was discovered in January 1938.
It is on an anticlinal structure of the
Bethel sand. The Bethel at this point
is a smooth oval dome about 30 ft. thick.
The oil zone has about 30-ft. closure.
Laboratory analysis of cores shows 14 per
cent porosity and u8 millidarcy permeability. Drilling has indicated that the
Bethel extends, as a blanket sand with
minor breaks, over a large area in southern
Illinois.
The oil in the pool has a saturation
pressure of 250 lb. per sq. in. and has
been undersaturated during most of the
pool's development. The wells are drilled
on the 20-acre sunflower pattern, except
on the southeast side, where some irregular
development began during 1941. Wells
have productivity indices ranging from
0.1 to 3.0, the average being 1.0.
In preparation of the analyzer for this
problem it was divided into a pool unit
and a water-drive unit. It was assumed
that the major fluid in the pool unit was
a compressible liquid of compressibility
6 X ro- 6 (lb. per sq. in. units) and viscosity 2.5 centipoises, and that the fluid
in the water-drive unit was a liquid of
compressibility 3 X ro- 6 and viscosity
of 1.0 centipoise.
POQL UNIT, DIX POOL

The pool unit is indicated schematically

in Fig. 4. Wells are represented by ~1l-in.
diameter electrodes pressed into a 28 by
28-in. bakelite panel. Each well is located
according to a scale map. The porous
medium is represented by a 90 per cent
glycerol and water solution, which has a
resistivity of about r.5 megohm-cm.,
and, since the Bethel sand at Dix is uniform in thickness, the depth of solution is
uniformly about % inch.
* For previous an~lysis of this problem by
mathematical means see paper presented in
February.'

w.

A. BRUCE

T
1
S

CONTOURS -320--

MEASURED PRESSURES- 3 9
JAN. 1940
~--------16----------L--------Fl=-2~E=-------~

120

ELECTRICAL DEVICE FOR ANALYZING OII.-RESERVOIR BEHAVIOR

1
S

1
5

I
I

I1_.JXl...!'~ __

CONTOURS -320--

MEASURED PRESSURES-3.3
APRIL 1842

L------16

[ C DOuTHit

R2E
FIG. 9.-ELECTRICALLY DETERMINED PRESSURE CONTOURS, 1942.

W. A. BRUCE

For production, the 76 wells are grouped

together into 20 subgroups. Capacitors
are connected to each group in accordance
with the area assigned to that group for
drainage. Resistors are put in series with
each group, according to the reciprocal
of the summed productivity indices for
the wells in the group.
The numerical relationships between
pool and analyzer are:

E/p = 1/10
CE/CF = 1/15 (capacitance in microfarads)
RE/RF = 2 (resistance in megohms)
Thus, the time scale is:
I

I second = 7.5 days

microampere = 20 bbl. per day

The location of the zero isopotential,

indicated by Fig. 4, is accomplished by
the following procedure: A potential is
established between the wells and a
circular outer metal ring indicated by the
third ring in Fig. 4. Isopotentials are then
plotted with a probe, and the one just
enclosing all of the wells (called the zero
isopotential in the drawing) is the new
position of the metal strip and also the
point at which the water drive is connected.
The resistance between the zero isopotential and the next one is determined by the
current-potential relationship in the glycerol, and this resistance is used to fix the
resistance in one of the elements of the
water-drive unit.
WATER-DRIVE UNIT,

DIX

POOL

A schematic drawing of this is shown in

Fig. 5. Each element represents a certain
part of the porous medium through which
the water flows and in which the water
expands as the pressure is reduced.
For the Dix pool these elements are
taken as the porous medium between isopotentials, and each is arbitrarily chosen
so that the resistance to fluid flow is
(v/211'kb) (0.405). For the first few sections
the isopotentials are irregular contours

121

but thereafter they are so nearly circles

that the cylindrical formulas can be used
and the ratio of successive radii becomes

