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Air Conditioning Systems I

Learning Outcome
When you complete this module you will be able to:
Describe the operation of various air conditioning systems.

Learning Objectives
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective:
1. List the functional components and categories of air conditioning systems.
2. Describe the operation of air handling units.
3. Describe the general layout and operation of unitary air conditioning systems.
4. Describe the general layout and operation of central air conditioning systems.

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FUNCTIONS of an AIR CONDITIONING SYTEM


The purpose of an air conditioning system is to maintain space conditions that are
satisfactory for the comfort of the occupants and for the intended function of a
building. The requirements for system performance vary in accordance with the
type and location of each building, but will include some or all of the functions
described in the following sections.
Heating
A source of heat is required to offset the heat loss to the atmosphere surrounding
the building through the exterior walls and roof and through floor slabs on grade
and basement walls. The heat must be effectively distributed to all rooms and
zones with such heat losses to ensure that comfort conditions are maintained in all
areas of the building.
Cooling
A source of cooling is required to offset the heat gain through the building
exterior shell from solar radiation and the atmosphere surrounding the building,
and from internal sources of heat. The cooling must be effectively distributed to
ensure that comfort conditions are maintained throughout the building.
Ventilation
Provision of outside air into the building is required to replenish the oxygen
supply for the occupants. Also, outdoor air is necessary to dilute odors which
develop in the building and to provide makeup air for the washroom exhaust
systems, thus maintaining an acceptable air balance in the building.
Humidification
When the relative humidity of the outdoor air is low, moisture must be added
within the building to maintain acceptable conditions for human comfort. Also,
this moisture minimizes the effects of static electricity which may be important
for proper operation of sensitive equipment within the building.
Dehumidification
A method of removing excessive moisture from the building may be required to
maintain a relative humidity that is acceptable to occupants and for operation of
sensitive equipment. Also, in colder climates, dehumidification may be required
in humid areas such as swimming pools to prevent structural damage during
winter due to frost formation in exterior walls.

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Air Circulation
Air movement is required in each space to assist in dissipation of latent heat from
occupants and to prevent a buildup of odors which may develop in stagnant areas.
Filtration
Air filters are required to remove contaminants such as dust, dirt, smoke, pollen,
and lint from recirculated air and from outside air before it is introduced into the
building.
It may not be necessary for a system to meet all of these requirements to achieve
satisfactory performance. Each application is unique and its requirements vary in
accordance with geographical location, local weather conditions, type of
occupancy, building layout, and construction. For example, a small residence
located in a moderate climate may only require a source of heating and ventilation
for odor control to maintain acceptable conditions for the occupants. Therefore,
installation of electric baseboard heaters along exterior walls in each room and a
washroom exhaust fan may be adequate for this application.
For a larger residence, located in an area with colder winters and hotter summers,
a more complex system would be required to maintain satisfactory conditions on a
year-round basis. Installation of a forced air system would provide heating, air
filtration, air circulation, and ventilation. A humidifier could be installed for
humidification during winters and cooling coils could be added for summer
cooling and dehumidification.
Therefore, in the analysis of the best system for a building, it is very important to
first determine which of the basic requirements must be provided to achieve
satisfactory conditions in the building, and which requirements would be
desirable, but not essential. Once this is established, then the system which best
matches these needs can be selected.

CATEGORIES OF SYSTEMS
Many types and variations of systems have been developed over the years for use
in buildings of various sizes and locations. However, these systems can generally
be divided into three main categories.
Unitary Systems
Each individual room or zone is provided with a self-contained air conditioning
unit to maintain desired environmental conditions.

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Central Systems
Air is filtered, heated, cooled, and/or humidified in an air handling unit located in
a central mechanical room in the building. The conditioned air is then distributed
through supply ductwork to all rooms and zones in the building. The system is
mainly controlled in the mechanical room, but supplementary thermostats in each
zone may also be provided for improved individual room temperature control.
Combined Systems
Air is conditioned in an air handling unit located in a central mechanical room and
is ducted to all areas of the building. However, this system normally provides
only ventilation and cooling while supplementary equipment located in each zone
provides heating and additional cooling if required. Combined systems are
usually more complex and costly than central systems, but provide superior zone
temperature control.

