OCDI - Port Design Standard PDF

The Overseas Coastal Area Development Institute of Japan
3-2-4 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 100-0013, Japan
Copyright 2002 by The Overseas Coastal Area Development Institute of Japan

Printed by Daikousha Printing Co., Ltd.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval systems,
transmitted in any form or by any means, electric, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Original Japanese language edition published by the Japan Ports and Harbours Association.
Printed in Japan
PREFACE
Preface
This book is a translation of the major portion of the Technical Standards and Commentaries of Port
and Harbour Facilities in Japan (1999 edition) published by the Japan Port and Harbour Association,
stipulated by the Ordinance of the Minister of Transport, which was issued in April 1999. The translation
covers about two thirds of the Japanese edition.
Japanese islands have a long extension of coastline, measuring about 34,000 km, for the total land area
of some 380,000 square kilometers. Throughout her history, Japan has depended on the ports and harbors
on daily living and prosperity of people there. Japan did not develop extensive inland canal systems as
found in the European Continent because of its mountainous geography, but rather produced many harbors
and havens along its coastline in the past. Today, the number of officially designated commercial ports and
harbors amounts to about 1,100 and the number of fishing ports exceeds 3,000.
After 220 years of isolation from the world civilization from the 17th to 19th centuries, Japan began to
modernize its society and civilization rapidly after the Meiji revolution in 1868. Modern technology of port
and harbor engineering has been introduced by distinguished engineers from abroad and learned by many
ambitious and capable young engineers in Japan. Ports of Yokohama, Kobe, and others began to
accommodate large ocean-going vessels in the late 19th century as the Japanese economy had shown a
rapid growth.
Japanese engineers had drafted an engineering manual on design and construction of port and harbor
facilities as early as in 1943. The manual was revised in 1959 with inclusion of new technology such as
those of coastal engineering and geotechnical engineering, which were developed during the Second
World War or just before it. The Japanese economy that was utterly destroyed by the war had begun to
rebuild itself rapidly after the 1950s. There were so many demands for the expansion of port and harbor
facilities throughout Japan. Engineers were urged to design and construct facilities after facilities. Japan
has built the breakwaters and the quays with the rate of about 20,000 meters each per year throughout the
1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.
Such a feat of port development was made possible with provision of sound engineering manuals. The
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (formerly the Ministry of Transport up to January 2001)
which was responsible for port development and operation, revised the basic law on ports and harbors in
1974 so as to take responsibility for provision of technical standards for design, construction, and
maintenance of port and harbor facilities. The first official technical standards and commentaries for port
and harbor facilities were issued in 1979, and published by the Japan Port and Harbour Association for
general use. The technical standards were prepared by a technical committee composed of government
engineers within the former Ministry of Transport, including members of the Port and Harbour Research
Institute and several District Port Construction Bureaus that were responsible for design and construction
in the field. Its English version was published by the Overseas Coastal Area Development Institute in
1980, but it introduced only the skeleton of the Japanese version without giving the details.
The Technical Standards and Commentaries for Port and Harbor Facilities in Japan have been revised
in 1988 and 1999, each time incorporating new technological developments. The present English
translation endeavors to introduce the newest edition of 1999 to the port and harbor engineers overseas. It
is a direct translation of essential parts of Japanese edition. Many phrases and expressions reflect the
customary, regulatory writings in Japanese, which are often awkward in English. Some sentences after
translation may not be fluent enough and give troubles for decipher. The editors in charge of translation
request the readers for patience and generosity in their efforts for understanding Japanese technology in
port and harbor engineering.
With the globalization in every aspect of human activities, indigenous practices and customs are forced
to comply with the world standards. Technology by definition is supposed to be universal. Nevertheless,
each country has developed its own specialty to suit its local conditions. The overseas readers may find
some of Japanese technical standards strange and difficult for adoption for their usage. Such conflicts in
technology are the starting points for mutual understanding and further developments in the future. The
editors wish wholeheartedly this English version of Japanese technical standards be welcomed by the
overseas colleagues and serve for the advancement of port and harbor technology in the world.
January 2002
Y. Goda, T. Tabata and S. Yamamoto
Editors for translation version
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TECHNICAL STANDARDS AND COMMENTARIES FOR PORT AND HARBOUR FACILITIES IN JAPAN
-ii-
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Preface
Part I General
Chapter 1 General Rules .................................................................................................................................................1
1.1
1.2
1.3
Scope of Application .............................................................................................................................1

Definitions ...............................................................................................................................................2
Usage of SI Units ...................................................................................................................................2
Chapter 2 Datum Level for Construction Work .........................................................................................................4

Chapter 3 Maintenance ....................................................................................................................................................5
Part II Design Conditions

Chapter 1 General .............................................................................................................................................................7
Chapter 2 Vessels ..............................................................................................................................................................9
2.1
2.2
Dimensions of Target Vessel ...............................................................................................................9

External Forces Generated by Vessels ...........................................................................................16
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
General .....................................................................................................................................16
Berthing.....................................................................................................................................16
[1] Berthing Energy..................................................................................................................16
[2] Berthing Velocity ................................................................................................................17
[3] Eccentricity Factor..............................................................................................................20
[4] Virtual Mass Factor ............................................................................................................21
Moored Vessels .......................................................................................................................22
[1] Motions of Moored Vessel..................................................................................................22
[2] Waves Acting on Vessel.....................................................................................................22
[3] Wind Load Acting on Vessel ..............................................................................................23
[4] Current Forces Acting on Vessel........................................................................................24
[5] Load-Deflection Characteristics of Mooring System ..........................................................25
Tractive Force Acting on Mooring Post and Bollard..................................................................25
Chapter 3 Wind and Wind Pressure ..........................................................................................................................28

3.1
3.2
3.3
General..................................................................................................................................................28
Wind .......................................................................................................................................................29
Wind Pressure......................................................................................................................................30
Chapter 4 Waves ..............................................................................................................................................................32

4.1
General..................................................................................................................................................32
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
Procedure for Determining the Waves Used in Design.............................................................32

Waves to Be Used in Design ....................................................................................................32
Properties of Waves..................................................................................................................33
[1] Fundamental Properties of Waves .....................................................................................33
[2] Statistical Properties of Waves...........................................................................................37
[3] Wave Spectrum..................................................................................................................38
Method of Determining Wave Conditions to Be Used in Design .................................................40
4.2.1
Principles for Determining the Deepwater Waves Used in Design ...........................................40
4.2.2
Procedure for Obtaining the Parameters of Design Waves ......................................................41
Wave Hindcasting................................................................................................................................42
4.3.1
General .....................................................................................................................................42
4.3.2
Wave Hindcasting in Generating Area ......................................................................................42
4.3.3
Swell Hindcasting......................................................................................................................46
Statistical Processing of Wave Observation and Hindcasted Data .............................................47
Transformations of Waves .................................................................................................................49
4.5.1
General .....................................................................................................................................49
4.5.2
Wave Refraction........................................................................................................................49
4.5.3
Wave Diffraction........................................................................................................................52
[1] Diffraction ...........................................................................................................................52
[2] Combination of Diffraction and Refraction..........................................................................69
4.5.4
Wave Reflection ........................................................................................................................70
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4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
[1] General .............................................................................................................................. 70

[2] Reflection Coefficient ......................................................................................................... 71
[3] Transformation of Waves at Concave Corners, near the Heads of Breakwaters,
and around Detached Breakwaters ................................................................................... 72
4.5.5
Wave Shoaling.......................................................................................................................... 74
4.5.6
Wave Breaking ......................................................................................................................... 75
Wave Runup, Overtopping, and Transmission............................................................................... 80
4.6.1
Wave Runup ............................................................................................................................. 80
4.6.2
Wave Overtopping .................................................................................................................... 84
4.6.3
Wave Transmission .................................................................................................................. 90
Wave Setup and Surf Beat ................................................................................................................ 91
4.7.1
Wave Setup .............................................................................................................................. 91
4.7.2
Surf Beat................................................................................................................................... 92
Long-Period Waves and Seiche ....................................................................................................... 93
Waves inside Harbors ........................................................................................................................ 94
4.9.1
Calmness and Disturbances..................................................................................................... 94
4.9.2
Evaluation of Harbor Calmness ................................................................................................ 94
Ship Waves .......................................................................................................................................... 94
Chapter 5 Wave Force ................................................................................................................................................. 100

5.1
5.2
General ............................................................................................................................................... 100

Wave Force Acting on Upright Wall ............................................................................................... 100
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
General Considerations .......................................................................................................... 100

Wave Forces of Standing and Breaking Waves ..................................................................... 101
[1] Wave Force under Wave Crest........................................................................................ 101
[2] Wave Force under Wave Trough..................................................................................... 105
5.2.3
Impulsive Pressure Due to Breaking Waves .......................................................................... 106
5.2.4
Wave Force on Upright Wall Covered with Wave-Dissipating Concrete Blocks..................... 109
5.2.5
Effect of Alignment of Breakwater on Wave Force ................................................................. 110
5.2.6
Effect of Abrupt Change in Water Depth on Wave Force ....................................................... 110
5.2.7
Wave Force on Upright Wall near Shoreline or on Shore........................................................111
[1] Wave Force at the Seaward Side of Shoreline .................................................................111
[2] Wave Force at the Landward Side of Shoreline ...............................................................111
5.2.8
Wave Force on Upright Wave-Absorbing Caisson ..................................................................111
Mass of Armor Stones and Concrete Blocks ................................................................................ 112
5.3.1
Armor Units on Slope.............................................................................................................. 112
5.3.2
Armor Units on Foundation Mound of Composite Breakwater ............................................... 117
Wave Forces Acting on Cylindrical Members and Large Isolated Structures ......................... 119
5.4.1
Wave Force on Cylindrical Members...................................................................................... 119
5.4.2
Wave Force on Large Isolated Structure ................................................................................ 121
Wave Force Acting on Structure Located near the Still Water Level........................................ 122
5.5.1
Uplift Acting on Horizontal Plate near the Still Water Level .................................................... 122
Chapter 6 Tides and Abnormal Water Levels....................................................................................................... 127

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
Design Water Level........................................................................................................................... 127

Astronomical Tide ............................................................................................................................. 128
Storm Surge ....................................................................................................................................... 128
Tsunami .............................................................................................................................................. 130
Seiche ................................................................................................................................................. 133
Groundwater Level and Permeation .............................................................................................. 135
Chapter 7 Currents and Current Force ................................................................................................................... 138

7.1
7.2
7.3
General ............................................................................................................................................... 138

Current Forces Acting on Submerged Members and Structures .............................................. 138
Mass of Armor Stones and Concrete Blocks against Currents ................................................. 140
Chapter 8 External Forces Acting on Floating Body and Its Motions ........................................................... 142
8.1
8.2
8.3
General ............................................................................................................................................... 142

External Forces Acting on Floating Body ...................................................................................... 143
Motions of Floating Body and Mooring Force ............................................................................... 145
Chapter 9 Estuarine Hydraulics ................................................................................................................................ 148

9.1
General ............................................................................................................................................... 148
Chapter 10 Littoral Drift .................................................................................................................................................. 154

10.1 General ............................................................................................................................................... 154
10.2 Scouring around Structures ............................................................................................................. 161
10.3 Prediction of Beach Deformation .................................................................................................... 163
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CONTENTS
Chapter 11 Subsoil ...........................................................................................................................................................167

11.1 Method of Determining Geotechnical Conditions .........................................................................167
11.1.1
11.1.2
11.1.3
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
Principles.................................................................................................................................167
Selection of Soil Investigation Methods ..................................................................................168
Standard Penetration Test ......................................................................................................168
Physical Properties of Soils .............................................................................................................168
11.2.1 Unit Weight of Soil...................................................................................................................168
11.2.2 Classification of Soils ..............................................................................................................169
11.2.3 Coefficient of Permeability of Soil ...........................................................................................169
Mechanical Properties of Soils ........................................................................................................170
11.3.1 Elastic Constants ....................................................................................................................170
11.3.2 Consolidation Properties .........................................................................................................170
11.3.3 Shear Properties .....................................................................................................................173
Angle of Internal Friction by N-value ..............................................................................................175
Application of Soundings Other Than SPT....................................................................................176
Dynamic Properties of Soils .............................................................................................................178
11.6.1 Dynamic Modulus of Deformation ...........................................................................................178
11.6.2 Dynamic Strength Properties ..................................................................................................180
Chapter 12 Earthquakes and Seismic Force ...........................................................................................................182

12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
General................................................................................................................................................182
Earthquake Resistance of Port and Harbor Facilities in Design ................................................182
Seismic Coefficient Method .............................................................................................................184
Design Seismic Coefficient ..............................................................................................................184
Seismic Response Analysis .............................................................................................................190
Seismic Deformation Method ..........................................................................................................192
Chapter 13 Liquefaction .................................................................................................................................................195

13.1 General................................................................................................................................................195
13.2 Prediction of Liquefaction .................................................................................................................195
13.3 Countermeasures against Liquefaction .........................................................................................199
Chapter 14 Earth Pressure and Water Pressure ...................................................................................................200

14.1 Earth Pressure ...................................................................................................................................200
14.2 Earth Pressure under Ordinary Conditions ...................................................................................200
14.2.1
14.2.2
Earth Pressure of Sandy Soil under Ordinary Conditions .......................................................200

Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil under Ordinary Conditions ..................................................201
14.3 Earth Pressure during Earthquake .................................................................................................202
14.3.1 Earth Pressure of Sandy Soil during Earthquake....................................................................202
14.3.2 Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil during Earthquake...............................................................204
14.3.3 Apparent Seismic Coefficient ..................................................................................................204
14.4 Water Pressure ..................................................................................................................................205
14.4.1 Residual Water Pressure ........................................................................................................205
14.4.2 Dynamic Water Pressure during Earthquake..........................................................................205
Chapter 15 Loads .............................................................................................................................................................207

15.1 General................................................................................................................................................207
15.2 Deadweight and Surcharge .............................................................................................................207
15.3 Static Load ..........................................................................................................................................207
15.3.1
15.3.2
15.3.3
15.3.4
Static Load under Ordinary Conditions ...................................................................................207

Static Load during Earthquake................................................................................................208
Unevenly Distributed Load ......................................................................................................208
Snow Load ..............................................................................................................................208
15.4 Live Load ............................................................................................................................................209
15.4.1 Train Load ...............................................................................................................................209
15.4.2 Vehicle Load ...........................................................................................................................209
15.4.3 Cargo Handling Equipment Load ............................................................................................209
15.4.4 Sidewalk Live Load .................................................................................................................209
Chapter 16 Coefficient of Friction ................................................................................................................................210

16.1 General................................................................................................................................................210
Part III Materials

Chapter 1 General ......................................................................................................................................................... 211
1.1
Selection of Materials........................................................................................................................ 211

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1.2
Safety of Structural Elements .......................................................................................................... 211
Chapter 2 Steel ............................................................................................................................................................... 212

2.1
2.2
2.3
Materials ............................................................................................................................................. 212

Steel Meterial Constants Used in Design Calculation ................................................................. 212
Allowable Stresses ............................................................................................................................ 212
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
2.3.6
2.3.7
2.4
General ................................................................................................................................... 212

Structural Steel ....................................................................................................................... 212
Steel Piles and Steel Pipe Sheet Piles ................................................................................... 213
Steel Sheet Piles .................................................................................................................... 214
Cast Steel and Forged Steel................................................................................................... 214
Allowable Stresses for Steel at Welded Zones and Spliced Sections .................................... 214
Increase of Allowable Stresses............................................................................................... 215
Corrosion Control .............................................................................................................................. 216
2.4.1
General ................................................................................................................................... 216
2.4.2
Corrosion Rates of Steel Materials ......................................................................................... 216
2.4.3
Corrosion Control Methods..................................................................................................... 217
2.4.4
Cathodic Protection Method ................................................................................................... 217
[1] Range of Application........................................................................................................ 217
[2] Protective Potential .......................................................................................................... 218
[3] Protective Current Density ............................................................................................... 219
2.4.5
Coating Method ...................................................................................................................... 220
[1] Extent of Application ........................................................................................................ 220
[2] Applicable Methods.......................................................................................................... 220
[3] Selection of Method ......................................................................................................... 220
Chapter 3 Concrete ....................................................................................................................................................... 221

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
General ............................................................................................................................................... 221

Basics of Design Based on the Limit State Design Method ....................................................... 221
Design Based on Allowable Stress Method .................................................................................. 223
Concrete Materials ............................................................................................................................ 224
Concrete Quality and Performance ................................................................................................ 225
Underwater Concrete ....................................................................................................................... 227
Chapter 4 Bituminous Materials ................................................................................................................................ 228

4.1
4.2
General ............................................................................................................................................... 228

Asphalt Mat ........................................................................................................................................ 228
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.3
4.4
General ................................................................................................................................... 228

Materials ................................................................................................................................. 228
Mix Proportioning.................................................................................................................... 229
Paving Materials ................................................................................................................................ 229
Sand Mastic Asphalt ......................................................................................................................... 229
4.4.1
General ................................................................................................................................... 229
4.4.2
Materials ................................................................................................................................. 230
4.4.3
Mix Proportioning.................................................................................................................... 230
Chapter 5 Stone ............................................................................................................................................................. 231

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
General ............................................................................................................................................... 231

Rubble for Foundation ...................................................................................................................... 231
Backfilling Materials .......................................................................................................................... 231
Base Course Materials of Pavement ............................................................................................. 232
Chapter 6 Timber ........................................................................................................................................................... 233

6.1
Quality of Timber ............................................................................................................................... 233

6.1.1
6.1.2
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Structural Timber .................................................................................................................... 233

Timber Piles............................................................................................................................ 233
Allowable Stresses of Timber .......................................................................................................... 233
6.2.1
General ................................................................................................................................... 233
6.2.2
Allowable Stresses of Structural Timber ................................................................................. 233
Quality of Glued Laminated Timber ............................................................................................... 233
6.3.1
Allowable Stress for Glued Laminated Timber ....................................................................... 233
Joining of Timber ............................................................................................................................... 233
Maintenance of Timber..................................................................................................................... 233
Chapter 7 Other Materials ........................................................................................................................................... 234

7.1
7.2
7.3
Metals Other Than Steel .................................................................................................................. 234

Plastics and Rubbers ........................................................................................................................ 234
Coating Materials .............................................................................................................................. 236
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CONTENTS
7.4
Grouting Materials .............................................................................................................................237

7.4.1
7.4.2
General ...................................................................................................................................237
Properties of Grouting Materials .............................................................................................237
Chapter 8 Recyclable Resources .............................................................................................................................238

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
General................................................................................................................................................238
Slag ......................................................................................................................................................238
Coal Ash..............................................................................................................................................239
Crashed Concrete .............................................................................................................................240
Part IV Precast Concrete Units

Chapter 1 Caissons .......................................................................................................................................................241
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
General................................................................................................................................................241
Determination of Dimensions ..........................................................................................................242
Floating Stability ................................................................................................................................242
Design External Forces ....................................................................................................................243
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.4.4
1.4.5
1.5
1.6
Combination of Loads and Load Factors ................................................................................243

External Forces during Fabrication .........................................................................................249
External Forces during Launching and Floating......................................................................249
External Forces during Installation..........................................................................................250
External Forces after Construction..........................................................................................250
[1] Outer Walls.......................................................................................................................250
[2] Bottom Slab......................................................................................................................251
[3] Partition Walls and Others................................................................................................253
Design of Members ...........................................................................................................................254
1.5.1
Outer Wall ...............................................................................................................................254
1.5.2
Partition Wall ...........................................................................................................................254
1.5.3
Bottom Slab.............................................................................................................................254
1.5.4
Others .....................................................................................................................................255
Design of Hooks for Suspension by Crane ...................................................................................255
Chapter 2 L-Shaped Blocks ........................................................................................................................................256

2.1
2.2
2.3
General................................................................................................................................................256
Loads Acting on Members ...............................................................................................................257
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.4
2.5
General ...................................................................................................................................257
Earth Pressure ........................................................................................................................258
Converted Loads for Design Calculation.................................................................................258
2.4.1
Front Wall................................................................................................................................259
2.4.2
Footing ....................................................................................................................................259
2.4.3
Bottom Slab.............................................................................................................................259
2.4.4
Buttress ...................................................................................................................................260
Design of Hooks for Suspension by Crane ...................................................................................260
Chapter 3 Cellular Blocks ............................................................................................................................................261

3.1
3.2
General................................................................................................................................................261
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.3
3.4
Shape of Cellular Blocks .........................................................................................................261

Determination of Dimensions ..................................................................................................261
Loads Acting on Cellular Blocks......................................................................................................262
3.3.1
General ...................................................................................................................................262
3.3.2
Earth Pressure of Filling and Residual Water Pressure..........................................................262
3.3.3
Converted Loads for Design Calculation.................................................................................264
3.4.1
Rectangular Cellular Blocks ....................................................................................................264
3.4.2
Other Types of Cellular Blocks................................................................................................265
Chapter 4 Upright Wave-Absorbing Caissons ......................................................................................................267

4.1
4.2
4.3
General................................................................................................................................................267
External Forces Acting on Members ..............................................................................................267
Chapter 5 Hybrid Caissons .........................................................................................................................................270

5.1
5.2
General................................................................................................................................................270
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5.3
5.4
Design External Forces .................................................................................................................... 271

Design of Members ........................................................................................................................... 271
5.4.1
5.4.2
5.4.3
5.4.4
5.4.5
5.4.6
5.5
Section Force.......................................................................................................................... 271

Design of Composite Slabs .................................................................................................... 271
Design of SRC Members ........................................................................................................ 271
Design of Partitions................................................................................................................. 271
Design of Corners and Joints ................................................................................................. 271
Safety against Fatigue Failure ................................................................................................ 272
Corrosion Control .............................................................................................................................. 272
Part V Foundations
Chapter 1 General ......................................................................................................................................................... 273
Chapter 2 Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations ........................................................................................ 274
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
General ............................................................................................................................................... 274

Bearing Capacity of Foundation on Sandy Ground ..................................................................... 274
Bearing Capacity of Foundation on Clayey Ground .................................................................... 275
Bearing Capacity of Multilayered Ground ..................................................................................... 276
Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined Loads ..................................................................... 277
Chapter 3 Bearing Capacity of Deep Foundations ............................................................................................. 280

3.1
3.2
3.3
General ............................................................................................................................................... 280

Vertical Bearing Capacity................................................................................................................. 280
Lateral Bearing Capacity .................................................................................................................. 281
Chapter 4 Bearing Capacity of Pile Foundations ................................................................................................ 284

4.1
Allowable Axial Bearing Capacity of Piles ..................................................................................... 284

4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4
4.1.5
4.1.6
4.1.7
4.1.8
4.1.9
4.1.10
4.1.11
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
General ................................................................................................................................... 284

Standard Allowable Axial Bearing Capacity............................................................................ 284
Ultimate Axial Bearing Capacity of Single Piles...................................................................... 285
Estimation of Ultimate Axial Bearing Capacity by Loading Tests ........................................... 285
Estimation of Ultimate Axial Bearing Capacity by Static Bearing Capacity Formulas ............ 286
Examination of Compressive Stress of Pile Materials ............................................................ 288
Decrease of Bearing Capacity Due to Joints .......................................................................... 288
Decrease of Bearing Capacity Due to Slenderness Ratio ...................................................... 288
Bearing Capacity of Pile Group .............................................................................................. 288
Examination of Negative Skin Friction .................................................................................... 290
Examination of Settlement of Piles ......................................................................................... 291
Allowable Pulling Resistance of Piles ............................................................................................ 291
4.2.1
General ................................................................................................................................... 291
4.2.2
Standard Allowable Pulling Resistance .................................................................................. 292
4.2.3
Maximum Pulling Resistance of Single Pile............................................................................ 292
4.2.4
Examination of Tensile Stress of Pile Materials...................................................................... 293
4.2.5
Matters to Be Considered for Obtaining Allowable Pulling Resistance of Piles...................... 293
Allowable Lateral Bearing Capacity of Piles ................................................................................. 293
4.3.1
General ................................................................................................................................... 293
4.3.2
Estimation of Allowable Lateral Bearing Capacity of Piles ..................................................... 295
4.3.3
Estimation of Pile Behavior Using Loading Tests ................................................................... 295
4.3.4
Estimation of Pile Behavior Using Analytical Methods ........................................................... 295
4.3.5
Consideration of Pile Group Action......................................................................................... 301
4.3.6
Lateral Bearing Capacity of Coupled Piles ............................................................................. 301
Pile Design in General ...................................................................................................................... 304
4.4.1
Load Sharing .......................................................................................................................... 304
4.4.2
Load Distribution..................................................................................................................... 305
4.4.3
Distance between Centers of Piles......................................................................................... 305
4.4.4
Allowable Stresses for Pile Materials...................................................................................... 305
Detailed Design ................................................................................................................................. 306
4.5.1
Examination of Loads during Construction ............................................................................. 306
4.5.2
Design of Joints between Piles and Structure ........................................................................ 307
4.5.3
Joints of Piles.......................................................................................................................... 308
4.5.4
Change of Plate Thickness or Materials of Steel Pipe Piles................................................... 308
4.5.5
Other Points for Caution in Design ......................................................................................... 308
Chapter 5 Settlement of Foundations ..................................................................................................................... 310

5.1
5.2
Stress in Soil Mass ........................................................................................................................... 310

Immediate Settlement....................................................................................................................... 310
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CONTENTS
5.3
5.4
5.5
Consolidation Settlement .................................................................................................................310

Lateral Displacement ........................................................................................................................312
Differential Settlements ....................................................................................................................312
Chapter 6 Stability of Slopes ......................................................................................................................................314

6.1
6.2
General................................................................................................................................................314
Stability Analysis ................................................................................................................................315
6.2.1
6.2.2
Stability Analysis Using Circular Slip Surface Method ............................................................315

Stability Analysis Assuming Slip Surfaces Other Than Circular Arc Slip Surface...................316
Chapter 7 Soil Improvement Methods .....................................................................................................................318

7.1
7.2
7.3
General................................................................................................................................................318
Replacement Method ........................................................................................................................318
Vertical Drain Method .......................................................................................................................318
7.3.1
7.3.2
Principle of Design ..................................................................................................................318

Determination of Height and Width of Fill................................................................................319
[1] Height and Width of Fill Required for Soil Improvement ..................................................319
[2] Height and Width of Fill Required for Stability of Fill Embankment ..................................319
7.3.3
Design of Drain Piles...............................................................................................................319
[1] Drain Piles and Sand Mat.................................................................................................319
[2] Interval of Drain Piles .......................................................................................................320
7.4 Deep Mixing Method .........................................................................................................................322
7.4.1
[1] Scope of Application.........................................................................................................322
[2] Basic Concept ..................................................................................................................323
7.4.2
Assumptions for Dimensions of Stabilized Body.....................................................................323
[1] Mixture Design of Stabilized Soil......................................................................................323
[2] Allowable Stress of Stabilized Body .................................................................................324
7.4.3
Calculation of External Forces ................................................................................................325
7.5 Lightweight Treated Soil Method ....................................................................................................326
7.5.1
Outline of Lightweight Treated Soil Method ............................................................................326
7.5.2
Basic Design Concept.............................................................................................................326
7.5.3
Mixture Design of Treated Soil................................................................................................327
7.5.4
Examination of Area to Be Treated .........................................................................................328
7.5.5
Workability Verification Tests ..................................................................................................328
7.6 Replacement Method with Granulated Blast Furnace Slag ........................................................328
7.6.1
7.6.2
Physical Properties of Granulated Blast Furnace Slag ...........................................................328
7.7 Premixing Method..............................................................................................................................329
7.7.1
[2] Consideration for Design..................................................................................................329
7.7.2
Preliminary Survey ..................................................................................................................329
7.7.3
Determination of Strength of Treated Soil...............................................................................330
7.7.4
Mixture Design of Treated Soil................................................................................................330
7.7.5
Examination of Area of Improvement......................................................................................331
7.8 Active Earth Pressure of Solidified Geotechnical Materials........................................................333
7.8.1
Scope of Application ...............................................................................................................333
7.8.2
Active Earth Pressure .............................................................................................................333
[1] Outline ..............................................................................................................................333
[2] Strength Parameters ........................................................................................................334
[3] Calculation of Active Earth Pressure................................................................................334
[4] Case of Limited Area of Subsoil Improvement .................................................................335
7.9 Sand Compaction Pile Method (for Sandy Subsoil) .....................................................................336
7.9.1
7.9.2
Sand Volume to Be Supplied ..................................................................................................336
7.9.3
Design Based on Trial Execution ............................................................................................338
7.10 Sand Compaction Pile Method (for Cohesive Subsoil) ...............................................................339
7.10.1 Principle of Design ..................................................................................................................339
[2] Basic Concept ..................................................................................................................339
7.10.2 Strength and Permeability of Sand Piles.................................................................................339
7.10.3 Shear Strength of Improved Subsoil .......................................................................................339
7.10.4 Stability Analysis .....................................................................................................................340
7.10.5 Examining Consolidation.........................................................................................................341
-ix-
Part VI Navigation Channels and Basins

Chapter 1 General ......................................................................................................................................................... 345
Chapter 2 Navigation Channels ................................................................................................................................ 346
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
General ............................................................................................................................................... 346

Alignment of Navigation Channel .................................................................................................. 346
Width of Navigation Channel ........................................................................................................... 347
Depth of Navigation Channel .......................................................................................................... 348
Length of Navigation Channel at Harbor Entrance ...................................................................... 348
Calmness of Navigation Channel ................................................................................................... 348
Chapter 3 Navigation Channels outside Breakwaters ....................................................................................... 350

3.1
3.2
3.3
General ............................................................................................................................................... 350

Width of Navigation Channel ........................................................................................................... 350
Depth of Navigation Channel .......................................................................................................... 350
Chapter 4 Basins............................................................................................................................................................ 351

4.1
4.2
General ............................................................................................................................................... 351

Location and Area of Basin ............................................................................................................. 351
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.3
4.4
4.5
Location .................................................................................................................................. 351

Area of Basin Used for Anchorage or Mooring ....................................................................... 351
Area of Basin Used for Ship Maneuvering.............................................................................. 352
[1] Turning Basin................................................................................................................... 352
[2] Mooring / Unmooring Basin ............................................................................................. 353
Depth of Basin ................................................................................................................................... 353
Calmness of Basin ............................................................................................................................ 353
Timber Sorting Pond ......................................................................................................................... 354
Chapter 5 Small Craft Basins ..................................................................................................................................... 355

Chapter 6 Maintenance of Navigation Channels and Basins .......................................................................... 355
6.1
General ............................................................................................................................................... 355
Part VII Protective Facilities for Harbors

Chapter 1 General ......................................................................................................................................................... 357
1.1
1.2
General Consideration ..................................................................................................................... 357

Maintenance....................................................................................................................................... 357
Chapter 2 Breakwaters ................................................................................................................................................ 358

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
General ............................................................................................................................................... 358

Layout of Breakwaters ...................................................................................................................... 358
Design Conditions of Breakwaters ................................................................................................. 359
Selection of Structural Types .......................................................................................................... 359
Determination of Cross Section ...................................................................................................... 362
2.5.1
2.5.2
2.5.3
2.5.4
2.6
2.7
2.8
Upright Breakwater ................................................................................................................. 362

Composite Breakwater ........................................................................................................... 363
Sloping Breakwater................................................................................................................. 363
Caisson Type Breakwater Covered with Wave-Dissipating Concrete Blocks ........................ 364
External Forces for Stability Calculation ........................................................................................ 364
2.6.1
General ................................................................................................................................... 364
2.6.2
Wave Forces........................................................................................................................... 365
2.6.3
Hydrostatic Pressure .............................................................................................................. 365
2.6.4
Buoyancy ................................................................................................................................ 365
2.6.5
Deadweight............................................................................................................................. 365
2.6.6
Stability during Earthuakes ..................................................................................................... 365
Stability Calculation........................................................................................................................... 365
2.7.1
Stability Calculation of Upright Section................................................................................... 365
2.7.2
Stability Calculation of Sloping Section .................................................................................. 369
2.7.3
Stability Calculation of Whole Section .................................................................................... 369
2.7.4
Stability Calculation for Head and Corner of Breakwater ....................................................... 369
Details of Structures ......................................................................................................................... 370
2.8.1
Upright Breakwater ................................................................................................................. 370
2.8.2
Composite Breakwater ........................................................................................................... 371
2.8.3
Sloping Breakwater................................................................................................................. 372
-x-
CONTENTS
2.8.4
Caisson Type Breakwater Covered with Wave-Dissipating Concrete Blocks.........................372
2.9 Detailed Design of Upright Section .................................................................................................372

2.10 Breakwaters for Timber-Handling Facilities ..................................................................................372
2.10.1
2.10.2
Breakwaters for Timber Storage Ponds and Timber Sorting Ponds .......................................372
Fences to Prevent Timber Drifting ..........................................................................................373
2.11 Storm Surge Protection Breakwater ...............................................................................................373
2.12 Tsunami Protection Breakwater ......................................................................................................373
Chapter 3 Other Types of Breakwaters ..................................................................................................................376

3.1
3.2
Selection of Structural Type .............................................................................................................376

Gravity Type Special Breakwaters..................................................................................................377
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.3
General ...................................................................................................................................377
Upright Wave-Absorbing Block Breakwater ............................................................................378
[1] General.............................................................................................................................378
[2] Crest Elevation .................................................................................................................378
[3] Wave Force ......................................................................................................................379
3.2.3
Wave-Absorbing Caisson Breakwater ....................................................................................379
[1] General.............................................................................................................................379
[2] Determination of Target Waves to Be Absorbed..............................................................380
[3] Determination of Dimensions for Wave-Absorbing Section .............................................380
[4] Wave Force for Examination of Structural Stability ..........................................................380
[5] Wave Force for Design of Structural Members ................................................................380
3.2.4
Sloping-Top Caisson Breakwater............................................................................................380
[1] General.............................................................................................................................380
[2] Wave Force ......................................................................................................................381
Non-Gravity Type Breakwaters .......................................................................................................382
3.3.1
Curtain Wall Breakwater .........................................................................................................382
[1] General.............................................................................................................................382
[2] Wave Force ......................................................................................................................384
[3] Design of Piles .................................................................................................................384
3.3.2
Floating Breakwater ................................................................................................................384
[1] General.............................................................................................................................384
[2] Selection of Design Conditions ........................................................................................385
[3] Design of Mooring System ...............................................................................................385
[4] Design of Floating Body Structure....................................................................................386
Chapter 4 Locks..............................................................................................................................................................388
4.1
4.2
4.3
Selection of Location .........................................................................................................................388

Size and Layout of Lock ...................................................................................................................388
Selection of Structural Type .............................................................................................................389
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.4
4.5
4.6
Gate ........................................................................................................................................389
Lock Chamber.........................................................................................................................389
External Forces and Loads Acting on Lock...................................................................................389
Pumping and Drainage System ......................................................................................................389
Auxiliary Facilities ..............................................................................................................................389
Chapter 5 Facilities to Prevent Shoaling and Siltation .......................................................................................390

5.1
5.2
General................................................................................................................................................390
Jetty .....................................................................................................................................................390
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
Layout of Jetty.........................................................................................................................390
Details of Jetty.........................................................................................................................391
Group of Groins .................................................................................................................................392
Training Jetties ...................................................................................................................................392
5.4.1
Layout of Training Jetties ........................................................................................................392
5.4.2
Water Depth at Tip of Training Jetty .......................................................................................393
5.4.3
Structure of Training Jetty .......................................................................................................393
Facilities to Trap Littoral Transport and Sediment Flowing out of Rivers .................................393
Countermeasures against Wind-Blown Sand ...............................................................................394
5.6.1
General ...................................................................................................................................394
5.6.2
Selection of Countermeasures................................................................................................394
Chapter 6 Revetments ..................................................................................................................................................396

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Principle of Design ............................................................................................................................396

Design Conditions .............................................................................................................................396
Structural Stability..............................................................................................................................398
Determination of Cross Section ......................................................................................................398
Details..................................................................................................................................................398
-xi-
Part VIII Mooring Facilities

Chapter 1 General ......................................................................................................................................................... 401
1.1
1.2
General Consideration ..................................................................................................................... 401

Maintenance of Mooring Facilities .................................................................................................. 401
Chapter 2 Dimensions of Mooring Facilities.......................................................................................................... 402

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Length and Water Depth of Berths ................................................................................................. 402

Crown Heights of Mooring Facilities............................................................................................... 405
Ship Clearance for Mooring Facilities ............................................................................................ 405
Design Water Depth ......................................................................................................................... 405
Protection against Scouring............................................................................................................. 406
Ancillary Facilities .............................................................................................................................. 406
Chapter 3 Structural Types of Mooring Facilities ................................................................................................ 407

Chapter 4 Gravity Type Quaywalls .......................................................................................................................... 408
4.1
4.2
4.3
Principle of Design ............................................................................................................................ 408

External Forces and Loads Acting on Walls ................................................................................. 408
Stability Calculations......................................................................................................................... 410
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.3.5
4.4
4.5
4.6
Items to Be Considered in Stability Calculations .................................................................... 410

Examination against Sliding of Wall........................................................................................ 410
Examination Concerning Bearing Capacity of Foundation ..................................................... 411
Examination Concerning Overturning of Wall......................................................................... 411
Examination on Soft Foundation............................................................................................. 411
Stability Calculations of Cellular Concrete Blocks ....................................................................... 412
Effects of Backfill ............................................................................................................................... 413
Detailed Design ................................................................................................................................. 414
Chapter 5 Sheet Pile Quaywalls ............................................................................................................................... 415

5.1
5.2
General ............................................................................................................................................... 415

External Forces Acting on Sheet Pile Wall ................................................................................... 415
5.3
Design of Sheet Pile Wall ................................................................................................................ 417
5.2.1
External Forces to Be Considered.......................................................................................... 415
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.3.5
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
Setting Level of Tie Rod ......................................................................................................... 417

Embedded Length of Sheet Piles ........................................................................................... 417
Bending Moment of Sheet Piles and Reaction at Tie Rod Setting Point ................................ 418
Cross Section of Sheet Piles .................................................................................................. 419
Consideration of the Effect of Section Rigidity of Sheet Piles ................................................ 419
Design of Tie Rods ........................................................................................................................... 424
5.4.1
Tension of Tie Rod ................................................................................................................. 424
5.4.2
Cross Section of Tie Rod........................................................................................................ 424
Design of Wale .................................................................................................................................. 425
Examination for Circular Slip ........................................................................................................... 425
Design of Anchorage Work .............................................................................................................. 426
5.7.1
Selection of Structural Type of Anchorage Work.................................................................... 426
5.7.2
Location of Anchorage Work .................................................................................................. 426
5.7.3
Design of Anchorage Work..................................................................................................... 427
Detailed Design ................................................................................................................................. 428
5.8.1
Coping .................................................................................................................................... 428
5.8.2
Fitting of Tie Rods and Wale to Sheet Piles ........................................................................... 429
5.8.3
Tie Rod ................................................................................................................................... 429
5.8.4
Fitting of Tie Rods to Anchorage Work................................................................................... 429
Special Notes for Design of Sheet Pile Wall on Soft Ground..................................................... 429
Chapter 6 Sheet Pile Quaywalls with Relieving Platform ................................................................................. 431

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Scope of Application ......................................................................................................................... 431

Principles of Design .......................................................................................................................... 431
Determination of Height and Width of Relieving Platform .......................................................... 431
Earth Pressure and Residual Water Pressure Acting on Sheet Piles ...................................... 432
Design of Sheet Pile Wall ................................................................................................................ 432
6.5.1
6.5.2
6.6
Embedded Length of Sheet Piles ........................................................................................... 432

Cross Section of Sheet Piles .................................................................................................. 433
Design of Relieving Platform and Relieving Platform Piles ........................................................ 433
6.6.1
External Forces Acting on Relieving Platform ........................................................................ 433
6.6.2
Design of Relieving Platform .................................................................................................. 433
6.6.3
Design of Piles ........................................................................................................................ 434
-xii-
CONTENTS
6.7
6.8
Examination of Stability as Gravity Type Wall ..............................................................................434

Examination of Stability against Circular Slip................................................................................435
Chapter 7 Steel Sheet Pile Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywalls ................................................................................436

7.1
7.2
7.3

External Forces Acting on Steel Sheet Pile Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywall ................................437
Examination of Wall Width against Shear Deformation ..............................................................438
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
General ...................................................................................................................................438
Equivalent Width of Wall .........................................................................................................439
Calculation of Deformation Moment........................................................................................439
Calculation of Resisting Moment.............................................................................................440
7.4 Examination of Stability of Wall Body as a Whole........................................................................443
7.4.1
General ...................................................................................................................................443
7.4.2
Modulus of Subgrade Reaction...............................................................................................443
7.4.3
Calculation of Subgrade Reaction and Wall Displacement.....................................................443
7.5 Examination of Bearing Capacity of the Ground ..........................................................................448
7.6 Examination against Sliding of Wall ...............................................................................................448
7.7 Examination of Displacement of Wall Top .....................................................................................448
7.8 Examination of Stability against Circular Slip................................................................................449
7.9 Layout of Cells and Arcs ..................................................................................................................449
7.10 Calculation of Hoop Tension............................................................................................................449
7.11 Design of T-Shaped Sheet Pile .......................................................................................................450
7.11.1 General ...................................................................................................................................450
7.11.2 Structure of T-Shaped Sheet Pile ...........................................................................................450
7.12 Detailed Design..................................................................................................................................451
7.12.1 Design of Pile to Support Coping ............................................................................................451
7.12.2 Design of Coping.....................................................................................................................451
Chapter 8 Steel Plate Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywalls ..........................................................................................452

8.1
8.2
Scope of Application .........................................................................................................................452

Placement-Type Steel Plate Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywalls ........................................................452
8.2.1
8.2.2
8.2.3
8.2.4
8.2.5
8.2.6
8.2.7
8.2.8
8.2.9
8.3

External Forces Acting on Steel Plate Cellular-Bulkhead .......................................................453
Examination of Wall Width against Shear Deformation ..........................................................453
Examination of Stability of Wall Body as a Whole...................................................................454
Examination of Bearing Capacity of the Ground .....................................................................455
Examination of Stability against Circular Slip..........................................................................455
Determination of Thickness of Steel Plate of Cell Shell ..........................................................455
Layout of Cells and Arcs .........................................................................................................456
Detailed Design.......................................................................................................................456
Embedded-Type Steel Plate Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywalls........................................................456
8.3.1
8.3.2
External Forces Acting on Embedded-Type Steel Plate Celluler-Bulkhead............................457
8.3.3
Examination of Wall Width against Shear Deformation ..........................................................457
8.3.4
Examination of Stability of Wall Body as a Whole...................................................................458
8.3.5
Examination of Bearing Capacity of the Ground .....................................................................458
8.3.6
Examination against Sliding of Wall ........................................................................................458
8.3.7
Examination of Displacement of Wall Top ..............................................................................458
8.3.8
Examination of Stability against Circular Slip..........................................................................458
8.3.9
Layout of Cells and Arcs .........................................................................................................458
8.3.10 Determination of Plate Thickness of Cell Shell and Arc Section.............................................458
8.3.11 Joints and Stiffeners................................................................................................................459
8.3.12 Detailed Design.......................................................................................................................459
Chapter 9 Open-Type Wharves on Vertical Piles ................................................................................................460

9.1
9.2

Layout and Dimensions ....................................................................................................................462
9.2.1
9.2.2
9.2.3
9.3
9.4
9.5
Size of Deck Block and Layout of Piles...................................................................................462

Dimensions of Superstructure.................................................................................................462
Arrangement of Fenders and Bollards ....................................................................................463
External Forces Acting on Open-Type Wharf ...............................................................................463
9.3.1
Design External Forces...........................................................................................................463
9.3.2
Calculation of Fender Reaction Force.....................................................................................464
Assumptions Concerning Sea Bottom Ground .............................................................................464
9.4.1
Determination of Slope Inclination ..........................................................................................464
9.4.2
Virtual Ground Surface............................................................................................................465
Design of Piles ...................................................................................................................................465
-xiii-
9.5.1
9.5.2
9.5.3
9.5.4
9.5.5
9.5.6
9.5.7
9.5.8
9.5.9
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
General ................................................................................................................................... 465

Coefficient of Horizontal Subgrade Reaction.......................................................................... 465
Virtual Fixed Point................................................................................................................... 466
Member Forces Acting on Individual Piles.............................................................................. 466
Cross-Sectional Stresses of Piles........................................................................................... 468
Examination of Embedded Length for Bearing Capacity ........................................................ 468
Examination of Embedded Length for Lateral Resistance...................................................... 468
Examination of Pile Joints....................................................................................................... 468
Change of Plate Thickness or Material of Steel Pipe Pile ...................................................... 468
Examination of Earthquake-Resistant Performance ................................................................... 469
9.6.1
Assumption of Cross Section for Earthquake-Resistant Performance Examination .............. 470
9.6.2
Examination Method of Earthquake-Resistant Performance.................................................. 470
9.6.3
Determination of Seismic Motion for Examination of Earthquake-Resistant Performance..... 471
9.6.4
Examination of Load Carrying Capacity Using Simplified Method.......................................... 473
9.6.5
Examination of Load Carrying Capacity Using Elasto-Plastic Analysis .................................. 475
Design of Earth-Retaining Section ................................................................................................. 477
Examination of Stability against Circular Slip ............................................................................... 477
Detailed Design ................................................................................................................................. 478
9.9.1
Load Combinations for Superstructure Design....................................................................... 478
9.9.2
Calculation of Reinforcing Bar Arrangement of Superstructure .............................................. 478
9.9.3
Design of Pile Head ................................................................................................................ 478
Chapter 10 Open-Type Wharves on Coupled Raking Piles ............................................................................... 480

10.1 Principle of Design ............................................................................................................................ 480
10.2 Layout and Dimensions .................................................................................................................... 481
10.2.1
10.2.2
10.2.3
Size of Deck Block and Layout of Piles .................................................................................. 481

Dimensions of Supersutructure .............................................................................................. 481
Arrangement of Fenders and Bollards.................................................................................... 481
10.3 External Forces Acting on Open-Type Wharf on Coupled Raking Piles .................................. 481
10.3.1 Design External Forces .......................................................................................................... 481
10.3.2 Calculation of Fender Reaction Force .................................................................................... 481
10.4 Assumptions Concerning Sea Bottom Ground............................................................................. 481
10.4.1 Determination of Slope Inclination .......................................................................................... 481
10.4.2 Virtual Ground Surface ........................................................................................................... 481
10.5 Determination of Forces Acting on Piles and Cross Sections of Piles ..................................... 481
10.5.1 Horizontal Force Transmitted to Heads of Coupled Raking Piles........................................... 481
10.5.2 Vertical Load Transmitted to Heads of Coupled Raking Piles ................................................ 483
10.5.3 Pushing-In and Pulling-Out Forces of Coupled Raking Piles ................................................. 483
10.5.4 Cross-Sectional Stresses of Piles........................................................................................... 483
10.6 Examination of Strength of Wharf in the Direction of Its Face Line .......................................... 484
10.7 Embedded Length of Raking Pile ................................................................................................... 484
10.8 Design of Earth-Retaining Section ................................................................................................. 484
10.9 Examination of Stability against Circular Slip ............................................................................... 484
10.10 Detailed Design ................................................................................................................................. 484
Chapter 11 Detached Pier ............................................................................................................................................. 485

11.1 Scope of Application ......................................................................................................................... 485
11.3 Design of Detached Pier .................................................................................................................. 485
11.3.1
11.3.2
11.3.3
11.3.4
11.4
11.5
Layout and Dimensions .......................................................................................................... 485

External Forces and Loads..................................................................................................... 485
Design of Piers ....................................................................................................................... 486
Design of Girder...................................................................................................................... 486
Ancillary Equipment .......................................................................................................................... 486
Detailed Design ................................................................................................................................. 486
11.5.1 Superstructure ........................................................................................................................ 486
11.5.2 Gangways .............................................................................................................................. 486
Chapter 12 Floating Piers .............................................................................................................................................. 487

12.1 Scope of Application ......................................................................................................................... 487
12.3 Design of Pontoon............................................................................................................................. 488
12.3.1
12.3.2
12.3.3
12.3.4
12.4
Dimensions of Pontoon........................................................................................................... 488

External Forces and Loads Acting on Pontoon ...................................................................... 488
Stability of Pontoon................................................................................................................. 488
Design of Individual Parts of Pontoon..................................................................................... 489
Design of Mooring System............................................................................................................... 490
-xiv-
CONTENTS
12.4.1
12.4.2
12.4.3
12.5 Design
12.5.1
12.5.2
12.5.3
Mooring Method ......................................................................................................................490

Design of Mooring Chain.........................................................................................................490
[1] Design External Forces ....................................................................................................490
[2] Setting of Chain................................................................................................................490
[3] Diameter of Chain ............................................................................................................490
Design of Mooring Anchor.......................................................................................................492
[1] Design External Forces ....................................................................................................492
[2] Design of Mooring Anchor................................................................................................492
of Access Bridge and Gangway ........................................................................................492
Dimensions and Inclination .....................................................................................................492
Design of Access Bridge and Gangway..................................................................................493
Adjusting Tower ......................................................................................................................493
Chapter 13 Dolphins ........................................................................................................................................................494

13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6

Layout ..................................................................................................................................................494
External Forces Acting on Dolphins ...............................................................................................495
Pile Type Dolphins ............................................................................................................................495
Steel Cellular-Bulkhead Type Dolphins .........................................................................................495
Caisson Type Dolphins .....................................................................................................................496
Chapter 14 Slipways and Shallow Draft Quays ......................................................................................................497

14.1 Slipways ..............................................................................................................................................497
14.1.1
14.1.2
14.1.3

Location of Slipway .................................................................................................................497
Dimensions of Individual Parts................................................................................................497
[1] Elevations of Individual Parts ...........................................................................................497
[2] Slipway Length and Background Space...........................................................................498
[3] Water Depth .....................................................................................................................498
[4] Gradient of Slipway ..........................................................................................................498
[5] Basin Area........................................................................................................................498
14.1.4 Front Wall and Pavement........................................................................................................499
[1] Front Wall .........................................................................................................................499
[2] Pavement .........................................................................................................................499
14.2 Shallow Draft Quay ...........................................................................................................................499
Chapter 15 Air-Cushion Vehicle Landing Facilities ...............................................................................................500

15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4

Location ...............................................................................................................................................501
Air-Cushion Vehicle Landing Facilities ...........................................................................................501
Dimensions of Individual Parts ........................................................................................................501
Chapter 16 Mooring Buoys and Mooring Posts ......................................................................................................502

16.1 Mooring Buoys ...................................................................................................................................502
16.1.1
16.1.2
16.1.3

Tractive Force Acting on Mooring Buoy ..................................................................................503
Design of Individual Parts of Mooring Buoy ............................................................................504
[1] Mooring Anchor ................................................................................................................504
[2] Sinker and Sinker Chain...................................................................................................504
[3] Ground Chain ...................................................................................................................505
[4] Main Chain .......................................................................................................................506
[5] Floating Body ...................................................................................................................507
16.2 Mooring Posts ....................................................................................................................................507
Chapter 17 Other Types of Mooring Facilities.........................................................................................................508

17.1 Quaywall of Wave-Absorbing Type ................................................................................................508
17.1.1
17.1.2

Determination of Structural Form ............................................................................................508
17.2 Cantilever Sheet Pile Quaywall .......................................................................................................509
17.2.2 External Forces Acting on Sheet Pile Wall..............................................................................510
17.2.3 Determination of Cross Section of Sheet Piles ....................................................................... 511
17.2.4 Determination of Embedded Length of Sheet Piles ................................................................ 511
17.2.5 Examination of Displacement of Sheet Pile Crown................................................................. 511
17.2.6 External Forces during Construction.......................................................................................512
17.2.7 Detailed Design.......................................................................................................................512
17.3 Sheet Pile Quaywall with Batter Anchor Piles ..............................................................................512
-xv-
17.3.2
17.3.3
17.3.4
17.3.5
17.3.6
17.4
17.5
External Forces Acting on Sheet Pile Wall with Batter Anchor Piles ...................................... 513
Calculation of Horizontal and Vertical Forces Acting on Connecting Point ............................ 513
Determination of Cross Sections of Sheet Pile and Batter Anchor Pile.................................. 513
Determination of Embedded Lengths of Sheet Pile and Batter Anchor Pile........................... 513
Detailed Design ...................................................................................................................... 513
Sheet Pile Quaywall with Batter Piles in Front ............................................................................. 514
17.4.1 Principle of Design.................................................................................................................. 514
17.4.2 Layout and Dimensions .......................................................................................................... 515
17.4.3 Design of Sheet Pile Wall ....................................................................................................... 515
17.4.4 Design of Open-Type Superstructure ..................................................................................... 515
17.4.5 Embedded Length .................................................................................................................. 516
17.4.6 Detailed Design ...................................................................................................................... 516
Double Sheet Pile Quaywall ............................................................................................................ 516
17.5.1 Principle of Design.................................................................................................................. 516
17.5.2 External Forces Acting on Double Sheet Pile Quaywall ......................................................... 517
17.5.3 Design of Double Sheet Pile Quaywall ................................................................................... 517
Chapter 18 Transitional Parts of Quaywalls ............................................................................................................ 519

18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4

Transitional Part Where Frontal Water Depth Varies .................................................................. 519
Transitional Part Where Quaywalls of Different Type Are Connected ..................................... 519
Outward Projecting Corner .............................................................................................................. 519
Chapter 19 Ancillary Facilities ...................................................................................................................................... 520

19.1 General ............................................................................................................................................... 520
19.2 Mooring Equipment ........................................................................................................................... 520
19.3 Mooring Posts, Bollards, and Mooring Rings ............................................................................... 520
19.3.1
19.3.2
19.3.3
19.3.4
General ................................................................................................................................... 520

Arrangement of Mooring Posts, Bollards and Mooring Rings................................................. 521
Tractive Force of Vessel ......................................................................................................... 521
Structure ................................................................................................................................. 522
19.4 Fender System .................................................................................................................................. 522
19.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................... 522
19.4.2 Arrangement of Fenders......................................................................................................... 523
19.4.3 Berthing Energy of Vessel ...................................................................................................... 523
19.4.4 Selection of Fender................................................................................................................. 523
19.5 Safety Facilities ................................................................................................................................. 525
19.5.1 General ................................................................................................................................... 525
19.5.2 Skirt Guard.............................................................................................................................. 525
19.5.3 Fence and Rope ..................................................................................................................... 525
19.5.4 Signs or Notices...................................................................................................................... 525
19.5.5 Curbing ................................................................................................................................... 525
19.5.6 Fire Fighting Equipment and Alarm Systems ......................................................................... 525
19.6 Service Facilities ............................................................................................................................... 525
19.6.1 General ................................................................................................................................... 525
19.6.2 Lighting Facilities .................................................................................................................... 525
19.6.3 Facilities for Passenger Embarkation and Disembarkation .................................................... 525
19.6.4 Vehicle Ramp ......................................................................................................................... 526
19.6.5 Water Supply Facilities ........................................................................................................... 526
19.6.6 Drainage Facilities .................................................................................................................. 526
19.6.7 Fueling and Electric Power Supply Facilities .......................................................................... 526
19.6.8 Signs or Notices...................................................................................................................... 527
19.7 Stairways and Ladders ..................................................................................................................... 527
19.8 Lifesaving Facilities ........................................................................................................................... 527
19.9 Curbing ............................................................................................................................................... 527
19.10 Vehicle Ramp..................................................................................................................................... 527
19.11 Signs, Notices and Protective Fences ........................................................................................... 527
19.11.1 General ................................................................................................................................... 527
19.11.2 Provision of Signs ................................................................................................................... 527
19.11.3 Types and Location of Signs .................................................................................................. 528
19.11.4 Position of Sign....................................................................................................................... 528
19.11.5 Structure of Sign ..................................................................................................................... 529
19.11.6 Materials ................................................................................................................................. 530
19.11.7 Maintenance and Management .............................................................................................. 530
19.11.8 Protective Fences ................................................................................................................... 530
19.11.9 Barricades............................................................................................................................... 531
-xvi-
CONTENTS
19.12 Lighting Facilities ...............................................................................................................................531

19.12.1 General ...................................................................................................................................531
19.12.2 Standard Intensity of Illumination ............................................................................................531
[1] Definition ..........................................................................................................................531
[2] Standard Intensity of Illumination for Outdoor Lighting ....................................................531
[3] Standard Intensity of Illumination for Indoor Lighting .......................................................532
19.12.3 Selection of Light Source ........................................................................................................532
19.12.4 Selection of Lighting Equipment..............................................................................................534
[1] Outdoor Lighting...............................................................................................................534
[2] Indoor Lighting..................................................................................................................534
19.12.5 Design of Lighting ...................................................................................................................535
19.12.6 Maintenance and Management...............................................................................................537
[1] Inspections .......................................................................................................................537
[2] Cleaning and Repair.........................................................................................................538
Chapter 20 Aprons ...........................................................................................................................................................540

20.1 Principle of Design ............................................................................................................................540
20.2 Type of Apron .....................................................................................................................................540
20.2.1
20.2.2
20.2.3
20.3
20.4
20.5
20.6
20.7
Width ......................................................................................................................................540
Gradient ..................................................................................................................................540
Type of Pavement ...................................................................................................................540
Countermeasures against Settlement of Apron............................................................................540
Load Conditions .................................................................................................................................541
Design of Concrete Pavement ........................................................................................................541
20.5.1 Design Conditions ...................................................................................................................541
20.5.2 Composition of Pavement .......................................................................................................542
20.5.3 Joints.......................................................................................................................................545
20.5.4 Tie-Bar and Slip-Bar................................................................................................................547
20.5.5 End Protection.........................................................................................................................547
Design of Asphalt Pavement ...........................................................................................................547
20.6.3 End Protection.........................................................................................................................551
Design of Concrete Block Pavement..............................................................................................551
20.7.3 Joints.......................................................................................................................................553
Chapter 21 Foundation for Cargo Handling Equipment .......................................................................................554

21.1 Principle of Design ............................................................................................................................554
21.2 External Forces Acting on Foundation ...........................................................................................554
21.3 Design of Foundation with Piles ......................................................................................................555
21.3.1
21.3.2
Concrete Beam .......................................................................................................................555

Bearing Capacity of Piles ........................................................................................................555
21.4 Design of Foundation without Piles ................................................................................................556
21.4.1 Examination of Effects on Wharf.............................................................................................556
21.4.2 Concrete Beam .......................................................................................................................556
Part IX Other Port Facilities

Chapter 1 Port Traffic Facilities .................................................................................................................................559
1.1
General................................................................................................................................................559
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.2
1.3
Scope of Application ...............................................................................................................559

Operation and Maintenance of Facilities for Land Traffic........................................................559
Roads ..................................................................................................................................................559
1.2.1
General ...................................................................................................................................559
1.2.2
Design Vehicles ......................................................................................................................559
1.2.3
Roadways and Lanes..............................................................................................................559
1.2.4
Clearance Limit .......................................................................................................................560
1.2.5
Widening of Roads at Bends...................................................................................................561
1.2.6
Longitudinal Slope...................................................................................................................561
1.2.7
Level Crossings.......................................................................................................................562
1.2.8
Pavement ................................................................................................................................562
1.2.9
Signs .......................................................................................................................................563
Car Parks ............................................................................................................................................564
1.3.1
General ...................................................................................................................................564
-xvii-
1.3.2
1.4
1.5
1.6
Size and Location ................................................................................................................... 564
Railways ............................................................................................................................................. 567

Heliports .............................................................................................................................................. 567
Tunnels ............................................................................................................................................... 567
1.6.1
1.6.2
1.6.3
1.6.4
1.6.5
1.6.6
1.6.7
1.6.8
1.6.9
1.6.10
1.7
General ................................................................................................................................... 567

Principle of Planning and Design............................................................................................ 567
Depth of Immersion ................................................................................................................ 568
Structure and Length of Immersed Tunnel Elements ............................................................. 568
Ventilation Towers .................................................................................................................. 568
Access Roads ......................................................................................................................... 569
Calculation of Stability of Immersed Tunnel Section .............................................................. 569
Design of Immersed Tunnel Elements.................................................................................... 569
Joints ...................................................................................................................................... 570
Control and Operation Facilities ............................................................................................. 570
Bridges ................................................................................................................................................ 570
1.7.1
General ................................................................................................................................... 570
1.7.2
Design Requirements ............................................................................................................. 570
1.7.3
Structural Durability ................................................................................................................ 571
1.7.4
Fender System ....................................................................................................................... 571
Chapter 2 Cargo Sorting Facilities ........................................................................................................................... 573

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
General ............................................................................................................................................... 573

Cargo Sorting Areas ......................................................................................................................... 573
Quay Sheds ....................................................................................................................................... 573
Cargo Handling Equipment ............................................................................................................. 573
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.5
2.6
2.7
General ................................................................................................................................... 573

Oil Handling Equipment .......................................................................................................... 574
Operation and Maintenance of Cargo Handling Equipment ................................................... 574
Timber Sorting Areas ........................................................................................................................ 574
Sorting Facilities for Marine Products ............................................................................................ 575
Sorting Facilities for Hazardous Cargo .......................................................................................... 575
Chapter 3 Storage Facilities ....................................................................................................................................... 576

3.1
3.2
3.3
General ............................................................................................................................................... 576

Yards for Dangerous Cargo and Oil Storage Facilities ............................................................... 576
Other Storage Facilities .................................................................................................................... 576
Chapter 4 Facilities for Ship Services ..................................................................................................................... 577

4.1
4.2
General ............................................................................................................................................... 577

Water Supply Facilities ..................................................................................................................... 577
Chapter 5 Facilities for Passenger ........................................................................................................................... 578

5.1
Facilities for Passenger Boarding ................................................................................................... 578

5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.1.4
5.2
General ................................................................................................................................... 578

Structural Types...................................................................................................................... 578
Design of Facilities for Passenger Boarding........................................................................... 578
Ancillary Facilities ................................................................................................................... 578
Passenger Building ........................................................................................................................... 579
5.2.1
General ................................................................................................................................... 579
5.2.2
Design of Passenger Buildings............................................................................................... 579
5.2.3
Ancillary Facilities ................................................................................................................... 579
Part X Special Purpose Wharves

Chapter 1 Container Terminals ................................................................................................................................. 581
1.1
1.2

Design of Mooring Facilities ............................................................................................................ 582
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.3
Length and Water Depth of Berths ......................................................................................... 582

Mooring Equipment................................................................................................................. 582
Fender System ....................................................................................................................... 583
Design of Land Facilities .................................................................................................................. 583
1.3.1
Apron ...................................................................................................................................... 583
1.3.2
Container Cranes.................................................................................................................... 583
1.3.3
Container Yard........................................................................................................................ 583
1.3.4
Container Freight Station........................................................................................................ 583
1.3.5
Maintenance Shop.................................................................................................................. 583
-xviii-
CONTENTS
1.3.6
1.3.7
1.3.8
Administration Building............................................................................................................583
Gates.......................................................................................................................................583
Ancillary Facilities....................................................................................................................583
Chapter 2 Ferry Terminals ..........................................................................................................................................584

2.1
2.2

Design of Mooring Facilities .............................................................................................................585
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.3
2.4
2.5
Length and Water Depth of Berths..........................................................................................585

Mooring Equipment .................................................................................................................585
Fender System........................................................................................................................586
Protection Works against Scouring .........................................................................................586
Design of Vehicle Ramp ...................................................................................................................586
2.3.1
Width, Length, Gradient, and Radius of Curvature .................................................................586
2.3.2
Ancillary Facilities and Signs...................................................................................................586
2.3.3
Design of Moving Parts ...........................................................................................................586
Facilities for Passenger Boarding ...................................................................................................586
2.4.1
Width, Length, Gradient, and Ancillary Facilities.....................................................................587
2.4.2
Design of Moving Parts ...........................................................................................................587
Design of Other Facilities .................................................................................................................587
2.5.1
Roads......................................................................................................................................587
2.5.2
Passageways ..........................................................................................................................587
2.5.3
Car Parks ................................................................................................................................587
2.5.4
Passenger Terminals ..............................................................................................................588
2.5.5
Safety Equipment....................................................................................................................588
Part XI Marinas
Chapter 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................589
Chapter 2 Main Dimensions of Target Boats ........................................................................................................590
Chapter 3 Navigation Channels and Basins..........................................................................................................591
3.1
3.2
3.3
General................................................................................................................................................591
Navigation Channels .........................................................................................................................591
Mooring Basins ..................................................................................................................................591
Chapter 4 Protective Facilities ...................................................................................................................................592

Chapter 5 Mooring Facilities .......................................................................................................................................593
5.1
5.2
5.3
General................................................................................................................................................593
Design Conditions for Mooring Facilities .......................................................................................593
Floating Piers .....................................................................................................................................595
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.3.5
5.3.6
5.4
5.5
General ...................................................................................................................................595
Structure..................................................................................................................................595
Examination of Safety .............................................................................................................595
Structural Design.....................................................................................................................596
Mooring Method ......................................................................................................................596
Access Bridges .......................................................................................................................596
Ancillary Facilities ..............................................................................................................................597
Lifting / Lowering Frame Facilities ..................................................................................................597
Chapter 6 Facilities for Ship Services......................................................................................................................598

6.1
6.2
General................................................................................................................................................598
Land Storage Facilities .....................................................................................................................598
Chapter 7 Land Traffic Facilities................................................................................................................................599
INDEX
-xix-
-xx-
Part I General
PART I GENERAL
Part I General
Chapter 1 General Rules
1.1 Scope of Application
The Ministerial Ordinance stipulating the Technical Standards for Port and Harbour Facilities
(Ministry of Transport Ordinance No. 30, 1974; hereafter referred to simply as the Ministerial Ordinance)
and the Notification stipulating the Details of Technical Standards for Port and Harbour Facilities
(Ministry of Transport Notification No. 181, 1999; hereafter referred to simply as the Notification), both of
which have been issued in line with Article 56-2 of the Port and Harbour Law, shall be applied to the
construction, improvement, and maintenance of port and harbor facilities.
[Commentary]
(1) The Ministerial Ordinance and the Notification (hereafter collectively referred to as the Technical Standards)
apply not to the port and harbor facilities stipulated in Article 2 of the Port and Harbour Law, but rather to
the port and harbor facilities stipulated in Article 19 of the Port and Harbour Law Enforcement Order.
Accordingly the Technical Standards also apply to facilities like navigation channels, basins, protective
facilities and mooring facilities of the marinas and privately owned ports, which are found in outside of the
legally designated port areas.
(2) Since the Technical Standards covers a wide rage of facilities, there will be cases where the items shown in the
Technical Standards may be inadequate for dealing with planning, designing, constructing, maintaining or
repairing of a particular individual structure of a port or harbor. There is also possibility that new items may be
added in the future in line with technical developments or innovations. With regard to matters for which there
are no stipulations in the Technical Standards, appropriate methods other than those mentioned in the Technical
Standards may be adopted, after confirming the safety of a structure in consideration using appropriate methods
such as model tests or trustworthy numerical calculations (following the main items of the Technical Standards).
(3) Figure C- 1.1.1 shows the statutory structure of the Technical Standards.
Port and Harbour Law
[Article 56-2]
(technical standards for
port and harbour facilities)

Enforcement Order
[Article 19]
(stipulation of facilities covered)

Enforcement Regulations
[Article 28]
(stipulation of facilities excluded
from coverage)
Port and Harbour Law Enforcement

Regulations
Port and Harbour Law Enforcement Order
The Technical Standards

The Ministerial Ordinance
The Notification
Fig. C- 1.1.1 Statutory Structure of the Technical Standards for Port and Harbour Facilities
(4) This document is intended to help individuals concerned with correct interpretation of the Technical Standards
and to facilitate right application of the Ministerial Ordinance and the Notification. This document is made up of
the main items, along with reference sections marked Commentary and Technical Notes, which supplement
the main items. The texts in large letters are the main items that describe the parts of the Notification and the
basic items that must be obeyed, regarding the items related to the Notification. The sections marked
Commentary mainly give the background to and the basis for the Notification, etc. The sections marked
Technical Notes provide investigation methods and/or standards that will be of reference value, when executing
actual design works, specific examples of structures, and other related materials.
(5) Design methods can be broadly classified into the methods that use the safety factors and the methods that use
the indices based on probability theory, according to the way of judging the safety of structures.
A safety factor is not an index that represents the degree of safety quantitatively. Rather, it is determined
through experience to compensate for the uncertainty in a variety of factors. In this document, the safety factors
indicate values that are considered by experience to be sufficiently safe under standard conditions. Depending
on the conditions, it may be acceptable to lower the values of safety factors, but when doing so it is necessary to
make a decision using prudent judgement based on sound reasoning.
In the case that the probability distributions of loads and structure strengths can be adequately approximated,
it is possible to use a reliability design method. Unlike the more traditional design methods in which safety
factors are used, a reliability design method makes it possible to gain a quantitative understanding of the
-1-
likelihood of the failure of structure in question and then to keep the likelihood below a certain allowable value.
With a reliability design method, design is carried out by using the partial safety factors and reliability indices.
Formally speaking, the limit state design method can be classified as one form of reliability design method.
1.2 Definitions
The terms used in the Notification are based on the terminology used in the Ministerial Ordinance; in
addition, the meanings of the following terms as stipulated in the law or notification are cited.
(1) Dangerous articles: This term refers to those that are designated in the Notification stipulating the
Types of Hazardous Goods for the Port Regulation Law Enforcement Regulations (Ministry
of Transport Notification No. 547, 1979).
(2) Datum level for construction work: This is the standard water level used when constructing,
improving or maintaining port and harbor facilities, and is equal to the chart datum level (specifically
the chart datum for which the height is determined based on the provisions of Article 9 (8) of the
Law for Hydrographic Activities (Law No. 102, 1950)). However, in the case of port and harbor
facilities in lakes and rivers for which there is little tidal influence, in order to ensure the safe use of
the port or harbor in question, the datum level for construction work shall be determined while
considering the conditions of extremely low water level that may occur during a drought season.
[Commentary]
In addition to the terms defined above, the meanings of the following terms are listed below.
(1) Super-large vessel: A cargo ship with a deadweight tonnage of 100,000 t or more, except in the case of LPG
carriers and LNG carriers, in which case the gross tonnage is 25,000 t or more.
(2) Passenger ship:
A vessel with a capacity of 13 or more passengers.
(3) Pleasure boat:
A yacht, motorboat or other vessel used for sport or recreation.
1.3 Usage of SI Units

[Commentary]
In line with the provisions in the Measurement Law (Law No. 51, May 20, 1992), with the aim of executing a
smooth switchover to SI units, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, the Ministry of Transport and the
Ministry of Construction have concluded to use the International System of Units in their public work projects
starting from April 1999.
-2-
PART I GENERAL
Table C- 1.3.1 Conversion Factors from Conventional Units to SI Units

Number
Quantity
Non-SI units
SI units
Conversion factor
Length
1 1m
Mass
kgfs2/m
kg
1kgfs2/m 9.80665kg
Acceleration
Gal
m/s2
1Gal 0.01m/s2
kgf
1kgf 9.80665N
dyn
1dyn 10N
kgfm
Nm
1kgfm 9.80665Nm
Pa
1kgf/cm2
9.80665 104Pa
9.80665 10-2MPa
1kgf/cm2
9.80665 10-2N/mm2
4
5
6
Force
Moment of a force
Pressure
10
11
kgf/cm2
N/mm2
mHg
Stress
Work (energy)
kgf/cm2
Pa
1mHg 133.322kPa
Pa
1kgf/cm2
9.80665 104Pa
9.80665 10-2MPa
1kgf/cm2
9.80665 10-2N/mm2
N/mm2
kgfm
1kfgm 9.80665J
erg
1erg 100nJ
12
Power
PS
HP
1PS 735.499W
1HP 746.101W
13
Quantity of heat
cal
J
Ws
1cal 4.18605J
1cal 4.18605Ws
14
Thermal
conductivity
cal/(hmC)
W/(mC)
1cal/(hmC)
0.001163W/(mC)
15
Heat conduction
coefficient
cal/(hm2C)
W/(m2C)
1cal/(hm2C)
0.001163W/(m2C)
16
Specific heat
capacity
cal/(kgC)
J/(kgC)
1cal/(kgC)
4.18605J/(kgC)
17
Sound pressure level
dB
1phon 1dB
-3-
Chapter 2 Datum Level for Construction Work

[Commentary]
The datum level for port and harbor construction work is the standard water level that shall form the basis
for the planning, design, and construction of facilities. The chart datum level shall be used as the datum
level for construction work.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Chart Datum Level
The chart datum level is set as the level below the mean sea level by the amount equal to or approximately
equivalent to the sum of the amplitueds of the four major tidal constituents (M2, S2, K1, and O1 tides), which are
obtained from the harmonic analysis of tidal observation data. Here M2 is the principal lunar semi-diurnal tide,
S2 is the principal solar semi-diurnal tide, K1 is the luni-solar diurnal tide, and O1 is the principal lunar diurnal
tide.
Note that the heights of rocks or land marks shown on the nautical charts are the elevation above the mean
sea level, which is the long-term average of the hourly sea surface height at the place in question. (In the case
that the observation period is short, however, corrections for seasonal fluctuations should be made when
determining the mean sea level.) The difference in height between the chart datum level and the mean sea level
is referred to as Z0.
(2) International Marine Chart Datum
The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) has decided to adopt the Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT)
as the international marine chart datum, and issued a recommendation to this effect to the Hydrographic
Departments in various countries throughout the world in June 1997. The LAT is defined as the lowest sea level
that is assumed to occur under the combination of average weather conditions and generally conceivable
astronomical conditions. In actual practice, tide levels for at least 19 years are calculated using harmonic
constants obtained from at least one years worth of observations, and then the lowest water level is taken as the
LAT.
However, in the case of Japan, the chart datum level is obtained using the old method described in (1) above
(approximate lowest water level). There will be no switchover to the LAT in the near future in Japan, but it is
planned to meet the IHO recommendation by stating the difference between the LAT and the chart datum level
in tide tables published by the Hydrographic Department of Maritime Safety Agency, Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, and Transport, Japan.
-4-
PART I GENERAL
Chapter 3 Maintenance
In order to maintain the functions of port and harbor facilities at a satisfactory service level and to prevent
deterioration in the safety of such facilities, comprehensive maintenance including inspections,
evaluations, repairs, etc. shall be carried out, in line with the specific characteristics of the port or harbor in
question.
[Commentary]
(1) Maintenance refers to a system consisting of a series of linked activities involving the efficient detection of
changes in the state of serviceability of the facilities and the execution of effective measures such as rational
evaluation, repair, and reinforcement.
(2) Port and harbor facilities must generally remain in service for long periods of time, during which the functions
demanded of the facilities must be maintained. It is thus essential not only to give due consideration when
initially designing the structures in question, but also to carry out proper maintenance after the facilities have
been put into service.
(3) A whole variety of data concerning maintenance (specifically, inspections, checks, evaluations, repair,
reinforcement work, etc.) must be recorded and stored in a standard format. Maintenance data kept in good
systematic order is the basic information necessary for carrying out appropriate evaluation of the level of
soundness of the facilities in question, and executing their maintenance and repairs. At the same time the
maintenace data is useful when taking measures against the deterioration of the facilities as a whole and when
investigating the possibility in the life cycle cost reduction of the facilities.
(4) When designing a structure, it is necessary to give due consideration to the system of future maintenance and to
select the types of structures and the materials used so that future maintenance will be easily executed, while
reflecting this aspect in the detailed design.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The concepts of the terms relating to maintenance are as follows:
Inspection / checking: Activities to investigate the state of a structure, the situation
regarding damage and the remaining level of function, along with
related administrative work: mainly composed of periodic and
special inspections
Maintenance
Evaluation: Evaluation of the level of soundness based on the results of

inspection / checking, and judgement of the necessity or otherwise
of repairs etc.
Maintenance: Activities carried out with the aim of holding back the physical
deterioration of a structure and keeping its function within
acceptable levels.
Repair / reinforcement: Activities in which a structure that has deteriorated physically and/
or functionally is partially reconstructed in order to restore the
required function and/or structure.
(2) With regard to the procedure for maintenance, it is a good idea to draw up a maintenance plan for each structure
while considering factors like the structural form, the tendency to deteriorate and the degree of importance, and
then to implement maintenance work based on this plan.
(3) For basic and common matters concerning maintenance, refer to the Manual for Maintenance and Repair of
Port and Harbor Structures.
-5-
-6-
PART II DESIGN CONDITIONS

Chapter 1 General
In designing port and harbor facilities, the design conditions shall be chosen from the items listed below by
taking into consideration the natural, service and construction conditions, the characteristics of materials,
the environmental impacts, and the social requirements for the facilities.
(1) Ship dimensions
(2) External forces produced by ships
(3) Winds and wind pressure
(4) Waves and wave force
(5) Tide and extraordinary sea levels
(6) Currents and current force
(7) External forces acting on floating structures and their motions
(8) Estuarine hydraulics and littoral drift
(9) Subsoil
(10) Earthquakes and seismic force
(11) Liquefaction
(12) Earth pressure and water pressure
(13) Deadweight and surcharge
(14) Coefficient of friction
(15) Other necessary design conditions
[Commentary]
The design conditions should be determined carefully, because they exercise great influence upon the safety,
functions, and construction cost of the facilities. The design conditions listed above are just those that have a large
influence on port and harbor facilities. They are generally determined according to the results of surveys and tests.
Thus, the design conditions should be precisely determined upon full understanding of the methods and results of
such investigations and tests. In the case of temporary structures, the design conditions may be determined while
considering also the length of service life.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In designing port and harbor facilities, the following matters should be taken into consideration.
(a) Functions of the facilities
Since facilities often have multiple functions, care should be exercised so that all functions of the facilities will
be exploited fully.
(b) Importance of the facilities
The degree of importance of the facilities should be considered in order to design the facilities by taking
appropriate account of safety and broad economic implications. The design criteria influenced by importance
of facilities are those of environmental conditions, design seismic coefficient, lifetime, loads, safety factor,
etc. In determining the degree of importance of the facilities, the following criteria should be taken into
consideration.
Influence upon human lives and property if the facilities are damaged.
Impact on society and its economy if the facilities are damaged.
Influence upon other facilities if the facilities are damaged.
Replaceability of the facilities.
(c) Lifetime
The length of lifetime should be taken into account in determining the structure and materials of the facilities
and also in determining the necessity for and extent of the improvement of the existing facilities. Lifetime of
the facilities should be determined by examinig the following:
Operational function of the facilities
The number of years until the facilities can no longer be usable due to the occurrence of problems in terms
of the function of the facilities, for example the water depth of a mooring basin becoming insufficient owing
to the increase in vessel size.
Economic viewpoint of the facilities
The number of years until the facilities become economically uncompetitive with other newer facilities
(unless some kind of improvements are carried out).
-7-
Social function of the facilities

The number of years until the functions of the facilities that constituted the original purpose become
unnecessary or until different functions are called for the facilities due to new port planning etc.
Physical property of the facilities
The number of years until it is no longer possible to maintain the strength of materials composing the
structures at the specified level due to processes such as corrosion or weathering of these materials.
(d) Encounter probability
The encounter probability is intimately linked with the lifetime length. The encounter probability E1 is
obtained using equation (1.1.1) 1)
E1 = 1 ( 1 1 T 1 )
where
L1 lifetime length
T 1 return period
L1
(1.1.1)
(e) Environmental conditions

Not only the wave, seismic, topographical and soil conditions, which have direct influences on the design of
the facilities, but also the water quality, bottom material, animal and plant life, atmospheric conditions and
rising sea level due to global warming should be taken into consideration.
(f) Materials
It is necessary to consider the physical external forces, deterioration, lifetime, structural type, construction
works, cost, and influence on the environment and landscape when selecting the materials. It is most important
to ensure the reguired quality. In recent years, in addition to more traditional materials, new materials such as
stainless steels, titanium and new rubbers, and recycled materials such as slag, coal ash and dredged sediment
have begun to be used.
(g) Construction method
In order to carry out design rationally, it is necessary to give sufficient consideration to the construction
method.
(h) Work accuracy
It is necessary to carry out design considering the accuracy of construction works that can be maintained in
actual projects.
(i) Construction period
In the case that the construction period is stipulated, it is necessary to give consideration both to the design and
the construction method, in order that it will be possible to complete construction work within the stipulated
period. The construction period is generally determined by things like the availability of the materials, the
construction equipment, the degree of difficulty of construction, the opening date and the natural conditions.
(j) Construction costs etc.
Construction costs consist of the initial investment costs and maintenance costs. All of these costs must be
considered in design and construction. When doing this, it is necessary to consider the early use of the
facilities and to secure an early return on investment. There is also a design approach that the facilities are put
into service step by step as the construction progresses, while ensuring the safety of service / construction.
Note also that the initial investment costs mentioned here include compensation duties.
When carrying out design etc., due consideration must be given to things like the structural type and the
construction method, since the construction costs will depend on these things.
[Reference]
1) Borgman, L. E.: Risk criteria, Proc. ASCE, Vol. 89, No. WW3, 1963, pp.1-35.
-8-
Chapter 2 Vessels
2.1 Dimensions of Target Vessel (Notification Article 21)
The principal dimensions of the target vessel shall be set using the following method:
(1) In the case that the target vessel can be identified, use the principal dimensions of that vessel.
(2) In the case that the target vessel cannot be identified, use appropriate principal dimensions determined
by statistical methods.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Article 1, Clause 2 of the Ministerial Ordinance stipulates that the target vessel is the vessel that has the
largest gross tonnage out of those that are expected to use the port or harbor facilities in question. Accordingly,
in the case that the target vessel can be identified, the principal dimensions of this vessel should be used.
(2) In the case that the target vessel cannot be identified in advance, such as in the case of port and harbor facilities
for public use, the principal dimensions of the target vessel may be determined by referring to Table T- 2.1.1. In
this table, the tonnages (usually either gross or deadweight tonnage) are used as representative indicators.
(3) Table T- 2.1.1 lists the principal dimensions of vessels for the case that the target vessel cannot be identified
by tonnage level. These values have been obtained through methods such as statistical analysis 1),2), and they
mainly represent the 75% cover ratio values for each tonnage of vessels. Accordingly, for any given tonnage,
there will be some vessels that have principal dimensions that exceed the values in the table. There will also be
vessels that have a tonnage greater than that of the target vessel listed in the table, but still have principal
dimensions smaller than those of the target vessel.
(4) Table T- 2.1.1 has been obtained using the data from Lloyds Maritime Information June 95 and Nihon
Senpaku Meisaisho (Detailed List of Japanese Vessels; 1995 edition). The definitions of principal
dimensions in the table are shown in Fig. T- 2.1.1.
(5) Since the principal dimensions of long distance ferries that sail over 300km tend to have different characteristics
from those of short-to-medium distance ferries, the principal dimensions are listed separately for long distance
ferries and short-to-medium distance ferries.
(6) Since the principal dimensions of Japanese passenger ships tend to have different characteristics from those of
foreign passenger ships, the principal dimensions are listed separately for Japanese passenger ships and
foreign passenger ships.
(7) The mast height varies considerably even for vessels of the same type with the same tonnage, and so when
designing facilities like bridges that pass over navigation routes, it is necessary to carry out a survey on the mast
heights of the target vessels.
(8) In the case that the target vessel is known to be a small cargo ship but it is not possible to identify precisely the
demensions of the ship in advance, the principal dimensions of small cargo ships can be obtained by referring
to Table T- 2.1.2. The values in Table T- 2.1.2 have been obtained using the same kind of procedure as those in
Table T- 2.1.1, but in the case of such small vessels there are large variations in the principal dimensions and so
particular care should be exercised when using Table T- 2.1.2.
(9) Tonnage
The definitions of the various types of tonnage are as follows:
(a) Gross tonnage
The measurement tonnage of sealed compartments of a vessel, as stipulated in the Law Concerning the
Measurement of the Tonnage of Ships. The gross tonnage is used as an indicator that represents the size
of a vessel in Japans maritime systems. Note however that there is also the international gross tonnage,
which, in line with the provisions in treaties etc., is also used as an indicator that represents the size of a vessel,
but mainly for vessels that make international sailings. The values of the gross tonnage and the
international gross tonnage can differ from one another; the relationship between the two is stipulated in
Article 35 of the Enforcement Regulations for the Law Concerning the Measurement of the Tonnage of
Ships (Ministerial Ordinance No. 47, 1981).
(b) Deadweight tonnage
The maximum weight, expressed in tons, of cargo that can be loaded onto a vessel.
(c) Displacement tonnage
The amount of water, expressed in tons, displaced by a vessel when it is floating at rest.
(10) For the sake of consistency, equation (2.1.1) shows the relationship between the deadweight tonnage (DWT) and
the gross tonnage (GT) for the types of vessels that use the deadweight tonnage as the representative indicator 1).
For each type of vessels, the equation may be applied if the tonnage is within the range shown in Table T- 2.1.1.
-9-
GT = 0.541DWT
GT = 0.880DWT
GT = 0.553DWT
GT = 0.808DWT
64748
Cargo ships:
Container ships:
Oil tankers:
Roll-on/roll-off vessels:
(2.1.1)
where
GT gross tonnage
DWT deadweight tonnage
(11) Tables T-2.1.3 to T-2.1.6 list the frequency distribution of the principal dimensions of general cargo ships, bulk
cargo carriers, container ships, and oil tankers, which were analyzed by the Systems Laboratory of Port and
Harbour Research Institute (PHRI) using the data from Lloyds Maritime Informations Services (June 98).
Length overall
Load water line
Fore perpendicular
Full load draft
Moulded breadth
Moulded depth
After perpendicular
Length between perpendiculars
Fig. T- 2.1.1 Definitions of Principal Dimensions of Vessel

Table T- 2.1.1 Principal Dimensions of Vessels for the Case That the Target Vessel Cannot Be Identified
1. Cargo ships
Deadweight tonnage (DWT)
1,000 ton
2,000
3,000
5,000
10,000
12,000
18,000
30,000
40,000
55,000
70,000
90,000
100,000
150,000
Length overall (L)
Molded breadth (B)

10.9 m
13.1
14.6
16.8
19.9
21.0
23.6
27.5
29.9
32.3
32.3
38.1
39.3
44.3
67 m
83
94
109
137
144
161
185
200
218
233
249
256
286
Full load draft (d)

3.9 m
4.9
5.6
6.5
8.2
8.6
9.6
11.0
11.8
12.9
13.7
14.7
15.1
16.9
2. Container ships
30,000 ton
40,000
50,000
60,000
Length overall (L)
Molded breadth (B)
218 m
244
266
286
30.2 m
32.3
32.3
36.5
-10-
Full load draft (d)

11.1 m
12.2
13.0
13.8
3. Ferries
3-A Short-to-medium distance ferries (sailing distance less than 300km)
Gross tonnage (GT)
400 ton
700
1,000
2,500
5,000
10,000
Length overall (L)
Molded breadth (B)

11.8 m
13.5
14.7
18.3
21.6
23.0
50 m
63
72
104
136
148
Full load draft (d)

3.0 m
3.4
3.7
4.6
5.3
5.7
3-B Long distance ferries (sailing distance 300km or more)

Gross tonnage (GT)
6,000 ton
10,000
13,000
16,000
20,000
23,000
Length overall (L)
Molded breadth (B)

22.3 m
25.2
27.3
28.2
28.2
28.2
142 m
167
185
192
192
200
Full load draft (d)

6.0 m
6.4
6.8
6.8
6.8
7.2
4. Roll-on/roll-off vessels
400 ton
1,500
2,500
4,000
6,000
10,000
Length overall (L)
Molded breadth (B)

13.6 m
16.4
18.5
20.7
22.9
25.9
75 m
97
115
134
154
182
Full load draft (d)

11.1 m
4.7
5.5
6.3
7.0
7.4
5. Passenger ships
5-A Japanese passenger ships
Gross tonnage (GT)
2,000 ton
4,000
7,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
Length overall (L)
Molded breadth (B)

15.6 m
18.5
21.2
23.2
27.5
30.4
83 m
107
130
147
188
217
Full load draft (d)

4.0 m
4.9
5.7
6.6
6.6
6.6
5-B Foreign passenger ships

Gross tonnage (GT)
20,000 ton
30,000
50,000
70,000
Length overall (L)
Molded breadth (B)

25.7 m
28.4
32.3
35.2
180 m
207
248
278
Full load draft (d)

8.0 m
8.0
8.0
8.0
6. Pure car carriers

Gross tonnage (GT)
500 ton
1,500
3,000
5,000
12,000
18,000
25,000
Length overall (L)
Molded breadth (B)

11.8 m
15.7
18.8
21.5
27.0
30.0
32.3
70 m
94
114
130
165
184
200
-11-
Full load draft (d)

3.8 m
5.0
5.8
6.6
8.0
8.8
9.5
7. Oil tankers
1,000 ton
2,000
3,000
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
30,000
50,000
70,000
90,000
Length overall (L)
Molded breadth (B)
Full load draft (d)

4.0 m
4.9
5.5
6.4
7.9
8.9
9.6
10.9
12.6
13.9
15.0
10.2 m
12.6
14.3
16.8
20.8
23.6
25.8
29.2
32.3
38.0
41.1
61 m
76
87
102
127
144
158
180
211
235
254
Table T- 2.1.2 Principal Dimensions of Small Cargo Ships

500 ton
700
Length overall (L)
Molded breadth (B)
51 m
57
Full load draft (d)
9.0 m
9.5
Table T-2.1.3 Frequency Distributions of Principal Dimensions of General Cargo Ships

(a) DWT - Length overall
L
(b) DWT - Breadth
(c) DWT - Full load draft

d
-12-
3.3 m
3.4
Table T-2.1.4 Frequency Distributions of Principal Dimensions of Bulk Cargo Carriers

L
(b) DWT - Breadth

d
-13-
Table T-2.1.5 Frequency Distributions of Principal Dimensions of Container Ships

L
(b) DWT - Breadth

d
unknown
unknown
(d) DWT - TEU
-14-
Table T-2.1.6 Frequency Distributions of Principal Dimensions of Oil Tankers

L
(b) DWT - Breadth

d
-15-
2.2 External Forces Generated by Vessels

2.2.1 General
The external forces acting on the mooring facilities when a vessel is berthing or moored shall be
determined using an appropriate method, considering the dimensions of the target vessel, the berthing
method and the berthing velocity, the structure of the mooring facilities, the mooring method and the
properties of the mooring system, along with the influence of things like the winds, waves and tidal
currents.
[Commentary]
(1) The following loads acting on mooring facilities should be considered when a vessel is berthing or moored:
a) Loads caused by berthing of a vessel
b) Loads caused by motions of a moored vessel
When designing mooring facilities, the berthing force must be considered first. Then the impact forces and
tractive forces on the mooring facilities due to the motions of the moored vessel, which are caused by the wave
force, wind force and current force, should be considered. In particular, for the cases of the mooring facilities in
the ports and harbors that face out onto the open sea with long-period waves expected to come in, of those
installed in the open sea or harbor entrances such as offshore terminals, and of those in the harbors where vessels
seek refuge during storms, the influence of the wave force acting on a vessel is large and so due consideration
must be given to the wave force.
(2) As a general rule, the berthing forces acting on the mooring facilities should be calculated based on the berthing
energy of the vessel and using the load-deflection characteristics of the fenders.
(3) As a general rule, the tractive forces and impact forces generated by the motions of a moored vessel should be
obtained by carrying out a numerical simulation of vessel motions taking into account the wave force acting on
the vessel, the wind force, the current force, and the load-deflection characteristics of the mooring system.
2.2.2 Berthing
[1] Berthing Energy (Notification Article 22, Clause 1)
It shall be standard to calculate the external force generated by berthing of a vessel with the following
equation:
MsV2
(2.2.1)
E f = ------------- C e C m C s C c
2
In this equation, E f , M s , V, C e , C m , C s , and C c represent the following:
E f berthing energy of vessel (kJ = kNm)
M s mass of vessel (t)
V berthing velocity of vessel (m/s)
C e eccentricity factor
C m virtual mass factor
C s softness factor (standard value is 1.0)
C c berth configuration factor (standard value is 1.0)
[Commentary]
In addition to the kinetic energy method mentioned above, there are also other methods of estimating the berthing
energy of a vessel: for example, statistical methods, methods using hydraulic model experiments, and methods using
fluid dynamics models 3). However, with these alternative methods, the data necessary for design are insufficient and
the values of the various constants used in the calculations may not be sufficiently well known. Thus, the kinetic
energy method is generally used.
[Technical Notes]
(1) If it is assumed that a berthing vessel moves only in the abeam direction, then the kinetic energy E s is equal to
( M s V 2) 2 . However, when a vessel is berthing at a dolphin, a quaywall, or a berthing beam equipped with
fenders, the energy absorbed by the fenders (i.e., the berthing energy E f of the vessel) will become E s f
considering the various influencing factors, where f = C e C m C s C c .
(2) The vessel mass M s is taken to be the displacement tonnage (DT) of the target vessel. In the case that the target
vessel cannot be identified, equation (2.2.2) 1) may be used to give the relationship between the deadweight
tonnage (DWT) or the gross tonnage (GT) and the displacement tonnage (DT).
-16-
log (DT) 0.550 0.899 log (DWT)

log (DT) 0.511 0.913 log (DWT)
log (DT) 0.365 0.953 log (DWT)
log (DT) 1.388 0.683 log (GT)
log (DT) 0.506 0.904 log (GT)
log (DT) 0.657 0.909 log (DWT)
log (DT) 0.026 0.981 log (GT)
log (DT) 0.341 0.891 log (GT)
log (DT) 1.915 0.588 log (GT)
log (DT) 0.332 0.956 log (DWT)
64444744448
Cargo ships (less than 10,000DWT)

Cargo ships (10,000DWT or more)
Container ships
Ferries (long distance)
Ferries (short-to-medium distance)
Roll-on/roll-off vessels
Passenger ships (Japanese)
Passenger ships (foreign)
Car carriers
Oil tankers
(2.2.2)
where
DT displacement tonnage (amount of water, in tons, displaced by the vessel when fully loaded)
GT gross tonnage
DWT deadweight tonnage
(3) The softness factor C s represents the ratio of the remaining amount of the berthing energy after energy
absorption due to deformation of the shell plating of the vessel to the initial berthing energy. It is generally
assumed that no energy is absorbed in this way and so the value of C s is often given as 1.0.
(4) When a vessel berths, the mass of water between the vessel and the mooring facilities resists to move out and
acts just as if a cushion is placed in this space. The energy that must be absorbed by the fenders is thus reduced.
This effect is considered when determining the berth configuration factor C c . It is thought that the effect
depends on things like the berthing angle, the shape of the vessels shell plating, the under-keel clearance, and
the berthing velocity, but little research has been carried out to determine it.
[2] Berthing Velocity

The berthing velocity of a vessel shall be determined based on the measurement in situ or past data of
similar measurements, considering the type of the target vessel, the extent to which the vessel is loaded, the
position and structure of the mooring facilities, weather and oceanographic conditions, and the availability
or absence of tugboats and their sizes.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Observing the way in which large cargo ships and large oil tankers make berthing, one notices that such vessels
come to a temporary standstill, lined up parallel to the quaywall at a certain distance away from it. They are then
gently pushed by several tugboats until they come into contact with the quay. When there is a strong wind
blowing toward the quay, such vessels may berth while actually being pulled outwards by the tugboats. When
such a berthing method is adopted, it is common to set the berthing velocity to 10 ~ 15 cm/s based on past design
examples.
(2) Special vessels such as ferries, roll-on/roll-off vessels, and small cargo ships berth under their own power
without assistance of tugboats. If there is a ramp at the bow or stern of such a vessel, the vessel may line up
perpendicular to the quay. In these cases, a berthing method different from that for larger vessels described in (1)
may be used. It is thus necessary to determine berthing velocities carefully based on actualy measured values,
paying attention to the type of berthing method employed by the target vessel.
(3) Figure T- 2.2.1 shows the relationship between the vessel handling conditions and berthing velocity by vessel
size 4); it has been prepared based on the data collected through experience. This figure shows that the larger the
vessel, the lower the berthing velocity becomes; moreover, the berthing velocity must be set high if the mooring
facilities is not sheltered by breakwaters etc.
(4) According to the results of surveys on berthing velocity 5),6), the berthing velocity is usually less than 10 cm/s for
general cargo ships, but there are a few cases where it is over 10 cm/s (see Fig. T- 2.2.2). The berthing velocity
only occasionally exceeds 10 cm/s for large oil tankers that use offshore terminals (see Fig. T- 2.2.3). Even for
ferries which berth under their own power, the majority berth at the velocity of less than 10 cm/s. Nevertheless,
there are a few cases in which the berthing velocity is over 15 cm/s and so due care must be taken when
designing ferry quays (see Fig. T- 2.2.4). It was also clear from the above-mentioned survey results that the
degree to which a vessel is loaded up has a considerable influence on the berthing velocity. In other words, if a
vessel is fully loaded, meaning that the under-keel clearance is small, then the berthing velocity tends to be
lower, whereas if it is lightly loaded, meaning that the under-keel clearance is large, then the berthing velocity
tends to be higher.
-17-
Difficulty of handling vessel / mooring

facilities being shelterd or not
Difficult
exposed
Good berthing
exposed
Easy berthing
exposed
Difficult berthing
sheltered
Good berthing
sheltered
Berthing velocity (cm/s)

Fig. T- 2.2.1 Relationship between Vessel Handling Conditions and Berthing Velocity by Vessel Size 4)
Open type quay
Wall type quay (sheet pile, gravity types)
Displacement tonnage
DT (tons)
Fig. T- 2.2.2 Berthing Velocity and Displacement Tonnage for General Cargo Ships 5)
DT (10,000 tons)
Fig. T- 2.2.3 Berthing Velocity and Displacement Tonnage for Large Oil Tankers 6)
Stern berthing
Bow berthing
DT (tons)
Fig. T- 2.2.4 Berthing Velocity and Displacement Tonnage for Longitudinal Berthing of Ferries 5)
-18-
According to the survey by Moriya et al., the average berthing velocities for cargo ships, container ships, and
pure car carriers are as listed in Table T- 2.2.1. The relationship between the deadweight tonnage and berthing
velocity is shown in Fig. T- 2.2.5. This survey also shows that the larger the vessel, the lower the berthing
velocity tends to be. The highest berthing velocities observed were about 15 cm/s for vessels under 10,000 DWT
and about 10 cm/s for vessels of 10,000 DWT or over.
Table T- 2.2.1 Deadweight Tonnage and Average Berthing Velocity
Deadweight tonnage
(DWT)

Cargo ships
Container ships
Pure car carriers
All vessels
1,000 class
5,000 class
10,000 class
15,000 class
30,000 class
50,000 class
8.1
6.7
5.0
4.5
3.9
3.5
7.8
7.2
4.9
4.1
3.4
4.6
4.7
4.4
-
8.1
7.2
5.3
4.6
4.1
3.4
All vessels
5.2
5.0
4.6
5.0
N=738
Poisson distribution m = 3
Poisson distribution m = 4
Weibull distribution
Normal distribution
V (cm/s)
Cargo ships
Container ships
Pure car carriers
V (cm/s)
Dead weight tonnage (DWT)
Fig. T- 2.2.5 Relationship between Deadweight

Tonnage and Berthing Velocity
Fig. T- 2.2.6 Frequency Distribution of

Berthing Velocity 10)
(5) Figure T- 2.2.6 shows a berthing velocity frequency distribution obtained from actual measurement records at
offshore terminals used by large oil tankers of around 200,000 DWT. It can be seen that the highest measured
berthing velocity was 13 cm/s. If the data are assumed to follow a Weibull distribution, then the probability of
the berthing velocity below the value 13 cm/s would be 99.6%. The mean is 4.41 cm/s and the standard
deviation s is 2.08 cm/s. Application of the Weibull distribution yields the probability density function f ( V ) as
expressed in equation (2.2.3):
V
f ( V ) = ------- exp ( V 1.25 )
0.8
where
V berthing velocity (cm/s)
(2.2.3)
From this equation, the probability of the berthing velocity exceeding 14.5 cm/s becomes 1/1000. The offshore
terminals where the berthing velocity measurements were taken had a design berthing velocity of either 15 cm/s
or 20 cm/s 7).
(6) Small vessels such as small cargo ships and fishing boats come to berths by controlling their positions under
their own power without assistance of tugboats. Consequently, the berthing velocity is generally higher than that
for larger vessels, and in some cases it can even exceed 30 cm/s. For small vessels in particular, it is necessary to
carefully determine the berthing velocity based on actually measured values etc.
(7) In cases where cautious berthing methods such as those described in (1) are not used, or in the case of berthing
of small or medium-sized vessels under influence of currents, it is necessary to determine the berthing velocity
based on actual measurement data etc., considering the ship drift velocity by currents.
(8) When designing mooring facilities that may be used by fishing boats, it is recommended to carry out design
works based on the design standards for fishing port facilities and actual states of usage.
-19-
[3] Eccentricity Factor (Notification Article 22, Clause 2)

The eccentricity factor shall be calculated by the following:
1
C e = -------------------2l
1 + --
r
(2.2.4)
where l and r represent the following:

l distance from the point where the vessel touches the mooring facilities to the center of gravity of
the vessel as measured along the face line of the mooring facilities (m)
r radius of gyration around the vertical axis passing through the center of gravity of the vessel (m)
[Technical Notes]
(1) When a vessel is in the middle of berthing operation, it is not aligned perfectly along the face line of the berth.
This means that after it comes into contact with the mooring facilities (fenders), it starts yawing and rolling. This
results in some of the vessels kinetic energy being used up. The amount of energy used up by rolling is small
compared with that by yawing and can be ignored. Equation (2.2.4) thus only considers the amount of energy
used up by yawing.
(2) The radious of gyration r relative to Lpp is a function of the block coefficient C b of the vessel and can be
obtained from Fig. T- 2.2.7 8). Alternatively, one may use the linear approximation shown in equation (2.2.5) .
(2.2.5)
r = ( 0.19C b + 0.11 )L pp
where
r radius of gyration; this is related to the moment of inertia I z around the vertical axis of the vessel by
the relationship Iz = M s r 2
L pp length between perpendiculars (m)
C b block coefficient; C b = /( L pp Bd) ( : Volume of water displaced by the vessel (m3), B: moulded
breadth (m), d: draft (m))
(3) As sketched in Fig. T- 2.2.8, when a vessel comes into contact with the fenders F1 and F2 with the point of the
vessel closest to the quaywall being the point P, the distance l from the point of contact to the center of gravity of
the vessel as measured parallel to the mooring facilities is given by equation (2.2.6) or (2.2.7); l is taken to be
L 1 when k 0.5 and L 2 when k 0.5. When k = 0.5, l is taken as whichever of L 1 or L 2 that gives the higher
value of C e in equation (2.2.4).
F1
keLpp cos
F2
Lpp
Lpp
Length between perpendiculars (Lpp)
Radius of gyration in the longitudinal direction (r)
eLpp cos
A
Q
Block coefficient Cb
Fig. T- 2.2.7 Relationship between the Radius of Gyration

around the Vertical Axis and the Block
Coefficient (Myers, 1969) 7)
Fig. T- 2.2.8 Vessel Berthing
L 2 = 0.5 a + e ( 1 k ) L pp cos q
(2.2.6)
L 1 = ( 0.5a ek )L pp cos q
(2.2.7)
-20-
where
L 1 distance from the point of contact to the center of gravity of the vessel as measured parallel to the
mooring facilities when the vessel makes contact with fender F1
L 2 distance from the point of contact to the center of gravity of the vessel as measured parallel to the
mooring facilities when the vessel makes contact with fender F2
q berthing angle (the value of q is set as a design condition; it is usually set somewhere in the range
0 ~ 10)
e ratio of the distance between the fenders, as measured in the longitudinal direction of the vessel, to the
length between perpendiculars
a ratio of the length of the parallel side of the vessel at the height of the point of contact with the fender to
the length between perpendiculars; this varies according to factors like the type of vessel, and the block
coefficient etc., but is generally in the range 1/3 ~ 1/2.
k parameter that represents the relative location of the point where the vessel comes closest to the mooring
facilities between the fenders F1 and F2 ; k varies between 0 and 1, but it is generally taken at k = 0.5.
[4] Virtual Mass Factor (Notification Article 22, Clause 3)
C b = --------------L pp Bd
64748
It shall be standard to calculate the virtual mass factor using the following equations:
d
p
C m = 1 + --------- --2C b B
(2.2.8)
where Cb,, Lpp, B, and d represent the following:

C b block coefficient
volume of water displaced by the vessel (m3)
B moulded breadth (m)
d full load draft (m)
[Technical Notes]
(1) When a vessel berths, the vessel (which has mass M s ) and the water mass surrounding the vessel (which has
mass M w ) both decelerate. Accordingly, the inertial force corresponding to the water mass is added to that of the
vessel itself. The virtual coefficient is thus defined as in equation (2.2.9).
Ms + M w
C m = --------------------Ms
where
C m virtual mass factor
M s mass of vessel (t)
M w mass of the water surrounding the vessel (added mass) (t)
(2.2.9)
Ueda 8) proposed equation (2.2.8) based on the results of model experiments and field observations. The second
term in equation (2.2.8) corresponds to M w M s in equation (2.2.9).
(2) As a general rule, the actual values of the target vessel are used for the length between perpendiculars ( L pp ), the
moulded breadth (B), and the full load draft (d). But when one of the standard ship sizes is used, one may use the
principal dimensions given in 2.1 Dimensions of the Target Vessel. Regression equations have been proposed
for the relationships between the deadweight tonnage, the moulded breadth and the full load draft 1). It is also
possible to use equations (2.2.10), which give the relationship between the deadweight tonnage (DWT) or the
gross tonnage (GT) and the length between perpendiculars for different types of vessel 1).
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64444744448
Cargo ships (less than 10,000 DWT)

log (Lpp) 0.867 0.310 log (DWT)
Cargo ships (10,000 DWT or more)
log (Lpp) 0.964 0.285 log (DWT)
Container ships
log (Lpp) 0.516 0.401 log (DWT)
Ferries (long distance, 13,000 GT or less)
log (Lpp) log (94.6 0.00596GT)
Ferries (short-to-medium distance, 6,000 t or less) log (Lpp) 0.613 0.401 log (GT)
Roll-on/roll-off vessels
log (Lpp) 0.840 0.349 log (DWT)
Passenger ships (Japanese)
log (Lpp) 0.679 0.359 log (GT)
Passenger ships (foreign)
log (Lpp) 0.787 0.330 log (GT)
Car carriers
log (Lpp) 1.046 0.280 log (GT)
Oil tankers
log (Lpp) 0.793 0.322 log (DWT)
(2.2.10)
(3) The volume of water displaced by the vessel is determined by dividing the displacement tonnage DT by the
density of seawater (1.03 t/m3)
2.2.3 Moored Vessels

[1] Motions of Moored Vessel (Notification Article 23)
As a general rule, the external forces generated by the motions of a moored vessel shall be calculated by
carrying out a numerical simulation of vessel motions, with the wave force acting on the vessel, the wind
force, the current force due to water currents, etc. being set appropriately.
[Commentary]
(1) Vessels moored at mooring facilities situated in the open sea or near to harbor entrances, or at mooring facilities
inside harbors for which long-period waves are expected to come in, along with vessels moored during stormy
weather, are liable to be moved under the influence of loads due to waves, winds, currents, etc. In some cases,
the kinetic energy due to such motions can exceed the berthing energy. In such cases, it is thus advisable to give
full consideration to the tractive forces and impact forces caused by the motions of vessels when designing
bollards and fenders 10).
(2) As a general rule, the external forces generated by the motions of a vessel should be obtained by carrying out a
numerical simulation of vessel motions, based on the factors such as the wave force acting on the vessel, the
wind force, the current force due to currents, and the load-deflection characteristics of the mooring system.
[Technical Notes]
(1) As a general rule, the motions of a moored vessel should be analyzed through numerical simulation, with
consideration given to the random variations of the loads and the nonlinearity of the load-deflection
characteristics of the mooring system. However, when such a numerical simulation of vessel motions is not
possible, or when the vessel is moored at a system that is considered to be more-or-less symmetrical, one may
obtain the displacement of and loads on the mooring system either by using frequency response analysis for
regular waves or by referring to results of an motion analysis on a floating body moored at a system that has
load-deflection characteristics of bilinear nature 11).
(2) The total wave force acting on the hull of a vessel is analyzed by dividing it into the wave exciting force due to
incident waves and the radiation force that is generated as the vessel moves. The wave exciting force due to
incident waves is the wave force calculated for the case that motions of the vessel are restrained. The radiation
force is the wave force exerted on the hull when the vessel undergoes a motion of unit amplitude for each mode
of motions. The radiation force can be expressed as the summation of a term that is proportional to the
acceleration of the vessel and a term that is proportional to the velocity. Specifically, the former can be expressed
as an added mass divided by acceleration, while the latter can be expressed as a damping coefficient divided by
velocity 12). In addition, a nonlinear fluid dynamic force that is proportional to the square of the wave height acts
on the vessel (see 8.2 External Forces Acting on Floating Body).
(3) For vessels that have a block coefficient of 0.7 ~ 0.8 such as large oil tankers, the ship hull can be represented
with an elliptical cylinder, allowing an approximate evaluation of the wave force 13).
(4) For box-shaped vessels such as working craft, the wave force can be obtained by taking the vessel to be either a
floating body with a rectangular cross section or a floating body of a rectangular prism.
[2] Waves Acting on Vessel

The wave force acting on a moored vessel shall be calculated using an appropriate method, considering the
type of vessel and the wave parameters.
[Commentary]
The wave force acting on a moored vessel is calculated using an appropriate method, for example the strip method,
the source distribution technique, the boundary element method, or the finite element method; the most common
method used for vessels is the strip method.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Wave Force by the Strip Method 11), 12)
(a) Wave force of regular waves acting on the hull
The wave force acting on the hull is taken to be the summation of the Froude-Kriloff force and the force by the
waves that are reflected by the hull (diffraction force).
-22-
(b) Froude-Kriloff force

The Froude-Kriloff force is the force derived by integrating the pressure of progressive waves around the
circumference of the hull. In the case of a moored vessel in front of a quaywall, it is taken to be the summation
of the force of the incident waves and the force of the reflected waves from the quaywall.
(c) Diffraction force
The diffraction force acting on a vessel is the force that is generated by the change in the pressure field when
incident waves are scattered by the vessels hull. As an estimate, this change in the pressure field can be
replaced by the radiation force (the wave making resistance when the vessel moves at a certain velocity
through a calm fluid) for the case that the hull is moved relative to fluid. It is assumed that the velocity of the
vessel in this case is equal to the velocity of the cross section of the hull relative to the water particles in the
incident waves. This velocity is referred to as the equivalent relative velocity.
(d) Total force acting on the hull as a whole
The total wave force acting on the hull as a whole can be obtained by integrating the Froude-Kriloff force and
the diffraction force acting on a cross section of the hull in the longitudinal direction from x = L pp 2 to
x = L pp 2 .
(2) Waves Forces by Diffraction Theory 13)
In the case that the vessel in question is very fat (i.e., it has a block coefficient C b of 0.7 ~ 0.8), there are no
reflecting structures such as quaywalls behind the vessel, and the motions of the vessel are considered to be very
small, the vessel may be represented with an elliptical cylinder and the wave force may be calculated using an
equation based on a diffraction theory 13).
[3] Wind Load Acting on Vessel

The wind load acting on a moored vessel shall be determined using an appropriate calculation formula.
[Commentary]
It is desirable to determine the wind load acting on a moored vessel while considering the temporal fluctuation of the
wind velocity and the characteristics of the drag coefficients, which depend on the cross-sectional form of the vessel.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The wind load acting on a vessel should be determined from equations (2.2.11) ~ (2.2.13), using the drag
coefficients C X and C Y in the X and Y directions and the pressure moment coefficient C M about the midship.
1
R X = --- r a U 2 A T C X
2
1
R Y = --- r a U 2 A L C Y
2
1
R M = --- r a U 2 A L L pp C M
2
where
C X drag coefficient in the X direction (from the front of the vessel)
C Y drag coefficient in the Y direction (from the side of the vessel)
C M pressure moment coefficient about the midship
R X X component of the wind force (kN)
R Y Y component of the wind force (kN)
R M moment of the wind load about the midship (kNm)
r a density of air; r a = 1.23 10 3 (t/m3)
U wind velocity (m/s)
A T front projected area above the water surface (m2)
A L side projected area above the water surface (m2)
(2.2.11)
(2.2.12)
(2.2.13)
(2) It is desirable to determine the wind force coefficients C X , C Y , and C M through wind tunnel tests or water tank
tests on a target vessel. Since such experiments require time and cost, it is acceptable to use the calculation
equations for wind force coefficients 14),15) that are based on wind tunnel tests or water tank tests that have been
carried out in the past.
(3) The maximum wind velocity (10-minute average wind velocity) should be used as the wind velocity U.
(4) For the front projected area above the water surface and the side projected area above the water surface, it is
desirable to use the values for the target vessel. For standard vessel sizes, one may refer to regression
equations 1).
(5) Since the wind velocity varies both in time and in space, the wind velocity should be treated as fluctuating in the
-23-
analysis of the motions of a moored vessel. Davenport 16) and Hino have proposed the frequency spectra for the
time fluctuations of the wind velocity. The frequency spectra proposed by Davenport and Hino are given by
equations (2.2.14) and (2.2.15), respectively.
64748
X2
2
f S u ( f ) = 4K r U10 --------------------------(1 + X2 )4 3
X = 1200f / U 10
5 6
U 10 a z 2m a 1
b = 1.169 10 3 ------------- ------
K r 10
64748
K r U10
f 2
S u ( f ) = 2.856 --------------- 1 + ---
b
b
(2.2.14)
(2.2.15)
where
S u ( f ) frequency spectrum of wind velocity (m2s)
U 10 average wind velocity at the standard height 10 m (m/s)
K r friction coefficient for the surface defined with the wind velocity at the standard height; over the
ocean, it is considered that K r = 0.003 is appropriate.
a exponent when the vertical profile of the wind velocity is expressed by a power law [ U ( z 10 ) a ]
z height above the surface of the ground or ocean (m)
m correction factor relating to the stability of the atmosphere; m is taken to be 2 in the case of a storm.
[4] Current Forces Acting on Vessel

The flow pressure force due to tidal currents acting on a vessel shall be determined using an appropriate
calculation formula.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Current Pressure Force Due to Currents Coming onto the Bow of Vessel
The current pressure force on the vessel due to currents coming onto the bow of a vessel may be calculated using
equation (2.2.16).
(2.2.16)
R f = 0.0014SV 2
where
R f current pressure force (kN)
S wetted surface area (m2)
V flow velocity (m/s)
(2) Current Pressure Force Due to Currents Coming onto the Side of Vessel
The current pressure force due to a current coming onto the side of a vessel may be calculated using equation
(2.2.17).
(2.2.17)
R = 0.5r 0 CV 2 B
where
R current pressure force (kN)
r 0 density of seawater (t/m3) (standard value: r 0 = 1.03 t/m3)
C current pressure coefficient
B side projected area of hull below the waterline (m2)
(3) The current pressure force due to tidal currents can in principle be divided into frictional resistance and pressure
resistance. It is thought that the resistance to currents coming onto the bow of a vessel is predominantly
frictional resistance, whereas the resistance to currents coming onto the side of a vessel is predominantly
pressure resistance. However, in practice it is difficult to rigorously separate the two resistances and investigate
them individually. Equation (2.2.16) is a simplification of the following Froude equation with r w = 1.03,
t = 15C and l = 0.14:
Rf
where
R f
rw
g
t
S
= rw gl { 1 + 0.0043 ( 15 t ) }SV 1.825
(2.2.18)
current pressure force (N)

specific gravity of seawater (standard value: rw = 1.03)
gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
temperature (C)
wetted surface area (m2)
-24-

l coefficient (l = 0.14741 for a 30m-long vessel and l = 0.13783 for a 250m-long vessel)
(4) The current pressure coefficient C in equation (2.2.17) varies according to the relative current direction q; the
values obtained from Fig. T- 2.2.9 may be used for reference purposes.
Current pressure coefficient
(5) Regarding the wetted surface area S and the side projected area below the waterline B, one may use values
obtained from a regression equations 3) that have been derived by statistical analysis.
Water depth
draft
h = 1.1
1.5
7.0
Relative current direction
q(
Fig. T- 2.2.9 Current Pressure Coefficient C
[5] Load-Deflection Characteristics of Mooring System