OPERATION AND RESULTS

In practice the production figures by

wells are tabulated and grouped.
A timer starts calling time with 4 sec.
equal one month and the well-group
switches are closed in accordance with the
average time at which each group of wells
was drilled. Throughout this operation
the variable resistors are adjusted to
keep suitably placed microammeters showing the proper average daily production.
Vacuum-tube voltmeters are connected
to the well electrodes of the pool unit and
a record of their readings gives the pool
pressure at the electrode.
To fix the values of resistances of the
water drive and pool units, values were
chosen from the permeability and viscosity
data, as follows: For the water zone,
v/kb = 0.233, and for the oil zone, v/kb =
0375. The water-drive resisto'rs were set
at 34,000 ohms each and the glycerol was
made up p/b = 328,000 ohms. This was
on the basis of a. uniform permeability of
II8 millidarcys and the factors indicated
above.
Data through December 1939 were
put into the analyzer. The resulting
pressures from the analyzer were about
IS per cent too low.
The water-drive unit and pool unit were
adjusted until the resistances of the waterdrive unit all were 30,100 ohms and those of
the pool unit was 375,000 ohms. At this
point the analyzer voltages seemed to
agree best with observed pressures as far
as the run was carried.
The synthesis of pressure data beyond
December 1939 was continued and the
results for each group were as close to the
observed pressures as they had been in the
analysis phase of the run. Once the resist-

122

ELECTRICAL DEVICE FOR ANALYZING OIL-RESERVOIR BEHAVIOR

ances were set by the history of the pool

up to 1940, no further changes were made
to carry the synthesis into 2H more years
of development.
Representative results are shown in
Figs. 8, 9 and 10. Fig. 8 shows the analyzer
contours for Jan. I, 1940. Pressures measured Dec. 26 to 30, 1939 are indicated at
the w!ills. Similarly, contours for April 1942
are shown in Fig. 9. The pressures and
analyzer data are shown in Fig. 10 for four
representative individual groups and for
the average of the 20 groups.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author is indebted to B. M. Bradley,

John Cooke, and Lois Cline for assistance in
organization of data and operation of the
analyzer and to the management of The
Carter Oil Co. for permission to publish
this paper.
NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS

Fluid
qp = bbl. per day
p = pressure, lb. per sq. in.
r = distance, ft.
b = formation thickness, ft.
c = compressibility, bbl. per bbl. per lb. per
sq. in.

800

~ 600
ci
~

ui

II]

7400

AVEkAGE WELL PRESSURES

GROUP 6

w
a:
:>

Ul
Ul
W

g: 200

~ e e

-....e"

AVERAGE MEASURED PRESSURES

- - A C T U A L & EXPECTED PRODUCTION RATE.
~, _ 2S BBLS/WELL/DAY AFTER 7-42.
- - - - - NO EDGE W[LLS-AFTER JUNE 40 . .
_ _ _ SHUT IN WELLS AFTER SO,,"WAT[R

TOTAL ~OL i"ooveT'ON

- --- -._--~ ~-...

e

1938

1939

1940
1941
TIME-YEARS

1942

1943

800r----~---~---~---~---~---~

AVERAGE WELL PRESSURES

GROUP 12
Z

-600~------~~-----+-------~--------+-------~------~

d
Ul
.....

ui

II]

740r------l--------f~~~~~~~_r------i_----_i
a:

:>

Ul
Ul

~200
0..

AVERAGE

MEASURED PRESSURES.

_-- :~T:8ALLS~!~~i~~~~ P:~~~~T~~:2

RATE

_+______-+______--1

- - - - NO EDGE WELLS AFTER JUNE 40

_ _ _ SHUT IN WELLS AFTER 50,.. WATER
TOTAL POOL PRODUCTION SAME.

0L--1-9-3-6-~-1-9-3-9-~-1-9-4-0-~-1-9-4-1-~-1-9-4-2-~-1-9-43-~
TIME-YEARS

FIG. Io.-A

COMPARISON OF ANALYZER AND

Wo Ao BRUCE

I23

8oor------,------~------_r------_r------~----_,

AVERAGE WELL PRESSURES

GROUP 3

~600r-----~.---__-+______-+______~______+_-----~

CD

7400r-------t-~~~+_------+_------+_------+_------~

0::

:::>

til
til
W
0::200

a..