OPERATION OF AIR HANDLING UNITS


Prior to analysis of the various types of systems in each of these categories, a
discussion of the main components and the operation of air conditioning
equipment is required. Regardless of the type of system, the air is mainly
conditioned in an air handling unit, such as the one shown in Fig. 1. The unit
may include a fan, filters, source of heating, source of cooling, humidifier, and
motorized dampers for airflow control.

Figure 1
Typical Air Handling Unit
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A simple cooling only unit would consist of a fan, filter, and cooling coil; whereas
a large air handling unit for a central system would include all of the basic
components, and various others might be added. Filters are usually of the
replaceable media type, but electronic air filters are used for some applications.
Heating may be provided by hot water, steam or electric coils, or by fossil fuel
fired furnaces. Chilled water or direct expansion refrigerant coils can be used for
cooling. Humidification may be by water or steam type humidifiers. Supply fans
range from small propeller fans to centrifugal fans in large central systems. To
simplify this analysis, the most commonly used type of components will be
discussed for each system.
The arrangement of the intake section of air handling units is of particular interest.
These units may be installed in four different arrangements as illustrated in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2(a)shows a unit operating on full recirculation, simply drawing in room air,
conditioning it, and then returning it to the room. In Fig. 2(b) the unit is operating
on approximately 90% recirculation and a fixed 10% of outside air which is
drawn through a connection from the return air duct to outdoors. This minimum
outdoor air arrangement is typically utilized with a forced air furnace to provide
ventilation for a house. In Fig. 2(c) the unit is operating on 100% outside air with
no recirculation, so special attention must be given to the design of the heating
components to prevent freezing problems during winters. These "makeup air
systems" are used for kitchens, parking garages, and laboratories to ensure that
negative pressure does not develop in buildings where large quantities of outside
air are required to balance air removed by exhaust systems.

Figure 2
Intake Arrangements for Air Handling Units

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The mixed air system, Fig. 2(d), is the most commonly used arrangement in
central and combined systems for larger buildings. In these units the motorized
dampers are both sized for maximum air flow; therefore, the unit can operate on
full outdoor air, full recirculation, or any mixture of outdoor air and return air. In
addition, motorized relief air dampers must be provided to allow return air to be
exhausted from the building when it is not required for mixing. For example,
when the unit is operating on full outdoor air, all of the return air must be released
from the building. The mixing dampers are usually automatically controlled to
provide a mixed air temperature of approximately 12.5C (54.5F), which is the
desired supply air temperature to the building for cooling purposes. Therefore, the
amount of outdoor air required will vary in accordance with the outdoor air
temperature, as indicated in Fig. 3.

Figure 3
Air Mixing Systems Variation of
Amount of Outdoor Air With Temperature

Note that the amount of outdoor air for a 12.5C (54.5F) mixed air temperature is
reduced to approximately 15% during the coldest winter days, but increases as the
outdoor temperature rises, and is 100% at 12.5C . In this temperature range, the
desired 12.5C supply air temperature for building cooling can be achieved by
the operation of the mixed air dampers, so mechanical cooling is not required.
This is called free cooling and results in a significant saving in energy
consumption compared to systems which do not have this feature. As the outdoor
temperature increases above 12.5C, the unit continues to operate on full outdoor
air, but mechanical cooling is required to reduce the air temperature. When the
outdoor temperature exceeds the 24C (75F) return air temperature it is more
energy efficient to operate on recirculation, so the dampers adjust to a 10% or
15% minimum outside air position. In some climatic locations, the dry bulb and
wet bulb temperatures of the outdoor and return air are measured, and this
"changeover" occurs when the outdoor air enthalpy exceeds the return air
enthalpy, thus resulting in further energy savings.
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UNITARY AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS


A unitary system utilizes self-contained, packaged equipment which is installed in
or adjacent to a zone and provides air conditioning for that area only. The air
handling unit is typically fully assembled in the factory with all of the
components required for the application, and is shipped complete to the site for
installation. The units are usually installed with little or no ductwork and
therefore are most economically located in the area served. They are single zone
in operation, and are normally controlled by a space thermostat or a thermostat
mounted on the unit, with a sensing bulb in the return air flow. These systems are
easy to install, are relatively low in initial cost, and are utilized in residential and
commercial buildings. They normally do not satisfy all of the requirements for
environmental control but are sufficient for selected applications.