When performing a motion analysis of a moored vessel, the load-deflection characteristics of the mooring
system (mooring ropes, fenders, etc.) shall be modeled appropriately.
[Technical Notes]
The load-deflection characteristics of a mooring system (mooring ropes, fenders, etc.) is generally nonlinear.
Moreover, with regard to the load-deflection characteristics of a fender, they may show hysteresis, and so it is
desirable to model these characteristics appropriately before carrying out the motion analysis of a moored vessel.
2.2.4 Tractive Force Acting on Mooring Post and Bollard (Notification Article 79)
(1) It shall be standard to take the values listed in Table 2.2.1 as the tractive forces of vessels acting on
mooring posts and bollards.
(2) In the case of a mooring post, it shall be standard to assume that the tractive force stipulated in (1) acts
horizontally and a tractive force equal to one half of this acts upwards simultaneously.
(3) In the case of a bollard, it shall be standard to assume that the tractive force stipulated in (1) acts in all
directions.
Table 2.2.1 Tractive Forces of Vessels (Notification Article 79, Appended Table 12)
Gross tonnage (GT) of
vessel (tons)
Tractive force acting on a

mooring post (kN)

bollard (kN)
200 GT 500
150
150
500 GT 1,000
250
250
1,000 GT 2,000
350
250
2,000 GT 3,000
350
350
3,000 GT 5,000
500
350
5,000 GT 10,000
700
500
10,000 GT 20,000
1,000
700
20,000 GT 50,000
1,500
1,000
-25-
Gross tonnage (GT) of

vessel (tons)
50,000 GT 100,000

mooring post (kN)

bollard (kN)
2,000
1,000
[Commentary]
(1) Mooring posts are installed away from the waterline, either on or near to the mooring facilities, close to the
both ends of a berth so that they may be used for mooring a vessel in a storm. Bollards, on the other hand, are
installed close to the waterline of the mooring facilities so that they may be used for mooring, berthing, or
unberthing a vessel in normal conditions.
(2) Regarding the layout and names of mooring ropes to moor a vessel, see Part , 2.1 Length and Water Depth
of Berths.
(3) Regarding the layout and structure of mooring posts and bollards, see Part , 19.3 Mooring Posts, Bollards,
and Mooring Rings.
[Technical Notes]
(1) It is desirable to calculate the tractive force acting on a mooring post and a bollard based on the breaking
strength of the mooring ropes possessed by a vessel arriving at the berth, the meteorological and oceanographic
conditions at the place where the mooring facilities are installed, and the dimensions of vessels, and if necessary
also considering the force due to a berthing vessel, the wind pressure on a moored vessel, and the force due to
motions of a vessel 9), 11). Alternatively, it is also possible to determine the tractive force acting on a mooring
post and a bollard in accordance with (2) ~ (6) below.
(2) In the case that the gross tonnage of a vessel exceeds 5,000 tons and there is no risk of more than one mooring
rope being attached to a bollard that is used for spring lines at the middle of mooring facilities for which the
vessels berth is fixed, the tractive force acting on a bollard may be taken as one half of the value listed in Table
2.2.1.
(3) The tractive force due to a vessel whose gross tonnage is no more than 200 tons or greater than 100,000 tons
(i.e., a vessel that is not covered in Table 2.2.1) should be calculated by considering the meteorological and
oceanographic conditions, the structure of the mooring facilities, past measurement data on tractive force, etc.
The tractive force on mooring facilities at which vessels are moored even in rough weather or mooring facilities
that are installed in waters with severe meteorological / oceanographic conditions should also be calculated by
considering these conditions.
(4) The tractive force acting on a mooring post has been determined based on the wind pressure acting on a vessel in
such a way that a lightly loaded vessel should be able to moor safely even when the wind velocity is 25 ~ 30
m/s, with the assumption that the mooring posts are installed at the place away from the wharf waterline by the
amount of vessels width and that the breast lines are pulled in a direction 45 to the vessels longitudinal
axis 17),18). The tractive force so obtained corresponds to the breaking strength of one to two mooring ropes,
where the breaking strength of a mooring rope is evaluated according to the Steel Ship Regulations by the
Nippon Kaiji Kyokai. For a small vessel of gross tonnage up to 1,000 tons, the mooring posts can withstand the
tractive force under the wind velocity of up to 35 m/s.
The tractive force acting on a bollard has been determined based on the wind pressure acting on a vessel in
such a way that even a lightly loaded vessel should be able to moor using only bollards in a wind of velocity up to
15 m/s, with the assumption that the ropes at the bow and stern are pulled in a direction at least 25 to the vessels
axis. The tractive force so obtained corresponds to the breaking strength of one mooring rope for a vessel of
gross tonnage up to 5,000 tons and two mooring ropes for a vessel of gross tonnage over 5,000 tons, where the
breaking strength of a mooring rope is evaluated according to the Steel Ship Regulations by the Nippon Kaiji
Kyokai.
The tractive force for a bollard that is used for spring lines and is installed at the middle of a berth, for which
the vessels berthing position is fixed, corresponds to the breaking strength of one mooring rope, where the
breaking strength of a mooring rope is evaluated according to the Steel Ship Regulations by the Nippon Kaiji
Kyokai. Note however that, although there are stipulations concerning synthetic fiber ropes in the Steel Ship
Regulations by the Nippon Kaiji Kyokai with regard to nylon ropes and type B vinylon ropes (both of which
are types of synthetic fiber rope), the required safety factor has been set large owing to the factors such that there
is little data on the past usage of such ropes and their abrasion resistance is low, and so both the required rope
diameter and the breaking strength are large. Accordingly, in the case of berths for which the mooring vessels
use only nylon ropes or type B vinylon ropes, it is not possible to apply the stipulations in (2) above.
In the above-mentioned tractive force calculations, in addition to the wind pressure, it has been assumed that
there are tidal currents of 2 kt in the longitudinal direction and 0.6 kt in the transverse direction.
(5) When determining the tractive force from a small vessel of gross tonnage no more than 200 tons, it is desirable
to consider the type of vessel, the berthing situation, the structure of the mooring facilities, etc. During actual
-26-
design of mooring posts and bollards for vessels of gross tonnage no more than 200 tons, it is standard to take
the tractive force acting on a mooring posts to be 150 kN and the tractive force acting on a bollard to be 50 kN.
(6) When calculating the tractive force in the case of vessels such as ferries, container ships, or passenger ships,
caution should be exercised in using Table 2.2.1, because the wind pressure-receiving areas of such vessels are
large.
[References]
1) Yasuhiro AKAKURA, Hironao TAKAHASHI, Takashi NAKAMOTO: Statistical analysis of ship dimensions for the size of
design ship, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 910, 1998 (in Japanese).
2) Yasuhiro AKAKURA and Hironao TAKAHASHI: Ship dimensions of design ship under given confidence limits, Technical
Note of P.H.R.I., September 1998.
3) PIANC: Report of the International Commission for Improving the Design of Fender Systems, Supplement to Bulletine No.
45, 1984.
4) Baker, A. L. L.: The impact of ships when berthing, Proc. Intl Navig. Congr. (PIANC), Rome, Sect II, Quest. 2, 1953, pp.
111-142.
5) Masahito MIZOGUCHI, Tanekiyo NAKAYAMA: Studies on the berthing velocity, energy of the ships, Tech. Note of
PHRI, No. 170, 1973 (in Japanese).
6) Hirokane OTANI, Shigeru UEDA, Tatsuru ICHIKAWA, Kensei SUGIHARA: A study on the berthing impact of the big
tanker, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 176, 1974 (in Japanese).
7) Shigeru UEDA: Study on berthing impact force of very large crude oil carriers, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1981, pp.
169-209 (in Japanese).
8) Myers, J.: Handbook of Ocean and Underwater Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1969.
9) Shigeru UEDA, Eijiro OOI: On the design of fending systems for mooring facilities in a port, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 596,
1987 (in Japanese).
10) Shigeru UEDA, Satoru SHIRAISHI: On the design of fenders based on the ship oscillations moored to quaywalls, Tech.
Note of PHRI, No. 729, 1992 (in Japanese).
11) Shigeru UEDA: Analytical method of motions moored to quaywalls and the applications, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 504,
1984 (in Japanese).
12) Shigeru UEDA, Satoru SHIRAISI: Method and its evaluation for computation of moored ships motions, Rept. of PHRI,
Vol. 22, No. 4, 1983 pp. 181-218 (in Japanese).
13) Yoshimi GODA, Tomotsuka TAKAYAMA, Tadashi SASADA: Theoretical and experimental investigation of wave forces
on a fixed vessel approximated with an elliptic cylinder, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 12, No. 4, 1994, pp. 23-74 (in Japanese).
14) R. M. Isherwood: Wind resistance of merchant ships, Bulliten of the Royal Inst. Naval Architects, 1972, pp. 327-338.
15) Shigeru UEDA, Satoru SHIRAISHI, Kouhei ASANO, Hiroyuki OSHIMA: Proposal of equation of wind force coefficient
and evaluation of the effect to motions of moored ships, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 760, 1993 (in Japanese).
16) Davenport, A. G.: Gust loading factors, Proc. of ASCE, ST3, 1967, pp. 11-34.
17) Hirofumi INAGAKI, Koichi YAMAGUCHI, Takeo KATAYAMA: Standardization of mooring posts and bollards for
wharf, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 102, 1970 (in Japanese).
18) Iaso FUKUDA, Tadahiko YAGYU: Tractive force on mooring posts and bollards, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 427, 1982 (in
Japanese).
-27-
Chapter 3 Wind and Wind Pressure

3.1 General
When designing port and harbor facilities, meteorological factors such as winds, air pressure, fog, rainfall,
snow depth, and air temperature should be considered.
[Commentary]
The effects that meteorological factors exert on the design of port and harbor facilities are as follows:
(1) Air pressure and its distribution are the factors that govern the generations of winds and storm surge.
(2) Wind is a factor that governs the generations of waves and storm surge, it exerts external forces on port and
harbor facilities and moored vessels in the form of wind pressure, and it can disrupt port and harbor works such
as cargo handling.
(3) Rainfall is a factor that determines the required capacity of drainage facilities in ports and harbors, and rain can
also disrupt port and harbor works such as cargo handling.
(4) Fog is a factor that is an impediment to the navigation of vessels when they are entering or leaving a harbor, and
also decreases the productivity of port and harbor facilities.
(5) In some cases, snow load is considered as a static load acting on port and harbor facilities.
(6) Air temperature affects the stress distribution within structures of port and harbor facilities and may lead to the
occurrence of thermal stress in these structures.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In calculations concerning the generation of storm surge or waves due to a typhoon, it is common to assume that
the air pressure distribution follows either Fujitas equation (3.1.1) or Myers equation (3.1.2); the constants in
the chosen equation are determined based on actual air pressure measurements in the region of typhoons.
Dp
p = p -------------------------------- (Fujita formula)
1 + (r r0 )2
(3.1.1)
r0
(3.1.2)
p = p c + Dp exp ---- (Myers formula)
r
where
p air pressure at a distance r from the center of typhoon (hPa)
r distance from the center of typhoon (km)
p c air pressure at the center of typhoon (hPa)
r 0 estimated distance from the center of typhoon to the point where the wind velocity is maximum (km)
Dp air pressure drop at the center of typhoon (hPa); Dp = p p c
p air pressure at r = (hPa); p = p c + Dp
The size of a typhoon varies with time, and so r 0 and Dp must be determined as the functions of time.
(2) With regard to wind, see 3.2 Wind.
(3) Rain is generally divided into the rain of thunderstorms that have heavy rainfall in a short period of time and the
rain that continues for a prolonged period of time (rain by a typhoon is a representative example of the latter).
When designing drainage facilities, it is necessary to determine the intensity of rainfall both for the case where
the amount of runoff increases very rapidly and for the case where the runoff continues for a prolonged period.
In the case of sewage planning whereby the intensity of rainfall during a thunderstorm is a problem, Shermans
formula or Talbots formula is used.
a
(Shermans formula)
R = ---nt
a
(Talbots formula)
R = ----------t+b
where
R intensity of rainfall (mm/h)
t duration of rainfall (min)
a, b, n: constants
(3.1.3)
(3.1.4)
(4) With regard to snow load acting upon port and harbor facilities, see 15.3.4 Snow Load.
-28-
3.2 Wind (Notification Article 3, Clause 1)

It shall be standard to set the wind characteristics for wave estimations and the wind characteristics as the
cause of an external force on port and harbor facilities as stipulated in the following:
(1) When calculating the wind velocity and wind direction used in estimations of waves and storm surges,
either the actual wind measurements or the calculated values for gradient winds are to be used, with
all necessary corrections having been made for the heights of measurements, etc.
(2) The velocity of the wind acting on port and harbor facilities shall be set based on statistical data for an
appropriate period in line with the characteristics of the facilities and structures.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Gradient Winds
(a) The velocity of the gradient wind can be expressed as a function of pressure gradient, radius of curvature of
isobars, latitude, and air density as in equation (3.2.1).
p r
-
Vg = rw sin f 1 + 1 + ---------------------------r a rw 2 sin 2 f
(3.2.1)
where
Vg velocity of gradient wind (cm/s); in the case of an anticyclone, equation (3.2.1) gives a negative value
and so the absolute value should be taken.
p
----- pressure gradient (taken to be positive for a cyclone, negative for an anticyclone) (g/cm2/s2)
r
r radius of curvature of isobars (cm)
w angular velocity of Earth's rotation ( s 1 ); w = 7.29 10 5 s
f latitude ()
ra density of air (g/cm3)
Before performing the calculation, measurement units should first be converted into the CGS units listed
above. Note that 1 of latitude corresponds to a distance of approximately 1.11 10 7 cm, and an air pressure
of 1.0 hPa is 10 3 g/cm/s2.
(b) A gradient wind for which the isobars are straight lines (i.e., their radius of curvature in equation (3.2.1) is
infinite) is called the geostrophic wind. In this case, the wind velocity is V = ( p r ) ( 2r a rw sin f ) .
(2) The actual sea surface wind velocity is generally lower than the value obtained from the gradient wind equation.
Moreover, although the direction of a gradient wind is parallel to the isobars in theory, the sea surface wind
blows at a certain angle a to the isobars as sketched in Fig. T- 3.2.2. In the northern hemisphere, the wind
around a cyclone blows in a counterclockwise direction and inwards, whereas the wind around an anticyclone
blows in a clockwise direction and outwards. It is known that the relationship between the velocity of gradient
winds and that of the actual sea surface wind varies with the latitude. The relationship under the average
conditions is summarized in Table T- 3.2.1. However, this is no more than a guideline; when estimating sea
surface winds, it is necessary to make appropriate corrections by comparing estimations with actual
measurements taken along the coast and values that have been reported by vessels out at sea (the latter are
written on weather charts).
Table T- 3.2.1 Relationship between Sea Surface Wind
Speed and Gradient Wind Speed
Low
High
Latitude
10
20
30
40
50
Angle a
24
20
18
17
15
Velocity ratio V s V g
0.51
0.60
0.64
0.67
0.70
Fig. T- 3.2.2 Wind Direction for a

Cyclone (Low) and an
Anticyclone (High)
(3) When selecting the design wind velocity for the wind that acts directly on port and harbor facilities and moored
vessels, one should estimate the extreme distribution of the wind velocity based on actual measurement data
taken over a long period (at least 30 years as a general rule) and then use the wind velocity corresponding to the
required return period.
It is standard to take the wind parameters to be the direction and velocity, with the wind direction being
represented using the sixteen-points bearing system and the wind velocity by the mean wind velocity over 10
minutes.
-29-
In the Meteorological Agencys Technical Observation Notes No. 34, the expected wind velocities with the
return periods of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and 200 years for 141 government meteorological offices have been
estimated from the ten-minute mean wind velocity data of about 35 years, under the assumption that wind
velocity follows a double exponential distribution. For locations with topographical conditions different from
that of the nearest among the above-mentioned meteorological offices, one should conduct observations for at
least one year and then conduct a comparative investigation on topographical effects in order to make it possible
to use the aforementioned estimation results.
(4) Regarding the wind velocity used in estimating storm surges and waves, it is standard to use the value at a height
of 10 m above sea level. The wind velocities obtained at government meteorological offices are the values for a
height of approximately 10 m above the ground level. Accordingly, when attempting to use such observed
values to estimate sea surface winds, in the case that the elevations of the structural members are considerably
different from 10 m, it is necessary to correct the wind velocity with respect to the height. The vertical profile of
the wind velocity is generally represented with a power law, and so in current design calculations for all kinds of
structures, a power law is simply used: i.e.,
h n
U h = U 0 -----
h0
(3.2.2)
where
U h wind velocity at height h (m/s)
U 0 wind velocity at height h 0 (m/s)
The value of the exponent varies with the situation with regard to the roughness near to the surface of the ground
and the stability of the atmosphere. In structural calculations on land, a value of n = 1/10 ~ 1/4 is used, and it is
common to use a value of n 1/7 out to sea.
Statistical data on wind velocity usually consider the ten-minute mean wind velocity. However, for some
structures the mean wind velocity over a shorter time period or the maximum instantaneous wind velocity may
be used, in which case it is necessary to gain an understanding of the relationship between the mean wind
velocity over a certain time period and the maximum wind velocity, and also the characteristics of the gust
factor.
3.3 Wind Pressure (Notification Article 3, Clause 2)

The wind pressure shall be set appropriately, giving due consideration to the situation with regard to the
structural types of the facilities and their locations.
[Technical Notes]
(1) When calculating the wind pressure acting on a moored vessel, one should refer to 2.2.3 [3] Wind Load Acting
on a Vessel.
(2) In the case that there are no statutory stipulations concerning the wind pressure acting on a structure, the wind
pressure may be calculated using equation (3.3.1).
p = cq
where
p wind pressure (N/m2)
q velocity pressure (N/m2)
c wind pressure coefficient
(3.3.1)
Equation (3.3.1) expresses the wind pressure, i.e., the force due to the wind per unit area subjected to the wind
force. The total force due to the wind acting on a member or structure is thus the wind pressure as given by
equation (3.3.1) multiplied by the area of that member or structure affected by the wind in a plane perpendicular
to the direction in which the wind acts.
The velocity pressure q is defined as in equation (3.3.2).
1
(3.3.2)
q = --- r a U 2
2
where
q velocity pressure (N/m2)
r a density of air (kg/m3) r a = 1.23 kg/m3
U design wind velocity (m/s)
The design wind velocity should be taken at 1.2 to 1.5 times the standard wind velocity (ten-minute mean wind
velocity at a height of 10 m). This is because the maximum instantaneous wind velocity is about 1.2 to 1.5 times
the ten-minute mean wind velocity.
The wind pressure coefficient varies depending on the conditions such as the shape of the member or
structure, the wind direction, and the Reynolds number. With the exception of cases where it is determined by
means of the wind tunnel experiments, it may be set by referring to the Article 87 of the Enforcement Order
-30-
of the Building Standard Law (Government Ordinance No. 338, 1950) or the Crane Structure Standards
(Ministry of Labor Notification). With regard to wind direction, it is generally required to consider the wind
direction that is most unfavorable to the structure, with the exception of cases where it has been verified that
there exists an overwhelmingly prevailing direction of winds.
-31-
Chapter 4 Waves
4.1 General
4.1.1 Procedure for Determining the Waves Used in Design (Notification Article 4, Clause 1)
The waves used in the investigation of the stability of protective harbor facilities and other port and harbor
facilities, as well as the examination of the degree of calmness of navigation channels and basins shall be
set using wave data obtained from either actual wave measurements or wave hindcasting. Wave
characteristics shall be obtained by carrying out necessary statistical processing and by analyzing wave
transformations owing to sea bottom topography and others. It shall be standard to carry out the wave
hindcasting using a method that is based on an appropriate equation for representing the relationship
between the wind velocity and the wave spectrum or the significant wave parameters.
[Commentary]
The size and structural form of facilities are determined
by the factors such as the height and period of the waves
that act on them. The setting of the wave conditions to be
used in design should thus be carried out carefully. The
setting of wave conditions should be carried out
separately for ordinary waves (i.e., waves that occur in
ordinary conditions: these are required when estimating
the harbor calmness or the net working rate of cargo
handling) and storm waves (i.e., waves that occur in
storm conditions: these are required when estimating the
wave force acting on structures).
The waves that are obtained by statistically processing data based on either actual measurements or hindcasting are generally deepwater waves that are unaffected by
the sea bottom topography. Deepwater waves propagate
towards the coast, and once the waves reach to the water
depth about one half the wavelength, they start to experience the effects of topography and transform with the
result of wave height change. Wave transformation
includes refraction, diffraction, reflection, shoaling, and
breaking. In order to determine the wave conditions at the
place where wave data is needed (for instance the place
where a structure of interest is located), it is necessary to
give appropriate consideration to such wave transformations by means of numerical calculations or model experiments.
In the above-mentioned procedure for setting the
wave conditions to be used in design, it is necessary to
give sufficient consideration to the irregularity of the
waves and to treat the waves as being of random nature
as much as possible.
Wave data
1) Actual measurement data
2) Hindcasting values
Statistical analysis
1) Ordinary waves
2) Storm waves
Wave occurrence rate of

deepwater waves
Design deepwater waves
Wave transformation
Wave transformation
Wave occurrence rate

at the place of interest
Parameters of design waves

1) Significant wave
2) Highest wave
1) Harbor calmness
2) Net working rate,
number of working days
3) Transport energy of
incoming waves
4) Others
1) Wave force acting

on structures
2) Amount of waves
overtopping at seawall
and revetments
3) Others
Fig. T- 4.1.1 Procedure for Setting

the Waves to Be
Used in Design
[Technical Notes]
A sample procedure for setting the wave conditions to be used in design is shown in Fig. T- 4.1.1.
4.1.2 Waves to Be Used in Design

Significant waves, highest waves, deepwater waves, equivalent deepwater waves and others shall be used
in the design of port and harbor facilities.
[Commentary]
The waves used in the design of structures are generally significant waves. The significant wave is a hypothetical
wave that is a statistical indicator of an irregular wave group. Significant waves have the dimensions that are
approximately equal to the values from visual wave observations, and so they are used in wave hindcasting. It is also
known that the period of a significant wave is approximately equal to the period at the peak of the wave spectrum.
Because of such advantages, significant waves have been commonly used to represent wave groups. Nevertheless,
depending on the purpose, it may be necessary to convert significant waves into other waves such as highest waves
and highest one-tenth waves.
-32-
[Technical Notes]
(1) Definitions of Wave Parameters
(a) Significant wave (significant wave height H1/3 and significant wave period T1/3)
The waves in a wave group are rearranged in the order of their heights and the highest one-third are selected;
the significant wave is then the hypothetical wave whose height and period are the mean height and period of
the selected waves.
(b) Highest wave (highest wave height Hmax and highest wave period Tmax)
The highest wave in a wave group.
(c) Highest one-tenth wave (H1/10, T1/10)
The wave whose height and period are equal to the mean height and period of the highest one-tenth of the
waves in a wave group.
(d) Mean wave (mean wave height H , mean period T )
The wave whose height and period are equal to the mean height and period of all of the waves in a wave
group.
(e) Deepwater waves (deepwater wave height H0 and deepwater wave period T0)
The waves at a place where the water depth is at least one half of the wavelength; the wave parameters are
expressed with those of the significant wave at this place.
(f) Equivalent deepwater wave height (H0)
A hypothetical wave height that has been corrected for the effects of planar topographic changes such as
refraction and diffraction; it is expressed with the significant wave height.
(2) Maximum Wave
The largest significant wave within a series of significant wave data that was observed during a certain period
(for example, one day, one month, or one year) is called the maximum wave. In order to clearly specify the
length of the observation period, it is advisable to refer to the maximum wave such as the maximum significant
wave over a period of one day (or one month, one year, etc.). Moreover, when one wishes to clearly state that
one is referring to the significant wave for the largest wave that occurred during a stormy weather, the term
peak wave is used (see 4.4 Statistical Processing of Wave Observation and Hindcasted Data). The
maximum wave height is the maximum value of the significant wave height during a certain period; this is
different from the definition of the highest wave height.
(3) Significance of Equivalent Deepwater Waves
The wave height at a certain place in the field is determined as the result of transformations by shoaling and
breaking, which depend on the water depth at that place, and those by diffraction and refraction, which depend
on the planar topographical conditions at that place. However, in hydraulic model experiments on the
transformation or overtopping of waves in a two-dimensional channel or in two-dimensional analysis by wave
transformation theory, planar topographical changes are not taken into consideration. When applying the results
of a two-dimensional model experiment or a theoretical calculation to the field, it is thus necessary to
incorporate in advance the special conditions of the place in question, namely the effects of planar topographical
changes (specifically the effects of diffraction and refraction), into the deepwater waves for the place in
question, thus adjusting the deepwater waves into a form whereby they correspond to the deepwater incident
wave height used for the experiment or theoretical calculation. The deepwater wave height obtained by
correcting the effects of diffraction and refraction with their coefficients is called the equivalent deepwater
wave height.
The equivalent deepwater wave height at the place for which design is being carried out is given as follows:
H0 = Kd Kr H0
(4.1.1)
where
Kr refraction coefficient for the place in question (see 4.5.2 Wave Refraction)
Kd diffraction coefficient for the place in question (see 4.5.3 Wave Diffraction)
4.1.3 Properties of Waves

[1] Fundamental Properties of Waves
Fundamental properties of waves such as the wavelength and velocity may be estimated by means of the
small amplitude wave theory. However, the height of breaking waves and the runup height shall be
estimated while considering the finite amplitude effects.
-33-
[Technical Notes]
(1) Small Amplitude Wave Theory
The fundamental properties of waves are expressed as the functions of the wave height, period, and water depth.
Various characteristics of shallow water waves as obtained as a first approximation by small amplitude wave
theory are listed below. Note that, with regard to the coordinates, the positive x direction is taken in the direction
of wave travel and the positive z direction vertically upwards with z = 0 corresponding to the still water level.
The water depth h is assumed to be constant and wave characteristics are assumed to be uniform in the
transverse direction (y direction).
(a) Surface elevation (displacement from still water level) (m)
2p
2p
H
h ( x ,t ) = ---- sin ------x ------t
L
2
T
where
h
H
L
T
(4.1.2)
surface elevation (m)

wave height (m)
wavelength (m)
period (s)
(b) Wavelength (m)

gT 2
2ph
L = --------- tanh ---------2p
L
(4.1.3)
where
h water depth (m)
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
(c) Wave velocity (m/s)
gT
2ph
C = ------ tanh ---------- =
2p
L
gL
------ tanh 2ph
---------2p
L
(4.1.4)
(d) Water particle velocity (m/s)
644474448
(z + h)
cosh 2p
----------------------2p
2p
L
pH
u = ------- ----------------------------------- sin ------x ------t
L
T
2ph
T
sinh ---------L
2p ( z + h )
cosh ----------------------2p
2p
L
pH
w = ------- ----------------------------------- cos ------x ------t
T
2ph
L
T
sinh ---------L
where
u component of water particle velocity in the x direction (m/s)
w component of water particle velocity in the z direction (m/s)
(4.1.5)
(e) Water particle acceleration (m/s)
644474448
2p ( z + h )
cos h ----------------------2p
2p
L
2p 2 H
du
----------------------------------- cos ------x ------t
------ = ------------2
2ph
L
T
dt
T
sinh ---------L
2p ( z + h )
cos h ----------------------2p
2p
L
2p 2 H
dw
----------------------------------- sin ------x ------t
------- = ------------2
T
L
2ph
dt
T
sinh ---------L
where
du
------ component of water particle acceleration in the x direction (m/s2)
dt
dw
------- component of water particle acceleration in the z direction (m/s2)
dt
-34-
(4.1.6)

(f) Pressure in water when wave acts (N/m2)
2p ( z + h )
cosh ----------------------2p
2p
1
L
p = --- r 0 gH ----------------------------------- sin ------x ------t r 0 gz
L
T
2ph
2
cosh ---------L
(4.1.7)
where
r0 density of water (1.01~1.05 103 kg/m3 for seawater)
(g) Mean energy of wave per unit area of water surface (J)
1
E = E k + E p = --- r 0 gH 2
8
(4.1.8)
where Ek and Ep are the kinetic and potential energy densities respectively, with Ek = Ep.
(h) Mean rate of energy transported in the direction of wave travel per unit time per unit width of wave (N m/m/s)
W = CG E = nCE
CG = nC
(4.1.9)
(4.1.10)
where
CG group velocity of waves (m/s)
4ph
----------
1
L
n = --- 1 + ---------------------
2
4ph
sinh ----------
(4.1.11)
(2) Characteristics of Deepwater Waves and Wavelength

(a) Deepwater waves
Waves in water with the depth greater than one-half the wavelength (h/L > 1/2) are called the deepwater
waves. Various characteristics of deepwater waves may be obtained from the equations of small amplitude
wave theory by letting h/L . The wavelength L0, wave velocity C0, and group velocity CG for deepwater
waves thus become as below. Note that the units of period T are seconds (s).
L0 1.56T 2(m), C0 1.56T (m/s)
CG 0.78T (m/s)
1.52T (kt)
2.81T (km/h)
(4.1.12)
As expressed in equation (4.1.12), the wavelength, wave velocity, and group velocity for deepwater waves
depend only on the period and are independent of the water depth.
(b) Wavelength of long waves
Waves for which the wavelength is extremely long compared with the water depth (h/L < 1/25) are called the
long waves. Various characteristics of long waves may be obtained from the equations of small amplitude
wave theory by taking h/L to be extremely small. The wavelength, wave velocity, and group velocity for long
waves thus become as follows:
L = T gh (m)
C = CG =
(4.1.13)
gh (m/s)
(3) Consideration of Finite Amplitude Effects

The equations shown in (1) are not always accurate for general shallow water waves having a large height, and
so it is sometimes necessary to use equations for finite amplitude waves. When carrying out calculations using
finite amplitude wave equations, one should refer to Handbook of Hydraulic Formulas published by the Japan
Society of Civil Engineers. The amount of the errors in calculations that arise from the use of the small
amplitude wave theory varies according to the wave steepness H/L and the ratio of water depth to wavelength
h L . Nevertheless, the error in wave parameters is usually no more than 20 ~ 30% with the exception of the
horizontal water particle velocity u.
One of the finite amplitude effects of waves appears on the crest elevation hc relative to the wave height; the
ratio increases as the wave height increases. The definition of the crest elevation hc is shown at the top of Fig. T4.1.2. This figure was drawn up based on wave profile records from the field. It shows the ratio of the highest
crest elevation obtained from each observation record to the highest wave height Hmax in that record as the
function of relative wave height H1/3/h.
-35-
(4) Types of Finite Amplitude Wave Theory

The finite amplitude wave theories include the Stokes
wave theory, cnoidal wave theory, and others. In the
former, the wave steepness is assumed to be relatively
low, and the wave profile is represented as a series of (c)max
Hmax
trigonometric functions. A number of researchers have
proposed several approximate series solutions. In this
theory, however, convergence of the series becomes
extremely poor as the water depth to wavelength ratio
decreases. This means that the theory cannot be applied if
the water depth to wavelength ratio is too small. On the
Standard
other hand, the cnoidel wave theory is obtained by a perdeviation
Number of
turbation expansion method with the water depth to
data points
wavelength ratio assumed to be extremely small, meanMean
ing that it is valid when the water depth to wavelength
ratio is small. Errors become large, however, when the
water depth to wavelength ratio increases. In addition to
these two theories, there are also the hyperbolic wave
theory, in which a cnoidal wave is approximated as an
H1/3 / h
expansion of hyperbolic functions, and the solitary wave
Fig. T- 4.1.2 Relationship between Maximum
theory, which is the asymptotic case of the cnoidal wave
Crest Elevation (hc)max/Hmax and
theory when the wavelength approaches to infinity. With
Relative Wave Height H1/3/h
the exception of solitary wave theory, the equations in all
of these finite amplitude wave theories are complicated,
meaning that calculations are not easy. In particular, with the cnoidal wave theory, the equations contain elliptic
integrals, making them very inconvenient to handle. If Deans stream function method 1), 2) is adopted, then the
wave profile and water particle velocity can be obtained with good accuracy right up to the point where the wave
breaks.
(5) Application of Finite Amplitude Wave Theories to Structural Designs
Nonlinear theories, which include finite amplitude wave theories, are applied to a wide variety of coastal
engineering fields. However, there are still a large number of unknowns, and so, in the case of design at present,
they are only applied to a limited number of fields such as those discussed below.
(a) Maximum horizontal water particle velocity umax at each elevation below the wave crest
This information is vital in the estimation of the wave force on a vertical structural member. The equations
from the Stokes wave theory are used when the water depth to wavelength ratio is large, and the equations
from solitary wave theory are used when the water depth to wavelength ratio is small. An approximate
calculation may be carried out using the following empirical equation 3):
H 1 2 z + h 3 i cos h [ ( 2p ( z + h ) ) L ]
pH
u max ( z ) = ------- 1 + a ---- ----------- ----------------------------------------------------- h h
T
sinh [ ( 2ph ) L ]
(4.1.14)
where the coefficient a is given as listed in Table T- 4.1.2.

Table T- 4.1.2 Coefficient a for Calculation of Maximum Horizontal Water Particle Velocity
h/L
h/L
0.03
0.05
0.07
0.10
0.14
1.50
1.50
1.43
1.25
0.97
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.68
0.49
0.25
0.27
(b) Wave shoaling

Wave shoaling, which occurs as the water depth decreases, may be calculated using a long wave theory that
includes nonlinear terms. Alternatively, the cnoidal wave theory or hyperbolic wave theory may be applied to
this phenomenon (see 4.5.5 Wave Shoaling).
(c) Rise and drop of the mean water level
The mean water level gradually drops as waves approach the breaking point and then rises within the breaker
zone toward the shoreline, as can be calculated from the theory of nonlinear interference between waves and
currents. This mean water level change is taken into account for the calculation of the wave height change due
to random wave breaking (see 4.5.6 Wave Breaking).
-36-
(d) Air gap of offshore structures

When determining the amount of air gap of offshore structures above the still water level, it is advisable to
consider the relative increase in the wave crest elevation due to the finite amplitude effect such as exhibited in
Fig. T-4.1.12.
[2] Statistical Properties of Waves

In the design of port and harbor facilities, it shall be standard to consider the statistical properties of the
waves with regard to wave heights and periods and to use the Rayleigh distribution for the wave heights of
an irregular deepwater wave group.
[Commentary]
The assumption behind the theory of Rayleigh distribution is a precondition that the wave energy is concentrated in
an extremely narrow band around a certain frequency. Problems thus remain with regard to its applicability to ocean
waves for which the frequency band is broad. Nevertheless, it has been pointed out that, so long as the waves are
defined by the zero-upcrossing method, the Rayleigh distribution can be applied to ocean waves as an acceptable
approximation.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Expression of Rayleigh Distribution
The Rayleigh distribution is given by the following equation:
p H 2
pH
p ( H H ) = --- ----- exp --- -----

2H
4 H
(4.1.15)
where
p(H/H) probability density function of wave heights
H mean wave height (m)
According to the Rayleigh distribution, the highest one-tenth wave height H1/10, the significant wave height
H 1 3 , and the mean wave height H are related to one another by the following equations:
678
H 1 10 = 1.27H 1 3
H 1 3 = 1.60H
(4.1.16)
On average, these relationships agree well with the results of wave observations in situ.
The highest wave height Hmax is difficult to determine precisely as will be discussed in (2) below, but in
general it may be fixed as in the following relationship:
H max = ( 1.6 2.0 )H 1 3
(4.1.17)
The periods are related as follows:

T max T 1 3 = ( 1.1 1.3 )T
(4.1.18)
It should be noted however that as waves approach the coast, waves with the heights greater than the breaking
limit begin to break and that their heights are reduced. Thus it is not possible to use the Rayleigh distribution for
the wave heights within the breaker zone.
(2) Occurrence Probability of the Highest Wave Height
The highest wave height Hmax is a statistical quantity that cannot be determined precisely; it is only possible to
give its occurrence probability. If the wave height is assumed to follow a Rayleigh distribution, then the
expected value Hmax of Hmax , when a large number of samples each composed of N waves are ensembled, is
given as follows:
0.5772
(4.1.20)
H max = 0.706 l n N + ---------------- H 1 3
2 l n N
It should be noted, however, that when Hmax is obtained for each of a large number of samples each containing
N waves, there will be a considerable number of cases in which Hmax exceeds Hmax. Thus a simple use of Hmax
as the design wave might place structures on a risky side. One can thus envisage the method in which a wave
height (Hmax)m with m = 0.05 or 0.1 is used, where (Hmax)m is set such that the probability of the value of Hmax
exceeding (Hmax)m is m (i.e., the significance level is m). The value of (Hmax)m for a given significance level m is
given by the following equation:
N
( H max ) m = 0.706H 1 3 l n ----------------------------------
l n [ 1 ( 1 m ) ]
(4.1.21)
-37-
Table T- 4.1.4 lists the values obtained from this equation. Because Hmax is not a definite value but rather a
probabilistic variable, the value of Hmax / H1/3 varies greatly with N and m. However, considering the facts that the
wave height only approximately follows a Rayleigh distribution and that the wave pressure formula has been derived
while containing a certain scatter of experimental data, it is appropriate to use Hmax = (1.6 ~ 2.0) H1/3 by neglecting
the very small or large values in the table.
Table T- 4.1.4 Relationship between Highest Wave Height Hmax and Significant Wave Height H1/3
Number of waves
N
50% significance
level
(Hmax) 0.5
Mode
(Hmax) mode
1.40H1/3
1.52H1/3
1.63H1/3
1.76H1/3
1.86H1/3
1.95H1/3
2.05H1/3
2.12H1/3
50
100
200
500
1,000
2,000
5,000
10,000
Mean
(Hmax)
1.46H1/3
1.58H1/3
1.68H1/3
1.81H1/3
1.91H1/3
2.00H1/3
2.10H1/3
2.19H1/3
1.50H1/3
1.61H1/3
1.72H1/3
1.84H1/3
1.94H1/3
2.02H1/3
2.12H1/3
2.19H1/3
10% significance
level
(Hmax) 0.1
1.76H1/3
1.85H1/3
1.94H1/3
2.06H1/3
2.14H1/3
2.22H1/3
2.31H1/3
2.39H1/3
5% significance
level
(Hmax) 0.05
1.86H1/3
1.95H1/3
2.03H1/3
2.14H1/3
2.22H1/3
2.30H1/3
3.39H1/3
2.47H1/3
[3] Wave Spectrum

In the design of port and harbor facilities, due consideration shall be given to the functional form of the
wave spectrum and an appropriate expression shall be used.
[Technical Notes]
(1) General Form of Wave Spectrum
The general form of the wave spectrum is usually represented as in the following equation:
S ( f, q ) = S ( f )G ( f, q )
(4.1.22)
where
f frequency
q azimuth from the principal direction of the wave
S(f,q) directional spectrum
In the above, S(f) is a function that represents the distribution of the wave energy with respect to frequency; it is
called the frequency spectrum. G(f,q) is a function that represents the distribution of the wave energy with
respect to direction; it is called the directional spreading function.
The functions expressed in the following equations may be used for S(f) and G(f,q). The frequency spectrum
of equation (4.1.23) is called the Bretschneider-Mitsuyasu spectrum, while equation (4.1.24) is called the
Mitsuyasu type spreading function.
2
4 5
S ( f ) = 0.257H 1 3 T1 3 f exp [ 1.03 ( T1 3 f ) ]

q
G ( f, q ) = G 0 cos 2S --2
where G0 is a constant of proportionality that satisfies the following normalization condition:
i
qmax
G ( f, q ) dq = 1
(4.1.23)
(4.1.24)
(4.1.25)
min
f
S = S max -----
f m
f fm
64748
where qmax and qmin are respectively the maximum and minimum angles of deviation from the principal
direction.
The term S in equation (4.1.24) is a parameter that represents the degree of directional spreading of wave
energy. It is given by the following formulas:
f 2.5
: f > fm
S = S max -----
f m
(4.1.26)
where fm is the frequency at which the spectrum peak appears. It may be represented in terms of the significant
wave period T1/3 as in the following equation:
f m = 1 ( 1.05T 1 3 )
(4.1.27)
If the units of H1/3 and T1/3 are meters and seconds respectively, then the units of S(f,q) are m2s.
-38-
S max
(2) Value of Directional Spreading Parameter

It is standard to take a value of 10 for the maximum value Smax of the directional spreading parameter in the case
of wind waves in deep water. In the case of swell considering the process of wave decay and others, it is
appropriate to take a value of 20 or more. Figure T- 4.1.4 shows a graph of approximately estimated values of
Smax against wave steepness. Judging by the value of wave steepness, it can be seen that Smax< 20 for wind
waves. This graph may be used in order to set an approximate value for Smax. Goda and Suzuki 4) have proposed
using as the standard values Smax = 10 for wind waves, Smax = 25 for swell during initial decay, and Smax = 75 for
swell that has a long decay distance.
(p)0
h/L0
Fig. T- 4.1.5 Graph Showing the Change

in Smax Due to Refraction
Fig. T- 4.1.4 Graph Showing Estimated Values
of Smax against Wave Steepness
(3) Change in Smax Due to Refraction

The form of the directional spreading function changes as waves undergo the refraction process. When a
diffraction calculation on irregular waves is carried out using waves that have been refracted, it is thus very
important to consider such changes in the directional spreading function. Figure T- 4.1.5 shows the values of
Smax after waves have been refracted at a coastline with straight and parallel depth contour lines. In the figure,
(ap)0 is the incident angle of the principal wave direction at the deepwater boundary, i.e., the angle between the
principal wave direction and the line normal to the depth contours.
(4) Improved Model for Frequency Spectrum
If waves are generated in a laboratory flume using the Bretschneider-Mitsuyasu spectrum expressed by equation
(4.1.23), the significant wave period of the generated waves often deviates from the target significant wave
period. The reason for such a deviation is that the original equation (4.1.23) is given in terms of the peak
frequency fm, but this is replaced with the significant wave period T1/3 by using equation (4.1.27). Goda 54) has
thus proposed the following standard spectral form for which the significant wave period of the generated waves
does not deviate from the target significant wave period.
2
4 5
S ( f ) = 0.205H 1 3 T1 3 f exp [ 0.75 (T1 3 f ) ]
(4.1.28)
The peak frequency for equation (4.1.28) is about 8% lower than that for equation (4.1.23), the spectral density
at the peak is about 18% higher, and overall the spectrum is shifted towards the low frequency side. At the very
least, it is advisable to use the spectral form expressed by equation (4.1.28) for the target spectrum in hydraulic
model experiments.
(5) Relationship between Wave Spectrum and Typical Values of Wave Characteristics
(a) Wave spectrum and typical value of wave height
If the probability density function for the occurrence of a wave height H is assumed to follow the Rayleigh
distribution, then the relationship between the mean wave height H and the zeroth moment of the wave
-39-
spectrum m0 is given by equation (4.1.30), where the n-th moment of the wave spectrum is defined as in
equation (4.1.29).
mn =
H =
0 f n S ( f ) df
(4.1.29)
(4.1.30)
2pm 0 2.5 m 0
Using the relationship H1/3 = 1.60 H , one arrives at the following relationship between the significant wave
height and the spectrum.
(4.1.31)
H 1 3 4.0 m 0
According to the results of actual observations, it is often the case that the best relationship is
H 1 3 = 3.8 m 0 . In the case of wave data from the shallow waters where the wave height is large, the waves
are highly nonlinear and so the relationship H 1 3 = 4.0 m 0 is satisfied. In either case, there is a very strong
correlation between H 1 3 and m0. It is thus acceptable to use equation (4.1.31) and calculate the significant
wave height from the spectrum.
(b) Wave spectrum and typical value of period
When waves are defined using the zero-upcrossing
method, the mean period Tz is given by the following
equation according to Rices theory.
Tz =
m0 m2
N = 171 data
Mean
; 0.832
Standard deviation ; 0.072
(4.1.32)
Calculating the mean period using the BretschneiderMitsuyasu type spectrum gives the following
relationship:
T z = 0.74T 1 3
(4.1.33)
Figure T- 4.1.6 shows a comparison between the mean

periods T obtained from actually observed wave profiles
and the mean periods Tz estimated from spectrum
calculations. The values of Tz / T are distributed in the
range 0.6 ~ 1.0, with the mean being 0.83. In other words,
the mean values obtained from wave profiles tend to be
about 20% greater than those calculated from the
moments of spectra. The deviation from Rices theory is
thought to have been caused by the presence of second
order nonliner components in the high frequency range of
wave spectra.
Fig. T- 4.1.6 Frequency Distribution of the

Ratio of Mean Period Tz by
Spectral Calculation to Actually
Measured Mean Period T
(6) Spectrum for Long-Period Waves

The above explanation concerns the spectra for wind waves and swell components that have a relatively short
period. For long-period wave components that have a period of tens of seconds or more, see 4.8 Long-period
Waves and Seiche.
4.2 Method of Determining Wave Conditions to Be Used in Design

4.2.1 Principles for Determining the Deepwater Waves Used in Design (Notification Article 4, Clause 2)
The duration of statistical wave data used in setting the deepwater wave conditions for investigating the
stability of the structures of port and harbor facilities etc. shall be determined appropriately, in due
consideration to the functions of the port and harbor facilities and the characteristics of the structures.
[Commentary]
(1) As for actual measurement data, a relatively long period of measurements (10 years or more) is desirable.
However, when there is a lack of such actual measurement data, hindcasted values that have been obtained using
at least about 30 years worth of meteorological data should be used, with these being corrected by means of the
available data of actual wave measurement.
(2) When hindcasted values obtained from meteorological data are corrected using actual measurement data, it is
necessary that the measurement data should cover the period of 3 years at the minimum and contain a
considerable number of cases of large storms. However, if waves were recorded during an extraordinary weather
that only occurs once every a few tens of years and the values for these waves exceed all the hindcasted values,
the observed values may be used to obtain the design deepwater waves.
-40-
(3) If there is absolutely no actual measurement data at the site of interest, or if the only measurement data available
is for extremely limited conditions, measurement data for a neighboring place with similar natural conditions
may be used. In this case, NOWPHAS (Nationwide Ocean Wave Information Network for Ports and Harbors)
data may be used.
(4) If it is known that an extraordinary storm event occurred in the area before the period for which wave
hindcasting using meteorological data is carried out (for example, in a previous decade), the record of such an
event should be taken into consideration.
(5) When hindcasted values for a hypothetical typhoon are used, it is advisable to sufficiently investigate the
magnitudes of past typhoons and the courses that they followed, and to even include an investigation on the
occurrence probability of such a typhoon.
(6) When estimating deepwater waves using actual measurement data, it is neccessary to take into account the fact
that the measured wave height has been affected by refraction and shoaling. Thus the wave height of the
deepwater waves should be corrected by dividing the measured height by the refraction coefficient and the
shoaling coefficient. In this case, it is also necessary to consider changes in the wave direction.
(7) If the significant wave height obtained from actual measurement data is more than one half of the water depth at
the measurement location, it is considered that this wave record has been affected by wave breaking. With such
wave data, the parameters of the deepwater waves should be estimated by means of wave hindcasting. Note
however that, with regard to the hindcasted deepwater waves, significant waves for the measurement location
should be estimated as described in 4.5 Transformations of Waves, and a comparison with the actual
measurement data should be carried out.
(8) It is advisable to determine the deepwater waves that will be used in design with consideration of the encounter
probability based on the return period and the lifetime of the structure in question. However, the way in which
the encounter probability is interpreted will depend on the functions, importance and return on investment of the
structure, and other factors, and so it is not possible to determine it for the general case. It must therefore be
determined independently for each individual case by the judgement of the engineer in charge. Here, the
encounter probability means the probability that waves with a height larger than the return wave height for a
given return period occurs at least once during the lifetime of the structure in question.
(9) When determing the deepwater waves that will be used in design, it is necessary to examine the external forces
on and past damage of existing structures adjacent to the structure under design.
(10) It is standard to set deepwater wave parameters separately for each direction of the sixteen-point bearings,
although the directions for which the wave height is small and their effects on the structure are readily judged as
negligible may be excluded. The wave direction hereby refers to the direction of the irregular wave component
that has the highest energy density, in other words, the principal direction. Since the wave force acting on the
structure in question will not change greatly when the wave direction changes by only a few degrees, it is
acceptable in design to represent the wave direction using the sixteen-point bearing system.
4.2.2 Procedure for Obtaining the Parameters of Design Waves

First, deepwater waves shall be determined by following 4.2.1 Principles for Determining the
Deepwater Waves Used in Design. Then, transformations due to refraction, diffraction, shoaling, and
breaking shall be evaluated. Finally, the waves that have the most unfavorable effects on the structure in
question or facilities in the hinterland shall be used as the design waves.
[Technical Notes]
The parameters of the design waves are determined according to the following procedures:
(1) The effects of wave transformation such as refraction, diffraction, shoaling, and breaking are applied to the
deepwater waves determined by following 4.2.1 Principles for Determining the Deepwater Waves Used in
Design, in order to determine the parameters of the design waves at the design location.
(2) If the location in question is subject to special conditions (for example, disturbances from externally reflected
waves or an increase in wave height due to concave corners), these should also be taken into account.
(3) The wave force and other wave actions on the structure in question such as overtopping are determined for the
waves obtained above.
(4) According to the various conditions related to wave actions, there can be cases where the wave force becomes
largest when the water level is low, and so investigations should be carried out for all conceivable water levels.
(5) The above calculations are carried out for each possible direction in which the deepwater waves may come in.
The deepwater waves for which the wave action is largest or for which the effects on the structure in question or
facilities in the hinterland are most unfavorable are chosen as the design waves.
-41-
4.3 Wave Hindcasting

4.3.1 General
Wave hindcasting shall be carried out by using an appropriate hindcasting method.
[Commentary]
(1) Wave hindcasting should be made in the following two steps:
(a) Setting of the wind field
(b) Calculation of wave development and attenuation.
(2) The field where waves are generated and developed is called the fetch (or wind field), and it is characterized by
four parameters: wind velocity, wind direction, fetch length, and wind duration. Where the wind field is set, the
wave development and attenuation should be calculated by using the most appropriate hindcasting method for
the wind field conditions.
[Technical Notes]
The wind field is to be set according to the following procedures:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Collection of surface weather charts and meteorological data.

Determination of the duration of hindcasting for each case.
Calculation of gradient winds from the surface weather charts.
Estimation of the sea surface winds by empirical formulas and data of measurement.
Preparation of the wind field chart.
4.3.2 Wave Hindcasting in Generating Area

For the hindcasting of waves in the generating area, the spectrum methods and the significant wave
methods are recommended as standard methods.
[Commentary]
The reliability of the results of the wave hindcast should be examined through the comparison with the wave
measurement data.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Spectral Methods
(a) General
Spectral methods can be classified into the spectral component methods that have been developed by
assuming that the components of the spectrum for each frequency and direction develop independently until
some equilibrium state is reached 6),7), and the parameteric methods that are based on the idea that the
development and decay of a wave spectrum can be described by a certain small number of parameters 8),9),10).
With the former, the development of waves is described in terms of the influx of energy from the wind into the
component waves that make up the spectrum and the weak nonlinear interaction between component waves.
With the latter, development of waves are treated as the overall result of strong nonlinear effects and a kind of
similarity mechanism is assumed with introduction of a few parameters. Calculations are carried out by
formulating and solving the equations that govern the development and transformation processes of waves
using the parameters.
The accuracy of wave hindcasting by spectral methods has not been sufficiently investigated yet. However,
since the accuracy of wave hindcasting depends greatly on the accuracy of estimating ocean winds, at present
it is reasonable to believe that the accuracy of spectral methods is comparable to that of significant wave
methods. Nevertheless, it should be noted that even for the same wave hindcasting model, results can vary by
10 ~ 20% due to differences in the matters like the calculation mesh, the boundary conditions or empirical
constants. Accordingly, it is necessary to investigate the validity and accuracy of hindcasted results by
comparing them with observation values (examples of such comparisons are given in references 6)~11)). In
particular, an equilibrium spectral form is assigned as the limit of wave development in the current spectral
methods. It is thought that the accuracy of the supposed equilibrium spectrum itself affects the results greatly,
and so it is a good idea to investigate the accuracy with regard to the functional forms of frequency spectrum
or the directional spectrum. This is because the significant wave height is proportional to the square root of the
integral of the directional spectrum, meaning that the calculation is such that the significant wave height does
not change very much even if the spectral form itself changes somewhat, and so it is considered that the most
rigorous way of carrying out evaluation is to examine the spectral form.
The spectral methods have the following advantages over the significant wave methods.
-42-
The effects of the variations of wind speed and direction on wave development are physically well
described.
Appropriate estimation results on wave heights and periods are obtained even when the wind field moves
together with wave propagation.

Wind waves and swell mixed sea conditions can be reproduced in one calculation.
Accordingly, if the results of hindcasting using a significant wave method seem dubious, it is a good idea to
make hindcasting again using a spectral method. Incidentally, spectral methods have been researched and
developed while primarily focusing on deepwater waves. There are only a few studies concerning shallow
water waves, namely Collins 12), Cavaleri 13), Golding 14) and Yamaguchi et al.
(b) Details 6),7)
Wave forecasting methods by mean of wave spectrum have been developed by many researchers since the
1960s. Those developed by Japanese reserchers include Inoues model 6), Isozaki and Ujis MRI model 7), and
Yamaguchi and Tsuchiyas model. The basis of these models is the following energy balance equation:
----E ( f, q, t, x ) = C G ( f ) E ( f, q, t, x ) + a ( f, U ) + b ( f, U )E ( F, q, t, x ) + F 3 + F 4 + F 5
(4.3.1)
t
where
E ( F, q, t, x ) energy density of a two-dimensional wave spectrum
a ( f, U ) linear amplifying factor in Phillips resonance theory 15)
b ( f, U ) exponential amplifying factor in Miles theory 16)
F 3 energy dissipated due to wave breaking
F 4 energy loss due to internal friction during wave propagations etc.
F 5 energy exchange due to the nonlinear interaction between component waves
f, q component wave frequency and angle
t time
x position vector
C G ( f ) group velocity vector
U wind velocity
differential operator
(2) Significant Wave Methods

(a) S-M-B method
General 19),20)
The S-M-B method is used when the wind field is stationary. The height and period of deepwater
significant waves are estimated from the wind velocity and wind duration in the fetch and the fetch length
using Fig. T- 4.3.1. Of the wave height obtained from the wind velocity and that from the wind duration,
the lower one is adopted as the hindcasted value; likewise for the period. Figure T- 4.3.1 has been drawn
based on the relationships by equations (4.3.2), (4.3.3) and (4.3.4), which were rewritten by Wilson 21) in
1965.
gH 1 3
1
-------------- = 0.30 1 ---------------------------------------------------22
1 2
U
gF
1 + 0.004 -----2-
(4.3.2)
gT 1 3
1
-------------- = 1.37 1 ---------------------------------------------------52pU
13
gF
1 + 0.008 -----2-
U
t =
dF
0 C------Gi
(4.3.3)
dF
----------------------- 0 gT
1 3 4p
(4.3.4)
where
H 1 3 significant wave height (m)
T 1 3 significant wave period (s)
U wind velocity at 10 m above sea surface (m/s).
F fetch length (m)
g acceleration of gravity (m/s2) (= 9.81 m/s2)
t minimum duration (hr)
-43-
Wind Speed
Fetch
( H 1 3 T 1 3 ) 2 = const.
t (h)
H 1 3 (m)
T 1 3 (s)
Fig. T - 4.3.1 Wave Forecasting Diagram by the S-M-B Method
Handling of the effective fetch length
When the fetch width is small relative to the fetch length (for example, in a long bay), the fetch length is
determined by the distance to the opposite shore. If the distance to the opposite shore varies greatly when
the direction is changed only slightly, it is advisable to use the effective fetch length defined by in equation
(4.3.5) 22) when hindcasting is made.
2
SF i cos q i
F eff = -----------------------S cos q i
(4.3.5)
where
F eff effective fetch length (km)
F i distance to opposite shore in the i-th direction (km)
q i angle between the direction of Fi and the predominant wind direction ()
(b) Wilsons method 21), 23)
Wilsons method is an extension of the S-M-B method. It includes improvements that it can be applied even to
a moving fetch, for example in the case of a typhoon. Using the H1/3-t-F-T1/3 graph shown in Fig. T- 4.3.2, the
propagation of waves is traced in the F-T plane, while the development of the significant wave height and
period are traced in the H1/3-t plane and T1/3-t plane, respectively. This figure has been obtained by calculation
based on equations (4.3.2), (4.3.3) and (4.3.4).
(c) Hindcasting for shallow water waves
Methods that consider the influence of the water depth on wave development (i.e., the energy loss due to
friction with the sea bottom) include the Sakamoto-Ijima method. It is known from experience that the
significant wave period and the significant wave height satisfy the following relationship. (Note however that
this applies only for wind waves within the fetch area.)
T 1 3 = 3.86 H 1 3
(4.3.6)
where
H 1 3 significant wave height (m)
T 1 3 significant wave period (s)
-44-
Fig. T- 4.3.2 H1/3-t-F-T1/3 Graph (from Wilson's equations (1965))
In the Sakamoto-Ijima method, the ideas in Wilsons method for deep water waves have been incorporated
into the case for shallow water waves, resulting in an H1/3-t-F-CG graph such as shown in Fig. T- 4.3.3. With
use of such a graph it possible to carry out the hindcasting of shallow water waves in a variable fetch.
(A) Note: The numbers on the graph

show wind velocity (m/s),
with water depth (m) in brackets
Fig. T- 4.3.3 H1/3-F-CG Graph for Shallow Water Waves (Sakamoto-Ijima Method)
-45-
4.3.3 Swell Hindcasting

When swell hindcasting is necessary, it is standard to use the Bretschneider method.
[Commentary]
Swell hindcasting methods include the Bretschneider method 24), the P-N-J method 5), and spectral methods. With the
Bretschneider method, the wave height and period of swell are hindcasted from the parameters of the significant
wave. With the P-N-J method, the swell parameters are obtained by estimating the effects of the velocity dispersion
and directional spreading of spectral components. With spectral methods as mentioned above, numerical calculations
are used; generally, no distinction is made between waves and swell in the generating area, with calculations for the
component waves at all of the different frequencies being carried out simultaneously, and the results being the
significant wave parameters for the combination of wind waves and swell. If a significant wave method is used in the
hindcasting of waves in the generating area, it is necessary to hindcast swell, in which case it is standard to use the
Bretschneider method, which is relatively simple and easy to use. Note however that the amount of reliable
observation data that has been obtained for swell is insufficient, and so the hindcasting accuracy is lower than that for
waves in the generating area. Accordingly, it is necessary to treat swell hindcast values as representing no more than
approximate values, and it is advisable to use them only after carrying out a comparative investigation with actual
measurement data.
[Technical Notes]
In the Bretschneider method, swell hindcasting is carried out by using Fig. T- 4.3.4.
Fig. T- 4.3.4 Swell Hindcasting Diagram
The term Fmin in the diagram is the minimum fetch length, D is the decay distance of the swell, HF and TF are the
height and period of the significant wave at the end of the fetch respectively, and HD and TD are the height and period
of the significant wave at the swell hindcasting point respectively. If the significant wave height and period are
determined by the wind velocity and the fetch length in the S-M-B method, the minimum fetch length Fmin is equal to
the actual fetch length. If the wave development is governed by the wind duration, then Fmin is the fetch length
corresponding to that wind duration and wind velocity.
The time t required for waves to propagate over the decay distance D is calculated from the following equation:
4pD
D
t = ----------- = ----------gT D
C GD
(4.3.7)
where
C GDgroup velocity corresponding to T D (m/s)
-46-
4.4 Statistical Processing of Wave Observation and Hindcasted Data

(1) Wave characteristics shall be expressed as joint distributions of wave height and period by wave
direction using the monthly, seasonal, and annual wave data.
(2) Storm wave data shall be sorted by the peaks-over-threshold method so as to yield the data set of
extreme wave heights for extreme statistical analysis, and the extreme wave heights shall be
expressed in terms of the return perid.
[Commentary]
(1) The wave distribution characteristics for ordinary conditions are expressed separately for each wave direction as
a joint distribution of wave height and period. Observation data are often available for the wave height and the
period, and so it is standard to use such data. If observation data are not available, then hindcast data is used.
Since waves in ordinary conditions are often affected by the local wind, it is necessary to gain a sufficient
understanding of the local wind characteristics. There is generally not much observation data available for the
wave direction, and so it is standard to use hindcasting. It is necessary to give sufficient consideration to the
effects of swell.
(2) It is standard to represent the height of waves used in the design of protective facilities as the return wave
height for the return period of the peak waves using data over a long time period (at least 30 years as a
general rule). Since there are only a few places at which observation data extending over such a prolonged time
duration are available, generally hindcast data must be used.
(3) The peak waves, basic data for estimating the return wave height, are the wave (generally the significant wave)
at the time for which the wave height becomes largest during the process of wave development and decay under
a certain meteorological condition. It is thought that sampled peak waves are mutually independent in statistical
sense. When estimating the return wave height, it is possible to use the time series of data for which the peak
waves exceed a certain threshold value during the period in question. Alternatively, it is possible to obtain the
maximum value of the peak waves for each year, and then use the data as the annual maximum wave. In either
case, the theoretical distribution function of the return wave height is not known, and so one should try to fit
several distribution functions such as the those of the Gumbel distribution and the Weibull distribution, find the
functional form that best fits the data, and then extrapolate it in order to estimate the return wave heights for a
number of different return periods (say 50 years, 100 years, etc.). The accuracy of the resulting estimated values
depends largely on the reliability of the data used rather than on the statistical processing method. When drawing
up the data set of peak waves using wave hindcasting, it is thus necessary to take due care in appropriately
selecting the hindcasting method and to closely inspect the hindcasted results.
(4) With regard to the wave period corresponding to the return wave height, the relationship between the wave
height and the wave period is plotted for the data of peak waves (which have been used in estimating the return
wave height), and then the wave period is determined appropriately based on the correlation between the two.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Estimation of Return Wave Height
During statistical processing, the wave heights are
rearranged in the descending order, and the probability of
each value of wave height not being exceeded is
calculated. If there are N data and the m-th largest wave
height is denoted with xm,N, then the probability P that the
wave height does not exceed xm,N is calculated using the
following equation:
ma
P [ H x m, N ] = 1 -------------N+b
(4.4.1)
Table T- 4.4.1 Parameters Used in Calculating the

Probability not Exceeding a Certain Wave Height
Distribution function
Gumbel distribution
Weibull distribution
(k = 0.75)
(k = 0.85)
(k = 1.0)
(k = 1.1)
(k = 1.25)
(k = 1.5)
(k = 2.0)
0.44
0.54
0.51
0.48
0.46
0.44
0.42
0.39
0.12
0.64
0.59
0.53
0.50
0.47
0.42
0.37
The values used for a and b in this equation depend on the

distribution function. Specifically, values such as those in
Table T- 4.4.1 are used. The values used for the Gumbel
distribution were determined by Gringorten 25) in such a way as to minimize the effects of statistical scatter in
the data. The values used for the Weibull distribution were determined by Petruaskas and Aagaard 26) using the
same principle.
It is commented that the Thomas plot often used in hydrology corresponds to the case a = 0, b = 1, and the
Hazen plot corresponds to the case a = 0.5, b = 0.
The distribution functions used in hydrology include the Gumbel distribution (double exponential
distribution), the logarithmic extreme value distribution, and the normal distribution (in the last case, the data
must first be transformed appropriately). Since the data on peak wave heights have not been accumulated over a
prolonged period of time, it is not well known which distribution function is most suitable.
-47-
Following Petruaskas and Aagaard, we thus introduce the method whereby one tries fitting eight distribution
functions, namely the Gumbel distribution function (equation (4.4.2)) and the Weibull distribution function
(equation (4.4.3)) with k = 0.75, 0.85, 1.0, 1.1, 1.25, 1.5 and 2.0; the distribution function that best fits the data
on any particular data set is then selected as the extreme distribution for that data set.
xB
P [ H x ] = exp exp ------------
A
(Gumbel distribution)
(4.4.2)
x B k
(Weibull distribution)
(4.4.3)
P [ H x ] = 1 exp ------------
A
In order to fit the data to the distribution function, the non-exceedance probability (probability not exceeding a
certain wave height) P is transformed into the variable r v ( = ( x B ) A ) using equation (4.4.4) or (4.4.5).
rv = ln { ln P [ H x ] }
rv = [ ln { 1 P [ H x ] } ]
1k
(Gumbel distribution)
(4.4.4)
(Weibull distribution)
(4.4.5)
If the data fit equation (4.4.2) or (4.4.3) perfectly, then there will be a linear relationship between x and r v .
Accordingly, the data are assumed to follow the linear relationship shown in equation (4.4.6). The parameters A
and B are determined using the method of least squares, thus giving an equation for estimating the return wave
height.
x = A^ r v + B^
(4.4.6)
where A^ and B^ are the estimated values of the parameters A and B in equation (4.4.2) or (4.4.3), respectively.
The return period Rp of the wave height H is related to the non-exceedance probability P (H x) as in the
following:
1
Rp = K
---- ------------------------------N 1 P ( H
x)
or
(4.4.7)
K
P ( H x ) = 1 ---------NRp
where
K number of years during the period for which analysis was carried out
N number of data of peak waves
(2) Candidate Distribution Functions and Rejection Eriteria
Goda has proposed the following method 51) ~ 53), which is a revised version of the method introduced above.
(a) Addition of the Fisher-Tippett type II distribution to the candidate distributions
The Fisher-Tippett type II distribution is given by the following equation.
k
P [ H x ] = exp [ { 1 + ( x B ) ( kA ) } ]
(4.4.8)
The following nine functions are employed as the candidate functions to be tried for fitting: the Gumbel
distribution function (equation (4.4.2)), the Weibull distribution function (equation (4.4.3)) with k = 0.75, 1.0,
1.4 and 2.0 (four preset values), and the Fisher-Tippett type II distribution function with k = 2.5, 3.33, 5.0 and
10.0 (four preset values).
In place of the values listed in Table T- 4.4.1, the following equations are used for a and b in equation
(4.4.1):
For the Gumbel distribution,
a 0.44, b 0.12
(4.4.9)
For the Weibull distribution,

a = 0.20 + 0.27 k
(4.4.10)
b = 0.20 + 0.23 k
For the Fisher-Tippett type II distribution,
a = 0.44 + 0.52 k
b = 0.12 0.11 k
(4.4.11)
-48-
(b) Selection of the best function through introduction of rejection criteria

Inappropriate functions are rejected by means of two sets of criterion. The first is the REC criterion. For the
residual of the correlation coefficient for each distribution function, the 95% non-exceedance probability level
is determined in advance. If the residual of the correlation coefficient exceeds this threshold value for a
distribution function when the extreme value data is fitted to that distribution function, the function in question
is rejected as being inappropriate. The second is the DOL criterion. The maximum value in the data is made
dimensionless using the mean and standard deviation for the whole data. If this value is below the 5% or
above the 95% level of the cumulative distriburion of dimensionless deviation of the distribution function
being fitted, that function is rejected as being inappropriate. Next, the best function is selected not simply
according to the value of the correlation coefficient, but rather according to the MIR criterion, This criterion
takes into account the fact that the mean of the residual of the correlation coefficient relative to 1.0 will vary
according to the distribution function. The function for which the ratio of the residual of the correlation
coefficient of the sample to the mean residual for the fitted distribution is lowest is judged to be the best fitting
distribution function.
4.5 Transformations of Waves

4.5.1 General (Notification Article 4, Clause 3)
As a general rule, the waves to be considered to exert actions on port and harbor facilities shall be the
waves that are most unfavorable in terms of the structure stability or the usage of the port and harbor
facilities. In this consideration, appropriate attention shall be given to wave transformations during the
propagation of waves from deepwater toward the shore, which include refraction, diffraction, shoaling,
breaking, and others.
4.5.2 Wave Refraction
The phenomenon of wave refraction occurs in intermediate depth to shallow waters. This is due to the
change in local wave velocity caused by the change in water depth. The changes in wave height and wave
direction due to refraction shall be considered.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Refraction Calculations for Regular Waves
(a) Refraction phenomenon and refraction coefficient (see Fig. T- 4.5.1)
If waves are obliquely incident on a straight boundary where the water depth changes from h1 to h2, waves are
refracted at the boundary due to the change in wave velocity caused by the change in water depth. Suppose
that the distance between wave rays changes from b1 to b2 as a result. If the change in the wave ray width is
not so large, it can be assumed that no wave energy flux cuts across the wave ray and flows out. If other
sources of energy loss such as the friction along the sea bottom are ignored, then the continuity in the flux of
energy transport results in the change of the wave height H1 at water depth h1 to the wave height H2 at water
depth h2 as given by the following equation:
H2
------ =
H1
C G1 b 1
---------- ----C G2 b 2
(4.5.1)
where
CG1 , CG2 group velocities at water depths h1 and h2, respectively (m/s)
b1 , b2 distances between wave rays at water depths h1 and h2, respectively (m)
In the equation,
b 1 b 2 represents the change in wave height
due to refraction, while C G1 C G2 represents the change in

wave height due to the change in water depth. Using the shoaling
coefficient (see 4.5.5 Wave Shoaling),
C G1 C G2 can be
represented as C G1 C G2 = K s2 K s1 , where Ks1 and Ks2 are

the shoaling coefficients at water depths h1 and h2, respectively.
Suppose that the wave ray width, which is b0 for deepwater
waves, changes to b due to the refraction phenomenon. The ratio
of the wave height after the change to the original wave height in
this case is called the refraction coefficient. The refraction
coefficient Kr is given by the following equation:
Kr =
b0 b
(4.5.2)
-49-
water depth h1
water depth h2
Fig. T- 4.5.1 Schematic Diagram

of Wave Refraction
(b) Refraction calculation methods

Refraction calculation methods for regular waves include the wave ray methods in which calculations using a
computer are made possible, and the numerical wave propagation analysis methods 27) in which surface wave
equations are solved by computers using finite difference schemes. An appropriate calculation method is
chosen in accordance with the situation.
Note however that for a coastline for which the depth contours are straight and parallel to one another, the
change in the wave direction and the refraction coefficient can be calculated using the following equations:
2ph
sin a = sin a 0 tanh ---------L
(4.5.3)
cos a 0
--------------cos a
(4.5.4)
Kr =
Here, L, a and a0 denote the wavelength at water depth h, the angle of incidence of the wave at water depth h,
and the angle of incidence of the wave in deep water, respectively. Figures T- 4.5.2 and T- 4.5.3 show the
refraction coefficient and the wave direction, as calculated using equations (4.5.4) and (4.5.3), respectively.
Fig. T- 4.5.2 Refraction Coefficient of Regular Waves at Coast

with Straight, Parallel Depth Contours
Fig. T- 4.5.3 Graph Showing the Change in the Wave Direction of Regular Waves
at Coast with Straight, Parallel Depth Contours
(2) Range of Application of Refraction Calculations Using Regular Waves

Based on the principles behind calculations for regular waves, such calculations are applicable for waves for
which there is little directional spreading and the frequency band is narrow; for example, swell-type waves and
tsunamis. For waves like wind waves for which there is much directional spreading and the frequency band is
broad, it is necessary to carry out refraction calculations for irregular waves. Nevertheless, comparing the graphs
showing changes in the refraction coefficient and wave direction for regular waves and irregular waves at a coast
-50-
with straight, parallel depth contours, it can be seen that there is only a little difference between regular waves
and irregular waves in this case. This means that when the topography of a coastline is monotonous to the extent
that the depth contours are considered to be straight and parallel to the shoreline, the difference between the
results of refraction calculations for regular waves and irregular waves is usually only slight, and so the results
of refraction calculations using regular waves can be used as a good approximation.
(3) Refraction Calculations for Irregular Waves
(a) Calculation methods
Refraction calculation methods for irregular waves include the following: the component wave method,
whereby the directional wave spectrum is divided into an appropriate number of component waves, a
refraction calculation is performed for each component wave, and then the refraction coefficient for the
irregular wave is evaluated by making a weighted average of the component wave energies; methods in
which the wave energy balance equation 28) or the mild-slope wave equation is solved directly using a
computer with finite difference schemes. As with the component wave method, the energy balance equation is
derived by assuming that wave energy does not cut across wave rays and flow out. This means that the
technique is basically the same in both cases. However, with the energy balance equation method, refraction
within a small but finite region is calculated, meaning that the refraction coefficient does not become infinite
even at a point in which two regular wave rays may converge. On the other hand, the mild-slope wave
equation method is a strictly analytical method, but it is difficult to apply it to a large region. When
determining the refraction coefficient for irregular waves, it is acceptable to use the component wave method,
which involves the linear superposition of refraction coefficients for regular waves and is thus simple and
convenient. However, when intersections of wave rays occur during a refraction calculation for a component
wave, the energy balance equation method may be used for practical purposes with the exception of the case
that the degree of intersection is large.
(b) Effects of diffraction
When deepwater waves have been diffracted by an island or a headland, the wave spectrum becomes generally
different from a standard form that has been assumed initially. Thus it is necessary to use the spectral form
after diffraction when performing the refraction calculation.
(c) Diagrams of the refraction coefficient and angle for irregular waves at a coast with straight, parallel depth
contours
Figures T- 4.5.4 and T- 4.5.5 show the refraction coefficient Kr and the principal wave direction ap,
respectively, for irregular waves at a coast with straight, parallel depth contours, with the principal direction of
deepwater waves (ap)0 as the parameter. The direction (ap)0 is expressed as the angle between the wave
direction and the line normal to the boundary of deepwater. Smax is the maximum value of the parameter that
expresses the degree of directional spreading of wave energy (see 4.1.3 [3] Wave Spectrum).
Fig. T- 4.5.4 Refraction Coefficient of Irregular Waves at Coast

with Straight, Parallel Depth Contours
-51-
Fig. T- 4.5.5 Change Due to Refraction in the Principal Direction ap of Irregular Waves
at Coast with Straight, Parallel Depth Contours
(4) At places where the water depth is no more than about one half of the deepwater wave height, waves exhibit the
characteristics of flow rather than those of undulations. This means that refraction calculations for wave
directions and refraction coefficients can only be applied to the water where the depth is at least one half of the
deepwater wave height.
4.5.3 Wave Diffraction

[1] Diffraction
The wave height in regions in which waves are anticipated to be greatly affected by the phenomenon of
diffraction caused by obstacles such as breakwaters or islands shall be calculated using an appropriate
method.
[Commentary]
Diffraction is a phenomenon whereby waves wheel into a region that is screened by something like a breakwater. It is
the most important phenomenon when determining the wave height in a harbor. The irregularity of waves should be
considered in a diffraction calculation. For a harbor within which the water depth is assumed uniform, the diffraction
diagrams for irregular waves with regard to a semi-infinite breakwater or a straight breakwater that has just one
opening have been prepared. The ratio of the wave height after diffraction to the incident wave height is called the
diffraction coefficient Kd. In other words, the diffraction coefficient Kd is given by the following equation:
Kd = Hd Hi
(4.5.10)
where
Hi incident wave height outside harbor
Hd height of wave in harbor after diffraction
Diffraction diagrams and diffraction calculation methods assume that the water depth within the harbor is uniform. If
there are large variations in water depth within the harbor, the errors will become large, in which case it is advisable
to investigate the wave height in the harbor by means of either hydraulic scale model tests or else numerical
calculation methods that also take refraction into account.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Diffraction Diagrams for Irregular Waves
Figures T- 4.5.6 (a) ~ (c) show the diffraction diagrams by a semi-infinite breakwater for irregular waves with
the directional spreading parameter Smax = 10, 25, and 75. Figures T- 4.5.6 (a) ~ (l) show the diffraction
diagrams through an opening of B/L = 1, 2, 4, and 8 for irregular waves with Smax = 10, 25, and 75.
-52-
---- Period ratio
Diffraction coefficient
Wave direction
Wave direction
Fig. T - 4.5.6(a) Diffraction Diagram by Semi-infinite Breakwaters (= 90) for Smax = 10
-53-
---- Period ratio
Wave direction
Wave direction
Fig. T - 4.5.6(b) Diffraction Diagram by Semi-infinite Breakwaters (= 90) for Smax = 25
-54-
---- Period ratio
Wave direction
Wave direction
Fig. T - 4.5.6(c) Diffraction Diagram by Semi-infinite Breakwaters (= 90) for Smax = 75
-55-
Period ratio
Wave direction
Period ratio
Wave direction
Fig. T - 4.5.7(a) Diffraction Diagram by Breakwaters with an Opening (B/L= 1.0) for Smax = 10
-56-
Period ratio
Wave direction
Period ratio
Wave direction
Fig. T - 4.5.7(b) Diffraction Diagram by Breakwaters with an Opening (B/L= 1.0) for Smax = 25
-57-
Period ratio
Wave direction
Period ratio
Wave direction
Fig. T - 4.5.7(c) Diffraction Diagram by Breakwaters with an Opening (B/L= 1.0) for Smax = 75
-58-
Period ratio
Wave direction
Period ratio
Wave direction
Fig. T - 4.5.7(d) Diffraction Diagram by Breakwaters with an Opening (B/L= 2.0) for Smax = 10
-59-
Period ratio
Wave direction
Period ratio
Wave direction
Fig. T - 4.5.7(e) Diffraction Diagram by Breakwaters with an Opening (B/L= 2.0) for Smax = 25
-60-
Period ratio
Wave direction
Period ratio
Wave direction
Fig. T - 4.5.7(f) Diffraction Diagram by Breakwaters with an Opening (B/L= 2.0) for Smax = 75
-61-
Period ratio
Wave direction
Period ratio
Wave direction
Fig. T - 4.5.7(g) Diffraction Diagram by Breakwaters with an Opening (B/L= 4.0) for Smax = 10
-62-
Period ratio
Wave direction
Period ratio
Wave direction
Fig. T - 4.5.7(h) Diffraction Diagram by Breakwaters with an Opening (B/L= 4.0) for Smax = 25
-63-
Period ratio
Wave direction
Period ratio
Wave direction
Fig. T - 4.5.7(i) Diffraction Diagram by Breakwaters with an Opening (B/L= 4.0) for Smax = 75
-64-
Period ratio
Wave direction
Period ratio
Wave direction
Fig. T - 4.5.7(j) Diffraction Diagram by Breakwaters with an Opening (B/L= 8.0) for Smax = 10
-65-
Period ratio
Wave direction
eriod ratio
Wave direction
Fig. T - 4.5.7(k) Diffraction Diagram by Breakwaters with an Opening (B/L= 8.0) for Smax = 25
-66-
Period ratio
Wave direction
Period ratio
Wave direction
Fig. T - 4.5.7(ll) Diffraction Diagram by Breakwaters with an Opening (B/L= 8.0) for Smax = 75
-67-
(2) Treatment of Obliquely Incident Waves

When waves are obliquely incident to a breakwater that contains an opening, it is advisable to obtain the
diffraction diagram by means of a numerical calculation. When this is not possible, or when the diffraction
diagram is only required as a rough guideline, the following approximate method may be used instead.
(a) Determining the axis of the diffracted wave
When waves are obliquely incident to a breakwater that contains an opening, the direction q of the axis of the
diffracted waves (see Fig. T- 4.5.8) varies slightly from the direction of incidence q. Tables T- 4.5.1 (a) ~ (c)
list the direction of the axis of the diffracted waves as a function of the aperture ratio B/L and the direction of
incidence. These tables are used to obtain the direction q of the axis of the diffracted waves, and then the
virtual aperture ratio B/L corresponding to q is obtained from the following equation:
B L = ( B L ) sin q
(4.5.11)
Table T- 4.5.1 Angle of Axis of Diffracted Wave
(a) Smax = 10
B/L
1.0
2.0
4.0
Angle between breakwater and incident wave direction q

15
30
45
60
53 (38)
46 (31)
41 (26)
58 (28)
53 (23)
49 (19)
65 (20)
62 (17)
60 (15)
71 (11)
70 (10)
70 (10)
(a) Smax = 25
B/L
1.0
2.0
4.0

15
49 (34)
41 (26)
36 (21)
30
52 (22)
47 (17)
42 (12)
45
60
61 (16)
57 (12)
54 (9)
70 (10)
67 (7)
65 (5)
(a) Smax =75

B/L
1.0
2.0
4.0

15
30
45
60
41 (26)
36 (21)
30 (15)
45 (15)
41 (11)
36 (6)
55 (10)
52 (7)
49 (4)
66 (6)
64 (4)
62 (2)
Note: Angle in the parentheses is the angle of deflection relative to the angle of incidence
Principal direction of diffracted wave
Principal direction of incident wave
Fig. T- 4.5.8 Virtual Aperture B and Angle of Axis of Diffracted Wave
(b) Fitting of a diffraction diagram

Out of the diffraction diagrams of normal incidence in Figs. T-4.5.7 (a) ~ (l), the diffraction diagram that has
an aperture ratio nearly equal to the virtual aperture ratio is selected. This diffraction diagram is next rotated
until the direction of incidence matches the direction of the axis of the diffracted waves as determined from
Table T- 4.5.1. The diffraction diagram is then copied and taken to be the diffraction diagram for obliquely
-68-
incident waves. The errors in this approximate method are largest around the opening in the breakwater; in
terms of the diffraction coefficient, the maximum error may amount to around 0.1 in the absolute value.
(3) Method for Determining Diffraction Coefficient in a Harbor
The diffraction coefficient within a complex shape of harbor is generally estimated by numerical computation
with a computer. Diffraction calculation methods include Takayamas method, which involves linear super
position of analytical solutions for detached breakwaters, and calculation methods that use the Green functions.
(4) Directional Spreading Method
When the length of an island or the width of the entrance of a bay is at least ten times the wavelength of the
incident waves, there will not be a large difference between the wave height estimate by the direct diffraction
calculation and the estimate using the amount of directional wave energy that arrives directly at the point of
interest behind the island or in the bay; the latter is called the directional spreading method. However, if the
point of interest is just behind an island or headland, the effects of diffracted waves will be large, and so the
directional spreading method cannot be applied.
(5) Studies Using Hydraulic Model Experiments
Thanks to improvements in multidirectional random wave generating devices, it is easy to reproduce waves that
have directional spreading in the laboratory nowadays, meaning that diffraction experiments can be carried out
relatively easily. When carrying out a model experiment, an opening in the harbor model is set up within the
effective wave making zone, and the wave height is simultaneously measured at a number of points within the
harbor. The diffraction coefficient is obtained by dividing the significant wave height in the harbor by the
significant wave height at the harbor entrance averaged over at least two observation points.
[2] Combination of Diffraction and Refraction

When carrying out diffraction calculations for waves in waters where the water depth varies greatly, wave
refraction must also be considered.
[Commentary]
(1) When the water depth within a harbor is made more-or-less uniform by say dredging (this is often the case with
large harbors), the refraction of waves after diffraction can be ignored. In order to determine the wave height in
the harbor in this case, it is acceptable to first carry out a calculation considering only refraction and breaking
from the deepwater wave hindcasting point to the harbor entrance. Next, a diffraction calculation for the area
within the harbor is carried out, taking the incident wave height to be equal to the calculated wave height at the
harbor entrance. In this case, the wave height at a point of interest within the harbor is expressed using the
following equation:
H = Kd Kr Ks H0
where
Kd
Kr
Ks
H0
(4.5.12)
diffraction coefficient at the point of interest within a harbor

refraction coefficient at the harbor entrance
shoaling coefficient at the harbor entrance (see 4.5.5 Wave Shoaling)
deepwater wave height
The energy balance equation method or the improved energy balance equation method in which a term
representing dissipation due to wave breaking is added is appropriate as the refraction calculation method for the
open sea. Takayamas harbor calmness calculation method, whereby diffraction solutions for detached
breakwaters are superimposed in order to obtain the change in the wave height of irregular waves within the
harbor due to diffraction and reflection, can be used for the diffraction calculation for the area within the harbor,
provided there are no complex topographic variations within the harbor.
(2) When there are large variations in water depth even at places screened by a breakwater (this is often the case
with relatively small harbors and coastal areas), it is necessary to simultaneously consider both diffraction and
refraction within the harbor. If ignoring wave reflection and just investigating the approximate change in wave
height, it is possible to carry out refraction and diffraction calculations separately, and then estimate the change
in wave height by multiplying together the refraction and diffraction coefficients obtained.
Calculation methods that allow simultaneous consideration of refraction and diffraction of irregular waves
include a method that uses time-dependent mild-slope irregular wave equations, a method in which the
Boussinesq equation is solved using the finite difference method 29), and the multicomponent coupling method
of Nadaoka et al. There are also literatures in which other calculation methods are explained.
-69-
4.5.4 Wave Reflection

[1] General
In the design of port and harbor facilities, investigations shall be carried out onto the effects of reflected
waves from neighboring structures on the facilities in question and also the effects of wave reflection from
the facilities in question on neighboring areas.
[Commentary]
It is necessary to take note of the fact that waves reflected from port and harbor facilities can exercise a large
influence on the navigation of vessels and cargo handling. For example, waves reflected from vertical breakwaters
can cause disturbances in navigation channels, and multiple-reflected waves from quaywalls can cause agitations
within harbors.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Composition of Reflected Waves and Incident Waves
The wave height Hs when incident waves and waves reflected from a number of reflective boundaries coexist (a
train of incident waves and those of reflected waves from reflective boundaries are termed the wave groups)
can be calculated using the following equation:
Hs =
H 1 + H2 + + Hn
(4.5.13)
where
Hs: significant wave height when all of the wave groups are taken together
H1, H2, Hn: significant wave heights of wave groups
Note however that, if the wave action varies with the wave direction, the differences in the wave directions of
various wave groups must be considered. The calculated wave height is valid for places that are at least about
0.7 wavelengths away from a reflecting boundary.
Regarding the diffraction and/or refraction of waves for which wave direction is an important factor, the
significant wave height is determined separately for each wave group by carrying out whatever calculation is
necessary for that wave group, when the wave directions of various wave groups differ. Then the composite
wave height is calculated by putting these significant wave heights into equation (4.5.13). An acceptable
alternative is to determine the spectrum for each wave group, add these spectra together in order to calculate the
spectral form when the wave groups coexist, and then perform direct diffraction and/or refraction calculations
using this spectrum.
(2) Composition of Periods
The significant wave height to be used in calculating the wave force when two wave groups of different periods
are superimposed may be determined by the energy composition method (i.e., equation (4.5.13)). The significant
wave period T1/3 may be determined using the following equation 30):
2
( H 1 3 ) I + ( H 1 3 )II
T 1 3 = k -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2
2
2
2
( H 1 3 ) I ( T 1 3 ) I + ( H 1 3 )II ( T 1 3 )II
(4.5.14)
where
k = 1.0 + a ( R H m ) 0.121Aln ( RH m)
(4.5.15)
a = 0.08 ( ln R T ) 2 0.15 ln R T
(4.5.16)
0.632 + 0.144 ln RT
m =
0.6
13.97 + 4.33 ln RT
A =
10.0
:
:
:
:
0.1 RT 0.8
0.8 RT 1
0.1 RT 0.4
0.4 RT 1
(4.5.17)
(4.5.18)
R H = ( H 1 3 ) I ( H 1 3 ) II
(4.5.19)
R T = ( T 1 3 ) I ( T 1 3 ) II
(4.5.20)
(H1/3)I, (H1/3)II : significant wave heights of wave groups I and II before superimposition, respectively (m)
(T1/3)I, (T1/3)II : significant wave periods of wave groups I and II before superimposition, respectively (s)
Note that, in the above equations, I is assigned to the wave group with the shorter period and to that with the
longer period.
-70-
(3) Methods for Calculating the Effects of Reflected Waves

Calculation methods for investigating the extent of the effects of waves reflected from a structure include the
poligonal island reflection method and a simple method by means of diffraction diagrams.
(a) Poligonal island reflection method
In this calculation method, the theoretical solution that shows the wave transformation around a single convex
corner is separated into three terms, representing the incident, the reflected and the scattered waves,
respectively. The term for the scattered waves is progressively expanded to obtain an approximate equation, so
that the method can be applied to the case where there are a number of convex corners. When there are a
number of convex corners, it is assumed as a precondition that the lengths of the sides between convex corners
are at least five times the wavelength of the incident waves, so that the convex corners do not interfere with
each other. It is necessary to take heed of the fact that errors may become large if the sides are shorter than
this. Since another assumption is made such that the water depth is uniform, the refraction of reflected waves
cannot be calculated. In general, it is sufficient for practical purposes if the lengths of the sides between
convex corners are at least about three times the wavelength of the incident waves. This calculation method
can also be applied to the reflection of irregular waves by means of superposing component waves. Although
the wave diffraction problems can also be analyzed with this calculation method, there will be large errors if it
is applied to the diffraction of waves by thin structures such as breakwaters.
(b) Simple method by means of diffraction diagrams
Explanation is made for the example shown in Fig.
T- 4.5.9. The wave height at a point A on the front
face of an upright detached breakwater is estimated
when waves are incident on the detached breakwater at an angle a. Instead of the detached breakwater, it is supposed that there are two semi-infinite
virtual breakwaters with an opening, such as shown
with dashed lines in Fig. T- 4.5.9. Next, one considers the situation whereby waves are incident on the
virtual opening from both the wave direction of the
incident waves and the direction symmetrical to this
with respect to the detached breakwater (i.e., the
direction shown by the dashed arrow in Fig. T4.5.9), and draws the diffraction diagram for the
Fig. T- 4.5.9 Sketch Showing the Effect
opening (dashed lines in Fig. T- 4.5.9). The range of
of Reflected Waves
influence of the reflected waves is represented by
means of the diffraction diagram for the virtual
breakwaters with the opening. Accordingly, supposing that the diffraction coefficient at point A is read off as
being 0.68, then the wave height ratio with respect to the incident waves at point A is obtained by combining
this value of 0.68 with a value of 1.0 representing the incident waves; since it is the energies that are added, the
wave height ratio becomes 1 + 0.68 2 = 1.21 . It should be noted, however, that this value of 1.21 represents
the mean value of the wave height ratio around the point A. It is not advisable to use this method for points
within 0.7 wavelengths of the detached breakwater, because the errors due to a phase coupling effect will be
large.
For the case of wave reflection by a semi-infinite breakwater, the virtual breakwater also becomes a semiinfinite breakwater in the opposite direction, and so the diffraction diagram for a semi-infinite breakwater is
used. When the reflection coefficient of the front face of the breakwater is less than 1.0 due to wave-absorbing
work for example, the diffraction coefficient should be multiplied by the reflection coefficient before being
used. For example, if the reflection coefficient of the detached breakwater is 0.4 in the previous example, the
wave height ratio at the point A becomes 1 + ( 0.4 0.68 ) 2 = 1.04 .
[2] Reflection Coefficient

Reflection coefficients shall be determined appropriately based on the results of field observations,
hydraulic model experiments, and past data.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Approximate Values for Reflection Coefficient
It is desirable to evaluate the value of reflection coefficient by means of field observations. However, when it is
difficult to carry out observation or when the structure in question has not yet been constructed, it is standard to
estimate reflection coefficient by referring to the results of hydraulic model experiments. In this case, it is
desirable to use irregular waves as the test waves. The method by Goda et al. 31) may be used for the analysis of
irregular wave test data.
-71-
The following is a list of approximate values for the reflection coefficients of several types of structures.
Upright wall:
0.7 ~ 1.0
(0.7 is for the case of a low crown with much overtopping)
Submerged upright breakwater:
0.5 ~ 0.7
Rubble mound:
0.3 ~ 0.6
Precast wave-dissipating concrete blocks: 0.3 ~ 0.5
Upright wave-absorbing structure:
0.3 ~ 0.6
Natural beach:
0.05 ~ 0.2
With the exception of the upright wall, the lower limits in the above ranges of reflection coefficient correspond
to the case of steep waves and the upper limits to waves with low steepness. It should be noted, however, that
with the upright wave-absorbing structure, the reflection coefficient varies with the wavelength, and the shape
and dimensions of the structure.
[3] Transformation of Waves at Concave Corners, near the Heads of Breakwaters, and around
Detached Breakwaters
Around the concave corners of structures, near the heads of breakwaters, and around detached
breakwaters, the wave height becomes larger than the normal value of standing waves owing to the effects
of diffraction and reflection. This increase in wave height shall be investigated thoroughly. Moreover, the
irregularity of waves shall be considered in the analysis.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Influence of Wave Irregularity
When the wave height distribution near a concave corner or the head of a breakwater is calculated for regular
waves, a distributional form with large undulations is obtained. However, when wave irregularity is incorporated
into the calculation, the undulated form of the distribution becomes smoothed out, excluding the region within
one wavelength of a concave corner, and the peak value of the wave height becomes smaller. Calculation using
regular waves thus overestimates the increase in the wave height around concave corners and the heads of
breakwaters.
(2) Graphs for Calculating Wave Height Distribution around a Concave Corner
Wave height distributions for irregular waves near a concave corner are shown in Fig. T- 4.5.10. This figure
exhibits the form of the distribution of the maximum value of the wave height, as obtained from numerical
calculations for each principal wave direction. It has been assumed that waves are completely reflected by the
breakwater. In the diagram, Kd is the ratio of the wave height at the front face of the main breakwater to the wave
height of the incident waves. The irregular waves used in the calculation has a spectral form with Smax = 75,
which implies a narrow directional spreading. The long dash-dot line in each graph shows the distribution of the
maximum value of the wave height at each point as obtained using an approximate calculation. The length l1 is
that of the main breakwater, l2 is that of the wing breakwater, and b is the angle between the main breakwater
and the wing breakwater. This figure may be used to calculate the wave height distribution near a concave
corner. When it is not easy to use the calculation program, the approximate calculation method may be used.
(3) Wave-Height-Reducing Effects of Wave-Absorbing Work
When a wave-absorbing work is installed in order to suppress the increase in wave height around a concave
corner and if the wave-absorbing work is such that the reflection coefficient of the breakwater becomes no more
than 0.4, it is quite acceptable to ignore the increase in wave height due to the presence of concave corner.
However, this is only the case when the wave-absorbing work extends along the whole of the breakwater. If the
breakwater is long, one cannot expect the wave-absorbing work to be very effective unless it is installed along
the entire length of the breakwater, because the effect of waves reflected from the wing breakwater extend even
to places at a considerable distance away from the concave corner. The same can be said for the influence of the
main breakwater on the wing breakwater.
-72-
Computer method
Approximate solution method
Computer method
Approximate solution method
Fig. T- 4.5.10 Distribution of the Maximum Value of the Wave Height around Concave Corner 32)
-73-
(4) Increase in Wave Height at the Head of a Breakwater

Near the head of a semi-infinite breakwater or those of
breakwaters at a harbor entrance (specifically within a
distance of one wavelength from the head), waves
diffracted by breakwaters exercise an effect of local wave
height increase over the normal standing wave heights.
Because the wave height distribution has an undulating
form even at the back face of a breakwater, it is necessary
to take heed of the fact that the difference in water level
between the inside and the outside of the breakwater
gives rise to a large wave force. Figure T- 4.5.11 shows
an example of the results of a calculation of the wave
force ratio (i.e., the ratio of the wave force to that of a
standing wave) near the head of a breakwater.
Wave force ratio
Irregular waves
Regular waves
Fig. T- 4.5.11 Wave Force Distribution along

a Semi-Infinite Breakwater 33)
Wave force ratio
(5) Increase in Wave Height around Detached Breakwater

Along a detached breakwater, waves with the height greater than that of normal standing waves are produced,
and the wave height distribution takes an undulating form even at the back face of the breakwater. This is due to
the effect of wave diffraction at the two ends of the breakwater 34). The wave force also becomes large due to the
difference between the water levels in the offshore and onshore sides of the breakwater. In particular, it is
necessary to take heed of the fact that, with a detached breakwater, the place where the maximum wave force is
generated can shift greatly with the wave direction and the ratio of the breakwater length to the wavelength.
Figure T- 4.5.12 shows an example of the results of a calculation of the wave force distribution along a detached
breakwater for unidirectional irregular waves. In this calculation, the wave direction for which the largest wave
force occurrs is a = 30 (i.e., not when the waves are normally incident to the breakwater, but rather when
obliquely incident with a relatively shallow angle).
60
75
90
45
=30
(m)
Fig. T- 4.5.12 Wave Force Distribution along a Detached Breakwater
4.5.5 Wave Shoaling

When waves propagate into shallow waters, shoaling shall be considered in addition to refraction and
diffraction. It shall be standard to consider the nonlinearity of waves when calculating the shoaling
coefficient.
[Commentary]
Shoaling is one of the important factors that lead to changing of the wave height in coastal waters. It exemplifies the
fact that the wave height in shallow waters is also governed by the water depth and the wave period. Figure T- 4.5.13
has been drawn up based on Shutos nonlinear long wave theory. It includes the linearized solution by the small
amplitude wave theory and enables the estimation of the shoaling coefficient from deep to shallow waters. In the
diagram, Ks is the shoaling coefficient, H0 is the equivalent deepwater wave height, H is the wave height at water
depth h, and L0 is the wavelength in deepwater.
-74-
2%
dec
ay
line
0
0
0
Fig. T- 4.5.13 Graph for Evaluation of Shoaling Coefficient
4.5.6 Wave Breaking

At places where the water depth is no more than about three times the equivalent deepwater wave height,
changing of the wave height due to wave breaking shall be considered. It shall be standard to consider the
irregularity of waves when calculating the change in the wave height due to wave breaking.
[Commentary]
After the height of waves has increased owing to shoaling, waves break at a certain water depth and the wave height
decreases rapidly. This phenomenon is called the wave breaking. It is an important factor to be considered when
determining the wave conditions exercising on maritime structures. For regular waves, the place at which waves
break is always the same: this is referred to as the wave breaking point. For irregular waves, the location of wave
breaking depends on the height and period of individual waves, and wave breaking thus occurs over a certain
distance: this area is referred to as the breaker zone.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Change in Wave Height Due to Wave Breaking
The change in wave height due to wave breaking may be determined using Figs. T- 4.5.14 (a) ~ (e) or Figs. T4.5.15 (a) ~ (e). These figures show the change in wave height for irregular waves as calculated by Goda 35), 44)
using a theoretical model of wave breaking. For the region to the right of the dash-dot line on each graph, the
change in wave height is calculated using the shoaling coefficient (see 4.5.5 Wave Shoaling). For the region to
the left of this dash-dot line, the change in wave height due to wave breaking dominates, and so the wave height
must be determined using this graph. As for the bottom slope, it is appropriate to use the mean bottom slope over
the region where the water depth to equivalent deepwater wave height ratio h/H0 is in the range of 1.5 to 2.5.
(2) Scope of Application of Graphs of Wave Height Change
At places where the water depth is no more than about one half of the equivalent deepwater wave height, a major
portion of wave energy is converted to the energy of oscillating flows rather than to that of water level
undulation. Therefore, when calculating the wave force acting on a structure in a very shallow water, it is
desirable to use the wave height at the place where the water depth is one half of the equivalent deepwater wave
height, if the facilities in question are highly important.
-75-
Bottom slope
Bottom slope
0
deca
y lin
deca
y lin
2%
2%
00
h / H '
Fig. T- 4.5.14 (a) Diagram of Significant Wave

Height in the Breaker Zone
for Bottom Slope of 1/10
Fig. T- 4.5.14 (b) Diagram of Significant Wave

Bottom slope
Bottom slope
0
0
ine
2%
dec
a
y li
dec
ne
ay l
2%
Fig. T- 4.5.14 (c) Diagram of Significant Wave

Fig. T- 4.5.14 (d) Diagram of Significant Wave

-76-
Bottom slope
Bottom slope
2% d
e
cay l
ine
0
0
ine
ay l
ec
%d
Fig. T- 4.5.14 (e) Diagram of Significant Wave

Fig. T- 4.5.15 (a) Diagram of Highest Wave

Bottom slope
Bottom slope
0
2% d
2% d
ecay
ecay
line
line
Fig. T- 4.5.15 (b) Diagram of Highes Wave

Fig. T- 4.5.15 (c) Diagram of Highest Wave

-77-
Bottom slope
Bottom slope
2%
deca
2% d
e
y lin
cay l
ine
Fig. T- 4.5.15 (d) Diagram of Highest Wave

Fig. T- 4.5.15 (e) Diagram of Highest Wave

(3) Approximate Calculation Formulas for Breaking Wave Height

Calculation of wave height changes based on a theoretical model for wave breaking generally requires use of a
computer. However, considering the variability of the phenomenon and the overall accuracy, it is acceptable to
calculate wave height changes using the following simple formula 35), 44):
H1 3 =
Ks H0
: h L0
0.2
min { ( b0 H 0 + b 1 h ), b max H 0 , K s H 0 } : h L 0 < 0.2
(4.5.21)
where
64748
b 0 = 0.028 ( H 0 L 0 ) 0.38 exp [ 20 ( tan q ) 1.5 ]

b 1 = 0.52 exp [ 4.2 tan q ]
b max = max { 0.92, 0.32 ( H 0 L 0
(4.5.22)
) 0.29 exp [ 2.4 tan q ] }
The shoaling coefficient Ks is determined using Fig. T- 4.5.13, the operators min{ } and max{ } take the
minimum and maximum value of the mulitiple quantities within the braces, respectively, and tanq is the bottom
slope.
Similarly, an approximate calculation formula for the highest wave height Hmax is given as follows:
H max =
1.8K s H 0
*
: h L0
0.2
*
min { ( b 0 H 0 + b 1 h ), b max H 0 , 1.8K s H 0 } : h L 0 < 0.2
(4.5.23)
where
64748
b*0 = 0.052 ( H 0 L 0 ) 0.38 exp [ 20 ( tan q ) 1.5 ]

b*1 = 0.63 exp [ 3.8 tan q ]
b*
max
(4.5.24)
= max { 1.65, 0.53 ( H 0 L 0 ) 0.29 exp [ 2.4 tan q ] }
(4) Graph for Calculating Breaking Wave Height 35)

If the maximum value (H1/3)peak of the significant wave height in the breaker zone is taken as representative of
the breaking wave height, then the breaker index curve becomes as shown in Fig. T- 4.5.16. If the water depth
(h1/3)peak at which the significant wave height is a maximum is taken as representative of the breaker depth, then
the graph for calculating the breaker depth becomes as shown in Fig. T- 4.5.17.
-78-
Note: (
1/3) peak is the water depth at
which
in the breaker zone
o
sl
1/3
1/3 is a maximum
to
of
1/3) peak is the maximum value
in the breaker zone
ot
Note: (
pe
o
B
o
tt
m
o
sl
p
e
0
Fig. T- 4.5.16 Diagram of Maximum Value

of the Significant
0
Fig. T- 4.5.17 Diagram of Water Depth at which

the Maximum Value of the Significant
Wave Height Occurs
(5) Breaking Wave Height Criterion for Regular Waves

Figure T- 4.5.18 shows the breaking wave height criterion for regular waves. This figure can be used to
calculate the breaking wave height criterion in hydraulic model experiments using regular waves. The curves in
the graph can be approximated with the following equation:
Hb
ph
------ = 0.17 1 exp 1.5 ------ ( 1 + 15 tan 4 3 q )
L
L0
0
(4.5.25)
where tanq denotes the bottom slope.