AVERAGE MEASURED PRESSURES

- - - ACTUAL & EXPECTED PRODUCTION
_ _

~~~;LS/WELL/OAY

AFTER 7-4.2

-----+--------+--00_0_00_00_0_""'00"1

o ~~1~9~3~8--~~1~9~3~9--~--1-9-4-0--~--1-9-4-1--~---19-4~2~~--1~9~4~3--~
TIME-YEARS

800r-------r-------r-------~------~------,-------,

AVERAGE WELL PRESSURES

GROUP 4

-600r-----~r--------+_------+-------+_------+-------;

til

"

iii
CD

...J
1

400

W
0::

:::>

til
til

~200

a..

AvERAGE MEASURED PRESSURES

-0_-_- ; ; ~~~i /&W~X:LE;~AE.,o

~RF"~OEU; T; ~~ ZR ATE ---F"""=----f"~----__j

- - - SHUT IN WELLS AFTER ~O'To WATER

TOTAL POOL PRODUCTION SAME

oL-----~----

1938

__

I
~

1939

______
1940

____

______

1941

1942

____

1943

TIME-YEARS

800r------,~----_;--~~_T~~~-r------,-------,

WEIGHTED AVERAGE POOL PRESSURE

BY "'fELLS

AVERAGE MEASURED PRESSURES

---208BLS.lW[LL/DAY PRODUCTION RATE
-2!!l BBLS/WELL/DAY PRODUCTION RATE

g 6001~----~~------+-------+-------~------~------~

"iii
CD

...J
1
W

~400r-----~--~--~r------+-------r------+-------;

til
til
W
0::

a..

200L-------~------~------~------~------~------~

1938

1939

1940

1941

TIME-YEARS
MEASURED PRESSURES FOR

DIX

POOL.

1942

1943

I24

ELECTRICAL DEVICE FOR ANALYZING OIL-RESERVOIR BEHAVIOR

10 = permeability in perms (r.127 darcys).

bbl. per nay pcr sq. ft. per lb. 1'<'1' sq. in.
per ft..
v """'" viscosity. ('pntiv()i~t'5
V. = total sand volume. bbl.
I = fractional porosity
'Y = density
.
V.I d-y
h' h f or
CF = fi UI'd capaCItance
= -;;;- dp w IC

compressible liquids is V.jc

RF = v/k times-shape factor
tF =

time. days

Electrical
i = current, microamperes
E = potential. volts

r = distance. cm.

RE = resistance. megohms

CE = capacitance. microfarads
tR = time, sec.
REFERENCES

V. Paschkis and H. D. Baker: A Method for

Determining Unsteady-state Heat Transfer by Means of an Electrical Analogy.
Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Engrs. (1942).
2. V. Paschkis: Periodic Heat Flow in Building
Walls Determined by Electrical Analogy
Method. Trans. Amer. Soc. Heating and
Ventilating Engrs. (1942).
3 C. L. Beuken: Warmverluste bei periodisch
betriebenen Elektrischen bfen. ElektroI.

technik und Maschinenbau (1937) 55, 232.

4. V. Paschkis and C. L. Beuken: Die Berechnung der Durchwarmungszeiten von

Gutstucken auf Grund der relativen
Mindertemperatur. Elektrotechnik und
Maschinenbau (1938) 56, 98.

5 L. A. Pipes: The Operational Theory of

Longitudinal Impact. Jnl. Applied Physics
(1942) 13, 503

6. 'V. A. Bruce: Pressure Prediction for Oil

Reservoirs. This volume, page 73.

DISCUSSION
(C. E. Rtistle, Jr. presiding)
V. PASCHKIS,* New York, N. Y.-The
accuracy of the method described in this paper
depends to a considerable extent on the leakage
of the electrical parts used in the analyzing
equipment. One, although by no means
the only, source of leakage is the (electric)
condensers.
* Research Associate on Heat Transfer,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Columbia University.

If the analyzer is built with special care,

keeping the leakage very low, it uecolll(,s rather
I'xpensivt'. On the othp!" hand, inexpensi\'('
material (especially condensers) and design
lead to high leakage currents.
Obviously the second method was chosen by
the author. It forces him to select the time
scale rather large: 1 second = 7Y2 days. Five
years are represented in the experiments by
240 sec., or 4 min. Within so short a time, it is
hardly possible to adjust variable resistors to
keep micro ammeters showing certain values.
There is always a lag between observation of
the microammeter and the readjustment of the
resistor. This lag is constant and therefore is
felt proportionally more in short experiments
than in long runs.
In experiments with changing boundary conditions or changing internal properties, it is
desirable to use better equipment with lower
leakage currents, allowing the use of longer
time for the experiments.

W. A. BRUCE (author's reply).-Dr. Paschkis

is quite correct in his observations that electrical leakage limits the accuracy of these experiments. It would be a great convenience if we
had the same quality of electrical equipment
for studying the problems of the petroleum
reservoir that he has available in the heat-flow
laboratory at Columbia University.
At the time this paper was written, an
automatic control device was planned and this
equipment has no'w been developed. It eliminates the necessity of setting micro ammeters by
hand and permits higher accuracy with a
shorter time scale. Thus, it appears that no
experiment will have to be run for much longer
than 5 min., whereas the electrical equipment
now has leakage properties that would permit
experiments of 10 min. duration.
These short-duration experiments were
necessary originally because of electrical leakage. Now, with automatic control, they appear
to be advantageous because of the reduction in
time necessary for a complete analysis.