Window Air Conditioner


This packaged unit utilizes a direct expansion refrigeration system to provide
cooling and dehumidification in a local area. It is designed to supply conditioned
air directly to the space without ductwork, and is normally installed in a window
or exterior wall opening. It requires no piping connections and can usually be
plugged into a standard wall outlet for electrical power supply.
The unit is divided into two compartments. In the supply air plenum, room air is
drawn through a low efficiency air filter and evaporator coil to provide cooling.
A fan then delivers the air back into the room at a lower temperature through
adjustable directional louvres. The condenser compartment is exposed to outdoor
air and houses the compressor, air-cooled condensing coil, and condenser fan.
The heat absorbed in the evaporator coil and the heat of compression are
dissipated to the outdoor air in the condensing coil. Condensate from the
evaporator coil is drained back to a pan located below the condenser fan and is
evaporated when thrown against the condensing coil by a slinger ring on the
fan. A thermostat with sensing bulb located in the return
airflow to the evaporator coil maintains room temperature by stopping and
starting the compressor. A manually controlled damper is provided to allow a
minimum flow of outdoor air into the room for ventilation, if desired.
These units are noisy in operation and result in wide swings in room temperature
due to the on-off control of cooling. Also, they provide no direct control of the
amount of dehumidification, as this occurs only when the cooling coil is in
operation to satisfy room temperature requirements. However, window air
conditioners are relatively low in initial cost and are well suited to provide local
cooling in residential and commercial installations. Capacities typically range
from 0.3 to 1.8 tonnes (1/3 to 2 tons).

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Packaged Air Conditioner


These units are normally floor mounted in a vertical position but may also be
mounted horizontally on floors or suspended in false ceiling spaces. The unit
consists of a supply fan, low efficiency air filter, and direct expansion cooling
coil. It usually delivers conditioned air through a discharge plenum directly to the
space, but may be connected to a limited amount of ductwork. The heat of
refrigeration may either be dissipated in a city water-cooled condenser or by a
remote, outdoor air-cooled condensing unit located on the roof. Auxiliary water
or steam heating coils, steam humidifiers, and a minimum outdoor air duct
connection may also be included, if desired.
These units are normally available in a 2.7 to 13.6 tonne (3 to 15 ton) range. They
are single zone in operation, but can handle much larger areas than window air
conditioners. Temperature may be controlled by a space thermostat or by a
sensing bulb located in the return air stream. Stepped capacity control is available
in larger units with dual compressors. Dehumidification is provided but is not
directly controlled. Packaged air conditioners satisfy more of the basic
environmental requirements and are quieter than window air conditioners, but are
still noisy in operation due to the compressor located in the conditioned space.
They are well suited for use in restaurants, commercial or retail areas, or in rooms
such as laboratories where supplemental cooling may be required due to heat
released from equipment in the room.
A variation of these air conditioners is seen in process cooling units for computer
rooms. These units are designed to handle the substantial heat released from
computer equipment and to maintain fine control of environmental conditions in
the computer room. They are more complex in design and operation than
standard units. Fans are sized to handle higher air volumes, air filters are high
efficiency type, and dual refrigeration circuits are used to provide backup
operation. Higher capacity humidifiers are included to maintain close control of
room humidity, and cooling coils are designed to provide dehumidification when
required. Sophisticated electronic controls are utilized, including display panels
to indicate room conditions and alarms.
These units provide excellent control of environmental conditions but are very
costly. They are specifically designed for applications where room conditions
must be maintained within a limited range at all times.
Unit Ventilator
This system was developed to provide individual room temperature control in
buildings such as hotels with many zones and limited available floor space. The
units, as shown in Fig.4, are mounted on building exterior walls and include a low
efficiency filter, fan, heating and/or cooling coil, and manually adjustable duct
connection to outdoors for provision of minimum outdoor air.
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Room air is drawn into the bottom of the unit, mixed with a fixed amount of
outdoor air, filtered, and blown by a fan through the coils to the room. The coils
are connected to a piping system which provides chilled water from refrigeration
machines for summer cooling and/or hot water from boilers for winter heating.