Figure T- 4.5.18 shows the limiting wave height at the point of first wave breaking. At places where the
water is shallow, the water depth increases owing to the wave setup caused by wave breaking. When estimating
the limiting wave height in the breaker zone, it is thus necessary to consider this increase in water level.
Bottom
slope
0
Fig. T- 4.5.18 Breaking Wave Height Criterion for Regular Waves
(6) Change in Wave Height at Reef Coasts

At reef coasts where shallow water and a flat sea bottom continue over a prolonged distance, the change in wave
height cannot be calculated directly using Figs. T- 4.5.14 and T- 4.5.15. Instead, the following empirical
equation may be used 36):
Hx
h + h
x
-------- = B exp A -------- + a --------------- H 0
H0
H0
(4.5.26)
-79-
where
H0 equivalent deepwater wave height
Hx significant wave height at a distance x from the tip of the reef
h water depth over the reef
h increase in the mean water level at a place sufficiently distant from the tip of the reef
The coefficients A and a are 0.05 and 0.33, respectively, according to the results of hydraulic model
experiments. However, it is advisable to use the following values that have been obtained from the data of field
observations.
H0
A = 0.089 ---------------- + 0.015
h + h
(4.5.27)
0.20 ( 4 m > H 0 2 m )
a =
0.33 ( H 0 4 m )
The coefficient B corresponds to the bottom slope at the front of the reef. Using Fig. T- 4.5.14, it is obtained
from the significant wave height Hx = 0 at water depth h as follows.
Hx = 0
h + h
B = -------------- a ---------------H0
H0
(4.5.28)
The term (h+ h )/H0 is given by

h + h
---------------- =
H0
3
C 0 1 + --- ba 2
(4.5.29)
where b = 0.56. From the continuity of the mean water level at the tip of the reef (x = 0), C0 is given by
hx = 0 + h 2 3 Hx = 0 2
C 0 = ----------------------- + --- b --------------
H0
8 H0
(4.5.30)
The term h x = 0 represents the rise in the mean water level at water depth h, which is controlled by the bottom
slope in front of the reef and wave steepness (see 4.7.1 Wave Setup).
The calculation method in the above has been derived under the assumption that the water depth h over the
reef is small and waves break over the reef. It is thus not possible to apply the method when the water is deep
and wave breaking does not occur.
Considering the breaking wave height criterion of a solitary wave, the highest wave height Hmax, x at the
distance x from the tip of the reef may be obtained as follows.
H max, x = min { 0.78 ( h + h x ), 1.8H x }
(4.5.31)
where min{a, b} is the smaller value of a or b, and h x is the rise in the mean water level at the distance x and is
given by the following equation:
hx + h
--------------- =
H0
3 Hx 2
C 0 --- b --------
8 H 0
(4.5.32)
4.6 Wave Runup, Overtopping, and Transmission

4.6.1 Wave Runup
Wave runup shall be calculated appropriately by taking into account the configuration and location of the
seawall and the sea bottom topgraphy.
[Commentary]
The phenomenon of wave runup is dependent upon a whole variety of factors, such as the wave characteristics, the
configuration and location of the seawall, and the sea bottom topography; thus the runup height varies in a complex
way. There are calculation diagrams and equations based on the results of past researches that may be used, although
they are applicable only under certain limited conditions. When the seawall and sea bottom are complex in form, it is
advisable to determine wave runup heights by carrying out hydraulic model experiments. When designing seawalls of
gently sloping type and the like, it is advisable to set the crown elevation of the seawall to be higher than the runup
height for regular waves. However, for irregular waves, depending on the wave height, overflow can occur, and so
-80-
ultimately the crown elevation and the form of the seawall are determined so as to make the quantity of overtopping
(see 4.6.2 Wave Overtopping) no more than a certain permissible value.
[Technical Notes]
The following is the description of methods for calculating the runup height over smooth impermeable slopes:
(1) Simple Cross Section
A simple cross section refers to the case in which a seawall (including an upright wall) having a front slope of
an uniform gradient a is located at a certain place (of water depth h) on the sea bottom with an almost uniform
gradient q.
(a) Region of standing waves
Takada has proposed the following equation for determining the runup height when the water depth h at the
foot of the levee is in the range where standing waves exist (i.e., deeper than the depth at the breaker line). He
dealt with two cases separately; i.e., the case where wave breaking does not occur on the front slope and the
case where such wave breaking does occur.
Firstly, according to Miches equation, the minimum angle of inclination of the slope ac for which wave
breaking does not occur is found as that satisfying the following condition:
2a c sin 2 a c
H0
--------- ---------------- = -------p
p
L0
(4.6.1)
Accordingly, when the angle of inclination of the slope is greater than ac, wave breaking does not occur over
the slope, in which case the runup height is given by the following equation:
hs
p
R
-------- = ------- + ------ 1 K s : a > a c
2a
H0
H1
(4.6.2)
where H0 is the equivalent deepwater wave height, Ks is the shoaling coefficient, H1 is the wave height at the
water depth at the foot of the slope, hs is the crest elevation, and R is the runup height.
Takada used the following equation for hs /H1,which assumes that there is good agreement between the
value from Miches standing wave theory and experimental data.
H1
1
3
h s H 1 = 1 + p ------ coth kh 1 + --------------------- -----------------------
L
4 sinh 2 kh 4 cosh 2 kh
(4.6.3)
When the angle of inclination of the slope is smaller than ac, wave breaking does occur on the front slope. In
this case, it is assumed that the runup height is proportional to tan2/3a, leading to the following equation:
cot a c 2 3
hs
p
:
R H 0 = --------- + ------ 1 Ks --------------
cot a
H1
2a c
a < ac
(4.6.4)
When the water depth is such that standing waves exist, the runup height can be calculated as above. The
maximum runup height occurs when a = ac, with the runup height decreasing both when the slope is more
steeply inclined than this and when it is more gently inclined.
(b) Region where the water is shallower than the breaker depth
Takada has given the runup height for regions where the water is sufficiently shallow for wave breaking to
occur as follows:
h
R H 0 = ( R max H 0 R 0 H 0 ) ----- + R 0 H 0
hR
(4.6.5)
where R0 is the runup height on the levee body at the shoreline (h = 0).
Based on the experimental results of Toyoshima et al., R0/H0 is given as follows:
0.18 ( H 0 L 0 ) 1 2 : Bottom slope 1/10
R H 0 = 0.075 ( H 0 L 0 ) 1 2 : Bottom slope 1/20

0.046 ( H L ) 1 2 : Bottom slope 1/30
0
0
(4.6.6)
The term hR in equation (4.6.5) is the water depth at the foot of the levee for which the runup height becomes
largest. It is estimated using Fig. T- 4.6.1, which shows the runup height for a vertical wall. The term LR in the
figure is the wavelength at water depth hR, while Rmax is the maximum runup height for the region where the
water depth is such that standing waves exist (i.e., the runup height when h = hR).
-81-
(2) Complex Cross Section

A complex cross section refers to the case where
the sea bottom topography and the configuration and
location of the seawall (on the whole) are as shown in
Fig. T- 4.6.2.
0
0
(a) When the cross section can be considered to be

complex, the runup height of the seawall is
obtained as follows (refer to Fig. T- 4.6.2) 37).
The wave breaking point B is determined from
the deepwater wave characteristics.
Next, the runup height R is assumed and the
point A is set at the maximum runup point. Then,
the points A and B are joined by a straight line,
Shoaling coefficient
and the gradient of this line yields the virtual
gradient cota.
The runup height for this virtual gradient is
calculated using Fig. T- 4.6.3, and the calculated Fig. T- 4.6.1 Graph for Estimating hR for a Vertical Wall
height is compared with the initially assumed
runup height. If the two do not agree, then a new
runup height is assumed, and the estimation are repeated (i.e., the new runup height is used to give a new
virtual gradient and so on). This iterative process is repeated until convergence is achieved.
The value so obtained is taken to be the runup height for the complex cross section in question.
0
(b) When the results obtained from this method are compared with actual experimental results for a complex cross
section, it is generally found that there is good agreement between the two, with the error usually being no
more than 10%. However, if the bottom slope is too gentle, the agreement between the two becomes poor, and
so this method should only be used when the bottom slope is steeper than 1/30.
(c) Figure T- 4.6.4 shows experimental results obtained for a bottom slope of 1/70. This figure provides a useful
reference when estimating the runup height for a complex cross section with a gentle bottom slope.
Maximum runup point

Wave breaking point
Actual cross section

Virtual gradient
Fig. T- 4.6.2 Complex Cross Section and Virtual Gradient
Fig. T- 4.6.3 Runup Height on a Slope

-82-
Fig. T- 4.6.4 Runup Height on a Seawall Located Closer to the Land than the Wave Breaking Point
(3) Oblique Wave Incidence

Figure T- 4.6.5 shows the relationship between the incident angle coefficient Kb and the angle b. Here, b is the
angle between the wave crest line of the incident waves and the centerline of the seawall, and the incident angle
coefficient Kb is the ratio of the runup height for angle b to the runup height when the waves are normally
incident (i.e., when b = 0). This figure can be used to estimate the effect of wave incident angle on the runup
height.
(4) Effects of Wave-Absorbing Work
The runup height can be significantly reduced when the front face of a seawall is completely covered with wavedissipating concrete blocks. Figure T- 4.6.6 shows an example. However, the effect of the concrete blocks
varies greatly according to the way in which they are laid, and so in general it is advisable to determine the runup
height by means of hydraulic model experiments.
(5) Estimation Errors
It is important to note that the curves for determining the runup height have been obtained by averaging
experimental data that show a large scatter. It should also be noted that actual wave runup will frequently
exceeds the design crown height because of wave irregularity when the crown height of a seawall is designed
against the significant waves, even if the scatter of the experimental data is not considered; in fact, in extreme
cases as many as about a half of the waves may exceed this height. Accordingly, the crown height of a seawall
should not be decided based purely on the runup height of regular waves; rather, it is necessary to give
consideration to the quantity of overtopping (see 4.6.2 Wave Overtopping).
Smooth surface
Holland
Surface covered with wave-dissipating

concrete blocks
(Former)
Russia
Fig. T- 4.6.5 Relationship between Wave Incident

Angle and Runup Height
(Full Lines: Experimental Values by
Public Works Research Institute,
Ministry of Construction)
Fig. T- 4.6.6 Reduction in Runup Height

Due to Wave-Absorbing Work
-83-
4.6.2 Wave Overtopping

For structures for which the quantity of overtopping is an important design factor, the overtopping quantity
shall be calculated by carrying out hydraulic model experiments or by using data from hydraulic model
experiments carried out in the past. In this case, wave irregularity shall be considered.
[Commentary]
The quantity of overtopping is the total volume of overtopped water. The rate of overtopping, on the other hand,
is the average volume of water overtopping in a unit time; it is obtained by dividing the quantity of overtopping by
the time duration of measurement. The quantity of overtopping and the rate of overtopping are generally expressed
per unit width.
If the quantity of overtopping is large, then not only there will be damage to the seawall body itself, but also
damage by flooding to the roads, houses and/or port and harbor facilities behind the levee or seawall, despite that the
levee or seawall is intended to protect them. There is further a risk to users of water frontage amenity facilities that
they may be drowned or injured. During design, it is necessary to make the quantity of overtopping no more than a
certain permissible value that has been determined in line with the characteristics of structures and the situation with
regard to their usage. Furthermore, when estimating the quantity of overtopping by means of experiments, it is
desirable to consider changes in tidal water level, i.e., to carry out experiments for different water levels.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Diagrams for Calculating the Rate of Overtopping 38)
For an upright or wave-absorbing seawall that has a simple form (i.e., that does not have anything like a toe
protection mound or a crown parapet), the rate of overtopping may be estimated using Figs. T- 4.6.7 ~ 4.6.10.
These graphs have been drawn up based on experiments employing irregular waves. From the results of a
comparison between the experiments and field observations, it is thought that the accuracy of the curves giving
the rate of overtopping is within the range listed in Table T- 4.6.1. The rate of overtopping for the waveabsorbing seawall has been obtained under the conditition that the lower armor layer at the crown consists of 2
rows of wave-dissipating concrete blocks.
Table T- 4.6.1 Estimated Range for the Actual Rate of Overtopping Relative to the Estimated Value
q ( 2 g ( H 0' ) 3 )
10-2
10-3
10-4
10-5
Upright seawall
0.7 ~ 1.5 times
0.4 ~ 2
0.2 ~ 3
0.1 ~ 5
Wave-absorbing seawall
0.5 ~ 2 times
0.2 ~ 3
0.1 ~ 5
0.05 ~ 10
Note that when obtaining rough estimates for the rate of overtopping for irregular waves using Figs. T- 4.6.7 ~
4.6.10, the following should be considered:
(a) If the actual values of the bottom slope and the deepwater wave steepness do not match any of the values on
the graphs, the graph for which the values most closely match should be used, or alternatively interpolation
should be carried out.
(b) The wave-dissipating concrete blocks in the figures are made up of two layers of tetrapods. If a different kind
of wave-dissipating concrete block is used, or if the same kind of wave-dissipating concrete block is used but
there are differences in the crown width, in the way in which the tetrapods are laid, or in the form of the toe,
then there is a risk that the actual rate of overtopping may considerably differ from the value obtained by the
figures.
(c) If the number of rows of concrete blocks at the crown is increased, the quantity of overtopping tends to
decrease 39).
(d) When there are difficulties in applying the graphs for estimating the rate of overtopping, the approximate
equation of Takayama et al. 40) may be used.
-84-
Fig. T- 4.6.7 Graphs for Estimating the Rate of Overtopping for an Upright Seawall (Bottom Slope 1/30)
-85-
Fig. T- 4.6.8 Graphs for Estimating the Rate of Overtopping for an Upright Seawall (Bottom Slope 1/10)
-86-
Co
nc
ret
eb
loc
nc
ret
eb
loc
Co
nc
ret
eb
loc
Co
0
0
Fig. T- 4.6.9 Graphs for Estimating the Rate of Overtopping for a Wave-Absorbing Seawall (Bottom Slope 1/30)
-87-
Co
nc
ret
eb
loc
Co
nc
ret
eb
loc
nc
ret
eb
loc
Co
Fig. T- 4.6.10 Graphs for Estimating the Rate of Overtopping for a Wave-Absorbing Seawall (Bottom Slope 1/10)
-88-
(2) Permissible Rate of Overtopping

The permissible rate of overtopping depends on factors such as the structural type of the seawall, the situation
with regard to land usage behind the seawall, and the capacity of drainage facilities; it must be set appropriately
in line with the individual situation. Although it is thus impossible to give one standard value for the permissible
rate of overtopping, Goda 41) nevertheless gave the values for the damage limit rate of overtopping as listed in
Table T- 4.6.2 based on past cases of disasters. Furthermore, Nagai et al. have considered the degree of
importance of the facilities behind the seawall and have come up with the values for the permissible rate of
overtopping as listed in Table T- 4.6.3, using the results of experiments with regular waves.
Table T- 4.6.2 Damage Limit Rate of Overtopping
Type
Rate of overtopping (m3/ms)
Covering
Revetment
Apron paved
Apron unpaved
0.2
0.05
Levee
Concrete on front slope, crown, and back slope

Concrete on front slope and crown, but no concrete on back
slope
Concrete on front slope only
0.05
0.02
0.005 or less
Table T- 4.6.3 Permissible Rate of Overtopping (m3/ms) as a Function of the Degree of Importance of the Hinterland
Areas where there is a high concentration of houses, public facilities etc.
behind the seawall, and so it is anticipated that flooding due to overtopping or
spray would cause particularly serious damage
About 0.01
Other important areas
About 0.02
Other areas
0.02 ~ 0.06
(3) Equivalent Crown Height Coefficient

The equivalent crown height coefficient can be used as a guideline when setting the quantity of overtopping for
a seawall upon which wave-dissipating concrete blocks are laid or for a seawall of wave-absorbing type with
vertical slits. The equivalent crown height coefficient is the ratio of the height of the seawall in question to the
height of an imaginary upright seawall that results in the same quantity of overtopping, where the conditions in
terms of waves and the sea bottom topography are taken to be the same for the both cases. If the equivalent
crown height coefficient is less than 1.0, this means that the crown of the seawall under study can be lowered
below that of an upright seawall and still give the same quantity of overtopping; in other words, the seawall
under study has a form that is effective in reducing the quantity of overtopping. Below are the reference values
for the equivalent crown height coefficient b for typical types of seawall.
Wave-absorbing seawall with concrete block mound 40): b = 0.9 ~ 0.7
Vertical-slit type seawall 40)
Parapet retreating type
Stepped
: b = 0.6
seawall 39)
: b = 1.0 ~ 0.5
seawall 39)
When the waves are obliquely incident 42)
: b = 1.7 ~ 1.0
1 sin 2 q
: q
30
:b =
1 sin 2 i 30 : q > 30
(q is the angle of incidence of the waves; it is 0 when
the waves are normally incident on the seawall)
(4) Effect of Winds on the Quantity of Overtopping

In general, winds have a relatively large effect on the quantity of overtopping when it is small, although there is
a lot of variation. However, the relative effect of winds decreases as the quantity of overtopping increases.
Figure T- 4.6.11 shows the results of an investigation on the wind effect on the quantity of overtopping based on
field observations. The abscissa shows the spatial gradient of the quantity of overtopping, while the ordinate
shows the quantity of overtopping per unit area. As can be seen from the figure, when the quantity of
overtopping is small, the larger the wind velocity, the smaller the spatial gradient of the quantity of overtopping
becomes. When the quantity of overtopping is large, the spatial gradient of the quantity of overtopping
increases. This shows that, when the quantity of overtopping is small, the distance over which a mass of water
splash strongly affected by the wind velocity, with a larger distance at a higher wind velocity; however, when the
quantity of overtopping is large, the difference in the splash distance becomes small.
(5) Overtopping of Multidirectional Random Waves
In waters where the multidirectionality of waves is well clarified, the rate of overtopping may be corrected in
line with Smax as in reference 42).
-89-
W
in
ve
lo
cit
Quantity of overtopping per unit area q
Gradient
Fig. T- 4.6.11 Wind Effect on Spatial Gradient of Wave Overtopping Quantity
4.6.3 Wave Transmission

It shall be standard to calculate the height of waves transmitted behind a breakwater by overtopping and/or
permeation through the core or the fundation mound of breakwater by referring to either the results of
hydraulic model experiments or the past data.
[Commentary]
It is necessary to appropriately estimate the transmitted wave height after waves have overtopped and/or passed
through a breakwater, because the transmitted waves affect the wave height distribution behind the breakwater.
Transmitted waves include waves that have overtopped and/or overflowed, as well as waves that have permeated
through a rubble mound breakwater or a foundation mound of composite breakwater. Recently, several breakwaters
have been built with caissons (which are originally not permeable) having through-holes in order to enhance the
exchange of the seawater within a harbor. In this case, it is necessary to examine the value of wave transmission
coefficient, because the coefficient serves as an indicator of the efficiency of the exchange of seawater.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Transmission Coefficient for a Composite Breakwater
Figure T- 4.6.12 may be used to calculate the height of waves that are transmitted into a harbor when they
overtop a composite breakwater or permeate through a foundation mound. Even when the waves are irregular,
the transmission coefficient agrees pretty well with that shown in Fig. T- 4.6.12. It has also been shown that Fig.
T- 4.6.12 is valid not only for the significant wave height, but also for the highest one-tenth wave height and the
mean wave height.
Fig. T- 4.6.12 Graph for Calculating the Wave Height Transmission Coefficient
-90-
(2) Period of Transmitted Waves for a Composite Breakwater

The period of the transmitted waves drops to about 50 ~ 80% of the corresponding incident wave period (this is
true both for the significant wave period and the mean period).
(3) Experimental Data on Other Types of Breakwater
For composite breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating concrete blocks, rubble mound breakwaters armored
with wave-dissipating concrete blocks, and other such breakwaters, experiments on the transmitted wave height
have been carried out by the Civil Engineering Research Institute of Hokkaido Development Bureau.
(4) Transmission Coefficient for Structures Other than Composite Breakwaters
(a) For a porous, water-permeable structure such as a rubble mound breakwater or a wave-dissipating concrete
block type breakwater, Kondos theoretical analysis may be referred to. The following empirical equation may
be used to obtain the transmission coefficient of a typical structure.
Stone breakwater: K T = 1 ( 1 + k t H L )
(4.6.7)
where kt=1.26 (B/d)0.67, B is the crown width of the structure, d is the depth from the water surface to the
ground surface of the structure, H is the height of incident waves, and L is the wavelength of transmitted
waves.
(b) For a curtain wall breakwater, the empirial solutions of Morihira et al. 43) may be used (see Part VII, 3.3.1
Curtain Wall Breakwater).
(c) For the transmission coefficient of an upright breakwater of permeable type that has slits in both the front and
rear walls, the experimental results are available.
(d) Types of breakwater aiming to promote the exchange of seawater include multiple-wing type permeable
breakwaters, multiple-vertical cylinder breakwaters, horizontal-plate type permeable breakwaters, and pipe
type breakwaters. The transmission coefficients of these types of breakwater have been obtained by hydraulic
model tests.
(5) Transmission Coefficient for a Submerged Breakwater
A submerged breakwater is usually made by piling up natural stones or crushed rock to form a mound, and then
covering the surface with concrete blocks to protect underlayers. For a submerged breakwater of crushed rock, a
graph showing the relationship between the crown height of the breakwater and the transmission coefficient is
available.
4.7 Wave Setup and Surf Beat

4.7.1 Wave Setup
When designing structures that will be placed within the breaker zone, it is desirable to consider the
phenomenon of wave setup as necessary, which occurs in the breaker zone owing to wave breaking as they
approach the coast.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Diagrams for Estimating the Amount of Wave Setup
The changes in the mean water level by random wave breaking on the bottom slopes of 1/100 and 1/10 as
calculated by Goda 35), 44) are shown in Figs. T- 4.7.1 and T- 4.7.2. The smaller the wave steepness (H0/L0,
where H0 is the equivalent deepwater wave height and L0 is the wavelength in deepwater ), the larger the rise of
mean water level becomes. Moreover, the steeper the bottom slope, the larger the rise of mean water level.
Figure T- 4.7.3 shows the rise of mean water level at the shoreline. The effects of wave steepness and bottom
slope on the rise of mean water level are clearly shown. When H0/L0 is in the range 0.01 ~ 0.05, with the
exception of very steep bottom slope, the rise of mean water level near the shoreline is of the order (0.1 ~
0.15)H0.
(2) Consideration of the Rise in Mean Water Level in Design
A rise of mean water level causes the wave breaking point to shift shoreward and the breaking wave height to
increase. The rise of in mean water level is thus important for the accurate calculation of the design wave height
in shallow waters.
-91-
0
0
Change in mean water level
Change in mean water level /H

0 0
/H
0 0
h /H0
h /H0
0
Fig. T- 4.7.1 Change in Mean Water Level

(Bottom Slope 1/10)
Fig. T- 4.7.2 Change in Mean Water Level

(Bottom Slope 1/100)
Risc in mean water level
z
rms
--------------------(h
)
rms 0
Near shoreline Offshore
Oarai
Niigata
Miyazaki
Wave steepness
Fig. T- 4.7.3 Rise in Mean Water Level

at the Shoreline
12
H
0
h
--------- 1 + ---------
H
0
0
0
Fig. T- 4.7.4 Ratio of Surf Beat Amplitude to

Deepwater Wave Amplitude
4.7.2 Surf Beat

In shallow waters, surf beat with the period of one to several minutes shall be investigated as necessary.
[Technical Notes]
Godas Formula for Estimating Surf Beat Amplitude
Based on the results of field observations of surf beat, Goda has proposed the following relationship 35), 44):
0.04 ( h rms ) 0
0.01H 0
z rms = ------------------------------------- = ------------------------------------H0
H0
h
h
-------- 1 + --------
-------- 1 + --------
L0
L0
H 0
H 0
(4.7.1)
-92-
where zrms is the root mean square amplitude of the surf beat wave profile, (hrms)0 is the root mean square
amplitude of the deepwater wave profile, H0 is the equivalent deepwater wave height, L0 is the wavelength in
deepwater, and h is the water depth.
This equation shows that the amplitude of the surf beat is proportional to the deepwater wave height, that it
falls as the water depth increases, and that it increases as the deepwater wave steepness H0/L0 decreases. Figure
T- 4.7.5 shows a comparison between the estimation by equation (4.7.1) and actual observation values.
4.8 Long-Period Waves and Seiche

With regard to long-period waves and seiche in harbors, field observations shall be carried out as far as
possible, and appropriate measures to control them shall be taken based on the results of these
observations.
[Commentary]
Water level fluctuations with the period between one and several minutes sometimes appear at observation points in
harbors and off the shore. Such fluctuations are called long-period waves. If the period of such long-period waves is
close to the natural period of oscillation of the vibration system made up of a vessel and its mooring ropes, the
phenomenon of resonance can give rise to a large surge motion even if the wave height is small, resulting in large
effects on the cargo handling efficiency of the port. If it is clear from observations that long-period waves of
significant wave height 10 ~ 15 cm or more frequently arise in a harbor, it is advisable to investigate either hard or
soft countermeasures.
When conspicuous water level fluctuations with the period several minutes or longer occur at an observation point
in a harbor, it can be assumed that the phenomenon of seiche is taking place. This phenomenon occurs when small
disturbances in water level generated by changes in air pressure out at sea are amplified by the resonant oscillations
of the harbor or bay. If the amplitude of such seiche becomes significantly large, inundation at the head of the bay or
reverse outflow from municipal drainage channels may occur. Also high current velocities may occur locally in a
harbor, resulting in breaking of the mooring ropes of small vessels. When drawing up a harbor plan, it is thus
desirable to give consideration to making the shape of the harbor to minimize the seiche motion as much as possible.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Threshold Height of Long-period Waves for Cargo
Handling Works
It is necessary to give due consideration to the fact
that long-period waves in front of a quaywall can
induce ship surging with the amplitude of several
meters through resonance. The threshold height of
long-period waves for smooth cargo handling works
depends on the factors such as the period of the longperiod waves, the dimensions of the vessel in
question, the mooring situation, and the loading
conditions. Nevertheless, according to field
observations carried out in places like Tomakomai
Bay 46), it corresponds to a significant wave height of
about 10 ~ 15 cm.
(2) Calculating the Propagation of Long-period Waves
It is desirable to calculate the propagation of longperiod waves into a harbor by setting up incident
wave boundary out at sea and then using either the
Boussinesq equation 29) or a calculation method that
uses long linear wave equations 47).
Observed spectrum
Approximate form of
standard spectrum
Fig. T- 4.8.1 Comparison between Standard Spectrum
(3) Standard Spectrum for Long-period Waves

with Long-period Components and
When there has been insufficient field observation
Observed Spectrum
data of long-period waves out at sea and the longperiod wave conditions that determine the design external forces have not been established, the standard
spectrum shown in reference 48) or its approximate expression may be used. Figure T- 4.8.1 shows a comparison
between an observed spectrum and an approximate form of the standard spectrum. The term al in the figure is a
parameter that represents the energy level of the long-period waves.
(4) Calculation Method for Seiche
See 6.5 Seiche for a calculation method for seiche.
-93-
4.9 Waves inside Harbors

4.9.1 Calmness and Disturbances
When evaluating the harbor calmness, the factors that give rise to disturbances in the harbor shall be set
appropriately.
[Commentary]
The problem of harbor calmness is extremely complex. It involves not only physical factors such as waves, winds,
vessel motions, and the wind- and wave-resistance of working machinery, but also the factors requiring human
judgement: the latter include the easiness of vessels entering and leaving a harbor, vessel refuge during stormy
weather, and the threshold conditions of works at sea. The harbor calmness is further related with the economic
factors, such as the efficiency of cargo handling works, the operating rate of vessels, and the cost of constructing the
various facilities required to improve the harbor calmness. The factors that lead to wave disturbances in harbors,
which form the basis of the criteria for determining the harbor calmness, include the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Waves penetrating through the harbor entrance

Transmission of waves into the harbor over breakwaters
Reflected waves
Long-period waves
Seiche
In large harbors, wind waves generated within the harbor may require attention, and the ship-generated waves by
larger vessels may cause troubles for small vessels.
4.9.2 Evaluation of Harbor Calmness

The harbor calmness shall be evaluated by considering individual wave components estimated separately
for respective factors that cause disturbances in the harbor.
[Technical Notes]
The following method may be used for evaluating the harbor calmness:
(1) To estimate the waves in the harbor, first establish the joint distribution of the height and direction of deepwater
waves.
(2) Next, calculate the wave transformations by refraction and breaking that takes place between the deepwater
wave observation and/or hindcasting point and the harbor entrance, using say the energy balance equation
method, and thus obtain the wave conditions at the harbor entrance.
(3) Obtain the wave height in the harbor, focusing mainly on diffraction and reflection. If necessary, carry out an
investigation on wave transmission at this time.
(4) The wave height in the harbor can be estimated by taking the squares of each of the diffracted wave height, the
reflected wave height and the transmitted wave height, adding the results, and then taking the square root. For
harbors where the effects of transmitted waves are relatively slight, the wave period in the harbor may be taken
to be the same as the period of the diffracted waves. Note that the wave height in the harbor should be
investigated for each wave direction for various classes of wave heights with the occurrence probability outside
the harbor.
(5) It is standard to express the occurrence rate of waves in a harbor as the percentage of the waves exceeding 0.5 m
or 1.0 m in height or in terms of the number of days. However, depending on the usage purpose, it is also
acceptable to take into consideration the exceedance probability for other wave height classes. The harbor
calmness is obtained by subtracting from 100% the occurrence probability (in percentage) that the wave height
in the harbor exceeds the threshold level for cargo handling works at the berth in question. It is not possible to
determine a value for the threshold wave height for cargo handling works that is valid universally; rather, it
depends on the purpose for which the wharf facilities are used, the dimensions of vessels, and the period and
direction of waves, etc. Nevertheless, a value of 0.5 to 1.0 m (significant wave height) may be used as a
reference value. However, it should be noted that the critical wave height for cargo handling is lower for waves
of long-periodicity such as swell 49), and so care is required when evaluating the net working rate for ports and
harbors that face out onto the open sea.
4.10 Ship Waves

In canals and navigation channels, it is desirable to examine the influence of waves generated by moving
vessels.
-94-
[Technical Notes]
(1) Pattern of Ship Waves as Viewed from Top
If ship waves are viewed from top, it appears as shown in Fig. T- 4.10.1. Specifically, it is composed of two
groups of waves. One group of waves spread out in a shape like (the Chinese character for 8) from a point
slightly ahead of the bow of the vessel. The other group of waves are behind the vessel and are such that the
wave crest is perpendicular to the vessels sailing line. The former waves are termed the divergent waves,
while the latter are termed the transverse waves. The divergent waves form concave curves; the closer to the
sailing line, the smaller the gap between waves. On the other hand, the transverse waves are approximately arcshaped, with the gap between waves being constant (i.e., independent of the distance from the sailing line). In
deep water, the area over which the ship waves extend is limited within the area bounded by the two cusplines
with the angles 1928' from the sailing line and starting from the origin (i.e., the point from which the cusp
lines diverge) lying somewhat in front of the bow of the vessel. The divergent waves cross the transverse waves
just inside the cusplines; this is where the wave height is largest. The wave steepness is smaller for the transverse
waves than for the divergent waves, implying that the transverse waves often cannot be discerned from an aerial
photograph.
Vessel's sailing line
Fig. T- 4.10.1 Plan View of Ship Waves
(2) Wavelength and Period of Ship Waves

The wavelength and period of ship waves differ for the divergent waves and the transverse waves, with the latter
having both a longer wavelength and a longer period. Amongst the divergent waves, the wavelength and period
are both longest for the first wave and then become progressively shorter.
(a) The wavelength of the transverse waves can be obtained by the numerical solution of the following equation,
which is derived from the condition that the celerity of the transverse waves must be the same as the velocity
at which the vessel is sailing forward.
gL t
2ph
------- tanh --------- = V 2 : (provided V < g h )
2p
Lt
(4.10.1)
where
Lt wavelength of transverse waves (m)
h water depth (m)
V sailing speed of vessel (m/s)
Note however that when the water is sufficiently deep, the wavelength of the transverse waves is given by the
following equation:
2p
L 0 = ------V 2 = 0.169V k2
(4.10.2)
g
where
L0 wavelength of transverse waves at places where the water is sufficiently deep (m)
Vk sailing speed of vessel (kt); Vk = 1.946V (m/s)
(b) The period of the transverse waves is equal to the period of progresseive waves with the wavelength Lt (or L0)
in water of depth h. It is given by equation (4.10.3) or (4.10.4).
Tt =
2p
2ph
2ph
------L t coth ---------- = T 0 coth ----------
Lt
Lt
g
(4.10.3)
2p
T 0 = ------V = 0.330V k
g
(4.10.4)
-95-
where
Tt period of transverse waves in water of depth h (s)
T0 period of transverse waves at places where the water is sufficiently deep (s)
(c) The wavelength and period of the divergent waves are given by equations (4.10.5) and (4.10.6), which are
derived from the condition that the component of the vessels speed in the direction of travel of the divergent
waves must be equal to the velocity of the divergent waves.
L d = L t cos 2 q
(4.10.5)
T d = T t cos q
(4.10.6)
where
Ld wavelength of divergent waves as measured in the direction of travel (m)
Td period of divergent waves (s)
q angle between the direction of travel of the divergent waves and the sailing line ()
Ratio of the period of the divergent waves

to that of the transverse waves Td / T0
Angle between the direction of travel of the divergent waves

and the sailing line q
According to Kelvins theory of wave generation at places where the water is sufficiently deep, the angle of
travel q of the divergent waves can be obtained as shown in Fig. T- 4.10.2, as a function of the position of the
place under study relative to the vessel. Note however that for actual vessels the minimum value of q is
generally about 40, and q is usually about 50 ~ 55 for the point on a particular divergent wave at which the
wave height is a maximum. Note also that, as shown in the illustration in the figure, the angle q directs the
location of the source point Q from where the divergent wave has been generated; a is the angle between the
cusp line and the sailing line.
Relative position of observation point
x / s
Fig. T- 4.10.2 Wave Direction and Period of
at Places Where the Water is Sufficiently Deep
(3) Shoaling Effect on Ship Waves

As common with water waves in general, ship waves are affected by the water depth, and their properties vary
when the water depth decreases relative to the wavelength of ship waves. This shoaling effect on ship waves
may be ignored if the following condition is satisfied:
V 0.7 gh
(4.10.7)
The critical water depth above which ship waves may be regarded as deepwater waves is calculated by equation
(4.10.7), as listed in Table T-4.10.1. As can be seen from this table, the waves generated by vessels in normal
conditions can generally be regarded as deepwater waves. Situations in which they must be regarded as shallow
water waves include the following cases: a high-speed ferry travels through relatively shallow waters, a
motorboat travels through shallow waters, and ship waves propagate into shallow waters. Note that ship waves
in shallow water have a longer wavelength and period than those generated by the vessel sailing in deep water at
the same speed.
-96-
Table T-4.10.1 Conditions under Which Ship Waves Can Be Regarded as Deepwater Waves
Speed of vessel
Vk (kt)
Water depth
h (m)
Period of transverse waves T0 (s)
5.0
1.4
1.7
7.5
3.1
2.5
10.0
5.5
3.3
12.5
8.6
4.1
15.0
12.4
5.0
17.5
16.9
5.8
20.0
22.0
6.6
25.0
34.4
8.3
30.0
49.6
9.9
(4) Height of Ship Waves

The Ship Wave Research Committee of the Japan Association for Preventing Maritime Accidents has proposed
the following equation for giving a rough estimate of the height of ship waves:
Ls 1 3
E HPW
-----------------------H 0 = ---------
100
1620L s V K
(4.10.8)
where
H0 characteristic wave height of ship waves (m), or the maximum wave height observed at a distance of
100 m from the sailing line when a vessel is sailing at its full-load cruising speed
Ls length of the vessel (m)
V K full-load cruising speed (kt)
EHPW wave-making power (W)
The wave-making power EHPW is calculated as follows.
E HPW = E HP E HPF
(4.10.9)
E HP = 0.6S HPm
(4.10.10)
1
E HPF = --- rSV 03 C F
2
(4.10.11)
S 2.5 L s
(4.10.12)
V0 Ls
C F = 0.075 log ---------- 2
n
where
SHPm
r0
V0
CF
n
(4.10.13)
continuous maximum shaft power (W)

density of seawater (kg/m3); r0 = 1030 (kg/m3)
full-load cruising speed (m/s); V0 = 0.514VK
frictional resistance coefficient
coefficient of kinematic viscosity of water (m2/s); n 1.2 10-6 (m2/s)
full-load displacement of vessel (m3)
Equation (4.10.8) has been obtained by assuming that the energy consumed through wave making resistance is
equal to the propagation energy of ship waves, while the values of the coefficients have been determined as
averages from the data from ship towing tank tests. The characteristic wave height H0 varies from vessel to
vessel, although for medium-sized and large vessels it is about 1.0 ~ 2.0 m. Tugboats sailing at full speed
produce relatively large waves.
It is considered that the wave height decays as s-1/3, where s is the distance of the observation point from the
sailing line. It is also considered that the wave height is proportional to the cube of the cruising speed of the
vessel. Accordingly:
100
H max = H 0 ---------
s
13
V 3
------k
V K
(4.10.14)
where
Hmaxmaximum height of ship waves at any chosen observation point (m)
sdistance from the observation point to the sailing line (m)
Vkactual cruising speed of the vessel (kt)
Equation (4.10.14) cannot be applied if s is too small; specifically, the approximate minimum value of s for
which equation (4.10.14) can be applied is either the vessel length Ls or 100 m, whichever is the smaller.
The upper limit of the height of ship waves occurs when the breaking criterion is satisfied; this criterion is
expresed as the steepness Hmax/Lt of the highest divergent wave being equal to 0.14. If the angle between the
wave direction and the sailing line is assumed to be q = 50 at the point on a divergent wave where the wave
height becomes largest, the upper limit of the wave height at any given point is given by equation (4.10.15). This
also assumes, however, that the conditions for deepwater waves are satisfied.
H limit = 0.010V k2
(4.10.15)
where
-97-
Hlimitupper limit of the height of ship waves as determined by the wave breaking conditions (m)
(5) Propagation of Ship Waves
(a) Among two groups of ship waves, the transverse waves propagate in the direction of vessels sailing line, and
continue to propagate even if the vessel changes course or stops. In this case, the waves have a typical nature
of regular waves (with the period being given by equation (4.10.3), and they propagate at the group velocity,
undergoing transformation such as refraction and others. Takeuchi and Nanasawa gave an example of such
transformations. Note however that as the waves propagate, the length of wave crest spreads out (the wave
crest gets longer), and even when the water is of uniform depth, the wave height decays in a manner inversely
proportional to the square root of the distance traveled.
(b) The direction of propagation of a divergent wave varies from point to point on the wave crest. According to
Kelvins theory of wave generation, the angle between the direction of propagation and the sailing line is q =
35.3 at the outer edge of a divergent wave. As one moves inwards along the wave crest, the value of q
approaches 90. The first
(c) arriving at a any particular point has the angle q = 35.3, while q getting gradually larger for subsequent
waves. This spatial change in the direction of propagation of the divergent waves can be estimated using Fig.
T- 4.10.2.
(d) The propagation velocity of a divergent wave at any point on the wave crest is the group velocity
corresponding to the period Td at that point (see equation (4.10.6)). In the illustration in Fig. T- 4.10.2, the
time needed for a component wave to propagate at the group velocity from the point Q at wave source to the
point P is equal to the time taken for the vessel to travel at the speed V from the point Q to the point O. Since
each wave profile propagates at the wave velocity (phase velocity), the waves appear to pass beyond the
cuspline and vanish one after the other at the outer edge of the divergent waves.
(6) Generation of Solitary Waves.
When a vessel sails through shallow waters, solitary waves are generated in front of the vessel if the cruising
speed Vk (m/s) approaches gh . Around the mouths of rivers, there is a possibility of small vessels being
affected by such solitary waves generated by other large vessels 50).
[References]
1) Dean, G. R.: Stream function wave theory and application, Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 1, Gulf
Pub., 1991, pp. 63-94.
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3) Goda, Y.: Wave forces on a vertical circular cylinder: Experiments and proposed method of wave force computation, Rept.
of PHRI, No. 8, 1964, 74 p.
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spectrum, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 230, 1975 (in Japanese).
5) Pierson, W. J. Jr., G. Neumann and R. W. James: Practical methods for observing and forecasting ocean waves by means of
wave spectra and statistics, U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office, Pub. No. 603, 1955.
6) Inoue, T.: On the growth of the spectra of a wind gererated sea according to a modified Miles-Phillips mechanism and its
application to wave forecasting, Geophysical Science Lab., TR-67-5, New York Univ., 1967, pp. 1-74.
7) Isozaki, I. and T. Uji: Numerical prediction of ocean wind waves, Papers of Meteorology and Geophysics, Vol. 24 No. 2,
1973, pp. 207-231.
8) Joseph, P. S., S. Kawai and Y. Toba: Ocean wave prediction by a hybrid model combination of single-parameterized wind
waves with spectrally treated swells, Sci. Rept. Tohoku Univ., Ser. 5, (Tohoku Geophys. Jour.), Vol. 28, No. 1, 1981.
9) Uji, T.: A coupled discrete wave model MRI-II, Jour. Oceanogr, Society of Japan, Vol. 40, 1985, pp. 303-313.
10) Gnther, H. et al: A hybrid parametrical wave prediction model, Jour. Geophys. Res., Vol. 84, 1979, pp. 5727-5738.
11) Takeshi SOEJIMA, Tomoharu TAKAHASHI: A comparison on wave hidcasting methods, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 210,
1975, pp. 1-24 (in Japanese).
12) Collins, J. I.: Prediction of shallow water wares, Jour. Geopyhs. Res., Vol. 77, No. 15, 1972, pp. 2693-2702.
13) Cavaleri, L. and P. H. Rizzoli: Wind wave prediction in shallow water: theory and applications, Jour. Geophys. Res., Vol. 86
No. C11, 1981, pp. 10961-10973.
14) Golding. B: A wave perdiction system for realtime sea state forecasting, Quat. Jour. Royal Meleorol. Soc., Vol. 109, 1983,
pp. 393-416.
15) Phillips, O. M.: On the generation of waves by turbulent wind, J. F. M., Vol. 2, 1957, pp. 417-445.
16) Miles, J. W.: On the generation of surface waves by shear flows, J. F. M., Vol. 6, 1959, pp. 568-582.
17) Hasselmann, K.: Weak-interaction of ocean waves, Basic Developments in Fluid Dynamics, Vol. 2, Academic Press Inc.,
New York., 1968.
18) Hasselmann, S and K. Hasselamann: Computations and parameterizations of the nonlinear energy transfer in a gravity wave
spectrum, Part I: A new method for efficient computations of the exact nonlinear transfer integral, J. Phys. Oceanogr., Vol.
15, 1985, pp. 1369-1377.
19) Sverdrup, H. U. and W. H. Munk: Wind Sea and Swell, Theory of Relations for Forecasting, U. S. Hydrographic Office,
Pub. No. 601, 1947.
20) Bretschneider, C. L.: The generation and decay of waves in deep water, Trans. A. G. U., Vol. 37, No. 3, 1952.
21) Wilson, B. W.: Numerical prediction of ocean waves in the North Atlantic for December 1959, Deut. Hydro. Zeit, Jahrg. 18,
Ht. 3. 1965.
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22) Saville. T.: The effect of fetch width on wave generation, Tech. Memo., B. E. B., No. 70.
23) Wilson, B. W.: Graphical approach to the forecasting of waves in moving fetches, Tech, Memo., B. E. B., No. 73, 1955.
24) Bretschneider. C. L.: Decay of ocean waves: Fundamentals of ocean engineering - Part 8b, Ocean Industry, 1968, pp. 4550.
25) Gringorten, I. I.: A plotting rule for extreme probability paper, J. Geophysical Res., Vol. 68 No. 3, 1963, pp. 813-814.
26) Petruaskas, C. and P. M. Aagaard: Extrapolation of historical storm data for estimating design wave heights, Preprints 2nd
OTC, No. 1190, 1970, pp. I-409-428.
27) Yoshiyuki ITO, Katsutoshi TANIMOTO, Shoichi YAMAMOTO: Wave height distribution in the region of ray crossing application of the numerical analysis method of wave propagation -, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 11, No. 3, 1972, pp. 87-110 (in
Japanese).
28) Tomotsuka TAKAYAMA, Naota IKEDA, Tetsuya HIRAISHI: Practical computation method of directional random wave
transformation, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 30, No. 1, 1991, pp. 21-67 (in Japanese).
29) Tetsuya HIRAISHI, Isao UEHARA, Yasumasa SUZUKI: Applicability of wave transformation model in boussinesq
equation, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 814, 1995, 22 p. (in Japanese).
30) Katsutoshi TANIMOTO, Katsutoshi KIMURA, Antonio Paulo dos Santos Pinto: Random wave forces and design wave
periods of composite breakwaters under the action of double peaked spectral waves, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 25, No. 2, 1986, pp.
3-25 (in Japanese).
31) Yoshimi GODA, Yasumasa SUZUKI, Yasuharu KISHIRA, Osamu KIKUCHI: Estimation of incident and reflected waves in
random wave experimen, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 248, 1976, 24 p. (in Japanese).
32) Koji KOBUNE, Mutsuo OSATO: A study of wave height distribution along a breakwater with a corner, Rept. of PHRI, Vol.
15, No. 2, 1976 (in Japanese).
33) Yoshiyuki ITO, Katsutoshi TANIMOTO: Meandering damages of composite type breakwaters, Tech. Note of PHRI, No.
112, 1971 (in Japanese).
34) Yoshimi GODA, Tomotsuka YOSHIMURA: Wave force computation for structures of large diameter, isolated in the
offshore, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1971 (in Japanese).
35) Yoshimi GODA: Deformation of irregular waves due to depth-controlled wave breaking Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 14, No. 3,
1975 (in Japanese).
36) Tomotsuka TAKAYAMA, Yutaka KAMIYAMA, Osamu KIKUCHI: Wave transformation on a reef , Tech. Note of PHRI,
No. 278, 1977, 32 p. (in Japanese).
37) Saville, T. Jr.: Wave run-up on composite slopes, Proc. 6th Conf. on Coastal Eng., 1958, pp. 691-699.
38) Yoshimi GODA, Yasuharu KISHIRA, Yutaka KAMIYAMA: Laboratory investigation on the overtopping rate of seawalls
by irregular waves, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 14, No. 4, 1975, pp. 3-44 (in Japanese).
39) Yoshimi GODA, Yasuharu KISHIRA: Experiments on irregular wave overtopping characteristics of low crest types, Tech.
Note of PHRI, No. 242, 1976, 28 p. (in Japanese).
40) Tomotsuka TAKAYAMA, Toshihiko NAGAI, Kazuhiko NISHIDA: Decrease of wave overtopping amount due to seawalls
of low crest types, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1982, pp. 151-205 (in Japanese).
41) Yoshimi GODA: Estimation of the rate of irregular wave overtopping of seawalls, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 9, No. 4, 1970, pp.
3-41 (in Japanese).
42) Tetsuya HIRAISHI, Norio MOCHIZUKI, Kazuo SATO, Haruhiro MARUYAMA, Tsuyoshi KANAZAWA, Tatsuya
MASUMOTO: Effect of wave directionality on overtopping at seawall, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 35, No. 1, 1996, pp. 39-64 (in
Japanese).
43) Michio MORIHIRA, Shusaku KAKIZAKI, Yoshimi GODA: Experimental investigation of a curtain-wall breakwater,
Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1964, pp. 1-27 (in Japanese).
44) Yoshimi Goda: Irregular wave deformation in the surf zone, Constal Engineering in Japan, JSCE, Vol. 18, 1975, pp. 13-26.
45) Kazumasa KATOH, Satoshi NAKAMURA, Naota IKEDA: Estimation of infragravity waves in consideration of wave
groups - An examination on basis of field observation at HORF -, Rep. of PHRI, Vol. 30, No. 1, 1991, pp. 137-163 (in
Japanese).
46) Tetsuya HIRAISHI, Atsuhiro TADOKORO, Hideyoshi FUJISAKU: Characteristics of long period waves observed in port,
Rept. of PHRI Vol. 35, No. 3, 1996, pp. 3-36 (in Japanese).
47) Tomotsuka TAKAYAMA, Tetsuya HIRAISHI: Amplification mechanism of harbor oscillation derived from field
observation and numerical simulation, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 636, 1988, 70 p. (in Japanese).
48) Tetsuya HIRAISHI, Tokuhiro TADOKORO, Shigenori TAMAKI, Junzo HASEGAWA: Standard frequency spectrum of
long-period waves for design of port and harbor facilities, porc. 44th Japanese Coastal Eng. Corof., 1997, pp. 246-250 (in
Japanese).
49) Shigeru UEDA, Satoru SHIRAISHI, Hiroyuki OSHIMA, Kohei ASANO: Allowable wave height and wharf operation
efficiency based on the oscillations of ships moored to quay walls, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 779, 1994, 44 p. (in Japanese).
50) Ertekin, R. C., W. C. Webster and J. V. Wehausen: Ship generated solitions, Proc. 15th Symp. Nav. Hydrodyn., 1985, pp.
347-364.
51) Yoshimi GODA: On the methodology of selecting design wave height, Proc. 21st Int. Conf. Coastal Eng., ASCE, 1988, pp.
899-913.
52) Yoshimi GODA and Koji KOBUNE: Distribution function fitting to storm waves, Proc. 22nd Int. Conf. Coastal Eng.,
ASCE, 1990, pp. 18-31.
53) Yoshimi GODA: Random Waves and Design of Maritime Structures (2nd Edition), World Scientific, Singapore, 2000,
Chapt. 11 (Statistical Analysis of Extreme Waves).
54) Yoshimi GODA: Statistical variability of sea state parameters as a function of wave spectrum, Coastal Engineering in
Japan, JSCE, Vol. 31, No. 1, 1988, pp. 39-52.
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Chapter 5 Wave Force

5.1 General (Notification Article 5, Clause 1)
The wave force acting on a structure shall be determined using appropriate hydraulic model experiments or
design methods described in 5.2 Wave Force Acting on Upright Wall, with the design waves determined
by the procedures described in Chapter 4 Waves.
[Commentary]
(1) Structure Type and Wave Forces
Wave forces can be generally classified by the type of structure as follows:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Wave force acting on a wall-type structure

Wave force acting on armor stones or concrete blocks
Wave force acting on submerged members
Wave force acting on structures near the water surface
The wave force is different for each type of structure. It is thus necessary to use an appropriate calculation
method in accordance with the structural type. For some types of structures with a few experiences of
construction, their wave forces have not been sufficiently elucidated, and therefore it is desirable to carry out
studies including hydraulic model experiments for such structures.
(2) Wave Irregularity and Wave Force
Sea waves are irregular with the wave height and period varying from wave to wave. Depending on the water
depth and the topography of the sea bottom, there may appear waves that have not broken, waves that are just
breaking, or waves that have already broken. When calculating the wave force, it is important to include the
waves that cause the severest effect on the structure. It is necessary to give sufficient consideration to wave
irregularity and to the characteristics of the wave force being produced in accordance with the type of structure.
In general, it may be assumed that the larger the wave height, the greater the wave force becomes. It is thus
acceptable to focus on the wave force of the highest wave among a train of irregular waves attacking the
structure. However, with regard to the stabilities of floating structures and cylindrical structures with small
rigidity, and those of concrete blocks or armor stones on the slope, it is desirable to consider the effect of the
successive action of the irregular waves.
(3) Calculation of Wave Force Using Hydraulic Model Experiments
When studying wave force using hydraulic model experiments, it is necessary to give sufficient consideration to
the failure process of the structure and to use an appropriate measurement method. It is also necessary to give
sufficient consideration to the irregularity of waves. In particular, when carrying out experiments using regular
waves, an investigation against the highest wave should be included.
5.2 Wave Force Acting on Upright Wall

5.2.1 General Considerations
The wave force acting on an upright wall varies with the wave conditions, as well as the tidal level, the
water depth, the sea bottom topography, the cross-sectional form of the structure, and the configuration of
the alignment of the structure. The wave force acting on an upright wall shall thus be calculated
appropriately while considering these items.
An upright wall on a steep seabed or a high mound is often subjected to a strong impulsive wave
breaking force, so that sufficient attention shall be paid to the conditions under which such a force is
generated when calculating the wave force.
[Commentary]
(1) Parameters Affecting Wave Force on an Upright Wall 1)
The major parameters that affect the wave force acting on an upright wall are the wave period, the wave height,
the wave direction, the water level, the water depth, the bottom slope, the water depth on and the berm width of
the mound, the crown height of upright wall, and the water depth at the base of upright wall. In addition, it is
also necessary to consider the effect of the wall alignment. The wave force on an upright wall with a concaved
alignment may be larger than that on an upright, straight wall of infinite length. Furthermore, if the front face of
upright wall is covered with a mound of wave-dissipating concrete blocks, the characteristics of these blocks and
the crown height and width of the mound will affect the wave force.
(2) Types of Wave Force
The wave force acting on an upright wall can be classified according to the type of waves as a standing wave
force, a breaking wave force, or a wave force due to a broken wave. It is considered that the wave force changes
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its type continuously with the variation in the offshore wave height. A standing wave force is produced by waves
whose height is small compared with the water depth, and the change in the wave pressure over time is gradual.
As the wave height increases, the wave force also increases. In general, the largest wave force is generated by
the waves breaking just a little off the upright wall. Accordingly, with the exception of very shallow water
conditions, the force exerted by waves breaking just in front of an upright wall is larger than the wave force by
higher waves that have already broken well. It is necessary to note that when breaking waves act on an upright
wall on a steep seabed, or on an upright wall set on a high mound (even if built on a gentle seabed), a very strong
impulsive breaking wave force may be generated.
5.2.2 Wave Forces of Standing and Breaking Waves

[1] Wave Force under Wave Crest (Notification Article 5, Clause 1, Number 1)
(1) Wave Pressure on the Front Face of an Upright Wall
Assuming a linear distribution of wave pressure with a maximum value p1 at the still water level, 0
at the height h* above the still water level, and p2 at the sea bottom, the wave pressure from the
bottom to the crown of the upright wall shall be calculated by the following equations:
h* = 0.75 ( 1 + cos b )l 1 H D
(5.2.1)
p 1 = 0.5 ( 1 + cos b ) ( a 1 l 1 + a 2 l 2 cos 2 b )r 0 g H D
(5.2.2)
p1
p 2 = ---------------------------------cosh ( 2 p h L )
p3 = a3 p1
where
h*
p1
p2
p3
r0
g
b
l1, l2
h
L
HD
(5.2.3)
(5.2.4)
height above still water level at which intensity of wave pressure is 0 (m)
intensity of wave pressure at still water level (kN/m2)
intensity of wave pressure at sea bottom (kN/m2)
intensity of wave pressure at toe of upright wall (kN/m2)
density of water (t/m3)
gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
angle between the line normal to the upright wall and the direction of wave approach.
The angle shall be reduced by 15, but the resultant angle shall be no less than 0. This
correction provides a safety margin against uncertainty in the wave direction.
wave pressure modification factors (1.0 is the standard value)
water depth in front of upright wall (m)
wavelength at water depth h used in calculation as specified in the item (3) below (m)
wave height used in calculation as specified in the item (3) below (m)
1 4 ph L
a 1 = 0.6 + --- ---------------------------------
2 sinh ( 4 p h L )
(5.2.5)
h b d H D 2 2d
x 2 = min -------------- ------- , -------
d HD
3h b
(5.2.6)
h
1
(5.2.7)
a 3 = 1 ---- 1 ----------------------------------
h
cosh ( 2 p h L )
where
hb water depth at an offshore distance of 5 times the significant wave height from the
upright wall (m)
d water depth at the crest of either the foot protection works or the mound armoring
units of whichever is higher (m)
h water depth at toe of upright wall (m)
min {a,b} smaller value of a or b
(2) Uplift beneath Upright Wall
The uplift acting on the bottom of an upright wall is described by a triangular distribution, with the
pressure intensity at the front toe pu given by the following equation and 0 at the rear toe.
p u = 0.5 ( 1 + cos b )a 1 a 3 l 3 r0 g H D
(5.2.8)
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where
pu uplift pressure acting at front toe of upright wall (kN/m2)
l3 uplift pressure modification factor (1.0 is the standard value)
(3) Wave Height and Wavelength Used in the Wave Pressure Calculation
The wave height HD and the wavelength L are the height and wavelength of the highest wave. The
wavelength of the highest wave is that corresponding to the significant wave period, while the
height of the highest wave is as follows:
(a) When the upright wall is located off the breaking zone:
678
HD = Hmax
(5.2.9)
Hmax = 1.8H1/3
where
Hmax highest wave height of incident waves at the water depth at the upright wall (m)
H1/3 significant wave height of incident waves at the water depth at the upright wall (m)
(b) When the upright wall is located within the breaking zone:
HD is the maximum wave height considering the breaking of irregular waves (m)
[Commentary]
It is standard to calculate the maximum horizontal wave force acting on an upright wall and the simultaneous uplift
pressure using the extended Goda equation.
The extended Goda pressure formula is that proposed by Goda and modified to include the effects of wave
direction and others. Its single-equation formula enables to calculate the wave force from the standing to breaking
wave conditions without making any abrupt transition. However, where the upright wall is located on a steep seabed,
or built on a high mound, and is subjected to a strong impulsive wave pressure due to breaking waves, the formula
may underestimate the wave force. It should therefore be carefully applied with consideration of the possibility of
occurrence of impulsive wave pressure due to breaking waves (see 5.2.3 Impulsive Pressure Due to Breaking
Waves).
The wave pressure given by the Goda formula takes the hydrostatic pressure at the still water condition as the
reference value. Any hydrostatic pressure difference between the offshore and onshore sides of the wall, if presents,
should be considered separately. Further, the equation is designed to examine the stability of the whole body of
vertical wall. When breaking wave actions exist, the equation does not necessarily express the local maximum wave
pressure at the respective positions; thus such should be considered during examination of the stress of structural
members.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Wave Pressure on the Front Face According to the Extended Goda Formula
Figure T- 5.2.1 illustrates the distribution of wave pressure acting on an upright section of a breakwater. The
correction to the incident wave angle b is exemplified in Fig. T- 5.2.2.
p
*
hc
d
h'
Buoyancy
Fig. T- 5.2.1 Wave Pressure Distribution Used in Design Calculation
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15
90
Pr
inc
ipa
ld
ire
c
tio
n
of
wa
v
Normal Line to the alignment
Fig. T- 5.2.2 Way of Obtaining the Incident Wave Angle b
(2) Highest Wave

In breakwater designs in general, it is necessary to evaluate the largest wave force that can be given by the Goda
formula using the highest wave. The appearance of the highest wave in an irregular wave group is probabilistic,
and so it is not possible to determine the highest wave explicitly. Nevertheless, after examination of the results
of applying the current method to breakwaters in the field, it has been made standard to use 1.8 times the
significant wave height as the height of the highest wave when the upright wall is located off the breaking zone.
It has also been made standard to use the wavelength corresponding to the significant wave period as the
wavelength of the highest wave.
In order to determine whether or not the highest wave is subject to wave breaking, the graphs for determining
the highest wave height (Fig. T- 4.5.15 (a)~(e) in 4.5.6 Wave Breaking) should be used by referring to the
location of the peak wave height in the zone in the onshore side of the 2% decay line. It is acceptable to consider
that the highest wave is not subject to wave breaking when the water is deeper than that at the peak height, but
that it is subject to wave breaking when the water is shallower than this. If the highest wave height is to be
obtained using the approximate equation (4.5.23) in 4.5.6 Wave Breaking, hb should be substituted as h in the
first term in the braces { } on the right-hand side of the equation.
If using a value other than 1.8 as the coefficient on the right-hand side of equation (5.2.9), it is necessary to
conduct sufficient investigations into the occurrence of the highest wave and then choose an appropriate value
(see 4.1.3 [2] Statistical Properties of Waves).
(3) Correction Factors l1, l2, l3
Equations (5.2.1) ~ (5.2.8) are the extended version of the Goda formula. It contains three correction factors so
that it can be applied to walls of different shapes and conditions. For an upright wall, the correction factors are of
course 1.0. The wave pressure acting on other types of wall such as a caisson covered with a mound of wavedissipating concrete blocks or a perforated-wall caisson may be expressed using the extended Goda formula with
appropriate correction factors (see 5.2.4 Wave Force on Upright Wall Covered with Wave-Dissipating
Concrete Blocks).
(4) Application of Other Theoretical and Calculation Equations
When the ratio of the wave height to the water depth is small and a standing wave force is obviously exerted on
a upright wall, a high-accuracy, standing wave theory may be applied. In this case, however, it is necessary to
give sufficient consideration to the irregularity of waves in the field, and to evaluate the force due to the highest
wave. Moreover, when the applicability can be verified based on past results for existing breakwaters, the
Sainflou formula 3) and the Hiroi formula may also be used for a design wave force calculation.
(5) Features and Application Limits of the Goda Formula
The first feature of the Goda formula is that the wave force from standing waves to breaking waves can be
evaluated continuously, including the effect of period. The parameter a1 given by equation (5.2.5) expresses the
effect of the period (strictly speaking h/L); it takes the limiting values of 1.1 for shallow water waves and 0.6 for
deepwater waves. The effect of period also appear when evaluating the maximum wave height to be used in the
calculation; for a constant deepwater wave height, the longer the period, the larger the maximum wave height in
the surf zone. Since the Goda formula incorporates the effect of period on the wave pressure as well as on the
maximum wave height, it is necessary to take sufficient care when determining the period in the design
conditions.
Another feature of the Goda formula is that the change in the wave force with the mound height and the
bottom slope is considered by means of the parameter a2. As can be seen from equation (5.2.6), as the mound
height is gradually increased from zero (i.e., d = h), a2 gradually increases from zero to its maximum value.
After reaching its maximum value, a2 then decreases until it reaches zero again when d = 0. The maximum
value of a2 is 1.1; combining this with the maximum value of a1 of 1.1, the intensity of the wave pressure p1 at
the still water level is given by 2.2r0gHD.
With regard to the effect of the bottom slope, hb within the equation for a2 is taken as the water depth at the
distance of 5 times the design significant wave height from the upright wall. Because of this artifice, a steep
bottom slope results in the same effect as having a high mound. The effect of the bottom slope also appear when
evaluating the maximum wave height to be used in the calculation. In the wave breaking zone, the steeper the
bottom slope, the larger the wave height, because the wave height used in the calculation is the maximum wave
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height at the a distance 5H1/3 offshore from the upright wall. The bottom slope thus has a strong influence on the
wave force, and so care must be taken when setting the bottom slope in the design conditions.
As explained above, the Goda formula considers the effects of the mound height and the bottom slope on the
wave pressure. Nevertheless, for an upright wall on a high mound or a steep sea bed, a large impulsive breaking
wave force may act, and under such conditions the Goda formula may underestimate the wave force. When
applying the Goda formula, it is thus necessary to pay attention to the risk of an impulsive breaking wave force
arising. In particular, with a high mound, it is necessary to consider not only a2 in equation (5.2.6) but also the
impulsive breaking wave force coefficient aI by Takahashi et al. (see 5.2.3 Impulsive Pressure Due to
Breaking Waves), and to use aI in place of a2 when aI is the larger of the two.
One more problem with the Goda formula concerns its applicability to extremely shallow waters, for
example near to the shoreline. The Goda formula cannot be applied accurately for broken waves. It is difficult,
however, to clearly define where the limit of applicability lies. For cases such as the wave force acting on an
upright wall near the shoreline, it is advisable to use other calculation equations together with the Goda formula.
(see 5.2.7 Wave Force on Upright Wall near Shoreline or on Shore).
(6) Modification of the Original Goda Formula for Wave Direction
Although results from a number of experiments on the effect of wave direction on the wave force are available,
there are still many points that are unclear. Traditionally, for standing waves, no correction has been made for
wave direction to the wave force. The effects of wave direction have been considered only for breaking waves,
by multiplying the wave force by cos2b, where b is the angle between the direction of wave approach and the
line normal to upright wall alignment. However, this has resulted in the irrational situation whereby the breaking
wave force is assumed to decrease as the wave angle b increases, reaching zero at the limiting value b = 90, and
yet standing waves are assumed to maintain as the perfect standing wave condition. One explanation is such that
because actual breakwaters are finite in extension, when the incident angle is large (i.e., oblique wave
incidence), it takes a considerably large distance from the tip of breakwater until the wave height becomes two
times the incident height. As b approaches to the limiting value of b = 90, the distance to the place where the
wave height becomes two fold tends to go to infinity. In other words, in this case, it is appropriate to consider
that the wave pressure of progressive waves acts on the upright wall. Considering these points and application to
breakwaters in the field, it has been decided to correct equation (5.2.2) for wave direction by multiplying a2
(which represents mound effects) with cos2b, and then multiplying the whole term by 0.5(1+cosb).
(7) Wave Force and Significant Wave Period for Waves Composed of Two Groups of Different Periods
Examples of two wave groups of different periods being superimposed are such a case that waves enter a bay
from the outer sea and another group of waves are generated within the bay by local winds. Another case is the
superposition of diffracted waves coming from the entrance of a harbor and waves transmitted by means of
overtopping. In such cases, the spectrum is bimodal (i.e., having two peaks), and there are actual cases of such
observations in the field. Tanimoto et al. 4) carried out experiments on the wave force acting on the upright
section of a composite breakwater by using waves with a bimodal spectrum, and verified that the Goda formula
can be applied even in such a case. They also proposed a method for calculating the significant wave period to
be used in the wave force calculation (see 4.5.4 Wave Reflection). If each frequency spectrum of the two wave
groups before superimposition can be considered to be a Bretschneider-Mitsuyasu type, the significant wave
period after superimposition may be obtained using the method by Tanimoto et al. Then this significant wave
period may be used in wave force calculation.
(8) Wave Force for Low Crested Upright Wall
According to results of model experiments, the stability of upright wall tends to increase as the crown height is
reduced. Nakata and Terauchi have proposed a method for calculating the wave force for a breakwater with a
low crown height. In the method, the horizontal wave pressure and the uplift pressure from the Goda formula are
multiplied by a modification factor lh, thus reducing the wave force.
(9) Wave Force for High Crested Upright Wall
When the crown of the upright wall is considerably higher than that for a normal breakwater, there will be no
overtopping, meaning that the wave force may be larger than that given by the Goda formula. Mizuno and
Sugimoto carried out experiments into the wave force acting on a breakwater with a high crown.
(10) Wave Force on Inclined Walls
When the wall is slightly inclined, the horizontal wave force is more-or-less the same as that for a perfectly
upright wall. However, it is necessary to consider the vertical component of the wave force acting on the
inclined surface, along with the reduction in uplift pressure and others. Tanimoto and Kimura 5) have carried out
experiments on the wave force for trapezoidal caisson walls, and have proposed a method for calculating the
wave force. For a caisson in which the upper part of the upright section is inclined (sloping-top caisson), the
horizontal wave force is reduced not only for the sloping part but also for the vertical part. It is also necessary to
consider the vertical component of the wave force for the sloping part for stability analysis of breakwaters.
Morihira et al. were the first to propose a method for calculating the wave force in such a case. Hosoyamada et
al. have come up with a method that is based on the approach by Morihira et al., but the method by Hosoyamada
is more general and can be applied for a wider variety of sloping-top caissons (see Part VII, 3.2.4 Sloping-Top
Caisson Breakwater).
-104-
(11) Uplift on a Caisson with a Footing

When a caisson has a footing, a wave force acts downwards on
the upper surface of the footing on the seaside, and an uplift
pressure of pu acts at the front toe, while the uplift pressure at the
rear toe is zero. Nevertheless, in general the resultant force is not
significantly different to that without the footing. It is thus
acceptable to ignore the footing, and to assume that the uplift
pressure has a triangular distribution as shown in Fig. T- 5.2.3,
with the uplift pressure pu at the front toe being given by equation
(5.2.8), and the uplift pressure at the rear toe being zero. If the
footing is extremely long, however, it is necessary to calculate the
uplift pressure appropriately, considering the change in the uplift
pressure pu at the front toe of the footing.
Fig. T- 5.2.3 Uplift Pressure When

There Is a Footing
(12) Wide Mound Berm in Front of the Upright Wall

The wave force acting on the upright wall of a composite breakwater varies not only with the mound height but
also with the berm width and the front slope of mound (see 5.2.3 Impulsive Pressure Due to Breaking Waves).
As explained, of these three factors, the Goda formula incorporates only the effect of the mound height.
Consequently, if the width and/or slope of the mound are considerably different from normal, it is advisable to
carry out studies using hydraulic model experiments. Note however that if the berm is sufficiently wide, it may
be considered as a part of the topography of the sea bottom. Even with the standard formula, if the width is more
than one half of the wavelength, it is thus standard to use the water depth on the mound for evaluation of both the
wave height and the wavelength to be used in the wave force calculation.
(13) Wave Force Acting on an Upright Wall Comprised of a Row of Vertical Cylinders
Nagai et al. and Hayashi et al. have carried out studies on the wave force acting on an upright wall comprised of
a row of cylinders (a pile breakwater). Through their researches, it has been verified that the wave force is not
greatly different from that acting on an upright wall with a flat face. It is thus acceptable to treat an upright wall
comprised of a row of cylinders as having a flat face and calculate the wave force using the Goda formula.
[2] Wave Force under Wave Trough (Notification Article 5, Clause 1, Number 2)
The negative wave force at the time of wave trough acting at a wall shall be calculated using either
appropriate hydraulic model experiments or an appropriate calculation formula.
[Commentary]
When the trough of a wave is acting at a wall, a negative wave force acts corresponding to the trough depth of the
water surface from the still water level. A negative wave force is the force directed seaward. It is necessary to note
that the negative wave force may be comparable in magnitude to a positive wave force when the water is deep and the
wavelength is short.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Negative Wave Pressure Distribution
The negative wave pressure acting on an upright wall at the wave trough can be approximately estimated as
shown in Fig. T- 5.2.4. Specifically, it can be assumed that a wave pressure acts toward the sea, with the
magnitude of this wave pressure being zero at the still water level and having a constant value of pn from a depth
0.5HD below the still water level right down to the toe of the wall. Here, pn is given as follows:
p n = 0.5r 0 gH D
where
pn intensity of wave pressure in constant
region (kN/m2)
r0 density of seawater (usually 1.03 t/m3)
g gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
HD wave height used in design calculation
(m)
(5.2.10)
Seaward
0.5
Shoreward
HD
In addition, the negative uplift pressure acting on the

bottom of the upright wall can be assumed to act as
shown in Fig. T- 5.2.4. Specifically, it can be
assumed that an uplift pressure acts downwards with
its intensity being pn (as given by equation (5.2.10))
T- 5.2.4 Negative Wave Pressure Distribution
at the front toe, zero at the rear toe, and having a
triangular distribution in-between. Incidentally, it is necessary to use the highest wave height as the wave height
HD used in the design calculation.
-105-
(2) Negative Wave Force by Finite Amplitude Wave Theory

Goda and Kakizaki 6) have carried out a wave force calculation based on the fourth order approximate solutions
of a finite amplitude standing wave theory, and presented calculation diagrams for negative wave pressure. It has
been verified that their calculation results agree well with experimental results. When the water is deep and
standing waves are clearly formed, it is acceptable to use the results of this finite amplitude standing wave
theory of higher order approximation. It should be noted that, for a deepwater breakwater, the negative wave
force at the wave trough may become larger than the positive wave force at the wave crest, and that the upright
wall may slide toward offshore.
5.2.3 Impulsive Pressure Due to Breaking Waves

(1) When it is apprehended that an impulsive pressure due to breaking waves may be generated, a study
including hydraulic model experiments shall be carried out as a general rule.
(2) It is desirable to avoid the adoption of cross-sectional forms and structure type that may induce the
generation of large impulsive pressure due to breaking waves. If a large impulsive pressure due to
breaking waves cannot be avoided, it is desirable to redesign the structure such that the wave force
will be reduced, for example by providing appropriate wave-absorbing works.
[Commentary]
An impulsive pressure is generated when the wave front of a breaking wave strikes a wall surface. It has been shown
from model experiments that under certain conditions the maximum wave pressure may rise as much as several tens
of times the hydrostatic pressure corresponding to the wave height (1.0r0 gHD). However, such a wave pressure acts
only locally and for a very short time, and even slight changes in conditions lead to marked reduction in the wave
pressure. Because of the impulsive nature of the wave force, the effects on stability and the stress in structural
elements vary according to the dynamic properties of the structure. Accordingly, when there is a risk of a large
impulsive pressure due to breaking waves being generated, it is necessary to take appropriate countermeasures by
understanding the conditions of the impulsive pressure generation and the wave force characteristics by means of
hydraulic model experiments.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Conditions of Impulsive Pressure Due to Breaking Waves
A whole variety of factors contribute to generation of an impulsive pressure due to breaking waves, and so it is
difficult to describe the conditions in general. Nevertheless, based on the results of a variety of experiments, it
can be said that an impulsive pressure is liable to occur in the following cases when the wave angle b is less than
20.
(a) Steep bottom slope
When the three conditions (the bottom slope is steeper than about 1/30; there are waves that break slightly off
the upright wall; and their equivalent deepwater wave steepness is less than 0.03) are satisfied simultaneously,
then an impulsive pressure is liable to be generated.
(b) High mound
Even if the bottom slope is gentle, the shape of the rubble mound may cause an impulsive pressure to be
generated. In this case, in addition to the wave conditions, the crown height, the berm width and the slope
gradient of the mound all play a part, and so it is hard to determine the conditions under which such an
impulsive pressure will be generated. In general, an impulsive pressure will be generated when the mound is
relatively high, the berm width is suitably wide or the slope gradient is gentle, and breaking waves form a
vertical wall of water at the slope or at the top of the mound 7). When the seabed slope is gentler than about
1 50 and the ratio of the depth of water above the top of the mound (including any armor work) to the water
depth above the seabed is greater than 0.6, it may be assumed that a large impulsive pressure will not be
generated.
(2) Countermeasures
If a large impulsive pressure due to breaking waves acts on an upright wall, the wave force can be greatly
reduced by sufficiently covering the front face with a mound of wave-dissipating concrete blocks. In particular,
with a high mound, a sufficient covering with wave-dissipating concrete blocks can stop the occurrence of the
impulsive pressure itself. In some cases the action of an impulsive pressure can also be avoided by using special
caissons such as perforated-wall caissons or sloping-top caissons 7). The wave direction also has a large effect on
the occurrence of an impulsive pressure, and therefore, one possible countermeasure is to ensure that the wave
direction is not perpendicular to the breakwater alignment.
(3) Investigating Wave Force Using Model Experiments
When investigating the wave force using hydraulic model experiments for the case that an impulsive pressure
due to breaking wave acts, it is necessary to give consideration to the response characteristics of the structure to
-106-
the impact force. It is better to study the stability of the upright wall as a whole by sliding tests, and to study the
strength of structural elements such as parapets by stress and strain measurements.
(4) Impulsive Pressure Due to Breaking Waves Acting on an Upright Wall on a Steep Seabed.
(a) Water depth that produce a maximum wave pressure and the mean intensity of wave pressure
Mitsuyasu 8), Hom-ma et al., Morihira et al. 9), Goda and Haranaka 10), Horikawa and Noguchi, and Fujisaki
and Sasada have all carried out studies on the impulsive pressure due to breaking waves acting on an upright
wall on a steeply sloping sea bottom. In particular, Mitsuyasu carried out a wide range of experiments using
regular waves whereby he studied the breaking wave force acting on an upright wall on uniform slopes of
gradient 1/50, 1/25, and 1/15 for a variety of water depths. He investigated the change in the total wave force
with the water depth at the location of the upright wall, and obtained an equation for calculating the water
depth hM at the upright wall for which the impulsive wave force is largest. When the Mitsuyasu equation is
rewritten in terms of the deepwater wavelength, it becomes as follows:
hM
------ =
H0
where
CM =
H0
L0
tanq
H 0 1 / 4
C M ------
L0
(5.2.11)
0.59 3.2 tan q

deepwater wave height (m)
deepwater wavelength (m)
gradient of uniform slope
(5.2.12)
Hom-ma, Horikawa and Hase have proposed a slightly different value for CM based on the results of
experiments with a gradient of 1/15 and other data. In any case, the impulsive wave pressure is largest when
the structure is located slightly shoreward of the wave breaking point for progressive waves.
Figure T- 5.2.5 shows the total wave force when the impulsive wave force is largest for a number of slope
gradients, as based on the results of Mitsuyasus experiments. In this figure, the mean intensity of the wave
pressure p has been obtained and then divided by r0gHD to make it dimensionless; it has then been plotted
against the deepwater wave steepness. It is possible to gain an understanding of the overall trend from this
figure. Specifically, it can be seen that the smaller the wave steepness, the larger the impulsive pressure is
generated. Also, as the slope gradient becomes smaller, the intensity of the maximum impulsive pressure
decreases.
(b) Conditions for generation of impulsive breaking wave pressure
The conditions for the occurrence of an
impulsive pressure on a steep seabed, as
described in (1) (a), have been set by primarily employing Fig. T- 5.2.5 as a gross
guideline. For irregular waves in the sea,
the wave steepness can be evaluated as the
ratio of the equivalent deepwater wave
height corresponding to the highest wave
height Hmax to the deepwater wavelength
corresponding to the significant wave
period: the wave height Hmax is to be evaluated at the distance 5H1/3 from the upright
wall. One may refer to Fig. T- 5.2.5 in
order to obtain an approximate estimate of
Fig. T- 5.2.5 Mean Intensity of Wave Pressure
the mean intensity of the wave pressure for
for the Severest Wave Breaking
this equivalent deepwater wave steepness.
(Upright Wall on a Steep Slope)
In this case, Hb should be taken to be the
aforementioned Hmax.
One can also envisage an installation of a breakwater at a place where the risk of impulsive pressure
generation is not large for the design waves. However, when placing an upright wall closer to the shore where
waves already broken act upon, it becomes important to carry out investigations for waves with a height lesser
than that of the design waves.
(c) Impulsive wave force acting on an upright wall on a horizontal floor adjoining a steep slope
Takahashi et al. 11) have carried out studies on the impulsive wave pressure acting on an upright wall on a
horizontal floor that is joined to a steep slope. They employed a horizontal berm connected to a slope of
gradient 1/10 or 3/100 in a wave channel, and then measured the wave pressure that acts on an upright wall at
a variety of positions with regular waves. They have proposed an equation (valid for certain wave conditions)
for calculating the upright wall position at which the wave force is largest and the maximum wave force in that
condition.
-107-
(5) Impulsive Wave Pressure Acting on a Composite Breakwater

(a) Effect of the mound shape (impulsive breaking wave pressure coefficient)
Takahashi et al. have proposed, based on the results of sliding experiments 7), the impulsive breaking wave
pressure coefficient aI. This is a coefficient that represents the extent of the impulsive pressure due to
breaking waves when the mound is high. It is expressed as the function of the ratio of the wave height to the
depth of water above the mound in front of the caisson H/d, the ratio of the depth of water above the mound to
the original water depth at the upright wall d/h, and the ratio of the berm width of the mound to the wavelength
at this place BM/L. Note that the wave height H is the design wave height (highest wave height).
The impulsive breaking wave pressure coefficient aI is expressed as the product of aI0 and aI1 as in the
following equations:
a I = a I0 a I1
(5.2.13)
2
H d : H d
a I0 =
: Hd>2
2
(5.2.14)
Figure T- 5.2.6 shows the distribution of aI1.

It attains the maximum value of 1 when d/h
is 0.4 and BM /L is 0.12. The impulsive breaking wave pressure coefficient aI takes values
between 0 and 2; the larger the value of aI,
the larger the impulsive breaking wave force
is. When calculating the wave force using
Godas formula, one should use aI in place of
a2 (equation (5.2.6)) if aI is larger than a2.
Note that equation (5.2.13) for aI has been
derived for the case of H/h being equal to
0.60 or greater, based on the results of sliding
experiments. This coefficient aI may be used
when examining the sliding of an upright
wall against the waves of relatively large
height.
1.0
I1
0.1
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.9
0.6
hd
h
0.4
0.0
(b) Effect of the crown height of the upright wall

The higher the crown height, the greater the
risk of an impulsive breaking wave force
being generated. This is because the steep
front of a breaking wave often takes a nearly
vertical cliff of water above the still water
level, and if there is an upright wall at this
place, the impact of the wave front results in
the generation of an impulsive force. For
example, Mizuno et al. have pointed out the
tendency that, when the crown is high, an
impulsive breaking wave force is generated
even when the mound is relatively low.
0.2
I0
I0
BH
I1
H:H
d d
H
2 :
d
< 2
=
> 2
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
BM
L
Fig. T- 5.2.6 Impulsive Breaking Wave
Pressure Coefficient aI1
(c) Effect of the wave direction

According to the results of the sliding experiments of Tanimoto et al. 7), even if conditions are such that a large
impulsive pressure is generated when the wave angle b is 0, there is a rapid drop in the magnitude of the wave
force as b increases to 30 or 45. By considering the fluctuation in the wave direction, it is reasonable to
assume that the condition for the generation of an impulsive wave force is that b is less than 20.
(d) Dynamic response of the upright section to an impulsive force and the sliding of upright section
When an impulsive pressure due to breaking waves acts on an upright section, the instantaneous local pressure
can rise up to several tens of times the hydrostatic pressure corresponding to the wave height, although the
duration time of the impulsive pressure is very short. The impulsive peak pressures fluctuate significantly, but
the fluctuations in the impulse are not large. It is necessary to evaluate the contribution of the impulsive
breaking wave force to sliding in terms of the dynamic response, considering deformation of the mound and
the subsoil. Goda 12) as well as Takahashi and Shimosako, have carried out calculations of the shear force at
the bottom of an upright section using dynamic models. Judging by the results of these calculations and the
results of various sliding experiments, it would seem reasonable to take the mean intensity of the wave
pressure equivalent to the sliding shear force to be (2.5 ~ 3.0) r0gH. The impulsive breaking wave pressure
coefficient aI has been introduced, based on the results of sliding experiments with consideration of such
dynamic response effects.
-108-
5.2.4 Wave Force on Upright Wall Covered with Wave-Dissipating Concrete Blocks
The wave force acting on an upright wall covered with a mound of wave-dissipating concrete blocks shall
be evaluated based on hydraulic model experiments or an appropriate calculation equation, considering the
crown height and width of the wave-absorbing work as well as the characteristics of the wave-dissipating
concrete blocks.
[Commentary]
If the front face of an upright wall is covered with a mound of wave-dissipating precast concrete blocks, the features
of wave force acting on the wall are changed. The extent of this change depends on the characteristics of incident
waves, along with the crown height and width of the wave-absorbing work, the type of wave-dissipating concrete
blocks used, and the composition of the wave-absorbing work. In general, when nonbreaking waves act on an upright
wall, the change in wave force upon the upright wall covered with wave-dissipating blocks is not large. However,
when a large impulsive breaking wave force acts, the wave force can be reduced significantly by covering the upright
wall with a mound of wave-dissipating blocks. Nevertheless, such a reduction in the wave force is only achieved
when the wave-absorbing work has a sufficient width and crown height; in particular, it should be noted that if the top
of the wave-absorbing work is below the design water level, the wave-absorbing work often invites an increase in the
wave force.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Wave Force Calculation Formula for Upright Wall Sufficiently Covered with Wave-Dissipating Concrete Blocks
The wave force acting on an upright wall covered with a mound of wave-dissipating concrete blocks varies
depending on the composition of the wave-absorbing work, and therefore it should be evaluated using the results
of model experiments corresponding to the design conditions. However, if the crown elevation of the waveabsorbing work is as high as the top of the upright wall and the wave-dissipating concrete blocks are sufficiently
stable against the wave actions, the wave force acting on the upright wall may be calculated using the extended
Goda formula. In this method with the standard formula given in 5.2.2 Wave Forces of Standing and Breaking
Waves, the values of h*, p1, and pu given by equations (5.2.1), (5.2.2), and (5.2.8) are used respectively, but it is
necessary to assign appropriate values to the wave pressure modification factors l1, l2, and l3 in accordance
with the design conditions.
(2) Modification Factors for the Extended Goda Formula
The method using the extended Goda formula can be applied by assigning appropriate values to the modification
factors l1, l2, and l3. Studies have been carried out by Tanimoto et al. 13), Takahashi et al. 14), Sekino and
Kakuno, and Tanaka and Abe amongst others and have revealed the following:
(a) Wave-dissipating concrete blocks cause a considerable reduction in the breaking wave pressure, and so it is
generally acceptable to set the breaking wave pressure modification factor l2 to zero.
(b) The larger the wave height, the smaller the modification factor l1 for standing wave type pressure and the
modification factor l3 for uplift pressure become.
(c) The larger the ratio of the block mound width to the wavelength, the smaller the modification factors l1 and l3
become.
(d) If even a small portion of the upper part of the upright section is left uncovered, there is a risk of the wave
force here becoming an impulsive breaking force.
678
Based on such experimental results, Takahashi et al. 14) have summarized that in general, when the upright wall
is sufficiently covered with wave-dissipating concrete blocks, the wave pressure reduction factor l2 may be
taken to be zero, while the values of l1 and l3 depend primarily on the wave height H (the highest wave height).
They have thus proposed the following equations:
l1 =
1.0
1.2 - (2/3)(H/h)
0.8
: H/h 0.3
: 0.3 H/h 0.6
: H/h 0.6
l3 = l1
l2 = 0
(5.2.15)
(5.2.16)
(5.2.17)
In the breaker zone, where breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating concrete blocks are generally used, the
above equations give l1 = l3 = 0.8.
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5.2.5 Effect of Alignment of Breakwater on Wave Force

In the case when the distribution of wave heights along the face line of a breakwater is not uniform, the
wave force shall be calculated by giving appropriate consideration to this aspect of wave height
distribution.
[Commentary]
When the extension of breakwater is not infinitely long, the distribution of the wave height along the face line of
breakwater becomes non-uniform due to the effects of wave reflection and diffraction. Ito and Tanimoto 16) have
pointed out that most damaged breakwaters having been struck by storm waves equivalent to design waves show a
pattern of meandering distribution of sliding distance (they have termed this meandering damage), and that one of
the causes of this type of damage is the differences in the local wave forces induced by the non-uniform wave height
distribution. The variation of wave heights along the breakwater is particularly prominent when the breakwater
alignment contains a corner that is concave with respect to the direction of wave incidence (see 4.5.4 [3]
Transformation of Waves at Concave Corners, near the Heads of Breakwaters, and around Detached Breakwaters).
Variations in wave heights along the breakwater alignment may also occur near the head of the breakwater. In
particular, for a detached breakwater that extends over a short length only, diffracted waves from the two ends may
cause large variations in wave heights 17).
[Technical Notes]
Wave force calculation methods that consider the effects of the shape of the breakwater alignment have not reached to
the level of reasonable reliability yet. It is thus desirable to carry out an investigation using hydraulic model
experiments. Nevertheless, there is a good correlation between the increase in the wave height owing to the shape of
the breakwater alignment and the increase in the wave force. It is thus acceptable to increase the wave height for the
design calculations in accordance with the extent of the effect of the shape of the breakwater alignment as in equation
(5.2.18), and then calculate the wave force based on the standard calculation formula.
HD = min {KcHD, KcbHb}
(5.2.18)
where
HD wave height to be used in the wave force calculation in consideration of the effect of the shape of breakwater
alignment (m)
Kc coefficient for the increase in wave height due to the effect of the shape of breakwater alignment; Kc 1.0
Kcb 1.4
Kcb limit value of the height increase coefficient for breaking limit waves;
HD wave height used in the wave force calculation when the effects of the shape of breakwater alignment are
not considered (m)
Hb breaking wave height at the offshore location with the distance of 5 times the significant height of
progressive waves from the upright wall (m)
The height increase coefficient Kc in equation (5.2.18) is generally expressed as in equation (5.2.19). It should be
appropriately determined based on the distribution of the standing wave height (see 4.5.4 [3] Transformation of
Waves at Concave Corners, near the Heads of Breakwaters, and around Detached Breakwaters) along the face
line of breakwater as determined under the condition that the waves do not break.
Kc = HS / {HI (1 + KR)}
(5.2.19)
where
HS standing wave height along the front wall of breakwater (m)
HI incident wave height (m)
KR reflection coefficient for the breakwater in question
If the waves are treated as being of regular trains, then the coefficient for wave height increase varies considerably
along the breakwater. Moreover, the height increase coefficient is very sensitive to the period of the incident waves
and the direction of incidence. It is thus reasonable to consider the irregularity of the period and the direction of
incident wave. It should be noted that the value of Kc obtained in this way varies along the breakwater and that there
may be regions where Kc < 1.0. However, the wave height to be used in design must not be less than the original
incident wave height.
The limit value Kcb of the height increase coefficient for breaking waves has not been clarified in details.
Nevertheless, it may be considered to be about 1.4 based on experimental results up to the present time.
5.2.6 Effect of Abrupt Change in Water Depth on Wave Force

For an upright wall located in a place where the water depth changes abruptly owing to the presence of
reefs and others, it is desirable to calculate the wave force acting on the upright wall based on hydraulic
model experiments, by taking the rapid transformation of waves into consideration.
-110-
[Technical Notes]
Ito et al. 18) have carried out experiments on the wave force acting on an upright wall located on or behind a reef
where the water depth is more-or-less uniform, with the offshore slope of the shoal having a gradient of about 1/10.
5.2.7 Wave Force on Upright Wall near Shoreline or on Shore

[1] Wave Force at the Seaward Side of Shoreline
It is desirable to calculate the wave force acting on an upright wall in shallow water near the shoreline
based on hydraulic model experiments, considering the effects of water level changes due to surf beat etc.
and the complex processes of random wave breaking.
[Technical Notes]
A number of different wave force formulas have been proposed for upright walls near the shoreline and on shore. It is
necessary to carry out an appropriate wave force calculation in line with the design conditions. Very roughly
speaking, the standard formula in 5.2.2 Wave Forces of Standing and Breaking Waves are applicable in the regions
where the seabed slope is gentle and the water is relatively deep. The formula of Tominaga and Kutsumi is applicable
in the regions near the shoreline. The formula of Hom-ma, Horikawa and Hase is applicable in the regions where the
seabed slope is steep and the water is of intermediate depth.
When applying the standard wave pressure formula to the places where the water depth is less than one half the
equivalent deepwater wave height, it may be appropriate to use the values for the wavelength and wave height at the
water depth equal to one half the equivalent deepwater wave height in the calculation.
[2] Wave Force at the Landward Side of Shoreline

It is desirable to calculate the wave force on an upright wall situated on the landward side of the shoreline
based on hydraulic model experiments, considering increases in the water level due to surf beat and wave
setup as well as wave runup.
[Technical Notes]
For an upright wall situated on the landward side of the shoreline, the formulas by the US Army Coastal Engineering
Research Center (CERC) 19) are available. Moreover, one may refer to the research that has been carried out by
Tominaga and Kutsumi on the wave force acting on an upright wall situated on the landward side of the shoreline.
5.2.8 Wave Force on Upright Wave-Absorbing Caisson

The wave force acting on an upright wave-absorbing caisson shall be calculated based on hydraulic model
experiments or appropriate calculation formulas, considering changes in the wave force due to the
structure of the wave-absorbing compartment.
[Commentary]
The wave force acting on an upright wave-absorbing caisson (perforated-wall caisson etc.) varies in a complex way.
Specifically, it varies with the wave characteristics, the water level, the water depth, the topography of sea bottom and
the shape of the mound as with the case of a normal upright wall, but it also varies with the structure of the waveabsorbing compartment. It is thus difficult to designate a general calculation method that can be used in all cases.
Consequently, if the calculation method that is sufficiently reliable for the structure in question has not been
proposed, it is necessary to carry out studies using hydraulic model experiments matched to the individual conditions.
It is necessary to sufficiently investigate not only the wave force to be used in the stability investigation but also the
wave force acting on structural members. Moreover, it should be noted that the wave force varies significantly
according to whether or not the top of wave chamber is covered with a ceiling slab.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Wave Force without a Ceiling Slab in the Wave Chamber
The wave force acting on an upright wave-absorbing caisson varies depending on the structural conditions of the
wave-absorbing compartment, and so it is not possible to calculate this wave force for all general cases involved.
Nevertheless, for the normal case where there is no ceiling slab in the wave chamber, one can use the extended
Goda formula to calculate the wave force, provided necessary modifications are made. Takahashi et al. 20) have
carried out experiments on a vertical-slit wall caisson, and have presented a method for calculating the wave
pressure acting on the slit and rear walls for four representative phases, whereby the wave pressure given by the
extended Goda formula is multiplied by a modification factor l for the vertical-slit wall caisson; they give
specific values for the modification factor for the slit and rear walls for each phase. This method can be used to
-111-
give not only the wave force that is severest in terms of the sliding or overturning of the caisson, but also the
wave force that is severest in terms of the design of the elements for each wall.
(2) Wave Force with a Ceiling Slab in the Wave Chamber
When the top of the wave chamber is closed off with provision of a ceiling slab, an impulsive pressure is
generated at the instant when the air layer in the upper part of the wave chamber is trapped in by the rise of water
surface. It is thus necessary to give consideration to this impulsive pressure in particular with regard to the wave
pressure used in design of structural elements. This impulsive pressure can be reduced by providing suitable air
holes. However, it should be noted that if these air holes are too large, the rising water surface will directly hit
the ceiling slab without air cushion, meaning that the wave force may actually increase 22), 23).
5.3 Mass of Armor Stones and Concrete Blocks

5.3.1 Armor Units on Slope (Notification Article 48, Clause 5)
It shall be standard to calculate the mass of rubble stones or concrete blocks necessary to cover the front
slope of a sloping structure that is subject to wave forces, by means of appropriate hydraulic model
experiments or the following equation:
rr H 3
M = --------------------------3
NS ( S r 1 ) 3
where
M minimum mass of rubble stones or concrete blocks (t)
rr density of rubble stones or concrete blocks (t/m3)
H wave height used in the stability calculation (m)
NS stability number
Sr specific gravity of rubble stones or concrete blocks relative to sea water
(5.3.1)
[Commentary]
The armor layer for the slope of a rubble mound breakwater protects the rubble stones in the inside, and so it is
necessary to ensure that an armor unit has a mass sufficient to be stable against wave actions so that it does not scatter
itself. The mass required to produce such stability can be calculated using a suitable calculation formula. For
example, for the armor units on the slope of a rubble mound breakwater, the required mass was calculated in the past
by Hudsons formula with an appropriate coefficient (KD value), but recently it has become common to use Hudsons
formula with a stability number. The latter is more general in that it can also be applied to other cases, such as the
armor units on the mound of a composite breakwater.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Hudsons Formula
The required mass of armor units on a slope can be expressed using the Hudson formula with a stability number
(this is also referred to as the generalized Hudson formula) 24) (see equation (5.3.1)).
(2) Stability Number and Nominal Diameter
The stability number directly corresponds to the necessary size (nominal diameter) of the armor stones or
concrete blocks for a given wave height. In other words, by introducing the nominal diameter Dn = (M/rr)1/3 and
the term D = Sr - 1 and substituting them into equation (5.3.1), the following relatively simple equation is
obtained:
H/(DDn) = NS
(5.3.2)
It can be seen that the nominal diameter is proportional to the wave height with the constant of proportionality
being 1/DNS.
(3) Design Wave Height
The Hudson formula was proposed based on the results of experiments that used regular waves. When applying
it to the action of actual waves (which are irregular), there is thus a problem of which defcinition of wave heights
should be used. However, with structures that are made of rubble stones or concrete blocks, there is a tendency
for damage to occur not when one single wave having the maximum height H among an irregular wave train
attacks the armor layer, but rather for damage to progress gradually under the continuous action of waves of
various heights. Considering this fact and past experiences, it has been decided to make it standard to use the
significant wave height of incident waves at the place where the slope is located as the wave height H in
equation (5.3.1), because the significant wave height is representative of the overall scale of an irregular wave
train. Consequently, it is also standard to use the significant wave height when using the generalized Hudson
formula. Note however that for places where the water depth is less than one half the equivalent deepwater wave
height, the significant wave height at the water depth equal to one half the equivalent deepwater wave height
should be used.
-112-
(4) Parameters Affecting the Stability Number

As shown in equation (5.3.1), the required mass of armor stones or concrete blocks varies with the wave height
and the density of the armor units, and also the stability number NS. The NS value is a coefficient that represents
the effects of the characteristics of structure, those of armor units, wave characteristics and other factors on the
stability. The main factors that influence the NS value are as follows.
(a) Characteristics of the structure
Type of structure (rubble mound breakwater, breakwater covered with wave-dissipating concrete blocks,
composite breakwater, etc.)

Gradient of the armored slope
Position of armor units (breakwater head, breakwater trunk, position relative to still water level, front face
and top of slope, back face, berm, etc.)

Crown height and width, and shape of superstructure
Inner layer (its coefficient of permeability, thickness, and degree of surface roughness)
(b) Characteristics of the armor units

Shape of armor units (shape of armor stones or concrete blocks; for armor stones, their diameter
distribution)
Placement of armor units (number of layers, regular laying or random placement, etc.)
Strength of armor material
(c) Wave characteristics

Number of waves acting on armor layers
Wave steepness
Form of sea bottom (bottom slope, existence of reef, etc.)
Ratio of wave height to water depth (as indices of nonbreaking or breaking wave condition, breaker type,
etc.)
Wave direction, wave spectrum, wave grouping characteristics
(d) Extent of damage (damage rate, damage level, relative damage)

Consequently, the NS value used in design must be determined appropriately based on hydraulic model
experiments in line with the respective design conditions. By comparing the results of regular wave experiments
with those of irregular wave experiments, it was found that the ratio of the height of regular waves to the
significant height of irregular waves that gave the same damage ratio (within the error of 10%) varied in the
range of 1.0 to 2.0 (depending on the conditions). In other words, there was a tendency for the irregular wave
action to be more destructive than the action of regular waves. It is thus better to employ irregular waves in
experiments.
(5) Stability number NS and KD value
In 1959, Hudson published the so-called Hudson formula 24), replacing the previous Iribarren-Hudson formula.
Hudson developed equation (5.3.1) by himself using K D cot a instead of NS, i.e.
N S3 = K D cot a
(5.3.3)
where
a angle of the slope from the horizontal line ()
KD constant determined primarily by the shape of the armor units and the damage ratio
The Hudson formula was based on the results of a wide range of model experiments and has proved itself well in
usage in the prototype design. In the past, this formula (i.e., the one using the KD value) has thus been used in the
calculation of the required mass of armor units on a slope.
However, the generalized Hudson formula that uses the stability number (equation (5.3.1)) has been used for
quite a while for calculating the required mass of armor units on the mound of a composite breakwater (to be
discussed later), and is also used for the armor units of other structures such as submerged breakwaters. It is thus
now more commonly used than the old formula with the KD value, and so the generalized Hudson formula with
the stability number can be considered as being the standard equation for calculating the required mass of armor
units on a slope.
The stability number NS can be derived from the KD value and the angle a of the slope from the horizontal
line by using equation (5.3.3.) There is no problem with this process if the KD value is an established one and the
slope angle is within a range of normal design. However, most of the KD values obtained up to the present time
have not sufficiently incorporated various factors like the characteristics of the structure and the waves. Thus,
this method of determining the stability number NS from the KD value cannot be guaranteed to yield economical
design always. In order to calculate more reasonable values for the required mass, it is thus desirable to use the
results of experiments matched to the conditions in question, or else to use calculation formulas (calculation
diagrams) that include the various relevant factors as described below.
-113-
(6) Van der Meers Formula for Armor Stones

In 1987, van der Meer carried out systematic experiments concerning the armor stones on the slope of a rubble
mound breakwater with a high crown. He proposed the following calculation formula for the stability number,
which considers not only the slope gradient, but also the wave steepness, the number of waves, and the damage
level 25). Note however that the following formula has been slightly altered in comparison with van der Meers
original one in order to make calculations easier. For example, the wave height H2% for which the probability of
exceedance is 2% has been replaced by H1/20.
NS = max {Nspl, Nssr}
Nspl = 6.2CHP 0.18 (S 0.2 / N 0.1) Ir- 0.5
Nssr = CHP-0.13 (S 0.2 / N 0.1) (cota)0.5IrP
where
Nspl
Nssr
Ir
Som
L0
T1/3
CH
H1/3
H1/20
a
Dn50
M50
P
S
A
N
(5.3.4)
(5.3.5)
(5.3.6)
stability number for plunging breakers

stability number for surging breaker
Iribarren number (tan a/Som0.5) (also called the surf similarity parameter)
wave steepness (H1/3/L0)
deepwater wavelength (L0 = gT1/32/2p, g = 9.81m/s2)
significant wave period
modification factor due to wave breaking [=1.4 / (H1/20/H1/3) ]
(=1.0 in the region where wave breaking does not occur)
significant wave height
highest one-twentieth wave height (see Fig. T- 5.3.1)
angle of slope from the horizontal line ()
nominal diameter of armor stone (=(M50/rr)1/3)
50% value of the mass distribution curve of an armor stone (required mass of an armor stone)
permeability coefficient of the inner layer (see Fig. T- 5.3.2)
deformation level (S = A / Dn502) (see Table T- 5.3.1)
erosion area of cross section (see Fig. T- 5.3.3)
number of waves (in storm duration)
The wave height H1/20 in Fig. T- 5.3.1 is for a point at a distance 5H1/3 from the breakwater, and H0 is the
equivalent deepwater wave height.
The deformation level S is an index that represents the amount of deformation of the armor stones, and it is a
kind of damage ratio. It is defined as the result of the area A eroded by waves (see Fig. T- 5.3.3) being divided
by the square of the nominal diameter Dn50 of the armor stones. As shown in Table T- 5.3.1, three stages are
defined with regard to the deformation level of the armor stones: initial damage, intermediate damage, and
failure. With the standard design, it is common to use the deformation level for initial damage for N = 1000
waves. However, with design where a certain amount of deformation is permitted, usage of the value for
intermediate damage can also be envisaged.
Table T- 5.3.1 Deformation Level S for Each Failure Stage for a Two-layered Armor
Slope
Initial damage
Intermediate damage
1 : 1.5
1:2
1:3
1:4
1:6
2
2
2
3
3
35
46
69
8 12
8 12
Failure
8
8
12
17
17
(7) Stability Number for Armor Concrete Units of Rubble Mound Breakwater
Van der Meer has carried out model experiments on several kinds of precast concrete blocks, and proposed the
formulas for calculating the stability number NS 26). In addition, other people are also proceeding with research
into establishing calculation formulas for precast concrete blocks. For example, Burcharth and Liu 27) have
proposed a calculation formula. However, it should be noted that these are based on the results of experiments
for a rubble mound breakwater with a high crown.
(8) Stability Number for Concrete Units of the Wave-Dissipating Block Mound in Front of Upright Walls (horizontallycomposite breakwater)
The wave-dissipating concrete block mound of a horizontally-composite breakwater may have various crosssectional forms. In particular, when all the front face of an upright wall is covered by wave-dissipating concrete
blocks, the stability is higher than for the normal case of armor concrete units covering a rubble mound
breakwater because the permeability is high. In Japan, much research has been carried out on the stability of
breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating concrete blocks. For example, Tanimoto et al. 28), Kajima et al., and
Hanzawa et al. have carried out systematic research on the stability of wave-absorbing concrete blocks. In
addition, Takahashi et al. 29) have proposed the following equation for wave-dissipating concrete blocks that are
randomly placed in the mound covering the whole of upright wall.
-114-
Sea Bottom slope
1/100
Sea Bottom slope
1/50
Sea Bottom slope
1/30
H0/L0
H0 : Equivalent deepwater
wave height
h/H0
Fig. T- 5.3.1 Ratio of H1/20 to H1/3 (H1/20 Values are at
a Distance 5H1/3 from the Breakwater)
able
erme
er
or lay
layer
Imp
Arm
Filter layer
yer
or la
Arm ter layer
Fil
Area of eroded part

r
r laye
Armo Core
Fig. T- 5.3.3 Erosion Area A
r laye
Armo
No filter, no core
Nominal diameter of armor stones

Nominal diameter of filter material
Nominal diameter of core material
Fig. T- 5.3.2 Permeability Coefficient P
-115-
N S = C H { a ( N 0 N 0.5 ) 0.2 + b }
(5.3.7)
where
N0 relative damage (a kind of damage ratio that represents the extent of damage: it is defined as the
number of concrete blocks that have moved within a width Dn in the direction of the breakwater
alignment, where Dn is the nominal diameter of the concrete blocks: Dn = (M/rr)1/3, where M is the
mass of a concrete block)
CH modification factor due to wave breaking; CH = 1.4 / (H1/20 / H1/3) (in the region where wave breaking
does not occur, H1/20 / H1/3 = 1.4, and so CH = 1.0)
a, b coefficients that depend on the shape of the concrete blocks and the slope angle (for concrete blocks
with the KD value of 8.3, a = 2.32 and b = 1.33, if cot a = 4/3; a = 2.32 and b = 1.42, if cot a = 1.5)
Takahashi et al. 29) have further presented a method for calculating the cumulative relative damage (the expected
relative damage) over the lifetime of a breakwater. In the future, reliability design methods that consider the
expected relative damage will become important in the advanced design methodology.
In the region where wave breaking does not occur, if the number of waves is 1000 and the relative damage
N0 is 0.3, the design mass as calculated using the method of Takahashi et al. is more-or-less the same as that
calculated using the KD value in the past. The value of N0 = 0.3 corresponds to the conventionally-used damage
ratio of 1%.
(9) Breakwater Head
Waves attack the head of a breakwater from a whole angle of directions, and there is a greater risk of the armor
units on the top of the slope falling not so much forward but rather toward the rear side. Stones or concrete
blocks to be used at the head of a breakwater must thus have a mass greater than the value given by equation
(5.3.1). Hudson suggested to raise the mass by 10% in the case of stones and 30% in the case of concrete blocks.
However, it is thought to be insufficient. It would be desirable to use the mass at least 1.5 times the value given
by equation (5.3.1) for both stones and concrete blocks.
(10) Submerged Armor Units
Since the action of waves on a rubble mound breakwater is weaker midwater than around the waterline, stones
or concrete blocks of reduced mass may be used at depths more than 1.5H1/3 below the still water level.
(11) Effect of Wave Direction
The extent to which the incident wave angle affects the stability of the armor stones has not been investigated
sufficiently. Nevertheless, according to the results of experiments carried out by van de Kreeke 30) in which the
wave angle was changed between 0 (i.e., direction of incidence is perpendicular to the breakwater alignment),
30, 45, 60 and 90, the damage ratio for a wave direction of 45 or smaller is more-or-less the same as that
when the wave direction is 0; when the wave direction is more than 60, the damage ratio drops. Based on these
results, it is considered that when the wave angle b (see Fig. T- 5.2.2 in 5.2.2 [1] Wave Force under Wave
Crest) is 45 or less, the minimum mass should not be corrected for wave direction. Moreover, Christensen et
al. 31) have shown that the stability increases when the directional spreading of random waves is large.
(12) Integrity of Concrete Blocks
With a precast concrete block, it is necessary not only to ensure that the block has a mass sufficient to be stable
against the design waves, but also to confirm that the block itself has sufficient structural strength.
(13) Armor Units in Reef Area
In general, a reef rises up at a steep slope from the relatively deep sea, and forms a relatively flat and shallow sea
bottom. Consequently, when a large wave arrives at such a reef, it breaks around the tip of the reef, and then the
regenerated waves propagate over the reef in the form of surge. The characteristics of waves over a reef are
strongly dependent on not only the incident wave conditions but also the water depth over the reef and the
distance from the tip of the reef. The stability of wave-dissipating concrete blocks situated on a reef also varies
greatly for the same reasons, making the situation more complicated than that in general cases. The stability of
wave-dissipating concrete blocks situated on a reef must thus be investigated based either on model experiments
matching the conditions in question or on field experiences for sites having similar conditions.
(14) Armor Units of Low Crest Breakwater
For a rubble mound breakwater with a low crown, it is necessary to note that the concrete blocks around its
crown (in particular on the shoreward side) are easily damaged. For example, for detached breakwater composed
of wave-dissipating concrete blocks, unlike a caisson breakwater covered with wave-dissipating concrete
blocks, there is no supporting wall at the back and the crown is not high. This means that the concrete blocks
near the crown (in particular at the rear) are easily damaged, and indeed such cases of block damage have been
reported.
(15) Effect of Steep Slope Bed
When the bottom slope is steep and waves break in plunging form, a large wave force may act on concrete
blocks, subject to their shapes. It is thus necessary to carry out appropriate investigations while considering the
possibility of large wave force (see Takeda et al.).
-116-
(16) High-density Blocks

The minimum mass of blocks that are made of high-density aggregate may also be determined using the Hudson
formula with the stability number (equation (5.3.1)). As shown by the equation, high-density blocks have a high
stability, so a stable armor layer can be made using relatively small blocks of high density.
(17) Effect of Placement
The stability of wave-dissipating concrete blocks also varies with the method of placement (random placement
or regular placement etc.). According to the results of experiments carried out to compare the random placement
over the whole cross section and that of regular two-layer placement upon a stone core, the stability of the
regular placement with well-interlocking was markedly improved for most of the cases tested. Moreover, the
stability is also affected by the crown height and width of the mound of wave-dissipating concrete blocks.
According to the results of a number of experiments, for example, there is a tendency of greater stability when
the crown is high and wide.
(18) Standard Method of Hydraulic Model Experiments
The stability of concrete blocks is influenced by a very large number of factors, and so it has still not been
sufficiently elucidated. This means that it is necessary to carry out studies using model experiments for the
design of prototype breakwaters, and it is needed to progressively accumulate the results of such experiments.
The following points should be noted when carrying out studies using model experiments.
(a) It is standard to carry out experiments using irregular waves.
(b) For each particular set of conditions, the experiment should be repeated at least three times (i.e., with three
different wave trains). However, when experiments are carried out by systematically varying the mass and
other factors and a large amount of data can be acquired, one run for each test condition will suffice.
(c) It is standard to study the action of 1000 waves in total of three runs for each wave height level. Even for the
systematic experiments, it is desirable to apply more than 500 waves or so.
(d) For the description of the extent of damage, in addition to the damage ratio which has been commonly used in
the past, the deformation level or the degree of damage may also be used. The deformation level is suitable
when it is difficult to count the number of armor stones or concrete blocks that have moved, while the degree
of damage is suitable when one wishes to represent the damage to wave-dissipating concrete blocks. The
damage ratio is the ratio of the number of damaged armor units in an inspection area to the total number of
armor units in the same inspection area. The inspection area is taken from the elevation of wave runup to the
depth of 1.5H below the still water level or to the bottom elevation of the armor layer (take a shallower depth),
where the wave height H is inversely derived from the Hudson formula with the mass of armor units as the
input. However, for the deformation level and the degree of damage, there is no need to define the inspection
area. For evaluating the damage ratio, an armor unit is judged to be damaged if it has moved over a distance of
more than about 1/2 to 1.0 times its height.
5.3.2 Armor Units on Foundation Mound of Composite Breakwater (Notification Article 48, Clause 5)
It shall be standard to calculate the mass of armor stones or concrete blocks for the foundation mound of a
composite breakwater, by means of appropriate hydraulic model experiments or the following equation:
rr H3
M = --------------------------3
NS ( S r 1 ) 3
where
M
rr
H
NS
Sr
(5.3.1)
minimum mass of rubble stones or concrete blocks (t)

density of rubble stones or concrete blocks (t/m3)
wave height used in the stability calculation (m)
stability number
specific gravity of rubble stones or concrete blocks relative to sea water
[Commentary]
The mass required for an armor unit covering the foundation mound of a composite breakwater varies according to
the wave characteristics, the water depth, the shape of the mound (thickness, berm width, slope angle, etc.), and the
type of armor unit, its placement method, and its position (breakwater head, breakwater trunk, etc.). In particular, the
effects of the wave characteristics and the mound shape are more pronounced than those in the case of the armor units
covering the surface of sloped breakwater in 5.3.1 Armor Units on Slope. It is thus necessary to appropriately
determine the mass, considering the results of past studies, research, and actual experience in the field, and carrying
out model experiments if necessary. Moreover, it is necessary to take sufficient heed of the effects of wave
irregularity.
-117-
Note however that the stability of the armor units covering the foundation mound of a composite breakwater is not
necessarily determined purely by their sizes. Depending on the structure and the layout of armor units, it may be
possible to achieve stability even when the armor units are relatively small.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Generalized Hudsons Formula for Calculating the Required Mass
Similarly with the stable mass of armor units on a slope, the required mass of armor units covering the
foundation mound of a composite breakwater can be calculated using the generalized Hudson formula (the
Hudson formula with the stability number), i.e., equation (5.3.1). Ever since Brebner and Donnelly 32) used it as
the basic equation for calculating the required mass of the armor stones of the rubble mound for an upright wall,
the generalized Hudson formula has been used widely, and in Japan it is also known as the Brebner-Donnelly
formula. Because it has a certain degree of validity even from a theoretical standpoint, the generalized Hudson
formula may also be used as the basic formula for calculating the minimum mass of armor units for the
breakwater mound 33). Note however that the stability number NS varies not only with the water depth, the wave
characteristics, the shape of the mound, and the characteristics of the armor units, but also with their position of
the placement (breakwater trunk, breakwater head, etc.). It is thus necessary to assign the stability number NS
appropriately through model experiments corresponding to the design conditions. Moreover, the wave height
used in the design calculation is generally the significant wave height, and the waves used in the model
experiments should be irregular.
(2) Stability Number for Armor Stones
The stability number NS can be determined using the method of Inagaki and Katayama 34), which is based upon
the work of Brebner and Donnelly and past experience of damage. However, the following formulas by
Tanimoto et al. 33) are based on the flow velocity near the mound and allow the incorporation of a variety of
conditions, and they have been extended by Takahashi, Kimura, and Tanimoto 35) to include the effects of wave
direction. The extended Tanimoto formulas have thus been made the standard formulas.
(a) Extended Tanimoto formulas
1 k h
( 1 k ) 2 h
- ------------ + 1.8 exp 1.5 ------------------ ------------ : B M L < 0.25
N S = max 1.8, 1.3 ----------1
/
3
H
k
k 1 / 3 H1 3
13
(5.3.8)
k = k 1 ( k 2 )B
(5.3.9)
4ph L
k 1 = -----------------------------------sinh ( 4ph L )
( k 2 )B = max { a s sin 2 b cos 2 ( 2p l cos b L ), cos 2 b sin 2 ( 2p l cos b L ) }
s
(5.3.10)
(5.3.11)
where
h water depth on top of rubble mound foundation (excluding the armor layer) (m) (see Fig. T- 5.3.4)
l in the case of normal wave incidence, the berm width BM (m)
In the case of oblique wave incidence, either BM or BM, whichever gives the larger value of (k2)B
(see Fig. T- 5.3.4)
L wavelength corresponding to the design significant wave period at the water depth h (m)
as correction factor for when the armor layer is horizontal (= 0.45)
b incident wave angle (see Fig. T- 5.3.5)
H1/3 design significant wave height (m)
The validity of the above formulas have been verified for the breakwater trunk for oblique wave incidence
with an angle of incidence of up to 60.
Seaward
Shoreward
BM
d
h'
BM
'
Foot protection blocks
Upright section
Foot protection blocks
Armor material Rubble mound
Armor material
Fig. T- 5.3.4 Standard Cross Section of a Composite Breakwater and Notations
(b) Stability Number When a Certain Amount of Damage is Permitted

Sudo et al. have carried out stability experiments for the special case such that the mound is low and no wave
breaking occurs. They investigated the relationship between the number of waves N and the damage ratio, and
proposed the following equation that gives the stability number NS* for any given number of waves N and any
given damage ratio DN (%).
-118-
N S * = N S [ D N exp { 0.3 ( 1 500 N ) } ] 0.25

(5.3.12)
where NS is the stability number given by the Tanimoto formula when N = 500 and the damage ratio is 1%. In
design it is necessary to take N = 1000 considering the progress of damage, while the damage ratio 3% to 5%
can be allowed for a 2-layer armoring. If N = 1000 and DN = 5%, then NS* = 1.44NS. This means that the
required mass decreases to about 1/3 of that required for N = 500 and DN = 1%.
(3) Stability Number for Concrete Units
The stability number NS for concrete blocks varies according to the
shape of the block and the method of placement. It is thus desirable
to evaluate the stability number by means of hydraulic model
experiments. When carrying out such experiments, it is best to
employ irregular waves.
nk
tru
ate
r
eak
w
Br
(4) Conditions for Applying the Stability Number for Armor Stones on
Foundation Mound
When the water above the armor units covering a mound is shallow,
wave breaking often causes the armor stones to become unstable. It
is thus appropriate to use the stability number for armor stones on a
mound only when h/H1/3 1: when h/H1/3<1, it is better to use the
stability number for armor stones on a slope of mound breakwater.
The validity of the stability number for armor stones in the
Tanimoto formulas has not been verified experimentally for when
h/H1/3 is small: when h/H1/3 is about 1 or less, it is thus desirable
to examine the validity using hydraulic model experiments.
Breakwater head
Fig. T- 5.3.5 Shape of the Breakwater

(5) Armor Layer Thickness
Alignment and Effects of
It is standard to use two layers of armor stones. However, it is
Wave Direction
acceptable to use only one layer, provided that consideration is
given to past experiences of breakwaters. In this case, one could
think of compensating the use of one layer only by setting the damage ratio in the aforementioned equation
(5.3.12) to a low value of DN = 1% for N =1000 acting waves. For concrete armor blocks, it is rather standard to
use one layer, although two layers may be laid if the shape of the blocks is favorable for two layer placement and
the design wave conditions are severe.
(6) Armor Units for Breakwater Head

At the head of a breakwater, strong currents occur locally near the corners at the edge of the upright section,
meaning that the armor units become liable to move. It is thus necessary to verify the extent to which the mass of
armor units should be increased at the breakwater head by carrying out hydraulic model experiments. If
hydraulic model experiments are not carried out, it is standard to increase the mass to at least 1.5 times that at the
breakwater trunk.
The mass of the armor stones at the breakwater head can also be calculated using the extended Tanimoto
formula. Specifically, for the breakwater head, the flow velocity parameter k in equation (5.3.9) should be
rewritten as follows:
k = k 1 (k 2)T
(k2)T = 0.22
(5.3.13)
(5.3.14)
Note however that if the calculated mass turns out to be less than 1.5 times that for the breakwater trunk, it is
advisable to set it to 1.5 times that for the breakwater trunk.
5.4 Wave Forces Acting on Cylindrical Members and Large Isolated Structures
5.4.1 Wave Force on Cylindrical Members
The wave force acting on an cylindrical member can be calculated as the sum of a drag force that is
proportional to the square of the water particle velocity under waves and an inertia force that is
proportional to the water particle acceleration.
[Commentary]
Structural members such as piles that have a small diameter relative to the wavelength hardly disturb the propagation
of waves. The wave force acting on such members can be obtained using the Morison equation, in which the wave
force is expressed as the sum of a drag force that is proportional to the square of the velocity of the water particles and
an inertia force that is proportional to the acceleration. Note however that with the Morison equation, it is necessary
to assign accurate values to the water particle velocity and acceleration of the waves, as well as to the wave surface
elevation. It is also necessary to appropriately evaluate the drag coefficient and the inertia coefficient by means of
model experiments or field measurement results. It should further be noted that the impact of the wave front may
-119-
generate an impulsive wave force if the member is located near to the still water level or if breaking waves hit the
member, and that a lift force may act upon it, depending on the shape and position of the member.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Morisons Equation
The wave force acting on a structural member is calculated based on the following equation:
1
fun = --- C D r 0 u n u n DDS + C M r 0 aun ADS
2
(5.4.1)
where
uf force that acts on a small length DS (m) in the axial direction of the member, where the direction of
n
this force lies in the plane containing the member axis and the direction of motion of the water
particles and is perpendicular to the member axis (kN)
u n, a
u n components of the water particle velocity (m/s) and acceleration (m/s2), respectively, in the direction
perpendicular to the member axis that lies within the plane containing the member axis and the
direction of motion of the water particles (i.e., the same direction as ufn) (these components are for
incident waves that are not disturbed by the presence of member)
u n absolute value of u n (m/s)
CD drag coefficient
CM inertia coefficient
D width of the member in the direction perpendicular to the member axis as viewed from the direction
of ufn (m)
A cross-sectional area of the member along a plane perpendicular to member axis (m2)
r0 density of seawater (normally 1.03 t/m3)
Equation (5.4.1) is a generalized form of the equation presented by Morison et al. 36), to give the wave force
acting on a section of a very small length DS of a member orientated in any given direction. The arrows on top of
symbols indicate that the force, velocity and acceleration are the components in the direction perpendicular to
the member. The first term on the right-hand side represents the drag force, while the second term represents the
inertia force. The water particle velocity and acceleration components in the equation both vary in time and
space. It is necessary to take sufficient heed of these variations, and to investigate the distribution of the wave
force that is severest to the member or structure in question.
(2) Water Particle Velocity and Acceleration Components
The components of water particle velocity and acceleration u n and a
u n in equation (5.4.1) represent those of the
water particle motion at the center of the member. These components are in the direction perpendicular to the
member axis, and are evaluated under the assumption that waves are not disturbed by the presence of the
structure in question. When calculating the wave force, it is necessary to estimate these components as accurate
as possible, based on either experimental dater or theoretical prediction. In particular, the water particle velocity
component contributes to the wave force with its second power, meaning that when the wave height is large, an
approximation using small amplitude wave theory becomes insufficient to yield reliable estimate. Moreover,
when the member extends above the mean water level, it is necessary to give sufficient consideration to the
range over which the wave force acts, i.e., the elevation of wave crest. When evaluating these terms using
theoretical values, it is desirable to use the finite amplitude wave theory that agrees with the characteristics of
the design waves, based on 4.1.3 Properties of Waves. Note also that it is necessary to take full account of wave
irregularity with regard to the wave height and period used in the wave force calculation, and to study the wave
characteristics that are severest to the safety of member or structure in question. In general, the highest wave
height and the significant wave period should be used in the analysis for rigid structures.
(3) Drag Coefficient
In general, the drag coefficient for steady flow can be used as the drag coefficient CD for wave force. Note
however that the drag coefficient varies with the shape of the member, the surface roughness, the Reynolds
number Re, and the separation distance between neighboring members. It also varies with the KeuleganCarpenter number (KC number) because the flow is of oscillating nature. It is necessary to consider these
conditions when setting the value of drag coefficient. For a circular cylindrical member, it is standard to set CD =
1.0 if the finite amplitude properties of the waves are fully evaluated. For an unmanned structure, a lower value
may be used if its value is based on the results of model experiments matched to the conditions. Even in this
case, however, CD should not be set below 0.7. Note also that when estimating the water particle velocity by
means of an approximate equation, it is necessary to use a value for the drag coefficient that has been adjusted
for the estimation error in the water particle velocity
(4) Inertia Coefficient
The calculated value by the small amplitude wave theory may be used for the inertia coefficient CM. Note,
however, that the inertia coefficient varies with the shape of the member and other factors such as the Reynolds
number, the KC number, the surface roughness, and the separation distance between neighboring members. It is
thus necessary to set the value of the inertia coefficient appropriately in line with the given conditions. For a
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circular cylindrical member, CM = 2.0 may be used as a standard value, provided the diameter of the member is
no more than 1/10 of the wavelength.
(5) Lift Force
In addition to the drag and inertia forces of equation (5.4.1), the lift force acts on an underwater member in the
direction perpendicular to the plane containing the member axis and the direction of the water particle motion. In
general, it is acceptable to ignore this lift force, but it is necessary to take heed of the fact that the lift force may
become a problem for horizontal members that are placed near to the seabed. Moreover, for long and thin
members, it is necessary to take heed of the fact that the lift force may induce vibrations.
(6) Standard Value for Drag Coefficient
When the water particle velocity can be calculated accurately, the value of drag coefficient for steady flow such
as those listed in Table T- 7.2.1 in 7.2 Current Forces Acting on Submerged Members and Structures may
be used.
(7) Standard Value for Inertia Coefficient
When the diameter of the object in question is no more than 1/10 of the wavelength, it is standard to use the
value listed in Table T- 5.4.1 for the inertia coefficient CM. However, when estimating the water particle
acceleration by means of an approximate equation, it is necessary to adjust the value of CM for the error in the
estimate of water particle acceleration. The value of inertia coefficient shown here is mostly from the study by
Stelson and Mavis 40). According to the experiments of Hamada and et al., the inertia coefficient for a cube under
waves is in the range of 1.4 to 2.3.
Table T- 5.4.1 Inertia Coefficient
Shape
Reference volume
Circular cylinder
Inertia coefficient
D2
4
2.0
D2
2.19
Square-based
prism
D
D
D3
1.67
D 3
6
1.5
D2
4
D/
D/
D/
Cube
Sphere
Flat plate
=1
0.61
=2
0.85
1.0
(8) Experimental Values for Drag Coefficient and Inertia Coefficient of Circular Cylinder
There are many experimental values for the drag coefficient and inertia coefficient of a vertical circular cylinder;
for example, those of Keulegan and Carpenter 41), Sarpkaya 42), 43), 44), Goda 45), Yamaguchi, Nakamura,
Chakrabarti 46), 47), and Koderayama and Tashiro. There are much variations between these values. However,
there is not sufficient data in the region of high Reynolds number, which is experienced in actual design. Oda
has produced a summary of these researches which may be referred to.
5.4.2 Wave Force on Large Isolated Structure

The wave force acting on a large isolated structure built in the sea shall be calculated using an appropriate
numerical calculation or hydraulic model experiments, considering the size of the structure and the crosssectional form.
[Commentary]
The wave force acting on a large isolated structure whose dimensions are comparable to the wavelength can be
calculated using the velocity potential, because it is generally possible to ignore the drag force. In particular, for
structures of a simple shape, analytical solutions obtained by means of diffraction theory are available. However, it is
necessary to calculate the breaking wave force by means of hydraulic model experiments if there is a possibility of
breaking wave force exerted on structure.
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[Technical Notes]
(1) Diffraction Theory
MacCamy and Fuchs 59) have determined the velocity potential of waves around an upright circular cylinder of
large diameter using diffraction theory, and calculated the wave force from the water pressure distribution at the
surface of cylinder. Goda and Yoshimura 60) have applied diffraction theory to an upright elliptic cylinder, and
presented their results in terms of the inertia coefficient CM. Yamaguchi has investigated the effect of the wave
nonlinearity on the wave force acting on an upright circular cylinder of large diameter by means of nonlinear
diffraction theory, and pointed out that it is necessary to consider these effects when the water is shallow.
(2) Isolated Structure of Arbitrary Shape
For a structure that is complex in shape, it is difficult to obtain the wave force analytically, and so it is necessary
to carry out a numerical calculation. Various methods are available, such as integral equation methods.
5.5 Wave Force Acting on Structure Located near the Still Water Level
5.5.1 Uplift Acting on Horizontal Plate near the Still Water Level
For a horizontal plate located near the still water level, an impact wave force may act on the bottom face of
the plate (this wave force is hereafter referred to as the uplift), depending on the wave conditions and the
structural form of the plate. When there exists such a risk, the impulsive uplift shall be evaluated by means
of an appropriate method including hydraulic model experiments etc.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Characteristics of Impulsive Uplift
If the bottom face of the plate is flat, the impulsive uplift acting on a horizontal plate near the still water level
varies with the impact (uprising) velocity of the wave surface and the angle between the wave surface and the
plate. As shown in Fig. T- 5.5.1 (a), when there is an angle between the wave surface and the plate, the wave
surface runs along the bottom face of the plate and the wave pressure distribution becomes as shown there. The
distinct feature of the wave pressure in this case is its rapid rise in time. On the other hand, when the angle
between the wave front and the plate is close to 0 as shown in Fig. T- 5.5.1 (b), a layer of air is trapped between
the wave surface and the plate, and compression of this layer of air results in the almost uniform wave pressure
distribution. The distinct feature of the wave pressure in this case is its oscillation in time with having a short
period and damping.
(a)
Wave impact
Pressure distribution
(b)
Pressure distribution
Wave impact
Fig. T- 5.5.1 Impact between Wave Front and Horizontal Plate
In case of a pier with a deck plate supported by horizontal beams, the wave surface is disturbed by the beams,
and the uplift becomes of complex nature. With beams, a layer of trapped air is often formed and this layer of air
is compressed by the uprising wave surface. It is thus necessary to give consideration to the change in the uplift
with respect to the shape of the bottom face of the horizontal plate.
The shape of the impacting wave surface varies greatly according to the condition whether the wave is
progressive or standing in nature. With standing waves, the shape of the impacting wave front varies with the
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distance between the position of wave reflection and the horizontal plate. It is thus necessary to consider such
differences.
(2) Uplift Acting on Horizontal Plate with Flat Bottom Face (with standing waves)
Goda thought of the uplift acting on a horizontal plate as being the force arising from the sudden change in the
upward momentum of wave surface by its collision with the plate. Using von Karmans theory, he obtained the
following formulas for calculating the uplift from standing waves acting on a horizontal plate.
r0 g
2ph H s
(5.5.1)
P = z --------HLB tanh ---------- ---- ----
4
L s H
H2
2ph
(5.5.2)
s = s p ------ coth ---------L
L
where
P total uplift (kN)
z correction factor
r0 density of seawater (1.03 t/m3)
g gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
H wave height of progressive waves (m) (generally the highest wave height Hmax)
L wavelength of progressive waves (m)
B extension width of plate perpendicular to wave incidence (m)
h water depth (m)
s clearance of the plate above the still water level (m)
s clearance of the plate above the level corresponding to the middle of the wave crest and trough (m)
One should take note of the fact that the uplift in the above equations does not depend on the length of the
horizontal plate.
The impact force has the magnitude given by the above equations and takes the form of a pulse that lasts for
a time t from the moment of the impact, that is given as follows:
pT l 2
s
- ----------------------t = ----------(5.5.3)
2
L
H 2 s 2
where T is the wave period and l is the length of the horizontal plate. Provided the length of the horizontal plate
is sufficiently small compared with the wavelength L and the bottom face of the horizontal plate is flat, equation
(5.5.1) well represents the features of the uplift well (despite the fact that the equation is simple). Comparing
calculated values with z = 1.0 to experimental values, agreement is relatively good provided H/s is no more
than 2.
Tanimoto et al. 61) have proposed another method for calculating the uplift acting on horizontal plate based
on Wagners theory. With this calculation method, the angle of contact b between the wave surface and the
horizontal plate as well as the impact velocity Vn are given by Stokes third order wave theory, making it
possible to obtain the spatial distribution of the impact pressure and its change over time. Note however that the
use of Stokes third order wave theory makes the calculation rather complex. This calculation method is
intended for use when the bottom face of the horizontal plate is flat. It cannot be applied directly to structures of
complicated shape such as an ordinary pier that have beams under the floor slab; the impact between the wave
surface and the floor slab is disturbed by the beams. In general, the presence of beams causes air to become
trapped in and the wave surface to be distorted, the result being that the impact force is less than for a horizontal
plate with a flat surface. Accordingly, the value obtained from this calculation method may be thought of as
being the upper limit of the uplift for an ordinary pier.
(3) Uplift Acting on Open-type Wharf (with standing waves)
Ito and Takeda 62) have conducted scale model tests of open piled marginal wharves (open-type wharves) to
obtain the uplift acting on an access bridge, and its minimum weight to prevent moving and falling. The
experimental conditions were the wave height up to 40 cm, a period of 1.0 s and 2.4 s, and a water depth of
56 cm and 60 cm. According to the measurement records of wave pressure gauges attached to the access bridge,
the peak value of the uplift varied considerably from wave to wave even under the same conditions.
Nevertheless, the mean of these peak values is given approximately by the following equation:
(5.5.4)
p = r 0 g ( 8 H 4.5s )
where
p
r0
g
H
s
mean peak value of the intensity of uplift (kN/m2)

density of seawater (1.03 t/m3)
gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
incident wave height (m) (Hmax)
distance from the water level to the underside of access bridge (m)
Note however that the peak value of the intensity of the uplift given by equation (5.5.4) acts only for an
extremely short time, and that the phase of this uplift varies from place to place. This means that even if the
intensity of the uplift p exceeds the deadweight q (specifically the weight per unit area (kN/m2)) of the access
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bridge, the bridge will not necessarily move or fall down. Based on this perspective, Ito and Takeda have
obtained the threshold weight at which the access bridge starts to move and that at which the deck slab falls
down. For waves of period 2.4 s, the relationship between the moving threshold weight per unit area q and the
wave height H was as follows:
q = r 0 g ( 1.6H 0.9s )
(5.5.5)
The moving threshold weight given by equation (5.5.5) is one fifth of the intensity of the uplift as given by
equation (5.5.4). The falling threshold weight was found to be 1/2 to 1/3 of the moving threshold weight.
In these access bridge experiments, Ito and Takeda also tested the access bridge with holes or slits of various
sizes, and investigated how the threshold weights changed when the void ratio was changed. In general, the
change in the moving threshold weight by the void ration is only slight. The falling threshold weight, on the
other hand, drops noticeably when the void ratio exceeds 20%. Note that the bridge weight referred to here is the
weight per unit area of the substantial part (i.e., the weight per unit area excluding the voids).
Furthermore, Ito and Takeda 62) have attached a strain gauge to the deck slab of the model of open-type wharf
and measured the stress. Based on their results, they proposed the following equation for the equivalent static
load (kN/m2) assumed to act with uniform distribution on the deck slab.
p = 4r 0 gH
(5.5.6)
Note however that the value given by this equation corresponds to the upper limit of the experimental values and
should thus be thought of as corresponding to the case that the distance s from the water level to the underside of
the is almost 0. The equivalent static load given by equation (5.5.6) is generally lower than the uplift acting on a
horizontal plate with a flat bottom face. It is thought that this is partly because the beams disturb the impacting
wave front and cause air to become trapped in. It is also thought that because the uplift acts very locally and for
an extremely short time, the equivalent static load becomes much smaller than the peak value of the uplift.
Experimental research into the uplift acting on a pier has also been carried out by Murota and Furudoi, Nagai
and Kubo, Horikawa and Nakao, and Sawaragi and Nochino.
(4) Uplift Acting on Horizontal Plate with Flat Bottom Face (with progressive waves)
An impulsive uplift also acts when progressive waves act on a horizontal plate that is fixed near to the still water
level. Tanimoto et al. 63) have proposed a method for calculating this impulsive uplift, based on the same theory
by Wagner that was used for impulsive uplift by standing waves.
(5) Uplift Acting on Superstructure of Detached Pier (with progressive waves)
Ito and Takeda 62) have also carried out studies on the uplift from progressed waves acting on a detached pier.
Specifically, they measured the stress occurring in the deck slabs of a detached pier model. Based on the upper
limits of their experimental results, they proposed the following equation for the uniformly distributed
equivalent static load.
p = 2r 0 gH
(5.5.7)
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57) Sarpkaya, T.: In-line and transverse forces on cylinders near a wall in oscillatory flow at high Reynolds numbers, Prepr. 9th
OTC Paper No. 2898, 1977, pp. 161-166.
58) Sarpkaya, T. and F. Rajabi.: Hydrodynamic drag on bottom-mounted smooth and rough cylinders in periodic flow,
Prepr.12th OTC Paper No. 3761, 1980, pp. 219-226.
59) MacCamy, R. C. and R. A. Fuchs: Wave forces on piles, a diffraction theory, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Beach
Erosion Board, Tech. Memo. No. 69, 1954, 17p.
60) Yoshimi GODA, Tomotsuka YOSHIMURA: Wave force computation for structures of large diameter, isolated in the
offshore, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1971, pp. 3-52 (in Japanese).
61) Katsutoshi TANIMOTO, Shigeo TAKAHASHI, Yoshikazu IZUMIDA: A calculation method of uplift force on a horizontal
platform, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 17, No. 2, 1978, pp. 3-47 (in Japanese).
62) Yoshiyuki ITO, Hideaki TAKEDA: Uplift on pier deck due to wave motion, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 6, No. 4, 1967, pp. 37-68
(in Japanese).
63) Katsutoshi TANIMOTO, Shigeo TAKAHASHI, Masahiko TODOROKI, Yoshikazu IZUMIDA: Horizontal wave forces on a
rigid platform, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 16, No. 3, 1977, pp. 39-68 (in Japanese).
-126-
Chapter 6 Tides and Abnormal Water Levels

6.1 Design Water Level (Notification Article 6)
The water level that is to be used for the structural design and stability analysis of port and harbor facilities
shall be determined based on either the measured values or the hindcast values of astronomical tides and
meteorological tides, along with abnormal water levels caused by tsunamis and others. However, for port
and harbor facilities on lakes or rivers for which the effects of tides are not large, the water level shall be
determined appropriately based on the water level records or the like.
[Commentary]
(1) Design water level
As a general rule, the water level that is most dangerous to the safety of the structure in question is used as the
design water level.
(2) Simultaneous occurrence of storm surge, tsunamis, and seiche
Storm surge and tsunamis both occur only very rarely, and so it may be assumed that they will not occur at the
same time. Seiche in the narrower sence occurs independently of storm surge or tsunami, and is treated
separately.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Rising of Mean Sea Level
Apart from astronomical tides and storm surge, which are essential for the design water level, studies on the
long-term sea level rise are being carried out both in Japan and abroad. According to the Secondary Evaluation
Report of the IPCC 1), it is estimated that the mean sea level will rise 15 cm to 95 cm between 1990 and 2100.
Figure T- 6.1.2 shows the IPCC panels forecast for the mean sea level rise. Although it is known that the mean
sea level will rise in the future, it is hard to evaluate this rise quantitatively. The IPCC panel has thus produced
three estimates.
Since the quantitative extent of the mean sea level rise is uncertain, in general it is hard to take account of it
at the design stage. It is thus unavoidable that countermeasures in response to a rise in the mean sea level will
have to be carried out through maintenance work such as raising of the crests of structures. However, when
designing important structures for which it is anticipated that subsequent repairs would be extremely difficult
(for example, when designing the clearance of a bridge that will have to remain in service for a very long time or
when designing the drainage outlets of reclaimed land), appropriate consideration should be given to the amount
of mean sea level rise in the future.
Mean sea level rise over the whole world (cm)
IS 92 e/High/4.5
IS 92 a/Medium/2.5
IS 92 c/Low/1.5
Year
Note 1: The values 1.5, 2.5, and 4.5 shown in the three graphs represent the climate sensitivities
for the three scenarios, respectively.
Note 2: The low, medium, and high represent the value of ice melting parameter for the three
scenarios. The ice melting parameter represents the extent to which the ice at the poles,
in Greenland, and in highland glaciers melts in response to a rise in air temperatures.
Fig. T- 6.1.2 IPCC Panels Forecasts for Mean Sea Level Rise 1) (BaU Scenarios)
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6.2 Astronomical Tide

Consideration shall be given to the following astronomical tide parameters: the chart datum level, the mean
water level, the mean monthly-highest water level, and the mean monthly-lowest water level. As a general
rule, these parameters shall be determined from the tide observation records over one year or a longer
period.
[Commentary]
(1) Definitions
The definitions for the various types of water level are as follows:
(a) Mean sea level (MSL)
The average height of the sea level over a certain period is referred to as the mean water level for that period.
For practical purposes, the mean water level is taken to be the average of the water level over one year.
(b) Chat datum level (CDL)
See Part
, Chapter 2 Datum Level for Construction Work.
(c) Mean monthly-highest water level (HWL)
The average of the monthly-highest water level, where the monthly-highest water level for a particular month
is defined as the highest water level occurring in the period from 2 days before the day of the lunar syzygy
(new moon and full moon) to 4 days after the day of the lunar syzygy.
(d) Mean monthly-lowest water level (LWL)
The average of the monthly-lowest water level, where the monthly-lowest water level for a particular month is
defined as the lowest water level occurring in the period from 2 days before the day of the lunar syzygy to 4
days after the day of the lunar syzygy.
(e) Mean high water level (MHWL)
The mean value of all of the high water levels, including the spring tide and the neap tide.
(f) Mean low water level (MLWL)
The mean value of all of the low water levels, including the spring tide and the neap tide.
(g) Near highest high water level (NHHWL)
The water level obtained by adding the sum of the amplitudes of the four principal tidal components (M2, S2,
K1 and O1) to the mean sea level.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In addition to the above definitions of water level, there are also the high water of ordinary spring tides
(HWOST) and the low water of ordinary spring tides (LWOST). These refer respectively to the water levels at
the height h above and below the mean water level, where h is the sum of the amplitudes of the tidal components
M2 and S2. The height of the HWOST as measured from the chart datum is known as the spring rise.
Figure T- 6.2.1 shows an example of the relationship between these water levels, for the Tokyo Tide
Observation Station, along with the chart datum level (CDL), the mean sea level for Tokyo Bay (Tokyo Peil TP), and other commonly used water levels.
6.3 Storm Surge

The storm surge parameters shall be determined by referring to the observed tide records collected over as
long a period as possible, inundation records for past disasters, and hindcast values for abnormal
meteorological conditions.
[Commentary]
(1) Definition of Storm Surge
Fluctuations in the sea level occur as the result of a combination of astronomical tide, meteorological tide, and
seiche, along with the effects of factors such as ocean currents, the seawater temperature, seasonal fluctuations
in the atmospheric pressure, the water levels of rivers, and coastal waves. Out of these factors, the sea level
fluctuation due to meteorological factors, such as air pressure fluctuations caused by passing of high or low
pressure area and winds, are referred to as meteorological tides or deviations. The term storm surge refers to a
type of meteorological tides, specifically an abnormal rise of the sea level that occurs when a typhoon passes by.
The causes of storm surge are the depression of atmospheric pressure and the resultant rise of sea surface, the
propagation of elevated sea surface as long waves, the resonance of water in embayments, and the wind setup.
The deviation of sea level from the astronomical tide during a storm surge is called the storm tide.
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Bench mark
Highest water level ever recorded (Oct 1, 1917)
(observed before the statistical period to
obtain standard water levels)
Highest water level ever (Oct 19, 1979)
(during the statistical period to obtain standard water level)
Mean monthly-highest water level* HWL HWOST
Mean sea level for recent 5 year period* MSL
Mean sea level for Tokyo Bay (Tokyo Peil -TP)
Edogawa construction work datum level (YP)
Mean monthly-lowest water level* LWL LWOST
Chart datum level (CDL) = Work datum level (WDL)
Arakawa construction work datum level (Arakawa Peil - AP)
Lowest water level ever recorded (Feb 13, 1953)
Observation datum level (DL)
Mean value over 1991~1995
Fig. T- 6.2.1 Water Level Diagram for the Tokyo (Harumi) Tide Observation Station
(2) Observation Period

It is desirable to study the storm surge records covering as long a period as possible; the minimum necessary
observation period is considered to be 30 years. However, there are only a few tide observation stations that have
put together storm surge records covering several tens of years. In order to carry out a study of storm surge
covering the longest possible period, it is thus necessary to also carry out hindcasting from meteorological
conditions, to study records from storm surge damage reports, newspapers and old documents, and to collect
data on past disasters.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Meteorological Tide
(a) General
Meteorological tide parameters to which consideration should be given include the storm tide and its duration.
(b) Wind setup
When a strong wind continues to blow for a prolonged time in a shallow bay, seawater is dragged by the wind.
If the wind is onshore, seawater accumulates in the littoral zone, resulting in a rise in the sea level. If the angle
between the wind direction and the line perpendicular to the shoreline is a, the sea level rise h 0 (cm) at the
shoreline is given by the following equation:
F
(6.3.1)
h 0 = k --- ( U cos a ) 2
h
where
F fetch length (km)
U constant wind velocity (m/s)
h mean water depth (m)
The term k is a coefficient that varies depending on the bay characteristics. Colding has obtained a value of k
4.8 10-2 from the observation data in the Baltic Sea.
(c) Static water level rise caused by depression in the atmospheric
If the atmospheric pressure drops slowly by DP (hPa), the water level in the sea area where the atmospheric
pressure has dropped rises relative to the surrounding areas where the atmospheric pressure has not dropped,
because of the pressure difference. The rise in water level z (cm) is given by the following equation:
z = 0.99DP
(6.3.2)
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where
DP pressure difference (hPa)
z rise in water level (cm)
(d) Estimation formula for storm tide
For places where numerical computation of storm surge have not been carried out, equation (6.3.3) may be
used to estimate the maximum amount of storm tide. This equation incorporates the factors of suction caused
by a depression in the atmospheric pressure and wind setup.
h 0 = a ( 1010 P ) + bU 2 cos q + c
(6.3.3)
where
h 0 maximum amount of storm tide (cm)
P lowest atmosperic pressure (hPa)
U maximum wind velocity (m/s)
q angle between the predominant wind direction that causes the highest storm tide and the wind
direction at the time of maximum wind speed U ()
The coefficients a, b, and c are determined by the relationship between the storm tide, the atmospheric
pressure, and the wind data that have been observed at the place in question.
(2) Numerical Computation of Storm Surge
In order to analyze the phenomenon of storm surge in detail, numerical computations are carried out. With this
method, the rise of sea surface caused by a depression in the atmospheric pressure (see (1)(c) above), along with
the tangential stress at the sea surface due to the wind and the tangential stress at the sea bottom due to viscosity,
are given as external forces. The change in the water level and the flow velocity at each point is then
progressively calculated for a series of time steps, by solving the equations of motions and continuity. The
topography of the bay is approximated using a grid system (with adjacent mesh points separated by say a few
kilometers), with the average water depth at each mesh being inputted in advance. The atmospheric pressure and
wind velocity within a typhoon is often calculated using Myers formula or a similar theoretical model.
(3) Design Water Level for the Facilities for Protection against Storm Surge
The following four methods exist for determing the design water level for storm surge protection facilities.
(a) Use the highest water level observed in the past, or else this plus a little extra allowance.
(b) Use the elevation above the mean-monthly highest water level by the amount of either the highest storm tide
observed in the past or the storm tide predicted for a model typhoon.
(c) Obtain the occurrence probability curve for past storm surge levels, and then use the water level that is
expected to be exceeded only once within a certain return period (say 50 years or 100 years) (this water level
is obtained by extrapolating the probability curve).
(d) Determine the design water level based on economic factors, considering the occurrence probability of various
storm surge levels, and the damage to the hinterland for each water level, along with the cost of constructing
storm surge protection facilities.
(4) Rise in Mean Water Level Due to Waves (Wave Setup)
The rise in mean water level due to waves can be estimated using Fig. T- 4.7.1 and Fig. 4.7.2 in 4.7.1 Wave
Setup. Near to the shoreline, this rise is 10% or more of the deepwater significant wave height, and thus it
cannot be ignored when waves are high.
6.4 Tsunami
The following tsunami parameters shall be considered: the highest water level, the lowest water level, the
water level deviation (rise of water level by tsunami above the astronomical tide), the tsunami wave height,
and the tsunami period. These parameters shall be determined using an appropriate method, by referring to
the measured data (taken over as long a period as possible) and the heights of tsunami runup traces during
past disasters.
[Commentary]
(1) Tsunamis are waves with an extremely long period that mainly occur when the sea floor is raised and/or dropped
by an earthquake in the sea. As a tsunami approaches the coast, the wave height rises rapidly owing to the
shoaling and the concentration effect of the sea bottom topography, meaning that tsunami often causes
tremendous damage to coastal areas. It is important to investigate not only the possibility of flooding damage as
a result of overflowing a tsunami barrier, but also the possibilities of losing small vessels that have been moored
in a harbor but are carried away by strong currents of tsunami, scouring of seabed at the openings of
breakwaters, and sliding or overturning of breakwaters.
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(2) The wave height of a tsunami in the outer sea is generally extremely small, but it can nevertheless be detected by
means of continuous observations recorded by a wave gauge out at sea. When a tsunami enters a bay, the wave
height increases greatly. Since the increase in wave height depends on the topography and natural periods of the
bay, the tsunami parameters used in design are determined from the past tsunami records for the place in
question or the values obtained from numerical computations for the place in question.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Definitions of Tsunami-Related Terms
The definitions of various terms related to tsunamis are shown in Fig. T- 6.4.1.
(a) Estimated tide level
This is the tide level obtained by smoothing the tide level on a tide observation record by removing the
components that are thought to be of the tsunami and any oscillation component of shorter period by seiche.
The estimated tide level is expressed as the elevation above the CDL (chart datum level). This estimated tide
level may thus differ somewhat to the hindcasted tide level obtained from the tidal harmonic constants.
(b) Runup height and tsunami trace height
The elevation of the highest point to which a tsunami has runup the land or a structure is called the runup
height above the CDL (chart datum level). Note that the runup height of a tsunami is often determined based
on an investigation of tsunami traces left at the site in question. The elevation of a trace of a tsunami that has
run up over the land or a structure above the CDL is called the tsunami trace height.
(c) Deviation
The difference between the actual tide level and the estimated tide level described in (a). The maximum value
of the deviation when the actual tide level is higher than the estimated tide level is sometimes referred to as the
maximum deviation or the tsunami height.
(d) Highest water level
The maximum value of the actual tide level above the CDL (chart datum level).
(e) Tsunami wave height
As with wind waves, the tsunami wave height may be analyzed using the zero-upcrossing method. In this case,
the section between a point where the tsunami wave profile crosses over the estimated tide level from the
negative side to the positive side and the next such point is taken as one wave, and the difference between the
maximum and minimum water levels within that section is taken as the tsunami wave height for that wave.
The maximum tsunami wave height in a continuous tsunami wave record is defined as the highest tsunami
wave height.
Tsunami wave height

Deviation
Highest water level

First arrival time
Estimated tide level
Time
Fig. T- 6.4.1 Definitions of Tsunami-related Terms
(f) Initial motion

This term refers to the instance at which a tsunami reaches the observation point and the water level first starts
to deviate from the estimated tide level. If the first observed deviation of water level caused by the tsunami is
a rise relative to the estimated tide level, the initial motion is referred to as the pushing initial motion. If it is a
fall relative to the estimated tide level, the initial motion is referred to as the drawing initial motion.
(2) Tsunami Period
The period of tsunamis observed in a bay varies depending on the scale of the earthquake, the distance from the
epicenter, and the resonance characteristics of the bay, and others. The wave height of a tsunami in a harbor is
greatly affected by the period of the tsunami. During a design process, it is thus desirable to carry out
investigations on not only tsunamis having the periods that have actually been measured in the past, but also
tsunamis having the period same as the natural period of the bay or harbor in question.
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(3) Transformation of Tsunami in a Bay

The most important types of transformations that a tsunami undergoes in a bay are the increase in wave height
and flow velocity caused by the decrease in the cross-sectional area toward the end of bay, and the increase in
wave height induced by seiche in the bay.
Under the assumption of small amplitude waves, the influence of the change in cross-sectional area may be
calculated approximately using Greens equation (equation (6.4.1)).
B0 1 2 h0 1 4
H
(6.4.1)
------ = ------ -----
B h
H0
where
H height of long waves for a cross section with the width B and the water depth h (m)
H0 height of long waves for a cross section with the width B0 and the water depth h0 (m)
Note however that equation (6.4.1) is applicable under the conditions that the variations in both the width and
the water depth are very gentle and that no reflected waves moving offshore are generated. Moreover it does not
consider the energy loss due to friction. Accordingly, the equation cannot be applied to the area of shallow water
nor the case when there are reflection effects at the end of the bay.
(4) Tsunami on Tide Observation Records
Tide observation records provide an extremely useful source of tsunami data. However, when handling such
data, it is necessary to take note of the fact 3) that if the tide observation station is within a harbor, there is a high
possibility of tsunami record being different from a tsunami just outside harbor because of the interferences of
structures such as breakwaters etc. within the harbor.
(5) Bore Type Tsunami 3)
Notable features of the tsunami that accompanied the Nihonkai-Chubu Earthquake of 1983, along the northern
coast of Akita Prefecture where a coastline with a shallow bottom slope of about 1/200 continues for as much as
30 km, were that the wave profile transformed markedly as the tsunami propagated, forming the shape of
multiple bores, and there were rapid undulations of surface elevation with the period around 5 to 10 s. However,
when this tsunami arrived at coastlines with a relatively steep bottom slope (around 1/50) such as the west coast
of the Oga Peninsula, it did not produce multiple bores, but rather took the shape of standing waves. Even
though the height of the incident tsunami was the same in both cases, there was a tendency for the bore type
tsunami to have a higher runup than the standing wave type tsunami. A method for calculating the tsunami wave
force when a bore type tsunami acts on an upright wall has been presented based on experimental results 3).
(6) Tsunami Simulation
Numerical simulations of tsunamis correspond to the case where the meteorological disturbance term (which
represents a forcing external force) is removed from the numerical computation scheme for storm surge. The
incident wave profile is assigned in advance, or it is assumed that the initial variation in the water level is equal
to the displacement of the sea floor in the earthquake fault model. The simulation makes it possible to
investigate the effectiveness of breakwaters designed to protect harbors and coastal zones against tsunamis and
the effect of topographic changes (land reclamation etc.) on a tsunami 3), 4).
In tsunami simulations that use hydraulic model experiments, a tsunami wave profile that has previously
been reproduced by a numerical simulation is generated at the model boundary to investigate the effectiveness of
breakwaters and the effects of the topography of reclaimed land 5).
The method of Iwasaki and Mano may be used to obtain the runup height over the land in a numerical
computation of tsunami. When the water level exceeds the crown elevation of a breakwater or levee in the
calculation region, the quantity of overtopping per unit width may be calculated using Hom-mas formula.
When estimating the effectiveness of tsunami mitigation facilities, the loss in tsunami momentum is an
important factor. With regard to the momentum loss that is proportional to the mean flow velocity, consideration
is given to friction along the sea bottom, which may be evaluated using say Mannings roughness formula, and
the aperture loss 6), which takes place when there is a sudden constriction or widening of the cross section at the
opening between breakwaters.
(7) Tsunami Wave Force
The wave force of tsunami is given as the wave force of a long wave, and may be assumed to be as sketched in
Fig. T- 6.4.2. When h/L < 0.04 and there is no wave breaking, the wave force is assumed to be zero at a height h
= 1.5H above the still water level and p (=1.1r0gH) at the still water level, and to have a linear distribution in
between; it is assumed to have a constant intensity of p below the water surface.
Correction for wave direction is not made, and the wave height H is that of progressive tsunami. Note,
however, that if there is a breakwater, according to the results of numerical simulations, the tsunami wave height
in front of the breakwater becomes twice that for the case when there is no breakwater, owing to reflection. In
this case the distance between the maximum water level in front of the breakwater and the still water level may
be used as the incident wave height. It is also acceptable to use one half of the standing wave height as the
incident wave height.
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Fig. T- 6.4.2 Distribution of Wave Pressure by Tsunami
6.5 Seiche
For harbors where the seiche motion is anticipated, the presence of seiche shall be considered as necessary
when fixing the design water level or investigating the tranquility in mooring basins.
[Commentary]
Seiche is a phenomenon involving abnormal oscillations of the water level with a period of approximately a few
minutes to a few tens of minutes. It occurs when small fluctuations of the water level are generated by a microscale
variations of the atmospheric pressure by an air front or a low in the outer sea, and the components of these
oscillations whose period is the same as a natural period of the harbor are amplified through resonance. Depending on
the topography, the amplitude of these fluctuations may be anything from a few tens of centimeters up to around 2m.
When seiche occurs in a harbor, even if the wave height is only a few tens of centimeters, the long wavelength results
in a great deal of water movement in the horizontal direction, which can cause severe problems to moored vessels and
cargo handling work. Seiche is particularly liable to occur in an artificially excavated harbor, which is long and
narrow in shape and surrounded by quaywalls. It is thus desirable to investigate the effects of seiche when drawing up
a harbor plan. This can be done using say a numerical calculation 9), whereby incident waves with the period from a
few minutes up to around one hour are inputted, and then the amplification factor for these waves in the harbor is
calculated. Small long waves in the outer sea may have an amplitude of the order of a few centimeters. It is desirable
to avoid such the shape of a harbor that the amplitude of long waves may be amplified by ten times or more within the
harbor.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Natural Periods
The natural periods of a bay that has a long, narrow rectangular shape as shown in Fig. T- 6.5.1 (a) are given
approximately as in the following equation:
4l
(6.5.1)
T = -------------------------------( 2m + 1 ) gh
l
where
l
T natural period (s)
l length of bay (m)
m number of nodes in the bay (0, 1, 2,)
b
h mean water depth in the bay (m)
(b)
(a)
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2) (= 9.81m/s2)
Fig. T- 6.5.1 Bay Shape Models
In an actual bay, not only does the seawater within the bay oscillate in a periodic fashion, but the water of the
open sea around the bay entrance also oscillates somewhat. It is thus necessary to make a correction to the
natural period with equation (6.5.2) of the following:
4l
(6.5.2)
T = a ---------gh
where
h mean water depth in the bay (m)
a bay entrance correction factor, as obtained from the following equation 10).
pb
2b
a = 1 + ------ 0.9228 ln ------
p
4l
l
12
(6.5.3)
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where
l length of bay (m)
b width of bay (m)
Table T- 6.5.1 lists the values of the bay entrance correction factor a calculated for different values of b/l.
Table T- 6.5.1 Bay Entrance Correction Factor
b/l
1/2
1/3
1/4
1/5
1/10
1/25
1.320
1.261
1.217
1.187
1.163
1.106
1.064
The natural periods of a rectangular harbor that has a narrow entrance as shown in Fig. T- 6.5.1 (b) may be
calculated approximately with the following equation:
2
(6.5.4)
T = ------------------------------------------------2
2
n
m
m
- + ----
gh -- b
l
where
b width of harbor (m)
m number of nodes in the harbor in the length direction (0, 1, 2, )
n number of nodes in the harbor in the width direction (0, 1, 2, )
Note however that because of the effect of the harbor entrance, the natural periods of an actual harbor are
slightly lower than those calculated using this equation.
(2) Amplitude
The magnitude of amplification factor for the resonant oscillations in a harbor by seiche is limited by the energy
carried out by the disturbance waves that are radiated from the harbor entrance, and the energy lost through the
vortices at the harbor entrance and the bottom friction within the harbor. Accordingly, even if the period of longperiod waves arriving at the harbor coincide with one of the natural periods of the harbor, it is not the case that
the amplitude of the oscillations in the harbor will rise to infinity. Note however that when there is very little
energy loss by vortices and friction, it is necessary to take heed of the harbor paradox, which refers to a
phenomenon whereby the narrowing of a harbor entrance results in the greater amplification within the harbor.
The amplitude amplification factor R for the concave corners at the head of a rectangular-shaped harbor
when the entrance loss is ignored may be obtained as a function of the ratio of the harbor length to the
wavelength using either Fig. T- 6.5.2 or Fig. T- 6.5.3. According to Fig. T- 6.5.2, in a harbor with a long,
narrow rectangular shape, resonance occurs when the period is slightly longer than that corresponding to a
wavelength that satisfies the conventionally-cited resonance condition, namely the harbor length being odd
quarters of the wavelength (1/4, 3/4, 5/4, etc.). According to Fig. T- 6.5.3, the resonance points for a harbor with
a wide rectangular shape are more-or-less the same as those for a completely closed rectangular lake; in other
words, they are given approximately by the following equation:
l
n2
m 2 + -------------2 2b
------
l
: m, n = 0, 1, 2 ,
(6.5.5)
Amplitude amplification factor R
Amplitude amplification factor R
--- =
L
Relative length of the port
Relative length of the port
Fig. T- 6.5.2 Resonance Spectrum for a Harbor with

Long, Narrow Rectangular Shape 11)
Fig. T- 6.5.3 Resonance Spectrum for a Harbor with

Wide Rectangular Shape 11)
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(3) Countermeasures against Seiche

Seiche is the phenomenon whereby long-period waves penetrates into a harbor from the entrance, repeates
perfect reflection within the harbor, and increases its amplitude. In order to hold down the amplitude of seiche, it
is thus necessary to make the reflection imperfect around the inner perimeter of the harbor, or increase the
energy loss within the harbor. For this reason, it is not advisable to build solid quaywalls around the whole
perimeter of a harbor. If a permeable rubble-mound breakwater with a gentle slope is used, wave reflection can
be reduced to some extent, and in addition one can expect a certain energy loss within the core of breakwater.
Furthermore, by installing an inner breakwater close to the position of a node of the seiche in a harbor, the
amplitude of the seiche can be somewhat reduced. Regarding the shape of the harbor, it is thought that an
irregular shape is better than a geometrically regular shape.
6.6 Groundwater Level and Permeation

The groundwater level in coastal aquifers of sandy beaches shall be examined when there is a risk of
arousing a problem by the change of the groundwater level.
The flow velocity and rate of permeation through water-permeable ground or structures shall be
examined when there is a risk of arousing a problem by their changes.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Groundwater Level in Coastal Aquifer
The elevation of brackish groundwater intruding in a
coastal aquifer may be estimated using the following
equation (see Fig. T- 6.6.1) 12):
2
2 x
2
2
(6.6.1)
h = h 0 + ( h l h 0 ) --L
where
r1
r1
h 0 = --------------- z 0 , h l = --------------- z l
r2 r1
r2 r1
h depth below the sea surface of the interface
between fresh water and saltwater at the distance
x (m)
h0 depth below the sea surface of the interface
between fresh water and saltwater at x = 0 (m)
hl depth below the sea surface of the interface
between fresh water and saltwater at x = L (m)
r 1 density of the fresh water (g/cm3)
r 2 density of saltwater (g/cm3)
Fresh water level
Fresh water
Sea
Salt water
Salt w
ater le
vel
Fig. T- 6.6.1 Schematic Drawing of Groundwater

at Coast
z 0 elevation of fresh water above the sea surface at the coast (x 0) (m)
z l elevation of fresh water above the sea surface at x L (m)
L distance from the coast (x 0) to the reference point (m)
x landward distance from the coastline (m)
Equation (6.6.1) cannot be applied if an impermeable layer exists close to the ground surface or in the aquifer:
For the relationship between the rise of groundwater level due to wave runup and beach profile change, see in
10.1 General [Technical Notes] (8).
(2) Permeation into Foundation and Structures
(a) Permeation through a sheet pile wall
The flow rate of permeation through a sheet pile wall is not determined purely by the permeability of the wall;
rather, the permeability of the soil behind the wall has a dominating influence. Shoji et al. 13) examined this
problem, and carried out comprehensive permeation experiments in which they not only varied the tension of
the joints, but also added the cases with and without sand filling in the joint section. They concluded to
propose the following experimental formula:
q =
where
q
K
h
n
Kh
(6.6.4)
flow rate of permeation through a sheet pile joint per unit length in the vertical direction (cm3/s/cm)
permeation coefficient for the joints (cm2-n/s)
pressure head difference between the front and back of a joint (cm)
coefficient depending on the state of the joints
(n 0.5 when the joints are not filled with sand, and n 1.0 when the joints are filled with sand)
When there was sand on both sides of the sheet pile and the joints were under tension, Shoji et al. obtained a
value of 7.0 10-4 cm/s for K in their experiments. However, they also pointed out that if the permeation flow
-135-
is estimated with this value, then the flow rate turns out to be as much as 30 times that observed in the field.
For actual design, it is thus necessary to pay close attention to any difference between the state of the sheet pile
wall used in the experiments and those used in the field.
(b) Permeation through rubble mound
The flow rate of permeation through a rubble mound foundation of a gravity type structure may be estimated
using the following equation:
U =
where
q
U
H
d
g
DH/DS
z
2 g d DH
--------- -------z DS
678
q = UH
(6.6.5)
flow rate of permeation per unit width (m3/s/m)

mean permeation velocity for the whole cross section of rubble mound (m/s)
height of the permeable layer (m)
rubble stone size (m)
gravitational acceleration (= 9.81 m/s2)
hydraulic gradient
resistance coefficient
Equation (6.5.5) has been proposed based on the experimental results using eight different types of stones of
uniform size, with the diameter ranging from 5 mm to 100 mm. The virtual flow length DS may be taken to be
as the total of the 70% to 80% of the permeable layer height and the width of the caisson base. The coefficient
of resistance is shown in Fig. T- 6.6.3. When R e ( = Ud / n ) > 10 4 , it is acceptable to take z 20.
Ud
R e = ------n
Fig. T- 6.6.3 Relationship between Resistance Coefficient and Reynolds Number
[References]
1) IPCC: Climate Change 1995, IPCC Second Assessment Report, The Science of Climate Change, 1995, 572p.
2) Toshihiko NAGAI, Kazuteru SUGAHARA, Hiroshi WATANABE, Koji KAWAGUCHI: Long team observation of the mean
tide level and lond waves at the Kurihama-Bay, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 35, No. 4, 1996. (in Japanese).
3) Katsutoshi TANIMOTO, Tomotsuka TAKAYAMA, Kazuo MURAKAMI, Shigeru MURATA, Hiroiti TSURUYA, Shigeo
TAKAHASHI, Masayuki MORIKAWA, Yasutoshi YOSHIMOTO, Susumu NAKANO, Tetsuya HIRAISHI: Field and
laboratory investigations of the tsunami caused by 1983 Nihonkai Chubu Earthquake, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 470, 1983,
299p. (in Japanese).
4) Chiaki GOTO, Kazuo SATO: Development of tsunami numerical simulation system for Sanriku Coast in Japan, Rept of
PHRI, Vol. 32, No. 2, 1995. (in Japanese).
5) Tomotsuka TAKAYAMA, Tetsuya HIRAISHI: Hydraulic model tests on tsunamis at Suzaki Port, Tech. Note of PHRI, No.
549, 1986, 131p. (in Japanese).
6) Tomotsuka TAKAYAMA, Norihiro NAGAI, Tetsuya HIRAISHI: The numerical calculation of tsunami in Tokyo Bay,
Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 454, 1986, 131p.(in Japanese).
7) Toshihoko NAGAI, Noriaki HASHIMOTO, Tetsuya HIRAISHI, Katsuyoshi SHIMIZU: Characteristics of the HokkaidoEast-off-Earthquake Tsunami, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 802, 1995, 97p. (in Japanese).
8) Koji KOBUNE, Toshihiko NAGAI, Noriaki HASHIMOTO, Tetsuya HIRAISHI, Katsuyoshi SHIMIZU Characteristics of
the Irianjaya Earthquake Tsunami in 1996, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 842, 1996, 96p. (in Japanese).
-136-

9) Tomotsuka TAKAYAMA, Tetsuya HIRAISHI: Amplification mechanism of harbor oscillation derived from field
observation and numerical simulation, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 636, 1988, 70p. (in Japanese).
10) Honda, K., T. Terada, and D. Ishitani: Secondary undulation of oceanic tides, Philosophical Magazine, Vol.15,1908, pp.88126.
11) Ippen, A.T. and Y. Goda: Wave-induced oscillations in harbors: the solution for a rectangular harbor connected to the open
sea, M.I.T. Hydrodynamics Lab. Report No.59, 1963, 90p.
12) Todd, D. K.: Groundwater Hydrology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1963.
13) Yoshihiro SHOJI, Masaharu KUMEDA, Yukiharu TOMITA: Experiments on seepage through interlocking joints of sheet
pile, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 21, No. 4, 1982, pp. 41-82 (in Japanese).
-137-
Chapter 7 Currents and Current Force

7.1 General
(1) The current parameters that shall be used in the design of port and harbor facilities are the velocity
and the direction. The severest conditions shall be set, based on either the field measurements at the
installation location of the facilities in question or the numerical estimation.
(2) For the current force, consideration shall be given to the drag and lift, depending on the type of the
facilities in question and the structural form.
[Commentary]
For structures that are located in a place where there is strong currents such as a tidal currents or river flow, it is
necessary to carry out investigations on the forces produced by the currents with the largest velocity from the most
unfavorable direction. Depending on the type of structures or members, it may also be necessary to consider the
vertical distribution of the current velocity. When waves coexist with currents, it is necessary to use the current
velocity and direction in the state of coexistence. Types of currents in the sea area include ocean currents, tidal
currents, and wind drift currents, which are described in the [Technical Notes] below, along with density currents
caused by the density differences due to salinity or water temperature. In addition, in the coastal area, there are
longshore currents and rip currents caused by waves.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Ocean Currents
Ocean currents are the phenomenon involving the circulation of seawater around the ocean as a whole. They are
the result of a combination of the following currents: a) density currents that are based on local differences in the
density of seawater, b) wind-driven drift currents that are caused by the wind, and c) gradient currents that
accompany spatial inequalities in the atmospheric pressure, along with d) compensation currents (upwelling
currents and or sinking currents) that supplement the aforementioned currents. Ocean currents maintain the
almost steady direction and strength over prolonged periods of time.
(2) Tidal Currents
(a) The nature and strength of tidal currents vary with the geographical conditions of the sea area in question and
the celestial movements. In order to analyze the harmonic components of tidal currents, it is necessary to carry
out continuous observation for at least 25 hours or advisably for full 15 days. In particular, if the topography of
a place is going to be changed considerably, for example when carrying out large-scale land reclamation in
shallow coastal waters, it is desirable to examine the resultant changes in tidal currents at the planning stage.
(b) The tidal currents are the flow of seawater in the horizontal direction that accompanies a tidal variation of sea
level. This variation consists of the tidal components (diurnal tide, semi-diurnal tide, etc.) of the water level
and is thus periodic.
(3) Wind-Driven Currents
When a wind blows over the sea surface, the friction on the boundary between the air and the sea surface
produces a shear stress that causes to induce a flow on the sea surface. As this flow develops, the turbulent eddy
viscosity of the seawater causes the lower layers to start to be pulled along by the upper layers. If the wind
velocity and direction remain constant for a prolonged period of time, a steady state of currents is eventually
reached. Such the currents are referred to as the wind-driven currents.
(4) Nearshore Currents
In the surf zone, there exist special currents called the nearshore currents induced by waves. Because the
nearshore currents are induced within the surf zone, they transport suspended sediments and cause topographical
change of beaches. Consequently, an understanding of the pattern of nearshore currents leads to a deeper
perception of topographical change.
7.2 Current Forces Acting on Submerged Members and Structures (Notification Article 7)
It shall be standard to calculate the drag and lift forces caused by currents acting on a member or a
structure that is submerged or near the water surface using the following equations:
(1) Drag Force
1
F D = --- C D r 0 AU 2
2
(7.2.1)
-138-
where
F D
CD
r0
A
U
drag force acting on the object in the direction of the current (kN)
drag coefficient
density of water (t/m3)
projected area of the object in the direction of the current (m2)
flow velocity (m/s)
(2) Lift Force

1
F L = --- C L r 0 A L U 2
2
where
FL lift force acting on the object in the direction perpendicular to the current (kN)
CL lift coefficient
AL projected area of the object in the direction perpendicular to the current (m2)
(7.2.2)
[Commentary]
The fluid force due to the currents acting on members of a pile-supported structure such as a pier, a pipeline, or the
armor units of a mound is proportional to the square of the flow velocity. It may be divided into the drag force acting
in the direction of the current and the lift force acting in the direction perpendicular to this. Note also that a thin, tubelike object in the water may be subject to vibrations excited by current-induced vortices.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Drag Coefficient
The drag to a submerged object due to currents is expressed as the sum of the surface resistance due to friction
and the form drag due to pressure difference around the object. The drag coefficient varies according to the
shape of the object, the roughness, the direction of the current, and the Reynolds number, and thus the value
appropriate to the conditions in question must be used.
When the Reynolds number is greater than about 103, the values listed in Table T- 7.2.1 may be used as
standard values for the drag coefficient. Note that for a circular cylinder or sphere with a smooth surface, there is
a phenomenon whereby the value of the drag coefficient drops suddenly when the Reynolds number is around
105. However, for a circular cylinder with a rough surface, this drop in drag coefficient is not particularly large,
and the drag coefficient settles down to a constant value that depends on the relative roughness.
For the values of the drag coefficient when a prism or L-shaped member is oriented diagonally relative to the
current, search for references. The data for the cube have been obtained from wave force experiments carried out
by Hamada, Mitsuyasu and Hase.
Table T- 7.2.1 Drag Coefficients
Shape
Circular cylinder
(rough surface)
Projected area
Drag coefficient
1.0
2.0
D2
4
1.2
ab
a /b = 1
a /b = 2
a /b = 4
a/b= 10
a/b= 18
a /b =
D2
4
0.5
0.2
D2
1.3
1.6
Rectangular
prism
Circular disc
Flat plate
Sphere
Cube
-139-
1.12
1.15
1.19
1.29
1.40
2.01
(2) Lift Coefficient

As with the drag coefficient, the lift coefficient varies with the shape of the object, the direction of the current,
and the Reynolds number. However, the lift coefficient is not well understood (see 5.4.1 Wave Force on
Submerged Members).
(3) Current Force Acting on Submerged Breakwater
As for the force acting on the coping of the submerged section at the opening of tsunami protection breakwater,
Iwasaki et al. have measured the pressure on the coping due to the currents. They obtained the values of 0.94 for
the drag coefficient and 0.48 for the lift force coefficient. Tanimoto et al. have carried out similar measurements,
obtaining the values 1.0 to 1.5 for the drag coefficient and 0.5 to 0.8 for the lift coefficient. They have also
pointed out, however, that when the flow velocity in the breakwater opening is large, the presence of the water
surface gradient causes the coefficient values to increase.
7.3 Mass of Armor Stones and Concrete Blocks against Currents (Notification Article 48,
Clause 6)
It shall be standard to calculate the required mass for the armor units (rubble etc.) on a rubble mound to be
stable against currents by means of either appropriate hydraulic model experiments or else the following
equation:
prr U 6
M = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------(7.3.1)
( 48 )g 3 y 6 ( S r 1 ) 3 ( cos q sin q ) 3
where
M
rr
U
g
y
Sr
q
minimum mass of armor stones and blocks (t)

density of armor stones and blocks (t/m3)
current velocity above armor stones and blocks (m/s)
gravitational acceleration (= 9.81 m/s2)
Isbashs constant (1.20 for embedded stones; 0.86 for exposed stones)
specific gravity of armor stones and blocks relative to water
slope angle in the axial direction of the channel bed ()
[Technical Notes]
(1) Isbashs Equation
With regard to the mass of rubble stone that is stable against currents, the US Army Coastal Engineering
Research Center (CERC) has presented equation (7.3.1) for the mass that a rubble stone must have in order to
prevent scouring by tidal currents 8).
(2) Isbashs Constant
Equation (7.3.1) has been derived by considering the balance between the drag caused by a flow acting on a
spherical object on a sloped surface and the frictional resistance of the object. The coefficient y is termed
Isbashs constant. It would appear that the values of 1.20 and 0.86 for embedded stones and exposed stones,
respectively, were determined by Isbash, but the details were not documented. Since equation (7.3.1) has been
obtained by considering the balance of forces for steady flow, for places where it is anticipated that strong
vortices will be generated, it is necessary to use rubble stones of larger mass.
(3) Armor Units for the Mound at the Opening of Tsunami Protection Breakwaters
Iwasaki et al. have carried out two-dimensional steady flow experiments in which they used precast concrete
blocks as the armor for the mound in the opening of breakwaters designed to protect harbors and coastal area
against tsunamis. They obtained a value of 1.08 for Isbashs constant in equation (7.3.1). Tanimoto et al. have
carried out three-dimensional experiments on the opening of a tsunami breakwater. They clarified the structure
of the three-dimensional flow near the opening, and revealed the relationship between the damage ratio and
Isbash's constant when stones or precast concrete blocks were used as the covering material.
[References]
1) Kazuo MURAKAMI, Masayuki MORIKAWA, Tatsuya SAKAGUCHI: Wind effect and water discharge effect on constant
flow - discussion using observation data at off-Sennan (1978-1981) -, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 21, No. 4, 1982, pp. 3-39 (in
Japanese).
2) Masch, F. D.: Mixing and dispersion of wastes by wind and wave action, Advances in Water Pollution Research, Proc. Int.
Conf., Vol. 3, 1962, pp. 145-168.
3) Longuet-Higgins, M.S. and R.W. Stewart: Radiation stress and mass transport in gravity waves, with application to surf
beat, J. Fluid Mech., Vol. 13, 1962, pp. 481-504.
4) Bowen, A. J., D. L. Inman, and V. P. Simons: Wave set-down and set-up, J. Geophs. Res. Vol. 73, 1968, pp. 2569-2577.
5) Kazumasa KATOH, Shin-ichi YANAGISHIMA, Tomoyoshi ISOGAMI, Hiroyuki MURAKAMI: Wave set-up near the
shoreline - field observation at HORF -, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 28, No. 1, 1989, pp. 3-41 (in Japanese).
-140-
6) Yoshimi GODA: Deformation of irregular waves due to depth-controlled wave breaking, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 14, No. 3,
1975, pp. 59-106 (in Japanese), also Irregular wave deformation in the surf zone, Coastal Engineering in Japan, JSCE,
Vol.18, 1975, pp.13-26.
7) Katsutoshi TANIMOTO, Katsutoshi KIMURA, Keiji MIYAZAKI: Study on stability of submerged disk at the opening
section of tsunami protection breakwaters, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 27, No. 4, 1988, pp. 93-121 (in Japanese).
8) Coastal Engineering Research Center: Shore Protection Manual, Vol. II, U.S. Army Corps of Engineering, 1977
-141-
Chapter 8 External Forces Acting on Floating Body and Its Motions

8.1 General
The motions of a floating body produced by external forces such as those due to winds, currents and
waves, along with the mooring force, shall be given due consideration in design of the floating body and
related facilities.
[Commentary]
(1) Floating Body
In general, a floating body refers to a structure that is buoyant in water and its motions within a certain range is
permitted during use. When designing a floating body, it is necessary to investigate both its functions that are
going to be demanded and its safety. In general, the design conditions for the investigation of its function differ
from those for the examination of its safety.
(2) Mooring Equipment
Mooring equipment comes in a whole variety of types and is generally composed of a combination of mooring
lines, mooring anchors, sinkers, intermediate weights, intermediate buoys, mooring rods, connection joints, and
fenders. The mooring equipment has a large influence on the motions of a floating body, and so it is important to
design this equipment safely and appropriately.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Classification of Floating Bodies
The floating bodies used as port and harbor facilities can be divided into floating terminals, offshore petroleum
stockpiling bases, floating breakwaters, mooring buoys, and floating bridges. Moreover, researches for
development of extra large floating structures (mega-float) are being carried out.
(2) Classification of Mooring Methods and Characteristic Features of Each Method
Floating bodies can also be classified by the type of mooring methods. As described below, mooring methods
include catenary mooring (slack mooring), taut mooring, and dolphin mooring.
(a) Catenary mooring (Fig. T- 8.1.1(a))
This is the most common mooring method. With this method, the chains or whatever used in the mooring are
given sufficient lengths to make them slack. This means that the force restraining the motions of the floating
body is small, but nevertheless the mooring system fulfills the function of keeping the floating body in moreor-less the same position. There are various types of catenary mooring, depending on factors like the material
of the mooring lines, the number of mooring lines, and the presence or absence of intermediate buoys and
sinkers.
(b) Taut mooring (Fig. T- 8.1.1(b))
This is a mooring method that reduces the motions of the floating body greatly; a tension leg platform (TLP) is
an example. With this method, the mooring lines are given a large initial tension so that they do not become
slack even when the floating body moves. The advantages of this mooring method are that the floating body
does not move much, and only a small area is needed for installing the mooring lines. However, it is necessary
to take note of the fact that because a large tensile force is generated in the mooring lines, the design of the
lines becomes the critical factor on the safety of the floating body.
(c) Dolphin mooring (Fig. T- 8.1.1(c))
With this method, mooring is maintained using either a pile-type dolphin or a gravity-type dolphin. In general,
this method is suitable for restraining the motions of a floating body in the horizontal direction, but a large
mooring force acts on the dolphin. This method has been used for mooring floating units of offshore
petroleum stockpiling bases.
(d) Mooring method using a universal joint (Fig. T- 8.1.1(d))
The mooring system shown in the figure is an example of a mooring method that can be used to moor a large
offshore floating body. Examples of mooring systems that use a universal joint on the sea bottom include a
SALM (Single Anchor Leg Mooring) type mooring buoy and a MAFCO (MAritime Facility of Cylindrical
cOnstruction) tower.
-142-
Fender
Chain
Dolphin
Mooring anchor
(a) Catenary mooring
(c) Dolphin mooring
Damper
Universal joint
(b) Taut mooring
(d) Mooring by universal joint
Fig. T- 8.1.1 Examples of Mooring Methods for Floating Body
8.2 External Forces Acting on Floating Body (Notification Article 26, Clause 1)
When a port or harbor facility is made of a floating structure, it shall be standard to take the following
forces in design calculation: wind drag force, current drag force, wave-exciting force, wave-drift force,
wave-making resistance, restoring force, and mooring force. These forces shall be calculated by means of
an appropriate analytical method or hydraulic model experiments, in accordance with the mooring method
for the floating body and the size of facility.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Wind Drag Force
With a structure for which a part of the floating body is above the sea surface, winds exert a force on the
structure. This force is called the wind drag force (or wind pressure), and is composed of a pressure drag and a
friction drag. If the floating body is relatively small in size, the pressure drag is dominant. The pressure drag is
proportional to the square of the wind velocity and is expressed as in the following equation:
1
(8.2.1)
F w = --- r a C DW A W UW2
2
where
Fw wind drag force (N)
ra density of air (1.23 kg/m3)
AW projected area of the part of the floating body above the sea surface as viewed from the direction in
which the wind is blowing (m2)
UW wind velocity (m/s)
CDW wind drag coefficient
The wind drag coefficient is a proportionality constant and is also known as the wind pressure coefficient. It may
be determined by means of wind tunnel experiments or the like. However, it is also acceptable to use a value that
has been obtained in the past experiments for a structure with a shape similar to the structure under current study.
Values such as those listed in Table T- 8.2.1 have been proposed as the wind drag coefficients of objects in
the uniform flow. As can be seen from this table, the wind drag coefficient varies with the shape of the floating
body, but it is also affected by the wind direction and the Reynolds number. Note that it is considered that the
wind pressure acts in the direction of the wind flow, with the point of application being the centroid of the
projection of the part of the floating body that is above the water surface. However, it is necessary to take heed
of the fact that this may not necessarily be the case if the floating body is large. Moreover, the velocity of the
actual wind is not uniform in the vertical direction, and so the value of the wind velocity UW used in the wind
pressure calculation is set as that at the elevation of 10 m above the sea surface.
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Table T- 8.2.1 Wind Pressure Coefficient
Square cross-section
2.0
1.6
1
2
Rectangular cross-section
2 (ratio
of side lengths = 1:2)
2.3
1.5
(when one face is in

contact with the ground)
Circular cross-section
(smooth surface)
1.2
1.2
(2) Current Drag Force

When there is currents such as tidal currents, these currents will exert a force on the submerged part of the
floating body. This force is referred to as the flow pressure or the current drag force. Like the wind drag force, it
is proportional to the square of the flow velocity. Note however that since the velocity of the current is generally
small, the current drag force is actually expressed as being proportional to the square of the velocity of the
current relative to the velocity of motion of the floating body as in the following equation:
1
(8.2.2)
F C = --- r 0 C DC A C | U C U | ( U C U )
2
where
FC current drag force (N)
r0 density of fluid (for seawater, 1030 kg/m3)
AC projected area of the submerged part of the floating body as viewed from the direction of the currents
(m2)
UC velocity of the currents (m/s)
U velocity of motion of the floating body (m/s)
CDC drag coefficient with respect to the currents
The drag coefficient CDC is a function of the Reynolds number. When the Reynolds number is large, however,
the values for steady flow in Table T- 7.2.1 in 7.2 Current Forces Acting on Submerged Members and
Structures may be used. The drag coefficient for the currents varies with the shape of the floating body and the
direction of the currents. As with the wind pressure, the direction of the force exerted by the currents and the
direction of the currents itself are not necessarily the same. In general, the deeper the draft of the floating body
relative to the water depth, the larger the drag coefficient for the currents becomes. This is referred to as the
shoaling effect, and the drag coefficient increases because the smaller the gap between the sea bottom and the
base of the floating body, the harder it is for water to flow through this gap.
(3) Wave-Exciting Force
The wave-exciting force is the force exerted by incident waves on the floating body when the floating body is
considered to be fixed in the water. It is composed of a linear force that is proportional to the amplitude of the
incident waves and a nonlinear force that is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the incident waves.
The linear force is the force that the floating body receives from the incident waves as reaction when the floating
body deforms the incident waves. The velocity potential for the deformed wave motion is obtained using wave
diffraction theory. The nonlinear force, on the other hand, is composed of a force that accompanies the finite
amplitude nature of waves and a force that is proportional to the square of the flow velocity. The former force
due to finite amplitude effect can be analyzed theoretically, but in practice it is often ignored. The latter force
that is proportional to the square of the flow velocity becomes large, in particular when the diameter of the
floating body is small relative to the wavelength; it is necessary to determine this force experimentally.
(4) Wave-Drift Force
When waves act on a floating body, the center of the floating bodys motion gradually shifts in the direction of
wave propagation. The force that causes this shift is called the wave-drift force. If it is assumed that the floating
body is two-dimensional and the wave energy is not dissipated, then the wave-drift force is given by the
following equations:
1
(8.2.3)
F d = --- r 0 gHi2R
8
-144-
4ph L
R = K R2 1 + --------------------------------
( 4ph L )
sinh
where
r0 density of seawater (kg/m3)
Fd wave drift force per unit width (N/m)
Hi incident wave height (m)
KR reflection coefficient
R drift force coefficient
(8.2.4)
If the dimensions of the floating body are extremely small relative to the wavelength, the wave drift force may
be ignored as being much smaller than the wave-exciting force. However, as the floating body becomes larger,
the wave drift force becomes dominant. When irregular waves act on a floating body moored at a system having
only a small restraining force, such as a single point mooring buoy designed for use of supertankers, the wavedrift force becomes a dominant factor as it may give rise to slow drift motions.
(5) Wave-Making Resistance
When a floating body moves in still water, the floating body exerts a force on the surrounding water, and the
floating body receives a corresponding reaction force from the water; this reaction force is called the wavemaking resistance. This force may be determined by forcing the floating body to move through the still water
and measuring the force acting on the floating body. In general, however, an analytical method is used whereby
each mode of the floating body motions is assumed to be realized separately, and the velocity potential, which
represents the motion of the fluid around the floating body, is obtained. Only the forces that are proportional to
the motion of the floating body may be determined analytically; the nonlinear forces that are proportional to the
square of the motion cannot be determined analytically. Out of the linear forces (i.e., that proportional to the
motion of the floating body), the term that is proportional to the acceleration of the floating body is called the
added mass term, while the term that is proportional to the velocity is called the wave damping term.
(6) Restoring Force
The static restoring force is the force that makes a floating body to return to its original position when the
floating body moves in still water. It is generated by buoyancy and gravity, when the floating body heaves, rolls
or pitches. This force is generally treated as being proportional to the amplitude of the motion of the floating
body, although this proportionality is lost if the amplitude becomes too large.
(7) Mooring Force
The mooring force (restraining force) is the force that is generated in order to restrain the motion of the floating
body. The magintude of this force depends greatly on the displacement-restoration characteristics of the mooring
system.
(8) Solution Method for Wave-Exciting Force and Wave-Making Resistance Using Velocity Potential
The method adopted for calculating the wave-exciting force and the wave-making resistance involves
deriviation of the velocity potential, which represents the motion of the fluid, and then calculating the waveexciting force and the wave-making resistance from the potential. The analytical method with the velocity
potential is the same for both the wave-exciting force and the wave-making resistance, the only difference being
the boundary conditions. The velocity potential may be obtained using any of a number of methods, such as a
region segmentation method, an integral equation method, a strip method, or a finite element method.
(9) Wave Force Acting on Fixed Floating Body with Rectangular Cross Section
When a floating body is fixed in position, the velocity potential that satisfies the boundary conditions at the sea
bottom and around the floating body can yield the wave force. The wave force acting on a floating body with a
long rectangular cross section such as a floating breakwater can be determined using the approximation theory
of Ito and Chiba 2).
(10) Materials for Mooring
For the materials used in mooring and their characteristic features, search for appropriate references.
(11) Forces Acting on an Extra Large Floating Structure
For an extra large floating structure (mega-float), the external forces described in (1) ~ (10) above are different
from those for a smaller floating body, because of its large size and elastic response characteristics of the
floating body structure. It is thus necessary to carry out sufficient investigations on the motions and elastic
response characteristics of the floaty body structure.
8.3 Motions of Floating Body and Mooring Force (Notification Article 26, Clause 2)
The motions of a floating body and the mooring force shall be calculated by means of an appropriate
analytical method or hydraulic model experiments, in accordance with the shape of the floating body and
the characteristics of the external forces and the mooring system.
-145-
[Commentary]
The motions of a floating body can be determined by
Heaving
solving the dynamic equilibrium equation, with the
Yawing
Rolling
external forces taken to be the forces due to winds and
Surging
waves, the restoring force of the floating body itself,
and the reaction forces of the mooring lines and
fenders. If the floating body is assumed to be a rigid
body, then its motions are comprised of the six
Pitching
components shown in Fig. T-8.3.1, namely surging,
swaying, heaving, pitching, rolling and yawing. Out of
Swaying
these, the modes that represent motions within the
horizontal plane, namely surging, swaying and yawing,
may show long-period oscillations with the period of a
Fig. T- 8.3.1 Components of Vessels Motion
few minutes or more. Such long-period oscillations
have a large influence on the occupancy area of a vessel
at a mooring buoy and the design of the mooring system. One may thus give separate consideration to the long-period
oscillations, taking only the wave-drift force and the long-period oscillation components of the winds and waves as
the external forces when doing analysis.
If the floating body is very long, elastic deformation may accompany the motions of floaty body and this should
be investigated as necessary.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Methods of Solving the Equations of Motions
(a) Steady state solution method for nonlinear equations of motion
The equations of motions for a floating body are nonlinear, meaning that it is not easy to obtain solutions.
Nevertheless, if it is assumed that the motion amplitudes are small and the equations of motion are linearized
by using linear approximations for the nonlinear terms, the solutions can be obtained relatively easily. For
example, for a three-dimensional floating body, one ends up with a system of six simultaneous linear
equations involving the amplitudes and phases of the six modes of motions. Note that if the floating body is
assumed to be a rigid body and its motions are linear, then the motions are proportional to the external forces.
In particular, if there are no currents or wind, then the motions are proportional to the wave height.
(b) Numerical simulation of nonlinear motions
The wind drag force and the current drag force are in general nonlinear, and moreover the restraining forces of
mooring equipment are also often nonlinear. In this case, an effective solution method is to use a numerical
simulation whereby the equations of motion are progressively solved for a series of time steps. Such numerical
simulation is commonplace nowadays. First, the time series data (which will be used as the external forces)
are obtained for the wave-exciting force and the flow velocity due to the waves from the input of incident
wave spectrum, as well as the fluctuating wind speed from the wind spectrum. The external forces obtained
from these time series data are then put into the equations of motions for the floating body, and the time series
data for the motions of the floating body and the mooring force are calculated.
Numerical simulations are used for analyzing the motions of all kinds of floating bodies. For example,
Ueda and Shiraishi 3) have carried out numerical simulations on the motions of a moored vessel, and Suzuki
and Moroishi 4) have analyzed the swinging motion of a vessel moored at a buoy.
Note that the following is usually assumed as preconditions in a numerical simulation: the fluid is an
ideal fluid; the amplitudes of motions of the floating body are small; the incident waves are linear and
their superposition is allowed. If these assumptions cannot be held, it is necessary to carry out hydraulic model
experiments.
(2) Hydraulic Model Experiments
Hydraulic model experiments provide a powerful technique for determining the motions of a floating body and
the mooring force. Up to the present time, hydraulic model experiments have been carried out for all kinds of
floating body. For examples, see references 5) and 6).
(3) Law of Similarity for Mooring Systems
The characteristics of the motions of a floating body vary greatly with the mooring method. When carrying out
hydraulic model experiments on a floating body, it is thus particularly important to give appropriate
consideration to the laws of similarity for the displacement and reaction force characteristics of the mooring
equipment. For example, with a mooring rope, if the material used in the hydraulic model experiments is kept
the same as that used in the field and the size is simply scaled down while maintaining the same shape, then the
law of similarity will not hold; rather it is necessary to scale down the elastic modulus of the material used in the
models relative to that used in the prototype. In practice, however, it will probably be unable to find such a
material, in which case various other contrivances must be used.
-146-
[References]
1) Tomotsuka TAKAYAMA, Tetsuya HIRAISHI, Masami FURUKAWA, Kunihisa SAO, Shin-ichiro TACHINO: Feild
observation of motions of a SALM buoy and tensions of mooring hawsers, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 542, 1985, 38 p. (in
Japanese).
2) Yoshiyuki ITO, Shigeru CHIBA: An approximate theory of floating breakwaters, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 11, No. 2, 1972, pp.
3) Shigeru UEDA, Satoru SHIRAISHI: Method and its evaluation for computation of moored ships motions, Rept of PHRI,
Vol. 22, No. 4, 1983, pp. 181-218 (in Japanese).
4) Yasumasa SUZUKI, Kazuyuki MOROISHI: On the motions of ships moored to single-point mooring systems, Rept of
5) Yasumasa SUZUKI: Study on the design of single point buoy mooring, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 829, 1996, 48 p. (in
Japanese).
6) Sigeru UEDA: Analytical method of ship motions moored to quay walls and the aplications, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 504,
1984, 372 p. (in Japanese).
-147-
Chapter 9 Estuarine Hydraulics

9.1 General (Notification Article 8)
In planning and designing port and harbor facilities in an estuary where a river flows into the sea, estuarine
hydraulic phenomena such as the flow situation at the times of high water and low water in the river, the
bedload, tidal changes and density currents, and the coexistence of waves and river flow shall be estimated
appropriately.
[Commentary]
In addition to the effect of outflow of fresh water during floods and droughts and the sediment transport from rivers,
estuaries are also affected by the tide level changes, waves, tidal currents, longshore currents, and littoral drift. As a
result, several hydraulic phenomena occur such as the periodic changes in water level and current speed, the
formation of density currents, and the settling and deposition of sediment. These phenomena have a large influence
on the flow regime in the estuary and the transport of sediment and others. It is thus necessary to give consideration to
both conditions of rivers and the sea when handling estuarine hydraulics.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Tides in River
The surface water level in a river channel can be calculated using either equation (9.1.1) or equation (9.1.2).
(a) When tides are negligible (see Fig. T- 9.1.1)
2
2
aQ 1
1 Q 1
1
-------------Dh = h 1 h 2 = z 2 z 1
Dx
-------- -------- - -------+ -------2
2gs A 2 A 2
2 K2
K2
2
1
1
(9.1.1)
(b) When tides are considered
64748
1 Q 2QB H Q B H Q
B H Q Q
------ ------- ----------2- ------- ---------i + ------- --------3- ( H z ) ------ + ------- + ----------=0
3
2
t
x x
gA t
x
(9.1.2)
gA
gA
gA
K
A Q
------ + ------- = 0
t x
where
Dh difference in water depth between two cross sections (m)
h1 water depth at cross section 1 (m)
h2 water depth at cross section 2 (m)
z1 height of river bed above an arbitrary datum level at cross section 1 (m)
z2 height of river bed above the arbitrary datum level at cross section 2 (m)
z height of river bed above the arbitrary datum level (m)
a velocity coefficient a 1.0
Q flow rate (m3/s)
A cross-sectional area (m2)
K flow carrying capacity of cross
section (m3/s), K 2 = A 2 R 1 / 3 / n 2
R hydraulic radius (m)
n Mannings roughness coefficient (s/
m1/3)
Dx distance between two cross sections
(m)
t time (s)
B river width (m)
H water level from an arbitrary datum
level (m), H = h + z
Cross Section 2
Cross Section 1
i channel bottom slope
g gravitational acceleration (g = 9.81
Fig. T- 9.1.1 Diagram Showing Water Level Curves
m/s2)
Equation (9.1.1) is a modified form of the basic equation for non-uniform flow in a channel of arbitrary cross
section. Consequently, it cannot be applied to an estuary where there are strong tidal effects and a reverse,
upstream flow occurs during a flood tide. However, it can be applied to an estuary where the tidal range is
small (less than 20 cm) and the tidal compartmut is not long (say up to about 3 to 4 km upstream). Even so, it
should only be used for the order estimate of hydraulic quantities during planning, because the calculation is
only an approximation while ignoring tides.
-148-
Equations (9.1.2) represents the equations of motions and continuity having been modified from the basic
equations for unsteady flow in a river, where the flow rate and water level are the variables. In order to
estimate the surface water level and flow rate due to the tidal action and propagation of tsunami into an
estuary, simultaneous solutions can be obtained by equations (9.1.2) with appropriate boundary conditions.
However, for a channel with a variable cross section, it is not so easy to solve equations (9.1.2) numerically.
(2) Waves Entering an Estuary
Upon entering a river mouth, waves are deformed by the currents. In addition to refraction due to the water
depth, refraction due to the difference in the directions between waves and currents causes the attenuation of
wave height. When the direction of waves is exactly opposite to that of river flow, however, wave height may
increase through energy exchange through the river flows stopping action or radiation stress. When waves with
an increased height run up the river channel, the wave height gradually decreases due to the effects of internal
and external frictions, and turbulence of currents. These opposing effects are related to the properties of river
flow and waves, and the mechanism of wave height change is very complex.
C 2 / C 1 = [1 - ( u /C1) sin a 1 ]
H2 / H 1 =
L1
C1
Wave direction
cre
Zone 1: Still water
st
u=0
C2
L2
t
res
L 2 / L 1 = [1 - ( u /C1) sin a 1 ]
6447448
sina 2 = sin a 1 /[1 - ( u /C1) sin a 1 ]2
Wa
ve
c
ve
Wa
(a) Deformation of waves by currents (deepwater waves)

As shown in Fig. T- 9.1.2, when waves propagates at an
angle a across the straight boundary of discontinuity
between the zone I where the water is still and the zone II
where the water is flowing with a uniform velocity,
refraction occurs at the boundary, changing the wave
celerity and wavelength. If waves can be regarded as
deepwater waves (i.e., the water is sufficiently deep
relative to the wavelength in both the zones I and II), the
wave celerity equation C = g L 2 leads to equations
(9.1.3) and (9.1.4).
Zone 2: Flowing water
Uniform flow
Fig. T- 9.1.2 Refraction of Waves Due to

River Flow
(9.1.3)
sin 2a 2 / sin 2a 1
(9.1.4)
The deformation of deepwater waves propagating on exactly opposite currents is given by equation (9.1.5).
L 2 / L 1 = ( 1 + m )2/4
H 2 / H 1 = 1/ 1 + 4u / C 1
m =
1 + 4u / C 1
644474448
C 2 / C 1 = ( 1 + m ) /2
(9.1.5)
where
a angle between the boundary line and the wave crest ()
u uniform flow velocity in zone II (m/s) (positive when the flow is following the direction of
propagation of the waves, negative when it is against)
L wavelength (m)
C wave celerity (m/s)
H wave height (m)
Note that the subscript 1 denotes zone I (still water), while the subscript 2 denotes zone II (flowing water).
Equations (9.1.3) was proposed by Johnson 1), while equation (9.1.4) was presented by Longuet-Higgins and
Stewart 2). Equations (9.1.5) is a relationship that was obtained by Yu 3). According to equation (9.1.5), the
wave height should increase in the exactly opposite current, and waves breaking theoretically occur when u =
-C1/4. However, according to Yus experiments, wave partially breaks around u = -C1/7, and the wave height
decreases. Incidentally, it should be noted that equation (9.1.5) cannot be applied to waves after breaking.
(b) Deformation of waves by currents (finite water depth)
Near a river mouth, where the water depth is relatively shallow compared with the wavelength of the incoming
waves, the deformation of waves depends on the properties of both waves and river flow, along with the
nonlinear interaction between them. It is thus not easy to estimate the wave height.
Arthur 4) has carried out calculations whereby he specified the sea bottom bathymetry and the flow
velocity distribution. He assumed the linear long waves, where the phase velocity of waves relative to the river
flow is given as g h and it is not affected by the river flow. However, the velocity of waves is generally
affected by currents and is different from the case of no river flow.
-149-
For wave deformation near a river mouth, Iwagaki et al. have proposed a method for calculating the wave
refraction in a current field on uneaven bottom. However, since the phase velocity and the group velocity of
waves relative to the currents cannot be given in advance, any quantitative discussion was not made.
Sakai et al. 5) have proposed a numerical calculation method for obtaining the directional spectrum of
irregular waves near a coast where the water depth changes and currents are present. They show several cases
of calculations. For example, there is a tendency that the change in the principal wave directions are affected
mainly by the water depth and that wave components with frequency higher than the peak freakency are
affected by currents. However, there is much room for further study on the way in which the wave breaking
conditions are given.
With regard to the nature of waves immediately after they have entered an estuary and come up against the
river flow, Hamada has determined the changes that steady shallow water waves undergo while running up an
estuary for both the cases that the vertical velocity distributions are uniform and parabolic. According to
Hamadas calculations, when h = 15 cm, T = 1.2 s and u = 20 cm/s, for both the distributions the wave height
increases by about 5% in comparison with the case of no river flow. However, the rates of the wave height
increase and the wavelength decrease with the river flow were slightly larger for the parabolic velocity
distribution than for the uniform distribution.
(3) Siltation and Channel Maintenance
(a) Siltation
When constructing a harbor, it is often necessary to carry out dredging, i.e., to excavate the sea bottom to
deepen it in order to create navigation channels, mooring basins, and small craft basins. Even with an existing
harbor, if the coming vessels are going to increase in size, it is necessary to carry out dredging in order to
increase the water depth of the navigation channels and mooring basins. The sediment on the sea bottom is
usually subject to external forces such as currents and waves. This means that even after construction of a
harbor has been completed, it is necessary to continue dredging in order to maintain the functionality of the
harbor because siltation occurs.
The sediment in the estuarine part of a bay is often composed of fine particles such as clay and silt
(hereafter referred to as mud). The phenomenon whereby such fine sediment is picked up, transported, and
accumulates at the sea bottom is referred to as siltation. In Japan, Kumamoto Port and Miike Port in the
Ariake Sea, and several harbors in the Suo Nada Sea area are faced with the problem of siltation. There are
also many harbors in Europe, Southeast Asia, China, and South America that have similar problems.
The siltation phenomenon can be divided into three stages: picking-up and transport of bottom mud by
currents; mutual interference between waves and the bottom mud layer; and settling, accumulation and
consolidation. In estuaries, both waves and currents exist simultaneously, and flocculation is promoted in the
zone where saltwater and fresh water mix.
The major difference between siltation and littoral drift (mainly sand) comes from different grain sizes.
The mud that leads to siltation has a tendency to flocculate due to the mixing of the river water and the
seawater in an estuary. Flocculation causes large changes in the settling characteristics of fine sediment. Fine
particles of mud that have settled onto the sea bottom experience a process of dewatering and form the bottom
sediment, and then its strength gradually increases over a long period of time through consolidation.
Consequently, the resistence characteristic of mud against erosion by external forces such as waves and
currents vary, strictly speaking, depending on the characteristic features of the mud (duration over time after
settling (the level of consolidation), the texture, water content, organic matter content, etc.). This is the major
difference between siltation and littoral drift, whereby the sand is generally treated as individual grain.
Near to the sea bottom, the density of the mud generally varies with depth. In harbors that suffer from
heavy siltation, much efforts are being made for the measurement, maintenance, and control of water depth,
including that of navigation channels. For places where siltation is particularly pronounced, the water depth of
navigation channels is quite changeable, and so it is necessary to monitor the bottom level constantly. If the
required water depth is not sufficient for the safe navigation of vessels, bottom sediment need to be removed
immediately.
In most of the harbors in the world that suffer from heavy siltation, the sea bottom in approach channels is
covered with fluid mud with a density of 1.05~1.3 g/cm3. In such a case, it is important to define the water
depth which ensure safe navigation, because this definition directly affects the timing and quantity of
dredging. Bathymetry measurement using a sounding lead or echo-sounders has been carried out for a long
time for the purpose of managing and maintaining navigation channels. In the echo-sounding, a fluid mud
layer can be detected by using different frequencies. The two frequencies commonly used are say 210 kHz
(sound waves of this frequency are reflected from the surface of the fluid mud) and 33 kHz (sound waves of
this frequency passes through the fluid mud but is reflected from sand or higher-density mud). In some of the
large European ports such as Rotterdam, Zeebrugge, Dunkirk, Bordeaux and Nantes, as well as in estuaries in
Brazil, Venezuela and Indonesia, it is said that the difference between the surface detected by 210 kHz sound
waves and that detected by 33 kHz sound waves can be as much as a few meters 6). Note, however, that it is
not really sufficient to fix the water depth for which navigation is possible simply by using such equipment. In
Europe, where many navigation channels have the problem of heavy siltation (in particular in the Rotterdam
Europort area), the safe nautical depth is specified as being the depth at which the density of bottom material
is no more than 1.2 g/cm3 7).
-150-
In addition to this density requirement, the following two criteria must be satisfied.
Even if the draft of a vessel approaches the nautical depth, there should be no damage to the hull.
The viscous drag induced by the underside of a moving vessel (i.e., the rheology characteristic) and the
internal waves generated at the mud/water boundary do not cause any change in the water depth.
The criteria mentioned above can be considered that the water depth has been defined from a physical
standpoint. Although it is ultimately desirable to carry out direct evaluation by means of a viscosity meter, it
can be considered that at the present technical stage, the water depth has been specfied using the density value
that is most reliable in terms of measurement technology. New measuring equipment for the sediment density
in navigation channels using the g rays has been developed in Europe 6). In Japan, Ishizuka and Nemoto 8)
have developed a density measuring device that uses the g rays.
(b) Formation of fluid mud
The fluid mud layer is often found in estuaries or on the continental shelf close to the coast. The layer contains
a very high concentration of mud in fluid condition and easy to move. The mud concentration in the fluid mud
layer is of the order of 10,000~300,000 mg/l 9). In fact, Krone1 9) defines a fluid mud layer to have a mud
concentration of at least 10,000 mg/l. Kirby and Parker1 10) have obtained the vertical distribution of the
density within a fluid mud layer using a density measuring device that makes use of the scattering properties
of the g rays. By comparing with the results of echo sounding measurements, they have concluded that the
density of fluid mud lies in the range 1.05~1.3 g/cm3.
(c) Effect of submerged dykes
In Kumamoto Port, which is currently being constructed on very gentle mud flats of the Ariake Sea, it is
expected that navigation channels and mooring basins will be subject to siltation. Large-scale field
observations are thus being carried out to investigate siltation process in this area, and proposals of
countermeasure are being investigated. Before construction was commenced, i.e., when there was nothing at
all in this sea area, three test trenches for siltation experiments were constructed. One (Trench No. 1) was
located where the water depth is 4m, and two (Trenches No. 2 and No. 3; separated from each other by 100m)
were located where the water depth is 2m. The three trenches were all of the same size, but Trench No. 3 was
made different from the other two in that it was surrounded by 1 m-high submerged dykes. The locations of
the trenches are shown in Fig. T- 9.1.3.
Fig. T- 9.1.3 Locations of Trenches Used in Siltation Experiments
Figure T- 9.1.4 shows the time series of the amount of siltation in each trench, as measured at the center of
each of the three trenches. During two large storms in 1987, Trenches No.1 and No.2 silted up rapidly, with
over 60 cm of siltation occurring in just one day. However, in Trench No. 3, which was surrounded by
submerged dykes, hardly any siltation occurred at all; there was also no trace of any significant mud
accumulation along the outsides of the submerged dykes.
-151-
-100
-152-
Area 6
92.9
93.3
93.10 94.2
Fig. T- 9.1.5 Time History of Siltation in Various Areas of Kumamoto Port
94.9
9506
9503
Anchorage
9506
9503
100
9506
9503
Area 2
9506
9503
9506
50
9503
9412
9409
9405
50
9506
9412
9409
9405
9402
9312
100
9503
9412
9409
9405
9402
9310
cm
150
9506
9503
9412
9409
9405
9402
9312
9308
Area 2
9412
9409
9405
9402
9312
9310
9305
Area 5
9412
9409
9405
9402
9312
9310
9308
9303
9302
9301
9212
2/1
9506
9503
9405
9405
9402
9312
9310
9308
9305
9303
9211
Area 4
9412
9402
9402
9312
9310
9308
9305
9303
9302
Area 3
9412
9312
9312
9310
9308
9305
9303
9302
9210
9209
Area 6
1988
1/1
9409
9310
9310
9308
9305
9303
9302
9301
9212
9211
9210
9209
12/1
9409
9308
9305
9303
9302
9301
9212
9211
9210
11/1
9308
9305
100
9305
-100
9303
-100
9303
-100
9302
95.6
Area 2
9301
9302
-100
9302
Area 10
9301
9301
100
9301
-100
9301
Area 9
9209
9212
100
9211
-100
9210
Area 8
9209
9212
100
Area 1
9211
9210
-100
9209
Area 7
10/1
9212
1000(m)
9211
9/1
9210
Area 7
9209
Units : cm
8/1
9212
Area 8
7/1
9211
6/1
9210
9506
9503
Waterway
9506
9503
100
9506
9503
9412
9409
5/1
9209
94.9
9412
9405
Area 9
9412
9409
4/1
9212
93.10 94.2
9405
9402
9312
9310
9308
9305
3/1
9409
9402
9312
9310
9308
9303
9302
9301
9212
9211
9210
9405
9402
9312
9310
9308
9305
9303
9302
9301
9212
9211
9210
Area 10
2/1
9211
93.3
9305
9303
9302
9301
9212
Dredging
1987
1/1
9210
92.9
9211
Deposition height
1986
12/1
9209
-100
9210
-100
9209
-100
9209
-100
9209
3/1
cm
150
Trench No.1 (DL-4m)

Trench No.2 (DL-2m)
Trench No.3 (DL-2m)
100
Fig. T- 9.1.4 Time History of Siltation in the Central Parts of Three Test Trenches
Area 1
100
Area 1
100
Area 2
100
100
Area 3
100
Area 4
100
Area 5
95.6
Area 1
2000(m)
Units : cm
Figure T- 9.1.5 shows the change over time in siltation for a number of areas of Kumamoto Port after it
was partially opened; some of the areas are in a navigation channel, while others are in a mooring basin.
Submerged dykes of 1 m to 1.5 m in height were installed on the both sides of the navigation channel. For the
part of navigation channel (Areas 6 to 10), hardly any silt accumulation was observed from October 1993
onwards, thus showing the effect of the submerged dykes in effectively preventing siltation. For the mooring
basin part (Areas 1~5), on the other hand, there was progressive sedimentation. It is thought that this was
caused by fluid mud flowing in from the lower section of the pier. The places from where the fluid mud
flowed in are currently being plugged up, and continuous observation is being carried out.
(d) Numerical simulation
In order to forecast siltation, it is necessary to predict external forces such as currents and waves, and develop
the computational models that incorporate the above-mentioned flocculation, settling, and erosion
mechanisms, with the fluid mud model that describes the formation of fluid mud and its flow mechanism.
Tsuruya 12) has applied a multi-layered level siltation forecasting model to Kumamoto Port, and then Tsuruya
et al. have extended it into a new model that includes fluid mud layer mechanism. They have shown that this
model accurately represents the siltation of Kumamoto Port during a typhoon.
[References]
1) J. W. Johnson: The refraction of surface waves by current, Trans. A. G. V., Vol. 28, No. 6, 1947.
2) Longuet-Higgins, M. S., and R. W. Stewart: The change in amplitude of short gravity waves on steady non-uniform
currents, J. Fluid Mech., Vol. 10, 1952, pp. 529-549.
3) Yu, Yi-Yuan: Breaking of waves by an opposing current, Trans. A. G. U., Vol. 33, No. 1, 1950.
4) Arthur, R. S.: Refraction of shallow water wave - The combined effect of current and underwater topography -, Trans.
A. G. U., Vol. 31, 1950, pp. 549-552.
5) Sakai, T., F. Hirosue, and Y. Inagaki: Wave directional spectra change due to underwater topography and current, Proc.
Fifth International Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineerring (OMAE) Symposium, Vol. 1, 1986, pp. 59-65.
6) De Vlieger, H. and J. De Cloedt: Navitracker: a giant step forward in tactics and economics of maintenance dredging, Terra
et Aqua 35, December 1987, pp. 2-18.
7) PIANC: Navigation in muddy areas, Excerpt from Bulletin No. 43(1982 - 1983), Report of Working Group 3-a, 1983,
PIANC, Brussels.
8) Koji ISHIZUKA, Takashi NEMOTO: Development of mud layer density meter using radio isotope, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 30,
No. 4, 1991, pp. 85-109 (in Japanese).
9) Van Leussen, W. and J. Dronkers: Physical process in estuaries: An introduction, in J. Dronkers and W. van Leussen (ed),
Physical Processes in Estuaries, Springer-Verlag, 1988, 560 p.
10) Krone, R. B.: Flume studies of the transport of sediment in estuarial shoaling processes, University of California, Hydraulic
Engneering Lab. and Sanitary Research Lab., Barkeley, 1962, 110 p.
11) Kirby, R. and W. R. Parker: Seabed density measurements related to echo sounder records, The Dock and Harbour
Authority, Vol. LIV, No. 641, 1974, pp. 423-424.
12) Tsuruya, H.: Cohesive sediment transport model and its application to approach channels and anchorages in estuarine ports,
Seminar Text on Maritime Infrastructure Development, Langkawi, Malaysia, November 1995, pp. 39-53.
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Chapter 10 Littoral Drift

When port and harbor facilities are to be affected by the littoral drift phenomenon, characteristic values of
littoral drift shall be established appropriately for sediment grain size, threshold depth of sediment
movement, longshore sediment transport rate, and predominant direction of longshore transport.
[Commentary]
(1) Littoral drift refers to either the phenomenon that the sediment composing a sea coast or lakeshore is moved by
the action of some force such as waves or currents, or material that is moved by the above process.
(2) Although the movement of sand by winds and the sand that is thus moved are referred to as the wind-blown
sand, in the broad definition the littoral drift is also considered to include wind-blown sand at beaches.
(3) Sediment that forms a beach is supplied from nearby rivers, coastal cliffs, and the adjacent coastline. The
sediment is exposed to the action of waves or currents during the supply process or after it has accreted on the
beach. This is why the sediment shows characteristics that reflect the characteristics of external forces such as
waves and currents. This is referred to as the sediment sorting action by external forces.
(4) As a natural beach is repeatedly subjected to process of erosion when storm waves attack and that of accretion
during periods when waves are moderate, it achieves a relatively balanced topography over a long period. This
balance may be lost by a reduction in the supply of sand owing to river improvements, by changes in sand
supply conditions following construction of coastal structures, and by changes in external forces such as waves
and currents. Then beach deformation will occur as the beach moves toward new equilibrium conditions. When
building structures such as breakwaters, groins, detached breakwaters, and training jetties, careful attention
should be paid to the changes that the construction works will bring about in the balance of the beach.
Topographical changes that might be induced by a construction project should be sufficiently investigated in
advance. In addition, careful attention should be paid to the deformation conditions of the beach both during
construction and following completion of any structure, and appropriate coastal protection countermeasures
should be taken any time when there are concerns about the possibility for disaster triggered by coastal erosion.
(5) When waves approach a coast from offshore, the movement of water particles near the sea floor does not have
the force to move the sediment in places where the water depth is sufficiently deep. At a certain water depth,
however, the sediment begins to move. The water depth at this boundary where sediment begins to move is
called the threshold depth of sediment movement. Sato 1) studied the movement of sediment by placing
radioactive glass sand on the sea floor and investigating the distribution of their movement. From this study, he
defined two conditions that are called the surface layer movement and the total movement, respectively. He
applied the former term to the situation in which the sand in the surface layer on the sea floor is moved
collectively in the direction of wave movement. The latter term he applied to the situation that the sand shows
striking movement with a distinctly visible change in water depth (see [Technical Notes] (4)).
(6) Longshore sediment transport rate refers to the rate of littoral drift in the direction parallel to the coast that is
caused by waves obliquely incident to a coast.
(7) Longshore sediment moves in either the right or left direction along a coast, corresponding to the direction of
incoming waves. The direction with the larger volume of movement during a year is called the predominant
direction.
(8) The littoral drift in the direction parallel to the coastline (shoreline) is designated as the longshore sediment
transport. It contributes to the advance and retreat of a shoreline. Because the process is normally nonreversible,
it is often accompanied by beach erosion or accretion over a long period of time.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Coast Topography
(a) Terminology for various sections of a beach profile
Various sections of a sandy beach are defined with the terminology shown in Fig. T- 10.1.1. The offshore is
the area on the ocean side where waves do not break normally, and in many cases the bottom slope is
comparatively gentle. The inshore (nearshore) refers to the area between the offshore and the low tide
shoreline, where waves break and longshore bars or steps are formed. The foreshore is the zone from the
low tide shoreline to the location where waves will reach normally, and the backshore is the zone from the
landward boundary of foreshore to the coastline, where waves will reach during stormy weather with the rise
of water level.
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Shore
Backshore Foreshore
Beach
scarp
Inshore
Low tide shoreline
Bluffs
High tide shoreline
Coastline
Coast
Offshore
Mean high water

Mean Low water
Fig. T- 10.1.1 Terminology of Beach Profile
(b) Step type beach (ordinary beach) and bar type beach (storm beach)
When a model beach is constructed with natural sand in a wave channel and exposed to waves over a long
period of time, the beach profile will approach an equilibrium condition corresponding to the waves acting
upon it. This equilibrium condition of beach is broadly classified into two types as shown in Fig. T- 10.1.2 (a)
and (b), called a step type beach and a bar type beach, respectively.
Bar type beach
Step type beach
(Storm beach)
(Normal beach)
Forebeach
Forebeach
Step
Trough
(a) Step type beach
bar
(b) Bar type beach
Fig. T- 10.1.2 Step Type Beach and Bar Type Beach
(2) Characteristics of Sediment

The grain size characteristics of sediment are normally expressed with the indices given below.
Median diameter (d50): diameter corresponding to a cumulative percentage p = 50% on the grain size
distribution curve
100
dDp
Average grain diameter (dm):
p=0
d m = ---------------------
(10.1.1)
100
Dp
p=0
Sorting coefficient
(S0):
S 0 = d 75 d 25
Skewness parameter
(Sk):
S k = d 75 d 25 ( d 50 )
where
p
Dp
d25
d75
(10.1.2)
2
(10.1.3)
cumulative percentage (%)

increase in the cumulative percentage
grain size corresponding to 25% of the cumulative percentage
grain size corresponding to 75% of the cumulative percentage
(3) Form of Littoral Drift Movement

Littoral drift is classified into two categories of bedload and suspended sediment, according to the modes of
sediment movement. The bedload includes sheet flow.
(a) Bedload: littoral drift that moves by tumbling, sliding or bouncing along the surface of the sea floor through
the direct action of waves and currents.
(b) Suspended sediment: littoral drift that is suspended in seawater by turbulence of breakers and others and
transported by currents.
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(c) Sheet flow: littoral drift that moves as a layer of high density flow near the bed surface.
Shallow water zones can be classified into three regions as shown in Fig. T- 10.1.3, depending upon the physical
properties of waves that provide the external forces for the littoral drift phenomenon. The dominant mode of the
littoral drift movement in each region is as follows.
Offshore zone
In order for sand to be moved by the action of fluid motion (oscillatory movement), the current velocity of
the fluid must exceed a certain value. This condition is generally called the threshold of movement. For
littoral drift the threshold of movement is defined with the water depth (threshold depth of sediment
movement). When the water depth is shallower than the threshold depth of sediment movement, regular,
small undulating topographic contours that are called the sand ripples will form on the sea floor surface.
When sand ripples form, vortices are generated by the fluid motion in the vicinity of the sand ripples and
movement of suspended sediment trapped in the vortices occur. As the water depth becomes shallower,
sand ripples are extinguished, and a sheet flow condition occur in which sediment moves in stratified layers
extending several layers below the sea bed surface.
Surf zone
Inside the surf zone, high-density suspension of sediment is formed by the severe agitation and action of
large-scale vortices that are generated by breakers. The volume of sand that moves near the bed surface in a
bedload state also increases. For convenience the sand movement inside the surf zone is divided into a
component that moves parallel to the shoreline (coastline) (called the longshore sediment transport) and a
component that is perpendicular to the shoreline (called the cross-shore sediment transport). While the time
frame for beach deformation caused by longshore sediment transport is long, the time frame for cross-shore
sediment transport is relatively short (from a few days to about one week), like that for periods of passing
storms.
Swash zone
Bed surface current

speed amplitude
Wave height H
The sand movement in a swash zone differs for the times of wave runup and downflow. During the time of
wave runup sand is put in suspension by the agitation at the front of a wave and transported by running-up
water, whereas during the downflow sand is carried in a bedload mode.
Threshold depth of
sediment movement
Suspension above
sand ripples
Bedload movement
Offshore zone
Sheet flow
Suspension
from breakers
Breaker zone
Movement in the
wave runup zone
Agitation from breakers
Suspension above sand ripples
Undertow
Nearshore currents
Swash zone
Fig. T- 10.1.3 Changes in Sediment Movement Modes in Cross-Shore Direction
(4) Physical Meaning of and Estimation Formulas for the Threshold Depth of Sediment Movement
To determine the extension of breakwater (water depth at the head) and the required threshold depth of sediment
movement when seeking the offshore boundary of beach deformation, conducted a number of field surveys
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using radioactive glass sand as a tracer. Based upon their observed results they defined the littoral drift
movement conditions as follows.
(a) Surface layer movement:
As shown in Fig. T- 10.1.4 (a), the elongation of the isocount lines that show the distribution of radioactive
glass sand after waves acted upon it on the sea floor demonstrates that all of the sand has moved in the
direction of the waves. But the location of the highest count remained at the input point of glass sand,
indicating no movement. This corresponds to a situation in which the surface layer sand is moved collectively
by traction, parallel to the wave direction.
(b) Total movement:
As shown in Fig. T- 10.1.4 (b), this refers to a situation in which both the isocount lines and the portion of the
highest count move in the wave direction. This corresponds to a situation of distinct sand movement with the
result of apparent change in water depth. The threshold depth of total sediment movement is often calculated
when the threshold depth of sediment movement is investigated for engineering purposes.
Waves
Waves
Input point
Input point
Highest count
Highest count
Isocount line
Isocount line
(a) Surface layer movement
(b) Total movement
Fig. T- 10.1.4 Spread of Radioactive Glass Sand in Surface Layer Movement and Total Movement
Based upon their field data, 2) proposed two equations for estimating the threshold depth of surface layer
sediment movement and that of total sediment movement.
(c) Threshold depth of surface layer sediment movement
2ph i H 0
H0
d 13
sinh ----------- ----------- = 1.35 -----
L
H
L
L0
0
(10.1.4)
(d) Threshold depth of total sediment movement

H0
-----L0
where
L0
H0
L
H
d
hi
2ph i H 0
d 13
= 2.40 -----
sinh ----------- ----- L 0
L
H
(10.1.5)

equivalent deepwater wave height (m)
wavelength at water depth hi (m)
wave height at water depth hi (m)
sediment grain size (average grain size or median diameter) (m)
threshold depth of sediment movement (m)
Repeated calculations are required to estimate the threshold water depths using equations (10.1.4) and (10.1.5).
Calculation diagrams like those in Fig. T- 10.1.5 (a) and (b) have been prepared so that the depths can be easily
estimated. By specifing d/L0 and H0/L0, it is possible to determine hi/L0.
(5) Longshore Sediment Transport
The predominant direction of longshore sediment transport is determined using the following information:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Topography of the natural coast and that around coastal structures (see Fig. T- 10.1.6)
Alongshore distribution of the sediment characteristics (median diameter, mineral composition, etc.)
Direction of movement of fluorescent sand tracers
Direction of incident wave energy flux
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Fig. T- 10.1.5 (a) Calculation Diagram for Threshold Depth of Surface Layer Sediment Movement
Fig. T- 10.1.5 (b) Calculation Diagram for Threshold Depth of Total Sediment Movement
Predominant direction
Jetties
River
current
Harbor interior
Eroding coast protected Littoral drift accretion
by a coastal revetment Beach is wide
Beach is narrow
Detached breakwaters
Beach is narrow
Sand spit
Beach is wide
Fig. T- 10.1.6 Typical Coastal Topography Showing the Predominant Direction of Littoral Drift
To estimate the longshore sediment transport rate, the following various data must be prepared and sufficiently
investigated:
(a) Continuous observation data of the change in sediment volume in the area around a coastal structure
(b) Data on the alongshore component of wave energy flex
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(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Data concerning the littoral drift rate at the surrounding coast

Data on past dredging quantities
Continuous observation data on deposition volume at the location of experimental dredging
Data on the volume of movement of fluorescent sand tracers placed within the surf zone
Various equations can be used to estimate an approximate value of longshore sediment transport rate 3), 4).
Longshore sediment estimation equations are normally given in the expression shown in equation (10.1.6), with
the coefficient a for various equations being as given in Table T- 10.1.1.
2
Ex =
where
Qx
Ex
Kr
nA
w 0
r 0
g
HA
LA
T
a b
2
SK r
n A w 0 H A L A
- sin a b cos a b
---------------------------8T
64748
Q x = aE x
(10.1.6)
longshore sediment transport rate (m3/s)

alongshore component of wave energy flux (kNm/m/s)
refraction coefficient between the wave observation point and the breaking point
ratio of group velocity to wave celerity at the wave observation point
= r0g
seawater density (t/m3) (1030 kg/m3)
gravitational acceleration (m/s2) (9.81 m/s2)
wave height at the wave observation point (m)
wavelength at the wave observation point (m)
wave period (s)
angle of wave incidence at the breaking point ()
Table T- 10.1.1 Coefficient a for Longshore Sediment Transport Rate Equation
Savage 3)
Sato and Tanaka 1)
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 4)
0.022
0.03
0.04
(6) Littoral Drift Phenomenon in the Surf Zone

Inside the surf zone, large quantities of sand are put in motion by the increase of the water particle velocity near
the bottom, by turbulence caused by wave breaking, and by the existence of nearshore currents. The sediment
movement when suspended sediment is predominant can be examined by dividing the movement into two types.
(a) Sediment suspension process caused by systematic vortices formed by wave breaking.
(b) Settling process during which sediment is buffeted by random external forces following breakup of organized
vortices into small eddies.
Density
Current velocity in the

direction of the shore
Figure T- 10.1.7 gives the results of continuous observations of suspended sediment concentration and
horizontal current speed that were carried out by Katoh et al. 5) inside a breaker zone in the field. The white
arrows in the figure point out the waves that broke on the offshore side of the observation point and the black
arrows point out the waves that passed the observation point and broke on the coast side. It is clear that the
suspended sediment concentration increased rapidly when waves broke on the offshore side. This result
indicates that sediment suspension is related to the organized vortices (particularly obliquely descending
vortices) that occur after waves break.
Time
Fig. T- 10.1.7 Example of Field Observation of Suspended Sediment Density 10)
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(7) Topographical (Shoreline) Deformation in the Swash Zone

Horikawa et al. investigated the criteria for shoreline advance and retreat occurring as a result of sand movement
in the swash zone based on laboratory experiments, and proposed equation (10.1.7) which is also applicable for
the field condition.
H0
0.27 d 0.67
----(10.1.7)
------ = C s ( tan b )
L 0
L0
where
H 0
L0
tanb
d
Cs
deepwater wave height (m)

average bottom slope from the shoreline to a water depth of 20 m
sediment grain size (m)
coefficient
Based on equation (10.1.7), a shoreline will retreat when Cs 18 (see Fig. T- 10.1.8).
Retreat
Index based upon experimental results
or
Retreat Advance
Advance
Fig. T- 10.1.8 Advance and Retreat of Shorelines in Field
Distance in offshore
HoRF 3/12/86 9/11/86 D.L.+1.4m

Offshore
direction
Calculated value
Measured values
Shore direction
Month seaward
Fig. T- 10.1.9 Comparison of Calculation and Actual Measurements of Shoreline Location
Katoh et al. revised equation (10.1.7) using deepwater wave energy flux and presented a model to calculate the
change of daily shoreline locations. Figure T- 10.1.9 is a comparison of the calculated and actually measured
results of shoreline location.
(8) Relationship between Foreshore Topographical Changes and Groundwater Level
The topographical changes that accompany the change in the foreshore tide level can be explained as follows by
using Fig. T- 10.1.10 6). When the tide level changes, the beach groundwater level also changes as a response.
But because of the delay in response time, the groundwater level differs from the foreshore tide level during the
time of flood tides and that of ebb tides. During the flood tide the groundwater level is low, and it is easy for the
seawater running up on the beach to permeate underground. Thus the sediment carried by the seawater when it
runs up on the beach will accrete there. On the other hand, during the time of ebb tide the groundwater level is
high and it is difficult for seawater to run up on the beach and to permeate underground. At certain conditions,
the groundwater may flow out of the beach surface during the ebb tide. As shown in Fig. T- 10.1.10 (b), the
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result is that the sediment that accreted during the time of flood tide will be eroded, and return to its original
location.
When waves run up to a high level on a beach during storm periods, a high groundwater level condition
continues throughout the stormy weather period because the run-up seawater permeates into the beach, and the
condition becomes as shown in Fig. T- 10.1.10 (b). Occurrence of rapid foreshore erosion during such the
condition has been confirmed by the field data.
Some shore protection methods make use of this relationship between the foreshore groundwater level and
sand movement; i.e., lowering the groundwater level by forced means or gravity and thus halting erosion. In the
gravity methods, a highly water-permeable layer is installed in the foreshore sand to cause the groundwater flow
down offshore and to lower the groundwater level. With this method it is possible to preserve beach conditions
close to those of a natural beach because no structures are visible above the beach floor.
Accretion
Sand movement towards the coast
Permeation
Groundwater surface
Erosion
(a) Flood Tide
Groundwater surface
Sand movement towards the offshore
Water outflow
Accretion
(b) Ebb Tide
Fig. T- 10.1.10 Relationship between Foreshore Topographical Changes and Groundwater Level
10.2 Scouring around Structures

Scouring shall be taken into consideration when there are concerns that scouring around structures such as
breakwaters, groins, and training jetties may affect the safety and integrity of structures.
[Commentary]
Wave characteristics that act on natural beaches can be considered as nearly fixed over a long period of time.
Topographies that form in response to these characteristics are nearly stable as well. Scouring will occur when
structures are erected and the equilibrium between external forces and topography will be disturbed locally or over a
broad area. Because the mechanism and amount of scouring will also change when the conditions of wave action on
a beach vary with construction of structures, these must be considered carefully when choosing countermeasures
against scouring.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Beach Scouring in Front of Coastal Revetment

It is well known that beach scouring in front of coastal
revetment has a close relationship with wave reflection. For
example, Fig. T- 10.2.1 has been proposed for determining
scouring or accretion by means of the reflection coefficient K
and the parameter (H0 / L0)(l /d50) sina, which is defined with
the wave steepness H0 / L0, median sediment diameter d50,
slope gradient of coastal revetment a (for a vertical
breakwater, a = 90), and the distance l from the wave runup
point on an equilibrium profile to the location of the coastal
revetment. The diagram indicates that all other conditions
being equal, it is advantageous to make the front surface of
revetment inclined against beach scouring in front of
revetment.
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Scouring
Accretion
H0
L0 d50
sin
Fig. T- 10.2.1 Threshold Conditions between

Scouring and Accretion in Front
of Coastal Revetment
(2) Local Scouring around Breakwaters

(a) Scouring in the surf zone
Local scouring at the breakwater head
West breakwater
Inner breakwater
East breakwater
North breakwater
Inner breakwater
South breakwater
Legend
West breakwater
Port of Kanazawa
Inner breakwater
New south breakwater
Port ofAkita
ofAkita
Port
Breakwater
Port of Mikuni
Sankoku
Scouring depth
Scouring depth
Water depth
Kashima
Niigata New Port Port of Kagoshima
Figure T- 10.2.2 shows the local scouring conditions around a breakwater head, as analyzed by Tanaka.
The maximum scouring depth is found to be nearly equal to the maximum significant wave height
(H1/3)max during the period up to 15 days prior to the time of scouring measurements. In addition, Fig. T10.2.3 shows the relationship between the water depth around a breakwater head and the scouring depth.
The scouring depth becomes largest when the water depth at breakwater head is about 3 m to 5 m (breaker
zone).
Relationship to (H1/3)max during the prior15 days
Fig. T- 10.2.2 Relationship between Scouring

Depth at Breakwater Head
and Maximum Significant Wave Height
during the Prior 15 Days
Water depth around the breakwater head

Fig. T- 10.2.3 Relationship between Scouring
Depth around Breakwater Head
and Water Depth
Scouring along the face line of breakwaters
Scouring depth (m)
Figure T- 10.2.4 shows the relationship between the scouring depth along the face line of a breakwater and
the water depth, which is based on the field data of a large harbor. The closed cirdes in the figure show the
scouring depth in the section of the south breakwater which is oriented obliquely to the coastline. The
alignment of south breakwater changed from perpendiaular to oblique to the coastline at the water depth of
about 7 m. We can see that the scouring depth becomes largest at this inflection point and then gradually
decreases as one moves offshore. The scouring depth along the sections of breakwaters perpendicular to the
coastline are shown with open circles. It reaches a maximum value at the point of water depth about 2 m,
and decreases as the water depth becomes shallower or deeper than that point. The location where the
scouring depth is largest corresponds to the location where a longshore bar exist.
North breakwater and south

breakwater vertical sections
South breakwater slope section
Water depth (m)
Fig. T- 10.2.4 Relationship between Scouring Depth and Water Depth
(b) Scouring in standing wave regime

Scouring depth in front of a vertical wall tends to decrease as the initial water depth in front of the wall
increases and the wave condition is shifted into the standing wave regime. In case of composite type
breakwaters, where the toe of rubble mound is somewhat away from the wave reflection surface of the upright
section, scouring at the toe of rubble mound by standing waves sometimes become a problem. Irie et al. 7)
carried out experiments concerning this type of scouring and highlighted the following issues:
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horizonal velocity of water particles at the bottom by

incident waves Ub to the settling velocity of sediment.
When Ub / > 10, sediment will move from the location
of the node of standing waves to the location of the
antinode, with scouring occurring at the node and
accretion taking place at the antinode (L-type scouring).
When Ub / < 10, the opposite phenomenon (N-type
scouring) will occur (refer to Fig. T- 10.2.6). The L-type
scouring refers to the phenomenon where accretion
occurs at the antinode of standing waves and scouring
occurs at the node, whereas the N-type scouring refers to
the opposite phenomenon where scouring occurs at the
antinode and accretion occurs at the node.
There are many instances in the field where Ub / > 10,
Breakwater
The basic parameter is Ub /, the ratio of the maximum
Node
Antinode
N-type
Rubble mound
L-type
Fig. T- 10.2.6 Sketch of Scouring by Standing

Waves 15)
and generally scouring at the node of standing waves is

predominant. Normally, because a toe of rubble mound is located at the distance of about 1/4 wavelength or
so from the upright section, scouring and subsidence of the rubble mound of breakwater will occur at its toe
as the sediment there move toward the location of antinode at one half wavelength from the upright section.
10.3 Prediction of Beach Deformation

All the related factors shall be thoroughly investigated when predicting beach deformation, with
consideration given to factors such as the predicted results by an appropriate forecasting method and the
data of past beach deformation at the site in question.
[Commentary]
Various methods exist as procedures for predicting beach deformation, including empirical prediction techniques,
estimation based on hydraulic model experiments (especially with movable bed model experiments), and numerical
simulations. Because beach deformation is strongly governed by the characteristics of the region in question,
however, it is inappropriate to rely on any single method. Efforts should be made to predict beach deformation by
combining two or more procedures and by investigating the local data and information as comprehensively as
possible.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Empirical Prediction Techniques
The empirical method is a procedure that, on the basis of collection and analysis of past examples of beach
deformation, the layout and structural characteristics of structures to be built are compared with past examples
of similar nature. Based upon the similarities, the potential for beach deformation to be caused by construction
of structures is judged. Tanaka has carried out research on modeling of the complicated topographical changes
that occur after construction of structures. He classified characteristics of typical topographical changes in
numerous examples of beach deformation. As a result of this research, it is possible to understand the
topographical changes in the vicinity of Japans ports and harbors in several representative patterns (Fig. T10.3.1). Exceptions to these patterns are relatively rare. By judging which pattern in Fig. T- 10.3.1 is applicable
to the coast under investigation, a qualitative prediction of beach deformation becomes possible.
(2) Hydraulic Model Experiment (particularly, Movable Bed Model Experiments)
The capability of predicting beach deformation based on hydraulic model experiments, particularly movable bed
model experiments, is limited because the problem of similarity remains unresolved. But the advantage of model
experiments is such that specific topographical changes can be reproduced in a laboratory basin and the
phenomenon to be forecasted can be understood visually. Because of the similarity problems being unresolved,
experiments are carried out with partially distorting model scales, and by focusing attention on the
reproducibility of the area of most concern, based on the comparison of several formulas on beach deformation
simililarity, and a topographic model that is judged most reliable is introduced in a laboratory basin. Before
predicting future beach deformation, it will be necessary to verify the model for reproducibility of the
topographical changes that occurred in the past in the study area and to confirm the models kinematic similarity.
The degree of kinematic similarity will be judged by the accuracy of reproduction. The reproductive accuracy of
the experiment, therefore, cannot exceed the accuracy of the data collected on beach deformations in the past.
-163-
-164-
Convex coast
Concave coast
Effect of coastline shape
Long jetty
Short jetty
Updrift accretion and

downdrift erosion by
obstructing littoral transport
Effect of jetty length
Without lee breakwater
Formation of one-side salient
Change in salient by
breakwater extension
Completion stage
Tombolo formation and

associated shoreline changes
Formation of a tombolo
Inithial stage
Accretion in calm zone
Prevention of local erosion

and accretion caused by
Mach-stem waves
Breakwaters extending
obliquely from the shoreline
Changes in beach and water

depth inside a harbor
Change in a shoreline
accompanying change in
the direction and shape of
harbor entrance
With lee breakwater
Fig. T- 10.3.1 Classification of Patterns of Topographical Changes after Construction of Structures
Formation of a sand bar at the

head of a main breakwater and
harbor entrance
Accretion on both sides of

training jetty of the center
of a long concave coast
Accretion towards the training

jetty of a river month at the
edge of a beach
At the side surface

of a straight section
At the front of an oblique section
At a narrow mouth
At a bend
Local scouring in the vicinity

of a breakwater
At the breakwater head
Accretion between a
cape and a breakwater
built on the downdrift
side of the cape
Long, oblique breakwater
(3) Prediction Based on Numerical Simulations

At the present time, numerical simulations are divided into two models: those that predict changes in the
shoreline location, and those that predict three-dimensional changes in water depth; i.e., beach topographical
changes. The former model is called the one-line theory, and its overview is given below.
Beach sediment is transported by waves and currents both in the offshore and onshore directions and in the
alongshore direction. Because littoral drift is caused mainly from the direct action of waves, littoral drift during
storm periods will be predominantly towards offshore, and the coast will be eroded with a retrent of shoreline.
When the sea becomes calm, however, the sediment will be carried towards the shore and the shoreline will
advance. Along with these movements the beach profile will also change. This topographical change in the
shoreline location and beach profiles caused by the onshore-offshore transport is normally a seasonal one,
however. When looked at on the average profile over a long period of time, the changes caused by onshoreoffshore transport can mostly be ignored when compared with those caused by longshore transport. Thus, when
focusing on beach erosion or accretion over a period of several years, one can assume there is no change on the
shape of beach profile and that beach erosion and accretion will correspond to the retreat and advance of the
shoreline. A prediction of changes in the shoreline location can then be based on the deposititon and removal of
sediment volume primarily from longshore transport.
Figure T- 10.3.2 sketches the calculation principles of a shoreline change prediction model. As shown in the
figure, the coastline should be split along the longshore direction of the shoreline into sections having the width
Dy, and the inflow and outflow of sediment volume between those widths are considered. That is, when the
Q
inflow of sediment volume QDt and the outflow of sediment volume Q + -------Dy Dt during time period Dt are
y
compared, accretion will occur if the former is larger and erosion will take place if the latter is larger. By
introducing the assumption that the beach profile remains unchanged over time and any imbalance in the
sediment inflow and outflow simply shifts the beach profile offshore or onshore, it is possible to express the
advance and retreat of the shoreline as the result of the imbalance. When this is expressed in the continuity of
sediment flux, the result is equation (10.3.1).
x s 1
Q
------- + ------ ------- q = 0
t D s y
Offsh
Offshore direction coordinate
ore d
irecti
on co
ordin
ate
Longshore coordinate
gsh
Lon
inat
ord
co
ore
(10.3.1)
Model view
Plan view
Fig. T- 10.3.2 Relationship between Volume of Shoreline Change and Sand Movement
where
xs
t
y
Ds
Q
q
shoreline location (m)

time (s)
coordinate in longshore direction (m)
width of the littoral drift movement zone (m)
littoral sediment transport rate (m3/s)
cross-shore inflow (q > 0) or outflow (q < 0) of the littoral sediment transport rate across the onshoreoffshore boundary per unit width in the longshore direction (m3/m/s)
To find the longshore sediment transport rate Q, use should be made of the littoral sediment transport rate
equation related to the component of the incident wave energy flux at the breaker point in the longshore current
direction. Using this equation, the longshore sediment transport rate can be determined using just the wave
height and wave direction at the breaker point as the input. Normally when beach deformation is predicted,
however, the beach will have some structures that produce an area sheltered from incoming waves. Because of
this sheltered area, the wave height varies alongshore and longshore currents are induced. An equation based on
Ozasa and Brampton 8) that incorporates this kind of effect is frequently used.
2
HB Cg B
H B
2K 2
Q = -------------------------- K 1 sin 2 q B ---------- cos q B ----------
16s ( 1 l )
y
tan b
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(10.3.2)
where
HB
CgB
q B
tanb
s
r s
r 0
l
K1, K2
breaker height (m)

group velocity at the breaker point (m/s)
angle formed by the wave front when waves break and the shoreline ()
equilibrium beach slope
s = ( rs r0 ) r0
density of sediment (g/cm3)
density of seawater (g/cm3)
void ratio of sediment
coefficients
The width of sediment movement zone Ds is the distance perpendicular to the shoreline from the wave runup
point on the beach to the offshore boundary where longshore transport activity becomes insignificant. The
distance Ds is determined basically by investigating the volume of beach profile area change from the
bathymetric data of the coast in question. When the available data are inadequate, an energy-averaged
representative wave is estimated and its dimensions are substituted into the equations for the runup height and
the threshold depth of sediment movement as a method to conveniently find the distance Ds.
Because equation (10.3.2) cannot be solved analytically except in extremely simple cases, a computer is
required to perform the numerical computation. In the numerical computation Q must be evaluated at each
measuring line. For this purpose the breaker height, angle of incidence to the shoreline, and breaker depth at
each measuring line must be calculated using a separate wave deformation calculation.
Many kinds of models (profile change, shoreline change, three-dimensional change) have been proposed in
the past for prediction of various topographical changes. Several representative models have been tested for
mutual comparison. The results of comparative tests indicate that when applying the various models to a field
site, they must be used properly to fit the mechanism of beach deformation at the site chosen and the scale of
time and area.
[References]
1) Shoji SATO: A study of littoral drift related to harbor construction, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 5, 1962, 156p. (in Japanese).
2) Sato, S. and N. Tanaka: Field investigation on sand drift at Port Kashima facing the Pacific Ocean, Proc. 10th Int. Conf.
Coastal Engrg., ASCE, 1966.
3) Savage, R. P.: Laboratory determination of littoral-transport rate, Proc. of ASCE., Vol. 88, No. WW2, 1962.
4) U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center: Shore Protection Manual, Vol. 1, 1977.
5) Katoh, K., N. Tanaka and I. Irie: Field observation on suspended-load in the surf zone, Proc. 19th Int. Conf. Coastal Eng.,
1984, pp. 1846-1862.
6) Komar, P. D.: Beach Process and Sedimentation, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1976.
7) Isao IRIE, Kazuo NADAOKA, Takamichi KONDO, Kenji TERASAKI: Two dimensional seabed scour in front of
breakwaters by standing waves - a study from the standpoint of bedload movement -, Rept. PHRI, Vol. 23, No. 1, 1984,
pp. 3-52 (in Japanese).
8) Hiroaki OZASA, Alan H. BRAMPTOM: Models for predicting the shoreline evolution of beaches backed by seawalls,
Rept. PHRI, Vol. 18, No. 4, 1979, pp. 77-103 (in Japanese).
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Chapter 11 Subsoil
11.1 Method of Determining Geotechnical Conditions
11.1.1 Principles
Geotechincal parameters shall be determined appropriately through site investigation and soil tests.
[Commentary]
The geotechnical conditions for construction include the depth of the bearing layer, thickness of soft layers, density
condition, shear properties, deformation characteristics, consolidation characteristics, permeability, groundwater level
(residual water level), etc.
Geotechical properties of subsoil drastically change as a result of the passage of consolidation time or the change
in load pressure. When using old information obtained at the reference site, it is important to confirm that the ground
conditions have not changed due to the changes in load pressure or degree of consolidation.
[Technical Notes]
The location, interval, and depth of soil investigation should be determined by taking into consideration the size of
the structure, the stress distribution in subsoil due to the weight of the structure, and the uniformity of the subsoil
conditions. It is difficult to determine the number of investigation points or their depths a priori, because they depend
on construction cost or importance of the structure. Subsoil uniformity is the most important factor for determining
the number of investigation points. Existing data such as the results of past investigations, land topography, and
acoustic survey are very useful to verify subsoil uniformity. Mechanically determining the intervals of investigation
points without consideration of local conditions should be avoided. Guidelines for the intervals of boring or sounding
investigation points are given in Table T- 11.1.1 for reference.
The investigation depth should be sufficiently deep to confirm presence of the strata that has sufficient bearing
capacity. In the case of a structure of a relatively small size or a structure other than pile foundation, the investigation
is to be completed upon confirmation of several meters of the layer with N30, and with N50 in the case of a large
structure where the pile foundation is expected, where N refers to the number of blows in the standard penetration
test.
Table T- 11.1.1 Guidelines for Intervals of Boring and Sounding Points
(a) When stratification is relatively uniform both horizontally and vertically
(Units: m)
Along the face line of
structure
Perpendicular to the face line of structure
Intervals
Preliminery
investigation
Boring
Sounding
Largescale area
300 500
100300
Smallscale area
50 100
20 50
50 100
20 50
Detailed investigation
Maximum distance
from the face line of structure
Intervals
Boring
Sounding
50
25
20 30
10 15
Boring
Sounding
50 100
(b) When stratification is complicated