Figure 4
Unit Ventilator System

Room temperature can either be controlled by a space or return air thermostat


which operates a control valve in the water supply to the coil. This system
provides acceptable room temperature control, particularly if a modulating valve
is used in the water supply to the coil. Installation requires minimal space in the
room, but note that condensate drain piping is required for each cooling coil and
may be difficult to install. No humidification is provided, and the outdoor air
intake may be subject to freezing problems during winter in colder climates.
Also, the location of these air intakes must be carefully considered, particularly at
ground level where vehicle exhaust fumes may be present.

Rooftop Unit
These self-contained air handling units are used for larger applications from 2.7 to
68 tonnes (3 to 75 tons) or more of cooling. The units are manufactured in
sections on a modular basis, and are designed with a weatherproof casing
enclosure for exposed installations on roofs. A unit may consist of a plenum
section with motorized dampers for mixing of outdoor and return air, filter
section, supply fan, heating section, cooling coils, and humidifier.

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There is great flexibility in the selection of components as filters of varying


efficiencies can be used, natural gas-fired burners or hot water or steam coils can
provide heating, and chilled water or direct expansion coils can be used for
cooling. For the direct expansion option, an air cooled condensing section can be
added to the package. The units are usually mounted on a roof adjacent to the
area served. Supply air can be directly delivered to the space or ducted to provide
more even distribution throughout the area. Controls range from simple space or
return air thermostats, to sophisticated electronic packaged controls with energy
management features. Note that the mixing section of this system is usually
capable of "free cooling" and operation on 100% outside air.
Rooftop units are commonly used for single zone commercial buildings such as
department stores, restaurants, food stores, and shopping centers. They are well
suited for warehouses, light manufacturing plants, recreational facilities,
gymnasiums, and other single storey buildings with large floor areas. In addition,
they are used for office buildings and schools, but must be carefully designed to
prevent noise transmission from the units into occupied spaces located directly
below. They may not be fully satisfactory in control due to the multizone layout
of these buildings.
In summary, this system is very flexible in design and can be selected to provide
only the basic heating and ventilation requirements, or to provide full
environmental control. The units are very competitive in initial cost due to the
factory assembly, and do not require floor space or a building enclosure for
installation. However, they may be more difficult to maintain due to their
exposed location on rooftops.

CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS


The main characteristic of central systems is that all major equipment components
such as boilers, chillers, and air handling units are located in a central mechanical
room in the building. The air is conditioned at this central location, and is
distributed by ductwork throughout the building to satisfy heating and cooling
requirements in each zone. Central systems are commonly used in larger
buildings and have the following advantages in comparison to unitary systems:
1. The system is easier to operate and maintain since major components are
in a mechanical room and can be inspected without disrupting occupied
areas in the building.
2. Noise and vibration generated by major components can be more easily
and effectively controlled when not located immediately adjacent to
occupied areas.

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3. For buildings with high load requirements, large central equipment


components with higher operating efficiencies and lower initial cost per
unit output can be utilized.
The main drawbacks of central systems are the amount of building space required
to accommodate mechanical rooms and distribution ductwork, and the cost of this
ductwork. Also, the larger equipment components may be more difficult to
maintain, and a breakdown of one key component may result in a shutdown of the
air conditioning system for the entire building.

Forced Air System


The most common central system is the forced air furnace installed in many
residences. The furnace is normally located in the basement and provides
conditioned air which is ducted to each room in the house. The basic furnace
includes low efficiency filters, direct drive or belt driven fan, and indirect natural
gas-fired heating section, as shown in Fig. 5. An outdoor air duct is normally
connected to the return air ductwork to provide a fixed amount of outside air into
the system. High efficiency electronic air filters, water humidifiers, and a split
system, direct expansion cooling coil with remote air-cooled condensing unit may
also be added to the furnace to provide satisfactory environmental conditions on a
year round basis.