(Units: m)
Along the face line of
structure
Perpendicular to the face line of structure
Intervals
Preliminery
investigation
Detailed investigation
Maximum distance
from the face line of
structure
Intervals
Boring
Sounding
Boring
Sounding
50
15 20
20 30
10 15
10 30
5 10
10 20
5 10
Boring
Sounding
50 100
Note: Some soundings require boring holes, while some do not. The values shown for soundings in the table are those not
requiring a bore hole. For soundings requiring a bore hole, values in the columns of boring are to be used.
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11.1.2 Selection of Soil Investigation Methods

Soil investigation methods shall be so determined that soil parameters necessary for design and
construction plan of the structures can be secured, while considering the type, size, and importance of the
structures as well as the soil properties in the neighboring sites.
[Commentary]
Soil investigation methods should be selected most appropriately for their purpose, considering the area and cost of
investigations, and the importance of the structure.
[Technical Notes]
The soil investigation methods are classified by the investigation purpose and the soil parameters in question as listed
in Table T- 11.1.2.
Table T- 11.1.2 Soil Investigation Methods and Soil Parameters.
Purpose
Investigation method
Soil parameters
Boring
Depth of bearing layer
Sounding
Thickness of soft layer
Geophysical exploration
Stratification
Bearing capacity
Undisturbed sampling
Unconfined compressive strength
qu
Slope stability
Sounding
Shear strength
Field test
Angle of shear resistance
tf
f
Relative density
Dr
Verification of
conditions of
stratification
Earth pressure
Consolidation
characteristics
Coefficient of consolidation
Coefficient of volume compressibility
cv
mv
Permeability
Field test
Coefficient of permeability
Compaction
characteristics
Disturbed sampling is allowed

Field test
Maximum dry density

Optimum moisture content
CBR
Classification
(Disturbed sampling is allowed
except for g t )
Unit weight
Moisture content
Soil particle density
Gradation
Consistency
g dmax
wopt
gt
rs
wL, wP
11.1.3 Standard Penetration Test (Notification Article 10, Clause 5)

The N-values of the standard penetration test for soils shall be determined following the JIS Standard
Penetration Test Method for Soils.
[Commentary]
The N-value determined by the standard penetration test is extensively used in Japan. The N-value is measured
according to the JIS A 1219 Standard Penetration Test Method for Soils. The standard penetration test can be
applied to various soils except those such as bedrock, cobblestones and coarse gravel. The test is less precise,
however, for a layer of soft clay or for a layer containing gravel with a grain size of 10 mm or greater. Since there are
suitable investigation methods for alluvial clay, such as laboratory tests with undisturbed sample or vane shear test in
situ, evaluation of the soil parameters of alluvial clay by means of the N-value should be avoided.
11.2 Physical Properties of Soils

11.2.1 Unit Weight of Soil
The unit weight of soil shall be determined using undisturbed soil samples or shall be measured directly in
situ.
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11.2.2 Classification of Soils (Notification Article 10, Clause 2)

Soil classification shall be made by gradation for coarse soils and by consistency for fine soils.
[Commentary]
Mechanical properties of soil such as strength or deformability have a close relationship with the soil gradation for
coarse soils, and with the consistency for fine soils.
[Technical Notes]
Engineering Classification Method for Subsoil Materials (Japanese Unified Soil Classification System)
The classifying method of soil and rock, and their nomenclature should be in accordance with the engineering
classification method for subsoil material prescribed by the JGS 0051-2000 Japanese Unified Soil Classification
System of the Japanese Geotechnical Society. The grain size classifications and their names are shown in Fig. T11.2.1 1). The coarse-grained soil refers to soil composed mainly of coarse fraction with a grain size ranging from 75
mm to 75 mm. Soil consisting of components with a grain size less than 75 mm is called the fine-grained soil.
5 mm
Clay
75mm
Silt
Fine materials
250mm
Fine
sand
425mm
850mm
Medium
sand
Sand
2mm
Coarse
sand
4.75mm
Fine
gravel
19mm
Medium
gravel
Gravel
75mm
Coarse
gravel
Coarse materials
300mm (grain size)
Cobblestone
(cobble)
Large rocks
(boulders)
Rock
Rock materials
Fig. T- 11.2.1 Grain Size Classification and Nomenclature 1)
The uniformity coefficient is an index showing the grain size characteristics of sandy soil and is defined by equation
(11.2.1).
(11.2.1)
U c = D 60 D 10
where
Uc uniformity coefficient
D60 grain size correrponding to 60 perent passing of mass in grain size distribution curve (mm)
D10 grain size corresponding to 10 perent passing of mass in grain size distribution curve (mm)
A large uniformity coefficient means that the grain size is broadly distributed, and such a soil is labeled as well
graded. In contrast, a small value of Uc means that the grain size distribution is narrow or the grain size is uniform.
Such a soil is labeled as pooly graded.
In the Japanese unified soil classification system, coarse soil where fine contents are less than 5% of the total
mass is further divided into broadly-distributed soil and uniformed soil.
Broadly-distributed soil:
Uc 10
Uniformed soil:
Uc < 10
11.2.3 Coefficient of Permeability of Soil

When the seepage flow in a completely saturated ground is a steady laminar flow, the coefficient of
permeability shall be estimated by using Darcys law.
[Commentary]
The coefficient of permeability k is calculated by equation (11.2.2).
q
k = --------iA
where
k coefficient of permeability (cm/s)
q volume of water flow in soil in unit time (cm3/s)
i hydraulic gradient, i = h L
h head loss (cm)
L length of the seepage path (cm)
A cross-sectional area (cm2)
(11.2.2)
The measurement of k can be carried out for sampled soil by a laboratory permeability test, or a in-situ permeability
test.
[Technical Notes]
An approximate value for the coefficient of permeability can be obtained as follows. Hazen showed that the effective
grain size D10 and the permeability of sand k are related, and gave equation (11.2.3) to calculate k of relatively
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uniform sand with the uniformity coefficient of Uc less than 5, and the effective grain size D10 from 0.1 mm to
0.3 mm.
(11.2.3)
k = CD 10 2
where
k coefficient of permeability (cm/s)
C constant (C = 100 (1/cm/s))
D10 grain size corresponding to 10 percentage passing of mass in grain size distribution curve (called as the
effective grain size) (cm)
Terzaghi has pointed out that equation (11.2.3) can also be applied to cohesive soils by using C 2. The approximate
values of the coefficient of permeability are listed in Table T- 11.2.4 2).
Table T- 11.2.4 Approximate Values of Coefficient of Permeability 2)
Soil
Coefficient of
permeability
Sand
Silt
Clay
10-2 cm/s
10-5 cm/s
10-7 cm/s
11.3 Mechanical Properties of Soils

11.3.1 Elastic Constants
When analyzing a ground as an elastic body, the elastic constants shall be determined with due
consideration for the nonlinearity of stress-strain relation of soils.
[Commentary]
When analyzing a ground as an elastic body, the deformation modulus and Poissons ratio are normally used as the
elastic constants. Because of the strong nonlinearity of stress-strain relation of soil, the elastic constants in design
must be determined by considering the strain level of the ground to be analyzed.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Strain Dependency of Deformation Modulus
The stress-strain relation of soil usually shows a strong nonlinearity. When the strain level is within a range of
10-5 or less, the deformation modulus is largest and nearly constant. This maximum value Emax is called the
dynamic elasticity modulus, because it has been measured by the dynamic testing methods such as the elastic
wave exploration. As the strain level increases, the elasticity modulus decreases. The secant modulus E50,
determined from a conventional unconfined compression test or a triaxial compression test, is the deformation
modulus when the strain is of the order of 10-3. When conducting an elastic analysis of ground, it is necessary to
determine the elastic constant by considering the strain level of the ground.
(2) Relationship between Undrained Shear Strength and Deformation Modulus
For cohesive soils, the approximate values for the initial tangent modulus Ei, which can be regarded as the
deformation modulus corresponding to a strain level of 0.2 ~ 0.5%, and the secant modulus E50 can be
determined by using equation (11.3.1) and equation (11.3.2) 3).
Ei
E50
where
Ei
E50
cu
= 210cu
= 180cu
(11.3.1)
(11.3.2)
initial tangent modulus (kN/m2)

secant modulus (kN/m2)
undrained shear strength (kN/m2)
The equation (11.3.1) is applicable only for highly structured marine clay with high plasticity.
(3) Poissons Ratio
For determining Poissons ratio of soil, there is no established method currently, although a number of
methods have been proposed. Practically, v = 1/2 is used for undrained conditions of saturated soil, and v =
1/3 ~ 1/2 is used for many other situations.
11.3.2 Consolidation Properties (Notification Article 10, Clause 3)

The coefficient of volume compressibility and other parameters that are used for the prediction of
consolidation settlement of soft ground based on the theory of consolidation shall be obtained by
laboratory consolidation tests of undisturbed samples according to the JIS A1217-193 Test Method for
One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils.
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[Commentary]
The standard laboratory consolidation test is prescribed by the JIS A 1217-1993 Test Method for One-Dimensional
Consolidation Properties of Soils.
[Technical Notes]
The consolidation settlement consists of the primary consolidation and the secondary (delayed) consolidation. The
former is the settlement that accompanies the dissipation of excess pore water pressure generated due to the increase
of overburden pressure. The latter is the settlement that continues after the dissipation of the excess pore water
pressure. When port and harbor structures are constructed on normally-consolidated marine deposits, the most of the
settlement is due to the primary consolidation and the effect of secondary consolidation is negligible. In some cases,
however, the prediction of secondary settlement is necessary. The primary consolidation settlement is determined by
the calculation of final settlement and the settlement rate.
(1) Calculation of Final Settlement by Consolidation
By plotting the consolidation pressure p and the void ratio e after the
consolidation is completed on semi-logarithmic coordinates, a socalled e-log p curve is obtained as shown in Fig. T- 11.3.1.
The relationship between the void ratio e for the segment abc in
Fig. T- 11.3.1 and the pressure p is expressed by equation (11.3.3).
p2
(11.3.3)
e 2 = e 1 C c log 10 ----p1
where Cc is the degree of inclination of the segment abc and is called
the compression index. Using equation (11.3.3), the decrease in void
ratio e, when consolidation pressure increases from p1 to p2, is
given by equation (11.3.4).
p2
(11.3.4) Fig. T- 11.3.1 e-log p Relationship of Soil
De = e 1 e 2 = C c log 10 ----p1
When the consolidation pressure is applied to soft ground, the final consolidation settlement can be calculated
using three methods: e-log p curve method, m v (coefficient of volume compressibility) method, and Cc method.
In the e-log p curve method, e is determined from equation (11.3.4) and the settlement S is calculated by the
following equation:
De
(11.3.5)
S = h -------------1 + e0
In the m v method, S is calculated by the following equation:
S = mvDp h
(11.3.6)
where
S final consolidation settement (m)
mv coefficient of volume compressibility when the consolidation pressure is (p0+1/2p) (m2/kN)
e0 void ratio of soil in situ
p0 overburden pressure in situ (kN/m2)
p increase in consolidation pressure (kN/m2)
h thickness of layer (m)
When the soil is normally consolidated, the value of m v decreases with the increase of consolidation pressure,
showing an almost straight line when plotted on logarithmic coordinates. The m v method has been commonly
used in practice, because the determination of m v is easy when the subsoil is normally-consolidated clay.
However, in the case of Pleistocene clay layer, the determination of m v value should be carried out carefully,
because the subsoil is usually at the boundary between the over-consolidated stage and the normally
consolidated stage.
In the Cc method, S is calculated by the following equation;
Cc
p 0 + Dp
S = h -------------- log10 -----------------p0
1 + e0
where
Cc compression index
(11.3.7)
(2) Rate of Settlement

The consolidation is the time-dependent settlement phenomenon. The rate of consolidation for an entire clay
layer is represented with the parameter U for the average degree of consolidation. The relationship between U
and the nondimensional time factor Tv is obtained by the theory of consolidation. The relationship between the
nondimensional time factor Tv and the actual time t is shown by the following equation:
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c v t
T v = ----------H* 2
where
Tv time factor
cv coefficient of consolidation (cm2/d)
t time after the consolidation starts (d)
H* maximum drainage distance (cm)
(11.3.8)
Degree of consolidation
Average degree of consolidation U (%)
Fig. T- 11.3.2 Consolidation Isochrones
Time factor Tv
Fig. T- 11.3.3 Theoretical Relationship between Average Degree of Consolidation and Time Factor
When the permeable layer exist at both sides of the clay layer, the maximum drainage distance H* is the same as
H (half of the thickness of the layer). However, when the permeable layer only exists in one side, H* is equal to
2H. The degree of consolidation at each depth is shown by the consolidation isochrones in Fig. T- 11.3.2.
Furthermore, Fig. T- 11.3.3 shows the theoretical relationship between the average degree of consolidation and
the time factor.
(3) Secondary Consolidation
The progress of consolidation with the lapse of time is exemplified in Fig. T-11.3.4. In the following cases,
secondary consolidation must be taken into consideration at design stage.
(a) The ground settlement may give an serious influence on structures in the long term after the primary
consolidation is completed.
(b) The consolidation pressure exceeds the consolidation yield stress of the soil layer but not by a large margin,
(e.g., in the case of the settlement of Pleistocene clay in deep layers), and the contribution of secondary
consolidation is not negligible.
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Average degree of consolidation U (%)
Primary consolidation
Theoretical curve
Actual curve
Secondary
consolidation
t 100
Fig. T- 11.3.4 Primary Consolidation and Secondary Consolidation
(4) Consolidation Settlement in Very Soft Clay

When the landfill is carried out with dredging or disposed sludge, it is necessary to predict the consolidation
settlement of extremely soft deposits. Mikasas consolidation theory can be applied to this problem, because the
theory takes into account the effect of deadweight of clay layer and the changes in layer thickness that are
ignored in the conventional theory of consolidation 4). To use Mikasas consolidation theory, the time-settlement
relationship must be calculated with the finite difference method. To obtain the consolidation parameters for
extremely soft deposits correctly, the constant strain rate consolidation test can be utilized 5).
11.3.3 Shear Properties (Notification Article 10, Clause 4)

To determine the shear strength parameters of soil, soil shall be classified into sandy soil and cohesive soil.
The shear strength of sandy soil shall be determined under drained conditions, while the shear strength for
cohesive soil shall be determined under undrained conditions.
[Commentary]
In general, the coefficient of permeability of sandy soil is 103 ~ 105 times that of cohesive soil. For sandy soil layer,
the excess water in pores is considered to be completely drained during construction. For cohesive soil layer, on the
other hand, almost no drainage is expected during construction because the soil permeability is low. Thus in many
cases for sandy soil layer the shear strength is evaluated using the frictional angle in drained condition fd and the
cohesion in drained condition cd. Because the value of cd is usually very small, practically cd is ignored and only fd is
used as the strength parameter.
In the case of saturated cohesive soil layer, the shear strength of the layer undergoes almost no change between
before and after construction, as the drainage cannot take place during construction. The undrained shear strength
before construction is therefore used as the strength parameter.
For intermediate soil that has the permeability somewhere between those of sandy soil and cohesive soil, the soil
should be viewed as sandy soil or cohesive soil based on the coefficient of permeability and construction conditions.
The shear strength is then determined using an appropriate testing procedure.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Shear Strength
Shear strength of soil is greatly dependent upon whether a volume change of soil (in the case of saturated soil,
suction or drainage of pore water) takes place during the shear or not. The drainage condition is classified into
the following three categories and the different strength parameters are used for each case:
Unconsolidated, undrained condition (UU condition)
Consolidated, undrained condition (CU condition)
Consolidated, drained condition (CD condition)
The shear strength used for ground design should be that for the most dangerous drainage conditions expected
under the given load. The drainage condition and shear strength are then as in the following:
(a) When loading takes place rapidly on the cohesive soil ground:
Because consolidation progresses and shear strength increases with the passage of time, the most dangerous
time is immediately after the loading when almost no drainage has occurred (this is called the short-term
stability problem). The shear strength tf at this time is the shear strength cu that is determined from
unconsolidated undrained (UU) tests using the sample before loading. The parameter cu is also called the
apparent cohesion, and the analysis using ?u is also called the f = 0 method. Constructions of seawalls or
breakwaters (without excavation), landfill, and embankments on soft cohesive soil ground are in this category.
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(b) When ground permeability is large or when drainage from consolidated layer is almost completed during
construction period because the loading is carried out very slowly:
Because drainage from the layer occurs simultaneously with loading and an increase in strength of the layer is
expected along with the loading, design of structures should be carried out using cd and fd determined under
consolidated, drained (CD) conditions. Constructions of seawalls or breakwaters (when there is no
excavation), landfill and embankments on sandy soil belong to this category.
(c) When ground permeability is poor and the load is removed to decrease the stress s normal to the shear plane:
In this case, the most dangerous situation is after a long time is elapsed, when the soil absorbs water, expands,
and loses its shear strength (this is called the long-term stability problem). Among the three categories the
consolidated, undrained shear strength becomes lowest after water absorption and soil expansion when the
overconsolidation ratio is small (s is a little less than pc). In this situation, therefore, the cu value should be
used with consideration of soil expansion. Earth retaining and excavation in clayey ground or removal of
preloading on cohesive soil ground belongs to this category. On the other hand, in the case of heavily
overconsolidated ground where s is very small compared to pc, the parameters cd and fd are used for design
because the shear strength under consolidated, drained condition is the smallest.
In almost all cases for normal construction conditions of port and harbor structures, the undrained strength in
UU conditions of (a) is used in design for cohesive soils and the strength parameter in the CD conditions of (b)
is used for sandy soils. The following equations show the strength calculation methods respectively:
For cohesive soil (the sand content is less than 50%)
t = cu
where
t shear strength (kN/m2)
cu undrained shear strength (kN/m2)
For sandy soil (the sand content is higher than 80%)
t = ( s u ) tan f d
where
t shear strength (kN/m2)
s normal stress to shear plane (kN/m2)
u steady water pressure at the site (kN/m2)
fd angle of shear resistance for drained conditions ()
(11.3.9)
(11.3.10)
Furthermore, because soil with a sand fraction ranging from 50% ~ 80% displays intermediate characteristics
between sandy soil and cohesive soil, it is called the intermediate soil. The evaluation of shear strength of
intermediate soil is difficult compared with that of sandy soil or cohesive soil. Hence, the shear strength for such
soil should be evaluated carefully by referring to the most recent research results.
(2) Shear Strength of Sand
Because sandy soil has high permeability and is regarded in completely drained condition, the shear strength of
sand is represented by equation (11.3.10).
The angle of shear resistance fd for drained conditions can be determined using a triaxial CD (consolidated,
drained) test. Because the value of fd becomes large when sands void ratio becomes small and its density
becomes high, the void ratio e0 in situ must be accurately determined. Therefore, it is best to take and test an
undisturbed sample. Although the fd values of sand with the same density will vary a little with the shear
conditions, the value of fd determined by a triaxial CD test, which is conducted with the confining pressure
corresponding to design conditions with undisturbed sample, can be used as the design parameter for stability
analysis. However, in the case of bearing cabacity problem for foundation, which is much influenced by
progressive failure, the bearing capacity is overestimated in some cases if the value of fd determined by a
triaxial CD test is directly used as the design parameter.
Compared with the case of cohesive soil, sampling of undisturbed sand samples is technically difficult and
also very expensive. This is the reason that the shear strength for sandy soil is frequently determined from the Nvalue of Standard Penetration Test rather than from a laboratory soil test. For the equation to determine fd
from N-values, 11.4 Angle of Internal Friction by N-value is referred to.
(3) Shear Strength of Cohesive Soil
Soil in which the clay and silt fraction by percentage is greater than 50% is regarded as cohesive soil. There are
several methods, as presented below, to determine the undrained shear strength cu of cohesive soil. An
appropriate method should be chosen in consideration of such factors as past experiences, subsoil
characteristics, the importance of the structures, etc.
(a) qu method
This method uses the average value of unconfined compressive strength qu determined from undisturbed
samples. The undrained shear strength cu used for design is given by the following equation:
(11.3.11)
cu = qu 2
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In this equation, q u is the average value of unconfined compressive strength (kN/m2).
(b) Methods combining unconfined compressive strength and strength from triaxial compression tests
One problem with the qu method is that the tests reliability depends on the skill of the technician, because the
test is subject to the influence of disturbance during sampling. To resolve this problem, a combination method
can be used to determine the strength by comparing the qu of undisturbed samples with the strength from a
triaxial CU test and evaluating the quality of the sample. This method is used for natural soil ground and
cannot be applied to unconsolidated, reclaimed ground. For more details see the references 6) and 7).
(c) Method using strength from a box shear test
This method uses the strength tDS (units in kN/m2) determined by a box shear test, after undisturbed sample is
consolidated one-dimensionally under in-situ effective overburden pressure. The box shear test is conducted
according to the JGS T 560-1997 of the Japanese Geotechnical Society 8). The undrained shear strength cu
used for design is given by the following equation:
(11.3.12)
c u = 0.85t DS
In this equation, 0.85 is a correction factor related to shear rate effect.
(d) Method determing undrained shear strength from an in-situ vane shear test
Vane shear test is described in 11.5 Application of Soundings Other Than SPT. The average value of the
obtained shear strength cu (v) can be used in design as the undrained shear strength cu 9). An in-situ vane shear
test can be carried out rather easily with mobility at a field site. The test can determine the shear strength for
very soft clay for which an unconfined compression test cannot be performed due to the difficuly in making a
specimen freestanding. It can thus be applied, for example, to site management where soil is being improved
using vertical drains.
(4) Increase in Cohesive Soil Strength due to Consolidation

The undrained strength of cohesive soil will
increase with the progress of consolidation. For
soil improvement methods such as the vertical
drain method or sand compaction pile method, the
rate of strength increase cu/p by consolidation is
an important parameter because the strength is
increased by the drainage of pore water by consolidation. The larger the value of cu /p, the larger
the increase rate of the strength and the more
effective soil improvement are expected. From the
past experiences in the field and research results
for marine clay in Japan, the value of cu /p lies in a
range shown by the following equation, regardless
of plasticity (refer to Fig. T- 11.3.5) 9).
c u p = 0.28 ~ 0.30
triaxial compression
direct shear
triaxial extension
Plasticity index Ip
(11.3.13) Fig. T- 11.3.5 Relationship between Plasticity Index and cu/p
(5) Strength of Intermediate Soil

Soil with a sand content in the range of 50% ~ 80% is intermediate soil between sandy soil and cohesive soil 10).
For this type of soil, the coefficient of permeability and design conditions are taken into consideration to
determine whether the soil is sandy soil or cohesive soil. Then the shear strength is determined accordingly.
For intermediate soil with a large sand fraction or with coral gravel, the coefficient of permeability
determined from a standard consolidation test generally gives an underestimated value, because of the
limitations of test conditions. It is desirable not only to improve the test procedure, but also to conduct an in-situ
permeability test or an electrical cone test to determine the coefficient of permeability 11).
When the coefficient of permeability determined by this kind of procedures is greater than 10-4 cm/s, the
ground is regarded permeable. Hence, the value of fd determined from an electrical cone penetration resistance
or a triaxial CD test can be used as design parameters, regarding cd = 0. According to the experience on
investigating the properties of intermediate soils in Japan, the value of fd is greater than 30 in many
cases 12) ~ 14).
When the coefficient of permeability is less than 10-4 cm/s, the intermediate soil should be regarded as a
cohesive soil. Because the influence of stress release during sampling in intermediate soil is much greater than
that in cohesive soil, the shear strength determined by qu method is underestimated. A correction method is used
for the strength of such intermadiate soil with a large sand fraction by means of clay fraction and plasticity
index 15). However, it is desirable that the combined method with unconfined compression test and triaxial
compression test or the box shear test be used as the method for evaluating the strength of intermediate soil 16).
11.4 Angle of Internal Friction by N-value (Notification Article 10, Clause 6)

The angle of internal friction for sandy soils shall be calculated using the following equation from a
standard penetration test value.
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100N
f = 25 + 3.2 ---------------------70 + p n o
(11.4.1)
where
f angle of internal friction of sand ()
N standard penetration test value
pvo effective overburden pressure at the time the standard penetration test value is obtained (kN/m2)
[Commentary]
Relationships between the N-value and many soil parameters have been established by the data at various sites. When
using these relationships, however, it is necessary to consider the background of their derivation and the ground
conditions of the data and to confirm the range of their applicability.
In the Technical Standards for Port and Harbour Facilities in Japan (1989), the value of f was determined
directly from the N-values without considering the effective overburden pressure pvo, as can be seen in Danhams
equation. Because the relative density Dr varies with pvo as seen in Fig. C- 11.4.1, pvo must be taken into
consideration to determine f from an N-value.
Terzaghi
Gibbs, Holtz (dry sand, wet sand)
N-Value
Yanase (wet fine sand)
Yanase (saturated fine sand)
Overburden pressure
Relative density Dr
Fig. C- 11.4.1 Influence of Effective Overburden Pressure and Relative Density on N-Values (Meyerhof) 17)
11.5 Application of Soundings Other Than SPT (Notification Article 10, Clause 7)
When conducting soundings other than the Standard Penetration Test, a method shall be appropriately
selected considering the subsoil properties, the required soil constants, and the level of precision.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Types of Soundings
As listed in Table T- 11.5.1, there are many different types of soundings 18). When preparing a ground
investigation plan, a combination of the laboratory tests and the soundings should be appropriatelly studied
considering the characteristics of the subsoil of ground, the required soil parameters, and the level of precision
required for design or construction.
(2) Vane Shear Test
A vane shear test is a test in which a cross-shaped vane is pushed into the ground and the undrained shear
strength of the subsoil is determined from the vanes torque for rotation. This test is suitable to determine the
strength of subsoil in case the specimens are incapable of freestanding, such as soft cohesive soil.
(3) Electrical Static Cone Penetration Test
The notable characteristic of this test is its function to measure soil parameters almost continuously in the
vertical direction, and thus the subsoil conditions can be estimated more precisely. This is the method of ground
investigation most applicable for the case when sandy layers and cohesive soil layers are intricately mixed.
-176-
Equation (11.5.1) is used to determine the undrained shear strength cu of clay from a cone penetration test.
(11.5.1)
c u = ( q t s v0 ) N kt
where
cu undrained shear strength (kN/m2)
qt cone penetration resistance (kN/m2)
s v0 overburden pressure in terms of total stress (kN/m2)
Nkt cone parameter
From investigations conducted on marine clay in Japan, the value of Nkt extends over a range from 8 to 15, as
shown in Fig. T- 11.5.2 19). It is well understood from past testings that the value of Nkt varies depending upon
many factors. When determining cu from a cone test, therefore, a laboratory test and an electrical static cone
penetration test for at least one location should be conducted to determine the value of Nkt.
Table T- 11.5.1 Characteristics and Applicable Subsoils for Sounding Methods
Method
Continuity
Measured
parameters
Estimated
values from
measured
parameters
Applicable
subsoils
Continuous
Settlement by
each load
(Wsw)
Number of onehalf revolution
per 1 m
penetration
(Nsw)
Converted Nvalue or
unconfined
compressive
strength qu
value
All subsoils
except
15 m level
cobblestone and
gravel
Continuous
Penetration
resistance
Unconfined
compressive
Cohesive soils
strength, and
or humic soils
cohesion of clay
5 m level
Double tube
electrical static
Continuous
cone penetration
test
Point resistance
qc,
Pore water
pressure u
Shear strength,
soil
classfication,
and
consolidation
properties
Depends upon
the capacity of
Data reliability
the penetration
is high
apparatus or
fixing apparatus
In situ vane
shear test
Discontinuous
Maximum
resisting
moment for
rotation
Undrained
Soft cohesive
shear strength
soils
of cohesive soil
Discontinuous
Pressure,
Hole wall
displacement,
Creep
Deformation
modulus, initial
pressure, yield
stress, and
undrained shear
strength
All subsoils and

bedrocks where
the borehole
Basically no
wall surface is limits
smooth and
freestanding
Mechanical
meaning of the
estimated value
is very clear
Discontinuous N-value
Standard
Minimum
(number of
Penetration Test
interval is 50 cm hammering)
Sand density,
strength,
friction angle,
shear modulus,
bearing capacity,
clay cohesion,
unconfined
compressive
strength
All subsoils
except
cobblestone or
boulder stone
Basically no
limits
Widely
employed and
can be used for
almost all
subsurface
investigations
Simple dynamic
cone penetration Continuous
test
Nd = (1 ~ 2) N
(regarded as
equivalent to
the N-value)
Same as above
15 m level
(lod friction
becomes larger
as depth
increases)
Operation is
simple
compared to the
Standard
Penetration Test
Designation
Weight
penetration test
(Swedish
sounding)
Portable cone
penetration test
Static
Borehole
horizontal
loading test
Dynamic
Nd (number of
hammering)
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Cohesive soils
or sandy soils
Applicable
depth (m)
15 m level
Characteristics
Operation is
simple
compared to the
Standard
Penetration Test
Simple test,
very quick
Specifically for
soft cohesive
soil; direct
measurement of
cu
Kurihama
Izumo
Ogi-shima
Hachirogata
Kuwana
Shinonome
Nkt
Tamano
Ip
Fig. T- 11.5.2 Cone Parameters of Marine Clay in Japan

(Undrained shear strength was determined from unconfined compression tests) 19)
11.6 Dynamic Properties of Soils

11.6.1 Dynamic Modulus of Deformation (Notification Article 10, Clause 8)
For seismic response analysis, an appropriate dynamic modulus of deformation of soils shall be
determined to prescribe the relationship between the shear stress and shear strain of soil.
[Commentary]
Seismic design methods can be broadly classified into the static design methods and the dynamic design methods.
One example of static design methods is the seismic coefficient method. In this method the seismic force is assumed
to act on the ground or structures in the form of a static inertia force, and stability is investigated from the equilibrium
of forces. In dynamic design methods, on the other hand, dynamic magnification factors or amplification values of
acceleration, speed, and deformation of subsoils or structures against basement rock are calculated to examine the
stability of ground or structures. As for the seismic response analysis method, both the time domain analysis and the
frequency domain analysis are used. For either method, the relationship between the shear stress and shear strain of
the soils is required.
Normally the relationship between the shear stress and shear strain in ground subjected to dynamic loading is
described by a skeleton curve and a hysteresis curve, as shown in Fig. T- 11.6.1. A skeleton curve will display
remarkable nonlinearity as the shear strain amplitude becomes larger. Since the dynamic modulus of deformation
prescribes this relationship between the shear stress and shear strain, it must be appropriately determined when
conducting a seismic response analysis.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Relationship between Dynamic Shear Stress and Shear Strain of Soil.
There are many models to apply the shear stress and shear strain curves of soil into analysis, such as the
equivalent linear model, the bilinear model, the hyperbolic model (Hardin-Dornevich model), and the RambergOsgood model 20). Of these models the equivalent linear calculation method is frequently used for seismic
response analyses from the standpoint of calculation time and solution stability. The applicable range of the
equivalent linear model, however, is up to a strain level of 10-3. When the strain level exceeds 10-3, the results
must be carefully examined.
(2) Modeling of Deformation Properties in the Equivalent Linear Model
To estimate the behavior of ground during an earthquake, the nonlinearity of the relationship between the
dynamic stress and strain of soil for a wide range of the shear strain amplitude must be appropriately assessed
and modeled. The relationship of the dynamic stress and strain of soil is expressed with two parameters: the
shear modulus and the damping constant in the equivalent linner model. The shear modulus G and the damping
constant h are defined with the shear strain amplitude by equation (11.6.1) and equation (11.6.2) as shown in
Fig. T- 11.6.2.
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G is the shear modulus
Skeleton curve
h is the damping constant

Shear stress
Shear stren
Shear strain
Shear strain
Hysteresis curve
Fig. T- 11.6.2 Shear Modulus and Damping Constant
GG
/
GG
Fig. T- 11.6.1 Stress Strain Curve
Shear strain amplitude
Fig. T- 11.6.3 Shear Modulus, Damping Constant

and Shear Strain Amplitude
t
G = g
(11.6.1)
DW
h = ---------------2p W
where
G shear modulus (kN/m2)
t shear stress amplitude (kN/m2)
g shear strain amplitude
h damping constant
W strain energy (kN/m2)
DW damping energy (kN/m2)
(11.6.2)
Since the values of shear modulus G and damping constant h vary nonlinearly depending on the value of g, a
G/G0 ~ g curve and a h ~ g curve are normally drawn as shown in Fig T- 11.6.3, where G0 is the shear modulus
at g 10-6.
(3) Measurement of the Shear Modulus and the Damping Constant
The shear modulus and the damping constant must be determined by laboratory tests such as the resonance test
or cyclic triaxial test, or by the in-situ tests using elastic waves such as the PS logging method or the cross hole
method. The laboratory tests can be used to measure the shear modulus and damping constant for a wide range
of shear strain amplitudes from 10-6 to 10-2 although undisturbed samples from the field must be obtained. The
tests can also be used to evaluate the change in the modulus of dynamic deformation due to construction of
structures. With the cyclic triaxial test, the shear modulus is determined from equation (11.6.3) with Poissons
ratio v.
sa
G = ------------------------(11.6.3)
2e a ( 1 + v )
where
s a axial stress amplitude (kN/m2)
e a axial strain amplitude
For v, the value of 0.33 is normally used for a drainage condition and 0.45 is used for an undrained condition.
The damping constant is calculated from equation (11.6.2) with W and DW obained from the stress - strain
curve such as shown in Fig. T- 11.6.2.
-179-
In-situ tests are limited to measurements of the shear modulus that only corresponds to 10-6 level of shear
strain amplitude. Such tests have not been put to practical application to measure the shear modulus and
damping constant for the large shear strain amplitude. But the tests do possess the advantage of being able to
measure the values in situ directly. They are also used to calibrate the shear modulus taken from laboratory tests.
The elastic constant of subsoil is obtained by equations (11.6.4) to (11.6.6) from the data of elastic wave velocity
measurements by a seismic exploration using bore holes.
gt 2
2
(11.6.4)
G 0 = rV s = --- V s
g
E 0 = 2 ( 1 + v )G 0
(11.6.5)
V 2
-----p- 2
Vs
v = -------------------------------- Vp 2
2 ------ 1
Vs
where
V p longitudinal wave velocity (m/s)
V s transverse wave velocity (m/s)
G0 shear modulus (kN/m2)
E0 Youngs modulus (kN/m2)
v Poissons ratio
r density (t/m3)
g t wet unit weight (kN/m3)
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
(11.6.6)
11.6.2 Dynamic Strength Properties

Soil strength against dynamic external forces shall be determined through laboratory tests. When doing so,
the properties of the external forces and the subsoil conditions shall be appropriately set in.
[Commentary]
The typical dynamic external forces encountered in ports and harbors are seismic force and wave force. Seismic
forces are characterized by a short period and few cyclic repetitions, while wave forces are characterized by a long
period and many cyclic repetitions. Under present circumstance these dynamic external forces are normally
converted into static loads like in the seismic coefficient method. There are situations, however, in which it is
necessary to handle them as dynamic loads like in liquefaction analysis or in strength decrease analysis of cohesive
soil beneath structures exposed to waves. In such cases the dynamic strength of soils are normally obtained by cyclic
triaxial tests. When conducting cyclic triaxial tests, the cyclic undrained triaxial test method explained in the Soil
Testing Methods and Commentary of the Japanese Geotechnical Society should be used 21).
When applying the results of cyclic triaxial tests to the liquefaction analysis of ground during an earthquake, refer
to the Prediction and Determination of Liquefaction in the Handbook on Liquefaction Remediation of Reclaimed
Land (Revised Edition) 22).
[References]
1) Japanese Geotechnical Society: Revised Standard of Japanese Geotechnical Society and Commentary, Engineering
Classification Method for Subsoil Material (Japanese Unified Soil Classification System), Nov., 1996 (in Japanese).
2) K. Terzaghi, and P. B. Peck: Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, 1948, p. 44.
3) Akio NAKASE, Masaki KOBAYASHI, Akio KANECHIKA: Undrained shear strength and deformation modulus of clays,
4) Masato MIKASA: Consolidation of Soft Clay, Kajima Publisher, 1996 (in Japanese).
5) Yasufumi UMEHARA: Study on the consolidation characteristics of soils and consolidation test methods, Tech. Note of
PHRI, No. 469, 1983 (in Japanese).
6) Takashi TSUCHIDA, Jun-ichi MIZUKAMI, Ken OIKAWA, Yoshio MORI: New method for determining undrained
strength of clayey ground by means of unconfined compression test and triaxial test, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1989, pp.
7) Takashi TSUCHIDA: Study on determination of underained strength of clayey ground by mean of triaxial tests, Tech. Note
of PHRI, No. 688, 1991 (in Japanese).
8) Japanese Geotechnical Society: Method for Consolidated Undrained Box Shear Test of Soil in Newly Established
Standard of Japanese Geotechnical Society and Commentary (1997 version), pp.15-58 (in Japanese).
9) Hiroyuki TANAKA, Masanori TANAKA: Detemination of undrained shear strength of clayey ground measured by vane
shear tests, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 33, No. 4, 1994, pp. 1-17 (in Japanese).
10) Susumu KURATA and Toshio FUJISHITA: Studies on the engineering properties of sand-clay mixture, Rept. of
Transportation Technical Research Institute, Vol. 11, No. 9, 1961, 36 p. (in Japanese).
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11) Hiroyuki TANAKA, Motoo SAKAKIBARA, Kenji GOTO, Kouji SUZUKI, Takeshi FUKAZAWA: Properties of Japanese
normally consolidated marine clays obtained from static piezocone penetration test, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 31, No. 4, 1992, pp.
12) Masaki KOBAYASHI, Takashi TSUCHIDA and Takeshi KAMEI: Intermediate soil-sand or clay?-, Geotech. Note 2,
Japanese Geotechnical Society, 1992 (in Japanese).
13) Takashi TSUCHIDA, Masaki KOBAYASHI, Shusuke IFUKU and Isao FUKUDA: Engineering properties of coral soils in
Japanese South Western Islands, Int. Conf. on Calcarious Soils, 1988.
14) Takashi TSUCHIDA: Consolidation, compression and permeability characteristics of intermediate soil and mixture, Soils
and Foundations, Vol. 41, No. 7, 1993 (in Japanese).
15) Akio NAKASE, Masaru KATSUNO, Masaki KOBAYASHI: Unconfined compression strength of soils of intermediate
grading between sand and clay, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 11, No. 4, 1972 (in Japanese).
16) Hiroyuki TANAKA, Masanori TANAKA and Takashi TSUCHIDA: Strength characteristics of naturally deposited
intermediate soil, Jour. JSCE, No. 589/ -42, 1998 (in Japanese).
17) G. G. Meyerhof: Discussion on soil properties and their measurement, Discussion2, Proc. of the 4th International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol. 3, 1957, p. 110.
18) Japanese Geotechnical Society: Method of Ground Investigation, 1995, 191 p. (in Japanese).
19) Hiroyuki TANAKA, Masanori TANAKA: A site investigation method using cone penetration and dilatometer tests, Tech.
20) Kenji ISHIHARA: Fundamentels of Geodynamics, Kajima Publishers, pp. 7-34, 1976 (in Japanese).
21) Japanese Geotechnical Society: Method of Soil Testing and Commentary, 1990, pp. 421-450. (in Japanese).
22) Coastal Development Institute of Technology: Handbook on Liquefaction Remediation of Reclaimed Land (Revised
Edition), 1997, pp. 114-136. (in Japanese).
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Chapter 12 Earthquakes and Seismic Force

12.1 General
In the design of port and harbor facilities, the effect of earthquakes shall be carefully examined so that the
facilities retain appropriate seismic resistance.
[Commentary]
(1) The following matters should be taken into consideration when investigating the seismic resistance of structures:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Level of seismicity in the region, earthquakes to be examined in the analysis, earthquake ground motion, etc.
Ground conditions at the construction site
Importance of the facilities (based on a comprehensive evaluation of social and economic importance)
Earthquake resistance of the facilities
(2) Investigation items related to analysis of seismic resistance are as follows:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Stability of the entire structure

Stability against subsoil sliding
Influence of liquefaction on the subsoil stability and structures
Stress within structural elements
From the standpoint of serviceability, the relative displacement of the various parts of a structure or that
between adjacent structures or subsoil
(3) When the Port of Kobe was hit by the Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake, most of the quaywalls were suffered
identical damage because almost all of the quaywalls were built in an identical structural type. If structural types
were different, their seismic response characteristics would have differed, and the extent of damage to structures
would have been diverse. This experience during the Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake strongly suggests that
structured types should be diversified to ensure different seismic response characteristics in the facilities when
selecting the structural types of port and harbor facilities.
[Technical Notes]
The seismic resistance of port and harbor facility must be examined with consideration of the dynamic characteristics
of the structures using the methods shown in 12.3 Seismic Coefficient Method, 12.5 Seismic Response Analysis,
12.6 Seismic Deformation Method, or combinations of the methods.
For structures such as gravity type quaywalls that are comparatively rigid and their amplitudes of vibration is
small compared with the ground motion during an earthquake, the seismic resistance should be examined using the
seismic coefficient from 12.4 Design Seismic Coefficient and the method shown in 12.3 Seismic Coefficient
Method.
For structures having a natural period close to the predominant period of seismic motion and a small damping
characteristics, or for structures having a comparatively long natural period, the seismic resistance should be
examined using the modified seismic coefficient method shown in 12.3 Seismic Coefficient Method in
consideration of the dynamic response characteristics of structures. The seismic design method for open-type
wharves on with vertical piles using the modified seismic coefficient method is described in Part , 9.6
Examination of Earthquake-Resistance Performance.
For structures whose stability is subject to the deformation of the surrounding earth, such as immersed tunnels,
pipelines and other pipe-type structures that are buried in the earth, the seismic resistance should be examined in
accordance with 12.6 Seismic Deformation Method.
For very important structures or structures for which past examples of damage are rare, the seismic resistance
using seismic response analysis after appropriately modeling related conditions such as the structure, ground or
earthquakes should be examined, in addition to an investigation based on the seismic coefficient method, modified
seismic coefficient method, or seismic deformation method.
12.2 Earthquake Resistance of Port and Harbor Facilities in Design (Notification Article 13
and Article16)
(1) Earthquake Resistance of Port and Harbor Facilities
(a) Port and harbor facilities shall be capable of retaining their required structural stability without
losing their function when subjected to the Level 1 earthquake motion (earthquake motion with a
high probability of occurrence during the lifetime of facilities).
(b) High seismic resistant structures (particularly important facilities whose seismic resistance is to be
reinforced) shall be the structures that will sustain only slight damage during the Level 2
earthquake motion (earthquake motion that has a vety low probability of occurrence during the
lifetime of facilities, but which is very large when it occurs) and whose functions can be quickly
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restored after a Level 2 earthquake and are able to retain their expected function througout the rest of
its lifetime.
(2) Examination of Earthquake Resistance of High Seismic Resistant Structure
(a) In any investigation of the structural stability of high seismic resistant structures, the earthquake
resistance shall be examined to ensure required earthquake resistance against seismic load, based
upon the provisions in 12.4 Design Seismic Coefficient. The earthquake motion used for such
examination shall be the Level 2 earthquake motion defined in (1)(b) above.
(b) For examination of the earthquake resistance, the subsoils and the structures shall be appropriately
modeled corresponding to the earthquake motion indicated in (2)(a) above and the resistance should
be examined using an appropriate method considering the structural characteristics.
(c) The earthquake motion used for examination of earthquake resistance shall be determined based on
a dynamic analysis of the ground.
[Commentary]
For the seismic design of port and harbor facilities, earthquake motion with a 75-year return period should be used as
the Level 1 earthquake motion. Earthquake motion from an inter-plate earthquake or a plate earthquake near the
coast should be used as Level 2 earthquake motion, of which the return period will be several hundred years or
more.
High seismic resistant structures refers to facilities such as high seismic resistant quaywalls whose seismic
resistance has been reinforced to ensure the shipment of emergency supplies immediately after an earthquake in order
to maintain social and economic activities. It also refers to high seismic resistant revetments designed for the area
designated for refuge of people and rescue operation after an earthquake. Without losing their function means that
the facility preserves its initial structural stability. To retain their expected function means that even if damage
occurs to the facility it is minor and the facilitys function can quickly be restored after the earthquake. These
specifications are summarized in Table C- 12.2.1.
Table C- 12.2.1 Earthquake Motion and Earthquake Resistance of Port and Harbor Facilities To Be Considered for Design
Ground
motion level
Ground motion considered for

seismic design
Applicable facilities
Earthquake
resistance
Level 1
Ground motion with a 75-year

return period
All facilities (except facilities that are regulated

according to other standards)
Do not lose their

function
Level 2
Ground motion from intra-plate

earthquake or ground motion
from inter-plate earthquake.
The return period is anticipated
to be several hundred years or
more
High seismic resistant structures (high seismic

resistant quaywalls, high seismic resistant revetments
for refuge and rescure centers, etc.).
In addition, port and harbor facilities such as bridges
and immersed tunnels that must take the Level 2
earthquake motion into consideration in design.
Retain their
expected
function
[Technical Notes]
(1) The capability of high seismic resistant structures to retain their expected function against the Level 2
earthquake motion is assured by examining structural deformation and other changes through an appropriate
seismic response analysis. This is because an analysis of stability of structures or subsoil using just the seismic
coefficient method is not sufficient in many cases when the earthquake motion such as the Level 2 earthquake
exercises immense forces.
(2) The judgment whether high seismic resistant structures can retain their expected function is made by a
comprehensive consideration of structural stability, function and the ease or difficulty of the quick restoration. In
order to make this judgment it is necessary to determine the allowable amount of deformation of a quaywall or
the like, but its precise determination is difficult at the current state of knowledge. The deformation values listed
in Table T- 12.2.1 and Table T- 12.2.2 are used as reference to estimate deformation of quaywalls which allows
the temporary use immediately after an earthquake. Because the values in the tables do not take into
consideration the structural stability and function of cranes built on the quays, however, another study must be
conducted for such cases. Among the gravity type quaywalls that were damaged by the Hyogoken-Nanbu
Earthquake, some quaywalls that sustained a deformation ratio (swelling of the quaywall divided by the height)
of 10% to 20% were quickly restored and put back into service 1).
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Table T- 12.2.1 Quaywall Deformation Rough Standards from the Viewpoint of Temporaly Service
Suffered deformation: maximum swelling or maximum apron settlement
Structural type
Quaywall depth
Normal use
Restricted use
Gravity type quaywall

-7.5 m or greater
Less than -7.5 m
0 30 cm
30 100 cm
0 20 cm
20 50 cm
Sheet pile type quaywall

-7.5 m or greater
0 30 cm
30 50 cm
Less than -7.5 m

0 20 cm
20 30 cm
Table T- 12.2.2 Quaywall Deformation Rough Standards from the Viewpoint of Functionality
Structure body itself
Settlement of the entire apron:

Inclination:
Deviation of the swelling:
20 ~ 30 cm
3o ~ 5o
20 ~ 30 cm
Apron
Settlement; differences in height of apron surface:

difference in height between apron and yard:
Inclination; normal slope 3% ~ 5%, reverse 0%
3 ~ 10 cm
30 ~ 70 cm
12.3 Seismic Coefficient Method (Notification Article 14)

(1) It shall be standard to use the seismic coefficient method for determining the seismic load for
structures having a comparatively short natural period and large damping factor. In this case, the
seismic load shall be determined using the seismic coefficient prescribed in 12.4 Design Seismic
Coefficient, and either one calculated by (a) or (b) below that is most damaging to port and harbor
facilities shall be applied to the centers of gravity of facilities.
(a) Seismic load = seismic coefficient deadweight
(b) Seismic load = seismic coefficient (deadweight + surcharge)
(2) For structures such as immersed tunnels for which the seismic coefficient method is not applicable,
the seismic load shall be determined appropriately considering characteristics of the respective
structures.
[Commentary]
The influence of the vertical component of earthquake motion on structural stability is complex, intertwining with
both the structural type and the horizontal component. Thus it is a more rigorous examination procedure to use a
vertical seismic coefficient to introduce seismic load in a vertical direction. For practical seismic design, however, the
vertical seismic coefficient is not taken into account in order to avoid the computational complexity, because it has
been shown from the results of observations that, except for the region near seismic center, the vertical component is
not so large compared with the horizontal component. Based upon past studies and experience, moreover, the
horizontal seismic coefficient in 12.4 Design Seismic Coefficient is considered to be determined taking into account
the effect of vertical earthquake motion. It is therefore sufficient to use the horizontal seismic coefficient in order to
dertermine seismic load in design of ordinary port and harbor structures 2), 3).
12.4 Design Seismic Coefficient (Notification Article 15 and Article 16)

(1) The seismic coefficient shall be the horizontal seismic coefficient determined by the equation below.
The coefficient value shall be expressed in two-digit figures by rounding up if the third digit is five or
larger or dropping the third digit when it is less than five.
Seismic coefficient = regional seismic coefficient subsoil condition factor importance factor
In this case, the regional seismic coefficient shall be the values listed in Table 12.4.1 corresponding to
the region where the port and harbor facilities are located. The factor for subsoil condition shall be the
values listed in Table 12.4.2 corresponding to the type of subsoil given in Table 12.4.3, and the
importance factor shall be the values listed in Table 12.4.4 corresponding to the characteristics of
structures.
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Table 12.4.1 Regional Seismic Coefficient (Notification Article 15, Appendix Table 1)
Regional
seismic
coefficient
Regional classification
Region A
Counties of Nemuro, Kushiro, Tokachi and Hidaka in Hokkaido

Prefecture;
Saitama Prefecture, Chiba Prefecture;
Tokyo, except for Hachijo-jima and Ogasawara Islands;
Kanagawa Prefecture, Yamanashi Prefecture, Shizuoka Prefecture,
Aichi Prefecture, Gifu Prefecture, Fukui Prefecture, Shiga Prefecture,
Mie Prefecture, Nara Prefecture, Wakayama Prefecture, Osaka
Prefecture, Hyogo Prefecture
0.15
Region B
Pacific Ocean coast south of Shiriya-zaki of Aomori Prefecture;

Iwate Prefecture, Miyagi Prefecture, Fukushima Prefecture,
Ibaraki Prefecture, Tochigi Prefecture, Gunma Prefecture, Nagano
Prefecture, Kyoto Prefecture, Kochi Prefecture, Tokushima
Prefecture
0.13
Region C
Counties of Iburi, Oshima and Hiyama in Hokkaido Prefecture;

Aomori Prefecture except for the Pacific Ocean coast south of
Shiriya-zaki; Akita Prefecture, Yamagata Prefecture, Niigata
Prefecture, Toyama Prefecture, Ishikawa Prefecture, Tottori
Prefecture, Hiroshima Prefecture, Ehime Prefecture, Oita Prefecture,
Miyazaki Prefecture,
Kumamoto Prefecture;
Amami Islands in Kagoshima Prefecture
0.12
Region D
Counties of Abashiri, Shiribeshi, Ishikari, Sorachi, Rumoi and

Kamikawa in Hokkaido Prefecture;
Okayama Prefecture, Shimane Prefecture, Kagawa Prefecture,
Nagasaki Prefecture except for Goto Islands, Iki-no-shima and
Tsushima;
Saga Prefecture,
Kagoshima Prefecture except for Amami Islands,
Okinawa Prefecture except for Daito Islands
0.11
Region E
Counties of Soya in Hokkaido Prefecture;

Hachijo-jima and Ogasawara Islands in Tokyo;
Yamaguchi Prefecture, Fukuoka Prefecture;
Goto Retto, Iki-no-shima and Tsushima in Nagasaki Prefecture;
Daito Islands in Okinawa Prefecture
0.08
Table 12.4.2 Subsoil Condition Factor (Notification Article 15, Appendix Table 2)
Type of subsoil
Factor for subsoil conditions
Class
Class
Class
0.8
1.0
1.2
Table 12.4.3 Classification by Type of Subsoil (Notification Article 15 Appendix Table 3)

Type of subsoil
Gravel stratum
Ordinary sandy
soil and cohesive
soil
Soft subsoil
5 meters or less
Class
Class
Class
More than 5 meters and less than 25 meters
Class
Class
Class
25 meters or greater
Class
Class
Class
Thickness of quaternary strata
Notes: In these tables, soft subsoil refers to sandy soil subsoil with the N-value of SPT test being less than 4 or cohesive soil
with the unconfined compressive strength being less than 20 kN/m2. When the subsoil is composed of two or more soil
layers, the type of soil should be set by the layer with predominant thickness. If the subsoil is composed of two or more
layer with the almost equal thickness, the type of soil should be set by the layer having the largest value of the subsoil
condition factor among all the layers.
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Table 12.4.4 Importance Factor (Notification Article 15, Appendix Table 4)

Type of
structure
Structure characteristics
Importance
factor
Special class
Among structures in the category of Class A, those having a

remarkable risk specified in the item 1, a grave consequence
in the item 2, or a serious threat in the item 4, or those
having a particular importance in the item 3
1.5
Class A
1 Having high level of risk to cause large loss of human

lives and property if the structure is damaged by an
earthquake
2 Having serious economic and social consequences if the
structure is damaged by an earthquake
3 Having an important role in restoration works after
earthquake disaster
4 Having threat of huge loss of human lives and property, if
the structure is damaged by an earthquake (ie., structures
handling toxic or hazardous substances)
5 Having difficulty in restoration if the structure is damaged
by an earthquake
1.2
Class B
Structures other than those classified as Special, Class A or

Class C
1.0
Class C
Slight economic and social consequences if the structure is

damaged by an earthquake, or easy restoration among
structures other than those classified as Special or Class A
0.8
(2) When the examination using the vertical seismic coefficient is required in the seismic coefficient
method, the vertical seismic coefficient shall be determined appropriately by considering the structural
characteristics, subsoil properties, etc.
(3) The design seismic coefficient to high seismic resistant structures in the seismic coefficient method
shall be determined after comprehensive judgment of the result calculated by the equation in (1) and
the horizontal seismic coefficient calculated by the equations listed below. In the former calculation,
the importance factor shall be set to 1.5. For the latter calculation, the peak ground acceleration shall
be estimated by the dynamic analysis against the Level 2 ground motion of the potential earthquake
stipulated in the Regional Disaster Prevention Plan specified by the Article 2, Item 10 of the
Fundamental Law for Countermeasures against Natural Disaster (Law No.223, 1961).
kh = a /g
(b) When a is larger than 200 Gal
1
k h = --- ( a g ) 1 / 3
3
644474448
(a) When a is 200 Gal or less
(12.4.1)
where
kh horizontal seismic coefficient
a peak ground acceleration at the surface (Gal)
g gravitational acceleration (Gal)
[Commentary]
(1) General Cases of Port and Harbor Facilities
(a) Factors to determine the design seismic coefficients of structures include the regional seismicity, the subsoil
conditions, the dynamic properties of the structures, and the importance of the structures. However, the
dynamic response of the structure needs not be taken into consideration in design, because the majority of port
and harbors structures have comparatively short natural periods as well as large damping factors. In general,
the dynamic response of structures is ignored and seismic design is conducted based on the procedure given in
12.3 Seismic Coefficient Method, using the design seismic coefficient stipulated above.
(b) In cases where it is possible to accurately determine the seismic coefficient by investigating the factors such as
the regional seismicity, ground motion characteristics, and the amplification of ground motion due to subsoil
response, the value may be used as a design seismic coefficient. For example, when a dynamic response
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analysis of the ground is conducted with an input earthquake ground motion based on earthquake data or
strong-motion records at the construction site, or when conducting a seismic response analysis of structures in
order to consider their dynamic response to earthquake ground motion, it is possible to determine the design
seismic coefficient based on the results of those analyses.
(c) The importance factor of structures is not a value that could be applied uniformly depending upon the use,
type or size of the facilities, but must be determined by giving due consideration to the social and economic
characteristics of the facilities along with consideration of the following items:
Earthquake resistance required for the respective function of facilites
Magnitude of damage when the facility is struck by an earthquake, difficulty in restoration of the damaged
facility, and residual structural strength of the facility after damage.
Cargo handling capacity of the facility after damage.
(d) When calculating the seismic load in 12.3 Seismic Coefficient Method, the design seismic coefficient must
be multiplied by the net deadweight without deducting buoyancy. In the calculation of earth pressure,
however, the apparent seismic coefficient should be used, because the submerged unit weight that takes
buoyancy into account is used in this case.
(2) High Seismic Resistant Structures
(a) The target earthquake for the seismic design of high seismic resistant structures should be the potential
earthquake preseribed in the Regional Disester Prevention Plan, and the input earthquake ground motion at
the construction site should be determined based on this potential earthquake.
(b) The peak ground acceleration to calculate the design seismic coefficient of high seismic resistant structures
can be determined by the multiple reflection model given in 12.5 Seismic Response Analysis [Technical
Notes] (2).
(c) Noda et al.4) have given a detailed explanation of equation (12.4.1) for calculating the design seismic
coefficient of high seismic resistant structures from earthquake motion.
(d) Based upon the experience with the serious damage suffered by the Port of Kobe during the Hyogoken-Nanbu
Earthquake, the design seismic coefficient should be at least 0.25 when high seismic resistant structures be
constructed in locations near an active fault plane (when the site is supposed to be in an epicentral area).
(e) The seismic response analysis as well as the seismic coefficient method should be used as the design methods
for the Level 2 earthquake motion, based on a comprehensive evaluation of structural type, ground motion and
subsoil properties. In those cases, the facilities must secure a certain level of safety factor that is required to
ensure the soundness of the facility against the Level 1 ground motion.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Level 1 Earthquake Motion for All Port and Harbor Facilities
(a) The regional seismic coefficients listed in Table 12.4.1 were set forth using the distribution of expected peak
acceleration 8) corresponding to a 75-year return period for coastal regions. The expression 75-year return
period is based on the theory of probability. It does not mean that, should an earthquake motion equivalent to
the 75-year return period have occurred, another earthquake motion of the same magnitude will not occur
during the following 75 years. For example, the probability that a structure with a 50-year lifetime will
encounter an earthquake motion with a 75-year return period or greater during the lifetime is quite high, with a
value near 0.5. In the case of a facility whose lifetime can be set shorter than 50 years, the return period of the
design earthquake becomes shorter than 75 years if the encounter probability is made equally to around 0.5.
Information regarding the relationship between the lifetime and the encounter probability is given in Chapter
1 General.
(b) The expected peak acceleration of bedrock with a 75-year return period is listed in Table T- 12.4.1 by
regional classification. The regional seismic coefficients in Table 12.4.1 are stipulated from the expected
peak acceleration using the average relationship in Fig. T- 12.4.1. Bedrock as used here means soil type of
Class .
(2) Level 2 Earthquake Motion for High Seismic Resistant Facilities
(a) When a potential earthquake has not been stipulated in Regional Disaster Prevention Plan, or when it is
appropriate to determine specially an earthquake to be used in the design, the earthquake that will create the
most hazardous ground motion at the construction site among the potential earthquakes should be selected as
the target earthquake. The earthquakes to be considered are such as the largest past earthquake, the earthquake
by an Active Fault with High Probability Level 1 or the earthquake by an Active Fault under Special
Attention. When researching such earthquakes the Japans Active Fault Distribution Maps and Materials
(New Edition), Complete Listing of Damaging Earthquakes in Japan (New Edition) and the Japan
Earthquake Fault Parameter Handbook are available as references. The magnitude of an earthquake on an
active fault can be estimated from the following equation:
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log 10 L = 0.6M 2.9

where
L length of the earthquake fault (km)
M magnitude of earthquake
(12.4.2)
Table T- 12.4.1 Regional Seismic Coefficient and Peak Bedrock Acceleration with 75-Year Return Period
by Regional Classification
Regional classification
Regional seismic coefficient
Peak bedrock acceleration with

75-year return period (Gal)
0.15
350
0.13
250
0.12
200
0.11
150
0.08
100
1
3
( Asmac
g )
Seismic coefficient
kh
kh = 31
( Asmac
g )
Kh =
Upper and lower limits of the seismic coefficient estimated for each quaywall
Upper and lower limits of the seismic coefficient estimated for each port
(Lines connecting the upper and lower limits determine the range of the seismic coefficient)
SMAC peak acceleration (Gal)
M = 6.0 M = 6.5 M = 7.0

M = 7.5
M = 8.0
SMAC peak acceleration
ASMAC (Gal)
Fig. T- 12.4.1 Relationship between Seismic Coefficient and Peak Ground Acceleration
O data of M 6.0
8.0
Fault distance X (km)

Fig. T- 12.4.2 Relationship between SMAC Peak Accelerations and Fault Distance by Magnitude
)
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(b) The bedrock acceleration to be used for the analysis of ground seismic response to determine the design
seismic coefficient of high seismic resistant facilities is calculated using the following equation:
0.53M
(12.4.3)
log 10 A SMAC = 0.53M log 10 ( X + 0.0062 10
) 0.00169X + 0.524
where
ASMAC peak bedrock acceleration measured by a SMAC-type strong motion seismograph (Gal)
M magnitude of earthquake
X fault distance (km)
The term fault distance refers to the minimum distance from the fault plane to the site of interest. The results
of calculation by equation (12.4.3) are shown in Fig. T- 12.4.2. When the fault plane is not known, the
minimum distance from the surface fault should be used as the fault distance.
The term bedrock means rock mass, sandy soil layer with the N-value of 50 or greater, clay layer with
the unconfined compressive strength qu of 650 kN/m2 or greater, or subsoil with a shear wave velocity of
300m/s or higher.
(c) Potential earthquakes are divided into two classes called intra-plate earthquakes and inter-plate earthquakes,
depending upon the mechanism of their occurrence. When an intra-plate earthquake is assumed, the Port
Island bedrock incident waves computed from the records at the Port Island of Kobe Port during the
Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake should be used as the input earthquake waves for the ground seismic response
analysis. When assuming an inter-plate earthquake, waves such as the Hachinohe bedrock incident waves (S252NS Base) computed from records at the Port of Hachinohe during the 1968 Tokachi-Oki Earthquake or the
Ofunato bedrock incident waves (S-1210 E41S) at the Port of Ofunato during the 1978 Miyagi-Ken-Oki
Earthquake should be used for the input earthquake waves. When a high seismic resistant facility is to be
constructed within a hypocenter area and the earthquake is supposed to be large one occurring in that area,
however, the Port Island bedrock incident waves (PI-79NS Base) should be used as the input ground motion,
even if the one being considered is an inter-plate earthquake. Figure T- 12.4.3 shows these three wave
profiles. The Fourier spectra of these wawes are shown in Fig. T- 12.4.4.
(d) The judgment whether the construction site is near the earthquake fault or not should be made according to
Fig. T- 12.4.5. If the construction site is in the zone A on the chart, then the site should be considered as being
near to the fault plane (located within the hypocenter area).
Acceleration
Hachinohe bedrock
incident waves
Time
Acceleration
Ofunato bedrock
incident waves
Time
Acceleration
Port Island bedrock

incident waves
Time
Fig. T- 12.4.3 Incident Waves for Bedrock
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Fourier spectrum (Gal s)
(a) S-252 NS Base
Distance to fault plane x (km)
Parzen window
Band = 0.8 Hz
Frequency (Hz)
(b) S-1210 E 41 S
Magnitude M
Parzen window
Band = 0.8 Hz
Fig. T- 12.4.5 Classification of Earthquakes by Active Faults

Note: Sites falling in zone A are regarded as being within
hypocenter areas
Frequency (Hz)
(c) Pl-79 NS Base
Parzen window
Band = 0.8 Hz
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. T- 12.4.4 Fourier Spectra of Incident Waves for Bedrock
12.5 Seismic Response Analysis

The seismic resistance of port and harbor facilities that are particularly important or that are of structural
types having few past precedents shall be examined based on a seismic response analysis in addition to the
methods in 12.3 Seismic Coefficient Method or 12.6 Seismic Deformation Method.
[Commentary]
(1) General
Many types of structures that are different from or are much larger than those of structures built in the past have
been designed and built as port and harbor facilities in recent years. There are also many cases that structures
must be built in locations where ground conditions are extremely poor. Moreover, it is now necessary to study
structural deformation to examine the function of high seismic resistant facilities even when subjected to the
ground motion near the fault plane, such as the Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake that heavily damaged the Port of
Kobe. When the type of structure was rare in the past or when the importance for the target structure is
extremely high, seismic response analysis should be carried out to examine the deformation of structure by the
Level 2 earthquake motion, in which the behavior of structure during an earthquake can be fully studied.
(2) Seismic Response Analysis
To conduct a seismic response analysis, first a suitable analytical method is selected and the structure is modeled
according the analytical procedure, specifying the materials constants for the model. Then the input earthquake
ground motion (peak amplitude, wave profiles) is selected and computation of the earthquake response is carried
out. The validity of the calculated results must be evaluated based upon an adequate examination of the
applicable range and limiting conditions of the analytical procedure, the details of the modeling, and reliability
of the material constants.
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[Technical Notes]
(1) Input Earthquake Ground Motion
(a) The ground motion used for seismic design should basically be determined from the results of past
observations or from computations of ground seismic response. The records of strong earthquake motions of
the port and harbor regions in Japan are continuously collected by a nationwide observation network. The
important records have been published annually since 1963 5).
(b) The magnitude of the earthquake, the fault mechanism, the distance from the fault plane, and the seismic
response characteristics of ground should be considered in order to select the input ground motion.
(c) When the ground conditions of the design site differ from those at which the strong-motion records to be used
for the seismic response analysis were obtained 9), the observed records of the surface ground motion are first
converted to the bedrock incident wave profiles. Then the bedrock incident waves are inputted to the bedrock
of the design site and the surface ground motion can be calculated. The ground seismic response analysis
method based on the multiple reflection theory can be used to calculate the surface ground motion from the
incident waves of the bedrock and vise versa. In many cases, however, the multiple reflection theory is based
on the equivalent-linear method, and the application of this method is limited to a strain level of 1% or less.
When used for seismic response analysis for strong ground motion such as the Level 2 earthquake motion,
therefore, careful attention should be paid to the limitations of this method.
(d) The items indicated in (b) above must be taken into consideration when specifying the peak amplitude of
design ground motion. Generally the peak amplitude of ground motion is a function of magnitude and
distance, and the following equations have been proposed:
log 10 A COR = 0.55M log 10 ( X + 0.0050 10
0.55M
log 10 A SMAC = 0.53M log 10 ( X + 0.0062 10

log 10 V = 0.48M log 10 ( X + 0.014 10
0.43M
log 10 D = 0.62M log 10 ( X + 0.018 10

where
ACOR
ASMAC
V
D
M
X
) 0.00122X + 0.502
0.53M
) 0.00169X + 0.524
) 0.00060X 0.324
0.43M
) 0.00067X 1.886
(12.5.1)
(12.5.2)
(12.5.3)
(12.5.4)
corrected peak bedrock acceleration (Gal)

peak bedrock acceleration for SMSC-type strong motion seismograph (Gal)
peak bedrock velocity (cm/s)
peak bedrock displacement (cm)
magnitude of earthquake
distance from fault plane (km)
Table T- 12.5.1 Numerical Methods of Seismic Response Analyses
Analysis method
(for saturated ground)
Effective stress analysis (solid and liquid phases),

Total stress analysis (solid phase)
Dimensions
One-dimensional, Two-dimensional, Three-dimensional
Models for analysis
Multiple reflection model, Spring-mass model, Finite element model
Materials characteristics
Linear, Equivalent-linear, Nonlinear
Domains for computation
Time-domain analysis, Frequency-domain analysis
(2) Seismic Response Analysis Methods

Seismic response analysis methods are broadly classified into two types: procedures based on numerical
calculations using computers, and vibration experiments using apparatus such as a shaking table.
(a) Seismic response analysis based on numerical calculations
Seismic response analyses based on numerical calculations can be classified as listed in Table T- 12.5.1.
Those methods are briefly explained below.
Effective stress analysis and total stress analysis
Seismic response analyses can be divided into the methods based on the effective stress and those based on
the total stress. When the ground liquefies, the excess pore water pressure is induced and the effective stress
declines. As a result, the restoring force or damping property of soils will change and the response
properties of ground will also change. With the effective stress analysis method, these situations can be
analyzed and the excess pore water pressure that occurs in the ground can be determined directly from
calculations. On the other hand, the total stress analysis is unable to calculate the excess pore water pressure
from the calculation process. So the change in seismic response due to the change in the effective stress
cannot be taken into consideration. For situations where the excessive pore water pressure above a certain
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level will occur (where the excessive pore water pressure ratio is generally 0.5 or greater), therefore, it is
much likely that the calculation results based on the total stress method will differ greatly from the actual
seismic response. Nevertheless, the total stress analysis is simple and is often used for design purposes. It is
well understood that in general the response values calculated by the effective stress analysis (shear stress
or acceleration) are smaller than those by total stress analysis. Therefore, it is considered that total stress
analysis will give safer results in design.
Models for analysis
(i) Multiple reflection model
This calculation model regards the ground as a stack of horizontal soil layers. When shear waves
propagate perpendicularly from the bedrock, it is repeatedly transmitted and reflected at the boundaries
between soil layers. With this method the relationship between the soil stress and strain is treated as
being linear. Multiple reflection models using equivalent linearization that makes it possible to deal
with quasi-nonlinearity have been widely used in recent years. The computer program SHAKE 13)
based on this model is often used.
(ii) Spring-mass model
In this model the ground is replaced with a combination of multiple masses, springs, and dampers.
With this method the calculation procedure is comparatively simple and it is possible to introduce a
nonlinear relationship between displacement and restoring force.
(iii) Finite element models
These models are not restricted to just ground motion analysis but are used widely in many fields. The
ground is divided into a number of finite elements. The finite element models are characterized by their
capability to analyze and display with ease the two-dimensional changes of layer thickness and ground
conditions. Examples of practical application programs include FLUSH 14), BEAD 15), and
FLIP 16), 17). Based on the experience of analyses of damaged quaywalls at the Port of Kobe during
the Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake, FLIP is being used for verification of the deformation level of
high seismic resistant facilities and other purposes. In addition, FLAC is used as a finite difference
analysis program using the explicit solution method.
(iv) Continuum model
This model regards a structure (or ground) as a cantilever beam possessing uniform characteristics or
properties that vary in a uniform manner. The shear beam model is normally selected for modeling.
Constants required for calculations are the dimensions of structure, the unit weight of each part, the
shear modulus and its depth-wise rate of variation, and the damping constant.
(b) Vibration experiments using a shaking table
This method takes the dynamic similitude into consideration and applies vibrations to a model of structure. It
is an effective means for understanding the overall behavior of a structure and the ground. In this regard, a
fairly high level of experimental technique is required in making a model that adequately reproduces the
dynamic characteristics of the prototype.
The methods by vibration experiments with apparatus such as a shaking table include the following
methods.
Model vibration experiments using a shaking table
For these experiments, a model is prepared that will satisfy the similitudes of the geometrics and dynamic
properties of the target structure and the ground. The assumed earthquake motion is then applied to the
model with a shaking table.
Model vibration experiments using a centrifuge
For these experiments, a centrifuge is used to reproduce stress conditions in the model that are identical to
actual stress. The assumed earthquake motion is then applied with a vibration test device loaded on the
centrifuge to satisfy the similitude.
12.6 Seismic Deformation Method

The displacements and stresses of tubular structures buried in the ground during an earthquake shall be
investigated using the seismic deformation method, because the displacements of these types of structures
are controlled by the deformation of the surrounding earth.
[Commentary]
For an investigation of the seismic resistance of tubular structures buried in the ground such as immersed tunnels or
oil pipelines that are very long compared to their cross-sectional area, it is very important to investigate the relative
displacement of subsoil around the structure controlled by the ground deformation during an earthquake. The relative
displacement that will occur in the subsoil around tubular structures will vary depending on the nature of earthquake
as well as other factors such as the ground conditions.
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[Technical Notes]
The Immersed Tunnel Technology Manual is refered to design immersed tunnels.
[References]
1) Hironao TAKAHASHI, Takashi NAKAMOTO, Hisanori YOSHIMURA: Analysis of maritime transportation in KOBE Port
after the 1995 HYOGOKEN-NANBU Earthquake, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 861, 1997 (in Japanese).
2) Tatsuo UWABE, Setsuo NODA, Eiichi KURATA: Characteristics of vertical components of strong-motion accelerograms
and effects of vertical ground motion on stability of gravity type quaywalls, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1976 (in
Japanese).
3) Atsushi NOZU, Tatsuo UWABE, Yukihiro SATO, Takumi SHINOZAWA: Relation between seismic coefficient and peak
ground acceleration estimated from attenuation relations, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 893, 1997 (in Japanese).
4) Setuo NODA, Tatsuo UWABE, Tadaki CHIBA: Relation between seismic coefficient and ground acceleration for gravity
quaywall, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 14, No. 4, 1975 (in Japanese).
5) Masafumi MIYATA, Yukihiro SATO, Koji ICHII, Toshikazu MORITA, Susumu IAI: Annual report on strong-motion
earthquake records in Japanese ports (1994), Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 840, 1996 (in Japanese).
6) Hajime TSUCHIDA, Eiichi KURATA, Tokuzo ISHIZAKA, Satoshi HAYASHI: Average response spectra for various site
conditions, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 12, No. 4, 1973 (in Japanese).
7) Shoichi KITAJIMA, Tatsuo UWABE: Analysis on seismic damage in anchored sheet-piling bulkheads, Rept of PHRI, Vol.
18, No. 1, 1979 (in Japanese).
8) Sosuke KITAZAWA, Tatsuo UWABE, Norihiro HIGAKI: Expected values of maximum base rock accelerations along
coasts of Japan, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 486, 1984 (in Japanese).
9) Eiichi KURATA, Tokuzo ISHIZAKA, Hajime TSUCHIDA: Site characteristics of strong-motion earthquake stations in
ports and harbours in Japan (Part ), Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 156, 1973 (in Japanese).
10) Hajime TSUCHIDA, Susumu IAI, Eiichi KURATA: Analysis of earthquake ground motions observed with two dimensional
seismometer array (First Report) - North Tokyu Bay Earthquake of June 4, 1977 -, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1983 (in
Japanese).
11) Susumu IAI, Eiichi KURATA, Hajime TSUCHIDA: Digitization and corrections of strong-motion accelerograms, Tech.
12) Tatsuo UWABE: Base rock motion around the pacific coasts in Tohoku district - Design earthquake ground motion of
Kamaishi breakwater, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 412, 1982 (in Japanese).
13) Schnabel, P. B., Lysmer, J., and Seed, H. B.: SHAKE - A computer program for earthquake response analysis of horizontally
layered site, Report No. EERC72-12, College of Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, 1972.
14) Lysmer, J., Udaka, T, Tsai, C. F., and Seed, H. B.: FLUSH - A computer program of approximate 3-D analysis of soil structure interaction problems, Report No. EERC 75-30, University of California at Berkeley, 1975.
15) Tatsuo UWABE, Setsuo NODA, Tadaki CHIBA, Norihiro HAGAKI: Coupled hydrodynamic response characteristics and
water pressures of large composite breakwaters, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 20, No. 4, 1981 (in Japanese).
16) Susumu IAI, Yasuo MATSUNAGA, Tomohiro KAMEOKA: Parameter identification for a cyclic mobility model, Rept of
PHRI, Vol. 29, No. 4, 1990 (in Japanese).
17) Susumu IAI, Yasuo MATSUNAGA, Tomohiro KAMEOKA: Strain space plasticity model for cyclic mobility, Rept of
18) Takamasa INATOMI, Ikuki YOKOHAMA, Motoki KANAZAWA: One-dimensional nonlinear dynamic ground response
analyses, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 561, 1986 (in Japanese).
19) ISHIHARA, K., YOSHIDA, N. and TSUJINO, S.: Modelling of stress - strain relations of soils in cyclic loading, Proc. of
5th Conf. on Numerical Methods in Geomechanics, Nagoya, Vol. 1, 1985, pp. 373-380.
20) Finn, W. D. L., Martin, G. R., and Lee, M. K. W.: Comparison of dynamic analyses for saturated sands, Proc. ASCE,
Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, Vol. 1, 1978, pp. 472-491.
21) HOUSNER, G. W.: Behavior of structures during an earthquake, Proc. of ASCE, Vol. 85, No. EM4, 1959.
22) Susumu IAI, Tomohiro KAMEOKA: Analysis of deformation in sheet pile quaywall due to liquefaction, Rept of PHRI,
Vol. 30, No. 2, 1991 (in Japanese).
23) Susumu IAI, Koji ICHII, Toshikazu MORITA: Effective stress analysis on a caisson type quaywall - mechanism of damage
to port facilities during 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake (Part ), Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 813, pp. 253-280 (in
Japanese)
24) Noda, S., Tsuchid, H. and Kurata, E.: Dynamic tests of soil embankments, 5th WCEE, 1973.
25) Osamu KIYOMIYA, Shigeo NAKAYAMA, Hajime TSUCHIDA: Observations of dynamic response of Kinuura submerged
tunnel during an earthquakes and dynamic response analysis, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 221, 1975 (in Japanese).
26) Takamasa INATOMI, Satoshi HAYASHI, Ikuhiko YAMASHITA: Vibration characteristics of the open type steel piled wharf
with container crane, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1973 (in Japanese).
27) Susumi IAI, Hajime TSUCHIDA: Earthquake response analysis of floating type structures, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 337,
1980 (in Japanese).
28) Tatsuo UWABE, Hajime TSUCHIDA, Eiichi KURATA: Coupled hydrodynamic response analysis based on strong motion
earthquake records of fill type breakwater in deep sea, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1983 (in Japanese).
29) Motoki KAZAMA, Takamasa INATOMI, Toshihiro IMAMURA: Observation and analysis of seismic response grid type
improved ground by deep mixing method, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 22, No. 4, 1983 (in Japanese).
30) Hiromasa FUKUUCHI, Nobuo MIYAJIMA, Ikuo YAMASHITA: Studies on the vibration characteristics of fill-type
embankments, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1966 (in Japanese).
31) Hideo ARAI, Yasuhumi UMEHARA: Vibration of dry sand layers, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 6, No. 5, 1969 (in Japanese).
32) Hideo ARAI, Yasuhumi UMEHARA: Vibration of saturated sand layers, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 8, No. 1, 1969 (in Japanese).
-193-
33) Hideo ARAI, Toshiyuki YOKOI: On the earthquake resistance of anchored sheet-pile walls (1st Report) -Model vibration
tests of anchored sheet-pile walls in dry sand, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 4, No. 9, 1965 (in Japanese)
34) Tatsuo UWABE, Sosuke KITAZAWA, Norihiro HIGAKI: Shaking table tests and circular arc analysis for large models of
embankment on saturated sand layers, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 24, No. 2, 1985 (in Japanese)
35) Takuji NAKANO, Kenji MORI: Earthquake-resistant calculation and dynamic model test on trench type tunnel, Tech. Note
of PHRI, No. 172, 1973 (in Japanese)
36) Takamasa INATOMI, Motoki KAZAMA, Toshihiro IMAMURA: An experimental study on the earthquake resistance of
wall type improved ground by deep mixing method, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 22, No. 3, 1983 (in Japanese).
37) Setsuo NODA, Sosuke KITAZAWA, Takeshi IIDA, Nobuo MORI, Hiroshi TABUCHI: An experimental study on the
earthquake of steel plate cellular-bulkheads with embedment, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 21, No. 3, 1982 (in Japanese).
38) Takashi SUGANO, Masaaki MITOH, Ken OIKAWA: Mechanism of damage to port facilities during 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu
Earthquake (Part ) - experimental study on the behavior of caisson type quay wall during an earthquake using underwater
shaking table, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 813, 1995 (in Japanese).
39) Osamu KIYOMIYA, Hideo NISHIZAWA, Hiroshi YOKOTA: Field observation and response analysis at Kawasaki Port
submerged tunnel, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 22, No. 3, 1983 (in Japanese).
40) Setsuo NODA, Tatsuo UWABE: Microtremor measurement on sea banks, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 205, 1975 (in
Japanese).
41) Takamasa INATOMI, Motoki KAZAMA, Toshihiro IMAMURA: An experimental study on the earthquake resistance of
wall type improved ground by deep mixing method, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 22, No. 3, 1983 (in Japanese).
42) Newmark, N. M.: Effects of earthquakes on dams and embankments, Geotechnique, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1965.
43) Hajime TSUCHIDA, Ken-ichiro MINAMI, Osamu KIYOMIYA, Eiichi KURATA, Hideo NISHIZAWA: Stress of buried
pipe during an earthquake based on two dimensional seismometer array observation, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 20, No. 4, 1981 (in
Japanese).
44) Tatsuo UWABE, Norihiro HIGAKI: An experimental study on sliding block in water during an earthquake, Rept. of PHRI,
Vol. 23, No. 3, 1984 (in Japanese).
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Chapter 13 Liquefaction
13.1 General
Saturated loose sandy subsoils tend to liquefy during an earthquake, causing damage to structures. When
designing structures, the effects of liquefaction shall be taken into consideration to the extent as necessary.
[Technical Notes]
The Handbook on Liquefaction Remediation of Reclaimed Land (Revised Edition) can be referred to examine
liquefaction of the subsoils.
13.2 Prediction of Liquefaction (Notification Article 17)

In principle, predictions of subsoil liquefaction shall be carried out according to the following:
(1) When the subsoil is composed of soils such as saturated loose sandy soil, a prediction and judgment of
liquefaction occurrence of the subsoil shall be made.
(2) Predictions and judgment of liquefaction occurrence of subsoil shall be carried out by choosing an
appropriate method that uses the gradation and Standard Penetration Test results or the cyclic triaxial
test results.
[Commentary]
(1) Types of Liquefaction Prediction and Judgment
There are two types of the methods for prediction of liquefaction occurrence. One method is based on the
gradation and N-values, and another uses the results of a cyclic triaxial test. The former method based on the
gradation and N-values is the simplest method and can be applied in general. The latter method using cyclic
triaxial test results is a detailed procedure and is used in the situations where prediction according to the method
based on the gradation and N-values is difficult.
(2) Depth of Investigation
The subsoils subject to liquefaction prediction are those down to a depth of 20 m below the ground surface (or
below the seabed for structures in the sea). However, when it is predicted that structures will suffer serious
damage if liquefaction occur in a layer at a depth of more than 20 m, or when the soil layer continues below the
depth of 20m, liquefaction predictions should include these layers as well.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Prediction of Liquefaction Using Gradation and N-values 1)
(a) Judgment based on gradation
The subsoils should be classified according to gradation, by referring to Fig. T- 13.2.1, which is divided into
two sub-figures according to the value of the uniformity coefficient. The threshold value of the uniformity
coefficient (Uc= D60 /D10) is 3.5, where Uc is the uniformity coefficient, and D60 and D10 denote the grain
sizes corresponding to 60% and 10% passing, respectively. Soil is judged not to liquefy when the grain size
distribution curve is not included in the range possibility of liquefaction.
When the grain size distribution curve spans the possibility of liquefaction range, a suitable approach is
required to examine the possibility of liquefaction. For the soil with grain size distribution of large fine portion
a cyclic triaxial test should be carried out. For that of large gravel portion, the soil is determined not to liquefy
when the coefficient of permeability is 3 cm/s or greater. When there are subsoils with poor permeability such
as clay or silt on top of the target subsoil in this case, however, it should be treated as soil that falls within the
range of possibility of liquefaction.
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For soil with large

uniformity coefficient U
Percentage passing by mass
Very large possibility

of liquefaction
Possibility of liquefaction
Clay
Silt
Grain size
Sand
Gravel
Fig. T- 13.2.1(a) Range of Possible Liquefaction (Uc 3.5)
For soil with small

uniformity ecefficient U
Percentage passing by mass
Very large possibility

of liquefaction
Possibility of
liquefaction
Clay
Silt
Grain size
Sand
Gravel
Fig. T- 13.2.1(b) Range of Possible Liquefaction (Uc < 3.5)
(b) Prediction of liquefaction using equivalent N-values and equivalent acceleration

For the subsoil with a gradation that falls within the range possibility of liquefaction shown in Fig. T13.2.1, further investigations should be carried by the descriptions below.
Equivalent N-value
The equivalent N-value should be calculated from equation (13.2.1).
N 0.019 (s v 65 )
( N ) 65 = -----------------------------------------------------0.0041 (s v 65 ) + 1.0
(13.2.1)
where
(N)65 equivalent N-value
N N-value of the subsoil
s v effective overburden pressure of the subsoil (kN/m2)
(the effective overburden pressure used here should be calculated with respect to the ground
elevation at the time of the Standard Penetration Test.)
The equivalent N-value refers to the N-value corrected for the effective overburden pressure of 65 kN/m2. This
conversion reflects the practice that liquefaction prediction was previously made on the basis of the N-value of
a soil layer near a groundwater surface (see the Technical Standards and Commentaries for Port and Harbour
Facilities in Japan (1979)).
In cases where equation (13.2.3) in (c) below is used, however, the equivalent N-value should be the same
as the N-value of the layer without correction.
Equivalent acceleration
The equivalent acceleration should be calculated using equation (13.2.2). The maximum shear stress
determined from the seismic response analysis is used to determine the equivalent acceleration for each soil
layer. The input motion to the bedrock in the seismic response analysis is determined by consulting with the
reference 5).
t max
(13.2.2)
a eq = 0.7 ---------- g
sv
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where
a eq equivalent acceleration (Gal)
t max maximum shear stress (kN/m2)
s v effective overburden pressure (kN/m2) (the effective overburden pressure should be determined
based on the ground elevation during an earthquake.)
g gravitational acceleration (980 Gal)
Equivalent
N-value
Predictions using the equivalent N-value and equivalent acceleration

The soil layer should be classified according to the ranges labeled I ~ IV in Fig. T- 13.2.2, using the
equivalent N-value and the equivalent acceleration of the soil layer. The meaning of the ranges I ~ IV is
explained in Table T-13.2.1 to appear later.
Equivalent acceleration (Gal)
Fig. T- 13.2.2 Classification of Soil Layer with Equivalent N-Value and Equivalent Acceleration
(c) Correction of N-values and predictions when the fraction of fines content is relatively large.
When the fines content (grain size is 75 mm or less) is 5% or greater, the equivalent N-value should be
corrected before applying Fig. T- 13.2.2. Corrections of the equivalent N-value are divided into the following
three cases.
Compensation factor
for equivalent -value
cN
Case 1: when the plasticity index is less than 10 or cannot be determined, or when the fines content is less
than 15%
The equivalent N-value (after correction) should be set as (N)65/cN. The compensation factor cN is given in
Fig. T- 13.2.3. The equivalent N-value (after correction) and the equivalent acceleration are used to
determine the range in Fig. T- 13.2.2.
Fines content
FC (%)
Fig. T- 13.2.3 Compensation Factor of Equivalent N-Value Corresponding to Fine Contents
Case 2: when the plasticity index is greater than 10 but less than 20, and the fines content is 15% or higher
The equivalent N-value (after correction) should be set as both (N)65/0.5 and N + DN, and the range should
be determined according to the following situations, where the value for DN is given by the following
equation:
(13.2.3)
DN = 8 + 0.4 ( I p 10 )
i ) When N + DN falls within the range I, use range I.
ii ) When N + DN falls within the range II, use range II.
iii) When N + DN falls within the range III or IV and (N)65/0.5 is within range I, II or III, use range III.
-197-
iv) When N + DN falls within range III or IV and (N)65/0.5 is within range IV, use range IV.
Here, the range III is used for the case iii) even when the equivalent N-value (after correction) with
(N)65/0.5 is in the range I or II, because the results from the fines content correction are too conservative.
The reason that the range IV is not used for the case iii) even when range IV is given by a correction
N + DN is that the reliability of the plasticity index in the equation is low when the value is 10 ~ 20.
Therefore, judging the subsoil as the range IV possibility of liquefaction is very low is considered as
risky.
Case 3: when the plasticity index is 20 or greater, and the fines content is 15% or higher
The equivalent N-value (after correction) should be set as N + DN. The range should be determined
according to the equivalent N-value (after correction) and the equivalent acceleration.
Figure T-13.2.4 illustrates the ranges of applications of the cases to .
No corrections
Correction with
cN in Fig. T- 13.2.3

N in Equation (13.2.3)
Plasticity index
Ip
Correction with
Correction with
cN in Fig. T- 13.2.3 and N
by equation (13.2.3)
Fine contents
Fc (%)
Fig. T- 13.2.4 N-Value Correction Methods by Fine Contents and Plasticity Index
(d) Liquefaction predictions

Since liquefaction predictions must also consider the factors other than physical phenomena such as what
degree of safety should be maintained in the structures, it is not possible to unconditionally establish any
criteron for judgments regarding various prediction results. The rule of judgment of liquefaction occurrence
for the results of prediction that is considered as standard are listed in Table T- 13.2.1.
In this table the term prediction of liquefaction refers to the high or low possibility of liquefaction as a
physical phenomenon. In contrast, the term judgment of liquefaction refers to the consideration of the high
or low possibility of liquefaction and judgment of whether or not the ground will liquefy.
Table T- 13.2.1 Predictions and Judgments of Liquefaction for Soil Layer According to Ranges to
Range shown in
Fig. T- 13.2.3
Prediction of liquefaction
Possibility of liquefaction occurrence

is very high
Liquefaction will occur
Possibility of liquefaction occurrence

is high
Either to judge that liquefaction will occur or to

conduct further evaluation based on cyclic
triaxial tests.
Possibility of liquefaction is low
Either to judge that liquefaction will not occur

or to conduct further evaluation based on
cyclic triaxial tests.
For a very important structure, either to judge
that liquefaction will occur or to conduct
further evaluation based upon cyclic triaxial
tests.
Possibility of liquefaction is very low
Liquefaction will not occur
Judgment of liquefaction
(2) Prediction and Judgment Based on the Results of Cyclic Triaxial Tests
In some cases it may be difficult to predict or judge the possibility of subsoil liquefaction from the results of
gradation and N-values. In such cases a prediction and judgment for subsoil liquefaction should be made with
the results of a seismic response analysis and cyclic triaxial tests conducted on undisturbed samples.
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(3) Judgmant of Overall Liquefaction

In the judgment of overall subsoil liquefaction for a site consisting of soil layers, the decision should be made
based on a judgement for each layer of subsoil.
13.3 Countermeasures against Liquefaction

When implementing liquefaction countermeasures, appropriate countermeasure works shall be selected to
maintain the functions of structures after an earthquake.
[Commentary]
(1) When designing liquefaction countermeasure works, appropriate decisions regarding the following items must
be made:
(a) Construction methods of countermeasure works
(b) Dimensions of countermeasure works (area and depth)
(c) Specific design of the countermeasure works
(2) Items (a) to (c) below are considered to be liquefaction countermeasure works.
(a) To prevent the occurrence of excessive pore water pressure
Compaction
Solidification
Replacement (replacement with easily compacted sand)
(b) To dissipate excessive pore water pressure
Drain placement
Replacement (replacement with coarse sand, gravel, etc.)
(c) Combinations of (a) and (b)
Simple combinations of measures in (a) and (b)
Combinations of measures in (a) and (b) after giving consideration to their relationship with surrounding
structures
(3) The dimensions of soil improvements to be used as liquefaction countermeasures should be determined to the
extent to maintain the functions of structures.
(4) When using compaction as a liquefaction countermeasure, the subsoil should be compacted so that the N-value
after compaction reaches a value at which liquefaction will be judged not to occur (see 13.2 Prediction of
Liquefaction). When the subsoil that will liquefy is located adjacent to the improved subsoil, an area under the
influence of the liquefaction should be reserved in the improved subsoil area. The equivalent N-value for the
reserved area should be 16 or greater.
(5) Liquefaction countermeasure works should be carried out by taking due consideration to the design targets of
subsoil improvement, and the influence on existing structures and on the surrounding area.
[Reference]
1) Hiroyuki YAMAZAKI, Kouki ZEN, Fumikatsu KOIKE: Study of the liquefaction prediction based on the grain distribution
and the SPT N-value, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 914, 1998 (in Japanese).
-199-
Chapter 14 Earth Pressure and Water Pressure

14.1 Earth Pressure
The earth pressure acting on the structure shall be calculated in correspondence to various conditions such
as sandy soil and cohesive soil properties, active and passive states of earth pressure due to the
displacement mode of structure, the situation in ordinary condition or earthquake condition.
[Commentary]
The earth pressure is the force that is exerted by the soil mass and acts on a structure, for instance, quaywall. The
magnitude of the earth pressure is known to vary considerably with the displacement of structure and with the nature
of the soil such as gradation, void ratio, water content, and stress path. The earth pressure discussed in this chapter is
the pressure acting on a structure by ordinary soil. The earth pressure caused by liquefied soil, improved soil, or
reinforced soil is not discussed in this chapter.
The actual phenomenon of the earth pressure during an earthquake is caused by dynamic interaction between
backfill soil, structure and water, which is different from the earth pressure discussed in this chapter. However, many
analyses of past damage due to earth pressures during earthquakes have enabled to formulate the practical calculation
method of earth pressure during an earthquake for designs. The hydrostatic pressure and dynamic water pressure
acting on a structure should be evaluated separately.
14.2 Earth Pressure under Ordinary Conditions

14.2.1 Earth Pressure of Sandy Soil under Ordinary Conditions (Notification Article 11, Clause 1,
Number 1)
The earth pressure of sandy soil acting on the backface wall of structure and the angle of sliding surface
shall be calculated by the following equations:
(1) Active Earth Pressure and the Angle of Failure Surface.
p ai = K ai Sg i hi + w cosy cosy
(14.2.1)
y - b)
cos(
y + d ) sin(f + d )
cos(y - b ) sin(f - b )
cos(
z - b ) = - tan(f + d + y - b ) + sec(f + d + y - b )
cot(
(14.2.2)
where
fi - y )
cos (
K ai =
cos
y cos(d + y ) 1 +
fi + d ) sin(fi - b )
cos(d + y ) cos(y - b )
sin(
(2) Passive Earth Pressure and the Angle of Failure Surface.
p pi = Kpi Sg i hi + w cosy cosy
(14.2.3)
y - b)
cos(
z - b ) = tan(f - d - y + b ) + sec(f - d - y + b )
cot(
y + d ) sin(f - d )
cos(y - b ) sin(f + b )
cos(
(14.2.4)
where
2
fi + y )
cos (
K pi =
cos
y cos(d + y ) 1
fi - d ) sin(fii + b )
cos(d + y ) cos(y - b )
sin(
with
pai , ppi active and passive earth pressure, respectively, acting on the bottom level of the i-th soil
layer (kN/m2)
fi angle of internal friction of the i-th soil layer ()
gi unit weight of the i-th soil layer (kN/m3)
hi thickness of the i-th soil layer (m)
Kai , Kpi coefficients of active and passive earth pressures, respectively, in the i-th soil layer
y angle of batter of backface wall from vertical line ()
b angle of backfill ground surface from horizontal line ()
-200-
d angle of friction between backfilling material and backface wall ()

zi angle of failure surface of the i-th soil layer ()
w uniformly distributed surcharge (kN/m2)
z1
z2
y
y
y+d
d
zi
Fig. 14.2.1 Schematic Diagram of Earth Pressure Acting on Retaining Wall
[Commentary]
(1) Angle of Internal Friction of Soil
The angle of internal friction of backfill soil normally has a value of 30. In case of especially good backfilling
material, it can be set as large as 40.
(2) Angle of Friction between Backfilling Material and Backface Wall
The angle of friction between backfilling material and backface wall normally has a value of 15 ~ 20. It may
be estimated as one-half of the angle of internal friction of backfilling material.
(3) Unit Weight of Soil.
The unit weight of soil normally has a value of 18 kN/m3 as unsaturated soil such as a soil above the residual
water level, and 10 kN/m3 as saturated soil below it.
14.2.2 Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil under Ordinary Conditions (Notification Article 11, Clause 1,
Number 2)
The earth pressure of cohesive soil acting on the backface wall of structure and the angle of failure surface
shall be calculated by following equations:
(1) Active Earth Pressure
pa = Sg i hi + w -2c
(2) Passive Earth Pressure
p p = Sg i hi + w + 2c
where
pa active earth pressure acting on the bottom level of the i-th soil layer (kN/m2)
pp passive earth pressure acts on the bottom level of the i-th soil layer (kN/m2)
gi unit weight of the i-th soil layer (kN/m3)
hi thickness of the i-th soil layer (m)
w uniformly distributed surcharge (kN/m2)
c cohesion of soil in the i-th layer (kN/m2)
(14.2.5)
(14.2.6)
[Commentary]
(1) Active earth pressure is calculated using equation (14.2.5). If a negative earth pressure is obtained by
calculation, then the pressure should be set as zero.
(2) Cohesion of soil should be determined using an appropriate method (refer to 11.3.3 Shear Properties).
(3) In case of cohesive soil, the cohesion between backfill and backface wall should be ignored.
(4) The unit weight of cohesive soil should be estimated by soil test. The wet unit weight gt should be used for soils
above the residual water level, and the submerged unit weight g be used for soils below the residual water level.
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14.3 Earth Pressure during Earthquake

14.3.1 Earth Pressure of Sandy Soil during Earthquake (Notification Article 18, Clause 1, Number 1)
The earth pressure of sandy soil acting on a backface wall of structure during an earthquake and the angle
of failure surface shall be calculated by following equations:
(1) Active Earth Pressure and the Angle of Failure Surface.
pai = K ai Sgi hi +
y
cosy
cos(y - b )
w cos
(14.3.1)
z - b ) = - tan(f + d + y - b ) + sec(f + d + y - b )
cot(
y + d + q ) sin(f + d )
cos(y - b ) sin(f - b - q )
cos(
(14.3.2)
where
fi - y - q )
sin(fi + d ) sin(fi - b - q )
y cos(d + y + q ) 1 +
cos(d + y + q ) cos(y - b )
cos (
K ai =
cos
q cos
(2) Passive Earth Pressure and the Angle of Failure Surface.
ppi = K pi Sg i hi +
y
cosy
cos(y - b )
w cos
(14.3.3)
z - b ) = tan(f - d - y + b ) + sec(f - d - y + b )
cot(
y + d - q ) sin(f - d )
y - b ) sin(f + b - q )
cos(
cos(
(14.3.4)
where
fi + y - q )
sin(fi - d ) sin(fi + b - q )
y cos(d + y - q ) 1
cos(d + y - q ) cos(y - b )
cos (
K pi =
cos
q cos
where
q composite seismic angle () given by the following equations:
q = tan-1k (above water level)
q = tan-1k (below water level)
k seismic coefficient
k apparent seismic coefficient
The notations other than q, k, and k are the same as those defined in 14.2.1 Earth Pressure of Sandy
Soil under Ordinary Conditions. The apparent seismic coefficient k is described in 14.3.3
Apparent Seismic Coefficient.
[Commentary]
(1) Earth pressure during an earthquake is based on the theories proposed by Mononobe (1917) and Okabe (1924).
(2) Angle of friction between backfilling material and backface wall normally has a value of 15 ~ 20. It may be
estimated as one-half of the angle of internal friction of backfilling material.
(3) The composite seismic angle k is used for soils above the residual water level, and k is used below it.
(4) The coefficient of earth pressure and angle of failure surface as illustrated can be obtained from the diagrams in
Fig. C- 14.3.1.
(5) The earth pressure theory assumes that the soil and the pore water behave as contained in one unit. Thus the
equations mentioned above cannot be applied to liquefied soil. It is necessary for liquefied soil to treat carefully
with dynamic effective stress analysis or model tests.
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70
= 15
1.0
= 15
60
0.8
50
=
40
25
30
35
4
=
30
K acos
0.4
30
0.6
40
35
25
20
30
=
35
=
=2
0.2
10
K asin
0
=4
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.3
10.0
0.4
0.5
= 15
30
= 15
25
8.0
K p cos
40
= 25
= 30
= 35
20
6.0
35
= 40
15
=3
0
4.0
=2
K p sin
10
= 40
= 35
= 30
2.0
= 25
0
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
60
= 15
50
=
25
=3
0
= 35
3.0
= 15
40
K p cos
= 40
2.0
= 40
30
= 35
= 30
20
= 25
10
1.0
K p sin
= 40
= 35
= 30
= 25
10
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.3
k
Fig. C- 14.3.1 Coefficient of Earth Pressure and Failure Angle

-203-
0.4
0.5
14.3.2 Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil during Earthquake (Notification Article 18, Clause 1,
Number 2)
The earth pressure of cohesive soil acting on a backface wall of structure during an earthquake shall be
calculated by the following:
(1) Active Earth Pressure
Active earth pressure shall be calculated using an appropriate earth pressure equation which takes the
seismic coefficient into account so that the structural stability will be secured during an earthquake.
(2) Passive Earth Pressure
Passive earth pressure shall be calculated using an appropriate earth pressure equation so that the
structural stability will be secured during an earthquake.
[Commentary]
(1) The active earth pressure acting on a backface wall of structure during an earthquake and the angle of sliding
surface should be calculated by following equations:
pa
(Sgi
hi
+ w)
sin (z a
+q )
cos q sin z a
(14.3.5)
cos z a sin z a
Sg h + 2w
z a = tan -1 1 - i i
tan q
2c
where
p a
gi
hi
z a
w
c
q
k
k
(14.3.6)
active earth pressure, acting on the bottom level of the i-th soil layer (kN/m2)
unit weight of the i-th soil layer (kN/m3)
thickness of the i-th soil layer (m)
angle of failure surface of the i-th soil layer ()
uniformly distributed surcharge (kN/m2)
cohesion of the soil (kN/m2)
1
1
composite seismic angle () ( q = tan k or q = tan k )
seismic coefficient
apparent seismic coefficient
(2) There are many unknown items concerning the method for determining the passive earth pressure of cohesive
soil during an earthquake. From the practical point of view, the passive earth pressure in ordinary condition
discribed in 14.2.2 Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil under Ordinary Conditions can be used as passive earth
pressure during an earthquake.
(3) The apparent seismic coefficient should be used to calculate the earth pressure of cohesive soil down to the sea
bottom during an earthquake. The apparent seismic coefficient may be set as zero when calculating the earth
pressure at the depth of 10 m from the sea bottom or deeper. The earth pressure between these two depths is
determined assuming that the earth pressure is linearly distributed between them. If the earth pressure at the
depth of 10 m below the sea bottom becomes less than the earth pressure at the sea bottom, the latter should be
applied down to the depth of 10 m.
14.3.3 Apparent Seismic Coefficient (Notification Article 19)

It shall be standard to calculate the earth pressure acting below the residual water level during an
earthquake according to the procedures given in 14.3.1 Earth Pressure of Sandy Soil during
Earthquake and 14.3.2 Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil during Earthquake, by using the apparent
seismic coefficient that is determined by equation (14.3.7).
k
where
k
gt
g
w
hi
hj
h
k
2 ( Sg t hi
2 [Sg t hi
+ Sg
hj
+w) +g h
+ S (g - 10 ) h j +w ] + ( g - 10 ) h

unit weight of soil layer above the residual water level (kN/m3)
unit weight (in the air) of saturated soil layer below the residual water level (kN/m3)
uniform external load at the ground surface (kN/m2)
thickness of the i-th soil layer above the residual water level (m)
thickness of the j-th soil layer below the residual water level (m)
thickness of soil layer to calculate earth pressure below the residual watere level (m)
seismic coefficient
-204-
(14.3.7)
[Commentary]
(1) In case of stability analysis of quaywall with use of equation
(14.3.7), the dynamic water pressure during an earthquake should
be applied to the wall in the seaward direction.
(2) The concept of the apparent seismic coefficient k is expressed by
the following equation:
g t k = ( g 10 ) k
(3) A product of unit weight of a soil layer (in the air) and seismic
coefficient becomes equal to the product of submerged unit weight
of a soil layer and the apparent coefficient for the soil below the
water level.
First stratum
First i stratum
Residual water level R.W.L.
First stratum
Second stratum
First j stratum
Stratum for which earth pressure

will be calculated
14.4 Water Pressure

14.4.1 Residual Water Pressure (Notification Article 12)
Fig. C- 14.3.2 Cross Section of Soil

Layers and Symbols.
The residual water pressure caused by the time delay of water

level changes between the sea level and the residual water level
shall be calculated using the following equation:
(14.4.1)
(2) When y is equal to or greater than hw

pw = gw hw
(14.4.2)
where
p w
gw
y
h w
residual water pressure (kN/m2)

unit weight of water (kN/m3)
depth from the residual water level (m)
water level difference (m)
Residual Water Press
(1) When y is less than hw

pw = g w y
Residual Water Level
Fig. C-14.4.1 Schematic Diagram of the

Residual Water Pressure
[Commentary]
For practical design, the residual water pressure calculated by equation (14.4.1) or (14.4.2) should be used as a water
pressure acting on the backface wall (see Fig. C-14.4.1). The residual water level is affected by various conditions
such as permeability of backfill soil, and tidal range. Normally the height hw will be 1/3 ~ 2/3 of the tidal range.
14.4.2 Dynamic Water Pressure during Earthquake (Notification Article 20)

(1) The dynamic water pressure during an earthquake shall be calculated using the following equation:
pdw = 7 kg w Hy
where
p dw
k
gw
H
y
(14.4.3)
dynamic water pressure (kN/m2)

seismic coefficient
unit weight of water (kN/m3)
height of structure below the still water level (m)
depth from the still water level (m)
(2) The resultant force of dynamic water pressure and its acting depth shall be calculated by the following
equation:
pdw = 7 kg w H 2 = H 7 kg w Hydy
0
12
hdw = 3 H
5
-205-
(14.4.4)
where
p dw resultant force of dynamic water pressure (kN/m)
hdw depth of the acting point of the resultant force from the still water level (m)
[Commentary]
Equation (14.4.3) has been derived for the dynamic water pressures induced by stationary oscillations of water 1). In
case of a structure that have the free water surface in both sides such as a breakwater, the magnitude of dynamic water
pressure should be two times that calculated above.
[Reference]
1) H. M. Westergaard: Water pressures on dams during earthquakes, Transactions of ASCE, No. 1835, 1933, pp. 418-472
-206-
Chapter 15 Loads
15.1 General
When designing port and harbor facilities, loads shall be taken into consideration as necessary.
[Technical Notes]
For port and harbor facilities design, loads are divided into deadweight and surcharge.
(1) Deadweight: the weight of the structure itself
(2) Surcharge: the weight loaded on top of the structure, and it is divided into static load and live load.
(a) Static load
The load such as bulk cargo loaded onto aprons, cargo in transit sheds and warehouses, etc. are included in
static load. In regions with heavy snowfall, the snow load also is a kind of static load.
(b) Live load
The following must be considered as live load, when designing port and harbor facilities.
Train load
Vehicle load
Cargo handling equipment load
Sidewalk live load
15.2 Deadweight and Surcharge (Notification Article 24)

(1) The unit weights of materials in design of port and harbor facilities shall be the values given in Table
15.2.1, except for those cases where another unit weight can be specified by means of advance
surveys and others.
(2) The surcharge acting on port and harbor facilities shall be appropriately determined with due
consideration for the service conditions of the port and harbor facilities such as the type and volume
of cargo handled and the handling conditions. The types of surcharge to be taken into consideration
include static load, snow load, train load, vehicle load, cargo handling equipment load, sidewalk live
load, and any other loads that will have an effect on the design of the port and harbor facilities.
Table 15.2.1 Unit Weights of Materials (Notification Article 24, Clause 5)
Unit weight (kN/m3)
Material
Steel and casting steel
77.0
Casting iron
71.0
Aluminum
27.5
Reinforced concrete
24.0
Plain concrete
22.6
Timber
7.8
Asphalt concrete
22.6
Stone (granite)
26.0
Stone (sandstone)
25.0
Sand, gravel, and rubble (dry)
16.0
Sand, gravel, and rubble (wet)
18.0
Sand, gravel, and rubble

(saturated)
20.0
15.3 Static Load

15.3.1 Static Load under Ordinary Conditions
Static load under ordinary conditions shall be determined based on adequate consideration of the factors
such as the type, shape and volume of cargo handled, the handling method, and the loading period.
-207-
[Technical Notes]
(1) The static load of apron is 10 ~ 30 kN/m2 in many cases. For aprons that handle cargo of large weight such as
steel materials, the value of the static load should be determined after investigating the cargo handing condition.
(2) The unit weights for bulk cargo have been obtained based on surveys of past actual conditions, which are listed
in Table T- 15.3.1.
Table T- 15.3.1 Unit Weights of Bulk Cargo
(Units: kN/m3)
Commodity
Unit weight
Coke
4.9
Coal (bulk)
8.8 9.8
Coal (dust)
9.8 11.0
Iron ore
20.0 29.0
Cement
15.0
Sand, gravel and rubble
19.0
15.3.2 Static Load during Earthquake

Static load during an earthquake shall be determined by considering the condition of the static load at the
time when the earthquake considered in the design should occur.
[Technical Notes]
The conditions of static load during an earthquake should be examined separately for the respective types of facilities
such as transit sheds, warehouses, open storage yards and aprons. Static load to be used in design during an
earthquake should be determined according to their conditions of usage.
On the other hand, for facilities such as aprons used as cargo handling facilities where cargo is only placed
temporarily, the static load will vary tremendously whether cargo loading operations are underway or not. For this
reason in design of quaywall the static load on an apron during an earthquake is normally assumed to be 1/2 of that
under service conditions.
15.3.3 Unevenly Distributed Load

When calculating the stability of a structure as a whole, the unevenly distributed load may be converted to
an uniform load in an area of an apron, transit shed or warehouse. However, where a large concentrated
load is likely to act on the structure, this concentrated load shall be taken into consideration without
converting to an uniform load.
15.3.4 Snow Load
For regions where snowfall is large, the snow load should be determined according to the regional
conditions.
[Technical Notes]
(1) For quaywalls where snow removal operations will be carried out, it is often sufficient to determine the snow
load with the accumulated weight of snow over one night. In this case the snow load should be determined by
taking into consideration the trend in snowfall, snow quality and snow removal operation, based on thorough
consideration of past snowfall records.
(2) In most cases the snow load is set as 1 kN/m2. This is equivalent to, for example, approximately 70 ~ 100 cm
thickness of dry, new powder snow.
(3) The relationship between normal snow conditions and snow unit weight, described in the Railway Structure
Design Standards and Commentary, is shown in Table T- 15.3.2.
Table T- 15.3.2 Normal Snow Conditions and Unit Weight of Snow
(Units: kN/m3)
Normal snow conditions
Unit weight
Dry powder snow

Dry powder snow accumulated by winds
Snow with medium water content
Snow with high water content
1.2
1.7
4.4
8.3
-208-
15.4 Live Load

15.4.1 Train Load
Train load shall be applied in such a way to induce the maximum effect on the structures or their members,
by taking into consideration the net car weight, loaded weight, and axle arrangement of wheels. Train load
shall be applied in principle as the full set of multiple loads in succession without dividing it into two or
more separate sets.
15.4.2 Vehicle Load
Vehicle load shall be determined according to the Highway Bridge Specification and Commentary.
[Technical Notes]
The regulations concerning the dimensions and maximum gross mass of containers used for marine transport have
been set by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as listed in Table T- 15.4.1.
Designation
Table T- 15.4.1 Standard Demension of Containers

Length (L)
mm
Tolerance
ft
mm
Width (W)
in
Tolerance
in
mm
Tolerance
mm
ft
Tolerance
in
1 AAA
1 AA
12,192
1A
0
-10
0
-3/8
40
2,438
0
-5
Maximum gross
mass
Height (H)
0
-3/16
Tolerance
mm
ft
in
Tolerance
in
2,896
0
-5
0
-3/16
2,591
0
-5
0
-3/16
2,438
0
-5
mm
0
-3/16
1 AX
<2,438
1 BBB
2,896
0
-5
0
-3/16
2,591
0
-5
0
-3/16
2,438
0
-5
1 BB
9,125
1B
0
-10
29 11 1/4
0
-3/16
2,438
0
-5
0
-3/16
<2,438
1 CC
2,591
0
-5
2,438
0
-5
6,058
0
-6
19 10 1/2
0
-1/4
2,438
0
-5
0
-3/16
1 CX
2,991
1 DX
0
-5
9 3/2
0
-3/16
2,438
0
-5
0
-3/16
2,438
<2,438
30,480
67,200
0
-3/16
25,400
56,000
24,000
52,900
10,160
22,400
<8
<2,438
1D
lb
<8
1 BX
1C
kg
0
-3/16
0
-3/16
<8
0
-5
0
-3/16
<8
*Some countries regulate the total height of the vehicle and container.
15.4.3 Cargo Handling Equipment Load

The load of cargo handling equipment shall be as follows:
(1) The load of mobile cargo handling equipment shall be the total deadweight, the maximum wheel load,
the maximum load of the outrigger operation, or the maximum contact load of crawler of the mobile
cargo handling equipment that is expected to be used.
(2) The load of cargo handling equipment travelling on rail shall be the total deadweight or the maximum
wheel load considering the wheel interval and number of wheels.
(3) The load of fixed cargo handling equipment shall be the maximum hoisting load.
15.4.4 Sidewalk Live Load
The sidewalk live load shall be 5 kN/m2. For special facilities, however, this value can be reduced in
consideration of the service conditions of the facilities.
-209-
Chapter 16 Coefficient of Friction

The friction coefficient for materials used in calculations of the frictional resistance force shall be the static
friction coefficient as the standard. The friction coefficient shall be appropriately determined after taking
into consideration the characteristics of the structure and the characteristics of the materials.
[Technical Notes]
For the static friction coefficient to be used in stability calculations, normally the values listed in Table T- 16.1.1 can
be used.
Table T- 16.1.1 Static Friction Coefficient
Concrete against concrete
Concrete against bedrock
Underwater concrete against bedrock
Concrete against rubble
Rubble against rubble
Timber against timber
Friction increasing mat and rubble
0.5
0.5
0.7 0.81)
0.6
0.8
0.2 (wet) 0.5 (dry)
0.7 0.8
Notes: 1) The value should be 0.8 for the friction between underwater concrete and bedrock under ordinary condition. However,
when the bedrock is brittle or includes cracks, or when the sand movement over the bedrock is intensive, the value of
coefficient is to be reduced to down to 0.7 depending on the condition.
2) When calculating the stability of cellular concrete blocks, Part , 4.4 Cellular Blocks shoud be referred to.
-210-
Part III Materials
PART III MATERIALS
Part III Materials

Chapter 1 General
1.1 Selection of Materials
Materials to be used in structures and foundation works shall be selected after giving due consideration to
the external forces acting on them, deterioration with time, lifetime of structures, shape of structures,
workability, cost, impact on the environment, and other matters.
1.2 Safety of Structural Elements (Notification Article 34, Clause 1)

Examination of the safety of structural members against external forces shall be made in accordance with
either the allowable stress method or the limit state design method, depending on the characteristics of
structures, materials, and load characteristics. However, it shall be standard to examine the safety of
members of reinforced concrete structures with the limit state design method.
-211-
Chapter 2 Steel
2.1 Materials (Notification Article 35, Clause 1)
Steel materials shall be of a quality complying with the Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS), or shall be of
a quality equal to or better than that specificied by JIS.
[Commentary]
Foreign products may be used if they are of a quality equivalent to that complying with JIS, or if they are of a quality
equal to or better than that specificied by JIS even though not yet standardized as JIS.
2.2 Steel Meterial Constants Used in Design Calculation

Material constants to be used in design for steel and cast steel shall be set as appropriate in view of strength
characteristics and other properties.
[Technical Notes]
Table T- 2.2.1 lists the reference values of the material constants for ordinary steel and cast steel.
Table T- 2.2.1 Steel Material Constants
Modulus of elasticty
2.0 105 N/mm2
Shear modulus
7.7 104 N/mm2
Poissons ratio
0.30
Coefficient of linear thermal elongation
12 10-6 1/
2.3 Allowable Stresses (Notification Article 35, Clause 2)

2.3.1 General
It shall be standard to set the allowable streses in accordance with 2.3.2 Structural Steel, 2.3.3 Steel Piles
and Steel Pipe Sheet Piles, and 2.3.4 Steelsheet Piles, depending on the type of steel material.
2.3.2 Structural Steel
The standard allowable stresses for structural steel shall be as listeted in Table 2.3.1, depending on the
quality of steel and the type of stresses.
Table 2.3.1 Allowable Stresses for Structural Steel (Notification Article 35, Annexed Table 7)
(Units : N/mm2)
Type of steel
SS400
SM400
SMA400
SM490
SM490Y
SM520
SMA490
SM570
SMA570
Axial tensile stress (per net cross-sectional area)
140
185
210
255
Axial compressive stress (per gross cross-sectional

area)
140
185
210
255
Bending tensile stress (per net cross-sectional area)
140
185
210
255
Bending compressive stress (per gross cross-sectional

area)
140
185
210
255
Shearing stress (per gross cross-sectional area)
80
105
120
145
between steel plates
210
280
315
380
when calculated using Hertzs

equation
600
700
Type of stress
Bearing stress
-212-
PART III MATERIALS
[Technical Notes]
(1) The values listed in Table 2.3.1 are the allowable stresses for structural steel with a thickness of 40 mm or less.
The allowable stresses for structural steel with a thickness in excess of 40 mm may follow the provisions in the
Highway Bridge Specifications and the Commentary.
(2) The allowable limits for tensile and compressive stresses for the various steel materials have been set at around
60% of the yield strengths prescribed in JIS.
(3) Since structural steel is almost invariably used in locations where there is little danger of buckling, the values for
allowable stresses listed in Table 2.3.1 have been determined for the cases in which there are no danger of
buckling taking place.
2.3.3 Steel Piles and Steel Pipe Sheet Piles

The standard allowable stresses for steel piles and steel pipe sheet piles shall be as listed in Table 2.3.2,
depending on the quality of steel and the type of stresses.a
Table 2.3.2 Allowable Stresses for Steel Piles and Steel Pipe Sheet Piles (Notification Article 35, Annexed Table 8)
(Units : N/mm2)
Type of steel
Type of stress
SKK400
SHK400
SHK400M
SKY400
SKK490
SHK490M
SKY490
140
185
Axial tensile stress

(per net cross-sectional area)
Axial compressive stress

(per gross cross-sectional area)
ili
140; ------ 18
r
ili
185 ; ------ 16
r
ili
140 0.82 ------ 18 ;
r
ili
185 1.2 ------ 16 ;
r
ili
16 ------ 79
r
ili
18 ------ 92
r
1, 200, 000
ili
--------------------------------------- ;92 -----r

ili 2
6, 700 + ------
r
1, 200, 000
ili
--------------------------------------- ; 79 -----r
ili 2
5, 000 + ------
r
Bending tensile stress

140
185
Bending compressive stress

140
185
Examination of members
simultaneously subject to axial
force and bending moment
Shearing stress
(1) In case of the axial tensile stress

s t + s bt s ta and s t + sbc s ba
(2) In case of the axial compressive stress
s c sbc
-------- + -------- 1.0
s ca s ba
80
150
where
l effective buckling length of member (cm)
r radius of gyration of area for the gross cross-sectional area of the member (cm)
st , sc tensile stress due to axial tensile force and compressive stress due to axial compressive force
acting on the section, respectively (N/mm2)
sbt , sbc maximum tensile stress and maximum compressive stress due to bending moment acting on
the section, respectively (N/mm2)
sta , sca allowable tensile stress and allowable axial compressive stress relating to smallest moment of
inertia, respectively (N/mm2)
sba allowable bending compressive stress (N/mm2)
-213-
2.3.4 Steel Sheet Piles

The standard allowable stresses for steel sheet pile shall be as listed in Table 2.3.3, depending on the
quality of steel and the type of stresses.
Table 2.3.3 Allowable Stresses for Steel Sheet Piles (Notification Article 35, Annexed Table 9)
(Units : N/mm2)
Type of steel
SY295
SY390
Bending tensile stress (per net cross-sectional area)
180
235

180
235
Shearing stress (per gross cross-sectional area)
100
125
Type of stress
2.3.5 Cast Steel and Forged Steel

The standard allowable stresses for cast steel and forged steel shall be set as appropriate in accordance with
the quality of steel and the type of stress.
[Technical Notes]
Table T- 2.3.1 lists the reference values of the allowable stresses for cast steel and forged steel.
Table T- 2.3.1 Allowable Stresses for Cast Steel and Forged Steel
Type of steel
Type of stress
Cast
steel
Forged steel
(Units : N/mm2)
Steels for machine

structural use
Cast iron
SF490A
SF540A
SC450
S30CN
S35CN
FC150
FC250
Axial tensile stress

140
170
140
170
190
40
60
Axial compressive stress

140
170
140
170
190
80
120
Bending tensile stress

140
170
140
170
190
40
60

140
170
140
170
190
80
120
Shearing stress
80
100
80
100
110
30
50
Bearing stress
(when calculated using Hertzs
equation)
600
700
600
670
720
450
650
2.3.6 Allowable Stresses for Steel at Welded Zones and Spliced Sections
The allowable stresses for steel at welded zones and spliced sections shall be set as appropriate in
accordance with the quality of steel and the type of welding.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Table T- 2.3.2 lists the reference values of the allowable stress for welded zones. When steel materials of
different strengths are sliced, the values of the steel materials with the lower strength shall be applied.
-214-
PART III MATERIALS
Table T- 2.3.2 Allowable Stresses for Steel at Welded Zones

Type of steel
Type of welding
Type of stress
SM400
SMA400
SM490
SM490Y
SM520
SMA490
SM570
SMA570
Compressive
140
185
210
255
Tensile
140
185
210
255
Shearing
80
105
120
145
Shearing
80
105
120
145
Full penetration groove

welding
Shop welding
Fillet welding and partial

penetration groove welding
(Units : N/mm2)
1) In principle, the value should be the same as that of shop welding.

2) For steel pipe piles and steel pipe sheet piles, the value should be set at
90% of that of shop welding
Field welding
(2) Table T- 2.3.3 lists the reference values of the allowable stresses for anchor bolts and pins.
Table T- 2.3.3 Allowable Stressess for Anchor Bolts and Pins
(Units : N/mm2)
Type of steel
Type
SS400
S35CN
Shearing
60
80
Bending
190
260
Shearing
100
140
Bearing
210
280
Type of stress
Anchor bolts
Pins
(3) The allowable stress for anchor bolts prescribed here is based on the assumption that they are embedded in
concrete.
(4) Table T- 2.3.4 lists the reference values of the allowable stresses for finished bolts.
Table T- 2.3.4 Allowable Stresses for Finished Bolts
Strength categories according
to JIS B 1051
(Units : N/mm2)
4.6
8.8
10.9
Tensile
140
360
470
Shearing
90
200
270
Bearing
210
540
700
Type of stress
2.3.7 Increase of Allowable Stresses (Notification Article 35, Clause 3)

When considering a combination of several kinds of external forces, the allowable stresses in 2.3.2
Structural Steel to 2.3.6 Allowable Stress for Welded Zones and Spliced Sections can be increased by
the rate listed in Table 2.3.4.
Table 2.3.4 Increase Rates of Allowable Stresses (Notification Article 35, Annexed Table 10)
Combination of external forces and loads
Increase rate
When considering the influence of temperature variation
1.15
When considering the influence of earthquakes
1.50
[Technical Notes]
When assuming a special external force, an increase rate greater than those in Table 2.3.4 can be applied.
-215-
2.4 Corrosion Control

2.4.1 General
Corrosion control shall be investigated in design of facilities involving use of steel materials, as they are
placed under harsh corrosive environmental conditions. For the sections immediately below the mean low
water level, in particular, suitable countermeasures shall be undertaken because heavy localized corrosion
may occur there.
[Commentary]
The distribution of corrosion rate with respect to the depth of steel materials driven into the sea generally becomes as shown in Fig. C- 2.4.1.
That is, corrosion is particularly heavy in the splash zone, where the
structure is exposed to sea water splashes and there is an adequate supply of oxygen. In particular, the rate of corrosion is highest in the section
immediately above the mean high water level (MHWL). Among the
submerged sections in Fig. C- 2.4.1, the rate of corrosion is highest in
the section immediately below the tidal zone. However, the corrosion
rate in this section differs greatly depending on the environmental conditions and the cross-sectional shape of the structure. In steel sheet piles
and steel pipe pile structures submerged in clean sea water, the rate of
corrosion in the section directly below the mean low water level
(MLWL) is often not much different from that in midsea sections. But
depending on the environmental conditions of the structure, the rate of
corrosion in the section directly below MLWL may be much larger than
that in midsea sections, and in some cases may even exceed the value in
the splash zone. This marked localized corrosion is called the concentrated corrosion.
Marine atmosphere
Splash zone
Mean high water level
Mean low water level
Seabed
Tidal zone
Underwater
Sea mud
Rate of corrosion
Fig. C- 2.4.1 Distribution of
Steel Material
Corrosion Rates
[Technical Notes]
For all aspects of corrosion control, reference may be made to Corrosion Control and Repair Manual for Port and
Harbor Steel Structures (Revised Edition) published by the Coastal Development Institute of Technology.
2.4.2 Corrosion Rates of Steel Materials

The corrosion rate of steel materials shall be determined as appropriate in view of the environmental
conditions of the site where structures are built, because the corrosion rate depends on the corrosive
environmental conditions.
[Commentary]
The corrosion rate of steel materials used in port and harbor facilities is influenced by the environmental conditions,
which include the weather conditions, the salinity and pollution level of the sea water, the existence of river water
inflow, etc. Therefore, the rate should be determined by referring to past cases in the vicinity and survey results under
similar conditions.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The corrosion rate of steel materials should generally be determined by referring to the standard values listed in
Table T- 2.4.1, which has been compiled on the basis of survey results on existing steel structures. However, the
values in Table T- 2.4.1 are the average ones, and the actual corrosion rate may exceed them depending on the
enviromental conditions of the steel material. Therefore, when determining the rate of corrosion of steel
materials, the results of corrosion surveys under similar conditions should be referred to. It should also be noted
that the values in Table T- 2.4.1 refer to the corrosion rate for only one side of the steel material. Thus, when the
both sides of steel materials are subject to corrosion, the sum of the corrosion rates of the both sides estimated on
the basis of the values in Table T- 2.4.1 should be employed.
(2) The values for HWL or higher in Table T- 2.4.1 refer to the corrosion rate immediately above HWL. The
corrosion rate between the HWL and midsea sections should be determined by referring to actual corrosion rates
in the properties of sea water around the structures. This is because past corrosion surveys have shown that the
corrosion rate varies depending on the properties of sea water and the depth of water. The values in Table T2.4.1 are listed as references with a range of variation. Generally, the corrosion in the tidal zone should be dealt
with separately from that in the midsea sections because of the differences in the environmental conditions. The
appropriate boundary between them is around 1.0 m below the depth LWL.
In cases of concentrated corrosion, the rate of corrosion greatly exceeds the values listed in Table T- 2.4.1,
and thus these values are not applicable to such cases.
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PART III MATERIALS
(3) In sealed spaces such as the inside of steel pipe piles, it may be assumed that corrosion cannot occur because
there is no supply of oxygen.
Table T- 2.4.1 Standard Values of Corrosion Rates for Steel Material
Corrosive environment
Corrosion rate (mm/year)

0.3
0.1 0.3
0.1 0.2
0.03
Seaside
HWL or higher
HWL LWL -1 m
LWL -1 m seabed
Under seabed
Land side
Above ground and exposed to air

Underground (above residual water level)
Underground (below residual water level)
0.1
0.03
0.02
2.4.3 Corrosion Control Methods (Notification Article 38)

Corrosion control methods for steel material shall be taken as appropriate by employing the cathodic
protection method, the coating method, or other corrosion control method, depending on the environmental
conditions in which the steel material exists. For the sections below the mean low water level (MLWL), the
cathodic protection method shall be implemented as the standard corrosion control method. For the
sections above the depth 1 m below the mean monthly-lowest water level (LWL), the coating method shall
be implemented as the standard method.
[Commentary]
(1) Corrosion control methods to be applied to port and harbor steel structures consist of the cathodic protection
method and the coating method.
(2) In the tidal zone and submerged zone, there is a risk of intensive corrosion due to concentrated corrosion,
depending on the corrosive environmental conditions. Therefore, in principle, corrosion control by means of the
thickness allowance should not be undertaken as a corrosion control method. However, in the case of temporary
structures, it is acceptable to apply the method of corrosion control using thickness allowance for corrosion.
(3) The ground embedded side of steel sheet pile have a slower rate of corrosion than that of the seaward side, and
thus no corrosion control is required in particular. But in cases where a strongly corrosive environment is
conjectured due to the influence of waste material in the backfill, surveys should be conducted in advance and
appropriate measures should be taken.
(4) The best results have been achieved by using the coating method above the tidal zone and the cathodic
protection method in the midsea and seabed sections, and their reliability has been confirmed. When using the
coating method in the midsea sections, the coating materials should be selected in view of their durability in
particular, and caution should be taken to prevent damage on coating during installation or by collisions from
driftwood.
2.4.4 Cathodic Protection Method

[1] Range of Application
The range of application of the cathodic protection method shall in principle be at or below the mean low
water level (MLWL).
[Commentary]
Above the MLWL, corrosion control must be carried out by coating. The zone between MLWL and the LWL is
submerged for a shorter time than that below LWL, and thus the corrosion control efficiency of the cathodic
protection is slightly inferior. Also, as the sections immediately below MLWL are easily susceptible to corrosion, the
coating should extend to a certain depth below MLWL and should be combined with the cathodic protection method.
[Technical Notes]
(1) As listed in Table T- 2.4.2, the effect of the cathodic protection method (corrosion control rate) increases when
the period of immersion of the steel material subject to corrosion in sea water is longer and decreases when it is
shorter. The seawater immersion ratio and corrosion control rate are expressed in equation (2.4.1) and equation
(2.4.2), respectively.
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Table T- 2.4.2 Corrosion Control Ratio of the Cathodic Protection Method

Seawater immersion ratio
Corrosion control rate
below 40 %
equal to 40 % or over but below 80 %
100 %
below 40 %
equal to 90 % or over
Seawater immersion ratio time
Corrosion control rate
Immersion period of test piece

100 (%)
Total test period
(Weight loss of test piece without electric current

Weight loss of test piece with electric current)
Weight loss of test piece without electric current
(2.4.1)
100 (%)
(2.4.2)
(2) The standard corrosion control rate for the area below the mean low water level is 90 %.
(3) Cathodic protection is divided into the method of cathodic protection by galvanic anodes and that of cathodic
protection by power impression. Under the galvanic anodes method, aluminum (Al), magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn)
and other anodes are connected to the steel structure and the electric current generated by the difference in
potential between the two metals is used as a corrosion control current. This method is applied almost
universally in cathodic protection of port and harbor steel structures in Japan, mainly because of ease of
maintenance. The characteristics of the galvanic anode materials are listed in Table T- 2.4.3. Aluminum alloy
anodes (AI-Zn-In) offer the highest flux of current generated per unit of mass, are outstandingly economical, and
are suited to both the midsea and seabed environments. Therefore, aluminum alloy anodes are most commonly
used for port and harbor steel structures.
Under the method of cathodic protection by power impression, a current circuit is connected to the positive
pole of an external DC power source and the steel structure to the negative pole. Then a protective current flow
is applied towards the steel structure from the current circuit. In seawater, a lead-silver alloy is often used as the
current circuit. Since the output voltage can be freely adjusted with this method, it can be applied to the
environments featuring pronounced fluctuations such as strong currents or the inflow of river water, and the
places where a fine potential control is required.
Table T- 2.4.3 Comparison of Characteristics of Galvanic Anode Materials
Characteristics
Specific gravity
Open circuit anode voltage (V) (SCE)
Effective voltage to iron (V)
Theoretical generated electricity flux (Ah/g)
In seawater with
1 mA/cm2
Current efficiency (%)

Generated electricity flux (Ah/g)
Dissipation volume (kg/A)/year
In soil with
0.03 mA/cm2
Current efficiency (%)

Generated electricity flux (Ah/g)
Al-Zn-In
Pure Zn,
Zn alloy
Pure Mg,
Mg-Mn
Mg6 Al3 Zn
2.6 2.8
1.08
0.25
2.87
7.14
1.03
0.20
0.82
1.74
1.56
0.75
2.20
1.77
1.48
0.65
2.21
95
0.78
11.8
50
1.10
8.0
55
1.22
7.2
65
0.53
40
0.88
50
1.11
80
2.30
3.8
90
2.60
3.4
65*
1.86*
Note: * Fluctuates depending on material composition.
[2] Protective Potential

The protective potential of port and harbor steel structures shall be -780 mV with a seawater-silver
chloride electrode as the reference.
[Commentary]
When applying a protective current through a steel structure by the cathodic protection method, the potential of the
steel structure gradually shifts to a base direction (becomes lower). When it reaches a certain potential, corrosion is
controlled. This potential is known as the protective potential.
[Technical Notes]
(1) To meassure the potential of steel structures, an electrode that indicates stable reference values even in the
different environmental conditions should be used as the reference. The electrode that provides the standard
value is known as the reference electrode. In seawater, in addition to the seawater silver chloride electrode, the
saturated mercurous chloride electrode and the saturated copper sulfate electrode are sometimes used. The value
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PART III MATERIALS
of the protective potential differs depending on the reference electrode used for measurement, as in the
following:
Seawater-silver chloride electrode;
Saturated mercurous chloride electrode;
Saturated copper sulfate electrode;
-780 mV
-770 mV
-850 mV
(2) When combining the coating and cathodic protection methods (particularly the method of cathodic protection by
power impression), care should be taken not to let the coating film deteriorate due to excessive current. The
potential in this case should ideally be -800 -1,100 mV (using a saturated mercurous chloride electrode as the
reference).
[3] Protective Current Density

Protective current density shall be set to an appropriate value because it varies greatly depending on the
marine environments.
[Commentary]
(1) When applying cathodic protection, a certain current density per unit surface area of the steel material is needed
in order to polarize the potential of the steel material to a more base value than the protective potential. This
density is known as the protective current density. The value of this protective current density decreases with the
passage of time from the initial value at the start of cathodic protection, and finally reaches a constant value. The
constant value is around 40% 50% of the initial value.
(2) The protective current density varies with water temperature, currents, waves, and water quality. Where there is
an inflow of river water or diverse effluence, or where there is a high concentration of sulfides, the required
protective current generally increases. Also, where the water current is swift, the required protective current
increases. When designing facilities, the design value of the protective current density should be set in reference
to actual performance in existing structures in the area.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The protective current density at the start of cathodic protection should be based on the standard values listed in
Table T- 2.4.4 for the steel material in normal sea conditions.
Table T- 2.4.4 Protective Current Density at Start of Cathodic Protection (mA/m2)
In seawater
In rubble mourd
In soil (below seabed)
In soil (above seabed)
Clean sea areas
Polluted sea areas
100
50
20
10
130 150
65 75
30
10
(2) As the duration of protection goes on, the generated current weakens. Therefore, the average generated current
density for calculating the life span of the anode is often taken as the following, depending on the duration of
protection:
When protected for 5 years; 0.55 initial generated current density
If the protection is intended to last for more than 15 years, the value for 15 years should be applied.
(3) If a section coated with a coating material exists within the range of application of cathodic protection, the value
of the protective current density should be set by assuming a certain rate of damage to the coating. In seawater
the following values may be set:
Paint;
Concrete;
Organic lining;
20 +100 S (mA/m2)
10 +100 S (mA/m2)
100 S (mA/m2)
In the above, S is the rate of damage defined as the ratio of assumed damaged coated area to total coated area.
However, if the protective current density obtained from the above equation exceeds the values in Table T2.4.4, the latter should be applied.
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2.4.5 Coating Method

[1] Extent of Application
The coating method shall be applied to the sections above the depth 1 m below the mean monthly-lowest
water level (LWL) for corrosion control.
[Commentary]
The coating method is used in port and harbor structures, because the cathodic protection cannot be applied to
sections where the duration of seawater immersion is short. As described in the 2.4.4 Cathodic Protection Method,
the range of application of the cathodic protection method is designated as below the mean low water level. But
concentrated corrosion is liable to occur in the vicinity of the mean low water, while the duration of immersion in
seawater is shortened by the effects of waves and seasonal fluctuations in tide levels. Therefore, the coating method
should be applied in combination with cathodic protection to the sections above the depth 1 m below LWL.
[Technical Notes]
In steel sheet pile revetments in shallow sea areas, the coating method is sometimes applied to the whole length of the
structure depthwise. By combining the cathodic protection and coating methods in sea water sections, the life of the
galvanic anode may be extended.
[2] Applicable Methods

The coating method applied to port and harbor steel structures shall be one of the following four methods:
(1) Painting
(2) Organic lining
(3) Petrolatum lining
(4) Inorganic lining
[3] Selection of Method
In selecting the method and determining the specifications, the characteristics of each method shall be
examined and the following items shall be surveyed and reviewed:
(1) Environmental conditions
(2) Range of corrosion control
(3) Lifetime
(4) Maintenance
(5) Conditions of construction work
(6) Others
For existing structures, the following items shall also be surveyed:
(7) Degree of corrosion and the deterioration condition of the existing paint coat or lining.
(8) Initial design conditions
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PART III MATERIALS
Chapter 3 Concrete
3.1 General
(1) The design of concrete structures such as breakwaters and mooring facilities shall follow the limit
state design method as standard.
(2) The selection of materials for concrete structures shall follow the Standard Specifications of
Concrete [Construction] (Japan Society of Civil Engineers), except where otherwise stated in this
document.
[Commentary]
The limit state design method has been applied in the Standard Specifications of Concrete: 1986 Edition (Japan
Society of Civil Engineers). Since the limit state design method is more rational than the allowable stress design
method, the former method has been adopted in principle for the design of breakwaters and mooring facilities. For
prestressed concrete, the Prestressed Concrete for Ports and Harbors Structure Design Manual (Ports and Harbours
Bureau, Ministry of Transport, 1987) should be followed.
3.2 Basics of Design Based on the Limit State Design Method (Notification Article 34,
Clauses 2 and 3)
(1) Examination of the safety of structures using the limit state design method shall be conducted as
standard on the ultimate limit state, the serviceability limit state, and the fatigue limit state.
(2) Suitable values shall be adopted for the five types of partial safety factors (namely the material factor,
the load factor, the structural analysis factor, the member factor, and the structure factor), considering
the characteristics of the structures, the materials, and the loads, in accordance with the type of the
limit states. In this case, the load factor shall be set as appropriate by categorizing it into three types of
loads, namely the permanent load, the variable load, and the accidental load, in accordance with the
type of the load and the frequency of loading.
[Commentary]
Limit states are classified as follows: the ultimate limit state which corresponds to the devastating failure
occurring due to the maximum load in the lifetime, the serviceability limit state which corresponds to the state of
slight inconvenience such as excessive cracking and other relatively minor faults due to the effect of a load occurring
often in the lifetime, fatigue limit state which corresponds to such the failure same as in the ultimate limit state that
occurs due to the effects of repeated load. The fatigue limit state could include that caused by the repeated effect of
wave forces on breakwaters, or that caused by the repeated effect of moving loads on the superstructures. In the case
of gravity type quaywalls, the fatigue failure may be omitted because the repeated effects of moving loads is not
plausible to cause a fatigue failure. However, if the impact of moving loads cannot be ignored, the fatigue limit state
must be examined.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The values listed in Table T- 3.2.1 may be taken as the partial safety factors to be used in design.1), 2), 3)
(a) Of the partial safety factors, the material factor, member factor (except for caisson type quaywalls during an
earthquake), and structural analysis factor are in harmony with the principles stated in the Standard
Specifications of Concrete. Other partial safety factors are determined on the basis of case analyses,
comparative studies on safety with the allowable stress method, and comparisons with other structures.
(b) As for the load factor, the types of load and the frequency of loading have been categorized and the values
have been determined for respective categories. The loads are categorized into three types, namely the
permanent load, the variable load, and the accidental load. Permanent load is a type of load that acts
continuously without any variation or with a variation of negligible amplitude compared with the average
value. It includes the deadweight of the structure or member, hydrostatic pressure, internal water pressure,
residual water pressure, and earth pressure of the filling. Variable load is a load in which a variation arises
frequently or continuously and the amplitude of variation is not negligible compared with the average value. It
includes the active load (e.g., load from cargo handling machinery), wave force, and uplift pressure.
Accidental load is a load that has an extremely small frequency of action during the lifetime but that has a very
large impact when it does act. It includes the earthquake load, vessel berthing force, vessel pulling force, uplift
pressure (when acting on the superstructure of open-type wharf), wind pressure, and collision load. However,
vessel berthing and pulling force should be regarded as a variable load if necessary, and the safety against the
serviceability limit state should be confirmed.
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Table T- 3.2.1 Partial Safety Factors

Type of limit state
Partial safety factor
Ultimate
limit
Serviceability
limit
Fatigue limit
Concrete
1.3
1.0
1.3
Steel reinforcement and prestressing

steel
1.0
1.0
1.05
Other types of steel
1.05
1.0
1.05
1.0 1.1
(0.9 1.0)
1.0
1.0
Wave force
1.3
1.0
1.0
Variable load at time of construction
1.0
1.0 1.2
(0.8 1.0)
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
Member factor (gb)
1.0 1.3
1.0
1.0
Structure factor (gi)
1.0 1.2
1.0
1.0
Material
factor (gm)
Permanent load
Variable load
Load factor
(gf )
Other types of load

Accidental load
Structural analysis factor (ga)
Note 1: Values in the parentheses are applied in the case that the safety of structures is lowered when the loads take
smaller values.
Note 2: The values below may be used for the member factor when examining the ultimate limit state. The values in the
parentheses are applicable when verifying the safety of the bottom slab of gravity type quaywalls during an
earthquake.
When calculating bending and axial strength ................................................. 1.15 (1.0)
When calculating upper limit of axial compressive strength .......................... 1.3
When calculating shear capacity borne by concrete ....................................... 1.3 (1.15)
When calculating shear capacity borne by shear reinforcement..................... 1.15 (1.0)
Note 3: The values below may be used for the structure factor relating to the ultimate limit state.
Superstructure of pier:............. 1.0 for accidental load, otherwise 1.2
Breakwaters:............................ 1.1 for wave force, otherwise 1.0
Quaywalls: .............................. 1.0 for earthquake load, otherwise 1.1
The load factor of breakwaters against wave force can vary depending on the type of the breakwater, the
installation depth, the seabed gradient, and the functional shape of the distribution of extreme wave heights.
But for the present, it will suffice to take the value 1.3 at the ultimate limit state as standard for caisson type
and other ordinary breakwaters. However, of structures with special shapes such as curved slit caisson
breakwaters, the load factor is thought to be even greater and it therefore needs to be determined as
appropriate by conducting model experiments.
The permanent load factor should be 1.0 for the case in which the earthquake resistance of bottom slab of
gravity type quaywall is examined, and other cases should be 1.1 (0.9).
(c) The partial safety factors shown here are only meant to be standard values. If they can be determined more
appropriately using a different method, those values may be used.
(2) Characteristic values used in design may be calculated in accordance with the methods given in the respective
sections of this document. The compression strength of concrete may be taken as the nominal strength. Also, the
lower limit values of JIS may be taken as the tensile yield strength and tensile strength of steel materials. The
values of load when examining the serviceability limit state should be as follows:
(a) The wave height to calculate wave pressure on breakwaters should be that of waves with the occurrence
frequency in the order of 104 during the design lifetime (for example 50 years). The probability such waves
will differ from region to region, but it roughly corresponds to the waves with the return period of one-month
in the Japan Sea region, that of 2 to 3 months in the Pacific region of Kanto and the northward, and that of 4 to
6 months in the Pacific region of Tokai and the southward (the wave height refers to that of highest waves).
(b) In other cases, the characteristic values should be calculated according to equation (3.2.1).
Sk = kp Sp + kr Sr
where
Sk characteristic value of load for examination of the serviceability limit state
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(3.2.1)
PART III MATERIALS
Sp characteristic value of permanent load

Sr characteristic value of variable load
kp, kr constants to represent the effects on crack widths and the corrosion of steel by the permanent load
and variable load, respectively. It may be taken that kp is 1.0 and kr is 0.5. They may both be taken
as 0.5 during the construction.
For examination of the fatigue limit state of breakwaters, the method shown in reference 2) may be used to
estimate the characteristic value of load.
(3) When examining the serviceability limit state, it is standard to check the safety against the occurrence of
excessive cracking. Equation (3.2.2) in Standard Specifications of Concrete may be used to calculate the
width of flexural cracks. Since flexural crack width is affected not only by the stress on the reinforcement but
also by the diameter and pitch of the reinforcement, caution is required when designing the reinforcing bar
arrangement. Equation (3.2.2) generally gives results on the safe side. Other equations may be referred to, or
experimental studies may be conducted for estimating crack width, when using special materials or members of
special shape. Moreover, the reinforcement or prestressing steel materials subject to examination of flexural
cracks shall in principle be tensile steel materials in positions closest to the surface of the concrete.
s se
Es
w = k [ 4c + 0.7 ( c s f ) ] ------- + e cs
(3.2.2)
where
w flexural crack width (cm)
k constant indicating the effect of the bonding properties of the steel material, which may usually be
taken as 1.0 in the case of deformed bars and 1.3 in the case of plain bars and prestressing steel.
c covering (cm)
cs distance between centers of steel materials (cm)
f diameter of steel material (cm)
sse increased stress on reinforcement, calculated using the characteristic load by equation (3.2.1) (N/mm2)
Es Youngs modulus of reinforcement (N/mm2)
ecs constant introduced to represent the increase of crack width caused by creep and drying shrinkage of
concrete (this can be 0 under seawater, and elsewhere 150 10-6)
The allowable crack width a (cm) is 0.0035c for the sections directly in contact with seawater, those washed by
seawater, and these subject to strong sea breeze, and 0.0040c for other sections. It should then be confirmed that
the flexural crack width calculated by equation (3.2.2) is smaller than the allowable flexural crack width a.
Cracks that appear in structures due to factors other than the effect of load (e.g., initial defect) and fail to
close even in an unloaded state need to be studied separately, because they do not fall within the scope of the
present method of examination.
(4) When the load acting on the superstructure of open-type wharf due to cargo handling machinery is
comparatively large and a deflection is expected to exceed the extent that the cargo handling is not hindered, the
safety against the occurrence of deflection as a serviceability limit state should be confirmed as necessary. When
doing so, the limit value of the deflection may be determined by referring to the Highway Bridge Specifications
and the Commentary (Japan Road Association).
(5) When examining the fatigue limit state, loads of repeated actions should be ranked as appropriate and their
respective degree of impact on fatigue failure be calculated. Then the total degree of impact by all load ranks
should be calculated and the degree of safety against fatigue failure be judged. Since the fatigue safety is greatly
affected not only by the magnitude of the load but also by the frequency of their actions, the rank classification
and frequencies of actions need to be determined appropriately. Impact caused by the load with a rank
corresponding to the level with the fatigue life of 2 million times or more may be disregarded 1), 2). Reference 4)
may be consulted with when examining the fatigue limit state for superstructures of open-type wharves.
3.3 Design Based on Allowable Stress Method (Notification Article 36)

When examining the safety of structural members based on the allowable stresses method, the allowable
stresses of concrete and steel reinforcements shall be set at the value appropriate to the material used. If a
combination of more than one kind of external forces or loads is taken into account, the allowable stresses
may be increased by the factor listed in Table 3.3.1.
Table 3.3.1 Increase Factor for Allowable Stresses of Plain and Reinforced Concrete
Type
Plain concrete
Reinforced concrete
Combination of external forces and loads
Increase factor
When considering the impact of earthquakes
1.50
When considering the influence of temperature variation and drying shrinkage
1.15
When considering the impact of earthquakes
1.50
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[Technical Notes]
(1) When designing with the allowable stress method, the allowable stress of plain and reinforced concrete should
on determined as given in Table T-3.3.1 and Table T-3.3.2. When using a standard concrete strength not shown
in these tables or in the case of lightweight aggregate concrete, the allowable stress should be determined by
referring to Chapter 13 of the Standard Specification of Concrete [Design].
Table T- 3.3.1 Allowable Stresses of Plain Concrete
Type of stress
Allowable stress
(Units : N/mm2)
Upper limit of allowable stress
Allowable compressive stress
No more than fck' /4
5.4
Allowable bending tensile stress
No more than ftk /7
0.29
Allowable bearing stress
No more than 0.3 fck'
5.9
Notes:
fck': standard concrete strength

ftk: standard tensile strength (calculated by the JIS A 1113 Tensile Strength Test Method)
Table T- 3.3.2 Allowable Stresses of Reinforced Concrete
Standard concrete strength
Type of stress
Allowable bending compressive stress (sca)
Allowable
shearing stress
Allowable bond
stress
(Units : N/mm2)
18
24
30
40 or over
11
14 *1)
When not calculating diagonal

reinforcement (tal)
For beams
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
slabs *2)
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
When calculating diagonal

reinforcement (ta2)
When shearing
force only *3)
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
Shape steel
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Plain bars
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Deformed bars
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
For
Allowable bearing stress (sca)
0.3fck'
N/mm2.
Notes: 1) The value corresponds to the standard concrete strength of 40

When the standard concrete strength
increases, the value may also increase.
2) Values for punching shear
3) These values may be increased when taking the effect of torsion into consideration.
(2) The allowable stresses of steel reinforcements shall not exceed the values listed in Table T- 3.3.3 that have been
determined by referring to the provisions of Chapter 13 of the Standard Specifications of Concrete [Design].
Table T- 3.3.3 Allowable Tensile Stresses of Steel Reinforcements
Type of steel reinforcement
(a) Allowable stress in normal cases
(b)Allowable stress determined by fatigue strength
(c) Allowable stress determined by yield
strength *2)
(Units : N/mm2)
SR235
SR295
SD295A,B
SD345
SD390
137
137
137
157 (147) *1)

157 (147)
176
176
157
176
196
176
196
206
176
216
Notes: *1) Values in the parentheses are for lightweight aggregate concrete.
*2) (c) is used to calculate overlapping length or fixing length when considering the inpact of earthquake.
3.4 Concrete Materials (Notification Article 37)

In principle, concrete materials shall comply with JIS, or shall be of a quality equal to or better than that
specified by JIS.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Chloride Ion Content
In order to reduce the risk of corrosion of steel material inside the concrete, the amount of chloride ion contained
in concrete should be no more than 0.30 kg/m3.
(2) Measures against Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
In order to suppress alkali-aggregate reaction, one of the following four measures should be adopted:
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PART III MATERIALS
(a) Use an aggregate that has been confirmed as harmless by alkali silica reactivity tests (chemical method or
mortar bar method) as prescribed in the Appendix to JIS A 5308 Ready Mixed Concrete.
(b) Use a cement that complies with low-alkali type cement as prescribed in JIS R 5210 Portland Cement.
(c) Use a portland blast-furnace slag cement that complies with JIS R 5211 Portland Blast-Furnace Slag
Cement [type B (preferably with a slag substitution ratio of 50% or more) or type C], a portland fly ash
cement of type B or C that complies with JIS R 5213 Portland Fly Ash Cement, or a cement mixed with
mineral admixture that has proven effective in suppressing alkali-aggregate reaction.
(d) Use a portland cement with a clear listing of alkali content and ensure that the total alkali content in 1 m3 of
concrete is no more than 3.0 kg in Na2O conversion.
(3) Of the various types of cement, those having good seawater resistance characteristics are said to be the moderate
heat portland cement, portland blast-furnace slag cement, and portland fly ash cement. The advantages of these
types of cement are that they excel in durability against seawater, greatly promote long-term strength, and have
low hydration heat. But they also have the disadvantage that their initial strength is low. Thus when using these
types of cement, all due care needs to be given to initial curing.
In particular, concrete made with the type B portland blast-furnace slag cement yields an excellent
anticorrosive performance of steel reinforcements 5), and from that point of view this type of cement should
preferably be used. But in this case, it is extremely important that adequate curing is carried out.
(4) Seawater must not be used as mixing water for steel reinforced concrete. Seawater may be used in plain concrete
only when it is difficult to obtain clean freshwater.
3.5 Concrete Quality and Performance

Concrete shall be of uniform quality and shall have good workability. It shall also have the required
strength, durability, impermeability, crack resistance, and steel protecting performance.
[Commentary]
(1) Concrete should have the required quality and performance according to the type of structure, environmental
conditions, and cross-sectional shapes of structural members. In general, ready-mixed concrete should be used
as standard.
(2) Concrete should be resistant to the effects of weather, the chemical and physical effects of seawater, the
mechanical effects of impact and abrasion by waves and drifting solids, corrosion of reinforcement, alkaliaggregate reaction, and the harmful effects of freezing and thawing.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The water-cement ratio should be determined in view of the required strength and durability of the concrete. The
maximum size of coarse aggregate should be as large as possible, providing this has no adverse effect on the
arrangement of steel bars and concrete placement in cross sections of members.
(2) As for the consistency of the concrete, the slump should be as small as possible within a workable range. In
principle, AE (air entrained) concrete should be used and the air content should be 4.5% as standard. The air
content may be increased in cold regions or areas where there is a risk of frost damage.
(3) Table T- 3.5.1 lists the general concrete mix proportioning and characteristic values for concrete strength.
Supervising engineers should refer to this table to determine appropriate proportioning and strength, bearing in
mind the points in (1) above.
In particular, it is preferable to decrease the maximum water-cement ratio in the regions with pronounced
freezing and thawing.
(4) Recently, a highly flowable concrete with self-compacting characteristics has been developed 6). Its characteristics have been materialized through its high fluidity and outstanding resistance to material separation by use
of appropriate admixtures. The use of this high-fluidity concrete makes it possible to place concrete into sections
in which concrete placing have been impossible by using ordinary concrete (such as in densely reinforced
sections or spaces enclosed by steel shells).
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Table T- 3.5.1 Concrete Mix Proportioning and Characteristic Values for Concrete Strength According to Structural Members
Mixing conditions
Slump
(cm)
Maximum size
of coarse
aggregate
(mm)
Characteristic
values of
concrete
strength
(N/mm2)
18
Maximum water-cement ratio (%)

Type
Plain
concrete
Reinforced
concrete
Regions with
repeated freezing
and thawing
Regions where
the temperature
rarely falls
below zero
degree
Breakwater superstructure,
caisson concrete lid *1)
65
65
8, 12
40
Block for main body of

structures, precast armor block
(for wave dissipating, covering)
65
65
8, 12
40
Foot protection block, packed

concrete
65
65
8, 12
40
18
Quay superstructure, parapet

wall, mooring post foundation
(gravity type)
60
65
8, 12
40
18
Mooring post foundation (pile

type), parapet wall, quay
superstructure *3)
60
65
8, 12, 15
20, 25, 40
24
Pier superstructure
55
55
8, 12, 15
20, 25, 40
24
Caisson, well, cellular, L-shape

block, wave dissipating block
55
55
8, 12, 15
20, 25, 40
24
Anchor wall,
anchor pile superstructure
60
60
8, 12, 15
20, 25, 40
24
2.5, 6.5
25(20) *4), 40
Bending 4.5
Examples of structural members
Apron pavement
18
(21) *2)
Note: *1) The characteristic value may be set at 24N/mm2, if there is a risk of wave action or submersion during the initial age of the
concrete, or if built in a cold season.
*2) With large-size precast armor blocks, the characteristic value may be increased. For example, it may be 21N/mm2 for blocks
between 35 and 50 tons, or determined as appropriate for blocks larger than this.
*3) Except superstructure of open-type wharf.
*4) 25mm for gravel and 20mm for crushed stone.
(5) The matters listed below should be fully investigated in advance concerning the materials used in plain and
reinforced concrete, their quality, and design details with regard to enhancement of the durability.
For plain concrete:
(a) The concrete materials should have outstanding resistance to seawater and not cause a harmful aggregate
reaction (see 3.4 Concrete Materials).
(b) The mix proportioning should be such that it guarantees the required durability.
(c) Provision of construction joints should be avoided as much as possible [see (6)].
(d) The cross-sectional area of member should be increased in readiness for surface abrasion during the required
lifetime, or the surface should be protected with a suitable material.
For reinforced concrete, the following should be investigated, as well as (a)-(d) above:
(e) The use of materials that could have a harmful effect on corrosion of steel reinforcements should be avoided
(see 3.4 Concrete Materials).
(f) The covering of reinforcements should be increased.
(g) Bending cracks in concrete should be reduced to the minimum (see 3.2 Basics of Design Based on the Limit
State Design Method).
In addition to the above, the surface of the concrete may be covered with organic or inorganic materials 7), epoxy
resin coated reinforcements may be used, or the cathodic protection method may be used on steel reinforcement
embedded in the concrete as auxiliary measures to enhance durability of concrete.
(6) Construction Joints
Damage often arises from joints in the concrete 8). Therefore, provision of construction joints should be avoided
as much as possible. When joints are inevitable in view of shrinkage of the concrete or the conditions of
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PART III MATERIALS
execution, necessary measures should be taken on the joints. Epoxy or other resins may be used because of their
strength. However, their use requires caution because they sometime do not have enough durability, even though
their performance is adequate in terms of strength 9).
(7) Covering
The minimum covering of steel reinforcements in reinforced concrete members should be equal to or larger than
the values listed in Table T- 3.5.2.
Table T- 3.5.2 Standard Values of Covering for Steel Reinforcement
(a) Sections in direct contact with seawater, washed
by seawater, or subject to strong sea winds
7 cm
(b) Other sections
5 cm
3.6 Underwater Concrete

Underwater concrete shall be designed and executed according to Standard Specifications of Concrete or
Port and Harbor Construction Work Common Specifications.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Construction joints should be avoided in principle.
(2) The covering for reinforced concrete executed underwater should be equal to or larger than 10 cm.
[References]
1) Osamu KIYOMIYA, Hiroshi YOKOTA, Takashi NAGAO: Design of reinforced maritime structures by the limit state
design method, Gihodo, 1999 (in Japanese).
2) Takashi NAGAO: Studies on the application of the limit state design method to reinforced concrete port structures, Rept. of
3) Takashi NAGAO: Case studies on safety factors about seismic stability for the slab of caisson type quaywalls, Tech. Note
of PHRI, No. 867, 1997 (in Japanese).
4) Takashi NAGAO, Hiroshi YOKOTA, Koichiro TAKECHI, Susumu KAWASAKI, Noboru OKUBO: Fatigue limit state
design method for superstructures of open type wharves in view of cargo handling machine loads, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 37,
No. 2, 1998 (in Japanese).
5) Tsutomu FUKUTE, Kunio YAMAMOTO, Hidenori HAMADA: Study on the durability of concrete mixed with sea water,
Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 29, No. 3, 1990 (in Japanese).
6) Tsutomu FUKUTE, Hidenori HAMADA, Kouji MIURA, Yoshitaka NAKAJIMA, Kiyoshi SATO, Atsurou MORIWAKE,
Katsutoshi HAMAZAKI: Applicability of super-workable concrete using viscous agent to densely reinforced concrete
members, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 33, No. 2, 1994 (in Japanese).
7) Hidenori HAMADA, Tsutomu FUKUTE, Masami ABE, Kunio YAMAMOTO: Effect and evaluation of concrete surface
coatings for the prevention of salt attack, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 706, 1991 (in Japanese).
8) Hiroshi SEKI, Sachio ONODERA, Hiroshi MARUYAMA: Deterioration of plain concrete for coastal structures under
maritime environments, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 142, 1972 (in Japanese).
9) Nobuaki OTSUKI, Masamitsu HARAMO, Hidenori HAMADA: Test on the effects of joints on the durability of concrete in
marine environment (after 10 years exposure), Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 606 (in Japanese).
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Chapter 4 Bituminous Materials

4.1 General
Bituminous materials used in port and harbor facilities shall satisfy the required quality and performance.
These shall include elasticity, cohesion, impermeability, waterproofness, durability, and weatherproofness.
[Commentary]
(1) The bituminous material most commonly used in port and harbor facilities today is asphalt. There are two types
of asphalt, i.e., natural and petroleum-based. Most of the asphalt in use today is of the latter type. Therefore, in
this document, asphalt means petroleum-based asphalt unless otherwise specified. Other bituminous materials
besides asphalt include tar, pitch, and asphalt emulsion.
(2) Bituminous materials are rarely used in isolation. Asphalt, for example, is usually mixed with aggregate and
used as an asphalt mixture in asphalt concrete for pavement, asphalt mats, sand mastic asphalt, and asphalt
stabilization. The type and mix proportioning of asphalt depend on its use. Therefore, it is important to select a
material that will meet the required objective.
4.2 Asphalt Mat

4.2.1 General
Asphalt mats shall be given an appropriate structure in consideration of the required strength, durability,
and workability according to the purpose of use, construction location, and local marine conditions.
[Commentary]
Asphalt mats are made by embedding reinforcement material and wire rope for suspension into a compound material
mixed from asphalt, limestone filler, sand and crushed stone. They are then formed into a mat-shape (see Fig. C4.2.1).
Annealed steel wire
Steel bands
Reinforcement
core material
Anti-slip bracket
Wire rope
Steel reinforcement
Asphalt compound material
Fig. C- 4.2.1 Example of Structure of Friction Increasing Asphalt Mat
4.2.2 Materials
Asphalt mat materials shall be selected as appropriate to yield the required strength and durability.
[Commentary]
The following materials are used in asphalt mats:
(1) Asphalt
Asphalt used for asphalt mat should be straight or blown asphalt or both that complies with the regulations JIS K
2207 Petroleum Asphalt.
(2) Sand
Clean sand that is free of dirt, mud, organic matter, and other harmful substances with a maximum grain size of
2.5 mm should be used.
(3) Filler
A material in conformity with JIS A5008 Limestone Filler for Bituminous Paving Mixtures should be used.
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PART III MATERIALS
(4) Crushed Stone

A material in conformity with JIS A 5001 Crushed Stone for Roads with a grain size 2.5 20 mm should be
used.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Straight or blown asphalt that complies with the regulations of JIS K 2207 Petroleum Asphalt is specified for
use. The plastic flow and other properties of these two differ greatly, and it is difficult to obtain the required
strength and ease of handling for mats with one of them alone. Therefore, the two are normally mixed to obtain
the required properties. In this case, straight asphalt with the penetration of 40 to 60 and blown asphalt with the
penetration of 10 to 40 should be used.
(2) Crushed stone is a coarse aggregate used in asphalt mats and has a major effect on the strength of the mat.
Therefore, it should be of sufficiently good quality. The maximum grain size of crushed stone should be no more
than one-sixth of the mat thickness, in view of work execution. In cases of friction increasing mats under large
pressure, it could be larger than this.
(3) Apart from the above materials, asphalt mats require reinforcement materials and wire rope for suspension. The
reinforcement materials are usually glass cloth or glass fiber tape net.
4.2.3 Mix Proportioning

It shall be standard to determine the mix proportioning of asphalt mixture based on mixing tests to obtain
the required strength and flexibility.
[Technical Notes]
The mix proportioning used for asphalt mixture has a great effect on strength and flexibility. They should therefore be
determined through mixing tests.
Friction increasing mats and scouring prevention mats have a relatively long history and a considerable track
record of use. They have caused no particular problem to date. Therefore, the values given in Table T- 4.2.1 may be
used, except for special use conditions.
Table T- 4.2.1 Standard Mix Proportioning for Asphalt Mixture
Materials
Material proportion of mass (%)

Friction increasing mats
Scouring prevention mats
Asphalt
10 14
10 14
Dust
14 25
14 25
Fine aggregate
20 50
30 50
Coarse aggregate
30 50
25 40
Notes: Dust is sand or filler with a grain size of less than 0.074 mm.
Fine aggregate is crushed stone, sand, or filler with a grain size of 0.0742.5 mm.
Coarse aggregate is crushed stone with a grain size of 2.5 mm or larger.
4.3 Paving Materials

Paving materials shall in principle comply with Asphalt Paving Guidelines, except in the areas subject to
special load conditions.
[Commentary]
Aprons are an example of the areas subject to special load conditions. Traffic on pavements (and particularly apron
paving) in port and harbor areas, unlike that on roads in city areas, almost invariably involves heavy vehicles. This
includes heavy machinery with large contact pressure. This type of load rarely travels at high speed and is almost
always stationary or moving at low speeds. Parts of these paved areas are also used for placing cargoes. Thus, when
considering the paving materials to be applied to such areas, care should be taken to the fact that bituminous materials
are susceptible to static loading (see Part , Chapter 20 Aprons).
4.4 Sand Mastic Asphalt

4.4.1 General
[Technical Notes]
(1) Sand mastic asphalt is made of asphalt heat-mixed with an ore-based filler or additive and sand. The sand mastic
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asphalt is an asphalt mixture virtually free of voids and does not require rolling compaction after grouting.
(2) Sand mastic asphalt at a certain high temperature is grouted into gaps between rubbles by pouring it onto the
rubble mound. It does not separate under water. The grouted sand mastic asphalt wraps itself around the rubble
to form a single unit, thus preventing the stone from breaking off or being washed away. It is sometimes used
when it is not possible or uneconomical to obtain rubbles of the size required in design calculation.
(3) When designing sand mastic asphalt, all due attention should be paid to the plastic flow due to the material
properties of asphalt so that stability problem will not arise.
4.4.2 Materials
Materials for sand mastic asphalt shall be selected as appropriate to meet the required strength and
durability.
[Commentary]
(1) Asphalt
Asphalt used for sand mastic asphalt applied underwater should be straight asphalt with penetration range of
either one of 40 60, 60 80, or 80 100 that complies with JIS K 2207 Petroleum Asphalt.
(2) Sand
Clean sand that is free of dirt, mud, organic matter, and other harmful substances, with a maximum grain size of
2.5 mm should be used.
(3) Filler
A material in conformity with JIS A 5008 Limestone Filler for Bituminous Paving Mixtures should be used.
4.4.3 Mix Proportioning

The mix proportioning shall be determined through mixing tests to obtain the required fluidity and strength
in view of the work execution and natural conditions.
[Technical Notes]
(1) General
The values listed in Table T- 4.4.1 are commonly used as mix proportioning for sand mastic asphalt applied
underwater. In the table, dust refers to sand or filler passed through a 0.074 mm sieve. Fine aggregate is
crushed stone, sand, or filler remaining on a 0.074 mm sieve.
Table T- 4.4.1 Standard Mix Proportioning for Sand Mastic Asphalt
Material
Proportion of weight (%)
Asphalt
Dust
Fine aggregate
16 20
18 25
55 66
(2) Method of Calculating Required Quantity of Sand Mastic Asphalt

Equation (4.4.1) is used to calculate the quantity of sand mastic asphalt applied to the rubble mound.
V = a A (hv d)
where
V
A
h
v
d
a
(4.4.1)
required quantity of sand mastic asphalt (m3)

surface area of rubble mound grouted by sand mastic asphalt (m2)
thickness of rubble layer grouted by sand mastic asphalt (m)
void ratio of rubble mound
cover thickness of sand mastic asphalt on rubble mound (m)
increment ratio taking account of grouting into the lower layer of rubbles
(3) Notes in Design

The design of sand mastic asphalt is affected by the following items:
(a) It should not be used in locations directly affected by powerful impact wave pressure or drifting objects.
(b) It should not be used in locations where sudden settlement is anticipated.
(c) The gradient of the rubble surface should be not steeper than 1:1.3.
(d) Suitable reinforcement should be made on the slope top, slope toe, and the edges of the execution area.
(e) The relationship between the lifetime of structure and the durability of the sand mastic asphalt should be fully
taken into account.
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PART III MATERIALS
Chapter 5 Stone
5.1 General
Stone shall be selected in view of the required quality and performance to suit its purpose and its cost.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Generally, stone is used in large quantities for breakwaters, quays, and other port and harbor structures.
Selection of stone materials has a major impact on the stability of the structure as well as the duration and cost of
construction.
(2) The types of stone mainly used in construction and their physical properties are given in Table T- 5.1.1. It
should be borne in mind that the physical properties of stone of the same classification may differ depending on
the region and site of quarries.
Table T- 5.1.1 Physical Properties of Stones
Rock
classification
Subclassification
Specific
gravity
(apparent)
Water
absorption
rate (%)
Compressive
strength
(N/mm2)
Granite
2.60 2.78
0.07 0.64
85 190
Andesite
2.57 2.76
0.27 1.12
78 269
Basalt
2.68
(absolute)
1.85
85
Gabbro
2.91
(absolute)
0.21
177
Peridotite
3.18
0.16
187
Diabase
2.78 2.85
0.008 0.03
123 182
Tuff
2.64
0.16
377
Slate
2.65 2.74
0.08 1.37
59 185
Sandstone
2.29 2.72
0.04 3.65
48 196
Limestone
2.36 2.71
0.18 2.59
17 76
Chert
2.64
0.14
119
Hornfels
2.68
0.22
191
Igneous rock
Sedimentary
rock
Metamorphic
rock
5.2 Rubble for Foundation

Rubble for foundation mounds shall be hard, dense and durable, and free from the possibility of breaking
due to weathering and freezing. The shape of rubbles shall not be flat or oblong.
[Commentary]
When determining which type of stone to use, tests should first be conducted and the material properties be fully
ascertained. The ease of procurement, transportability, and price should also be taken into account.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The shear properties of rubble stones have been studied by using various large-scale triaxial compression tests 1).
This study is based on the state of rubble actually used in port and harbor construction works.
(2) As a guideline for determining the strength constant without conducting large-scale triaxial compression tests, a
shear strength of 0.02 N/mm2 and an internal friction angle of 35 can be expected if the unconfined compressive
strength is 30 N/mm2 or more 2).
5.3 Backfilling Materials

Backfilling materials shall be selected in view of their angle of internal friction, specific weight, and other
properties.
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[Commentary]
Rubble, unscreened gravel, cobblestone, and steel slag are generally used as backfilling materials. The material
properties of mudstone, sandstone, and steel slag vary greatly, and therefore these should be examined carefully
before use.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The values listed in Table T- 5.3.1 are often used as design values for backfilling materials.
Table T- 5.3.1 Design Values for Backfilling Materials
Angle of internal
friction
()
Specific weight
Above residual
water level
(kN/m3)
Below residual
water level
(kN/m3)
Slope gradient
Rubble
Ordinary type
Brittle type
40
35
18
16
10
9
1:1.2
1:1.2
Unscreened gravel
30
18
10
1:2 1:3
Cobblestone
35
18
10
1:2 1:3
(2) Rubble used in ports and harbors is almost the same as that prescribed by JIS A 5006.
(3) Unscreened gravel consists approximately half and half of sand and gravel.
(4) The slope gradient is the standard value of the natural gradient of backfilling materials executed in the sea.
Generally, a larger value is adopted when waves are small at the time of backfilling execution, and a lower value
when waves are large.
(5) For steel slag, see 8.2 Slag.
5.4 Base Course Materials of Pavement

Base course materials of pavement shall be selected so as to have the required bearing capacity and high
durability and to allow easy compaction.
[Commentary]
Normally, granular material, cement stabilized soil, or bituminous stabilized soil is used as a base course material.
Granular materials include crushed stone, steel slag, unscreened gravel, pit gravel, unscreened crushed stone, crushed
stone dust, and sand. These may be used on their own or mixed with other granular materials.
[Technical Notes]
The base course serves to disperse the surcharge transmitted from above and to tranfer it to the course bed. Normally,
it is divided into a lower base course and an upper base course. Materials used for the lower base course are cheaper
and have relatively small bearing capacity. The upper base course requires materials of good quality with large
bearing capacity.
[References]
1) Yoshihiro SHOJI: Study on shearing properties of rubbles with large-scale triaxial compression test, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 22,
2) Junichi MIZUKAMI, Masaki KOBAYASHI: Strength characteristics of rubble by large-scale triaxial compression test,
Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 699, 1991, 20 p. (in Japanese).
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PART III MATERIALS
Chapter 6 Timber
6.1 Quality of Timber
6.1.1 Structural Timber
The timber used as ordinary structural member shall be of quality complying with the Japanese
Agricultural Standards (JAS), or shall be of quality equal to or better than that specified by JAS.
6.1.2 Timber Piles
For timber piles, unseasoned wood of pines (Japanese red pines and Japanese black pines) are the most
suitable in terms of wood properties such as durability and strength.
6.2 Allowable Stresses of Timber

6.2.1 General
The design strength of timber shall be determined by comprehensively evaluating the increase and
decrease of strength due to various causes, taking into consideration the limits in deflections tolerable for
the structure under design.
6.2.2 Allowable Stresses of Structural Timber
The allowable stresses for structural timber shall be determined appropriately under the consideration of
the strength reduction by water saturation or the allowance for strength increase for the extraordinary load
by an earthquake.
[Technical Notes]
The allowable stresses along the fibers of the timber and allowable compressive stresses across the fibers should
comply with the Wooden Structure Design Standard (the Architectural Institute of Japan).
6.3 Quality of Glued Laminated Timber

The laminated timber used as structural timber shall be of quality complying with the Japanese
Agricultural Standards (JAS), or shall be of quality equal to or better than that specified by JAS.
6.3.1 Allowable Stress for Glued Laminated Timber
The allowable stress for glued laminated timber shall be determined appropriately according to the purpose
of use.
6.4 Joining of Timber

The method of joining timber structures shall be selected by considering the required performance of the
structure or structural members.
6.5 Maintenance of Timber

If timber is used in places where much vermin damage or rot is anticipated, countermeasures shall be taken
to prevent it.
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Chapter 7 Other Materials

7.1 Metals Other Than Steel
When using metals other than steel, material shall be selected as most appropriate in view of the location
and purpose of use, environmental conditions, durability, and cost.
[Technical Notes]
Metals other than steel used in port and harbor facilities include stainless steel, aluminum, titanium, etc.
7.2 Plastics and Rubbers

When using plastics and rubbers, material shall be selected appropriately in view of the location and
purpose of use, environmental conditions, durability, and cost.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The uses of plastic and rubber products in port and harbor construction works include the following:
(a) Geosynthetics
The use of geosynthetics in port and harbor construction works includes the following:
Reinforcing embankment
When laying good-quality soils over a land reclaimed with dredged clay, a sheet or net of geosynthetics is
spreaded directly over the surface. Its purpose is to ensure the passage of heavy machinery, while
preventing subsidence of good-quality soils. The net method has often been used in recent reclamation
works with soft ground.
Preventing infiltration and scouring
When used as a filter material with the aim of preventing sand infiltration, a filter sheet is often laid out on
the surface of backfill stone or on the back of rubble mound of the quaywall, and under the entire bottom of
the rubble mound, or under the part of the sea side of the mound. It is also used as a measure to scour
prevention.
(b) Joint sealing materials
These include seal plates, joint boards, and grouting materials used in / on the joint sections of concrete
structures.
(c) Fenders
(d) Grouting materials for foundation
See 7.4 Grouting Materials.
(e) Coating materials
See 7.3 Coating Materials.
(f) Seal materials
These include seals for dredging pipe joints, seal rubber gaskets for immersed tunnel units, etc.
(g) Adhesives
Various adhesives formed from synthetic resins are used for joining steel bridge elements, joining precast
concrete slabs, and repairing cracks in concrete.
(h) Lining materials
These are used for corrosion control in steel and reinforcements as well as for protection against collision etc.
(i) Drain materials
(j) Joints and bearing
Rubber expansion joints and bearings with the single-layer or multi-layer pad method are used on bridges.
(k) Ancillary facilities
Some buoys, pontoons, and other floating bodies are made of fiber reinforced plastic (FRP). Ladders,
handrails, buffer stops, and other ancillary facilities may also be made of rubber or FRP.
(l) Expanded polystyrene
This is used for buoys, pontoon floats, and other civil engineering structures, on account of its lightness.
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) blocks and EPS beads are used as civil engineering materials. Generally, EPS
blocks are used to reduce earth pressure, to counter settlement in embankments on soft ground, and to form the
foundations of temporary roads. EPS beads are mixed with cement or another cementing material together
with soils and used as a lightweight material in backfilling, in order to reduce settlement and earth pressure.
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PART III MATERIALS
(2) The standards for filter sheets, seal plates, and rubber mats normally used to prevent scouring, piping or
infiltation in port and harbor facilities are as follows:
(a) Filter sheets
Filter sheets used to prevent infiltration of sediment into the backfill will normally be determined in view of
the constructions conditions such as the placing method of backfilling, the residual water level, the leveling
precision of backfilling, etc.
Filter sheets that are laid out under the bottom of rubble mounds to prevent leakage of the subsoil will
normally be determined in view of the natural and construction conditions such as the wave height, tidal
current, rubble size, etc.
Tables T- 7.2.1 (a) and (b) list the minimum standards for woven and nonwoven sheets under favorable
execution conditions.
Table T- 7.2.1 (a) Minimum Standards for Filter Sheets (Nonwoven)
Type
Thickness
Tensile strength
Elongation
Mass
Remarks
Nonwoven cloth
4.2 mm or greater
880 N/5cm or greater
60% or greater
500 g/m2 or greater
JIS L 1908
Note: The thickness of 4.2 mm or greater is applied for the sheet under loading of 2 kN/m2 according to JIS L 1908. With no
loading, the thickness should be 5 mm or greater.
Table T- 7.2.1 (b) Standards for Filter Sheets (Woven)
Type
Thickness
Tensile strength
Elongation
Remarks
Woven cloth
0.47 mm or greater
4,080 N/5cm or greater
15% or greater
JIS L 1908
(b) Seal plates

The standard thickness of seal plates used for the vertical joints of caisson etc. to prevent piping of backfilling
is 5 mm. The seal plates should meet the standards listed in Table T- 7.2.2. In cold regions, rubber plates are
sometimes used. In this case, the values listed in Table T- 7.2.3 should be satisfied.
Table T- 7.2.2 Standards for Seal Plates (Soft Vinyl Chloride)
Particulars
Test item
Method
Tensile direction
Standard values
Tensile strength
JIS K 6723
Test sample No. 1 type dumbbell
Lateral
14.7 MPa or greater
Tear strength
JIS K 6252
Test sample uncut angle shape
Longitudinal
49 N/mm or greater
Elongation
JIS K 6723
Test sample No. 1 type dumbbell
Lateral
180% or greater
Seawater resistance
Tensile strength residual ratio
JIS K 6773
Lateral
90% or greater
Seawater resistance
Elongation residual ratio
JIS K 6773
Lateral
90% or greater
Specific gravity
JIS K 7112
Stripping strength
JIS K 6256
Width 25 250mm
Strip-shaped sample
Longitudinal
1.35 0.05
30 N/cm or greater
Table T- 7.2.3 Standards for Seal Plates (Rubber)

Test item
Tensile strength
Particulars
Method
Tensile direction
JIS K 6328
Standard value
4,400 N/3cm or greater
(c) Rubber mats

Rubber mats used for increasing friction may be made of new or recycled rubber. The quality is commonly as
listed in Tables T- 7.2.4 and T- 7.2.5.
-235-
Table T- 7.2.4 Quality of Recycled Rubber

Test item
Before
aging
Physical
tests
After
aging
Performance
Test conditions/method
Tensile strength
Tear strength
Hardness
Elongation
4.9 MPa or greater

18 N/mm or greater
55 70 graduations
160% or greater
JIS K 6251
JIS K 6252
JIS K 6253
JIS K 6251
Tensile strength
Tear strength
Hardness
Elongation
3.9 MPa or greater

Within 8 of pre-aging value
140% or greater
JIS K 6251
JIS K 6253
JIS K 6251
(Aging tests are according to JIS K 6257)
Aging temperature 70 1
0
Aging time 96 2 hours
Table T- 7.2.5 Quality of New Rubber

Test item
Before
aging
Physical
tests
After
aging
Performance
Test conditions/method
Tensile strength
Tear strength
Hardness
Elongation
9.8 MPa or greater

25 N/mm or greater
70 5 graduations
250% or greater
JIS K 6251
JIS K 6252
JIS K 6253
JIS K 6251
Tensile strength
Tear strength
Hardness
Elongation
9.3 MPa and above

Within 8 of pre-aging value
200% or greater
JIS K 6251
Compressive plastic strain
JIS K 6253
JIS K 6251
(Aging tests are according to JIS K 6257)
JIS K 6262
45% or less
7.3 Coating Materials

When selecting coating materials, the following shall be taken into account:
(1) Purpose of coating
(2) Material and characteristics of surface to be coated
(3) Performance and composition of coating material
(4) Cost
(5) Maintenance
[Technical Notes]
The color tones of coating materials are versatile. Normally, the color is determined in consideration of its purpose,
appearance, and cost. Table T- 7.3.1 lists the characteristics of the six color groups (polyurethane resin-based paints)
most commonly used for aesthetic purposes 1).
Table T- 7.3.1 Characteristics of Color Groups
Color retention
Unmarkedness of discoloring or fading (by eye)
Cost
Hiding power
Resistance to chemicals
Grays
(pale)
Blues
Yellows
Oranges
Reds
Greens
Note: The figure 1 in Cost indicates the lowest price, while the figue 5 is for the highest price.
: excellent, : satisfactory, : caution required.
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PART III MATERIALS
7.4 Grouting Materials

7.4.1 General
The grouting methods shall be selected by examining the site conditions with consideration to the
influence on the surrounding environment.
[Commentary]
The grouting methods are employed to strengthen the ground or to cut off the ground water flow by filling crevices in
rocks or subsoils, vacant spaces in or around structures, or voids of coarse aggregate with grouting materials. Various
grouting materials are used according to the characteristics of the ground to be grouted.
7.4.2 Properties of Grouting Materials

Grouting materials shall be selected in view of the required performance for the subsoils to be grouted.
[Commentary]
The basic properties required of grouting materials are the efficiency of seepage, filling and setting, the strength and
impermeability of the stabilized body. Suitability with the grouting object is particularly affected by the seepage
efficiency of the material.
Figure C- 7.4.1 shows the seepage limits of various grouting materials for subsoils.
Gravel
Sand
Coarse Large Medium Fine Ultra-fine
Special
silicate
gel
Silicate
gel
Limits according to Karon
Clay, cement
Clay
Silt
Resin
Clay
Fig. C- 7.4.1 Seepage Limits of Grouting Materials for Subsoils
[Reference]
1) Kiyoshi TERAUCHI: Study on deterioration and painting specification of bridges located in port area, Tech. Note of PHRI,
-237-
Chapter 8 Recyclable Resources

Recyclable resources shall be used as appropriate in accordance with the characteristics of the resources
and the structures under design.
[Commentary]
(1) In 1991, the Law for the Promotion of Utilization of Recyclable Resources (Law No. 48 of 1991, otherwise
known as the Recycling Act) was enacted. As well as aiming for the effective utilization of limited resources,
it set out to promote measures by the national government, local authorities, and construction contractors to
reduce the generation of waste. Recyclable resources (materials) in port and harbor construction include slag,
coal ash, concrete, dredged soil, and asphalt concrete. Most of these can be used in landfill materials, subbase
course materials, soil improvement materials, and concrete aggregate.
(2) The use of slag, coal ash, concrete, and asphalt concrete as recyclable materials must comply with the Waste
Disposal and Public Cleaning Law and the Marine Pollution Prevention Law.
(3) The properties of recyclable materials are quite variable. Therefore, their physical and dynamic properties and
the volume to be supplied should be fully examined in advance to ensure the purpose of use.
[Technical Notes]
Effective use of recyclable resources is extremely important for the sustainable development of society. Port and
harbor construction works use large quantities of soil materials. Therefore, it is very important that we protect the
environment by reducing the use of natural resources and positively create added value by taking advantage of the
properties of recyclable resources.
On the other hand, environmental pollution must not be caused in any way. Thus, a major precondition is that full
checks are made in advance to ensure that no environmental problems are created.
8.2 Slag
[Technical Notes]
Here, steel slag, copper granulated blast furnace slag, and ferronickel granulated slag will be discussed.
Steel slag is industrial waste generated in large quantities by the steel industry. It is broadly divided into blast
furnace slag and steel manufacture slag. Air-cooled blast furnace slag is a granular material conventionally known as
slag or dross and mainly used as a material for roads. It is virtually 100% effectively used. Granulated blast furnace
slag is a lightweight sand-like material. As well as being used as a raw material for blast furnace cement, it is also
increasingly used as a backfilling material for ports and harbors in view of its lightness. This too is used almost
100%.
In the past, steel manufacture slag was used only for a material of roads. This was because of its heaviness due to
iron content, and its characteristic of expansion rupture. It is effectively used however, by taking advantage of its
large angle of internal friction, high water permeability and its large specific weight 1). Table T- 8.2.1 lists a
comparison of chemical compositions of slag and soil. Table T- 8.2.2 lists the physical and dynamic properties of
steel manufacture slag and blast-furnace slag.
Copper granulated blast furnace slag is a sandy material obtained through high-speed cooling with water in the
copper refining process. It has a higher particle density than sand. Although it is susceptible to particle crushing, its
angle of internal friction and water permeability are about the same as those of sea sand. As well as being used for
sand mat and as a filling material, it has been experimentally used in the sand compaction pile (SCP) method.
Ferronickel granulated blast furnace slag is obtained during the manufacturing of ferronickel that is a raw material
for stainless steel. Its specific weigh is larger than that of sand, and has been used as a caisson filling material.
-238-
PART III MATERIALS
Table T- 8.2.1 Chemical Compositions of Slag and Other Materials

(Units in percent)
Type
Compornent
SiO2
Blast
furnace
slag
Electric furnace slag
Converter
slag
Oxide slag
Reduced slag
Pit sand
Andesite
Normal
Portland
cement
33.8
13.8
17.7
27.0
59.6
59.6
22.0
CaO
42.0
44.3
26.2
51.0
0.4
5.8
64.2
Al2O3
14.4
1.5
12.2
9.0
22.0
17.3
5.5
T-Fe
0.3*
3.1*
17.5
21.2
1.5
3.0**
MgO
6.7
6.4
5.3
7.0
0.8
2.8
1.5
0.84
0.07
0.09
0.50
0.01
2.0***
MnO
0.3
5.3
7.9
1.0
0.1
0.2
TiO2
1.0
1.5
0.7
0.7
0.8
Note: * as FeO, ** as Fe2O2, *** as SO3

Table T- 8.2.2 Physical and Dynamic Properties of Steel Slag
Blast furnace slag
Steel manufacture slag

3)
MS-25
CS-40
Absolute dry density (g/cm
3.19 ~ 3.40
Water absorbency (%)
1.77 ~ 3.02
19.7 ~ 22.9
17.2 ~ 17.8
16.7 ~ 17.2
5.69 ~ 8.24
8.8 ~ 9.4
8.4 ~ 9.0
2.34 ~ 2.71
2.18 ~ 2.21
2.13 ~ 2.17
78 ~ 135
170 ~ 204
152 ~ 186
Specific weight
(kN/m3)
Optimum moisture content (%)

Maximum dry density
(g/cm3)
Modified CBR (%)
10-2
Coefficienst of permeability (cm/s)
10-3
10-2
40 ~ 50
Angle of internal friction ()
~ 10-3
8.3 Coal Ash

[Technical Notes]
Coal ash is classified into fly ash and clinker ash. The grain size distribution of fly ash is similar with that of silt,
while clinker ash has the grain size distributions similar with that of sand 1) (see Tables T- 8.3.1 and T- 8.3.2).
Coal ash has pozzolan activity, which makes it harden by mixing with water. Ash with a high content of silica,
aluminum, or other pozzolan substances has a particularly high pozzolan activity. The specific weight is lighter than
that of sand.
Table T- 8.3.1 Chemical Composition of Coal Ash
(Units in percent)
Component
Fly ash
Clinker ash
SiO2
63 6
61 5
Al2O3
24 4
21 5
FeO3
4.1 2.3
5.0 2.6
CaO
2.8 2.7
2.6 2.0
MgO
1.0 0.6
1.0 0.5
Unburned contents
3.2 2.3
5.1 5.8
Note: Figures show the mean value standard deviation.
-239-
Table T- 8.3.2 Physical and Dynamic Properties of Coal Ash

Fly ash
Clinker ash
2.19 0.11
2.26 0.12
Uniformity coefficient
5.9 3.1
14.1 7.8
Silt content (%)
73 11
85
Particle density
(g/cm3)
13 11
58 13
Maximum density
(g/cm3)
1.13 0.18
0.83 0.17
Minimum density
(g/cm3)
0.78 0.14
0.67 0.13
Sand content (%)
Note: Figures show the mean value standard deviation.
8.4 Crashed Concrete

[Technical Notes]
When using crushed concrete as a stone material, the properties such as the angle of internal friction vary depending
on mother concrete. Thus, under present circumstances it is difficult to give the standard values of their propeties. If
the properties of the concrete before crushing are similar to those presented in reference 2), the properties of crushed
concrete can be determined by referring to it.
[References]
1) Kunio TAKAHASHI: Utilization of fly ash and steel slug, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 886, 1997 (in Japanese).
2) Jun-ichi MIZUKAMI, Yoshiaki KIKUCHI, Hiroyuki YOSHINO: Characteristics of concrete debris as rubble in marine
construction, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 906, 1998 (in Japanese).
-240-
PART IV PRECAST CONCRETE UNITS

Chapter 1 Caissons
1.1 General
(1) The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to the design of ordinary reinforced concrete caissons
used on port and harbor facilities.
(2) Design shall follow the limit state design method.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The design of caissons can be made according to the sequence depicted in Fig. T- 1.1.1.
Assumption of dimensions of caisson
Calculation of stability while afloat
Determination of design external forces

While afloat : outer walls (front, rear, side), bottom slab
During installation : partition walls
After construction : outer walls, bottom slab, partition walls, footing
Design of members
(Design of outer walls)
(Study of bottom slab)
(Design of partition walls)
Set design conditions

Calculate section force
Examine bending strength

(Design of footing)
Examine dislodging
Examine shear strength
{
{
{
[1] ultimate limit state,

[2] serviceability limit state,
[3] fatigue limit state
[1] ultimate limit state
[2] serviceability limit state
{
{

Other examinations
During fabrication: jacking, mounting on the launching truck

After fabrication: uneven settlement
Design of ancillary provisions
Water supply cocks, temporary cover, winch foundation,
built-in hook for towing, built-in hook for working net ,
suspension hook.
Fig. T- 1.1.1 Sequence of Caisson Design
-241-
(2) For explanations of the limit states, Part, 3.2 Basics of Design Based on the Limit State Design Method can
be referred to.
(3) Examination of the fatigue limit state may be omitted in the case of quaywall caissons.
1.2 Determination of Dimensions

The dimensions of caisson members shall be determined in view of the following factors:
(1) Capacity of caisson fabrication facilities
(2) Draft of a caisson and the water depth at the place of installation (depth above the crown of
foundation mound)
(3) Floating stability
(4) Working conditions during towing and installation: tidal currents, waves, wind, etc.
(5) Working conditions after installation of caisson: filling, placing upper concrete, tidal currents, waves,
wind, etc.
(6) Differential settlement of mound
(7) Bending and torsion acting on caisson
[Technical Notes]
Vertical haunch
Vertical haunch
Outer wall (front)
Partition wall
Outer wall (rear)
Outer wall
Outer wall
The terminology of caisson members is shown in Fig. T- 1.2.1. The thickness of the outer wall is usually 30 60 cm
(with the spacing between partition walls less than 5 m), the bottom slab is 40 80 cm thick, and the partition walls
are 20 30 cm thick.
Vertical haunch
Partition wall
Haunch joints
Bottom slab
Horizontal haunch
Horizontal haunch
Longitudinal sectional view (B-B)

Transverse sectional view (C-C)
Partition wall
Horizontal haunch
Outer wall
Outer wall
Outer wall (rear)
Horizontal haunch
Partition wall
Outer wall (front)

Plan view
(A-A)
Fig. T- 1.2.1 Names of Caisson Members
1.3 Floating Stability

If a caisson is to be floated toward the place of installation, the floating stability of the caisson shall be
examined to ensure that capsiging or tilting will not occur.
-242-
[Technical Notes]
(1) To guarantee the stability of a caisson in water, equation (1.3.1) must
be satisfied (see Fig. T- 1.3.1).
--I- CG = GM > 0
V
(1.3.1)
where
V displacement (m3)
I moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area at the still water
level about the long axis (m4)
C center of buoyancy
G center of gravity
M metacenter
For safety the distance GM should be 5% of the draft or greater.
(2) Equation (1.3.1) applies when the cross section of caisson is symmetrical and no significant tilt is expected.
Fig. T- 1.3.1 Stability of Caisson
(3) Equation (1.3.2) or (1.3.3) applies when a counterballast is used.

(a) When using water as the counterballast:
I
-----(I S i ) C G > 0
V
(1.3.2)
(b) When using sand, stone, or fresh concrete as the counterballast:
I
----- C G > 0
V
(1.3.3)
where
i moment of inertia of the water surfaces of inside chambers about the centerline parallel to
the rotating axis of the caisson (m4)
V , I , C, G displacement, moment of inertia, center of buoyarcy, and center of gravity, of caisson with
a counterballast respectively
1.4 Design External Forces

1.4.1 Combination of Loads and Load Factors
The combination of loads and the load factors shall be appropriately considered under the following
conditions, respectively:
(1) Breakwater
under no waves
under waves
during execution
(2) Quaywall
under ordinary conditions
during an earthquake
during execution
[Technical Notes]
(1) Table T- 1.4.1 lists the ultimate limit state safety factors and the serviceability limit state influence coefficients
on crack width (see Part , 3.2 Basics of Design Based on the Limit State Design Method) to be multiplied
to the load characteristics for various combinations of loads to be considered in design. Footings may be treated
in the same way as bottom slabs.
-243-
Table T- 1.4.1 Loads and Load Factors

(a) Breakwaters
Conditions
Deadweight
Hydrostatic
pressure
0.9
(1.0)
1.1
(1.0)
Internal
earth
pressure
Bottom
slab
reaction
Internal
water
pressure
Uplift
pressure
Variable
bottom slab
reaction
Variable
internal
water
pressure
Wave force
Hydrostatic
head
between
chambers
1.1
(1.0)
Remarks
Bottom
slab
Under no
waves
1.1
(1.0)
1.1 [0.9]
(1.0)
1.1 [0.9]
(1.0)
1.1
(1.0)
outer wall
1.1 [0.9]
(1.0)
1.3 [0.7]
(1.0)
1.2 [0.8]
(1.0)
Bottom
slab
0.9
(1.0)
Under
waves
1.3
(1.0)
outer wall
1.1
(1.0)
0.9
(0.5)
During
execution
1.1
(1.0)
1.2
(1.0)
1.1
(0.5)
Bottom
slab
(while
afloat)
1.1
(0.5)
outer wall
(while
afloat)
1.1
(0.5)
Partition
wall
(during
installation)
(b) Quaywalls
Conditions
Under
ordinary
conditions
During an
earthquake
Deadweight
Hydrostatic
pressure
0.9
(1.1)
1.1
(1.0)
Internal
water
pressure
1.1
(1.0)
1.0
(-)
Internal
earth
pressure
Bottom
slab plate
reaction
under
permanent
load
Surcharge
1.1
(1.0)
0.8
(0.5)
Bottom
slab
reaction
during an
earthquake
Hydrostatic pressure
during installation
Load
during
execution
Hydrostatic
pressure in
still water
Remarks
Bottom slab (bottom slab

reaction considering
surcharge during no
earthquake)
1.1
(1.0)
outer wall
1.0
(-)
1.0
(-)
Bottom slab (bottom slab

reaction considering
surcharge during an
earthquake)
1.0
(-)
0.9
(0.5)
During
execution
1.1
(0.5)
1.1
(0.5)
Bottom Slab
(while afloat)
1.1
(0.5)
outer wall
(while afloat)
Partition wall
(during installation)
Note: When considering seismic force, the characteristic loads are calculated according to Part , Chapter 12 Earthquakes and
Seismic Force.
-244-
(2) The values in the upper rows of the respective boxes in Table T-1.4.1 are the load factors to be used when
studying the ultimate limit state. The values in the brackets [ ] are the load factors to be used when a smaller
load yields the larger design load of the members. The values in the parentheses ( ) in the lower rows show the
influence coefficient on crack width in the serviceability limit state.
(3) Loads during execution have a shorter duration of action than other conditions, and only occur during execution.
Therefore, the influence coefficient on crack width (kp, kr) in the serviceability limit state can be set at 0.5.
(4) The design loads for outer walls of breakwater caissons are shown in Figs. T- 1.4.1 ~ 1.4.3. The load factors and
the influence coefficients on crack width are listed in Tables T- 1.4.2 ~ 1.4.4.
(a) Front wall (parallel to centerline: seaside)
Table T- 1.4.2 Load Factors and Influence Coefficient on the Crack Width for Front Wall (Breakwater)
Direction of load
Load from outside
Load from inside
Design conditions
Ultimate limit state
Serviceability limit state
Under wave crest
1.3H - 0.9D
1.0H - 1.0D
While afloat
1.1Sf
0.5Sf
Under wave trough
1.1D + 1.1S + 1.2DS
1.0D + 1.0S + 1.0DS
Note: 1) The load from outside is chosen as the larger one of the above two load conditions.
2) For the symbols in the table, see Fig .T-1.4.1.
Fig. T- 1.4.1 Design Loads for Front Wall (Breakwater)
(b) Rear wall (parallel to center line: land side)

Table T- 1.4.3 Load Factors and Influence Coefficient on Crack Width for Rear Wall (Breakwater)
Direction of load
Design conditions
Load from outside
While afloat
1.1Sf
0.5Sf
Load from inside
In the lowest water level

under no wave
1.1D 1.1S
1.0D 1.0S
Note: For the symbols in the table, see Fig. T-1.4.2.
-245-
Under no waves
During execution
(while afloat)
Internal water pressure

Internal earth
pressure
in the lowest water level

under no wave
Fig. T- 1.4.2 Design Loads for Rear Wall (Breakwater)
(c) Sidewall (perpendicular to levee normal)

Table T- 1.4.4 Load Factors and Influence Coefficient on Crack Width for Sidewall (Breakwater)
Direction of load
Design conditions
Load from outside
While afloat
1.1Sf
0.5Sf
Load from inside
Under wave trough
1.1D 1.1S 1.2DS
1.0D 1.0S 1.0DS
Under waves (trough)

During exception
(while afloat)
Internal water
Internal earth
pressure in the lowest
pressure
water level
Variable internal
water pressure
caused by the fluctuation
of water surface
Fig. T- 1.4.3 Design Loads for Sidewall (Breakwater)
(5) The design loads for the sidewalls of quaywall caissons are shown in Fig. T- 1.4.4. The load factors are listed in
Table T- 1.4.5.
Table T- 1.4.5 Load Factors and Influence Coefficient on Crack Width for Outer Wall (Quaywall)
Direction of load
Design conditions
Load from inside
In the lowest water level
1.1D 1.1S
1.0D 1.0S
Load from outside
Wile afloat
1.1Sf
0.5Sf
-246-
(a) Under ordinary conditions

(loads from inside)
Internal earth pressure
Internal water pressure
Fig. T- 1.4.4 (a) Design Loads for Sidewalls (Quaywall)
(b) While afloat

(loads from outside)
Draft + 1.0m
Fig. T- 1.4.4 (b) Design Loads for Sidewalls (Quaywall)
(6) The loads for the bottom slabs of breakwater caissons while
Table T- 1.4.6 Load Categories under
afloat are calculated by multiplying the load characteristic
Wave Force (Breakwater)
by the load factors and the influence coefficient on the crack
Load category
Load
width given in Table T- 1.4.1.
The loads acting on the bottom slabs of breakwater
Composite load under no
Permanent
caissons after construction are shown in Fig. T- 1.4.5. The
waves (D0)
composite load under no waves (D0) is treated as a
Variable bottom slab reaction
Variable
permanent load. The composite load under waves consists
(R), uplift pressure (U)
of the composite load under no waves (D0), the variable
bottom slab reaction (R ), and the uplift pressure (U) as
shown in Fig. T- 1.4.5. The load can be calculated by using the equations listed in Table T- 1.4.7 in accordance
with the classification in Table T- 1.4.6.
Under no waves
Under waves
Weight of filling
Weight of concrete lid
Weight of bottom slab
Weight of filling
Bottom slab reaction
under wave force

under no waves
Composite load
under no wave forces
Variation bottom slab reaction

Uplift pressure
Fig. T- 1.4.5 Design Load of Bottom Slab (Breakwater)
-247-
Table T- 1.4.7 Combination of Load with Load Factors or Influence Coefficient on Crack Width (Breakwater)
Limit state
Direction of R and W
Condition
R
Wave crest
Ultimate limit
state
R
Wave trough
R
Serviceability
limit state
All
Load factors and combination of load
1.1D0 + 1.2R + 1.3U
1.1D0 + 0.8R + 1.3U
0.9D0 + 1.2R + 0.7U
1.1D0 + 1.2R + 0.7U
0.9D0 + 0.8R + 1.3U
1.1D0 + 0.8R + 0.7U
0.9D0 + 1.2R + 1.3U
(*)
(*)
1.0D0 + 1.0R + 1.0U
Note: 1) W = D0 + R + U. The summation of the loads D0, R and U should be done by considering the direction of each load.
2) (*) When variable bottom slab reaction (R) acts downwards, the value of 1.2 |R| cannot exceed that of 1.1 | R|.
Therefore, if 1.2|R|>1.1| R|, the combination of loads is replaced by the equation 0.9D0+1.1| R|+0.7 (1.3) U.s
(7) The design loads of bottom slabs of quaywall caissons while afloat are calculated by multiplying the load
characteristic by the load factors given in Table T- 1.4.1.
Loads acting on the bottom slab are shown in Fig. T- 1.4.6. The resultant force that is composed of the
weight of filling and concrete lid, hydrostatic pressure and bottom slab reaction is treated as the permanent load.
Surcharge is treated as the variable load and the bottom slab reaction in an earthquake is also treated as the
variable load. The design loads can be calculated by the equation listed in Table T- 1.4.8.
Table T- 1.4.8 Load Combinations (Quaywall)
Serviceability limit state (*)
Under ordinary conditions
0.9D + 1.1R + 1.1F + 0.8W
1.0D + 1.0R + 1.0F + 0.5W
During an earthquake
0.9D + 1.0F + 1.0R + 1.0W
Study not required
While afloat
0.9Df + 1.1Sf
0.5Df + 0.5Sf

(While afloat)
(During earthquake)
(Under ordinary conditions)

Weight of filling
Surcharge during
Surcharge
an earthquake
in normal condition
under ordinary
during an earthquake
condition
Fig. T- 1.4.6 Design Loads of Bottom Slabs (Quaywall)
(8) For examination of the bending moment for partition walls, the design load is the hydrostatic head between
chambers during installation.
The design values are as follows:
Ultimate limit state:
Serviceability limit state:
1.1S
0.5S
(1.1 for load factor: gf )

(0.5 for influence coefficient on crack width: kp)
The symbol S represents the load characteristic.

For examination of dislodging, the design load should be determined in the condition where the dislodging load
is largest among the design loads indicated for the bottom slab and sidewall.
-248-
1.4.2 External Forces during Fabrication

When a caisson is being fabricated on a dry dock or floating dock, external forces during fabrication may
not be considered. However, when the caisson is raised by a jack or is placed on a launch truck to be
moved to a slipway or caisson platform, concentrated loads of selfweight shall be applied on the caisson as
design loads.
[Technical Notes]
The whole caisson should be regarded as a simple beam to examine the section force during fabrication.
1.4.3 External Forces during Launching and Floating

When launching and floating a caisson fabricated on a dry dock, floating dock, or ordinary slipway, the
hydrostatic pressure at the design draft shall be increased by an allowance as a safety factor to determine
the external force. If the hydrostatic pressure more than this might act on a caisson temporarily during
launching, it shall be considered separately.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Outer Wall
The design water pressure distribution on the outer wall
should be considered as follows (see Fig. T- 1.4.7):
Allowance 1.0m
The draft of caisson is increased by 1.0 m.
The water pressure distribution is taken as a triangle

shape with the bottom value calculated above and
extending to the crest of outer wall.
(2) Bottom Slab
The external load acting on the bottom slab should be the
value obtained by subtracting the deadweight of the bottom slab from the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom slab.
(see Fig. T- 1.4.8)
Draft
The water pressure on bottom is calculated with the

draft mentioned above.
w
Fig. T- 1.4.7 Water Pressure Acting on Outer Wall
p2 = pw - w
= w0H0 - w
(1.4.1)
where
p2 characteristic pressure acting on the bottom slab (kN/m2)
pw characteristic hydrostatic pressure acting on the bottom slab with an allowance of about 1.0 m added to
the design draft of caisson (kN/m2)
w characteristic deadweight of the bottom slab (including the weight of filling material as counterballast, if
any), without subtracting buoyancy (kN/m2)
w0 characteristic specific weight of sea water (kN/m3)
H0 water depth with an allowance of about 1.0 m added to the design draft of caisson.
Hydrostatic head
Fig. T- 1.4.8 External Force Acting on the Bottom Slab
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Fig. T- 1.4.11 Hydrostatic Head across Chambers
1.4.4 External Forces during Installation

[Technical Notes]
(1) Hydrostatic pressures acting on the sidewalls and bottom slab are not considered as the external force during
installation.
(2) The hydrostatic head between chambers should be applied to the partition walls as the external forces. (see Fig.
T- 1.4.11).
1.4.5 External Forces after Construction

[1] Outer Walls
The earth pressure of filling and the internal water pressure shall be considered as the external forces on
the outer walls. The wave forces acting on the front wall shall also be considered in the design of the
caissons for breakwaters.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Earth Pressure of Filling
(a) The distribution of the composite load often takes an
irregular shape. For design purposes, however, the
irregular distribution can be modified as an equivalent
uniform or triangular distribution.
(b) The coefficient of earth pressure is set at be 0.6. However,
the earth pressure is disregarded when the filling consists
of concrete blocks or fresh concrete.
(c) It should be assumed that the earth pressure increases to
the depth equal to the width of the chamber, beyond
which it remains at a constant value. (see Fig. T- 1.4.12).
Fig. T- 1.4.12 Earth Pressure of Filling
The symbols in Fig. T-1.4.12 are defined as follows:

q characteristic surcharge on top of filling (kN/m2)
g ' characteristic submerged specific weight of filling material (kN/m3); generally g '=10 kN/m3 can be
used.
K coefficient of earth pressure of filling; K = 0.6
b width of chamber (m) ; b = H
(d) When a concrete lid or crown is placed so tightly above the caisson, the effect of surcharge on the concrete lid
or crown can be neglected.
(2) Internal Water Pressure
The internal water pressure should be the head difference between the water levels in the caisson and the lowest
water level (LWL) outside the caisson. However, in case of wave troughs acting on the front walls parallel to the
centerline of breakwater or the sidewalls perpendicular to the centerline, the external water level should be taken
at the depth (H1/3)/2 below LWL.
(3) Wave Force
For the front walls of caissons parallel to the centerline of the breakwater, wave force should be taken into
account when wave crests act on the walls.
(4) Distribution of Internal Earth and Water Pressures
The distributions of internal earth and water pressures for the walls of several caissons are shown in Fig. T1.4.13. A breakwater caisson covered with a mound of wave-dissipating concrete blocks is also subject to
impacts of wave-dissipating blocks to the front walls. Depending on the locality, it is also affected by collisions
of drifting ice or driftwoods, and by sea water freezing. The effects of these are not known. Therefore, the upper
sections of the walls should be reinforced as a precautionary measure.
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Internal earth
pressure
Internal water
pressure
Composite load
(a) Breakwaters (front walls)
Internal earth Internal water Composite load

pressure pressure
(b) Breakwaters (rear walls parallel to the centerline

or sidewalls perpendicular to the centerline)
Internal earth
pressure
Internal water Composite load

pressure
(c) Quays (outer walls parallel or perpendicular to the centerline)
Wave pressure
Internal earth
pressure
Composite load
(d) Wave forces

Fig. T- 1.4.13 Internal Earth and Water Pressures Acting on Caisson Walls
[2] Bottom Slab

(1) For the bottom slab fixed with the outer walls and partition walls, the bottom reactions, hydrostatic
pressure, uplift, weight of filling, weight of concrete lid, weight of bottom slab, and surcharge shall be
considered as the external forces.
(2) Footings
The bottom reaction, weight of footing with buoyancy considered, and surcharge on the footing shall
be considered as the external forces acting on the footing.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Bottom slab
(a) The distribution of the composite load often takes an irregular shape. For design purposes, however, the
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irregular distribution can be modified as an equivalent uniform or triangular distribution.

(b) Bottom reaction
The characteristic bottom reaction should be calculated according to equations (1.4.3) and (1.4.4) (see Fig. T1.4.14). The value e is calculated using equation (1.4.5)
1
If e --- b
6
b
e = --- x
2
(1.4.3)
Mw M h
x = --------------------V
6447448
6e V
p 2 = 1 ------ --
bb
6447448
6e V
p 1 = 1 + ------ --
bb
(1.4.5)
1
If e > --- b
6
b
b = 3 --- e
2
where
p1
p2
V
644474448
2 V
p 1 = --- ----------------3b
--- e
2
(1.4.4)
characteristic reaction at the front toe (kN/m2)

characteristic reaction at the rear toe (kN/m2)
characteristic vertical resultant force per unit length
(kN/m)
H characteristic horizontal resultant force per unit length
(kN/m)
e eccentricity of resultant force of V and H (m)
b width of bottom (m)
1
b distribution width of bottom reactions in case of e > --- b (m)
6
Mw characteristic moment for point A by the vertical resultant
force (kNm/m)
Mh characteristic moment for point A by the horizontal resultant force (kNm/m)
(c) Hydrostatic pressure

The hydrostatic pressure acting on the bottom slab should be
considered at the design tide level.
(d) Uplift pressure
When wave forces act on the caisson, the uplift pressure should be
considered. For calculating the uplift, Chapter 5 Wave Force should
be referred to.
(e) Weight of filling
The specific weight of the filling material is normally determined by
the tests of the material to be used.
If
If
Fig. T- 1.4.14 Bottom Reaction
(f) Weight of concrete lid

The weight of the concrete lid should be the dry weight without influence of buoyancy. For design
calculations, the characteristic secific weight can be set as 22.6 kN/m3 for plain concrete and 24.0 kN/m3 for
reinforced concrete.
(g) Weight of bottom slab
The weight of the bottom slab should be the dry weight without influence of buoyancy. For design
calculations, the characteristic specific weight can be set as 24.0 kN/m3
(h) Surcharge
The weight of soil on top of the caisson and superimposed load should be considered for the surcharge acting
on the bottom slab. However, when the concrete lid or concrete crown is placed so tightly above the caisson,
the effect of the surcharge on top of the concrete lid or concrete crown upon the bottom slab through the filling
can be neglected.
-252-
(2) Footing
(a) The design loads acting on the footing should be
determined with respect to the load distributions as
shown in Fig. T- 1.4.15
(b) Bottom reaction
The bottom reactions acting on the footing should
be the values calculated according to equations
(1.4.3) or (1.4.4).
p : Bottom reaction (kN/m2)
(c) Weight of footing

The weight of footing is the submerged weight
with buoyancy considered. The characteristic
value of the specific weight of footing in air can
be set as 24.0 kN/m3.
w : Weight of footing
(with buoyancy considered) (kN/m3)
w1: Surcharge on the footing (kN/m2)
(d) Surcharge
The weight of wave-dissipating concrete blocks of
breakwaters, the weight of overburden soil and/or
surcharge of quaywalls should be considered for
the surcharge acting on the footing.
p1: Composite load (kN/m2)
Fig. T- 1.4.15 Design Load of Footing
[3] Partition Walls and Others

(1) Partition Walls
(a) In the examination of dislodging of an outer wall from the partition walls due to tensile failure, the
earth pressure of filling and the internal water pressure acting on the outer wall shall be considered,
assuming that they act in the joint between the partition walls and the outer wall.
(b) In the examination of dislodging of the bottom slab from the partition walls, the following loads
shall be considered:
weight of filling
surcharge
weight of bottom slab
weight of concrete lid
bottom slab reaction
uplift pressure
hydrostatic pressure
(2) When a load is possibly generated due to the unevenness of the ground bearing capacity, it shall be
examined.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The design load to examine dislodging of an outer wall from the partition walls should be determined with
respect to the load distribution shown in Fig. T- 1.4.16.
(2) The design load to examine dislodging of the bottom slab from the partition walls should be determined with
respect to the load distribution shown in Fig. T- 1.4.17
(3) Partition Wall
The load sharing divisions are based on those for ordinary slab supported by beams.
Converted design load

Composite load

+ internal water pressure
(kN/ m2)

+ internal water pressure
between partition wall and outer wall.
Fig. T- 1.4.16 Design Load to Examine Dislodging of Outer Wall from Partition Walls.
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w : Design load acting

on bottom slab (kN/m2)
P : Load acting in joint
between partition wall

and bottom slab (kN/m)
Pd: Converted design load

(kN/m)
Fig. T- 1.4.17 Design Load to Examine Dislodging of Bottom Slab from Partition Walls
(4) Examination of External Load by Unevenness of Ground

Bearing Capacity
When examining the external load by the unevenness of
ground bearing capactiy, the caisson can be assumed as a cantilever beam with the span equivalent to 1/3 of the length or
width of the caisson (see Fig. T- 1.4.18).
1.5 Design of Members

Fig. T-1.4.18 Examination on the Unevenness
of Ground Bearing Capacity
1.5.1 Outer Wall

[Technical Notes]
(1) An outer wall should be designed as a slab fixed on three sides and free on one side.
(2) The span used in calculations is the central interval.
(3) The covering of main reinforcements should not be less than the following values in principle:
Outer side: 7 cm
Inner side: 5 cm
1.5.2 Partition Wall

[Technical Notes]
(1) The partition wall should be designed as a slab fixed on three sides and free on one side.
(2) After installation, safety in the ultimate limit state should be verified for dislodging failure of outer walls or
bottom slab from partition walls.
(3) The span used in calculations is the central interval.
(4) The covering of reinforcements should not be less than 5 cm.
1.5.3 Bottom Slab

[Technical Notes]
(1) The bottom slab surrounded by outer walls and partition walls should be designed as a slab fixed on four sides.
Outer side: 7 cm
Inner side: 5 cm
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(3) Footing should be calculated as a cantilever slab.

(4) The span of bottom slab used in calculation should be set on
the central interval (see Fig. T- 1.5.2).
(5) The cross section used to examine bending of footing should
be the front surface of the outer wall (see Section A-A of Fig.
T- 1.5.2). The cross section for examining shear of footing
should be located at the distance equivalent to 1/2 of the footing height from the front of the caisson. To calculate the
height of footing, a part of the haunch with the gradient
steeper than 1:3 should be disregarded.
Footing
Portion fixed on four sides
Fig. T- 1.5.2 Span Used to Design Bottom Slab

and Footing
1.5.4 Others
[Technical Notes]
The whole caisson should be examined as a simple beam when lifted with jacks for transportation or when making
analysis for differential settlement after installation.
1.6 Design of Hooks for Suspension by Crane

The load acting on the hooks shall appropriately be calculated by considering the weight of the caisson and
the bonding of the bottom slab to the floor of caisson fabrication yard.
-255-
Chapter 2 L-Shaped Blocks

2.1 General
(1) The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to the design of ordinary L-shaped blocks.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The design of L-shaped blocks can be made according to the sequence depicted in Fig. T-2.1.1.
Assumption of dimensions of L-shaped block members
Determination of design external forces

During suspension
After construction
Design of members
Design conditions
(Design of bottom slab)
Examine bending
(Design of front wall)
Examine bending
(Design of buttress)
ultimate limit state and

{ [1]
Examine bending
Examine dislodging
(Design of footing)

{ [1]

{ [1]
Examine bending
Examine shear

{ [1]
{ [1]
Fig. T- 2.1.1 Sequence of Design of L-Shaped Block

The dimensions of the members L-shaped block shall be determined by considering the following:
(1) Capacity of the facilities for fabricating L-shaped blocks
(2) Hoisting capabilities of the crane
(3) Water depth in which L-shaped blocks are installed to form a quaywall
(4) Tidal range
(5) Elevation of coping
[Commentary]
The crown height of an L-shaped block is determined for ease of execution of the superstructure, considering the
water depth and tidal range.
[Technical Notes]
Figure T- 2.2.1 shows the relationship between the block width and the wall height as well as the L-shaped block
height, based on the past examples of construction. The design seismic coefficient in (a) and (b) is taken as 0.05 and
0.10, respectively. As the design seismic coefficient increases, the width increases compared with the height.
-256-
15
1.54
0.26
15
14
14
13
13
1.36
0.75
10
10
0.75
Height
1.02
2.53
11
11
Height
12
12
1.97
h1
h2
0
1
Width
10
11
12
13
14
15
Width
(a) Design seismic coefficient kh = 0.05
10
11
12
13
14
15
(b) Design seismic coefficient kh = 0.10
Fig. T- 2.2.1 Relationship between Height and Width of L-Shaped Blocks
2.3 Loads Acting on Members

2.3.1 General
The following shall be considered as the loads acting on the structural members of L-shaped blocks:.
(1) Front Wall
(a) Surcharge and earth pressure by backfilling stones or soil
(b) Residual water pressure
(2) Footing
(a) Bottom reaction
(b) Deadweight of footing
(3) Bottom Slab
(a) Surcharge
(b) Weight of backfill
(c) Deadweight of bottom slab
(d) Bottom reaction
(4) Buttress
(a) Reaction from the front wall
(b) Reaction from the bottom slab
(c) Earth pressure and residual water pressure acting on the rear of buttress.
In addition, the following loads shall be considered during execution.
(d) Load during suspension of the L-shaped block
(e) Load while setting up the L-shaped block
[Technical Notes]
(1) Load combinations and load factors are the same as described in 1.4.1 Combination of Loads and Load
Factors.
(2) Loads acting on the structural members of L-shaped blocks are illustrated in Fig. T- 2.3.1.
(3) The calculation methods of earth pressure acting on L-shaped block members are described in Part
, Chapter
14 Earth Pressure and Water Pressure. The angle of friction of the wall should be taken as = 15.
(4) The calculation methods of bottom reaction are described in 1.4.5 External Forces after Construction.
(5) There are vertical and horizontal methods for placing concrete when manufacturing L-shaped blocks. The latter
involves setting-up of the block before the installation work. Therefore, the load at setting up the block
examined be examined in the design.
-257-
K 1q
h3
Dead weight
Bottom reaction
(a) Load acting on front wall and buttresses
(b) Load acting on footings
(c) Load acting on bottom slab
Notation
q: surcharge (kN/m2)
g1: specific weight of soil above residual water level (kN/m3)
g2: specific weight of soil below residual water level (kN/m3)
gw: specific weight of water (kN/m3)
h1: thickness of soil layer above residual water level (m)
h2: thickness of soil layer below residual water level (m)
h3: tidal range (m)
h4: thickness of bottom slab (m)
K1: coefficient of earth pressure of soil above residual water level
K2: coefficient of earth pressure of soil below residual water level
w: deadweight of bottom slab (kN/m2)
Fig. T- 2.3.1 Loads Acting on L-Shaped Blocks
2.3.2 Earth Pressure

The earth pressure to be used for design of the structural members of L-shaped blocks shall be the earth
pressure used for stability calculation of the quaywall.
2.3.3 Converted Loads for Design Calculation
The loads acting on an L-shaped block can be converted to multiple loads of uniform distribution for the
convenience of calculation. When converting loads, the structural safety of members in design shall be
taken into account.
[Technical Notes]
Converted load distribution for member design
Converted load distribution for member design
Footing
Bottom slab
Load distribution
Load distribution
Normally, the loads acting on L-shaped blocks are not uniform loads. This is inconvenient when designing the
members. Therefore, the loads may be converted into multiple uniform loads. When doing so, care should be taken
not to produce weak points in the strength of members. Fig. T- 2.3.2 shows examples of converting loads.
(i)
( ii )
(a) Earth pressure
(b) External loads on footing and bottom slab
Fig. T- 2.3.2 Converting Methods of Load Distribution
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2.4.1 Front Wall
[Technical Notes]
(1) Front wall should be designed as a slab supported by buttresses. If one buttress is considered as a support, the
front wall should be designed as a cantilever slab supported by a buttress. If two or more buttresses are
considered as supports, the front wall should be designed as a continuous slab.
(2) The span of a front wall should be measured between the centers of the buttresses.
(3) The loads should be assumed to act on the whole span of the front wall.
(4) The covering of main reinforcements of a front wall should not be less than the following values in principle:
Sea side:
Land side:
7 cm
5 cm
(5) The span of the front wall and the loads acting on it can be taken as shown in Fig. T- 2.4.1.
(6) Structurally, the front wall is supported by the bottom slab as well as by buttresses. Therefore, the front wall may
be regarded as being supported on two or three sides. Generally, the front wall of L-shaped blocks with large
heights are not greatly affected by support of the bottom slab, while the arrangement of reinforcing at the bottom
slab attachment becomes complicated. Thus, in principle, the front wall can be designed as a cantilever slab or a
continuous slab supported by buttresses. When it is advantageous in design to treat the front wall as a slab
supported on two or three sides, however, the descriptions in this document are not necessarily applied.
p
earth pressure
+ residual water pressure
span of
member
Buttress
span of member
2
Buttress
Front wall
Buttress
Front wall
earth pressure
Support
Support
(a) For one buttress
(b) For two or more buttresses
Fig. T- 2.4.1 Assumption of Span of Member and Load
2.4.2 Footing
[Technical Notes]
Front wall
(1) Footing should be designed as a cantilever slab supported by the front

wall.
(2) The length and load of footing should be as shown in Fig. T- 2.4.2.
(3) The covering of reinforcements should not be less than 7 cm in principle.
a
Footing
2.4.3 Bottom Slab
[Technical Notes]
: length of footing
a
(1) The bottom slab should be designed as a slab fixed on one or more butp
tresses. If one buttress is considered as a support, the bottom slab should
a
be designed as a cantilever slab supported by the buttress, and if two or
p = (Bottom reaction) - (Weight of footing)
more buttresses are considered as supports, it should be designed as a continuous slab.
Fig. T- 2.4.2 Length and Load of Footing
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(2) The span of a bottom slab should be measured between the centers of the buttresses.
(3) The load should be assumed to act on the whole span of the bottom slab.
(4) The covering of main reinforcements of the bottom slab should not be less than the following values in
principle:
Bottom side: 7 cm
Upper side: 5 cm
(5) Structurally, the bottom slab may be regarded as supported by the front wall as well as by buttresses. Therefore,
the bottom slab may be designed as a slab with supports on two or three sides. For the same reason as stated in
2.4.1 Front Wall [Technical Notes] (6), it should be designed as a cantilever slab or a continuous slab supported
by buttresses as standard. However, when advantageous in design to treat the bottom slab as a slab with supports
on two or three sides, the descriptions in (1) is not necessarily applied.
(6) Of the loads acting on the bottom slab, the bottom reaction acts on the whole span. The loads of backfill and
surcharge act only on the clear span of the bottom slab. However, since it is troublesome to consider it precisely
in design and it does not greatly affect the design of bottom slab, the loads of backfill and surcharge may be
taken as acting on the whole span.
2.4.4 Buttress
[Technical Notes]
(1) Buttress should be designed against the reaction from the bottom slab and front wall.
(2) Buttress should be designed as a T-beam combined with the front wall.
(3) Buttress should be designed as a cantilever beam supported at the bottom slab against the reaction from the front
wall.
(4) Buttress should be designed in the cross sections parallel to the bottom slab.
(5) Buttress, front wall, and bottom slab should be tightly connected. The amount of reinforcement for the
connection should be calculated independently from that of stirrups against shear stresses.
(6) The covering of reinforcements of buttress should be 5 cm or larger.
(7) If the front wall and bottom slab are designed as specified in this chapter, the load behind the buttress can be
ignored.
(8) The element length of buttress should be the total height of block including the bottom slab, as shown in Fig. T2.4.3. The load acting on the buttress includes that of the superstructure.
crown
Superstructure
Notation
p
lh
b
H
p
H
sum of earth pressure and residual water pressure

element length of buttress
width of block
height of block
Fig. T- 2.4.3 Length and Load of Buttress
2.5 Design of Hooks for Suspension by Crane

Hooks for suspension shall be designed in accordance with 1.6 Design of Hooks for Suspension by
Crane.
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Chapter 3 Cellular Blocks

3.1 General
(1) The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to the design of ordinary cellular blocks.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Cellular blocks using the limit state design method should generally be designed in the sequence depicted in Fig.
T-3.1.1.
(2) For the design of individual members for various types of cellular blocks, the design methods in Chapter 1
Caissons or Chapter 2 L-Shaped Blocks can be used according to respective types.
When using cellular blocks for breakwaters or revetments subject to actions of for wave forces, the fatigue
limit state should be examined separately.
Determination design external forces
During suspension
During execution
After construction
Design of members
Design conditions
Front wall
Rear wall
Sidewall
Partition wall

[2] serviceability limit
state
Bottom slab
Footing
Hooks for suspension
Fig. T- 3.1.1 Sequence of Design of Cellular Blocks

3.2.1 Shape of Cellular Blocks
The shape of cellular blocks shall be determined to insure the stability of the entire structure.
[Commentary]
Cellular blocks generally refer to blocks consisting of sidewalls without bottom slabs such. They can be used as a
wall by piling up several blocks. Some special types have bottom slabs such as those placed on the lowest level.
When designing cellular blocks, an appropriate design method has to be adopted after fully ascertaining the
characteristics of the block shape.
3.2.2 Determination of Dimensions

The dimensions of cellular blocks shall be determined by considering the following items:
(1) Capability of the facility for fabricating cellular blocks
(2) Hoisting capability of the crane
(3) Water depth in which cellular blocks are piled up to form a wall
(4) Tidal range
-261-
(5) Elevation of coping

(6) Solidification of whole blocks when piled up in stages
3.3 Loads Acting on Cellular Blocks

3.3.1 General
Loads acting on cellular blocks are as follows:
(1) Earth pressure of filling
(2) Residual water pressure
(3) Deadweight of blocks
(4) Weight of coping
(5) Surcharge
(6) Bottom reaction
(7) Loads during execution
(8) Wave force
[Technical Notes]
(1) The rear wall is subject to backfill earth pressure and residual water pressure. But these are mutually cancelled
out by the earth pressure of the inner filling, and therefore such loads need not be examined.
(2) The earth pressure of the filling and the residual water pressure acting on cellular blocks are shown in Fig. T3.3.1. When fully backfilled as a wall, the stress of sidewalls by the inner filling is considerably reduced by the
active earth pressure and residual water pressure in the backfill. Therefore, sidewalls should be designed for the
condition during the execution process when the inner filling alone is executed before start of backfill.
Sidewall (front wall)
Earth pressure of filling
Sidewall
Sidewall
Sidewall (rear wall)
Fig. T- 3.3.1 Loads Acting on Cellular Blocks
(3) Wave pressure is only taken into consideration when an impulsive wave pressure acts on the blocks.
(4) The loads in Chapter 2 L-Shaped Blocks can be used for the loads during execution.
(5) For the combinations of loads and the load factors to be taken into account in design, the descriptions in 1.4.1.
Combination of Loads and Load Factors can be referred to.
3.3.2 Earth Pressure of Filling and Residual Water Pressure

(1) Front Wall, Rear Wall, and Sidewalls
The earth pressure of filling and residual water pressure shall be considered when designing the front
wall, rear wall and sidewalls.
If concrete is placed so tightly above the cellular block, the effect of surcharge on top of the
concrete lid or crown can be neglected.
(2) Partition Wall
The partition wall shall be designed against dislodging failure of the sidewalls from the partition wall
due to the earth pressure of filling and residual water pressure.
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[Technical Notes]
(1) Front Wall, Rear Wall, and Sidewalls
(a) Earth pressure of filling
The coefficient of earth pressure should be set as 0.6. However, if the filling is blocks or fresh concrete, the
earth pressure of the filling should not be considered
The earth pressure should be assumed to increase from the crown of block to a height equal to the inner
width b1 of the cellular block, and it should be constant beyond it.
The earth pressure acting on cellular blocks piled up in stages is calculated in a manner as shown in Fig. T3.3.2. However, when the inner width of the lower cellular block is less than that of the upper block (in case
of cellular block partitioned by walls), the earth pressure obtained for the upper block can be extended to
the lower block.
The symbols in Fig. T- 3.3.2 are as follows:
q characteristic value of surcharge (kN/m2)
g1 specific weight of filling material above the residual water level (kN/m3)
g2 specific weight of filling material below the residual water level (kN/m3)
in general, g1=18 kN/m3 and g2 =10 kN/m3 can be used.
K coefficient of earth pressure of filling; K = 0.6
b1 inner width of block chamber (m) ; b1 = H1
(b) The earth pressure of the filling of cellular block should be in accordance with that of caissons (see 1.4.5 [1]
Outer Walls.)
Residual water level
Fig. T- 3.3.2 Calculating Earth Pressure of Filling
(c) Residual water pressure

For quaywalls
Residual water pressure is calculated from the head difference between the residual water level and LWL.
For breakwaters
When used as breakwaters or revetments and the wave trough acts on the front of the block, the increase of
the residual water level difference should be examined. Part , 5.2 Wave Force Acting on Upright Wall
can be referred to for a calculation of water pressure in this case.
(2) Partition Wall
The characteristic values of loads against dislodging failure of partition walls and sidewalls should be those of
the earth pressure acting on the shaded parts in Fig. T- 3.3.3.
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Sidewall
(front wall)
Sidewall
Partitition
(rear wall)
Load bearing
area
per 1 m of width
per
lm
Fig. T- 3.3.3 Load for Examination of Dislodging Failure of Sidewalls from Partition Wall
3.3.3 Converted Loads for Design Calculation

The load acting on a cellular block can be converted to multiple loads of uniform distribution for the
convenience of calculation in accordance with 2.3.3 Converted Loads for Design Calculation.