Figure 5
Forced Air System with Natural Gas Heating

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The system is single zone in operation and is normally controlled by a wall


mounted room thermostat located in a hallway on the main floor. The thermostat
cycles the heating/cooling and fan on as required to maintain space conditions.
Alternatively, a manual override switch may permit continuous fan operation for
constant air circulation within the space if desired. This system is effective in
operation and it can provide all of the basic requirements for residential
installations. It is particularly well suited for buildings of wood frame
construction where spaces between floor joists are used for return airflow. It is
also used in retail buildings such as food stores, restaurants, and offices, and is
typically installed in a small room adjacent to the conditioned space. Drawbacks
to this system include its relatively noisy operation, and the limitation of single
zone temperature control. Also, supply air registers are normally installed at floor
level below windows for heating purposes, but must also supply cool air during
summer cooling operation, and thus may cause discomfort due to drafts at floor
level.

Single Zone, Constant Air Volume System


This is similar to the rooftop unit system except that the air handling unit is
located in a mechanical room within the building. The unit may include heating,
cooling, filtration, and/or humidification to condition the air which is then ducted
throughout the building. Space conditions are maintained by adjusting supply air
temperature with a return air or room thermostat. This system is suitable for use
in single zone applications such as gymnasiums and retail spaces, but is not
effective for multizone layouts. It is normally easier to maintain than an
equivalent rooftop system due to the indoor location of the air handling unit, but
the mechanical room must be sized to provide sufficient clearance for access to
the unit.

Terminal Reheat System - Low Velocity


This system, as shown in Fig. 6, is similar to the previous system with zone reheat
coils added to allow multizone temperature control in the building. The
components of the air handling unit are the same, and the unit is located in a
central mechanical room. However, the temperature of the supply air from the
unit does not vary in accordance with space load requirements. Instead, a
constant supply air discharge temperature of approximately 12.5C (54.5F) is
maintained year round by operation of the air mixing dampers, with supplemental
heat during winters and cooling during summers. Conditioned air is distributed
throughout the building by low velocity ductwork, designed so that each desired
zone is fed by a separate branch duct. A steam or hot water reheat coil is installed
in the branch duct under the control of the space thermostat located in that zone.
This coil reheats the supply air as required to maintain satisfactory space
conditions.
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Figure 6
Terminal Reheat System Low Velocity

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The system is very effective in providing all of the basic environmental control
requirements, and was used extensively for all types of buildings prior to the
escalation of energy costs in the 1970s. However, it is very high in energy
consumption. Supply air which is mechanically cooled to 12.5C (54.5F) during
summers may be reheated to maintain zone space conditions. Also, the system is
designed to satisfy the maximum annual cooling load in each zone and cannot
take advantage of the diversity in these loads.
For example, the air quantities supplied to exterior zones in the building are
selected to satisfy the maximum cooling load during times of peak solar radiation.
However, at 9:00 a.m. only the east zone receives solar radiation, so that
substantial supply air reheat is required in south and west zones to prevent
overcooling. This terminal reheat system has been replaced in many buildings by
more energy efficient systems, but still has specific applications such as
laboratories and hospitals where a constant room air circulation rate and fine
temperature control are required.

Terminal Reheat System - High Velocity


This is a variation of the low velocity, terminal reheat system in which the size of
supply ductwork is reduced by utilizing higher air velocities for distribution
throughout the building. This reduces ductwork costs and building space
requirements to accommodate the ducts. However, more powerful supply fans
with larger motors are required to develop higher supply air pressures.
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Also, a terminal reheat box is required in the branch duct to each zone to reduce
the air flow to low velocity, and to maintain a constant supply air volume in spite
of air pressure fluctuations in the high velocity ducts. The boxes consist of a
volume regulator, reheat coil, and acoustic insulation. Each box is rated for a
maximum capacity, but actual air flow can be set by manually adjusting a volume
controller on the exterior of the box.
The system provides effective control of room conditions, and is used in large
buildings where the added cost of the high velocity components and terminal
boxes is offset by savings due to reduced building space requirements. Also, it is
well suited to retrofit projects where an air conditioning system must be provided
in a building that has limited available existing space for ductwork. This system
may be more difficult to maintain than the low velocity system, due to the
increased possibility of noise and vibration associated with the high velocity
operation and the additional pressure regulating controls in the boxes. Note that
the boxes are best located above corridors adjacent to the conditioned space, so
that occupants are not disturbed when access to the boxes is required.