3.4.1 Rectangular Cellular Blocks
The members of rectangular cellular blocks shall be designed as appropriate in view of their structural
types.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Sidewalls
(a) The covering of main reinforcements should not be less than the following values in principle:
Outer side: 7 cm
Inner side: 5 cm
(b) The section force generated in a rectangular cellular block is solved by assuming the block as a rigid box
frame for each unit height against the equivalent uniform load converted from the actual load distribution.
(c) The span used for calculations is measured between the centers of the connected walls.
(2) Partition Wall
(a) The section forces acting on partition walls are calculated in the same way as that of sidewalls.
(b) When any difference of filling height between neighboring chambers may occur during execution, the
partition wall should be designed against the earth pressure caused by the difference.
(c) The span used for calculations is measured between the centers of the connected walls.
(d) The covering of main reinforcements should not be less than 5 cm in principle.
(3) Footings
(a) Footings may be designed as cantilever slabs supported by the sidewalls.
(b) The span of footing is the distance from the front of the sidewall to the tip of the footing.
(c) The covering of main reinforcements should not be less than 7 cm in principle.
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3.4.2 Other Types of Cellular Blocks

The members of other types of cellular blocks shall be designed as appropriate for their structural shapes.
[Commentary]
Examples of other types of cellular blocks are shown in Fig. T- 3.4.3.
(units: m)
Caisson type with
Rectangular type
I-shaped type
bottom slab
with flange
with bottom slab
I-shaped type
Fig. T- 3.4.3 Examples of Other Types of Cellular Blocks
[Technical Notes]
(1) Front Wall
(a) The front wall should be designed as a slab supported by the sidewalls. When the front wall protrudes beyond
the both sides of the frame, the unbalanced moment at the supports is regarded to be transferred to the
sidewalls.
(b) The span of the front wall should be measured between the centers of sidewalls connected to it.
(c) The load from the back of a front wall should act in the whole span of the front wall (see Fig. T- 3.4.4.).
Front wall
Sidewall
member span
load strength
Fig. T- 3.4.4 Load on Cantilever Portion of Front Wall
(d) The covering of main reinforcements should not be less than the following values in principle:
Sea side: 7 cm
Land side: 5 cm
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(2) Rear Wall

(a) Filling is often done first during the execution, and the design conditions of rear walls are the same as for the
front wall. Therefore, the rear wall may be designed in the same way as for the front wall.
(b) The load to the rear wall should be the earth pressure of filling. The active earth pressure behind the wall is not
considered in principle.
(c) The covering of main reinforcements should not be less then 5 cm. When using cellular blocks for
breakwaters, the wall come into direct contact with seawater. In these cases therefore, the covering of main
reinforcements on the outside should preferably be 7cm or larger.
(3) Sidewalls
(a) Sidewalls are in principle designed against the reactions and
transferred moments from the front and rear walls (see Fig. T3.4.5).
Front wall
The symbols used in Fig. T- 3.4.5 are as follows.
Rear wall
Side wall
PF characteristic value of reaction from the front wall (kN)

MF characteristic value of moment transmitted from the
front wall (kNm)
PB characteristic value of reaction from the rear wall (kN)
MB characteristic value of moment transmitted from the
rear wall (kNm)
l distance between supports (m)
(b) The span of the sidewalls is the distance between the centers
of the front and rear walls.
(c) The covering of main reinforcements should not be less than
5 cm in principle.
(d) When the height difference of the filling is expected during
execution, the strength of the sidewalls should be examined
for the earth pressure due to the height difference.
Fig. T- 3.4.5 Forces and Moments on Sidewall of the Cellular Black
(4) Bottom Slab

When a bottom slab is used for a cellular block, it may be designed against the following loads:
Loads on the bottom such as the weight of filling material and surcharge
Deadweight of the bottom slab
Bottom reaction
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Chapter 4 Upright Wave-Absorbing Caissons

4.1 General
The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to the design of upright wave-absorbing caissons used for
quaywalls, breakwaters, and revetments. The limit state design method shall be used.
[Commentary]
Upright wave-absorbing caissons having slits in the front wall and internal water retaining chambers with wave
dissipating function are now being used for constructing quays and breakwaters. Various shapes and types of
construction are now available for wave-absorbing caissons, but they can be roughly divided into permeable and
impermeable types. As to the slit shape, the vertical slit type is the most widely used. In addition, there are the
horizontal slit and perforated wall types. The general design method for these upright wave-absorbing caissons has
not been fully established. In designing the structural members, the characteristics of various structures should be
fully surveyed, hydraulic model experiments suited to the conditions should be performed, and then appropriate
design should be carried out.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Upright wave-absorbing caissons can be designed in the sequence given in 1.1 General [Technical Notes] (1).
(2) The names of members of the relatively common vertical slit caisson are shown in Fig. T- 4.1.11.
Lower beam
Ordinary caisson part
Side wall slit column

Back wall
Slit column
Upper beam
Ceiling slab
Front wall
Upper beam
Slit column
Partition slit column
Lower beam
Lower wall
Bottom slab
Lower wall
Lower wall
Base plate
Base plate
Side wall
Partition
Sectios (B - B)
Front view (C - C)
Sidewall
Water chamber
Partition
Plan view
Ordinary caisson part
Side wall slit column

Slit column
Slit column
Partition slit column
(A - A)
Fig. T- 4.1.1 Names of Vertical Slit Caisson Members
4.2 External Forces Acting on Members

The following external forces acting on the members of wave-absorbing caissons shall be taken into
consideration for each limit state as necessary.
(1) Earth pressure
(2) Earth pressure of filling
(4) Wave force
(5) Uplift pressure
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(6) Collision force from drifting objects

(7) Weight of caisson and filling
(8) Weight of superstructure
(9) Surcharge
(10) Reaction from fender
(11) Bottom reaction
(12) Loads during execution
Of these, seismic effects may be ignored when calculating the earth pressure of filling, wave force, uplift
pressure, reaction from fender, and external forces during execution.
[Commentary]
Wave forces acting on the members of slit caissons vary significantly, depending on the structure of the water
chamber and whether or not it has a ceiling slab 1). Therefore, as well as referring to past cases of implementation,
appropriate hydraulic model experiments are recommended in accordance with the individual conditions prior to
design.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Load combinations and load factors are the same as described in 1.4.1 Combination of Loads and Load
Factors.
(2) Part , 5.2.8 Wave Force on Upright Wave-Absorbing Caisson should be referred to for external forces
acting on structural members.
(3) If the top of the water chamber is completely sealed by the ceiling slab, an impulsive pressure may be generated
by the compression of the air trapped woth the top at the instant when the front of incoming wave shuts off the
slits or perforations.
Provision of ventilation holes with a suitable opening ratio in the ceiling slab can reduce impulsive pressure
due to air compression. The opening ratio of these holes should be carefully designed. If too great, the wave
surface collides directly with the ceiling slab, and this could produce a greater impulsive uplift pressure than that
of no ventilation 2), 3).
Symbol
(4) Figure T- 4.2.2 3) shows an example of changes in the uplift pressure intensity pe1 when the opening ratio of
ventilation holes 1 is changed in a model experiment. Normally, the air pressure acting on the ceiling slab can
be reduced by 30% to 50% compared with that on an unventilated slab by providing ventilation holes with the
opening ratio of around 0.5% to 1.0%.
Ventilation opening ratio

Uplift pressure when 1 = 0
Uplift pressure corresponding to
Fig. T- 4.2.2 Experimental Results on Changes in Uplift Pressure due to Opening Ratio of Ventilation Holes
(5) Table T- 4.2.1 lists the external forces taken into account when designing the members of the water chamber of
wave-absorbing caisson.
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Table T- 4.2.1 External Forces for Design of Members of Water Chamber of Wave-absorbing Caisson
Member
Member
number
Design load
Partition
slit column
Wave pressure (including wave force transmitted from

partition wall)
Sidewall
slit column
Water pressure while afloat (including wave force

transmitted from sidewalls)
Wave pressure ( ditto )
Upper
beam
Vertical loads from above and below

Water pressure while afloat (reaction transmitted from slit
column)
Wave pressure (wave force acting on the beam itself and
slit column reaction)
Lower
beam
Water pressure while afloat (reaction from slit column and

lower wall, load acting on the beam itself)
Wave pressure (ditto)
Lower wall
Water pressure while afloat

Wave pressure
Sidewall

Wave pressure
Partition
Design wave pressure acts on both sides separately in the

direction parallel to centerline
Fender reaction
Rear wall
Wave pressure
Earth pressure, residual water pressure
Bottom slab
Bottom reaction, bottom slab weight, water head

difference, and water pressure while afloat in various
cases of loads.
Ceiling slab
Wave pressure (upwards, downwards)

Surcharge
Deadweight
Front wall
Slit column

Wave pressure (parallel/perpendicular to centerline)
Impact force from driftwood and other drifting objects
Axial force transmitted from upper beam
Note: Member numbers are those shown in Fig. T- 4.1.1

[Technical Notes]
(1) The span used in calculations is the distance between the centers of support members.
Parts washed by seawater: 7 cm
Other parts:
5 cm
[References]
1) Shigeo TAKAHASHI, Ken-ichirou SHIMOSAKO, Hitoshi SASAKI: Experimental study on wave forces acting on
perforated wall caisson breakwaters, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 30, No. 4, 1991 (in Japanese).
2) Sigeo TAKAHASHI, Katsutoshi TANIMOTO: Uplift forces on a ceiling slab of wave dissipating caisson with a permeable
front wall - Field data analysis -, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1984 (in Japanese).
3) Katsutoshi TANIMOTO, Shigeo TAKAHASHI, Tsutomu MURANAGA: Uplift forces on a ceiling slab of wave dissipating
caisson with a permeable front wall - Analytical model for compression of an enclosed air layer -, Rept of PHRI, Vol.19.,
No. 1, 1980, pp. 3-31 (in Japanese).
-269-
Chapter 5 Hybrid Caissons

5.1 General
The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to the design of a hybrid caisson that is a composite
structure of steel plates and concrete. The limit state design method shall be used.
[Commentary]
In this chapter, caissons with a composite structural type of steel plates and concrete are defined as hybrid caissons.
By combining several different materials, composite structures achieve superior structural strength properties that are
not possible using a single material alone. In composite structures, the member sections consist of a combination of
different materials to achieve the functions of the structure. Hybrid caissons, like conventional steel reinforced
concrete caissons, are used in breakwaters, quays, and coastal revetments. Figure C- 5.1.1 shows two types of
structure members of hybrid caissons commonly used in the port and harbor structures. One is a composite member
structure with steel plates arranged on one side only. The other is an SRC structure with H-shaped steel embedded
inside it. In this chapter the term hybrid caisson is used as general term for caissons using these two structural
types.
Concrete
Concrete
Shear connectors
(example of headed studs)
Steel reinforcement
Steel reinforcements
Steel plate
Steel frame
Fig. C- 5.1.1 Hybrid Structure Members
[Technical Notes]
(1) The Hybrid Caisson Design Manual 1) and others may be used as reference for the design of hybrid caissons.
(2) Figure T- 5.1.2 shows an example of a hybrid caisson structure.
Partition
(steel stiffened plate)
Steel
Steel plate
reinforcement
Studs
Side wall
(composite slab)
Footing
(SRC slab)
Concrete
Base steel frame
Base plate
(SRC slab)
Fig. T- 5.1.2 Example of a Hybrid Caisson Structure

Dimensions of hybrid caissons shall be determined in accordance with 1.2 Determination of Dimensions.
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5.3 Design External Forces

Design external forces shall be the same as described in 1.4 Design External Forces.

5.4.1 Section Force
The section force to be examined in the design of members shall be the same as described in 1.5 Design of
Members.
5.4.2 Design of Composite Slabs
Composite slabs shall be designed in consideration of the following:
(1) Bending moment
(2) Shearing force
(3) Integration of steel and concrete
[Technical Notes]
(1) Bending Moment
For the bending moment, the section stress of composite slabs can be calculated as a double reinforced concrete
member by converting the steel plates to equivalent reinforcements.
(2) Shearing Force
The shearing force of composite slabs can be analyzed in the same manner as that of reinforced concrete slabs.
(3) Integration of Steel and Concrete
Shear connectors are particularly important structural elements for the integration of materials in a hybrid
structure. In composite slabs, headed studs and shape steel are most commonly used as the shear connectors. The
required quantity and arrangement of shear connectors should be designed in consideration of preventing the
steel plate separating from the concrete (especially when compressive stress is active) and securing the
transmission of horizontal shear force occurring on the interface between steel plate and concrete.
5.4.3 Design of SRC Members

The steel and reinforced concrete (SRC) members shall be designed against the bending moment and
shearing force, by taking full account of the structural characteristics due to differences in the structural
type of the steel frame.
[Technical Notes]
(1) SRC members can normally be classified as follows, depending on the structural type of steel frames:
(a) Full-web type
(b) Truss web type
(2) For the bending moment, the section stress can be calculated as a reinforced concrete member by converting
steel frames to equivalent reinforcements. When the fixing of steel frame ends with concrete is insufficient in
full-web type, it should be calculated as a composite of the independent steel frame member and the reinforced
concrete member.
(3) For shearing force, if the web is of truss type, the shear stress can be calculated as a reinforced concrete by
converting steel frames to equivalent reinforcements. If it is of full-web type, steel frames themselves can resist
against the shearing force, and they can be duly considered in design.
5.4.4 Design of Partitions

Partitions of hybrid caissons shall be designed to be sufficiently safe against external forces acting on them
and to function as supporting members for sidewalls and base plates.
5.4.5 Design of Corners and Joints
Corners and joints shall be designed to smoothly and firmly transmit section forces, and to be easily
fabricated and executed.
-271-
[Technical Notes]
To secure sufficient strength at corners and joints, it is desirable to firmly connect the steel materials on the tensile
side to those of the compressive side. It is also desirable to provide shear reinforced steel materials (haunches) against
concrete tensile stress of the inside of joints.
5.4.6 Safety against Fatigue Failure

Hybrid caissons shall be sufficiently safe against fatigue failure.
[Technical Notes]
Hybrid caissons use a large number of welded joints for connecting steel plates, and attaching shear connectors and
shear resistance steel. Therefore, where the members are frequently subject to repeated load, the fatigue strength in
welded parts should be examined.
For coastal revetments and quaywalls, the influence from such repeated load is small. When designing
breakwaters, however, the safety of the hybrid caisson against fatigue strength should be examined.
5.5 Corrosion Control

Corrosion control in hybrid caissons shall be employed as appropriate in consideration of their structures
and the design and execution conditions.
[Technical Notes]
Steel materials used on the outside of hybrid caissons are generally covered with concrete or asphalt mats. The inside
is isolated from the external atmosphere by means of concrete lids. It is also in contact with filling sand in a static
state and with residual seawater. Thus, when designing hybrid caissons, direct contact between the steel plates of
members and the marine environment is generally avoided. For corrosion control, it is usual to set steel plate on the
inside and concrete on the outside so to avoid direct contact of steel plate to fresh seawater. If steel plates are in direct
contact with seawater, corrosion control should be applied such as coating methods to splash zone or tidal zone and
cathodic protection methods in seawater.
[References]
1) Coastal Development Institute of Technology (CDIT): Design Manual for Hybrid Caissons, 1999, ISBN-4-900302-44 (in
Japanese).
2) Hiroshi YOKOTA: Study on mechanical properties of steel-concrete composite structures and their applicability to marine
structures, Tech. Note of PHRI, No.750, 1993 (in Japanese).
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Part V Foundations
PART V FOUNDATIONS
Part V Foundations
Chapter 1 General
(1) In the design of ports and harbor facilities, appropriate types of foundations shall be selected by taking
account of the importance of structures and soil conditions of the ground.
(2) When the foundation ground consists of soft clayey soil, the stability and the settlement of foundation
shall be carefully examined. When the foundation ground consists of loose sandy soil, the effect of
liquefaction due to an earthquake shall be also studied.
(3) When the bearing capacity of foundation ground is not large enough for supporting the structures,
countermeasures such as pile foundation and soil improvement shall be applied as necessary.
[Commentary]
(1) When structures are constructed on the soft foundation ground, excessive settlement or deformation may arise
owing to the lack of the bearing capacity. When the foundation ground consists of loose sandy soil, liquefaction
due to an earthquake can make the structure collapse or significantly damage its functions. In such cases, the
weight of the structures should be reduced or the foundation ground should be improved.
(2) For stability of foundations, see Chapter 2 Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations, Chapter 3 Bearing
Capacity of Deep Foundations, or Chapter 6 Stability of Slopes. For settlement of foundations, see Chapter
5 Settlement of Foundations. For liquefaction due to an earthquake, see Part II, Chapter 13 Liquefaction.
For the design of pile foundations, see Chapter 4 Bearing Capacity of Pile Foundations.
(3) For soil improvement methods, see Chapter 7 Soil Improvement Methods
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Chapter 2 Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations

2.1 General (Notification Article 41, Clause 1 )
When the embedded length of a foundation is less than the smallest width of the foundation, the foundation
shall be analyzed in principle as a shallow foundation.
[Commentary]
(1) Generally, the bearing capacity of a foundation is the sum of bottom bearing capacity and side resistance.
Bottom bearing capacity is evaluated with the intensity of the pressure to make the foundation bottom pushed
into the ground and to cause plastic flow of soil. The side resistance of a foundation is the friction or the
adhesion resistance between the sides of the foundation and the soil. In comparison with studies on the bottom
bearing capacity of foundations, there are not many on the side resistance. If the embedded length of a shallow
foundation is less than the smallest width of the foundation, the side resistance is much smaller than the bottom
bearing capacity and may be ignored in the design.
(2) When an eccentric or inclined load acts on a foundation, see 2.5 Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined
Loads.
2.2 Bearing Capacity of Foundation on Sandy Ground (Notification Article 41, Clause 2 )
The following equation shall be used to calculate the allowable bearing capacity of foundation on sandy
ground. In this case, the safety factor shall be given an appropriate value after due consideration of the
characteristics of the structure.
1
q a = ----- ( bg 1 BN r + g 2 DN q ) + g 2 D
(2.2.1)
Fs
where
qa
Fs
b
g1
B
Nr , Nq
g 2
D
allowable bearing capacity of foundation considering the buoyancy of underwater part (kN/m2)
safety factor for the bearing capacity of sandy ground
shape factor of foundation
unit weight of soil below the level of foundation bottom (or submerged unit weight if
submerged) (kN/m3)
smallest width of foundation (m)
bearing capacity factors
unit weight of soil above the level of foundation bottom (or submerged unit weight if
submerged) (kN/m3)
embedded length of foundation (m)
[Commentary]
When loads on foundations increase, settlement of foundations occurs in proportion to the loads. When the load
becomes sufficiently great and reaches a certain value, settlement suddenly increases and shear failure of the ground
occurs. The intensity of load required for this shear failure is called the ultimate bearing capacity. The allowable
bearing capacity of a foundation is calculated by dividing the ultimate bearing capacity by a safety factor.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The shape factor is given in Table T-2.2.1 for several shapes of foundations. The bearing capacity factors Nr
and Nq are determined by the internal friction angle fd as shown in Fig. T-2.2.1.
Table T- 2.2.1 Shape Factors
Shape of
foundations
Continuous
Square
Circular
Rectangular
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.5 ~ 0.1B/L
B ; short side length, L; long side length
-274-
Bearing capacity factor
PART V FOUNDATIONS
Internal friction angle

Fig. T- 2.2.1 Relationship between Bearing Capacity Factors Nr and Nq and Internal Friction Angle d
(2) Allowable Bearing Capacity on Sandy Ground

When equation (2.2.1) is used to calculate the allowable bearing capacity of foundation on sandy ground, the
safety factor should not be less than 2.5 as a general rule.
2.3 Bearing Capacity of Foundation on Clayey Ground (Notification Article 41, Clause 3)
When the undrained shear strength of clayey ground increases in proportion to the depth of subsoil, it shall
be standard to calculate the allowable bearing capacity of a foundation on clayey ground with equation
(2.3.1). An appropriate value of safety factor shall be selected in consideration of the characteristics of the
structure.
B c0
(2.3.1)
q a = N c0 1 + n --- ----- + g 2 D
L F s
where
qa
Nc0
n
B
L
c0
F s
g 2
allowable bearing capacity of foundation considering the buoyancy of underwater part (kN/m2)
bearing capacity factor for foundation
shape factor of foundation
smallest width of foundation (m)
length of foundation (m)
undrained shear strength of cohesive soil at the foundation bottom (kN/m2)
safety factor for the bearing capacity of clayey ground
unit weight of soil above the level of foundation bottom (submerged unit weight if submerged)
(kN/m3)
D embedded length of the foundation (m)
[Commentary]
As the undrained shear strength of clayey ground in coastal areas usually increases linearly with depth, the bearing
capacity of foundation should be calculated by the equation that takes account of the effect of shear strength increase.
-275-
[Technical Notes]
(1) Safety Factor for Bearing Capacity of Clayey Ground Whose Strength Increases with Depth.
The safety factor of bearing bearing capacity should not be less than1.5 as a general rule. When a slightest
settlement or deformation of ground significantly impairs the functions of superstructures such as bridge cranes,
the safety factor of the bearing capacity needs to be 2.5 or greater.
Load intensity
Fig. T- 2.3.1 Bearing Capacity Factor Nco and Shape Factor n of Clayey Ground Having Strength Increase with Depth
(2) Practical Equation for Calculating Allowable Bearing Capacity

Equation (2.3.2) can be used to calculate the allowable bearing capacity of clayey ground within a range of kB/c0
4 in the case of continuous foundations, on the basis of the data of bearing capacity factors shown in Fig. T2.3.1, where k is the undrained shear strength increment per unit depth.
1
(2.3.2)
(kB/c0 4)
q a = --- ( 1.018kB + 5.14c 0 ) + g 2 D
F
where the symbols are the same as those in equation (2.3.1).
2.4 Bearing Capacity of Multilayered Ground (Notification Article 41, Clause4)

When a foundation ground consists of multiple soil layers, the bearing capacity shall be examined by the
circular arc analysis. In this case, an appropriate value of safety factor shall be used for the design in
consideration of the characteristics of the ground and structure.
[Technical Notes]
The bearing capacity of the ground consisting of multiple
soil layers is generally calculated by the circular arc analysis, with the condition that the overburden pressure above
the level of foundation bottom is taken as surcharge load
as shown in Fig. T- 2.4.1. The safety factor for the circular
arc passing through the bottom edge of the foundation is
calculated with the circular arc analysis of the modified
Fellenius method. The safety factor should not be less
than1.5 as a general rule. The safety factor should be
increased to 2.5 in such cases as crane foundations, where
excessive settlement could significantly damage the functions of the superstructures.
If the clayey layer thickness H is significantly less than
the smallest width of the foundation B (i.e., H < 0.5B), a
punching shear failure, in which the clayey layer is
squeezed out between the surcharge plane and the bottom
of clayey layer, is liable to occur. The bearing capacity
against this kind of squeezed-out failure can be calculated
by the following equation 1):
-276-
Fig. T- 2.4.1 Circular Arc Analysis to Calculate the

Bearing Capacity of Multilayered Ground
PART V FOUNDATIONS
cu
B- ) ---- +g2D
(2.4.1)
qa = (4.0 + 0.5 --H F
where
qa allowable bearing capacity of foundation considering the buoyancy of the underwater part (kN/m2)
B smallest width of foundation (m)
H thickness of clay layer (m)
cu mean undrained shear strength in layer of thickness H (kN/m2)
g 2 unit weight of soil above the level of foundation bottom (or submerged unit weight if submerged) (kN/m3)
F safety factor
D embedded length of foundation (m)
2.5 Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined Loads (Notification Article 41, Clause 5)
The circular arc analysis is used as a standard method when examining the bearing capacity for eccentric
and inclined loads acting on a foundation of gravity type structures. The circular arc analysis based on the
simplified Bishop method shall be used in this case. The safety factor calculated by the following equation
shall have an appropriate value in view of the characteristics of the structure. The strength constants of the
ground as well as action formats of external forces and loads shall be determined as appropriate in view of
the structural characteristics of facilities.
1
( cb + W tan f ) sec a
(2.5.1)
F s = ------------------------------------------------ S ---------------------------------------------1 + ( tan a tan f ) F s
1
S W sin a + --- S Ha
R
where
Fs safety factor against circular failure according to the simplified Bishop method
W total weight of slice element per unit length (kN/m)
a angle at which the bottom of a slice element intersects the horizontal plane ()
R radius of circular arc slip circle (m)
H horizontal external force acting on soil inside the circular slip surface (kN/m)
a arm length from the center of circular slip surface to the acting position of horizontal external force
H (m)
c undrained shear strength in clayey ground, or apparent cohesion under drained condition in sandy
ground (kN/m2)
b width of a slice element
W effective weight of a slice element per unit length (sum of soil weight and surcharge) (the
submerged unit weight when submerged) (kN/m)
f internal friction angle under drained condition for sandy ground (); the value is 0 for clayey
ground
[Commentary]
Gravity type quaywalls and breakwaters are subject to external forces such as the deadweight, earth pressure, seismic
force, and wave force. The combined result of these forces usually yields an eccentric and inclined load. Therefore,
for calculating the bearing capacity of foundations, the effects of eccentric and inclined loads should also be taken
into consideration. The eccentric and inclined loads mean that the load inclination ratio is equal to or greater than 0.1.
Normal gravity type structures are supported with a two-layered system such that a rubble mound layer is set on
the foundation ground. Thus the method of calculating the bearing capacity should fully reflect the characteristics of
two-layer system. It is known that the circular arc calculation based on the simplified Bishop method can well
evaluate the bearing capacity of this type of foundation. This has been proved by a series of researches including
laboratory model experiments, in situ prototype experiments, and case studies on existing breakwaters and
quaywalls 2).
[Technical Notes]
(1) Analysis of Bearing Capacity by Circular Arc Calculation Based on the Simplified Bishop Method
Analysis through circular arc calculation based on Bishop method is more precise than the analysis based on the
modified Fellenius method, except when a vertical load acts on horizontally layered sandy ground. Therefore,
this method is applied under the condition that eccentric and inclined loads act. As shown in Fig. T- 2.5.1 (a),
the start point of the slip surface is set symmetrical about the acting point of resultant load to one of the
foundation edges that is closer to the load acting point. In this case, the vertical load acting on the rubble mound
is converted into a uniformly distributed load acting on the width 2b as specified in Fig. T- 2.5.1 (b) and (c).
The horizontal force is assumed to act at the bottom of structure. When calculating the bearing capacity during
an earthquake, seismic force is assumed not to act on the rubble mound and the ground.
-277-
(2) Safety Factor

The safety factor is expressed as the ratio of the resisting moment due to shear resistance to the sliding moment
due to external forces and soil weight, as in the other cases of circular arc analyses. See [Technical Note] (2) in
6.2.1 Stability Analysis Using Circular Slip Surface Method. Standard values of the safety factor are listed in
Table T- 2.5.1
Table T- 2.5.1 Safety Factors for Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined Loads
(Simplified Bishops Circular Arc Method)
Quaywalls
Breakwaters
Ordinary condition
1.2 or greater
1.0 or greater
Under storm waves
1.0 or greater
When subgrade reaction has a trapezoidal distribution

When subgrade reaction has a triangular distribution
Combined force of load
Rubble mound
Subsoil
Fig. T- 2.5.1 Analysis of Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined Loads
(3) Strength Parameters for Mound Materials and Foundation Ground

(a) Mound materials
Model and field experiments on bearing capacity
Experimental values
subject to eccentric and inclined loads have verified
c
20
that high precision results can be obtained by conducting circular arc analyses based on the simplified
Bishop method, applying the strength parameters
obtained by triaxial compression tests 2). Large-scale
triaxial compression test results of crushed stone
have confirmed that the strength parameters of large
diameter particles are approximately equal to those
d0
obtained from similar gradation materials with the
same coefficient of uniformity 3). Therefore, triaxial
compression tests using samples with similar gradation should be conducted in order to estimate the
strength parameters of rubbles accurately. If strength
tests are not conducted, the values of apparant cohesion cd = 20 kN/m2 and internal friction angle fd =
35 are applied as the standard strength parameters
for rubbles generally used in port construction
Lateral pressure
(kN/m2)
works.
The above standard values have been obtained
Fig. T- 2.5.2 Relationship between fd0 and Lateral
on the safe side consideration based on the results of
Confining Pressure s3
large-scale triaxial compression tests of crushed
stones and the bearing capacity analysis of existing
breakwaters and quaywalls. It should be noted that the strength parameter for cohesion cd = 20 kN/m2 is the
apparent cohesion, taking account of changes of the internal friction angle fd of crushed stones due to the
confining pressure. Figure T- 2.5.2 shows the result of triaxial compression tests on various types of crushed
stones and rubbles 2). It shows that as the confining pressure increases, fd0 decreases due to particle crushing.
The continuous solid line in the figure represents the value under the assumption that the apparent cohesion is
cd = 20 kN/m2 and the internal friction angle is fd = 35. Here, the dependency of fd0 on the confining pressure
d
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
is well described by taking the apparent cohesion into account. These standard values can be applied only to
the stone material with an unconfined compressive strength in the parent rock of 30 MN/m2 or more,
according to the past studies.
If weak stones with a compressive strength of less than 30 MN/m2 are used as a part of the mound, the
strength parameters will be around cd = 20 kN/m2 and fd = 30 4).
(b) Foundation ground
Foundations subject to eccentric and inclined loads often cause shallow surface slip failure. In these cases, it is
important to evaluate the strength near the surface of foundation ground. If the foundation ground is sandy, the
friction angle fd is usually estimated from the N-value. The estimation formulas employed up to now have
tended to underestimate fd in case of shallow sandy grounds. This is because no correction has been made
regarding the effective surcharge pressure in situ. Figure T- 2.5.3 collates the results of triaxial compression
tests on undisturbed sand in Japan (dotted points) and presents a comparative study of the formulas proposed
in the past. Even the N-values are less than 10, internal friction angles of around 40 have been obtained. In
many cases, the bearing capacity for eccentric and inclined loads is problematic for design not under normal
conditions but under dynamic external forces such as wave pressure and seismic force. Based on the results of
bearing capacity analysis of the structures damaged in the past, the values given below are applied as the
standard values of fd in foundation ground.
Sandy ground with N-value of less than 10:
Sandy ground with N-value of 10 or more:
fd = 40
fd = 45
If the ground consists of cohesive soil, the strength may be determined by the method indicated in Part ,
11.3.3 Shear Properties.
Range according to Meyerhof
Triaxial test results
20N + 15 according to Osaki
N-value
Fig. T- 2.5.3 Relationship between N-value and d Obtained by Triaxial Tests on Undisturbed Sand Samples
[References]
1) Hakujyu YAMAGUCHI: Soil Merchanics (New Editon), Chapter 9 Bearing Capacity, GIHOUDOU, 1985, pp. 273-274 (in
Japanese).
2) Masaki KOBAYASHI, Masaaki TERASHI, Kunio TAKAHASHI, Kenjirou NAKASHIMA, Hiraku ODANI: A new method
for calculating the bearing capacity of rubble mounds, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 26, No. 2, 1987 (in Japanese).
3) Yoshihiro SHOJI: Study on shearing properties of rubble with large scale triaxial compression test. Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 22,
4) Jun-ichi MIZUKAMI, Masaki KOBAYASHI. Strength characteristics of rubble by large scale triaxial compressin test,
Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 699, 1991 (in Japanese).
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Chapter 3 Bearing Capacity of Deep Foundations

When the embedded length of a foundation is larger than the smallest width of the foundation, the
foundation shall be examined in principle as a deep foundation. In such a case, the bearing capacity of the
deep foundation shall be calculated by an appropriate method in view of the characteristics of both the
ground and the structure.
3.2 Vertical Bearing Capacity

The allowable vertical bearing capacity of a deep foundation shall be determined as appropriate in view of
the structural type, methods of construction, and ground conditions.
[Commentary]
(1) Allowable Vertical Bearing Capacity of Deep Foundations
Generally, the allowable vertical bearing capacity of a deep foundations is calculated as the sum of the allowable
bearing capacity due to the side resistance of foundation and the allowable bearing capacity of foundation
bottom, as expressed by equation (3.2.1). However, if the amount of structural deformation is to be examined,
the deformation of deep foundation should be estimated by assuming the ground having characteristics of
spring.
(3.2.1)
q a = q a1 + Dq a
where
qa: allowable bearing capacity of deep foundation (kN/m2)
qa1: allowable bearing capacity of foundation bottom (kN/m2) (see 2.2 Bearing Capacity of Foundation on
Sandy Ground, 2.3 Bearing Capacity of Foundation on Clayey Ground)
Dqa: increment of allowable bearing capacity due to resistance of foundation sides (kN/m2)
(2) Side Resistance of Deep Foundations
Caution is required concerning evaluation of the side resistance of deep foundations. This is because, depending
on structural type and method of construction, the surrounding ground may be disturbed during construction and
the adequate amount of bearing capacity due to side resistance may not always be obtained.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Frictional Resistance at the Sides of Foundations in Sandy Ground
Equation (3.2.2) is used to calculate the increment of allowable bearing capacity due to the frictional resistance
at foundation sides in sandy ground.
1
B D2
(3.2.2)
Dq a = --- 1 + --- ------K a g 2 m
F
L B
where
F: safety factor (the same value as used for qa1)
Ka: coefficient of active earth pressure (d = 0) (see Part , Chapter 14 Earth Pressure and Water
Pressure)
g 2 : unit weight of soil above the level of foundation bottom (or submerged unit weight if submerged) (kN/
m3)
D: embedded length of foundation (m)
m: coefficient of friction between foundation sides and sandy soil, m = tan(2/3)f
B: width of foundation (m)
L: length of foundation (m)
In equation (3.2.2), the increment of allowable bearing capacity Dqa is obtained by dividing the total friction
resistance by the bottom area of foundation and the safety factor. The total friction resistance is calculated as the
product of the mean side friction strength f multiplying with the embedded length D and the total contact
surface area between the sandy soil and foundation sides. Equation (3.2.3) is generally used to calculate the
mean side friction strength f corresponding to the embedded length D.
1
1 D
(3.2.3)
f = ---- 0 g zK a m dz = --- K a gDm
2
D
The friction angle between the foundation sides and sandy soil should not be greater than the internal friction
angle of soil f, and it may be taken as (2/3)f for the case between concrete and sandy soil.
(2) Cohesive Resistance of Foundation Sides in Clayey Ground
Equation (3.2.4) may be used to calculate the increment of allowable bearing capacity due to the cohesive
resistance at foundation sides in clayey ground.
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
2
B Dc
Dq a = --- 1 + --- ------ c a
F
L B
where
c a : mean adhesion (mean value in embedded part below the ground water level) (kN/m2)
Dc: embedded length of foundation below the groundwater level (m)
(3.2.4)
In case of deep foundations in clayey ground, the soil above the groundwater level is subject to dry shrinkage in
summer. This means that the soil is unsuitable to be regarded as effective contact surface. Therefore, the mean
adhesion c a in equation (3.2.4) refers to the mean value in the embedded part below the ground water level. See
Table T- 3.2.1 for the practical values of mean adhesion in clayey soil.
Table T- 3.2.1 Mean Adhesion
Types of ground
(Units: kN/m2)
ca
qu
Soft cohesive soil
25 ~ 50
Medium cohesive soil
50 ~ 100
6 ~ 12
Hard cohesive soil
100 ~ 200
12 ~ 25
Very hard cohesive soil
200 ~ 400
25 ~ 30
400 or greater
30 or greater
Compacted cohesive soil
* : With soft cohesive soil, side resistance should not be taken into account.
(3) Safety Factor
The safety factor to be applied in using equations (3.2.2) and (3.2.4) should be 2.5 or greater for important
structures and 1.5 or greater for others.
3.3 Lateral Bearing Capacity

The lateral bearing capacity of a deep foundation shall be determined as appropriate in view of ground
conditions, structural characteristics, and the method of construction.
[Commentary]
The lateral bearing capacity of a deep foundation is governed by the horizontal subgrade reaction of the foundation
sides and the vertical subgrade reaction at the the bottom of foundation.
[Technical Notes]
(1) When a resultant force at a bottom of fandation acts inside the core (when
the eccentricity of total resultant force acting at the bottom of foundation is
within one-sixth of the foundation width from the central axis of the foundation) and the distributions of horizontal and vertical subgrade reaction are
assumed as in Fig. T- 3.3.1, the maximum horizontal subgrade reaction p1
and maximum vertical subgrade reaction q1 can be estimated by assigning
an adequate value of safety factor against the passive earth pressure and the
ultimate bearing capacity in their respective positions.
(2) Assumption on the Distribution of Subgrade Reaction
The distribution of horizontal subgrade reaction shown in Fig. T- 3.3.1 may
be assumed as being a quadratic parabola with 0 at the ground surface. This
assumption is equivalent to the relationship between the displacement y and
the subgrade reaction p of equation (3.3.1) when the foundation rotates as a
rigid body.
(3.3.1)
p = Kxy
where
p subgrade reaction (kN/m2)
K rate of increase in coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction with
depth
(kN/m4)
x depth (m)
y horizontal displacement at depth x (m)
N0
P0
M0
h
p1
kW
W
q2
q1
2a
Fig. T- 3.3.1 When Resultant

Force Is inside
the Core
A linear distribution has been assumed for vertical subgrade reaction. Therefore, when a resultant force acting at
the bottom of foundation is inside the core, the distribution becomes trapezoidal as shown in Fig. T- 3.3.1.
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(3) When Resultant Force at the Bottom Is inside the Core

The condition under which the resultant force at the bottom is inside the core is expressed as in equation (3.3.2).
N 0 + w 1 l 3aK ( kw 1 l 2 + 4P 0 l + 6M 0 )
---------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------(3.3.2)
A
b ( l 3 + 24 a Ka 3 )
The maximum horizontal subgrade reaction p1 (kN/m2) and the maximum vertical subgrade reaction q1
(kN/m2) in this case are obtained by equations (3.3.3) and (3.3.4), respectively.
3 [ kw 1 l 4 + 3P 0 l 3 + 4M 0 l 2 + 8 a Ka 3 ( kw 1 l + P 0 ) ] 2
(3.3.3)
p 1 = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4bl 3 ( l 3 + 24aKa 3 ) ( kw 1 l 2 + 4P 0 l + 6M 0 )
N 0 + w 1 l 3aK ( kw 1 l 2 + 4P 0 l + 6M 0 )
(3.3.4)
q 1 = ---------------------- + -------------------------------------------------------------------A
b ( l 3 + 24aKa 3 )
When examining the lateral bearing capacity of deep foundations, the values of p1 and q1 obtained by equations
(3.3.3) and (3.3.4) must satisfy equations (3.3.5) and (3.3.6), respectively.
1
(3.3.5)
p 1 --- pp
F
q1 q a
(3.3.6)
where
l
2b
2a
A
P 0
M 0
N 0
k
K
K 1
K 2
embedded length (m)

maximum width (perpendicular to horizontal force) (m)
maximum length (m)
bottom area (m2)
horizontal force acting on the structure above ground level (kN)
moment due to P0 at ground level (kN m)
vertical force acting at ground level (kN)
horizontal seismic coefficient
coefficient ratio; K= K2 /K1
rate of increase in the coefficient of vertical subgrade reaction (kN/m4)
rate of increase by depth in the confficient of horizontal subgrade reaction (kN/m4 ) (see equation
(3.3.1))
w1 deadweight of deep foundation per unit depth (kN/m)
a coefficient determined by bottom shape (a = 1.0 for rectangular shape and a = 0.588 for circular shape)
pp maximum passive earth pressure at the depth h (kN/m2) (see Part , Cahpter 14 Earth Pressure and
Water Pressure).
h depth at which horizontal subgrade reaction becomes maximum (m) (see equation (3.3.7))
qa vertical bearing capacity at bottom level (kN/m2) (see equation (3.2.1))
F safety factor for horizontal bearing capacity
kw 1 l 4 + 3P 0 l 3 + 4M 0 l 2 + 8aKa 3 ( kw 1 l + P 0 )
h = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(3.3.7)
2l ( kw 1 l 2 + 4P 0 l + 6M 0 )
(4) When Resulant Force at the Bottom Is outside the Core

When the resultant force acting at the base of foundation is not inside
the core, a triangular distribution of vertical subgrade reaction is
assumed as shown in Fig. T- 3.3.2 1). It is because the tensile
resistance cannot take place between the of foundation bottom and the
ground. In this case, the maximum subgrade reaction p1 (kN/m2) in
the frontal side is obtained from equation (3.3.8)
3 ( kWl + 4M 0 4N 0 e 4We + 3P 0 l ) 2
(3.3.8)
p 1 = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4bl 2 ( kWl + 6M 0 6N 0 e 6We + 4P 0 l )
The value of p1 calculated by equation (3.3.8) should satisfy equation
(3.3.5). In this case, h is obtained by equation (3.3.9).
l ( kWl + 4M 0 4N 0 e 4We + 3P 0 l )
(3.3.9)
h = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 ( kWl + 6M 0 6N 0 e 6We + 4P 0 l )
where
h depth at which horizontal subgrade reaction becomes maximum (m) (see Fig. T- 3.3.2)
W deadweight of foundation (kN)
e eccentric distance (m)
The distance e is defined as shown in Fig. T- 3.3.2. When the
foundation bottom is rectangular with the length of 2a (m) and the
width of 2b (m), the value of e is calculated by equation (3.3.10).
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Fig. T- 3.3.2 When Resultant Force Is

Not inside the Core
PART V FOUNDATIONS
64748
W + N0
(3.3.10)
e = a ----------------4bq a
In the case of a circular foundation bottom, the calculation may be made by replacing it with a rectangular
foundation bottom having length 2a and width 2b defined by equation (3.3.11).
p
2a = --- D
3
(3.3.11)
3
2b = --- D
4
where
D: diameter of circle (m)
In this way, the horizontal bearing capacity can be estimated at a safer side by approximately 10%. However,
this substitution should be applied on the basis of the appropriate judgement, by referring to reference 1).
(5) Safety Factor
When applying the above caluculation methods, the safety factor should generally be 1.5 or greater for
important structures and 1.1 for others.
[Reference]
1) Kunio TAKAHASHI, Masatoshi SAWAGUCHI: Experimental study on the lateral resistance of a well Rept. of PHRI, Vol.
16, No. 4, 1977, pp.3-34 (in Japanese).
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Chapter 4 Bearing Capacity of Pile Foundations

4.1 Allowable Axial Bearing Capacity of Piles
The allowable axial bearing capacity of piles shall be determined on the basis of the ultimate axial bearing
capacity of single piles divided by the safety factor as the standard value. Furthermore it shall be
appropriately determined by taking the following factors into consideration to the extent as necessary. The
safety factor shall be determined as appropriate in view of the characteristics of the structures and the
ground.
(1) Allowable compressive stress of pile material
(2) Decrease of allowable stress at pile joints
(3) Decrease of allowable stress due to slenderness ratio of piles
(4) Effect of piles group
(5) Negative skin friction of piles
(6) Settlement of piles
[Commentary]
(1) The above provision presents a guideline for judging the axial bearing capacity of piles in pile foundations. First,
the ultimate axial bearing capacity of single piles is determined, and then it is divided by the safety factor to
obtain the standard allowable axial bearing capacity. Next, the factors (1) to (6) listed above are examined and
the standard allowable axial bearing capacity should be lowered if necessary. The final result is the allowable
axial bearing capacity of piles to be used in the design of pile foundations.
(2) The bearing capacity of piles is greatly affected by the methods and execution of construction. Therefore, before
the start of construction execution, test piles should be driven and the design should be confirmed through
various studies. The pile length and construction method should be modified to reflect the test results.
(3) Piles group means the group of piles in which the bearing capacity and deformation of each pile are reciprocally
affected by others.
4.1.2 Standard Allowable Axial Bearing Capacity

The standard allowable axial bearing capacity shall be calculated by dividing the ultimate axial bearing
capacity of single piles by an appropriate value of safety factor.
[Commentary]
The safety factor used when calculating the standard allowable axial bearing capacity from the ultimate axial bearing
capacity takes account of deviations in ground conditions, pile conditions, loading conditions, etc. The safety factor
should have the value that guarantees the safety of piles against ground failure. When calculating the ultimate axial
bearing load of single piles by loading tests and static bearing capacity formulas, the standard allowable axial bearing
capacity should be the value obtained from the ultimate axial bearing capacity of single piles being divided by the
safety factor.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Table T- 4.1.1 lists the guideline for the minimum values of safety factors. The values are based on the
following principles:
(a) The minimum value of 2.5 for the safety factor under ordinary conditions means that the safety factor is 2.5
against the phenomena of ultimate ground failure. The safety factor against the ground yield phenomena will
be 1.5 to 2.0.
(b) The minimum safety factor during an earthquake may be set lower than that under ordinary conditions. This is
because the duration of earthquakes is comparatively short and the strength of soil against impact load
increases generally.
(2) Further examinations would be required if permanent deformation of the ground is expected to remain after an
earthquake. Regarding the dynamic properties of soil, many unknown matters remain. Therefore, it may be
doubtful if a high strength of soil during an earthquake can be employed for foundation design. For example,
sensitive clay may lose its strength due to violent shaking. In the past cases of earthquake damage, it is known
that liquefaction had occurred in loose sand strata, and this greatly reduced the bearing capacity of piles. Friction
piles are easily affected by such phenomena. Therefore, the safety factor of friction piles during an earthquake
should be given a greater value than that of bearing piles.
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
(3) If the values of safety factor in Table T- 4.1.1 are applied, ordinary port and harbor structures under ordinary
design conditions should be safe. For the structures that are particularly important or are critical in terms of
human life, however, larger values of the safety factor may have to be applied. On the other hand, it may be
possible to apply the value of safety factor lower than the minimum values on the basis of adequate research and
prudent judgement. An example is the case that detailed soil surveys and loading tests are conducted, and the
pile behavior estimated on this basis is consistent with detailed observation results on actual structures of the
same type in the vicinity. In such cases, a lower value of safety factor is permissible, provided that the judgement
by experts in the field of geotechnical engineering supports it.
Table T- 4.1.1 Guidelines for Minimum Values of Safety Factor
Ordinary condition
During an
earthquake
2.5
Bearing piles
1.5
Friction piles
2.0
4.1.3 Ultimate Axial Bearing Capacity of Single Piles

It is desirable to obtain the ultimate axial bearing capacity of single piles by conducting loading tests in
situ. If it is difficult to conduct the loading tests, the ultimate axial bearing capacity of single piles may be
estimated by static bearing capacity formulas.
[Commentary]
Estimating methods of the ultimate axial bearing capacity of single piles are as follows:
(1) Estimation by loading tests
(2) Estimation by static bearing capacity formulas
(3) Estimation by existing data
It is desirable to estimate the ultimate axial bearing capacity of single piles by conducting axial loading tests in situ.
This is the most rational method to estimate the allowable bearing capacity in the design. Sometimes it may be
difficult to conduct loading tests prior to design, due to limit of construction period and/or economical constraint. In
such cases, estimation by static bearing capacity formulas is permissible. Even when estimating the ultimate axial
bearing capacity by the methods other than loading tests and deciding the allowable bearing capacity on this basis,
loading tests should be conducted at an early stage of construction and the appropriateness of the allowable bearing
capacity adopted in the design should be confirmed.
4.1.4 Estimation of Ultimate Axial Bearing Capacity by Loading Tests

When the ultimate load can be confirmed by the load - settlement curve, the value shall be taken as the
ultimate axial bearing capacity. When the ultimate load cannot be confirmed from the load - settlement
curve, the yield load shall be confirmed and the ultimate load may be estimated from the yield load.
[Commentary]
Load
Pile loading tests are a kind of full scale experiments that can
obtain the ultimate bearing capacity directly. However, in loading
tests, the loading conditions are different from the actual
conditions in respect of the number of piles and the duration of
the loading.
(1) Yield Load and Ultimate Load

Relationship between the load and the total settlement by a
static loading test is indicated schematically in Fig. 4.1.1.
The yield load is indicated by P1 at the point A, where the
initial gentle inclination becomes clearly steeper and the
curve shows the maximum curvature. The ultimate load is
indicated by P2 at the point where the load - settlement
curve becomes vertical. Piles embedded in the sandlayer do
not usually reach such the load. In such cases, the ultimate
load may be taken as P3 at the point B. Here, the load settlement curve suddenly turns downward and a small
increase of load produces a large amount of settlement.
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Total settlement
[Technical Notes]
Fig. T- 4.1.1 Yield Load and Ultimate Load
(2) Ultimate Load

It is not always possible to confirm the ultimate load by loading tests due to the constraint of capacity of test
equipment. In such cases the ultimate load is calculated as 1.2 times the yield load obtained from loading tests.
This judgement is based on the results of research by Yamakata and Nagai on steel pipe piles and statistical
studies by Kitajima et al. 1) When yielding does not occur during loading tests, the ultimate load is taken as 1.2
times the maximum test load. In either case, it is necessary to have a reasonable assurance that the actual
ultimate load will be larger than the ultimate load estimated in this way.
4.1.5 Estimation of Ultimate Axial Bearing Capacity by Static Bearing Capacity Formulas
When estimating the ultimate axial bearing capacity by static bearing capacity formulas, attention shall be
paid to the ground and pile conditions, construction methods, and the application limitation of formulas.
[Technical Notes]
(1) When using bearing capacity formulas, particular attention should be paid to differences in the construction
methods.
(a) Pile driven by hammer
Equation (4.1.1) may be used when estimating the ultimate bearing capacity of the piles driven into sandy
ground by hammer.
R u = 300NA p + 2NAs
where
Ru ultimate bearing capacity of pile (kN)
Ap toe area of pile (m2)
As total circumferential area of pile (m2)
N N-value of the ground around pile toe
N mean N-value for total penetration length of pile
(4.1.1)
The N-value is calculated by equation (4.1.2)

N 1 + N2
N = ------------------2
where
N1 N-value at the toe of pile
N2 mean N-value in the range from the toe of pile to the level 4B above
B diameter or width of pile (m)
(4.1.2)
Caution is required here for estimating the ultimate bearing capacity of piles supported by the ground with
an N-value of 50 or more, since the N-values larger than 50 may not be reliable. Furthermore, it remains to
be confirmed whether the first term in the right-hand side of equation (4.1.1) can be applied directly to this
kind of hard ground.
Equation (4.1.3) may be used when estimating the ultimate bearing capacity of piles driven into clayey
ground by hammer.
R u = 8c p A p + ca A s
where
cp
ca
(4.1.3)
cohesion at pile toe (kN/m2)

mean adhesion for total embedded length of pile (kN/m2)
678
The adhesion value may be calculated as follows:

: c 100 kN m 2
ca = c
(4.1.4)
c a = 100 kN m 2 : c > 100 kN m 2
Here, due attention should be paid to the ground characteristics and the pile conditions, and the value of
obtainable adhesion should be examined. This is because there are theoretical problems2) in calculating pile
adhesion from the ground cohesion c or the unconfined compressive strength.
(b) The vibratory pile driving method (vibrohammer method) is increasingly being used for driving piles because
of the capacity increase of pile-driving machinery in recent years. As the principles of this method differ from
those of pile driving by hammer, the bearing capacity should be carefully estimated. When using this method,
the ground should be compacted by the method of hammer pile driving instead of vibratory pile driving in the
course of final driving, or vertical loading tests should be conducted to confirm the characteristics of bearing
capacity of the ground in question.
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
(c) In recent years, the use of pile installation method not involving pile driving by hammer has been increasing in
port and harbor construction projects; an example is pile installation by inner excavation. In such cases, the
characteristics of the bearing capacity of piles in question should be confirmed by vertical loading tests.
(2) Even if there is no shoe on the pile toe, the end bearing area of
steel piles can be considered closed, as shown by the shaded areas
in Fig. T- 4.1.2. In this case, the outer edge alone of the closed
area is taken as the perimeter. This is based on the following principle. Soil enters the interior of steel pipes or the space between
the flanges of H-shaped steel during the pile driving, until the
internal friction between the soil and the surface of steel pile
becomes equal to the end resistance of pile. This balance prevents
soil from entering and has the same effect as the case when the
open end section is closed. But complete closure cannot be
expected in the case of large-diameter piles. In such cases the
closed area ratio should be examined.
Fig. T- 4.1.2 End Bearing Area of Steel

Piles
(3) Closed Area Ratio

The closed area ratio is not determined simply by the diameter or the width of piles. It also depends on the
penetration length of piles, properties of the ground, and the method of installation. Past data suggest the closed
area ratio of 100% when the diameter of steel pipe piles is less than 60 cm or the short side of H-shaped steel
piles is less than 40 cm. For piles with a larger diameter or width, there have been several theoretical calculation
methods and laboratory experiment results. The closed area ratio varies greatly depending on the properties of
the ground and the method of pile installation. The state of plugging of actual piles depends on the penetration
depth and associated ground stress. It is thus difficult to obtain the ratio by theoretical calculation. The Steel Pipe
Pile Association collated measured examples of the closed area ratio, as shown in Fig. T- 4.1.3. Here, piles with
a diameter of 1117.6 mm or less are shown and the closed area ratio is estimated by assuming that the first term
of equation (4.1.1) indicates the end bearing capacity in the case of complete plugging. According to this figure,
the closed area ratio ranges from 30% to 140%. This means that the ratio cannot be judged only by the diameter
of steel pipes or the embedded length ratio to the bearing stratum, or the soil classification of the bearing
stratum. In recent years, steel pipe piles of 1,100 mm diameter or more have been commonly used. However,
any data for the closed area ratio of these pipes have not been reported and therefore the closed area ratio for the
pipe piles mentioned above are unknown. Since the closed area ratio is affected by the installation and ground
conditions in actual sites, it should first be ascertained through loading tests.
(4) Bearing Capacity of Soft Rock
When piles are supported on soft rock or hard clay, the bearing capacity may be calculated by equation (4.1.1). If
unconfined compressive strength qu (kN/m2) has been measured by undisturbed samples, equation (4.1.5) may
alternatively be used.
(4.1.5)
R u = 5q u A p
Further, the value of qu should be reduced to 1/2 or 1/3 of the measurement depending on the progress of
cracking in natural ground. In any event, however, the value of qu should not exceed 210 4 kN/m2.
Ratio of pile end load in loading tests to 300NAp
Outer diameter 700 mm or more

Outer diameter 650 mm or less
Ratio of embedded length to bearing stratum to inner diameter of pile
Fig. T- 4.1.3 Plug Effect of Open-ended Pile

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4.1.6 Examination of Compressive Stress of Pile Materials (Notification Article 43, Clause 2)
The allowable axial bearing capacity of piles shall not exceed the value obtained by multiplying the
effective section area of piles by the allowable compressive stress of pile materials, which is mentioned in
4.1.1 General.
4.1.7 Decrease of Bearing Capacity Due to Joints
(1) If it is necessary to splice piles, the splicing work shall be executed under appropriate supervision and
reliability of joints of spliced pile shall be confirmed by appropriate inspection.
(2) If joints are sufficiently reliable, it may not be necessary to decrease the axial allowable bearing
capacity due to existence of joints.
[Technical Notes]
(1) When spliced piles are used, the joints are the weak points of the piles. Therefore, the allowable axial bearing
capacity should be decreased in consideration of the effect of the joints against the overall bearing capacity of
the pile foundation.
(2) On-site circular welding by semi-automatic methods is generally employed for the splicing of steel pipe piles
used in the field of port and harbor construction works. When such highly reliable jointing methods are applied
under appropriate supervision and the reliability of the joints has been confirmed by inspection, it is not
necessary to decrease the allowable axial bearing capacity.
(3) Provisions for the joints can be found in 4.5.3 Joints.
4.1.8 Decrease of Bearing Capacity Due to Slenderness Ratio

For piles with a very large ratio of length to diameter, the allowable axial bearing capacity of piles shall be
decreased in consideration of the accuracy of installation, unless the safety of bearing capacity confirmed
by loading tests.
[Technical Notes]
(1) This provision takes account of the fact that the inclination of piles during installation reduces their bearing
capacity. If loading tests are conducted on foundation piles, the ultimate bearing capacity can be determined,
including the necessity of decrease of bearing capacity due to installation accuracy. Therefore, in this case the
decrease due to the slenderness ratio may not necessarily be taken into account.
(2) When decreasing the bearing capacity due to the slenderness of piles, the following values may be used as
references:
(a) For non-steel piles
a =
l
--- 60 :
d
l
--- 60
d
l
--- > 60
d
(4.1.6)
(b) For steel piles
l
0
: --- 120
d
a =
l
l
----: - > 120
2d- 60 -d
where
a rate of reduction (%)
l pile length (m)
d pile diameter (m)
(4.1.7)
4.1.9 Bearing Capacity of Pile Group

When a group of piles are examined as a pile group, the bearing capacity of pile group may be studied as a
single, deep foundation formed with the envelope surface surrounding the outermost piles in the group of
piles.
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
[Technical Notes]
Terzaghi and Peck state that a failure of a pile group foundation does not mean the failure of individual piles but the
failure as a single block 3), 4). This is based on the principle that the soil and piles inside the shaded area in Fig. T4.1.4 work as a single unit when the intervals between the piles are small. The ultimate bearing capacity of pile group
in this case is expressed by equation (4.1.8).
(4.1.8)
R g u = q d A g + sUL
where
Rgu bearing capacity of pile group as a single block (kN)
qd ultimate bearing capacity at the block bottom (kN/m2)
(see 2.2 Bearing Capacity of Foundation on Sandy Ground, 2.3 Bearing Capacity of Foundation on
Clayey Ground)
Ag bottom area of pile group block (m2)
U perimeter of pile group block (m2)
L embedded length of piles (m)
s mean shear strength of soil contiguous with piles (kN/m2)
The allowable bearing capacity per pile is expressed by equation (4.1.9).
1
1
(4.1.9)
R a = --- ( R g u g 2 A g L ) --F
n
where
Ra allowable bearing capacity per pile against failure as a block (kN)
g2' mean unit weight of the whole block including piles and soil (kN/m3)
(mean unit weight is calculated using submerged unit weight below the groundwater level (taking account of
buoyancy) and using the wet unit weight above ground water level.)
n number of piles in pile group
F safety factor (see 4.1.2 Standard Allowable Axial Bearing Capacity)
In the case of cohesive soil, equation (4.1.9) is replaced by equation (4.1.10), where c is cohesion and g2' g2 (g2
mean unit weight of soil above the pile tip level).
B
1
R a = ------- 5.7cA g 1 + 0.3 ------ + cUL g 2 A gL
B 1
nF
where
B short side length of pile group block (m)
B1 long side length of pile group block (m)
(4.1.10)
The allowable bearing capacity of each pile when used in a pile group is the smaller of the allowable bearing capacity
of single piles or the allowable bearing capacity against block failure given by equation (4.1.9) or (4.1.10). The upper
limit of the interval between rows of piles to which the above assumptions apply cannot be uniformly defined. This is
because it varies depending on the properties of the ground and the arrangement of piles.
Negative skin friction
Weak layer
Perimeter U
Positive skin friction
Consolidation
settlement
Bearing
stratum
Fig. T- 4.1.4 Pile Group Foundation
(a)
(b)
Fig. C- 4.1.1 Negative Skin Friction

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4.1.10 Examination of Negative Skin Friction

If bearing piles penetrate through a soil layer that is susceptible to consolidation, negative skin friction
shall be taken into account when calculating the allowable axial bearing capacity of piles.
[Commentary]
When a pile penetrates through a clayey soft layer to reach a bearing stratum, the friction force from the soft layer
acts upwards initially and bears a part of the load acting on the pile head. When the clayey soft layer is consolidated,
the pile itself is supported by the bearing stratum and hardly settles, the direction of the friction force is reversed, as
shown in Fig. C- 4.1.1. The friction force on the pile circumference now ceases to resist the load acting on the pile
head, but instead turns into a load downwards and places a large burden on the toe of the pile. This friction force
acting downwards on the pile circumference is called the negative skin friction or negative friction.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Although the actual value of negative skin friction is not well known yet, the maximum value may be obtained
from equation (4.1.11).
R nf, max
where
Rnf, max
j
L2
f s
= jL2 f s
(4.1.11)
maximum negative skin friction (for single pile) (kN)

circumference of piles (perimeter of closed area in the case of H-shaped steel piles) (m)
length of piles in the consolidating layer (m)
mean skin friction intensity in the consolidating layer (kN/m2)
(2) In the above, f s in clayey ground is sometimes taken at qu/2. If a sand layer is located between consolidating
layers, or if a sand layer lies on top of consolidating layer, the thickness of the sand layer should be included in
L2. The skin friction in the sand layer is sometimes taken into account for f s . The maximum value of negative
skin friction in such cases is expressed by equation (4.1.12).
qu Lc
R nf, max = 2N s2 L s2 + ----------- j
2
where
Ls2 thickness of sand layer included in L2 (m)
Lc thickness of clay layer included in L2 (m)
L s2 + L c = L 2
N s2 mean N-value of the sand layer of thickness Ls2
q u mean unconfined compressive strength of clayey layer of thickness Lc (kN/m2)
sUH + A g gL 2
(4.1.13)
R nf, max = --------------------------------n
where
Rnf, max maximum negative skin friction per pile (for piles group) (kN)
U perimeter of pile group (m)
H depth from the ground level to the bottom of consolidating layer (m)
s mean shear strength of soil in the range of H (kN/m2)
Ag bottom area of pile group (m2)
g mean unit weight of soil in the range of L2 (kN/m3)
n number of piles in pile group
Consolidated
layer
(3) In case of pile group, the negative skin friction may be calculated by assuming the
piles group as a single, deep foundation. The negative skin friction per pile is then
calculated by dividing it by the number of piles (see Fig. T- 4.1.5).
(4.1.12)
Fig. T- 4.1.5 Skin Friction of

Pile Group
Equations (4.1.11) to (4.1.13) give the maximum value for negative skin friction. The actual values will be
affected by the amount of consolidation settlement and the speed of consolidation, the creep characteristics of
the soft clayey layer, and the deformation characteristics of the bearing stratum.
(4) When calculating the allowable axial bearing capacity of piles, there is some uncertainty in evaluating the
influence of negative skin friction. In one method, the influence of negative skin friction is examined by
checking whether the force transmitted to the tip of the pile exceeds both the yield load value of the ground at
the tip of the pile and the yield compressive strength of cross section of the pile. That is, by denoting the
allowable axial bearing capacity under normal conditions as Ra , it should satisfy equations (4.1.14) and (4.1.15)
as well as guaranteeing the required safety factor for ordinary loads.
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
1
(4.1.14)
R a ------- R p R nf, max
1.2
R a s f A e R nf, max
(4.1.15)
where
Ra allowable axial bearing capacity (ordinary) (kN)
Rp end bearing capacity of pile (ultimate value) (kN)
Rnf,max maximum negative skin friction (kN) (the smaller of the
values for single pile or pile group)
sf compressive stress of pile at yield point (kN/m2)
Ae effective section area of pile (m2)
The value for end bearing capacity Rp may be taken at 300NAp in equation
(4.1.1). If the pile has penetrated into the bearing stratum, the skin friction
in the bearing stratum may be included in the end bearing capacity (see
Fig. T- 4.1.6).
(4.1.16)
R p = 300NA p + 2N s1 L s1 j
where
Rp end bearing capacity of pile (ultimate value) (kN)
N N-value of ground at pile tip
Bearing straum
Ap area of pile tip (m2)
L s1 = L 1 length of pile inside the bearing straum (sandy ground) (m)
N s1 mean N-value for the zone of Ls1
j circumference of pile (m)
Fig. T- 4.1.6 End Bearing Capacity
4.1.11 Examination of Settlement of Piles

The allowable axial bearing capacity of pile shall be determined in such a way that an estimated settlement
of pile head does not exceed the allowable settlement determined for superstructures.
4.2 Allowable Pulling Resistance of Piles

The standard allowable pulling resistance of piles shall be calculated by estimating the maximum pulling
resistance by an appropriate method and dividing it by the safety factor. The factors listed below shall be
taken into consideration to the extent as necessary. In such cases, the safety factor shall take an appropriate
value in view of the characteristics of structure and the strength of ground.
(1) Allowable tensile stress of pile material
(2) Effect of pile joints
(3) Action of pile group
(4) Upward displacement of piles by pulling
Deadweight
The standard allowable pulling resistance of piles is first obtained by

dividing the maximum pulling resistance of single piles by an appropriate
value of safety factor. Then, the allowable pulling resistance of piles is
evaluated on the basis of it by taking account of the stress of pile materials,
the influence of joints, the actions of pile group, and the upward
displacement. Here, maximum pulling resistance means the maximum
value of the pulling load shown in Fig. C- 4.2.1. In a pulling test of piles,
the load decreases once the upward displacement has exceeded a certain
limit, and finally only the deadweight of the pile remains. Caution should
be paid to the difference in magnitude between the maximum load and the
ultimate load.
Displacement
[Commentary]
Maximum pulling
resistance
Pulling resistance
Fig. C- 4.2.1 Maximum Pulling

Resistance
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4.2.2 Standard Allowable Pulling Resistance

The standard allowable pulling resistance shall be calculated by dividing the maximum pulling resistance
of a single pile by an appropriate value of safety factor.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Table T- 4.2.1 gives guidelines for the minimum values of safety factor when calculating the standard allowable
pulling resistance from the maximum pulling resistance of a single pile.
(2) The minimum value of safety factor during an earthquake has been established at 2.5. This has been set lower
than the value for ordinary conditions because the duration of seismic load is short. When there is a risk of
liquefaction of the sand layer during an earthquake, the allowable pulling resistance shall be determined by
taking the liquefaction into consideration.
Table T- 4.2.1 Guidelines for Minimum Values of Safety Factor
Ordinary condition
3.0
2.5
(3) The deadweight of pile acts always as a pulling resistance together with the weight of soil packed inside it.
Therefore, the pile deadweight needs not be divided by the safety factor, and it is reasonable to calculate the
standard allowable pulling resistance from the maximum pulling resistance by the equations below. When the
deadweight of pile is relatively small, however, this process of adding the pile deadweight is generally be
omitted. If the diameter of pile is too large, the soil packed into the pile is not always lifted up together with the
pile but may be expected to slip-down from the pile.
(a) When the maximum pulling resistance is calculated by pulling tests
R ut1 W p
R at = W p + ----------------------F
(4.2.1)
(b) When the maximum pulling resistance is calculated by a static bearing capacity equation
R ut2
R at = W p + ---------F
where
Rat allowable pulling resistance of piles (kN)
Wp deadweight of piles (with buoyancy subtracted) (kN)
Rut1 maximum pulling resistance of pile (from pulling tests) (kN)
Rut2 maximum pulling resistance of pile (from static bearing capacity formulas) (kN)
F safety factor
(4.2.2)
(4) Lowering of Safety Factor

If the ground consists of well compacted high quality sandy soil and the bearing capacity can be estimated with
sufficient accuracy on the basis of reliable data such as the results of accurate soil investigations and pulling tests
as well as the predictions by reliable analysis methods, the value of safety factor may be lowered.
4.2.3 Maximum Pulling Resistance of Single Pile

The maximum pulling resistance of a single pile shall be obtained on the basis of the results of pulling
tests.
[Commentary]
Unlike axial bearing capacity, there are few comparative data for pulling resistance, and indirect estimations may
entail some risk. Thus pulling tests should be conducted to calculate the maximum pulling resistance of a single pile.
However, in the case of relatively soft cohesive soil, skin friction during driving of a pile is considered to be virtually
the same as that during pulling of piles. Therefore, the maximum pulling resistance may be estimated from the results
of loading tests (pushing direction) and static bearing capacity equations.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Estimation of maximum pulling resistance by static bearing capacity formulas may follow the explanation given
in 4.1.5. Estimation of Ultimate Axial Bearing Capacity by Static Bearing Capacity Formulas. In this case,
the end bearing capacity in the first term of equations (4.1.1) and (4.1.3) should be ignored. Thus, for piles
driven by hammer, the following equations may be used.
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
(a) Sandy ground

R ut = 2NA s
(4.2.3)
(b) Clayey ground

R ut
where
Rut
N
As
c a
= ca As
(4.2.4)
maximum pulling resistance of pile (kN)

mean N-value for total embedded length of pile
total circumference area of pile (m2)
mean adhesion for total embedded length of pile (kN/m2) (see 4.1.5 Estimation of Ultimate Axial
Bearing Capacity by Static Bearing Capacity Formulas)
(2) Terzaghis equation is sometimes used as a static bearing capacity formula to estimate the maximum pulling
resistance of piles, as shown in equation (4.2.5). In this case, the values calculated by equations (4.2.3) and
(4.2.4) are to be compared with the value that calculated by using Terzaghis equation to obtain the most
appropriate value.
R ut = R f = jLf s
(4.2.5)
S ( c ai + K s q i m )l i
f s = ---------------------------------------L
where
Rut maximum pulling resistance of pile (kN)
Rf skin friction of pile (kN)
j circumference of pile (m)
L embedded length of pile (m)
f s mean skin friction intensity (kN/m2)
cai adhesion between soil and pile in the i-th layer (kN/m2)
Ks coefficient of horizontal earth pressure acting on pile
qi mean effective overburden pressure in the i-th layer (kN/m2)
m coefficient of friction between pile and soil
li thickness of the i-th layer (m)
(4.2.6)
For ca and m, see 4.1.5 Estimation of Ultimate Axial Bearing Capacity by Static Bearing Capacity Formulas.
The value of the coefficient of horizontal earth pressure Ks in the case of pulling is considered to be smaller than the
value in the case of bearing. A value between 0.3 and 0.7 (close to the coefficient of earth pressure at rest) is generally
used.
4.2.4 Examination of Tensile Stress of Pile Materials (Notification Article 43, Clause 4)
The allowable pulling resistance of pile shall not exceed the value calculated by multiplying the allowable
tensile stress of pile materials by the effective cross-sectional area of pile.
4.2.5 Matters to Be Considered for Obtaining Allowable Pulling Resistance of Piles
When calculating the allowable pulling resistance of piles, the following shall be taken into account:
(1) In case of spliced piles, pulling resistance of piles below joints shall be ignored. When high-quality
joints are installed in steel piles, however, pulling resistance of lower piles may be taken into account
within the allowable tensile strength of the joints, after confirming the reliability of the joint.
(2) In case of pile group, pulling resistance shall be calculated as that of a single block surrounded with
the envelope surface of outermost piles in the group of piles.
(3) When determining the allowable pulling resistance of piles, the amount of allowable upward
displacement of pile heads imposed by the superstructures shall be taken into account.
4.3 Allowable Lateral Bearing Capacity of Piles

4.3.1 General
The allowable lateral bearing capacity of a single pile shall be determined as appropriate on the basis of the
behavior of the pile when it is subject to lateral forces.
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[Commentary]
(1) For the axial bearing capacity, the standard value for allowable bearing capacity is calculated by dividing the
ultimate bearing capacity by the safety factor. But for the lateral bearing capacity, its allowable value is
calculated directly from the behavior of the piles without referring to the ultimate bearing capacity.
(2) The allowable lateral bearing capacity of a pile should be determined to satisfy the following two conditions:
(a) The bending stress arising in a pile should not exceed the allowable bending stress of pile material.
(b) The displacement of pile head (horizontal displacement) should not exceed the allowable displacement
imposed by the superstructure.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Embedded Length of Piles
The length of embedded part of pile that yields effective resistance against external forces is called the effective
length. Piles are called the long pile when the embedded length is longer than their effective length. Piles are
called the short pile when the embedded length is shorter than their effective length.
(2) Piles Subject to Lateral Force
The resistance when a pile is subject to lateral forces (horizontal or nearly horizontal external forces) is called
the lateral resistance. It is categorized into the three basic forms shown in Fig. T- 4.3.1 5).
(a) When one vertical pile is subject to horizontal force
When a horizontal external force acts on a vertical pile, only the lateral resistance occurs and axial resistance
is not involved. This is the simplest form of lateral resistance and called the lateral resistance of pile in a
narrow sense.
(b) When one batter pile is subject to horizontal force
In this case, some part of external force is supported by the axial resistance. The burden ratio between the
lateral and axial resistances is almost wholly determined by the inclination angle of the piles. Therefore, the
bearing capacity may be divided into the lateral and axial resistances and examined separately.
(c) When coupled piles are subject to horizontal force
Coupled piles are those in which two or more piles with differing axial directions are combined. The simplest
form of coupled piles is shown in Fig. T- 4.3.1 (c). In this case, most of the external force is supported by the
axial resistance of coupled batter piles. Therefore, when the free length of the piles is long, the lateral
resistance is usually ignored in estimating the bearing capacity. Instead, the axial bearing capacity alone is
considered.
With coupled piles, it is quite difficult to calculate the pile head displacement. A number of methods have
been proposed to date, but none of them is sufficient to apply to the calculation of pile head displacement (see
4.3.6 Lateral Bearing Capacity of Coupled Piles [Technical Notes]). However, since the displacement of
coupled piles is far smaller than that of single piles, displacement rarely becomes a problem.
(a) When one vertical pile is

subject to horizontal force
(b) When one batter pile is

(c) When coupled piles are

Fig. T- 4.3.1 Piles Subject to Lateral Force
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
4.3.2 Estimation of Allowable Lateral Bearing Capacity of Piles (Notification Article 43, Clause 5)
The allowable lateral bearing capacity of piles shall be determined at an appropriate value on the basis of
loading tests or analytical methods, or estimation methods by combining these results.
4.3.3 Estimation of Pile Behavior Using Loading Tests
When loading tests are conducted to estimate behavior of a single pile subject to lateral force, all the due
considerations shall be given to the differences in the pile and load conditions in between those of actual
structures and loading tests.
[Technical Notes]
When loading tests have been conducted under the conditions same as those in actual structures, the allowable
bearing capacity may be obtained from the loading test results by the following method. The load and pile head
displacement curve in lateral loading tests generally takes a curved form from the beginning. Therefore, it is difficult
to read clearly the yield load or the ultimate load on the load and pile head displacement curve (except for short
piles). It is because a pile with long embedded length is only subject to small-scale and progressive ground failure
phenomena but not to overall failure. Therefore, the load and pile head displacement curve is not used to obtain the
yield load or the ultimate load but to confirm the pile head displacement itself. In other words, once the allowable pile
head displacement is determined, the load corresponding to this displacement on the load and pile head displacement
curve defines the allowable lateral bearing capacity.
Furthermore, the bending stress corresponding to this allowable bearing capacity also needs to be accounted for.
That is, when a load equal to the allowable bearing capacity is applied, the maximum bending stress arising in the pile
must not exceed the allowable bending stress of the pile material (see 4.4.4 Allowable Stress for Pile Materials). To
calculate the allowable lateral bearing capacity of short piles, overturning of piles must be considered, in addition to
the pile head displacement and bending stress mentioned already. When the overturning load cannot be ascertained,
the maximum test load may be used instead of the overturning load.
4.3.4 Estimation of Pile Behavior Using Analytical Methods

When estimating behavior of a single pile subject to lateral force by using analytical methods, it shall be
standard to analyze the pile as a beam rested on an elastic foundation.
[Commentary]
Methods of analytically estimating the behavior of a single pile subject to lateral force as a beam rested on an elastic
foundation include the relatively simple Changs method as well as the Port & Harbor Research Institute (PHRI)
method 6). The latter is preferred as the method of analysis, because it can accurately express the actual behavior of
single piles. However, Changs method may be used when no significant difference is expected between the two
methods.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Basic Equation for Beam on Elastic Foundation
Equation (4.3.1) is the basic equation for analytically estimating behavior of a pile as a beam on an elastic
foundation.
d4y
(4.3.1)
EI -------4- = P = pB
dx
where
EI flexural rigidity of pile (kNm2)
x depth from ground level (m)
y displacement of pile at depth x (m)
P subgrade reaction per unit length of pile at depth x (kN/m)
P
p subgrade reaction per unit area of pile at depth x (kN/m2); p = --B
B pile width (m)
Shinohara, Kubo, and Hayashi proposed the PHRI method as an analytical method considering the nonlinear
elastic behavior of the ground 6). This method has a significant merit that it can describe the behavior of actual
piles more faithfully than other methods. The PHRI method uses equation (4.3.2) to describe the relationship
between the subgrade reaction and the pile displacement.
(4.3.2)
p = kx m y 0.5
where
k constant of lateral resistance of ground (kN/m3.5 or kN/m2.5)
m index 1 or 0
-295-
(2) PHRI Method

(a) Characteristics of the PHRI method
In the PHRI method, the ground is classified into the S type and the C type. The relationship between the
subgrade reaction and the pile displacement for each ground is assumed by equation (4.3.3) and (4.3.4),
respectively.
S-type ground:
(4.3.3)
p = k s xy 0.5
C-type ground:
p = kc y 0.5
where
ks constant of lateral resistance in S-type ground (kN/m3.5)
kc constant of lateral resistance in C-type ground (kN/m2.5)
(4.3.4)
The identification of S-type or C-type ground and the estimation of ks and kc are based on the results of
loading tests and soil investigation.
In the PHRI method, the nonlinear relationships between p and y are introduced as given by equations
(4.3.3) and (4.3.4) to reflect the actual state of subgrade reaction. Therefore, the solutions under individual
conditions would remain unattainable without help of numerical calculation, and the principle of superposition
could not be applied. The results of many full-scale tests have confirmed that this method reflects the behavior
of piles more accurately than the conventional methods. It is commented here that for piles to behave as long
piles, they must be at least as long as 1.5 lm1 (lm1: depth of the first zero point of bending moment in the PHRI
method).
(b) Constants of lateral resistance of the ground
The two ground types in the PHRI method are defined as follows.
S-type ground
(i)The relationship between p-y is expressed as p = ks xy0.5 (see equation (4.3.3))
(ii) The N-value by the standard penetration test increases in proportion to the depth.
(iii) Actual examples: sandy ground with uniform density, and normally-consolidated clayey ground.
C-type ground
(i) The p-y relationship is expressed as p = kc y0.5 (see equation (4.3.4))
(ii) The N-value by the standard penetration test is constant regardless of depth.
(iii) Actual examples: sandy ground with compacted surface, and heavily-preconsolidated clayey ground.
In the S-type ground, the relationship between the increment N of the N-value per meter in depth and the
lateral resistance constant ks has been obtained as shown in Fig. T- 4.3.2. Even if the distribution of N-values
with depth does not have the value 0 at the ground level, the increment N may be determined from the mean
gradient of N-values passing through the zero point at the ground level. In the C-type ground, the relationship
between the N-value itself and kc has been obtained as shown in Fig. T- 4.3.37). In this way, the approximate
value of ks or kc may be judged from the distribution of N-values with depth.
(c) Estimation of lateral resistance constants by loading tests
Estimations of the lateral resistance constants by using the N-value can only provide approximate values.
Loading tests should be conducted to obtain more accurate values. The constants ks and kc are determined
from the ground conditions alone, and are unaffected by other conditions unlike Changs Es. Therefore, if ks or
kc can be obtained by a loading test, its value can be applied to other conditions as well.
(d) Effect of pile width
There are two ways of considering the effect of pile width. The first is to regard that the pile width B has no
effect on the relationship between the subgrade reaction p per unit area and the displacement y. The second, as
proposed by Terzaghi, is to assume that the value of p corresponding to a given y value is inversely
proportional to B. Shinohara, Kubo and Sawaguchi conducted model experiments on the relationship between
the ks value in sandy ground (PHRI method) and B. The results are shown in Fig. T- 4.3.4. It seems to support
a combination of the two theories mentioned above in such a way that the first theory holds true if the pile
width B is sufficiently large. On the basis of these results, it was decided not to consider the effect of pile
width in the PHRI method.
(e) Effect of pile inclination
For batter piles, the relationship between the inclination angle of the piles and the ratio of the lateral resistance
constant of batter piles to that of vertical piles has been obtained as shown in Fig. T- 4.3.5.
-296-
PART V FOUNDATIONS
1. Alton, Illinois (FEAGIN)
2. Winfield, Montana (GLESER)
3. Port Hueneme (MASON)
4.5. Hakkenbori No.1, No.2
6. Ibaragigawa (GOTO)
7. Osaka National Railways (BEPPU)
8.9. Tobata No.6, No.9
10. Tobata K-I (PHRI)
11. Tobata K-II (PHRI)
12. Tobata L-II (PHRI)
13. Kurihama model experiment
14. Shin-Kasai Bridge (TATEISHI)
15. Yamanoshita (IGUCHI)
N
Fig. T- 4.3.2 Relationship between N and ks
1. Tobata K-I (TTRI)
2. Tobata K-III (TTRI)
3. Tobata K-IV (TTRI)
4. Tobata L-II (TTRI)
5. Tobata L-IV (TTRI)
6. Hakkenbori No.1
7. Hakkenbori No.2
8. Osaka National Railways
9. Yahata Seitetsu No.6
10. Yahata Seitetsu No.9
11. Tobata preliminary test-1 (TTRI)-1
12. Tobata preliminary test-2 (TTRI)-2
13. Wagner (Callif.) No.15
14. Wagner (Callif.) No.25
15. Wagner-1 (Alaska)-1
16. Wagner-1 (Alaska)-2
17. Tokyo National Railways b
18. Tokyo National Railways A4
19. Tokyo National Railways B
N-value
Fig. T- 4.3.3 Relationship between N-value and kc
-297-
Lateral resistance constant
ks
(kN/m3.5)
1st Series
2nd Series
3rd Series
Legend
maximum
pile head
displace p-y curve bending
moment
-ment
Pile width (cm)
Fig. T- 4.3.4 Relationship between ks and Pile Width
= k/k 0
k0
Indoor experiments
Field experiments
Value of , when = 0
Fig. T- 4.3.5 Relationship between Pile Inclination Angle and Ratio k
-298-
y0
-299-
M0
lm
M s,max
M s,max
l0
K 1, K 2, K 3, K 4
Pile head rigidity factor
angle zero point
Depth of deflection
point
Depth of 1st steady
occurs
Depth at which
of embedded parts
Maximum bending moment
moment
Pile head bending
pile members
Shear strength of
pile members
Bending moment of
Pile head inclination
displacement
Ground level
yt
Pile head displacement
Deflection curve
diagram
Bending moment
diagram
Deflection curve
Situation of pile
symbols
and explanation of
of deflection curve
(y x)
(y x)
(yz)
t
Mt
Mm
M t
(M x)
(M z)
h + 1
l 0 = 1 tan 1
h 1
1 + h 0
l 0 = 1 tan 1
h 0
12EI 3
1 + h
K2 = K3 = K1
2
( 1 + h ) 3 + 2
4EI
( 1 + h ) 3 + 1/2
K4 =
( 1 + h ) ( 1 + h ) 3 + 2
K1 =
L = 1 tan 1 ( h )
l m = 1 tan 1 1
Ht
1 + ( h ) 2 exp ( l m )
2
1 + h
K
Ht = 2 Ht
K1
2
M s,max =
M0 =
H
M z = t ( 1 + h 2z )
2
H
M x = t e x [ ( 1 h ) cos h ( 1 + h ) sin x ]
2
Sz = H t
S x = H t e x [ cos x h sin x ]
1
l m = 1 tan 1
1 + 2h 0
L = 1 tan 1 [ ( 1 + 2h 0 ) ]
H t= H 0
yt t
(y x)
Mm
(M x)
= 0)
K 1 = 4EI 3
K 2 = K 3 = 2EI 2
K 4 = 2EI
L = 3 = 2.3562
l 0 = = 1.5708
2
l m = = 0.7854
M s,max = 0.3224
M0 = 0
Ht
S x = H t e x ( cos x sin x )
h =0
M0
yt = y0
(M x)
Ht
H t
=
4EI 3 Bkh
Ht
e x ( cos x + sin x )
4EI 3
H t x
e ( cos x sin x )
2
Ht
2
L = = 3.1416
l 0 = 3 = 2.3562
l m = = 1.5708
M s,max = 0.2079
M0 =
Ht
S x = H t e x cos x
Mx =
t = 0
y0 = yt
yt =
yx =
Ht H0
If pile head does not rotate
Embedded underground
Mt
H t x
e sin x
Ht
2EI 2
Mx =
t =
Ht
2H t
=
2EI 3 Bk h
y0 = yt
t = 0
( 1 + 2h 0 ) 2 + 1 exp ( l m )
(M z)
(M z)
1 + h
Ht
4EI 3
( 1 + h ) 2
1 + h
Ht +
Mt
EI
2EI 2
Ht
2
M0
yt =
y0 =
M s,max =
yt
Basic system (but
H
( 1 + h ) 3 + 2
Ht = t
K1
12EI 3
1 + h 0
Ht
2EI 3
M0 = Mt
y0 0
Ht
: Coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction (kN/m )

: Height of pile head above ground (m)
Bk h / 4EI (m 1)
M
h0 = h + t
Ht
kh
h
Ht
( 1 + h ) H t 2 H t 3
yx =
e x cos x
yz = yt
z +
z
6EI
4EI
2EI 3
Ht
yx =
e x [ ( 1 + h ) cos x + ( 1 h ) sin x ] If t 0, use equations in putting
4EI 3
h 0 = M t / H t : the same applies below
yt =
Sz = H t
S x = H t e x [ cos x ( 1 + 2h 0 ) sin x ]
H t : Lateral force on pile head (kN)

M t : External force moment on pile head (kN.m)
B : Pile diameter (m)
EI : Flexural rigidity (kN.m2)
does not rotate
( 1 + h ) 3 + 1/2
( 1 + h ) 2
Ht +
Mt
2EI 2
3EI 3
M z = M t H tz
H
M x = t e x [ h 0 cos x + ( 1 + h 0 ) sin x [
t =
y0 =
yt =
If pile head
Protruding above ground
M
H
y z = y t tz + t z 2 + t z 3
2EI
6EI
Ht
yx =
e x [ ( 1 + h 0 ) cos x h 0 sin x ]
2EI 3
Ht
y0
yt
d 4 yx
+ Bk h y x = 0
dx 4
EI
Embedded sections:
Basic formation
[Symbols]
d 4 yz
=0
dz 4
EI
lm
h
lm
Exposed sections:
(M t)
(yz)
lm
Ht
Differential equations
lm
Table T- 4.3.1 Calculations for Piles of Semi-Infinite Length if kh Is Constant
PART V FOUNDATIONS
(3) Changs Method
64748
(a) Calculation equation

Using the elasticity modulus of the ground Es = Bkh, the elasticity equation of piles are expressed as follows.
d4 y1
- = 0
Exposed section:
(0 x -h)
EI ---------dx 4
(4.3.5)
d4 y2
- + Bk h y 2 = 0 (x 0)
Embedded section: EI ---------dx 4
By calculating these general solutions (with Bkh as a constant) and inputting the boundary conditions, the
solution for piles of semi-infinite length can be obtained (see Table T- 4.3.1). According to Yokoyama, piles
of finite length can also be calculated in a similar way to piles of infinite length as long as bL p. If shorter
than this, a pile must be treated as having a finite length. Diagrams are available to simplify this process.
(b) Estimation of kh in Changs method
Terzaghis proposal8)
Terzaghi proposed the following values for the coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction in cohesive and sandy
soil:
(i) In case of clayey soil
0.2
k h = ------- k h1
B
Es =
where
kh
B
kh1
(4.3.6)
Bk h = 0.2k h1
(4.3.7)
coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction (kN/m3)

pile width (m)
value listed in Table T- 4.3.2
(ii) In case of sandy soil

x
k h = n h --B
E s = Bk h = n h x
where
x depth (m)
B pile width (m)
nh value listed in Table T- 4.3.3
(4.3.8)
(4.3.9)
In sandy soil, Es is a function of depth and thus cannot be introduced directly into Changs method. For such
cases, Chang states that Es should be taken at one-third of the value at the depth of ly1 (depth of the first
zero-displacement point). However, ly1 itself is a function of Es, and repeated calculations have to be made
to obtain the value of Es. The book by Yokoyama 9) describes the method of calculation without repetition.
Terzaghi assumes that the value of kh is inversely proportional to the pile width B, as shown in equations
(4.3.6) and (4.3.8). Other opinions suggest that pile width is irrelevant (see [Technical Notes] (2) (d)).
Table T- 4.3.2 Coefficient of Lateral Subgrade Reaction
Consistency of clay
Unconfined compressive strength qu
Range of kh1
(kN/m3)
Proposed value of kh1
Hard
Very hard
Solid
100 200
200 400
400 or greater
16,000 32,000
32,000 64,000
64,000 or greater
24,000
48,000
96,000
(kN/m2)
(kN/m3)
Table T- 4.3.3 Value of n h

Relative density of sand
nh for dry or wet sand
Loose
Medium
Dense
(kN/m3)
2,200
6,600
17,600
(kN/m3)
1,300
4,400
10,800
nh for submerged sand
Yokoyamas proposal
Yokoyama 9) has collated the results of lateral loading tests on steel piles conducted in Japan and he
reversely calculated kh by using these results. Figure T- 4.3.6 shows the relationship between these values
and the mean N-values at depths down to b -1 from the ground level.
In this case, Es = khB is taken as valid for both sandy and clayey soil, while kh itself is assumed not to be
affected by B. Although the reversely-calculated values of kh by using the actually observed data decrease in
-300-
PART V FOUNDATIONS
proportion to the increase of load, Fig. T- 4.3.6 shows the values of kh corresponding to the load at which
the bending stress of steel material reaches 100 ~ 150 MN/m2. This diagram may be used when approximating the value of Es from soil conditions alone without conducting loading tests in situ.
1. Yamaborigawa
2. Tobata
3. Tobata K-I
4. Tobata L-II
5. Tobata K-II
6. Tobata K-III
7. Tobata L-IV
8. Tobata K-IV
9. Shell Ogishima
10. Ibaragigawa
11. Takagawa
12. Tokyo Supply Warehouse
13. Kasai Bridge
14. Aoyama
15. Den-en
N-value
Fig. T- 4.3.6 Reversely-Calculated Values of kh from Horizontal Loading Tests on Piles
4.3.5 Consideration of Pile Group Action

When piles are used as a pile group, the effect of pile group action on the behavior of individual piles shall
be considered.
[Technical Notes]
When the interval of the driven piles exceeds the value listed in Table T- 4.3.4, the effect of the pile group on the
lateral bearing capacity of individual piles may be ignored. In the table, transverse means in the direction
perpendicular to that of the external force, and longitudinal means in the direction of the external force.
Table T- 4.3.4 Minimum Pile Interval for Lateral Bearing Capacity of Individual Piles
Sandy soil
Cohesive soil
transverse
1.5 times the pile diameter
longitudinal
transverse
longitudinal
4.3.6 Lateral Bearing Capacity of Coupled Piles

The lateral bearing capacity of a foundation of the structure with coupled piles shall be determined as
appropriate in view of structural characteristics of the foundation.
[Commentary]
(1) Distribution of Horizontal Force in Foundation with a Combination of Vertical and Coupled Piles
When a horizontal force acts on a foundation with a combination of vertical and coupled piles, the force borne
by vertical piles is far smaller than that borne by coupled piles under the condition of equal horizontal
displacement. It may generally be assumed that all of the horizontal force is borne by the coupled piles.
-301-
(2) Lateral Bearing Capacity of Coupled Piles

There are two groups of calculation methods for the lateral bearing capacity of coupled piles. The first group
only takes account of the resistance from the axial bearing capacity of each pile. The second group takes account
of the resistance from the axial bearing capacity of each pile and the lateral bearing capacity of each pile in
consideration of the bending resistance of piles.
[Technical Notes]
64748
(1) Estimation of Lateral Bearing Capacity of Coupled Piles Considering the Axial Bearing Capacity of Piles Only
When the resistance forces are borne by axial bearing capacity only, as shown in Fig. T- 4.3.7, the vertical and
horizontal external loads acting on the head of a pair of coupled piles are divided into the axial force of each pile.
This means that the force acting in the axial direction of each pile should be less than the allowable axial bearing
capacity (or allowable pulling resistance). The axial force is calculated by using equation (4.3.10) or a graphic
solution (see Fig. T- 4.3.7).
V i sin q 2 + H i cos q 2
P 1 = -------------------------------------------sin ( q 1 + q 2 )
(4.3.10)
V i sin q 1 H i cos q 1
P 2 = -------------------------------------------sin ( q 1 + q 2 )
where
P1, P2 pushing force acting on each pile (or pulling force when negative) (kN)
q1, q2 inclination angle of each pile ()
Vi vertical external load of coupled piles (kN)
Hi horizontal external load of coupled piles (kN)
(Out-batter pile)
Fig. T- 4.3.7 Axial Forces of Coupled Piles
(In-batter pile)
Fig. T- 4.3.8 Coupled Piles in View of Soil Resistance Due

to Deflection Caused by Pile Bending Moment
(2) Estimation of Lateral Bearing Capacity of Coupled Piles Considering Lateral Bearing Capacity of Individual
Piles
There are various ways of calculating the lateral bearing capacity of the coupled piles, taking account of the
lateral bearing capacity of individual piles. For example:
Setting conditions whereby the displacement of each pile is always the same at the point of connection of
coupled piles, on the assumption that the spring characteristics in the axial and lateral directions at the pile
head are elastic9).
Calculating the ultimate resistance of the coupled piles on the assumption that the axial and lateral bearing
capacities of piles indicate an elasto-plasticity characteristic10).
Calculating the load and displacement at the pile heads, or the settlement and the upward displacement of
-302-
PART V FOUNDATIONS
piles in the case of on the basis of empirical equations11).
Using the results of loading tests on single piles12).
Assuming that the yield state of each pile will occur in turn and the resistance of the yield member will be
constant thereafter until the resistance of coupled piles reach the ultimate bearing capacity.
w2
N 2 = ------ { [ m 2 cos q 2 + m 1 cos q 1 cos ( q 1 + q 1 ) + w 1 sin q 1 sin ( q 1 + q 2 ) ]V
D
[ m 2 sin q 2 m 1 sin q 1 cos ( q 1 + q 2 ) + w 1 cos q 1 sin ( q 1 + q 2 ) ]H }
m1
H 1 = ----- { [ w 1 sin q 1 w 2 sin q 2 cos ( q 1 + q 2 ) + m 2 cos q 2 sin ( q 1 + q 2 ) ] V
D
+ [ w 1 cos q 1 + w 2 cos q 2 cos ( q 1 + q 2 ) + m 2 sin q 2 sin ( q 1 + q 2 ) ]H }
m2
H 2 = ----- { [ w 2 sin q 2 w 1 sin q 1 cos ( q 1 + q 2 ) + m 1 cos q 1 sin ( q 1 + q 2 ) ]V
D
+[ w 2 cos q 2 + w 1 cos q 1 cos ( q 1 + q 2 ) + m 1 sin q 1 sin ( q 1 + q 2 ) ]H }
D = ( w 1 + w 2 ) ( m 1 + m 2 ) + ( w 1 m 1 ) ( w 2 m 2 ) sin 2 ( q 1 + q 2 )
6444444744444448
The method is for calculating the distribution of horizontal force to each pile on the assumption that the axial
and lateral resistances of a pile have elastic properties 9). In the coupled piles shown in Figure T- 4.3.8, the
settlement of each pile at the pile head is proportional to the axial force acting on that pile and also the lateral
displacement is proportional to the lateral force acting on that pile. On this assumption, the axial and lateral
forces acting on each pile of the coupled piles can be calculated using equation (4.3.11), derived from the
conditions of force equilibrium and compatibility of displacements.
w1
N 1 = ------ { [ m 1 cos q 1 + m 2 cos q 2 cos ( q 1 + q 2 ) + w 2 sin q 2 sin ( q 1 + q 2 ) ]V
D
+ [ m 1 sin q 1 m 2 sin q 2 cos ( q 1 + q 2 ) + w 2 cos q 2 sin ( q 1 + q 2 ) ]H }
(4.3.11)
1
+ --- [ ( m 1 w 1 ) sin 2q 1 + ( w 2 m 2 ) sin 2q 2 ]H }
2
1 1
h 1 = h 2 = --- --- [ ( m 1 w 1 ) sin 2q 1 + ( w 2 m 2 ) sin 2q 2 ]V
D2
+ [ m 1 sin 2 q 1 + w 1 cos 2 q 1 + m 2 sin 2 q 2 + w 2 cos 2 q 2 ]
where
N1, N2
H1, H2
V
H
q1, q2
w1, w2
m1, m2
d1,d2
h1,h2
644474448
Vertical and horizontal displacements of the pile head are calculated by equation (4.3.12)
1
d 1 = d 2 = --- { [ w 1 sin 2 q 1 + m 1 cos 2 q 1 + w 2 sin 2 q 2 + m 2 cos 2 q 2 ] V
D
(4.3.12)
axial force acting on each pile (compressive force is indicated by positive value) (kN)
lateral force acting on each pile (kN)
vertical load per pair of coupled piles (kN)
horizontal load per a pair of coupled piles (kN)
inclination angle of each pile ()
axial spring constant of each pile head (kN/m)
lateral spring constant of each pile head (kN/m)
vertical displacement of each pile head (m)
horizontal displacement of each pile head (m)
The subscript numbers attached to the symbols, as shown in Fig. T- 4.3.8, are 1 for the pushed pile and 2
for the pulled pile when only a horizontal load acts.
The values listed in Table T- 4.3.5 may be used for the spring constants of pile head. The symbols used in
Table T- 4.3.5 are defined below.
( 1 + bl ) 3 + 1 2
j D( bl ) = --------------------------------------( bl ) 3
( 1 + bl ) 3 + 2
j D( bl ) = --------------------------------( bl ) 3
b =
Es
--------4EI
-303-
where
l
l
E
A
I
Es
B
k h
embedded length of piles (m)

exposed length of piles (m)
Youngs modulus of pile material (kN/m2)
pile section area (m2)
moment of inertia of pile (m4)
elastic modulus of subsoil (kN/m2), Es =khB
pile width (m)
coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction (kN/m3)
The coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction kh may be calculated by multiplying the value of kh obtained in
[Technical Notes] (3) (b) in 4.3.4 Estimation of Pile Behavior Using Analytical Methods by the factor
obtained from Fig. T- 4.3.5, in accordance with the inclination of piles.
Table T- 4.3.5 Spring Constants of Pile Head
Bearing piles
Axial spring constant of pile head
()
Cohesive soil
2AE
w = --------------2l + l
Sandy soil
3AE
w = ------------------3l + 2l
Without exposed section

( 0)
ES
m = 2EIb 3 = -----2b
With exposed section

( 0)
3EI
m = -----------------------3j
l D ( bl )
Without exposed section

( 0)
ES
3
m = 4EIb = -----b
With exposed section

( 0)
12EI
m = -----------------------3j
l D ( bl )
Friction piles
Pile head hinged

Lateral axial spring constant of
pile head ()
AE
w = -----------l+l
Pile head fixed
4.4 Pile Design in General

4.4.1 Load Sharing
(1) Vertical loads shall be supported by piles alone. No bearing capacity shall be expected for the ground
touching with the bottom of structures supported by piles.
(2) Horizontal loads shall be supported by piles alone in principle. However, when enough resistance can
be obtained by the earth pressure acting on the embedded section of structure alone, this resistance
may be assumed to support the horizontal load.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Vertical Loads
Some gap may appear between the bottom of the structure supported by piles and the ground underneath it as
time passes, even if the bottom is constructed by touching the ground. Thus, for the sake of safety the bearing
capacity of the ground under a structure should be ignored.
(2) Horizontal Loads
In principle, horizontal loads should be supported by piles alone. If the resistance due to passive earth pressure
against the embedded section of structure can be expected, this resistance may be added. However it is generally
difficult to calculate the resistance due to passive earth pressure in this case. There is no simple way of
determining whether the passive earth pressure of the ground reaches its ultimate value in response to the pile
head displacement corresponding to the allowable lateral bearing capacity of piles. In some cases, if a structure
is displaced to the extent of passive earth pressure obtained by using Coulombs equation, this displacement of
the structure could cause the pile bending failure. These factors must be fully considered when calculating this
resistance due to passive earth pressure at the embedded section.
-304-
PART V FOUNDATIONS
4.4.2 Load Distribution

Within the same foundation, piles shall be so arranged that vertical and horizontal forces acting on
individual piles are as equal as possible.
4.4.3 Distance between Centers of Piles
When determining the distance between the centers of piles to be driven, the workability, deformation
behavior of surrounding ground, and behavior as a pile group shall be taken into account.
4.4.4 Allowable Stresses for Pile Materials
Allowable stresses for pile materials shall be determined as appropriate in view of their characteristics.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Pile Materials
Piles used for the construction of port and harbor facilities are made of timber, concrete, or steel. For timber and
steel piles, see the relevant sections of Part III, 6.2 Allowable Stress for Timber and Part III, 2.3 Allowable
Stresses, respectively. Allowable stresses for concrete are defined in Part III, 3.3 Design Based on Allowable
Stress Method.
In the construction of structure supported by concrete piles, these piles entail problems of driving or
underground construction. These kinds of conditions are different from the conditions in the construction of
other concrete structures. Therefore, the allowable stresses for concrete piles should be lower than those for
concrete members used for other structures.
(2) Allowable Stresses for Concrete Piles
Table T- 4.4.1 lists examples of the allowable stresses for concrete piles.
Table T- 4.4.1 Allowable Stress for Concrete Piles
Allowable stress
Type of pile
Reinforced concrete piles

(RC piles)
Precast concrete piles

formed via
centrifugal force
Concrete piles
Prestressed high-strength
concrete piles
(PHC piles)
Type
Amount

used when determining axial
bearing capacity
30% of design standard

strength, and not exceeding
12 MN/m2
Others
As specified in Part III, 3.3

Design Based on Allowable
Stress Method

used when determining axial
bearing capacity

12 MN/m2
Allowable bending
compressive stress

12 MN/m2
Allowable axial tensile stress

and allowable bending tensile
stress
3.0 MN/m2 (Type A)

5.0 MN/m2 (Types B, C)
Allowable bending
compressive stress (including
cases with axial force)

6.0 MN/m2
Others
70% of the allowable stress for

concrete specified in Part III,
3.3 Design Based on Allowable
Stress Method
Allowable bending
compressive stress (including
cases with axial force)

5.0 MN/m2
Others
50% of the allowable stress for

concrete defined in Part III, 3.3
Design Based on Allowable
Stress Method
Cast-in-place concrete piles with outer casing
Cast-in-place concrete piles with no outer casing
The values given above may be increased up to 1.5 times when considering short-term load or earthquake impact
-305-
4.5 Detailed Design

4.5.1 Examination of Loads during Construction
In the design of piles, it is recommended to examine not only the loads acting after completion of
construction but also those during transportation, positioning, and driving.
[Technical Notes]
Pile driving formulas, designed to calculate the static ultimate bearing capacity of piles from dynamic penetration
resistance, are difficult to make good use. Although estimations of bearing capacity using pile driving formulas have
the advantage of being very simple, the problem lies in their accuracy. In Fig. T- 4.5.1 by Sawaguchi, the ultimate
bearing capacity obtained from the pile driving formula for steel piles is compared with the results of loading tests in
a form of the ratio in percentage of the former to the latter. The figure reveals major discrepancy and dispersion
between the two. In clayey soil, soil is disturbed during pile driving and skin friction temporarily decreases.
Therefore, the ultimate bearing capacity cannot be estimated by pile driving formulas. In sandy soil, meanwhile, pile
driving formulas are said to be inaccurate for estimating the ultimate bearing capacity of friction piles. The limits of
applicability of pile driving formulas are discussed in reference 13).
Nevertheless, when driving a large number of piles into almost identical ground, pile driving formulas can be
used as a reference for estimating the relative differences in bearing capacity per each driven pile. Thus, the
application of these formulas should be restricted to construction management. However, they may also be used as
reference to confirm variation in the bearing capacity of each pile or to finish the driving of each pile so that they are
all governed by the same condition.
Hileys formula
Weisbachs formula
Janbus formula
Danish formula
Smiths formula
Fig. T- 4.5.1 Distribution of Ratios of the Estimation Values by Pile Driving Formulas to the Results of Loading Tests
Hileys equation is the most common pile driving formula, and is expressed by equations (4.5.1) and (4.5.2).
W p ( 1 e 2 ) R du C 1 R du C 2 R du C 3
(4.5.1)
R du S = ef F F -------------------------- --------------- --------------- --------------W H + Wp
2
2
2
The invidual terms of this equation represent the following: the term in the left-hand side is for work necessary for
penetrating piles, and the four terms in the right-hand side are for impact loss, loss due to elastic deformation of
the pile, loss due to elastic deformation of the ground, and loss due to cushion, respectively.
ef F
WH + e 2 W p
(4.5.2)
R du = ----------------------------------------- --------------------------C1 + C2 + C3 WH + Wp
S + -------------------------------2
where
Rdu ultimate pile-driving resistance; i.e., dynamic ultimate bearing capacity (kN)
WH weight of hammer (ram) (kN)
WP weight of pile (including pile head attachments) (kN)
F impact energy (kJ)
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
ef
e
S
C1
C2
C3
efficiency of hammer, ranging from 0.6 to 1.0, depending on the type of hammer14)
rebound coefficient (e = 1 if completely elastic, and e = 0 if completely non-elastic)
final penetration length of pile (m)
elastic deformation of pile (m)
elastic deformation of ground (m)
elastic deformation of pile head cushion (m)
Most pile driving formulas are obtained by replacing C1, C2, C3, ef, e, etc. in equation (4.5.2) with appropriate values.
Equation (4.5.3) is considered relatively well-suited to steel piles. Assuming the impact between hammer and pile to
be elastic, i.e., e = 1, the following is derived:
ef F
(4.5.3)
R du = ----------------------------------------C 1 + C2 + C 3
S + -------------------------------2
The term C1 + C2 + C3 in the above is the sum of elastic deformation of ground, pile, and pile head cushion. Of these,
C1 + C2 are equal to the rebound K measured at the pile head in pile driving tests (see Fig. T- 4.5.2). With steel piles,
elastic deformation C1 is dominant while C3 is generally smaller. Thus, if C3 is neglected, the following can be
assumed:
C1 + C2 + C3 C1 + C2 = K
thus,
(4.5.4)
678
ef F
R du = ------------K
S + ---2
where
Rdu dynamic ultimate bearing capacity of pile (kN)
ef efficiency of hammer, set at 0.5 in case of equation (4.5.4)
S penetration length of pile (cm)
drop hammers: mean penetration per strike for the final 5 ~ 10 strikes (m)
other hammers: mean penetration per strike for the final 10 ~ 20 strikes (m)
K rebound (m)
F impact energy (kJ)
Drop hammer:
F = WH H
Single action steam hammer:
Double action steam hammer: F = ( ap + WH )H
F = 2WH H
Diesel hammer:
H drop height of hammer (m)
WH weight of hammer (kN)
a cross-sectional area of cylinder (m2)
p steam pressure, air pressure (kN/m2)
The allowable bearing capacity Rda is obtained by dividing Rdu by a safety factor of 3. Thus,
1
R da = --- R du
3
(4.5.5)
Pile
Pencil
Metal clamp
Pencil
Elastic compression
of pile and ground (K)
Penetration of pile (S)
Fig. T- 4.5.2 Rebound Measurement
4.5.2 Design of Joints between Piles and Structure

Joints between piles and structures shall be designed to ensure safety against the stresses arising in them.
-307-
[Commentary]
It is not easy to decide whether joints between pile heads and the structure should be designed as rigid joints or hinge
joints, because each joint type has its advantages and disadvantages. In actual designs, judgements should be based
on a firm understanding of the characteristics of each, as described below:
(1) There is no difference between a rigid joint and a hinge joint as far as the response to vertical loads is concerned.
When buckling must be considered, the rigid joint is preferable because the buckling length of rigid joint is
shorter.
(2) When subject to a horizontal load, the horizontal displacement of the pile head with rigid joints is much smaller
than that with hinge joint.
(3) When a horizontal load is applied to a pile with rigid joint, a fixed end moment occurs at the pile head.
(4) In case of rigid joints, the pile head moment changes owing to the rotation of the structure.
(5) In dynamic analysis of joints, analysis of hinge joints is simpler and clearer than that of rigid joints. But in
normal construction it is difficult to use hinge structures for all joints between pile heads and the structure.
4.5.3 Joints of Piles

(1) Joints of piles shall be sufficiently safe against loads after completion as well as during construction.
(2) Joints shall be placed at the position where there is a sufficient margin in cross-sectional strength and
relatively free from corrosion.
[Commentary]
Depending on the position of joints, the forces acting on joints after completion of a structure are sometimes far
smaller than the total strength of the piles. However, considerations should be taken to ensure the safety of joints
against the pile-driving stress during construction, load increases in future, and unexpected stresses arising within the
cross section of joints.
4.5.4 Change of Plate Thickness or Materials of Steel Pipe Piles

When changing plate thickness or material of steel pipe piles, all due considerations shall be given to the
workability and the distribution of section force of piles.
[Commentary]
The section force of steel pipe piles varies with depth, generally decreasing as the penetrated depth of piles becomes
large. Therefore, plate thickness or material of steel pipe piles is sometimes changed from economical point of view.
[Technical Notes]
(1) When changing plate thickness or material of steel pipe piles, the position of the change should be at the depth
where the section force arising in the piles does not increase. Caution is also required because such a change
may not be allowed if a large negative skin friction is active.
(2) Jointing piles with different thickness and materials should be done by shop circular welding. The shape of the
welded section should comply with JIS A 5525.
4.5.5 Other Points for Caution in Design

[Technical Notes]
Generally, there is no risk of buckling during pile driving if the impact stress is below the yield stress of steel piles.
Kishida and Takano proposed equation (4.5.6) to express the influence of plate thickness on yield stress.
s py
t
(4.5.6)
-------- = 0.69 + 2.2 -
r
sy
where
spy
sy
t
r
yield stress of steel piles taking account of plate thickness (kN/m2)

yield stress of steel piles against static load (kN/m2)
plate thickness of pipe pile (mm)
radius of pipe pile (mm)
In either case, steel pipe piles outside the range shown in Fig. T- 4.5.3 should not be used. If there is a risk of
buckling, the steel pipe should be reinforced with steel bands or thicker piles should be used.
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
Range of use of steel pipe piles
Cut-away pipes
resistance
Electric
welded pipes
UOE
Roller-bending
Spiral pipes
Electric
welded resistance
pipes
Electric resistance
welded pipes
t
2r
Fig. T- 4.5.3 Relationship between Buckling Stress (smax) and Ratio of Sheet Thickness to Diameter ( ----- )
[References]
1) Shoichi KITAJIMA, Shusaku KAKIZAKI, Yoshio HANAKI, Toshiko TAHARA: On the axial bearing capacity of single
Piles, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 36, 1967 (in Japanese).
2) Kunio TAKAHASHI: Behavior of single piles in subsiding ground, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 533, 1985, 17p. (in Japanese).
3) Terzaghi, K., Peck, R. B., and Mesri, G.: Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice (Third Edition), John Wiley, 1995, pp.
435-436.
4) Peck, R. B., Hanson, W. E., and Thornburn, T. H.: Foundation Engineering, John Wiley, 1953, p. 260.
5) Transportalion Tech. Res. Inst. and Yahata Steel: Study on Lateral Resistance of H-shaped Piles, 1963, pp.345-353 (in
Japanese).
6) Koichi KUBO: A new method for the estimation of lateral resistance of piles, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 2, No. 3, 1964, pp. 1-37
(in Japanese).
7) Masatoshi SAWAGUCHI: Soil constants for piles, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1968, p. 551 (in Japanese).
8) Terzaghi, K.: Evaluation of coefficient of subgrade reaction, Geotechnique, Vol. 5, No. 4, 1955, pp. 316-319.
9) Yukimitu YOKOYAMA: Calculation Methods and Examples for Pile Structures, SANKAIDO, 1977, pp. 193-197 (in
Japanese).
10) Yoshinori AOKI: Design of coupled batter piles subject to horizontal forces, Tsuchi-to-Kiso, Vol. 18, No. 8, 1970, pp. 2732 (in Japanese).
11) Muneaki SEGAWA, Toyohiro UCHIDA, Takeo KATAYAMA: Design of coupled batter piles (part 2) - two batter piles
hinged at their tops -, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 110, 1970, pp. 1-14 (in Japanese).
12) Masatoshi SAWAGUCHI: Experimental investigation on the horizontal resistance of coupled piles, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 9,
No. 1, 1970, pp. 11-13 (in Japanese).
13) Hoityker T.,: Design of Pile Foundations, SYOKOKUSYA, 1978, pp. 37-41. (Translated in Japanese).
14) Chellis, R. D.: Pile Foundations, McGraw-Hill, 1961, pp. 29-32.s
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Chapter 5 ySettlement of Foundations

5.1 Stress in Soil Mass
The stress induced in a soil mass due to load on a foundation shall be estimated by assuming that the soil
mass be an elastic body. However, for uniformly distributed load, the stress in the soil mass may be
estimated by simply assuming that the stress disperse linearly with depth.
[Commentary]
When a structure built on the ground has a sufficient margin of safety factor against shear failure of subsoils, the
stress distribution in the soil mass can be rationally approximated by assuming the soil mass to be an elastic body.
The elastic solution obtained by Boussinesq is commonly used in calculation of stress distribution in a soil mass.
Boussinesqs solution is based on the case that a vertical concentrated load acts on the surface of an isotropic and
homogeneous semi-infinite elastic body. By superposing this solution, it is possible to calculate the stress distribution
in the soil mass when a line load or spatially-distributed load acts on the ground surface. In addition to this elastic
solution, the method of Koegler that assumes the stress to disperse linearly with depth can be used for estimating the
stress in the soil mass when a strip load or a rectangular load acts on the ground.1)
5.2 Immediate Settlement

Immediate settlement shall be estimated with the theory of elasticity by using an appropriate value of the
elastic modulus of the ground.
[Commentary]
Immediate settlement, unlike consolidation settlement that will be described later, is caused by shear deformation and
occurs at the instance of loading. The immediate settlement of sandy ground can be considered as the total settlement
since there is no long-term consolidation settlement. On the other hand, the immediate settlement of clayey ground is
caused by the settlement by undrained shear deformation and by the lateral movement by plastic flow. In the case of
soft clayey ground, the immediate settlement may be ignored sometimes in design because it is smaller than the
consolidation settlement.
In order to calculate the immediate settlement, the ground is usually assumed to be an elastic body, and the theory
of elasticity with elastisc modulus E and Poissons ratio v is used. As the elastic modulus of soil is greatly dependent
on the strain level of soil, it is important to use the elastic modulus that corresponds to the actual strain level taking
place in the soil mass. For example, the strains induced in the soft ground with a small margin of safety factor against
shear failure are around 0.5% to 1.5%, while those in the examination of deformation of the stiff ground under
excavation or in the case of deformation of foundation are below 0.1%. The relationship between the strain level and
the elastic modulus is described in Part II, 11.3.1 Elastic Constants.
5.3 Consolidation Settlement