Multizone System
This is a constant volume system in which the discharge of the air handling unit
has been modified to provide multizone control capability, as illustrated in
Fig. 7. The unit includes the typical arrangement of mixed air dampers, filters,
humidifier, and fan. The cooling coils and heating coils are located downstream
from the fan and are offset rather than installed in-line. Therefore, supply air may
flow into two separate discharge compartments, called a "hot deck" and a "cold
deck".
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Figure 7
Multizone Unit (Courtesy of Trane)
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From two to twelve or more pairs of zone mixing dampers are located at the
discharge of the unit, and each pair is connected by a separate duct to each zone.
A space thermostat in the zone acts through an operator to modulate the dampers
and adjust the mixture of hot and cold air, thus satisfying space conditions by
varying supply air temperature. The dampers are linked together, but are 90 out
of phase so that full opening of the cold deck results in full closing of the hot
deck. This ensures that a constant volume of air is supplied to each zone and that
a constant total volume of air is handled by the supply fan.
The cold deck normally supplies air at 12.5C (54.5F) on a year round basis and
utilizes free cooling whenever possible. The output of the hot deck varies in
accordance with heating requirements. When hot water coils are used, water
temperature is normally reset on an outdoor air temperature schedule as an energy
saving measure. A preheat coil may be included in colder climates for heating of
mixed air to 12.5C if required, and a supplementary humidifier can be installed
in the hot deck for winter humidification.
This system provides good control of room temperature conditions on a year
round basis. However, humidity control is reduced under certain operating
conditions, when large portions of air bypass the hot deck humidifier during
winter, or escape dehumidification in the cooling coils during summer. This
system is well suited for use in smaller buildings with multizone layouts, such as
schools. However, its application is limited by the number of zones available on
the air handling unit, and the space requirements and complexity of the separate
supply ducts to each zone.

Dual Duct System


This system, as shown in Fig. 8, is similar in concept to the multizone system in
that hot air and cold air are mixed to vary supply air temperature to each zone in
order to satisfy room conditions. However, rather than mixing at the discharge of
the air handling unit, the cold and hot air are ducted separately throughout the
building, then blended in a mixing box located in each zone. The air handling
unit includes the mixed air section, filters, humidifier, fan, hot deck, and cold
deck discharge compartments. Separate supply duct mains are connected to each
of these ducts by short lengths of flexible ductwork. A room thermostat in the
zone modulates supply air temperature to maintain space conditions.

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Figure 8
Dual Duct System

The cold deck air is supplied at approximately 12.5C (54.5F) on a year round
basis, utilizing free cooling with supplementary mechanical cooling when
required. Hot deck heating can be provided by steam or hot water coils, with the
latter preferred since its output can be reset in accordance with outdoor air
temperature. A separate humidifier in the hot deck may be provided for winter
humidification. Each main supply duct is sized to handle full airflow, and is
therefore of medium or high velocity design to minimize building space
requirements. This results in significant variations in duct static pressures, so the
mixing boxes are provided with pressure regulator devices to adjust for these
fluctuations and maintain a constant volume airflow to each zone. As in most
large systems, a separate return air fan is used to ensure controlled return airflow
from each area.
This system is widely used for larger office, commercial, institutional, and
medical buildings. It provides a constant air circulation rate in each zone and
good control of space conditions. It can handle many more zones than a
multizone system, and is much easier to alter if required, as additional zones can
be created by simply adding boxes. Due to the high velocity design of dual duct
systems, special attention must be given during design to minimize noise
transmission into occupied areas. Therefore, silencers may be installed in each
duct main, and acoustic insulation is a standard feature of mixing boxes.

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