Settlements of foundations that are caused by consolidation of subsoil shall be examined in accordance
with the procedures described in Part II, 11.3.2 Consolidation Properties. Design parameters for the
subsoils shall be determined by using an appropriate method based on the results of consolidation tests.
[Commentary]
Calculations of settlements due to consolidation are based on the results of consolidation tests on undisturbed
samples of cohesive soils. The final consolidation settlement, which is the amount of settlement when consolidation
caused by a load has finally completed, is determined by the compressibility properties of the soil skeleton, and can
be estimated directly from the results of consolidation tests. Time-dependent changes in settlement up to the final
consolidation settlement of a foundation are calculated based on the theory of consolidation.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Calculation of Final Consolidation Settlement of Foundation
Final consolidation settlement of foundation is calculated by using the method described in Part
, 11.3.2 Consolidation Properties.
(2) Calculation of Time-Settlement Relationship
The rate of consolidation settlement is calculated from the relationship between the average degree of
consolidation U and the time factor T that is obtained from Terzaghis consolidation theory, where the
dissipation of excess pore water pressure is expressed as a partial differential equation of thermal conductivity
type. The amount of settlement S(t) at a given time t can be calculated from the average degree of consolidation
U(t) by the following equation:
S(t) = S0 U(t)
(5.3.1)
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
The finite element analysis with visco-elasto-plasticity model for cohesive soil can be utilized for accurate
analysis of the consolidation settlement that takes account of inhomogeneity on consolidation properties of the
subsoil, the effect of self weight of cohesive soil layer, time-related changes in consolidation load, and others.
(3) Division of Cohesive Soil Layer Subject to Consolidation
When calculating the final consolidation settlement, the cohesive soil layer is usually divided into a number of
sub-layers as shown in Fig. T- 5.3.1. This is because the consolidation pressure Ds z and the coefficient of
volume compressibility mv vary with depth. With the mv method, the final consolidation settlement of
foundation may be calculated using equation (5.3.2).
(5.3.2)
S 0 = Sm v DhDs z
where
S0 final consolidation settlement (m)
Ds z increase in consolidation pressure at the center of a sub-layer (kN/m2)
mv coefficient of volume compressibility for the consolidation pressure equal to (s z 0 + Ds z /2), (m2/kN)
where s z 0 is the effective overburden pressure at the center of a sub-layer before consolidation
h thickness of a sub-layer in the consolidated layer (m)
Fig. T- 5.3.1 Calculation of Consolidation Settlement
Since mv and Ds z generally decrease with depth, the compression in each sub-layer becomes smaller as the
depth increases. The thickness of sub-layer h is usually set at 3 ~ 5 m. It should be noted that the consolidation
settlement of soft cohesive soil will be underestimated when h is taken too large, because the value of mv of
the surface layer is very large and it governs the total settlement.
The increment of consolidation pressure Ds z is calculated at the center of each sub-layer using the vertical
stress distribution with depth, which is described in 5.1 Stress in Soil Mass. The term Ds z is the increment in
vertical stress due to loading. In the natural ground, it is usually assumed that consolidation due to the existing
overburden pressure has completely finished.
Although the distribution of subgrade reaction at the bottom of foundation is not same as that of the acting
load due to the rigidity of foundation, the rigid foundation settles unifomly and the stress distribution of subsoil
at a certain depth becomes irrelevant to the distribution of reaction immediately below the foundation bottom.
Therefore, the vertical stress distribution in the subsoil beneath a rigid foundation can be estimated by
considering only the load distribution acting on the foundation bottom.
(4) Vertical Coefficient of Consolidation cv and Horizontal Coefficient of Consolidation ch
When pore water of ground flows vertically during consolidation, the vertical coefficient of consolidation cv is
used. But when vertical drains are installed, drained water of ground flows mainly to the horizontal direction and
the horizontal coefficient of consolidation ch should be used. The value of ch obtained from experiments on the
clay in Japanese port areas ranges from 1.0 to 2.0 times the value of cv2). However, in design ch cv is
acceptable when considering a decrease in ch due to disturbance caused by installation of vertical drains,
inhomogeneous consolidation properties in the ground, and others.
(5) Coefficient of Consolidation cv of Overconsolidated Clay 3)
The coefficient of consolidation of clay in overcosolidated state is generally larger than that in normally
consolidated state. When the clay seems to be clearly in overconsolidated state, the value of cv used for design
should be the one at the mean consolidation pressure between the existing effective overburden pressure and the
final pressure after consolidation. However, rather than simply calculating cv at the mean consolidation pressure,
it would be better to determine a weighted mean value of cv considering the settlement based on the e-log p
curve obtained by consolidation tests.
(6) Rate of Consolidation Settlement in Inhomogeneous Ground
When the ground consists of alternate layers with different cv values, the rate of consolidation settlement is
analyzed using the equivalent-thickness method 4) or numerical analysis such as the finite difference method 5) or
the finite element method 6) , 7). The equivalent-thickness method is used as a simplified method, but it
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sometimes yields significant errors. When the ground is inhomogenous to a large extent or when accurate
estimation is required, it is recommended to use the finite element method.
(7) Settlement Due to Secondary Consolidation
The shape of the settlement - time curve in long-term consolidation tests on cohesive soil is consistent with
Terzaghis consolidation theory up to the degree of consolidation of around 80%. When the consolidation passes
this level, the settlement increases linearly with logarithm of time. This is due to the secondary consolidation
that arises with the time-dependent properties of soil skeleton under consolidation load, beside the primary
consolidation that causes the settlement accompanying dissipation of excess pore water pressure induced in the
cohesive soil due to consolidation load.
The settlement due to secondary consolidation is particularly significant in peat and other organic soils. In
ordinary alluvial clay layers, the consolidation pressure caused by loading is often several times greater than the
consolidation yield stress of the subsoil. Under such conditions, the settlement due to secondary consolidation is
smaller than that due to the primary consolidation, and is not significant in design. But when the consolidation
pressure acting on the ground due to loading does not greatly exceed consolidation yield stress, the settlement
due to secondary consolidation tends to continue over a long time, even though the settlement due to primary
consolidation may be small. In this case, the secondary consolidation settlement must be fully taken into account
in design.
The settlement due to secondary consolidation may be generally calculated using the following equation:
Ca
(5.3.3)
S s = -------------- h log 10 ( t t 0 )
1 + e0
where
Ss settlement due to secondary consolidation (m)
C a coefficient of secondary compression
t time (d)
t0 start time of secondary consolidation (d)
h clay layer thickness (m)
The coefficient of secondary compression C a is obtained from conventional consolidation tests. It can also be
estimated from the relationship between C a and the compression index Cc that is generally expressed in the
following equation 8):
(5.3.4)
C a = (0.03 0.05) Cc
5.4 Lateral Displacement

In quaywalls or revetments constructed on soft clayey ground, countermeasures shall be taken when lateral
displacements due to shear deformation of the ground have an adverse effect on structures.
[Commentary]
(1) In quaywalls or revetments on soft ground, it is sometimes necessary to estimate lateral displacements caused by
shear deformation of the ground. The lateral displacements take two forms. The first one is the displacement
accompanying the settlement occurring immediately after loading. The second one is the displacement that
occurs gradually with time thereafter. If a load is significantly smaller than the ultimate bearing capacity of the
ground, the lateral displacement accompanying the immediate settlement can be predicted by assuming the
ground to be an elastic body.
(2) A common problem with soft ground is the case that the safety factor of the whole ground is set relatively low at
around 1.3, and lateral displacements occur as a combination of consolidation and creep deformation by shear
stress of the ground. In order to predict whether this kind of lateral displacement will occur or not, a practical
method based on past experiences 9) has been proposed. A computer program of finite element method that
applies elasto-plasticity or visco-elasto-plasticity models for clayey ground has been used to predict the
progresses of settlement and latreral displacement with time in detail. An appropriate method of calculation
should be chosen in consideration of the importance of the structure under lateral displacement.
5.5 Differential Settlements

When constructing structures on a soft clayey ground, differential settlements of the ground shall be taken
into account and appropriate countermeasures shall be taken when differential settlements have an adverse
effect on structures.
[Technical Notes]
A simplified method has been proposed for estimating differential settlements in reclaimed lands in port areas. It
classifies the reclaimed lands into the following four types:
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
(1) Extremely inhomogeneous ground

(2) Inhomogeneous ground
(3) Homogeneous ground
(4) Extremely homogeneous ground
Figure T- 5.5.1 shows the mean differential settlement ratios for each type of reclaimed land. The raios of the mean
differential settlements between two arbitrarily chosen points to the mean total settlement for reclaimed land. For
example, the mean differential settlement ratio for the distance between two points separated by 50 meters in
inhomogeneous ground is 0.12. Thus, when a total settlement of x cm occurs at a certain time from the beginning, the
differential settlement occurring on average in the distance of 50 meters is calculated as 0.12x. When applying this
method to actual design, the values given in Fig. T- 5.5.1 should be corrected with respect to the time period and the
depth of the layer to be consolidated 10).
Mean differential settlement ratio
0.5
Extremely inhomogeneous ground

Inhomogeneous ground
Homogeneous ground
Extremely homogeneous ground
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
20
50
100
Distance between two points (m)
Fig. T- 5.5.1 Relationship between Mean Distance and Mean Differential Settlement Ratio in Reclaimed Lands
[References]
1) Koichi AKAI: Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Soils, Sankai-do, 1964 (in Japanese).
2) Masaki KOBAYASHI, Junichi MIZUKAMI, Takashi TSUCHIDA: Estimation method of horizontal coefficient of
consolidation for cohesive soils, Rept. of PHRI Vol. 29, No. 2, 1990 (in Japanese).
3) Akio NAKASE, Masaki KOBAYASHI, Akio KANECHIKA: Consolidation parameters of overconsolidated clays, Rept. of
4) L. A. Palmer and P. P. Brown: Settlement analysis for areas of continuing subsidence, Proc. 4th. Int. Conf. S. M. F. E., Vol.
1, 1957, pp. 395-398
5) R. L. Schiffman and R. E. Gibson: Consolidation of nonhomogeneous clay layers, Journal of S. M. F. E., ASCE, Vol. 90,
No. SM5, 1964, pp. 1-30
6) Masaki KOBAYASHI: Numerical analysis of one-dimensional consolidation problems, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 21, No. 1,
1982 (in Japanese).
7) Masaki KOBAYASHI: Finite element analysis of the effectiveness of sand drains, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 30, No. 2, 1991 (in
Japanese).
8) Mesri, G.: Coefficient of secondary compression, Proc. ASCE, Vol. 99, No. SM1, 1973, pp. 123-137
9) Yasuo KASUGAI, Ken-ichiro MINAMI, Hiroyuki TANAKA: The prediction of the lateral flow of port and harbour
structures, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 726, 1992 (in Japanese).
10) Takashi TSUCHIDA, Kenji ONO: Evaluation of differential settlements with numerical simulation and its application to
airport pavement design, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 27, No. 4, 1988 (in Japanese).
-313-
Chapter 6 Stability of Slopes

6.1 General
(1) Stability of slopes against slip failure caused by self weight of soil and/or surcharge shall be analyzed
as a two-dimensional problem, assuming a circular arc slip surface or a planar slip surface.
(2) Slope stability analysis shall be carried out on the condition that the slope becomes least stable.
[Commentary]
(1) General
Slope stability analysis is to calculate a safety factor at a limit equilibrium state when a soil mass of slope
becomes unstable due to self weight of soil and/or surcharge. Calculation methods used in slope stability
analysis may also be used to study bearing capacity of foundations, because they are intended to examine the
stability of soil mass.
(2) Shapes of Slip Surface
(a) Types of shapes of slip surfaces
Theoretically speaking, shapes of slip surfaces in slope stability analysis are combinations of planar,
logarithmic spiral, and/or circular arc shapes 1). In practice, however, planar or circular arc slip surfaces are
assumed. When there is a particularly weak layer and a slip surface is expected to pass over it, that slip surface
or other appropriate slip surfaces may sometimes be assumed. An assumed slip surface in general should be
the one along which the slip of the soil mass smoothly takes place. Thus, a slip surface with sharp bends or
curves that seems to be kinematically unnatural should not be used.
(b) Slope failure of sandy ground
Slip failure of dry or saturated sand slope usually takes a mode that the slope inclination decreases by
collapsing. Thus, its shape should be considered as a planar plane rather than a circular arc. Even when
assuming a circular arc slip surface, its form is close to a planar one. The inclination of sandy slope in
equilibrium is termed as the angle of repose, which is equivalent to an internal friction angle that corresponds
to the void ratio of the sand in the slope. The angle of repose of unsaturated sand, having apparent cohesion
due to surface tension of pore water in the sand, becomes larger than that of dry or saturated sands.
(c) Slope failure of clayey ground
The actual slip failure surface of clayey ground is close to a circular arc, and a deep slip called the base failure
often takes place, while a shallow slip appears near the surface layer in sandy slope.
Slope stability analysis is usually dealt as a two-dimensional problem. Although actual slip surfaces in
slopes with long extention take the form of three-dimensional curved surfaces, a two dimensional analysis
gives a solution on the safer side. When the stability is expected to decrease due to surcharge over a finite
extention, however, the lateral resistance of both the ends of a cylindrical failure surface may be taken into
account.
(3) External Forces in Slope Stability Analysis
Important causes of slip failures are self weight of soil, surcharge, water pressure and others. Beside them, cyclic
loads such as seismic force, wave force, and others may be included. Resistance against the slip is given by shear
resistance of soil and counter weight. Because the shear strength of soil is related with time, the stability
problems on soil mass are classified into two cases; loading on the ground in normally consolidated state, and
unloading by excavation etc. The former is refered to as a short-term stability problem and the latter a long-term
one. In either case the shear strength that is suitably evaluated should be used (see Part II, 11.3.3 Shear
Properties).
[Technical Notes]
A safety factor in slope stability problems is the ratio of the shear strength of soil to the shear stress arising on an
assumed slip surface. As the value of safety factor differs from an assumed slip surface to another, the safety factor
against slip failure of the slope is the smallest of those obtained by assuming different slip surfaces under the given
conditions. As a standard, a safety factor more than 1.30 for ordinary conditions should be maintained in slope
stability analyse for design puposes. However, a safety factor between 1.10 and 1.30 may be acceptable under the
condition that the design parameters are thought to be highly reliable based on the actual performance in the similar
subsoil conditions, and that construction works are carried out with detailed monitoring of displacements and stresses
of the ground 2).
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
6.2 Stability Analysis

6.2.1 Stability Analysis Using Circular Slip Surface Method (Notification Article 44)
Depending on the ground characteristics, slope stability shall be examined by circular arc analysis using
the modified Fellenius method as shown in the following equation, or else by an appropriate method in
accordance with 2.5 Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined Loads. In the analysis as described
above, the safety factor shall maintain an appropriate value taking account of the characteristics of the
ground and structure.
R S ( cl + W cos a tan f )
F s = -------------------------------------------------------S Wx + S Ha
(6.2.1)
S ( cb + W cos 2 a tan f ) sec a
= ------------------------------------------------------------------1
S W sin a + ---S Ha
R
where
Fs safety factor against circular slip failure according to the modified Fellenius method
R radius of slip circle (m)
c undrained shear strength of cohesive soil, or apparent cohesion of sandy soil in drained condition
(kN/m2)
l length of base of a segment (m)
W' effective weight of a segment per unit length (the sum of soil self weight and surcharge; for
submerged part, use the submerged unit weight) (kN/m)
a angle of segment base to the horizontal ()
f 0 for cohesive soil, or angle of internal friction of sandy soil in drained condition ()
W total weight of a segment per unit length (the sum of soil self weight, water weight and surcharge)
(kN/m)
x horizontal distance between the center of gravity of a segment and the center of slip circle (m)
H horizontal external force acting on a soil mass inside a slip circle (water pressure, seismic force,
wave force and others) (kN/m)
a arm length of horizontal external force H with respect to the center of a slip circle (m)
b width of segment (m)
[Commentary]
In slope stability analysis, slip failure may be caused by self weight of soil, surcharge, water pressure, wave pressure,
seismic force and others. Resistance to slip failure is the shear resistance of soil, counter weight and others. A safety
factor against slip failure of slope is defined as the ratio of the shear strength of soil to the shear stress arising on an
assumed slip surface. When assuming a circular slip surface, it is calculated as the ratio of resisting moment to
overturning moment around the center of the slip circle.
In the slice method used for the circular arc analysis, the soil mass inside the slip circle is divided into a number of
segments by vertical planes. The shear stress and resistant stress of soil on the base of each segment are then
calculated. Summing up the stresses all over the segments, a safety factor is obtained. For the slice method, the
statically determinate condition has to be assumed in order to solve for the forces in equilibrium between the
segments. Various methods have been proposed depending on the assumption used. Generally the modified Fellenius
method and the simplified Bishop method are used in many cases.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Stability Analysis Method Using Modified Fellenius Method 1), 3)
Various calculation methods have been proposed for
the slice method. They vary in their assumptions on
the forces acting on the vertical planes between the
segments. The modified Fellenius method assumes
that the direction of resultant force acting on vertical
planes between the segments is parallel to the base of
the segments. This method is also referred to as the
simplified method or Tschebotarioff method. When a
circular arc and a segment are as shown in Fig. T6.2.1, a safety factor according to the modified Fellenius method can be obtained using equation (6.2.1).
For conducting slope stability analysis, the center
of a slip circle is set first of all. Of the slip circles that
Fig. T- 6.2.1 Circular Arc Analysis Using Modified
take this point as their center, the one that gives the
Fellenius Method
-315-
minimum safety factor is sought for. This safety factor then becomes the safety factor for that center point. The
safety factors for the other centers are then found using the same method. The minimum value obtained via contours for safety factors is defined as the safety factor against slip failure of the slope.
(2) Stability Analysis Method Using Bishop Method 4)
Bishop proposed an equation for calculating a safety factor taking account of vertical shear force and horizontal
force acting on the vertical planes of segments. In actual calculations, a commonly used method assumes
vertical shear forces to be in equilibrium. This is termed the simplified Bishop method. The safety factor by the
simplified Bishop method Fs is calculated using equation (6.2.2).
1
( cb + W tan f ) sec a
1 + ( tan a tan f ) F s
Fs = ------------------------------------------- S ----------------------------------------------------
1
SW sin a + ---SHa
R
(6.2.2)
where
F s safety factor against circular slip failure according to the simplified Bishop method
R radius of slip circle (m)
W' effective weight of a segment per unit length (the sum of soil self weight and surcharge; for submerged
part, use the submerged unit weight) (kN/m)
W total weight of a segment per unit length (the sum of soil self weight, water weight and surcharge)
(kN/m)
b width of segment (m)
a angle of segment base to the horizontal ()
c undrained shear strength of cohesive soil, or apparent cohesion of sandy soil in drained condition
(kN/m2)
f 0 for cohesive soil; angle of shear resistance of sandy soil in drained condition ()
H horizontal external force acting on a soil mass inside a slip circle (water pressure, seismic force, wave
force and others) (kN/m)
a arm length of horizontal external force H with respect to the center of a slip circle (m)
(3) Applicability of Stability Analysis Methods 5)
The safety factors obtained from the modified Fellenius method and the simplified Bishop method are in
agreement for cohesive soil in which f = 0, while they differ when the circular arc passes through sandy soil
layers. The modified Fellenius method is commonly used for circular arc analysis both in Japan and abroad. This
is because it has been reported that the modified Fellenius method reasonably explains the actual behaviors of
slope failure based on the results of stability analysis on case histories of slip failures in port and harbor areas in
Japan 3), and also because it gives a safety factor on the safer side in sandy soil layers.
However, when the foundation ground consists of only sandy soil layers, or when a circular arc cuts through
the ground consisting of a thick sandy layer at the top and a cohesive layer at the bottom, it has been confirmed
that the modified Fellenius method underestimates the safety factor. The simplified Bishop method gives
solutions of higher accuracy under such conditions, being judged from the viewpoint of the basic principles of
stability calculation method. Thus the simplified Bishop method should be used particularly for bearing capacity
problems of rubble mounds, in which an eccentric and inclined loads are applied (see 2.5 Bearing Capacity for
Eccentric and Inclined Loads). The simplified Bishop method has a shortcoming that it overestimates a safety
factor when a surcharge is applied vertically on sandy soil layer that lies almost horizontally. For such a case, a
stability calculation method may be carried out whereby the ratio of the vertical to the horizontal forces between
the segments is assumed to be 1/3.5 of the angle of segment base to the horizontal. The safety factor in this
calculation is evaluated using the following equation:
( ncb + W tan f ) sec a

1
(6.2.3)
F = ------------------------------------------- S ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
n
+
[
tan
a
tan
(
ba
)
]
(
tan
f
)
F
1
SW sin a + ---SHa
R
where n = 1 + tan a tan (ba). The parameter b defines the ratio of the vertical to the horizontal forces acting on
the vertical planes of segments, and taken as b = 1/3.5. The other symbols are the same as in equation (6.2.2).
6.2.2 Stability Analysis Assuming Slip Surfaces Other Than Circular Arc Slip Surface
Despite the provisions stated in the previous sections, a planar or a compounded slip surface shall be
assumed in stability analysis when it is more appropriate to assume a slip surface other than a circular arc
slip surfaces according to the ground conditions.
[Technical Notes]
When assuming a planar slip surface, a safety factor against slip failure of slope is calculated using the following
equation:
S { cl + ( W cos a H sin a ) tan f }
(6.2.4)
F = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------sin aSW + cos aSH
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
where
F
c
f
l
W'
safety factor against planar slip failure

cohesion of soil (kN/m2)
internal friction angle of soil ()
length of a segment base(m)
effective weight of a segment per unit length (for
submerged part, use the submerged unit weight) (kN/m)
Fig. T- 6.2.2 Slope Stability Analysis Using
a inclination of segment base (taking positive in the case
Planar Slip Surface
shown in Fig. T- 6.2.2 ) ()
H horizontal external force per unit length applied to a
slope (water pressure, seismic force, wave pressure and others) (kN/m)
The minimum safety factor against slip failure should be 1.2 under ordinary conditions and 1.0 during an earthquake.
[References]
1) R. F. Scott: Principles of soil mechanics, Addison Wesley, 1972, p. 431.
2) Takashi TSUCHIDA, Tang YIXIN: The optimum safety factor for stability analyses of harbor structures by use of the
circular arc ship method, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 35, No. 1, 1996 (in Japanese).
3) Akio NAKASE: The f = 0 analysis of stability and unconfined compressive strength, Soils and Foundations, Vol. 7, No. 2,
1967, pp33-50.
4) A. W. Bishop: The use of the slip circle in the stability analysis of slopes, Geotechnique, Vol. 5 No. 1, 1955, pp. 7-17.
5) Kenji NOMURA, Yoshinobu HAYAFUJI, Fumiaki NAGATOMO: Comparison between Bishops method and
Tschebotarioff's method in slope stability analysis, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 7, No. 4, 1968, pp. 133-175 (in Japanese).
-317-
Chapter 7 Soil Improvement Methods

7.1 General
When carrying out soil improvement as a countermeasure against possible failures of soft ground, an
appropriate method shall be selected in view of the characteristics of foundation subsoil, type and scale of
structure, ease and period of construction, economic factors, influence on the environment, and others.
7.2 Replacement Method

Design for replacement method shall be conducted by considering stability against circular slip failure,
settlement of subsoil, and workability of replacement.
[Commentary]
Replacement methods are classified into the removal and replacement method, and the forced displacement method.
The latter includes the forced displacements by self weight of embankment, by blasting, and by the sand compaction
pile method1).
[Technical Notes]
This section deals with the removal and replacement method, which is commonly used in marine construction works.
(1) Stability Analysis
Stability calculation method and safety factors for cilcular arc analysis are described in Chapter 6 Stability of
Slopes.
To calculate earth pressure on sheet piles or anchorage inside the replaced area, an analysis incorporating a
compounded slip surface should be made in addition to conventional earth pressure calculation. When the whole
soft layer is replaced but the bearing stratum underlying the replaced area is inclined, the stability against a
compounded slip failure including the slip failure along the bearing plane should be examined.
(2) Examination of Settlement
When cohesive soil is left beneath the replaced sandy soil (in cases of partial replacement or slope excavation),
the consolidation settlement may be expected, and thus its influence on a structure should be examined.
(3) Replaced Sand and Angle of Internal Friction
The angle of internal friction of replaced sand can usually be assumed to be around 30 degrees. However, its
value depends on the particle size, size distribution, execution procedure and sequence of replacement, elapsing
time, surcharge and others. Attention must be paid to the condition of the replaced sand, because it is sometimes
very loose.
(4) Examination of Liquefaction
Liquefaction should be assessed based on the particle size distribution and the N-values of the replaced sand.
When being difficult to evaluate, the liquefaction should be examined by cyclic triaxial test (see Part ,
Chapter 13 Liquefaction). When liguefaction is the governing facter in design, it should be considered from
the stage of selecting the replaced material. If a sufficient strength in terms of the N-value cannot be obtained,
the replaced sand should be compacted.
(5) The replaced sand should have an appropriate particle size distribution with low content of silt and clay. Usually
the fines content is kept to be less than 15%.
(6) The N-values of the replaced sand are affected by its particle size and size distribution, execution procedure and
sequence of replacement, elapsing time, surcharge and others. According to some case histories, the N-values of
the replaced sand were around 10 when instantaneously dumped in large volume from large-capacity hopper
barges with bottom doors, around 5 when discharged with grab buckets from sand carriers, and even smaller
values when spreaded by pump dredger. Some case histories show that the N-values of the loose replaced sand
increased with the application of surcharge and the elapsing time (after discharging the replaced sand, after
rubble deposition, after placing caisson and others).
7.3 Vertical Drain Method

7.3.1 Principle of Design
Design for vertical drain method shall be conducted by considering the strength increment to be required,
the allowable settlement for structure, the area and depth to be improved, and others.
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
7.3.2 Determination of Height and Width of Fill

[1] Height and Width of Fill Required for Soil Improvement
The height and width of fill shall be determined by considering the strength increment of soil required for
stability of sutructures to be constructed as well as the allowable settlement, influence on the surrounding
area, and others.
[Commentary]
It is desirable to set the fill top width larger than
the width required for soil improvement (see Fig.
C- 7.3.1).
Mean width
fill top width

(fill)
[2] Height and Width of Fill Required for

Stability of Fill Embankment
improved area
Stability of fill embankment itself shall be

confirmed by a circular arc analysis or other
appropriate methods for the dimensions of
height and width of fill determined.
(permeable layer)
[Technical Notes]
Fig. C- 7.3.1 Fill Width for Vertical Drain Method
The strength increment of soil and the settlement

due to fill may be determined using equations (7.3.1) and (7.3.2).
Dc = ( Dc D p ) ( ag h p c )U
(7.3.1)
S = m v ( ag h p c )HU
(7.3.2)
where
h fill height (m)
H thickness of clay layer (m)
mv coefficient of volume compressibility (m2/kN)
pc preconsolidation pressure (kN/m2)
S settlement (m)
U degree of consolidation
a coefficient of stress distribution (ratio of vertical stress distributed inside subsoil to fill pressure)
g ' effective unit weight of fill material (kN/m3)
c increment of undrained shear strength (kN/m2)
c /p rate of strength increase
Since surcharge is usually applied in several stages in the vertical drain method, the degree of consolidation U to be
substituted in equations (7.3.1) and (7.3.2) differs at each surcharge stage. However, strength increment may often be
calculated by assuming a uniform degree of consolidation of approximately 80%.
7.3.3 Design of Drain Piles

In designing drain piles, consolidation process shall be calculated by taking account of drain pile interval,
drain pile diameter, and drainage conditions at the top and bottom of clay layer as well as the
characteristics of drain materials and sand mat, and thickness of sand mat.
[1] Drain Piles and Sand Mat
Drain piles and sand mat shall have the required drainage capacity.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Consolidation Rate and Drain Pile Diameter
Consolidation rate is approximately proportional to drain pile diameter and inversely proportional to the square
of drain pile interval. Generally, the amount of drain pile materials can be reduced by using sand piles of small
diameter with a small interval rather than using those of large diameter with a large interval. However, the small
diameter sand pile may suffer from clogging with clayey particles and breaking failure of the pile caused by
deformation due to surcharge and consolidation. According to case histories, a diameter of approximately 40 cm
is prevaling, while the diameter generally varies between 30 and 50 cm. The fabri-packed drain method, in
which sand piles wrapped by geotextile with a diameter of 12 cm are drived in, has often been used for
extremely soft subsoil in land construction works. Usually, a set of four sand piles are installed simultaneously
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by a small size pile driving machine. In marine works, fabri-packed drains with a diameter of 40 cm or more
have been commonly used to improve extremely soft subsoil.
(2) Sand Used for Sand Piles
Sand used for sand piles should have high permeability as well as suitable particle sizes to prevent clogging with
clayey particles. The particle size distribution of sand used in past works are shown in Fig. T- 7.3.1. Sand with
slightly higher fines content have also been used in recent years.
Fine sand
Coarse sand
Gravel
Passing weight percentage (%)
Silt
Japan
New York
Particle size
Fig. T- 7.3.1 Examples of Sand Used in Sand Piles
(3) Materials for Plastic-Board Drain

In lieu of sand piles, strip type drains with materials such as plastic-board drains are sometimes employed. In the
design of the strip type drains, the strip is converted to a sand pile with a diameter that produces the perimeter
equal to that of the strip type drain in order to apply the conventional design method. By setting the safety factor
at a value higher than that of the conventional method, the design has been conducted by assuming that a strip
type drain of 10 cm wide and 5 mm thick is equivalent to a 5 cm-diameter sand pile. When the drainage capacity
is low, it should be considered that a possibe delay of consolidation could occur especially at the tip of the
vertical drain: i.e, at the bottom of the consolidation layer.
(4) Sand Mat
Thickness of sand mat is usually set to be approximately 1.0 m to 1.5 m for marine works and 0.5 m to 1.0 m for
land works. A thick layer of sand mat may cause troubles in drain pile driving, while a thin layer of sand mat
may lose its permeability partially due to infiltration of clayey particles. When the drainage capacity of sand mat
is low, a delay in consolidation may occur due to the head loss within drains. In such a case, the delay in
consolidation is more noticeable around the center of the area spreaded with the sand mat. Thus, the sand mat
materials must have high permeability. For a case that the delay is anticipated because of low permeability of
sand mat or large area of soil improvement work, an approximate solution may be employed to evaluate the
delay.
[2] Interval of Drain Piles

Interval of drain piles shall be so determined that the required degree of consolidation can be obtained
during a given construction period.
[Technical Notes]
(1) General
The vertical drain method is applied when the rate of one-dimensional consolidation by the preloading method is
too small under the constraint of time limit of the construction period. Figure T- 7.3.2 shows the relationship
between the required consolidation time t80 (day), drainage distance H (m), and coefficient of consolidation cv
(cm2/min), which is calculated for the condition of 80% consolidation of a clayey layer for the preloading
method or the vacuum consolidation method without vertical drains.
(2) Determination of Interval of Drain Piles
The interval of drain piles should be determined by means of Fig. T- 7.3.3 and equation (7.3.3). If the interval of
drain piles is too small, consolidation may be delayed due to the effect of smear (the disturbance of clay layer by
the process of drain pile driving) and others 2).
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
10 years
5 years
4 years
3 years
2 years
80
(d)
1 year
6 months
Permeable layer
Clay
Permeable layer
Permeable layer
Clay
Im-permeable layer
H (m)
Fig. T- 7.3.2 Required Days for 80% Consolidation of Clay Layer
D
where
D:
b :
n:
De :
Dw :
T h :
cvh :
t:
= bnD w
(7.3.3)
interval of drain piles (cm)

factor (b = 0.886 for square grid pattern, and b = 0.952 for triangular grid pattern)
diameter ratio of De/Dw (n is read off from Fig. T- 7.3.3)
effective diameter of drain area (cm)
diameter of drain pile (cm)
parameter similar to time factor (Th = cvht/Dw2)
horizontal coefficient of consolidation (cm2/min)
consolidation time (min)
Note: the time t used in Figs. T- 7.3.3 and 7.3.4 is expressed in the units of days.
1
100
50
nn
Uh =
n = DDwe
T'h = Dcvh2w t
0.
6 7
0. 0. 0.8 0.9 95
0.
10
cvh ; (cm /min)

t ; (d)
Dw ; (cm)
2
1
0.0001
0.001
0.01
T h'
0.1
Fig. T- 7.3.3 Calculation Chart for n
(3) Calculation of the Degree of Consolidation

After determining the interval of drain piles, the accurate value of the degree of consolidation Uh is calculated by
equations (7.3.4) and (7.3.5) and Fig. T- 7.3.4.
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c vh t
T h = --------2De
(7.3.4)
De
n = ------Dw
(7.3.5)
where
Th :
cvh :
t:
De :
Dw :
time factor of horizontal consolidation

horizontal coefficient of consolidation (cm2/min)
elapsed time from start of consolidation (min)
effective diameter of drain area (cm)
diameter of drain pile (cm)
cvh ; (cm /min)

t ; (d)
De ; (m)
2
50
2
n= n=
n=3
n=2
n = 16
n = 12
n = 10
n= 8
n= 7
n= 6
n= 5
n= 4
Fig. T- 7.3.4 Horizontal Consolidation Calculation Chart
(4) Effective Diameter

The effective diameter of drain area De is the diameter of an equivalent circle that has the same area as the soil
being drained by a sand pile. The relationship between De and interval of the drain pile D is as follows:
De = 1.128D for square grid pattern.
De = 1.050D for equilateral triangular grid pattern.
7.4 Deep Mixing Method

[1] Scope of Application
(1) The design method described in this section shall be applied to improvement of subsoil beneath
gravity type structures such as breakwaters, quaywalls, and revetments.
(2) The design method shall be applied to the block type and the wall type improvement works.
[Commentary]
(1) The deep mixing method dealt with in this section is the one in which the soil in situ is mixed mechanically with
cement.
(2) Large-scaled soil improvement with the deep mixing method in port and harbor construction works have been
mostly applied to the subsoils for caisson type breakwaters, quaywalls, or revetments. There are few cases of
application to other types of structures. Thus, the sope of this section is set as specified above.
(3) When applying the deep mixing method to port and harbor structures, a rigid underground structure is formed by
overlapping stabilized soil columns treated by mixing machines. The pattern of improvement is selected
depending on the superstructure or the properties of the subsoil. The block type and the wall type shown in Fig.
C- 7.4.1 are typical improvement patterns in port and harbor construction works. In this section, these two
patterns are discussed.
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
(4) The wall type improvement consists of long and short walls as shown in Fig. C- 7.4.1 (b). The basic concept of
the design is that the long walls function to transfer the external forces to the stiff layer, while the short walls
function to increase the uniformity of the improved ground.
Sea surface
Sea surface
Soft subsoil
Soft subsoil
Sea surface
Sea surface
Sea bed
Sea bed
Soft subsoil
Improved subsoil
Improved subsoil
Soft subsoil
Long wall
Short wall
(a) block type improvement
(b) wall type improvement
Fig. C- 7.4.1 Typical Improvement Patterns in the Deep Mixing Method
[2] Basic Concept

Design for subsoil improvement by the deep mixing method shall be conducted by examining external
stability, internal stability, and displacement of the stabilized body.
[Commentary]
(1) Terminology
Definitions of principlal terms are described below:
Stabilized soil:
soil treated by the deep mixing method.
Stabilized body:
a sort of underground structure consisting of the stabilized soil (in the wall type
improvement, this includes original soil between the long walls).
Improved subsoil system: a system consisting of the improved subsoil and the upper structure between the
vertial planes passing through the toe and heel of the improved subsoil.
External stability:
examination of stability when the stabilized body and the upper structure as a
whole behave as a rigid body.
Internal stability:
examination of internal failure within the stabilized body under the condition that
the external safety stability is secured.
Fixed type:
subsoil improvement is carried out for the whole soft layer so that the stabilized
body rests on the bearing layer and the external forces are directly transferred
there.
Floating type:
subsoil improvement is stopped midway of the soft layer so that the stabilized
body does not reach the bearing layer but rests on top of the soft subsoil.
(2) Generally, the stabilized soil by the deep mixing method has extremely high strength and elastic modulus, and
extremely small strain at failure compared with those of untreated soil3). Therefore, a block of stabilized soil can
be considered as a sort of underground structure. For this reason, the stability analysis shall be conducted with
respect to the stability as a whole structure (external stability), the strength of the stabilized body itself (internal
stability), and the settlement, horizontal displacement and overturning of the stabilized body as a rigid body.
[Technical Notes]
In the design of the deep mixing method, the Technical Manual for the Deep Mixing Method in Marine Construction
Works and the Technical Manual for the Deep Mixing Method in Land Construction Works may be referred to.
7.4.2 Assumptions for Dimensions of Stabilized Body

[1] Mixture Design of Stabilized Soil
The mixing proportions of soil and cement for stabilized soil shall be determined from laboratory mixing
tests or in-situ tests.
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[2] Allowable Stress of Stabilized Body

Allowable stress of the stabilized body shall be appropriately determined for the examination of internal
stability.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The allowable compressive stress s ca is expressed by equation (7.4.1) based on the unconfined compressive
strength.
1
s ca = ---abg q uf
F
where
sca : allowable compressive stress (kN/m2)
F : safety factor for material
a : factor for effective cross-sectional area of stabilized soil column
b : reliability factor of overlapping
g : correction factor for scattered strength
q uf : average unconfined compressive strength of in-situ stabilized soil (kN/m2)
(7.4.1)
(2) The induced stresses within the stabilized body should be lower than the allowable compressive stress sca, the
allowable shear stress t a and the allowable tensile stress sta, which are given by the following equations:
1
t a = --- s ca
2
(7.4.2)
s ta = 0.15s ca 200 kN m
(7.4.3)
(3) In the design, the stabilized body is assumed to be a rigid structure with homogeneous strength. In the field,
however, the inhomogeneous body may be formed, depending on the operation of construction machines and the
method to overlap the stabilized columns to form the stabilized body. The factor of safety and other factors
shown in equation (7.4.1) are the reduction factors to deal with inhomogeneity of the improved subsoil so as to
assume the subsoil as homogeneous with respect to strength.
(a) Safety factor for material (F)
Since the allowable compressive stress sca is based on the unconfined compressive strength, an appropriate
value for safety factor should be determined by incorporating influence of creep and cyclic loading,
importance of the structure, types of loading, design calculation method and reliability of the materials. In past
works, the safety factor was often taken as 3.0 for ordinary conditions and 2.0 for seismic conditions.
(b) Factor of effective cross-sectional area of stabilized soil column (a)
When stabilized by a deep mixing (DM) machine with several mixing blades, the cross section of the
stabilized body consists of a group of circles, as shown in Fig. T- 7.4.1. In the block type and wall type
improvements, the stabilized columns are overlapped with each other to form the stabilized body as shown in
Fig. T- 7.4.2. In there two cases, the length of connected portion along the overlapping line is smaller than
those along other lines. The factor of effective cross-sectional area of stabilized soil column a is so defined to
correct for this untreated portion.
Dx
R
D
lx
width of
d overlapping
Dy
connecting
surface
l
L
lx
Fig. T- 7.4.2 Connecting Surfaces
Fig. T- 7.4.1 Specific Effective Width

of Deep Mixing Machine
(c) Reliability factor of overlapping (b)

An overlapped part is made by connecting a fresh stabilized column with an existing one. Therefore, accuracy
of execution and reduction in strength should be taken into account. The reliability coefficient of overlapping
is the ratio of the strength of overlapped part to that of the stabilized soil. It depends on time interval of
overlapping, mixing capacity of the machine, supplying method of stabilizing agent and others. The factor b
may be set approximately between 0.8 and 0.9.
(d) Correction factor for scattered strength ( g )
The strength of in-situ stabilized soil shows large scattering in terms of unconfined compressive strength. The
correction factor for scattered strength takes this scatter of strength into account.
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
(4) Strength of In-Situ and Laboratory Stabilized Soils.

The average unconfined compressive strength of in-situ stabilized soil q uf can be related with the average
unconfined compressive strength of laboratory stabilized soil q ul using equation (7.4.4)
(7.4.4)
q uf = l q ul
The correction factor l may be taken as l = 1 in many marine works, but it is recommended to determine its
value through in-situ tests.
(5) The values of the factors used in design should be determined by considering the situation that they are not
independent of each other but are closely related. According to the past works, the ratio of the allowable
compressive stress in situ to the laboratory strength was often set between 1/6 and 1/10, considering all factors
including l .
7.4.3 Calculation of External Forces

External forces acting on the stabilized body shall be appropriately determined for external stability,
internal stability and displacements of the stabilized body, respectively.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Figure T- 7.4.3 shows a schematic diagram of external forces acting on the stabilized body 4) in the case of a
gravity type quaywall.
(2) Since the wall type stabilized body contains untreated soil, the external forces should be determined individually
on untreated and stabilized soils depending on the item of examination.
(3) For the analysis on external stability, Pa and Pp should be determined as the active and passive earth pressures
respectively as described in Part , Chapter 14 Earth Pressure and Water Pressure. For the analysis on
internal stability, Pa represents the active earth pressure, while Pp should be appropriately determined within the
range of passive earth pressure to earth pressure at rest, considering the external stability.
(4) It has been confirmed in the experiments that adhesion acts on the vertical planes of the active and passive sides
of the stabilized body. In the case of backfilling, negative skin friction due to consolidation settlement of
untreated soil acts downwards on the vertical plane of the active side of the stabilized body. Thus, these
adhesions described above may be taken into account for ordinary conditions 5).
On the other hand, for seismic conditions, Pav and Ppv may be assumed to act in the favorable directions for
analysis of both external and internal stability, because the safe side design consideration has been made such
that both seismic mass force of the stabilized body and the seismic earth pressure act simultaneously during an
earthquake.
Pav
Pa
Pp
'
Ppv
'
In case of wall type

stabilization
Fig. T- 7.4.3 External Forces Acting on Stabilized Body

-325-
Pw
The symbols used in Fig. T- 7.4.3 are as follows:

Pa
Pav
Pw
Pp
Ppv
Pdw
R
T
t1, t2
W1
HK1
W2
HK2
W3
HK3 :
W4
HK4
resultant earth pressure per unit length acting on the vertical plane of the active side (kN/m)
resultant vertical adhesion per unit length acting on the vertical plane of the active side (kN/m)
resultant residual water pressure per unit length (kN/m)
resultant earth pressure per unit length acting on the vertical plane of the passive side (kN/m)
resultant vertical adhesion per unit length acting on the vertical plane of the passive side (kN/m)
resultant dynamic water pressure during an earthquake (kN/m)
shear resistance per unit length acting on the bottom of stabilized body (kN/m)
reaction force per unit length acting on the bottom of stabilized body (kN/m)
reaction pressure per unit length at toe and heel of stabilized body, respectively (kN/m)
weight per unit length of upper structure (surcharge, overburden, upper structure, and others) (kN/m)
seismic inertia force per unit length acting on structure (kN/m)
weight per unit length of rubble stones (kN/m)
seismic inertia force per unit length acting on rubble stones (kN/m)
weight per unit length of backfill (including surcharge) (kN/m)
seismic inertia force per unit length acting on backfill (kN/m)
weight per unit length of stabilized body (kN/m)
seismic inertia force per unit length acting on stabilized body (kN/m)
The following external forces are considered only in the case of wall type improvement:
W5 effective weight per unit length of untreated soil in between long walls (kN/m)
HK5 seismic inertia force per unit length acting on untreated soil in between long walls (kN/m)
For evaluation of external forces for the liquefied subsoil during an earthquake, the dynamic water pressure
during an earthquake should be considered. The evaluation of dynamic water pressure is described in Part
,
14.4.2 Dynamic Water Pressure during Earthquake.
7.5 Lightweight Treated Soil Method

7.5.1 Outline of Lightweight Treated Soil Method
The provisions in this section shall be applied to the design for the lightweight treated soil method.
[Commentary]
The lightweight treated soil method is to produce artificial lightweight and stable subsoil by adding lightening
materials and hardening agents to slurry-state earth of dredged soil or excavated soil from construction works, and
then using the mixture as materials for landfill or backfilling. When using air foam as the lightening material, it is
named the foam treated soil, and when using EPS (expanded polistyrol) beads, it is named the beads treated soil.
The lightweight treated soil has the following characteristics:
(1) The weight is approximately one half of ordinary sand in the air and approximately one fifth in the seawater.
This lightness can prevent or reduce ground subsidence due to landfill or backfill.
(2) Due to its light weight and high strength, the earth pressure during an earthquake is reduced. This enables to
create highly earthquake-resistant structures or reclaimed lands.
(3) It uses dredged spoils, which are regularly produced and treated as waste in ports and harbors, or waste soils that
are generated by land-based construction works. Thus, employment of the lightweight treated soil can reduce the
amount of waste materials to be dealt with at waste disposal sites.
[Technical Notes]
Refer to the Technical Manual for the Lightweight Treated Soil Method in Ports, Harbors and Airports for further
details on the design based on this method.
7.5.2 Basic Design Concept

Lightweight treated soil, which is a light and stabilized geotechnical material, shall comply with the design
methods for earth structures described in Chapter 2 Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations to
Chapter 6 Stability of Slopes.
[Commentary]
Apart from mixing tests, the design method for lightweight treated soil is basically the same with that for other earth
structures6).
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
[Technical Notes]
The properties of lightweight treated soil should be evaluated by means of laboratory tests that take account of the
environmental and construction conditions of the site. They may be evaluated as follows:
(1) Unit Weight
The unit weight g t may be set within a range of 6 to 15 kN/m3 by adjusting the amount of lightening material
and water. When used in port and harbor facilities, casting work may be difficult and the risk of flotation may be
anticipated in the case of the rise of sea water level if the unit weight is less than that of seawater. Therefore, the
following values should ordinarily be used for the design unit weight:
Below the water level: g t = 12 kN/m3
In the air:
g t = 10 kN/m3
In the mixture design the fact should take into account that the unit weight of lightweight treated soil greatly
depends on the environmental conditions particularly on the intensity of hydrostatic pressure7), 8), during and
after casting.
(2) Shear Strength9)
The static strength of lightweight treated soil mainly owes to the solidified strength yielded by cement-based
hardeners. The lightweight treated soil is generally used in the strength range of 100 ~ 500 kN/m2 in terms of
unconfined compressive strength qu. Because of inclusion of air foam or EPS beads, no increase in strength can
be expected with respect to an increase in confining pressure, but the residual strength is approximately 70% of
the peak strength. The safety factor F defined as the ratio of laboratory strength to design strength may usually
be set between 2 and 3.
(3) Consolidation Yield Stress
The consolidation yield stress py may be calculated using the following equation:
py = 1.4 qu
(7.5.1)
(4) Coefficient of Friction

For analysis on external stability, assuming the lightweight treated soil to be a rigid soil mass, the following
values may generally be adopted as the coefficient of friction between the lightweight treated soil and sand (or
rubble):
Lightweight treated soil - sand:
Lightweight treated soil - rubble:
= 0.55 ~ 0.60
= 0.75 ~ 0.80
(5) Deformation Modulus E50

When tests are conducted for the samples manufactured with great cares such as accurate finishing at both ends
of them and detailed measurements of small deformations, the secant modulus E50 from the test may be used as
an deformation modulus in design. When such tests are not possible, the modulus may be estimated from the
unconfined compressive strength qu using the following equation:
E50 = (100 ~ 200) qu
(7.5.2)
The deformation modulus shown above corresponds to a strain level of 0.05% ~ 0.2%.
(6) Poissons Ratio v
Poissons ratio v of lightweight treated soil varies depending on the stress level and the state before or after the
attainment of peak strength. When the surcharge is less than the consolidation yield stress of treated soil, the
following mean values may be used:
Foamed treated soil:
Beads treated soil:
v = 0.10
v = 0.15
(7) Dynamic Properties

The shear modulus G, damping factor h, strain dependency of G and h, and Poissons ratio v used in dynamic
analysis should be obtained from laboratory tests. They may be estimated from a correlation between
unconfined compressive strength and the results of ultrasonic propagation test as a simplified method.
When calculating earth pressure of lightweight treated soil under ordinary and seismic conditions, the
method described in 7.8 Active Earth Pressure of Solidified Geotechnical Material should be applied.
7.5.3 Mixture Design of Treated Soil

(1) Mixture design shall be conducted to obtain the strength and the unit weight required in the field.
(2) Types of hardening and lightening agents shall be determined after their efficiency has been
confirmed in tests.
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7.5.4 Examination of Area to Be Treated

The area to be filled with the lightweight treated soil shall be determined as appropriate in view of the type
of structure to be built there and the conditions of external forces as well as the stability of the structure and
the subsoil as a whole.
[Commentary]
The extent of filling area with lightweight treated soil usually depends on the intended degree of lightweightness.
That is, when the method is applied to control settlement or lateral displacement, it is determined from the allowable
conditions for settlement or displacement; to secure stability, it is determined from the condition of slope stability; to
reduce earth pressure, it is determined from the required conditions for earth pressure reduction10).
7.5.5 Workability Verification Tests

When no experience of construction is available as reference, or when the execution is to be conducted
under special conditions, verification tests shall be conducted to confirm workability before starting
execution.
7.6 Replacement Method with Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

When using granulated blast furnace slag as backfill for quaywalls or revetments, landfill, or surface
covering for soft subsoil, the characteristics of the materials shall be duly taken into account.
[Commentary]
Granulated blast furnace slag is a granular material having latent hydraulic property that is not seen in natural sand,
and it solidifies and stabilizes with time. When comparing its granular state with solidified state, the granular state
generally presents less stable design conditions. In some occasion, however, the solidified state may become critical
for stability of structure. An adequate examination should be carried out for each condition.
7.6.2 Physical Properties of Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

When using granulated blast furnace slag, its physical properties shall be ascertained in advance.
[Commentary]
Granulated blast furnace slag is in a state like coarse sand when shipped from plants. The important characteristics of
physical properties are its small unit weight and dormant hydraulicity.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Grain Size Distribution
The grain size distribution of granulated blast furnace slag is generally within the range listed in Table T- 7.6.1.
The grain size of general granulated blast furnace slag is 4.75 mm or less and its fine content is extremely
small. The grain size distribution is poorly graded or almost single-grained, mostly in the range of coarse sand,
with a uniformity coefficient of 2.5 to 4.2 and a coefficient of curvature of 0.9 to 1.4.
Table T- 7.6.1 General Grain Size Distribution of Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
Passing weight percentage (%)
4.75 mm
2.00 mm
0.85 mm
0.425 mm
0.250 mm
0.106 mm
0.075 mm
99~100
80~100
30~75
7~30
3~15
1~6
0~4
(2) Unit Weight

Granulated blast furnace slag is lighter than natural sand because it has air bubbles inside its particles and has a
large void ratio owing to angular shape and single-grained particle size. According to past records, the wet unit
weight of granulated blast furnace slag ranges from 8 to 13 kN/m3 and the submerged unit weight is
approximately 7 kN/m3.
(3) Permeability
The coefficient of permeability in a granular state depends on the void ratio. Generally, it ranges from 1 10-1 to
1100cm/s. The coefficient of permeability decreases with solidification down to approximately 110-2cm/s 11).
(4) Compressibility
The time-dependent change of compressibility of granulated blast furnace slag used for backfill, landfill, or
surface covering can be ignored.
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
(5) Internal Friction Angle and Cohesion

In a granular state, cohesion can be ignored. The angle of internal friction in this state is 35 degrees or greater.
The shear strength increases by its solidification.
(6) Liquefaction during an Earthquake
When granulated blast furnace slag is used in backfill, it solidifies in many cases in about 6 months because of
its latent hydraulic property. When solidification can be expected, liquefaction can be ignored. However, there is
a risk of liquefaction for granulated blast furnace slag that has not yet solidified. Therefore in this case, the
possibility of liquefaction should be examined, treating the granulated blast furnace slag as a granular material.
7.7 Premixing Method

The design method described in this section shall be applied to the subsoil treated by the premixing method
aimed at reducing earth pressure and preventing liquefaction.
[Commentary]
(1) The meaning of the main terms used for this method are as follows:
Treated soil:
soil improved by stabilizer.
Treated subsoil:
subsoil improved by filling with treated soil.
Area of improvement:
area of treated subsoil by the premixing method.
Stabilizer content:
weight ratio of stabilizer to dry weight of parent material (soil), expressed in

percentage.
Reduction of earth pressure: measures designed to reduce earth pressure against wall (active earth
pressure) under ordinary and seismic conditions.
(2) In the premixing method, stabilizer and antisegregation agent are added into soil, mixed in advance and used as
landfill materials. The treated soil thus produced is then placed beneath the water to create a stable subsoil. The
subsoil improvement is materialized in principle that cement-based stabilizers add cohesion to the soil used in
landfill by means of chemical solidification action between soil and stabilizer. This method can be applied to
backfill behind quaywalls and revetments, filling of cellular-bulkhead, replacement after base excavation,
refilling, etc.
(3) Soils applicable to the treatment are sand and sandy soils, excluding clay. This is because the mechanical
properties of the treated soil differ considerably depending on the parent material.
(4) Besides reducing earth pressure and preventing liquefaction, this method can also be used to improve the soil
strength necessary for construction of facilities on reclaimed lands. In this case, the strength of treated ground
should be assessed appropriately.
[Technical Notes]
Refer to the Technical Manual for Premixing Method published by the Coastal Development Institute of
Technology for details of other matters concerning the design and construction using the premixing method.
[2] Consideration for Design

(1) In designing the subsoil treatment by the premixing method, the required strength of treated soil, and
the stabilizer content, and the area to be treated shall be determined as appropriate.
(2) When evaluating the earth pressure reduction effect or examining the stability of the subsoil against
circular slip failure and others, the treated soil should be regarded as a c - f material.
(3) The treated subsoil may be thought to slide as a rigid body during an earthquake because the treated
subsoil has a rigidity considerably greater than that of the surrounding untreated subsoil. Therefore,
when determining the area of improvement, the stability against sliding failure of the subsoil
including upper structures (total stability) shall also be examined.
7.7.2 Preliminary Survey
The characteristics of soil used in the premixing method shall be evaluated as appropriate by preliminary
surveys and tests.
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[Commentary]
(1) Preliminary surveys and tests should include soil tests on particle density, water content, grain size distribution,
maximum and minimum densities of soils to be used for filling, and surveys on records of soil properties and
field tests of existing reclaimed ground nearby.
(2) The water content and the fines content of soils for filling have influence on manifestation of strength of treated
soil after mixing and selection of the method to mix soils with stabilizer.
(3) The density of treated soil after landfilling must be adequately estimated in advance, since the density, has a
major effect on the test results in laboratory mixing tests.
7.7.3 Determination of Strength of Treated Soil

The strength of treated soil shall be determined in such a way to yield the required improvement effects, by
taking account of the purpose and conditions of application of this method.
[Commentary]
(1) For the purpose to reduce the earth pressure, the cohesion c of treated soil should be determined such that the
earth pressure is reduced to the required value.
(2) For the purpose to prevent liquefaction, the strength of treated soil should be determined such that the treated
soil will not liquefy.
[Technical Notes]
(1) There is a significant relationship between the liquefaction strength and the unconfined compressive strength of
treated soils. It is reported that treated soils with the unconfined compressive strength of 100 kN/m2 or more will
not liquefy. Therefore, when aiming to prevent liquefaction, the unconfined compressive strength should be set
at 100 kN/m2. When the unconfined compressive strength of treated soil is set at less than 100 kN/m2, cyclic
triaxial tests should be conducted to confirm that the soil will not liquefy.
(2) In determing the cohesion of treated soil, the internal friction angle f of treated soil is first estimated. Then, the
cohesion is determined by reverse calculation using an earth pressure calculation formula that takes account of
cohesion and internal friction angle with the target reduced earth pressure and the estimated internal friction
angle f.
(3) According to the results of consolidated and drained triaxial compression tests on treated soil with stabilizer
content of less than 10%, the internal friction angle of treated soil is equal to or slightly larger than that of
untreated soil. Therefore, the internal friction angle of the treated soil may be assumed to be the same as that of
the untreated soil to keep a design on the safer side.
(4) The internal friction angle may be obtained from consolidated and drained triaxial compression tests based on
the presumed density and effective overburden pressure of the subsoil after landfilling. The internal friction
angle f used in design is usually set at the value by 5 to 10 degrees smaller than that obtained from the tests.
Without conducting triaxial tests, it may be obtained from the estimated N-value of the subsoil after landfilling
(note that the N-value of untreated subsoil should be used).
7.7.4 Mixture Design of Treated Soil

Mix proportioning of treated soil shall be determined by conducting appropriate laboratory mixing tests. A
reduction of strength shall be taken into account because the in-situ strength may be lower than the
strength obtained from laboratory mixing tests.
[Commentary]
The purpose of laboratory mixing tests is to obtain the relationship between the strength of treated soil and the
stabilizer content, and to determine the stabilizer content so as to obtain the required strength of treated soil. The
relationship between the strength of treated soil and the stabilizer content is greatly affected by the soil type and the
density of soil. Therefore, test conditions of laboratory mixing tests should be as similar to field conditions as possible.
[Technical Notes]
(1) For the purpose to reduce earth pressure, consolidated and drained triaxial compression tests should be carried
out to obtain the relationship among the cohesion c, the internal friction angle f, and the stabilizer content. For
the purpose to prevent liquefaction, unconfined compression tests should be conducted to obtain the relationship
between the unconfined compressive strength and the stabilizer content.
(2) It is important to grasp the difference between in-situ and laboratory strengths when setting the increase factor
for mixture design in the field. According to the past experiences, the laboratory strength is larger than the in-330-
PART V FOUNDATIONS
situ strength, and the increase factor of a = 1.1 to 2.2 is used. Here, the increase factor a is defined as the ratio of
the laboratory to the field strengths in terms of unconfined compressive strength.
7.7.5 Examination of Area of Improvement

The area to be improved by the premixing method shall be determined as appropriate in view of the type of
structure to be constructed and the magnitudes of external forces as well as the stability of subsoil and
structures as a whole.
[Commentary]
(1) For the purpose to reduce earth pressure, the area of improvement should be determined in such a way that the
earth pressure of treated subsoil acting on a structure should be small enough to guarantee stability of the
structure.
(2) For the purpose to prevent liquefaction, the area of improvement should be determined in such a way that
liquefaction in the adjacent untreated subsoil will not affect the stability of structure.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Figure T- 7.7.1 shows the external and resisting forces acting on a structure and the treated subsoil when the
untreated subsoil behind the treated subsoil is not liquefied, while Fig. T-7.7.2 shows the external forces in the
case of liquefaction.
(2) For either purpose to reduce earth pressure or to prevent liquefaction, sliding during an earthquake should be
examined for the treated subsoil and the structure. Also, stability against circular slip failure should be examined
for the subsoil and the structure as a whole.
(a) Examination of sliding during an earthquake
Sliding during an earthquake is to be examined because of a risk that the treated subsoil may slide as a rigid
body. A safety factor against sliding during an earthquake in this case should be equal to or greater than 1.0.
The friction coefficient at the bottom of treated subsoil should be 0.6. When the layer beneath treated subsoil
is cohesive soil, however, the cohesion of soil in that layer should be used in evaluation of sliding resistance at
the bottom of treated subsoil.
The resultant earth pressure in equation (7.7.1), which is used to calculate a safety factor for sliding in the
case that the untreated subsoil is not liquefied, represents a simple case in which the residual water level is at
the ground surface.
When the untreated subsoil behind the treated subsoil is liquefied, the fluid pressure from the liquefied
subsoil acts upwards on the treated subsoil if the configuration of the treated subsoil is such that as shown in
Fig. T- 7.7.1. This reduces the effective weight of the treated subsoil. Thus, the shape of treated subsoil shown
in Fig. T- 7.7.1 is disadvantageous to sliding failure compared with that shown in Fig. T- 7.7.2. When the
residual water level is below the ground surface and the untreated subsoil is liquefied, the soil layer above the
residual water level up to the ground surface should also be treated as liquefied due to propagation of excess
pore water pressure from the lower layer.
When the untreated subsoil is not liquefied
By defining the positive directions of external and resisting forces as shown in Fig. T- 7.7.1, the safety
factor F s for sliding can be calculated using equation (7.7.1).
R1 + R2 + Pw1
(7.7.1)
F s = ---------------------------------------------------------------H1 + H2 + Ph + Pw2 + Pw3
where
P w 1 = ( 1 2 )g w h 1
P w 2 = ( 7 12 )kg w h 1
P w 3 = ( 1 2 )g w h 2
H 1 = kW 1
H 2 = kW 2
2
P h = ( 1 2 )K a g h 2 cos ( d + y ) cos y
P v = P h tan ( d + y )
R1 = f1 W 1
R2 = f2 ( W 2 Pv )
(when the layer beneath the treated subsoil is sandy soil)
R 2 = cl bc
(when the layer beneath the treated subsoil is cohesive soil)

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g w
g
k
Ka
h1
h2
d
y
f1
f2
c
lbc
unit weight of seawater (kN/m3)

submerged unit weight of untreated soil (kN/m3)
seismic coefficient
coefficient of active earth pressure of untreated subsoil during an earthquake
height of water level from the sea bottom at the front of the structure (m)
height of residual water level from the sea bottom (m)
(residual water level in Fig. T- 7.2.1 is taken at the subsoil surface for simplicity)
angle of wall friction between treated and untreated subsoils (cd) ()
angle of the back of treated subsoil (cd) to the vertical ()
(positive for anticlockwise; y in Fig. T- 7.7.1 is negative)
friction coefficient at the bottom of structure
friction coefficient at the bottom of treated subsoil (= 0.6)
cohesion of the cohesive layer beneath the treated subsoil (kN/m2)
bottom length of treated subsoil (bc) (m)
Structure
Treated subsoil
(7.2.1)
Untreated subsoil (not liquefied)
H1 : seismic force acting on structure (abef) (kN/m)
H2 : seismic force acting on treated subsoil (bcde) (kN/m)
Pw1 : static water pressure acting on the front of structure (af) (kN/m)
Pw2 : dynamic water pressure acting on the front of structure (af) (kN/m)
Pw3 : static water pressure acting on the back of treated subsoil (cd) (kN/m)
Ph : horizontal component of resultant force by active earth pressure during an earthquake of the untreated subsoil

acting on the back of treated subsoil (cd) (kN/m)
Pv : vertical component of resultant farce by active earth pressure during an earthquake of the untreated subsoil

acting on the back of treated subsoil (cd) (kN/m)
W1, W2 : weight of structure (abef) and treated subsoil (bcde) (not taking account of buoyancy due to static water

pressure) (kN/m)
W1', W2' : effective weight of structure (abef) and treated subsoil (bcde) (taking account of buoyancy) (kN/m)
R1 : friction resistance at the bottom of structure (ab) (kN/m)
R2 : friction resistance at the bottom of treated subsoil (bc) (kN/m)
Fig. T- 7.7.1 External Forces Acting When Untreated Subsoil Is Not Liquefied (Reduction of Earth Pressure)
When the untreated subsoil is liquefied
By defining the positive directions of external and resisting forces as shown in Fig. T- 7.7.2, the safety
factor F s for sliding can be calculated using equation (7.7.2).
When the untreated subsoil behind the treated subsoil is liquefied, the static and dynamic pressures from
the untreated subsoil should be exerted on the back of the treated subsoil as shown in Fig. T- 7.7.2. The
static pressure should be calculated by adding the static water pressure to the earth pressure with the earth
pressure coefficient of 1.0. The dynamic pressure should be calculated using equations (14.4.1) and
(14.4.2) in Part II, 14.4.2 Dynamic Water Pressure during Earthquake. The unit weight of water in
equations (14.4.1) and (14.4.2) should be replaced by the saturated unit weight of soil.
R1 + R2 + P w1
(7.7.2)
F s = -----------------------------------------------H 1 + H2 + Ph + Pw2
where
P w 1 = ( 1 2 )g w h 1
P w 2 = ( 7 12 )kg w h 1
H 1 = kW 1
H 2 = kW 2
2
P h = ( 1 2 )gh 2 + ( 7 12 )kg h 2
P v = P h tan y
R1 = f1 W 1
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
R 2 = f 2 { W 2 + [ P v ( 1 2 )g w h 2 tan y ] } (when the layer beneath the treated subsoil is sandy soil)
(when the layer beneath the treated subsoil is cohesive soil)
R 2 = cl bc
y angle of the back of treated ground (cd) to the vertical ()
(positive sfor anticlockwise; y in Fig. T- 7.7.2 is positive)
The other symbols are the same as .
Structure
Treated subsoil
Untreated subsoil (liquefied)
Static pressure Dynamic pressure

(earth + water) (earth + water)
H1 : seismic force acting on structure (abef) (kN/m)
H2 : seismic force acting on treated subsoil (bcde) (kN/m)
Pw1 : static water pressure acting on the front of structure (af) (kN/m)
Pw2 : dynamic water pressure acting on the front of structure (af) (kN/m)
Ph : horizontal component of the resultant force by static and dynamic pressure of the liquefied subsoil acting

on the back of treated subsoil (cd) (kN/m)
Pv : vertical component of the resultant force by static and dynamic pressure of the liquefied subsoil acting on

the back of treated subsoil (cd) (kN/m)
W1, W2 : weight of structure (abef) and treated subsoil (bcde) (not taking account of buoyancy) (kN/m)
W1', W2' : effective weight of structure (abef) and treated subsoil (bcde) (taking account of buoyancy due to static

water pressure) (kN/m)
R1 : friction resistance at the bottom of structure (ab) (kN/m)
R2 : friction resistance at the bottom of treated subsoil (bc) (kN/m)
T- 7.7.2 External Forces Acting When Untreated Subsoil Is Liquefied (Prevention of Liquefaction)
Fig.
(b) Examination of stability against circular slip failure
The stability against circular slip failure should be examined according to 6.2.1 Stability Analysis Using
Circular Slip Surface Method.
7.8 Active Earth Pressure of Solidified Geotechnical Materials

7.8.1 Scope of Application
[Technical Notes]
This section describes design principles for calculation of active earth pressure when using geotechnical materials
solidified by stabilizers such as cement as backfill materials.
Solidified geotechnical materials considered in this section include those that harden naturally and others that are
hardened artificially by adding cement or other stabilizer. Materials developed to date are listed below. The variety of
materials is certain to increase in future.
(1) Premixed soil (treated soil by premixing method)
(2) Lightweight treated soil
(3) Cement-mixed soils other than the above two
(4) Solidified coal ash
(5) Self-hardening coal ash
(6) Granulated blast furnace slag used in a solidified state
7.8.2 Active Earth Pressure

[1] Outline
[Technical Notes]
(1) When using solidified geotechnical materials, the material properties and the characteristics of earthquake
motion should be appropriately taken account in calculations of active earth pressure on a structure.
(2) When calculating active earth pressure during an earthquake, the seismic coefficient method may generally be
used. When detailed examination of earth pressure during an earthquake is required however, response analysis
and others must be carried out. Methods to calculate earth pressure using the seismic coefficient method
considering material properties are described later in this section.
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(3) Generally, when solidified geotechnical materials are thought to have sufficiently large cohesion, liquefaction in
the treated area needs not be considered. If the unconfined compressive strength qu is more than around 50 ~ 100
kN/m2, the generation of excess pore water pressure inside the treated subsoil during an earthquake may be
ignored though it may depend on the magnitude of seismic forces.
[2] Strength Parameters

[Technical Notes]
The method of determining strength parameters for geotechnical materials depends on the materials used. The
cohesion and angle of internal friction are to be evaluated in accordance with the characteristics of the material used.
In general, deep mixed soil (treated soil by the deep mixing method), lightweight treated soil, and solidified coal ash
are assumed to be cohesive materials. Premixed soil is thought to be a material with both the cohesion and internal
friction. Granulated blast furnace slag is usually treated as a granular material with the internal friction, but it may
also be treated as a cohesive material if the solidification process is positively introduced when used.
[3] Calculation of Active Earth Pressure

[Technical Notes]
(1) Generally, the earth pressure may be evaluated based on the provisions in Part II, Chapter 14 Earth Pressure
and Water Pressure. The principle for calculation of earth pressure may be regarded as the Mononobe-Okabe
principle. In this method, the earth pressure is calculated by an equilibrium of forces in accordance with
Coulombs concept of earth pressure by assuming that the subsoil fails while forming a wedge.
(2) Many factors remain unknown about the earth pressure during an earthquake. This is particularly true of earth
pressure during an earthquake in submerged subsoils. Nevertheless, the principle of earth pressure in Part II,
Chapter 14 Earth Pressure and Water Pressure has so far been adopted in the design of many structures with
satisfactory results.
(3) Equation (7.8.1), an expansion of the earth pressure equation in Part II, Chapter 14 Earth Pressure and
Water Pressure, can be applied to materials having both the cohesion c and internal friction angle f (see Fig.
T- 7.8.1).
2z i = y + f i m i + 90
B i C i + A i B i2 A i2 + C i2
m i = tan 1 ---------------------------------------------------------B i2 A i2
A i = sin ( d + b + q )
B i = sin ( y + f i + d b ) cos q [ sin ( y f i + q ) cos ( d + b ) ]
2c i cos ( y b ) cos f i cos ( d + b ) cos q
+ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------( Sg i h 1 ) cos ( y b )
------------------------------------------------------ + w
2 cos y
C i = sin ( y + f i + d b ) sin q + [ sin ( y f i + q ) sin ( d + b ) ]
where
pai
ci
f i
g i
hi
y
b
d
z i
2c i cos ( y b ) cos f i sin ( d + b ) cos q

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------( Sg i h 1 ) cos ( y b )
------------------------------------------------------ + w
2 cos y
active earth pressure acting on wall by the i-th layer (kN/m2)
cohesion of soil in the i-th layer (kN/m2)
angle of internal friction in the i-th layer ()
unit weight of the i-th layer (kN/m3)
thickness of the i-th layer (m)
angle of wall to the vertical ()
angle of ground surface to the horizontal ()
angle of wall friction ()
angle of failure surface of the i-th layer to the horizontal ()
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64444444444744444444448
sin ( z i f i + q ) cos ( y z i )
( Sg i h i ) cos ( y b )
p ai = ------------------------------------------------- + w ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- cos ( y z i + f i + d ) sin ( z i b )

cos
y
cos
q
c i cos ( y b ) cos f i
--------------------------------------------------------------------------cos ( y z i + f i + d ) sin ( z i b )
(7.8.1)
PART V FOUNDATIONS
w
q
k
k
surcharge per unit area of ground surface (kN/m2)

resultant seismic angle (); q = tan 1 k or q = tan 1 k
seismic coefficient
Fig. T- 7.8.1 Earth Pressure
(4) Equation (7.8.1) is an extended form of Okabes equation12). This extension lacks such rigorousness that Okabe
solved the equilibrium of forces. However, when the soil is exclusively granular material with no cohesion or
exclusively cohesive material with no angle of internal friction, it is consistent with the equations in Part II,
Chapter 14 Earth Pressure and Water Pressure.
(5) The earth pressure and the angle of failure surface should be calculated separately at each soil layer with
different soil properties, while the earth pressure distribution and the failure line inside each layer are treated as
linear. Actually within a soil layer, the earth pressure and the failure line sometimes become curved when
calculated for divided sublayers. This contradicts the original assumption in Okabes equation that is based on a
linear slip on the premise of Coulombs earth pressure.
(6) When using the equations above, the existence of cracks sometimes has to be considered in accordance with the
characteristics of the geotechnical materials used.
[4] Case of Limited Area of Subsoil Improvement

[Technical Notes]
(1) When the area treated by solidified geotechnical materials is limited and Mononobe-Okabes equation cannot be
applied simply, the earth pressure is evaluated by a suitable method that allows the influence of the treated area
to be assessed. When the treated area is limited, the earth pressure can be evaluated by the slice method. This
method of calculating earth pressure assumes a slip surface behind a structure. The soil mass sandwiched
between the slip surface and the wall surface is divided into segments by vetical planes, and the earth pressure is
calculated from the equilibrium of forces by self weight, buoyancy, shear force along the slip surface, and
seismic force of the respective sliced segments. Although the actual failure surface of the subsoil does not agree
with this rationale, this method may be used when there is no other suitable method available.
(2) The characteristics of earth pressure calculation using the slice method desribed here are as follows:
(a) In the semi-infinite multilayered subsoil, the earth pressure calculated by this method almost agrees with that
obtained from Part II, Chapter 14 Earth Pressure and Water Pressure.
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(b) In the finite multilayered subsoil, the calculated earth pressure is consistent with Mononobe-Okabes rationale
on earth pressure.
(c) When the subsoil includes granular soil layers, the angle of wall friction is set at 15 degrees. When the subsoil
consists of only cohesive soil layers, the angle is 0 degrees.
(d) The acting position of resultant earth pressure cannot be obtained. Therefore, the following method is used to
obtain the acting position:
The resultant earth pressures are obtained at two points along the wall, the distance between is small
enough.
The intensity of earth pressure between two points is calculated by dividing the difference of two resultant
earth pressures by the distance of two points.
The procedures in and are repeated through the whole height of the wall. Thus, the earth pressure
distribution will be obtained.
The acting position is calculated using the earth pressure distribution.
(e) The failure mode when calculating the distribution of earth pressure in the vertical direction is sometimes
conflicting with the failure mode for calculating the resultant earth pressure as a whole. In this case, caution is
required for determination of the earth pressure distribution used in design.
(f) With the slice method, three modes of failure are
examined (see Fig. T- 7.8.2).
Mode 1: when a uniform slip surface is formed in
the whole backfill (shear resistance
mode)
Mode 2: when a cracks down to the bottom of the
solidified soil layer is developed (crack
failure mode)
Mode 3: when a slip surface is formed along the
edge line of the solidified range (friction
resistance mode)
Note: Among Mode 1, the case in which the slip
surface does not pass the solidified body is
categorized as Mode 0.
Mode 2
Mode 3
Mode 1
Mode 0
Fig. T- 7.8.2 Three Failure Modes Considered

in the Slice Method
(g) The earth pressure distribution is calculated by assuming that the difference between the resultant earth
pressures at adjacent depths is the earth pressure for the corresponding depth.
7.9 Sand Compaction Pile Method (for Sandy Subsoil)

Design of sand compaction pile method to densify sandy soils shall be conducted appropriately after
examining the characteristics of subsoil properties and construction methods, as well as by taking account
of the past construction records and the results of test execution.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Purpose of Improvement
The purpose of improving loose sandy subsoil can be classified into (a) improving liquefaction strength, (b)
reducing settlement, and (c) improving the stability of slopes or bearing capacity.
(2) Compaction of Deep Layer
Vibration or impact from the ground surface is usually not effective to compact a deep sandy layer. The
improvement method generally adopted is to drive sand or gravel piles or to drive vibrating rods into a deep
loose sandy layer.
7.9.2 Sand Volume to Be Supplied

Design of sand volume to be supplied shall be made appropriately, examining the characteristics of the
subsoil, the required relative density, and the N-value.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Sand volume to be supplied can be calculated by equation (7.9.1).
e0 e
v = -------------1 + e0
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(7.9.1)
PART V FOUNDATIONS
where
e design void ratio of the improved soil (between sand piles)
e0 void ratio of the original soil
v volume of supplied sand required per unit volume of the original soil (m3/m3)
(2) The N-value after improvement is greatly affected by the N-value of the original subsoil and the volume of sand
supplied as well as the particle size distribution of the original soil and the overburden pressure. In particular, the
improvement effect might decrease in the subsoil with a high content of fine particles less than 75m (Fc).
Therefore, the reduction ratio b due to fines content should be incorporated in the design based on Fig. T- 7.9.1.
(3) Design for compaction of loose sandly subsoil by the vibro-composer method can be conducted based on a
number of accumulated case records on this method. Design for other compaction methods may be conducted
based on similar data if available.
(4) For improving loose sandy subsoil with a fines content of 20% or less, the sand supply rate Fv (= n) can be
calculated based on the past records on the N-value of the original subsoil and the required design N-value. The
relationship between the N-value of the original subsoil (N0) and that of the improved ground at the sand pile
center (Np) is shown in Fig. T- 7.9.2 with the parameter of the sand supply rate Fv. Similarly, the N-value of the
improved subsoil at the intermediate position between the sand piles (N1) is shown in Fig. T- 7.9.3. These
diagrams are obtained from the accumulated case histories on land-based construction.
Determining the N-value of the original subsoil, N0, from site surveys and the design N-value after
improvement, N1, from the conditions on upper structure.
STEP 1
Estimating emax and emin from the fines content Fc (%) using the following equations:
e max = 0.02F c + 1.0
e min = 0.008F c + 0.6

STEP 2
Calculating the relative density Dr0 and e0 using the following equation by substituting the N-value of the
original subsoil, N0, and the confining pressure, s v (kN/m2).
D r0 = 21 100 N 0 ( s v + 70 )
(%)
D r0
e 0 = e max --------- ( e max e min )
100
STEP 3
Calculating the reduction ratio b for the increment of N-value due to fine content.
b = 1.0 0.5 log F c ( for Fc > 1.0 )
STEP 4
Calculating the corrrected N-value, N1', from the calculated N-value, N1, without any fine content,
considering the reduction ratio b.
N1 = N 0 + ( N1 N0 ) b
STEP 5
Calculating e1 for N 1 by substituting N 1 into the equation in STEP 2 instead of N 0 .
STEP 6
e0 e1
Calculating the density increase ratio as by substituting e0 and e1 into a s = ---------------- .

1 + e0
STEP 7
As
2 As
3x
Determining the interval of sand piles x from a s = ----2- or a s = ------- ----2- in which A s is the sectional area
of a sand pile.
Fig. T- 7.9.1 Design Procedure for Sand Compaction Pile Method
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N-value at pile center after improvement N
Legend
N-value of original subsoil

N-value at pile center after improvement
sand supply rate
N-value of original subsoil N
between sand piles after improvement
N-value at intermediate position
Fig. T- 7.9.2 Relationship between N-value of Original Subsoil (N0) and N-value
at Pile Center after Improvement (Np) (Fines Content 20%)
Legend
N-value of original subsoil

N-value at the intermediate position
between the sand piles after improvement

sand supply rate
N-value of original subsoil N
Fig. T- 7.9.3 Relationship between N-value of Original Subsoil (N0) and N-value
at Intermediate Position after Improvement (N1) (Fines Content 20%)
7.9.3 Design Based on Trial Execution

When reliable past records are not available or the soil has a high silt content, trial execution shall be
conducted before designing sandy soil improvement. Trial execution shall be planned comprehensively by
examining the required degree of compaction estimated by means of void ratio, actual performance, and
others.
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
7.10 Sand Compaction Pile Method (for Cohesive Subsoil)

The design method described in this section shall be applied to improvement of cohesive subsoils beneath
gravity type structures such as breakwaters, quaywalls, and revetments.
[2] Basic Concept
The improved subsoil by the sand compaction pile method is a composite ground formed by driving sand
piles into soft cohesive soil. Therefore, the design shall be conducted appropriately considering the
composite nature of the subsoil and the influence of execution on the subsoil.
7.10.2 Strength and Permeability of Sand Piles
Sand piles shall have appropriate strength and permeability.
[Commentary]
Materials for sand pile should have high permeability, low fines content (less than 75mm), well-graded particle size
distribution, ease of compaction, and sufficient strength as well as ease of discharge out of casing. When the sand
piles with a low replacement area ratio are positively expected to function as drain piles to accelerate consolidation of
clayey layer, the permeability of the sand pile material and prevention of clogging are important. The permeability
requirement is relatively less important in the case of improvement with a high replacement area ratio, that is close to
the replacement by displacement. Therefore, materials for sand pile should be selected considering the replacement
area ratio and the purpose of improvement.
[Technical Notes]
There are no particular specifications on materials to be used for sand piles. Any sand material that can be supplied
near the site may be used from economical viewpoint as far as it satisfies the requirements in [Commentary]. Figure
T-7.10.1 shows several examples of sands used in the past. Recently, sand with a slightly higher fines content have
often been used.
Silt
Fine sand
Coarse sand Fine gravel Medium gravel Coarse gravel
Case 1
Passing weight percentage
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Case 5
Particle size
Fig. T- 7.10.1 Examples of Particle Size Distribution of Sands Used for Sand Compaction Piles
7.10.3 Shear Strength of Improved Subsoil

Shear strength of improved subsoil shall be determined appropriately by considering the stability analysis
method and the replacement area ratio.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Formula for Shear Strength of Improved Subsoil
Several formulas have been proposed to calculate the shear strength of improved subsoil that consists of sand
piles and soft cohesive soil. Equation (7.10.1) is most commonly used in practice, regardless of the replacement
area ratio (see Fig. T- 7.10.2).
2
t = ( 1 a s ) ( c 0 + kz + Ds z m c Dc DpU ) + ( g s z + m s Ds z )a s tan f s cos q

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(7.10.1)
where
as replacement area ratio of sand piles (cross-sectional area of a sand pile divided by the effective
cross-sectional area improved by the sand pile)
c0 undrained shear strength at z = 0 (kN/m2)
c0 + kz undrained shear strength of clay in natural subsoil (kN/m2)
k rate of increase in strength with depth (kN/m3)
n stress sharing ratio (n = Ds s Ds c )
U average degree of consolidation
z vertical coordinate (m)
t average shear strength of the improved subsoil mobilized at a slip surface (kN/m2)
m s stress concentration coefficient in a sand pile ( m s = Ds s Ds z = n [ 1 + ( n 1 )a s ] )
m c stress reduction coefficient in clay part ( m c = Ds c Ds z = 1 [ 1 + ( n 1 )a s ] )
g s unit weight of sand pile (or effective unit weight below the groundwater level) (kN/m3)
g c unit weight of cohesive soil (or effective unit weight below the groundwater level) (kN/m3)
f s internal friction angle of sand in pile ()
q angle of slip line to the horizontal ()
Ds z mean increment of vertical stress due to external forces at a slip surface (kN/m2)
Ds s increment of vertical stress due to external forces in a sand pile at a slip surface (kN/m2)
Ds c increment of vertical stress due to external forces in clay part between sand piles at a slip surface
(kN/m2)
Dc Dpratio of strength increase of cohesive soil in original subsoil.
Slip line
Clay
Sand pile
Fig. T- 7.10.2 Shear Strength of Composite Subsoil
(2) Design Parameters

Design parameters used in equation (7.10.1) varied to a certain degree in the past case histories. Design
parameters should be set by examining the strength of original subsoil, safety factor to be used, method of
calculation (see 7.10.4 Stability Analysis), and construction speed. The followings are standard values of the
stress sharing ratio and internal friction angle, which are obtained from the case studies of previous design and
construction records by equation (7.10.1)13).
as 0.4: n = 3, fs = 30
0.4 as 0.7: n = 2, fs = 30
as 0.7: n = 1, fs = 35
When the value of as is equal to or larger than 0.7, the first term in the right-hand side of equation (7.10.1) is
commonly neglected, or the improved area is often assumed as an uniform sandy soil with f = 30.
7.10.4 Stability Analysis

Stability analysis shall be conducted with an appropriate circular slip surface analysis, considering the past
records of executions.
[Commentary]
The modified Fellenius method is often used for circular slip surface analysis to evaluate the stability of improved
subsoil by the sand compaction pile method. In this method the subsoil and upper structures are divided into a
number of segments and the normal stress on the slip surface is calculated without incorporating the forces acting on
the vertical planes of segments. That is, only external forces acting on a segment is assumed to contribute to the
normal stress on the slip surface of the segment. Hereinafter in this section, this calculation method is called the slice
method. In actual subsoils, on the other hand, the stress due to external forces is distributed to a certain extent. To
take into account the effects of this stress distribution in the circular slip surface analysis, the vertical stress increment
Ds z at an arbitrary point on a slip surface may be obtained by using Boussinesqs equation, which is then applied for
use in the modified Fellenius method. Hereafter, this method is called the stress distribution method. Either the
slice method or the stress distribution method is used for the stability analysis of subsoil improved by the sand
compaction pile method.
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
[Technical Notes]
In case histories in which equation (7.10.1) was applied, a safety factor of 1.2 to 1.4 is adopted including the case of
examination on stability during execution.
The calculated value of safety factor is strongly dependent on the shear strength parameters and the equation
selected. Therefore, the combination of a calculation equation and design parameters should be appropriately
determined by examining previous design data and construction records. The influence of the shear strength formula,
design parameters, and calculation methods on the calculated safety factor are described in reference 13), which also
includes an evaluation of safety factor based on the reverse analyse of case histories of marine construction.
7.10.5 Examining Consolidation

Consolidation of improved subsoil shall be examined appropriately by considering the characteristics of
composite subsoil.
[Commentary]
Consolidation of improved subsoil by the sand compaction pile method is calculated in the similar way to that of sand
drain method except for the following two points. In design of sand drain method, the diameter and interval of sand
piles (expressed as the replacement area ratio in the case of sand compaction piles) can be determined only by the
length of construction period, neglecting the effect of sand piles on stability of subsoil. In design of the sand
compaction pile method, it is usual to evaluate consolidation of improved ground after the replacement area ratio is
determined by stability analysis, because the replacement area ratio contributes to the stability of the subsoil greatly
and the consolidation usually completes in a short period. Another point is that the ground settlement may decrease
and the consoliation rate may change compared with that by the sand drain method, owing to stress concentration to
the sand piles in the sand compaction pile method.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Calculating Consolidation
The final settlement of improved subsoil Sf and the final settlement of original subsoil S 0f can be calculated by
the following equations:
S f = e z H = bS 0f
(7.10.2)
S 0f = m v DpH
where
H : thickness of consolidated layer (m)
mv : coefficient of volume compressbility of original subsoil (m2/kN)
b : settlement ratio of improved subsoil to original subsoil: b = S f S 0f
e z : vertical strain
p : average consolidation pressure (kN/m2)
(7.10.3)
The consolidation of improved subsoil is calculated by the following procedures:

(a) Calculating the relationship between the degree of consolidation and the elapsed time by the method as in 7.3
Vertical Drain Method for the diameter, interval and arrangement of sand piles obtained from the
replacement area ratio determined by stability analysis.
(b) Calculating the final settlement of improved subsoil by multiplying the calculated final settlement of original
subsoil by the settlement ratio b .
(c) Calculating the relationship between time and settlement. The increment of shear strength of clay in between
sand piles due to consolidation, c, is obtained by the following equation, as shown within the first term in
the right-hand side of equation (7.10.1).
Dc = Ds z m c ( Dc Dp )U
(7.10.4)
In the calculation, a correction to the consolidation coefficient cv obtained by consolidation tests as well as
appropriate selection of settlement ratio b and stress reduction coefficient mc should be made by considering
the past records as described later.
(2) Comparison between Calculated Settlement and Field Measurements
The final settlement of improved subsoil is calculated by multiplying the predicted final settlement of original
subsoil by the settlement ratio b as shown in equation (7.10.2). The settlement ratio b is generally expressed in
the form similar to the stress reduction coefficient mc. Figure T- 7.10.3 shows the comparison of the calculated
settlement ratio and the field measurement data. Here, the values of b by field measurements in the figure have
been obtained as the ratio of the final settlement of improved subsoils, which was estimated by approximating
the time-settlement relations with hyperbolic curves, to the calculated value of final settlement of the original
subsoil.
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The figure also indicates the settlement ratio of b = 1 - as, which is used experientially in the case of high
replacement area ratio. It is found in the figure that the reduction of settlement due to improvement is
remarkable, and that the effect is influenced by the replacement area ratio. Moreover, although there is a large
scatter in the measured values, it is found that the measured settlements are close to those estimated with the
stress sharing ratio of approximately n = 4.
marine construction
land construction
Case 3
Case 1
Settlement ratio
Case 2
Case 4
b=
1+ (n
- 1) as
Case 1,2
Replacement area ratio
as
Fig. T- 7.10.3 Relationship between Settlement Ratio and Replacement Area Ratio
(3) Comparison between Calculated and Measured Consolidation Time

The consolidation rate of subsoil improved by the sand compaction pile method tends to be delayed compared to
that predicted by Barrons equation. Figure T- 7.10.4 based on previous construction data shows the delay in
consolidation in terms of the coefficient of consolidation as a major parameter. In the figure, cv is the coefficient
of consolidation reverse-analyzed from actual measurements for the time - settlement relationship, and cv0 is the
coefficient of consolidation obtained from laboratory tests. It can be seen that the time delay in consolidation
becomes greater with the increase in the replacement area ratio.
Legend
land construction
c v /c v
marine construction
Replacement area ratio
as
Fig. T- 7.10.4 Delay in Consolidation of Subsoil Improved by Sand Compaction Pile Method
(4) Comparison between Calculated and Actual Strength Increments

The increment of strength of clay in between sand piles Dc is estimated by equation (7.10.4). Figure T- 7.10.5
shows the comparison between calculated and actual strength increments, in which m c is analyzed with the
measured increments of clay strength between sand piles. The measured value of m c (= Dc a / Dc c ) is obtained
from the measured increment of clay strength Dc a in the improved ground by the sand compaction pile method
and the calculated increment of clay strength Dc c =[ Ds z ( Dc / Dp ) U] in the original subsoil. It is found that the
data of field measurements range around the curve with the stress sharing ratio n of approximately 3 to 4.
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PART V FOUNDATIONS
calculated increment of clay strength

measured increment of clay strength
m c ( D c a /D c c )
at sea
on land
Kasai oki
Replacement area ratio as

Fig. T- 7.10.5 Strength Increase of Clay between Sand Piles in Improved Subsoil
[References]
1) Japanese Geotechnical Society: Countermeasures for Soft Ground - Investigation, Design and Execution, 1988, pp.317321 (in Japanese).
2) Hiroyuki TANAKA, Kazumi OHTA, Takahide MARUYAMA: Performance of vertical drains for soft and ununiform soils,
Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 30, No. 2, 1991, pp.211-227 (in Japanese).
3) Masaaki TERASHI, Hiroyuki TANAKA, Tsukasa MITSUMOTO, Yuji NIIDOME, Sadakichi HONDA: Fundamental
properties of lime and cement treated soils (2nd Report), Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 19, No. 1, 1980, pp. 33-62 (in Japanese).
4) Masaaki TERASHI, Masaki Kitazume, Takeshi NAKAMURA: External forces acting on a stiff soil mass improved by
DMM, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 27, No. 2, 1988, pp. 147-184 (in Japanese).
5) Masaki KITAZUME: Model and analytical studies on stability of improved ground by deep mixing method, Tech. Note of
PHRI, No. 774, 1994, 73p. (in Japanese).
6) Takashi TSUCHIDA, Yuji YOKOYAMA, Jun-ichi MIZUKAMI, Kazuya SHIMIZU, Jutaro KASAI: Field test of lightweight geomaterials for harbor structures, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 833, 1996 (in Japanese).
7) Takashi TSUCHIDA, Jutaro KASAI, Jun-ichi MIZUKAMI, Yuji YOKOYAMA, Kazunori TSUCHIDA: Effect of curing
condition on mechanical properties of lightweight soils, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 834, 1996 (in Japanese).
8) Takashi TSUCHIDA, Koji NAGAI, Masayuki YUKAWA, Takao KISHIDA, Minoru YAMAMOTO: Properties of lightweight soil used for backfill of pier, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 835, 1996 (in Japanese).
9) Yi Xin TANG, Takashi TSUCHIDA, Daisuke TAKEUCHI, Masataka KAGAMIDA, Noboru NISHIDA: Mechanical
properties of light-weight tested by triaxial apparatus, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 845, 1996 (in Japanese).
10) Takashi TSUCHIDA, Yoshiaki KIKUCHI, Tetsuo FUKUHARA, Takeo WAKO, Kazuhiro YAMAMURA: Slice method for
earth pressure analysis and its application to lightweight fill, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 924, 1999 (in Japanese).
11) Yoshiaki KIKUCHI, Kunio TAKAHASHI: Change of mechanical characteristics of the granulated blast furnace slag
according to age, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 915, 1998, 26p. (in Japanese).
12) Sabro OKABE: General theory on earth pressure and seismic stability of retaining wall and dam, Journal of J.S.C.E. Vol. 10
No. 6, 1924, pp. 1277-1323.
13) Katsumi KANDA, Masaki TERASHI: Practical equation for the composite ground improved by sand compaction pile
method, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 669, 1990, pp. 1-52 (in Japanese).
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PART VI NAVIGATION CHANNELS AND BASINS

Chapter 1 General
In planning and design of navigation channels and basins, careful considerations shall be given to their
relationship with mooring facilities, protective facilities, and others. It is also necessary to examine their
effects after completion upon nearby waters, adjacent facilities, topography, flow regimes, and other
environmental conditions. The expected course of the ports future development shall also be taken into
consideration. In particular, special care shall be given to the planning and design of navigation channels
and basins for ships that mainly transport hazardous goods.
[Commentary]
(1) With regard to harbor facilities such as navigation channels, port entrances, and ship maneuvering basins where
ships maneuvering problems may arise, it is necessary to hear opinions of persons concerned including captains,
mates, and pilots.
(2) In selecting the locations for basins exclusively used to dangerous cargo vessels, the following should be
considered:
(a) To minimize an encounter with general ships, especially passenger ships.
(b) To isolate them from the facilities of which surrounding environment should be preserved, such as housing
areas, schools and hospitals.
(c) To be capable of easily coping with accidents including hazardous goods spill.
(3) From the viewpoint of securing safety and efficiency in navigation and cargo handling, it is desirable to separate
the basins for passenger ships, ferries, and fishing boats and small craft basins from those for other types of
vessels.
(4) In principle, it is desirable to separate timber handling facilities as a specialized terminal from other general
facilities.
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Chapter 2 Navigation Channels

2.1 General
In planning and design of a navigation channel, considerations shall be given to the safety of navigation,
the easiness of ship maneuvering, the topographic, meteorological and marine conditions, and the
conformity with related facilities.
[Commentary]
(1) A navigation channel can be difined as a waterway with sufficient depth and width to allow the smooth passage
of vessels. A good navigation channel should satisfy the following requirements:
(a) The alignment of the navigation channel is close to a straight line.
(b) The width and depth are sufficient in consideration of the effects of the shape of the channels bank, the sea
bottom topography, and ship-generated waves on the navigation of other vessels.
(c) Meteorological and marine conditions including winds and tidal currents are good for safe navigation.
(d) A sufficient number of good navigation aids and signaling facilities have been provided.
(2) When setting a navigation channel, it is necessary to analyze the tracks of vessels entering and leaving the port
using examples of similar existing ports and harbors as references. It is also necessary to hear opinions from the
people in the local maritime organizations. Further considerations should be given to the status of provisions of
navigation aids and the marine traffic control system within the harbor, the distances from the adjacent basins to
the harbor, the navigation channel division methods employed for the harbor (e.g., large and small ships,
inbound and outbound traffic), the angle of approach to the harbor, and whether or not tugboats are used.
(3) For the area of water that is mainly used for the navigation of vessels, measures should be taken to avoid
anchorage or turning of vessels within such waters even when there is no designation for navigation channels.
2.2 Alignment of Navigation Channel (Notification Article 28, Clause 1)

When a navigation channel has a bend, the intersection angle of centerlines of channels at the bend shall be
made as small as possible.
[Commentary]
(1) In the determination of the intersection angle at a bend of navigation channel, it is necessary to consider the
turning diameters, the sailing speeds, the ratio of vessels draft to water depth, the number of navigation aids
deployed, etc.
(2) When the direction of wind or tidal currents is nearly perpendicular to a navigation channel, ship maneuvering is
greatly affected by the wind or tidal currents. Therefore, it is necessary to consider these effects where wind and/
or tidal currents are strong.
(3) It is advisable that the intersection angle of
channel centerlines at a bend will not exceed
approximately 30. When the angle exceeds
30, the centerline of the channel at the bend
should be made as an arc having the radius of
curvature larger than about four times the
length overall of the target vessel. The width of
the channel at such a bend should be equal to or
larger than the required width, except for cases
where the target vessel has good turning performance, such as the cases of yachts, motorboats,
and other ships used for sports or recreational
purposes, or where a sufficient number of signals or other facilities have been provided to
Fig. C- 2.2.1 Width Increase with Corner Cut at Bend Section
allow safe and smooth ship maneuvering.
(4) At a bend of a double-way channel where the intersection angle is 30 or greater and the channel width is equal
to L (the length overall of the target vessel), it is necessary to increase the channel width at the bend with a
corner cut as sketched in Fig. C- 2.2.1.
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(5) When a bridge is to be built across a navigation channel, it is necessary to secure a sufficient clearance in both
the height and width. When determining clearance, the following items should be considered:
(a) In the determination of clearance height
Ship mast height and trim of ship
Tide level and wave height
Psychological effects on ship captains and mates
(b) In the determination of clearance width
Prevailing wind, tidal currents, and tidal current changes by piers (depending on their shapes)
Speed, maneuvering performance, and stopping performance of ship
Psychological effects on ship captains and mates
2.3 Width of Navigation Channel

In the determination of the width of a navigation channel, due consideration shall be given to the types and
dimensions of target vessels, the traffic volume and length of the channel, and natural conditions including
meteorological and marine conditions.
In such cases that the use of tugboats is prescribed, a refuge area for vessels is provided, or the length of
channel is very short, however, the channel width can be reduced to the extent not to hinder safe navigation
of vessels.
[Commentary]
(1) For ordinary navigation channels, the following values are adopted as the standard width (L indicates the length
overall of the target vessel):
(a) For a double-way channel, an appropriate width that is 1.0L or larger is adopted, except for:
cases in which the length of the navigation channel is relatively long:
cases in which the target vessels frequently pass in both ways through the channel:
cases in which the target vessels frequently pass in both ways through the channel and
the length of the channel is relatively long:
1.5L
1.5L
2.0L
(b) For a one-way channel, an appropriate width that is 0.5L or larger is adopted. When the width becomes less
than 1.0L, it is desirable to introduce sufficient safety measures such as the provision of facilities to assist
navigation.
(2) For special navigation channels (navigation channels with extremely heavy traffic, navigation channels which
are crossed by navigating vessels, navigation channels for ultralarge vessels, navigation channels in which
meteorological and/or marine conditions are severe, etc.), the channel width should be determined by adding
margins as necessary to the above-mentioned standard width.
(3) For navigation channels for fishing boats or ships of less than 500 GT, appropriate channel widths are
determined in consideration of the usage conditions.
[Technical Notes]
Previous studies on navigation channel width are listed in Table T- 2.3.1. The table lists up major studies and
analyses on the navigation channel width that have been published in Japan and overseas. As the table only gives a
summary, refer to individual books and reports for details.
The relationship between the dimensions L and B of cargo vessels according to the data of Lloyds Maritime
Information 95.6 is as follows:
Average value (50% value): L = 6.6B (25% value: L = 6.1B; 75% value: L = 7.2B)
where
L: length overall (m)
B: molded breadth (m)
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Table T- 2.3.1 Studies and Analyses on Navigation Channel Width

Author/originator
Double-way channel
One-way channel
Literature name
7.2B 8.2B
4.6B 5.1B
General Theory of Ship Maneruvering

(in Japanese)
8B 10B
5B 6B
Basics of Ship Maneuvering in Bays

and Harbors - Controllability and Ship
Maneuvering for Entering Basins - (in
Japanese)
7B + 30 (m)
5B
Joint Working Group PIANC and

IAPH, in cooperation with IMPA
and IALA
4.2B 14.2B
1.9B 7.2B
Approach Channels: A Guide for

Design
Gregory P. Tshinker
6.2B 9.0B
3.6B 6.0B
Handbook of Port and Harbor

Engineering
Keinosuke Honda
Akira Iwai
United Nations Conference on

Trade and Development
Port Development:
A Handbook for Planners in
Developing Countries
Note 1: B = molded breadth of the target vessel

Note 2: Since these are sample values provided for the sake of comparison, the above figures are not specifically given in the
books and reports.
2.4 Depth of Navigation Channel

The depth of navigation channel shall be determined in such a way that the basin depth as specified in 4.3
Depth of Basin is secured and appropriate allowances are added as necessary in consideration of the type
of the bottom material, vessel motions, trim and hull sinking of vessels, errors of charts and surveying data,
and the accuracy of dredging. In the case that the target vessels always navigate with shallower drafts than
the respective full drafts, such as in the channels for vessels approach from / to docks and in those for
vessels that always call after finishing unloading at another port, however, the channel depth may be
determined otherwise.
[Technical Notes]
In the determination of keel clearance, books by Iwai, by Honda and others may be used as references. For estimating
the approximate amount of hull sinking depending on the speed and size of vessel, the equation suggested by J.P.
Hooft may be refered to.
2.5 Length of Navigation Channel at Harbor Entrance (Notification Article 28, Clause 2)
The length of a navigation channel at the harbor entrance and the area of basin neighboring the channel
shall be determined appropriately in consideration of the stopping distance of the target vessel.
[Commentary]
Vessels must keep a certain minimum speed while navigating in waters outside of protective facilities such as
breakwaters to enter a harbor, in order to avoid adverse effects of winds and tidal currents. Therefore it is desirable to
determine the length of the navigation channel from the tip of breakwaters to the wharf and the area of the
neighboring basin, in a manner of ensuring the adequate stopping distances of vessels.
[Technical Notes]
The distance required for deceleration varies according to the size and initial speed of vessel. In the determination of
this distance, books by Iwai and by Honda may be used as references. For ultralarge vessels, the report on the result
of the study conducted by the Japan Maritime Disasters Prevention Association may be used. With regard to very
large vessels, it is desirable to consider the use of tugboats.
2.6 Calmness of Navigation Channel (Notification Article 29, Clause 1)

In planning and design of navigation channels, appropriate calmness of navigation channels shall be
achieved in consideration of the safe navigation of vessels, presence of pilots on board, and use of
tugboats.
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[Commentary]
(1) The effect of waves on small vessels while navigating is large when there is a beam sea or following sea
condition. The effect of waves on large vessels while navigating is large when there is a following sea condition.
Navigation channels should be designed in such a way that the period of waves does not correspond with the
vessels natural period of rolling and the vessel is not subjected to waves with the wavelength that is the same as
or close to the length overall of the vessel. In addition, if a large vessel is subjected to following waves while
navigating in an area close to the harbor entrance at a low speed, the speed of the vessel relative to the wave
speed may become small and this may hinder the steering of the vessel and generate large yawing. Therefore it is
desirable to avoid the course of a navigation channel that would compel vessels to navigate around the harbor
entrance in the following wave condition with an angle of 45 or smaller from the astern direction.
(2) When considering measures and methods to secure the desired degree of calmness for a navigation channel, it is
necessary to consider the effects of waves running along and/or reflected from breakwaters and quaywalls in
addition to the effect of incident waves.
(3) For navigation channels in waters where wave conditions are severe, it is necessary to achieve the degree of
calmness that matches the controllability of vessels, in consideration of the entry speeds and stopping distance of
vessels.
(4) When there is no alternative other than to provide a navigation channel in a water that would allow only a small
keel clearance, it is necessary to raise the degree of calmness so that the hull sinking due to the motions of
vessels can be minimized.
[References]
1)
2)
3)
4)
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development: Port Development.

The Joint Working Group PIANC and IAPH: Approach Channels: A Guide for Design, 1997.
Gregory Tsinker: Handbook of Port and Harbor Engineering, 1996.
Hooft, J. P: The behavior of a ship in head waves at restricted water depths, Int. Ship Building Progress, Vol.21, No. 244.
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Chapter 3 Navigation Channels outside Breakwaters

3.1 General
In planning and design of a navigation channel outside breakwaters, the provisions given in Chapter 2
Navigation Channels shall be followed, and the safe vessel navigation at the normal speed shall be taken
into consideration.
[Commentary]
The term navigation channel used in this chapter means a waterway outside breakwaters through which vessels
navigate at normal speeds.
3.2 Width of Navigation Channel

A navigation channel outside breakwaters shall have a width equal to or greater than the width specified in
2.3 Width of Navigation Channel. In the determination of the width of a navigation channel,
considerations shall be given to the natural conditions including waves, winds, tidal currents and
topography, and the sailing speed of vessels.
[Commentary]
For navigation channels in which two vessels may navigate side by side or a vessel may pass by another, it is
necessary to consider the interaction between two vessels, the vessels yawing, and the psychological effects of the
channel width on the vessels captain and mates.
[Technical Notes]
(1) When two vessels navigate alongside or a vessel pass by another in close proximity to each other, the symmetric
flow patterns around both vessels are lost and this generates the suction and repulsive forces between them. The
effect of these forces on vessel maneuvering is called the interaction between two ships.
(2) In the determination of the interaction between two vessels, books by Iwai and by Honda may be used as
references.
3.3 Depth of Navigation Channel

For navigation channels outside breakwaters, the depth specified in 2.4 Depth of Navigation Channel
shall be secured. As navigation channels outside breakwaters are generally characterized by severe marine
conditions and high vessel speeds, careful consideration shall be given to sufficient depth allowances for
the vessel motions, hull sinking and trim of vessel, type of bottom sediment, errors of charts and surveying
data, and accuracy of dredging.
[Commentary]
(1) The motions of vessel hull due to waves are governed by the length overall, width and speed of the vessel, and
the wavelength and wave height. For the keel clearance to be able to accommodate these vessel motions, it is
generally considered sufficient to allow about two thirds of the wave height for small and medium-sized ships
and about one half of the wave height for large-sized vessels. In the determination of keel clearance, it is
desirable to use the data of existing navigation channels with similar navigation conditions.
(2) In shallow water areas and navigation channels with a small cross section, the water around the hull of a sailing
vessel is accelerated and the pressure is reduced. As a result, the water level around the vessel hull goes down,
thereby lowering the vessel hull itself and in many cases changing vessel attitude into trim by bow. In this
case, the turning performance of the vessel is reduced, but the course keeping performance is improved.
(3) In the determination of the depth of a navigation channel in which sand waves often appear or a navigation
channel whose bottom material is muddy, it is necessary to consider the influence of these factors.
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Chapter 4 Basins
4.1 General
In planning and design of basins, considerations shall be given to the safety in anchorage, the easiness of
ship maneuvering, the cargo handling efficiency, the meteorological and marine conditions, the effects of
reflected waves and ship-generated waves on vessels in the harbor, and the conformity with related
facilities.
4.2 Location and Area of Basin

4.2.1 Location
The location of basin shall be determined appropriately in consideration of the layout of breakwaters,
wharves and navigation channels, and the calmness requirement.
4.2.2 Area of Basin Used for Anchorage or Mooring
(1) In the determination of the area of a basin used for anchorage or buoy mooring, due considerations
shall be given to the purpose of the use, anchorage method, sea bottom material, wind speed, and
water depth.
(2) For buoy mooring, considerations shall be given to the type of the use, and to the horizontal
movement of the buoy when the tidal range is large.
[Commentary]
(1) Swinging mooring (Fig. C- 4.2.1(a)) and mooring with two anchors (Fig. C- 4.2.1(b)) are the two most
frequently used anchorage methods.
(2) The required length of anchor chain varies depending on the type of vessel, anchorage method, and
meteorological and marine conditions. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the chain length in such a way that
the holding powers of the mooring anchor and the chain lying on the sea bottom can resist the forces acting on
the vessel under expected conditions. In general, the stability of the mooring system increases as the length of
the anchor chain becomes longer.
(3) The area of anchorage area is defined as a circle having a radius equivalent to the sum of the vessels length and
the horizontal distance between the bow and the center of rotation.
(4) When the dimensions required to calculate the length of the anchor chain are unknown, Table C- 4.2.1 may
normally be used as a reference to determine the area of anchorage area.
(5) Figure C- 4.2.1 (c) shows a vessel moored in a single-buoy mooring, and Figure C- 4.2.1 (d) shows a vessel
moored in a double-buoy mooring with the buoys located in bow and stern of the vessel. In this double-buoy
mooring, it is necessary to locate the buoys in such a way that the line connecting the two buoys become parallel
with the directions of tidal currents and winds. In the determination of the area of these types of buoy mooring
areas, Table C- 4.2.2 may be used as a reference.
(6) The width of a basin to be established between two piers in cases where many finger piers run in parallel may be
determined using the following rule as reference:
(a) When the number of berths on one side of the pier is 3 or less: 1.0L
(b) When the number of berths on one side of the pier is 4 or more: 1.5L (L: length overall of target vessel)
In cases where the basin is to be used by bunker boats or barges, or where the area around the end of the pier is
to be used as a basin for small crafts, it is desirable to add margins to the width in consideration of the respective
usage pattern.
Table C- 4.2.1 Anchorage Area
Purpose of the use
of the basin
Anchorage method
Swinging mooring
Offshore waiting
or cargo handling
Mooring with two anchors
Note:
Sea bottom material

or wind speed
Good anchoring
L + 6D
Poor anchoring
L + 6D + 30 m
Good anchoring
L + 4.5D
Poor anchoring
L + 4.5D + 25 m
L; length overall of target vessel (m), D; water depth (m)

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Radius
Table C- 4.2.2 Area of Basin Used for Buoy Mooring

Anchorage method
Area
Single-buoy mooring
Circle having a radius of (L + 25 m)
Double-buoy mooring
(L + 50 m) L/2 rectangle
Note: L; length overall of target vessel (m)
(b) Mooring with two anchors

(a) Swinging mooring
(d) Double-buoy mooring

(c) Single-buoy mooring
Fig. C- 4.2.1 Basic Concept of the Area of Basin (per Vessel)
[Technical Notes]
(1) In the determination of anchorage method and the area of a basin for stormy weather, books by Iwai and by
Honda may be used as references. In the determination of the area of a basin for ultralarge vessels, which are
100,000GT or larger, publications by the Japan Marine Disasters Prevention Association may be used as a
reference.
(2) For the consideration of the area of a basin with respect to anchorage during stormy weather, the model
suggested by Suzuki 1) may be used as a reference.
4.2.3 Area of Basin Used for Ship Maneuvering

[1] Turning Basin
In the determination of the area of a basin used for bow turning, due considerations shall be given to the
method of bow turning, the vessels bow turning performance, the layout of mooring facilities and
navigation channels, and the meteorological and marine conditions.
[Commentary]
(1) It is recommended that turning basins be located appropriately in front of mooring facilities in consideration of
the layout of other navigation channels and basins.
(2) The standard area of turning basin is as follows:
(a) Bow turning without assistance of tugboats: Circle having a diameter of 3L
(b) Bow turning using tugboats:
Circle having a diameter of 2L
Thrusters with a sufficient power may be considered as equivalent to a tugboat.
(3) As for small ships, when the above standard area cannot be provided due to topographic conditions, the area of
turning basin may be reduced to the following level by using mooring anchors, winds, or tidal currents:
(a) Bow turning without assistance of tugboat:
(b) Bow turning using tugboat:
Circle having a diameter of 2L

Circle having a diameter of 1.5L
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(4) In those cases where the standard size cannot be provided due to topographical constraints but a water area
adjacent to the basin can be used in case of emergency, the basin area smaller than the standard size may be used
as long as the smaller area is considered sufficient to meet the safety requirements.
[2] Mooring / Unmooring Basin

In the determination of the area of a mooring / unmooring basin, considerations shall be given to whether
or not tugboats are used, effects of wind and tidal currents, and easiness of ship maneuvering.
[Technical Notes]
In the determination of the area of a mooring / unmooring basin, books by Iwai and by Honda may be used as
references. For cases in which tugboats are used, books by Nakajima and Yamagata may be used as references.
4.3 Depth of Basin

(1) The depth of basin below the datum level shall be determined by adding an appropriate keel clearance
to the maximum draft expected (such as full draft).
(2) When the full-load draft etc. of the target vessel are unknown, the depth of basin shall be determined
appropriately.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Where the seasonal variation in the mean sea level is larger than the tide level variation due to astronomical tide
and the mean sea level frequently becomes lower than the datum level, or where waves or swell of appreciable
heights enter the basin, it is necessary to consider the effects of these phenomena.
(2) When the dimensions of the target vessel cannot be specified in advance such as in the case of a public port, the
water depth of berth as specified in Part , 2.1 Length and Water Depth of Berths may be used as the
standard depth for the basin.
4.4 Calmness of Basin (Notification Article 29, Clause 2)

For basins that are located in front of mooring facilities and used for accommodating or mooring vessels,
the calmness of a specified level shall be achieved for 97.5% or more of the days of the year, except for
those cases where the use of the mooring facilities or the area in front of the mooring facilities is
categorized as a special use.
[Commentary]
(1) The threshold wave heights for cargo handling for basins in front of mooring facilities should be determined
appropriately in consideration of the type, size, and cargo handling characteristics of the vessels. For this
purpose, the values listed in Table C- 4.4.1 may be adopted.
Calmness of basin is usually evaluated by the wave height in the basin, but it is desirable to consider as
necessary the effects of wave direction and period, which affect the motions of moored vessels as well.
Table C- 4.4.1 Theshold Wave Height for Cargo Handling
Ship size
Threshold wave height for cargo handling (H1/3)
Small-sized ships
0.3 m
Medium- and largesized vessels
0.5 m
Very large vessels
0.7 1.5 m
Note: Small-sized ships are vessels smaller than about

500 GT that mainly use the basins for small crafts,
and very large ships are vessels larger than about
50,000 GT that mainly use large dolphins and
offshore berths. Medium- and large-sized ships are
vessels that do not belong to the small-sized and
very large ship categories.
(2) It is recommended that the threshold wave height and wind speed for refuge in a harbor be determined
appropriately in consideration of whether the harbor is facing the open sea or the inland sea, the type and size of
vessels, and the mooring method employed (e.g., wharf mooring, buoy mooring, anchorage).
[Technical Notes]
Table T- 4.4.1 gives as references the allowable amplitudes of vessel motions for different types of cargo handling
that have been suggested by Ueda and Shiraishi 2) and PIANC 3).
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Table T- 4.4.1 Allowable Amplitudes of Vessel Motions for Different Types of Vessels 2)
Vessel type
Surging
Swaying
Heaving
Rolling
Pitching
Yawing
General cargo ships
1.0
0.75
0.5
2.5
1.0
1.5
Grain carriers
1.0
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
Ore carriers
1.0
1.0
0.5
3.0
1.0
1.0
Oil tankers (foreign route)
1.5
0.75
0.5
4.0
2.0
2.0
Oil tankers (coastal route)
1.0
0.75
0.5
3.0
1.5
1.5
Container ships (LO/LO)
0.5
0.3
0.3
1.5*
0.5*
0.5*
Ferries, container ships (RO/RO) and

pure car carriers
0.3*
0.6*
0.3*
1.0*
0.5*
0.5*
Note: the values marked * are based on reference 3).
4.5 Timber Sorting Pond

Timber sorting pond shall be equipped with facilities to prevent timber drift. The facilities to prevent
timber drift include timber mooring piles, timber drift prevention fences, and other facilities. When a
protective facility is provided around a timber sorting pond, the protective facility may be used as the
facility to prevent timber drift.
[Technical Notes]
The structures and composition of such facilities to prevent timber drift are as specified in Part
, 2.10 Breakwaters
for Timber Handling Facilities and Part , 2.5 Timber Sorting Areas.
[References]
1) Yasumasa SUZUKI: Study on the design of single buoy mooring, Tech. Note of PHRI, No.829, 1996 (in Japanese).
2) Shigeru UEDA, Satoru SHIRAISHI: The allowable ship motions for cargo handling at wharves, Rept. of PHRI, Vol.27,
No.4, 1988, pp.3-61.
3) Criteria for Movements of Moored Ships in Harbors: A Practical Guide: Report of Working Group No. 24, Supplement to
Bulletin No. 88, Permanent International Association of Navigation, 1995.
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Chapter 5 Small Craft Basins

In planning and design of small craft basins, considerations shall be given to the safety in mooring, the
easiness of vessel maneuvering, the meteorological and marine conditions, and the conformity with related
facilities.
Chapter 6 Maintenance of Navigation Channels and Basins

In principle, navigation channels and basins shall be maintained appropriately for safe and smooth vessel
operations in accordance with relevant standards, in consideration of the natural conditions and the status
of the use.
[Commentary]
(1) When a navigation channel or basin is to be built in an estuary port or a seashore area where a significant level of
littoral drift is expected, the volume of sediment transport under flood conditions or the rate of longshore
sediment transport due to waves and tidal currents should be estimated and the amount of maintenance dredging
required for the future should be predicted.
(2) For a navigation channel or basin which might be silted up during a storm, periodical checks should be made in
an appropriate manner and emergency checks should be made as necessary. When the required water depth or
width may not be secured as found by the result of such checks, appropriate measures should be taken to remedy
the situation.
(3) Periodical checks are those conducted at predetermined intervals for selected areas, and emergency checks are
those conducted when there is a risk that a navigation channel or basin may be silted up due to an abnormal
meteorological condition.
(4) The surrounding environments (topographic conditions, bottom material, marine conditions, etc.) of individual
navigation channels and basins are different. Therefore, the intervals of checks, the criteria for assessing the
status / conditions, and the measures for decreasing the risk of hazard in the navigation channel / basin should be
determined appropriately in consideration of the surrounding environments.
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PART VII PROTECTIVE FACILITIES FOR HARBORS

Chapter 1 General
1.1 General Consideration
In the design of protective facilities such as breakwaters, jetties, seawalls, training jetties, sluices, locks,
revetments, levees, groins, and parapets, the following consideration shall be made:
(1) Interrelations with navigation channels, basins, mooring facilities, and other facilities.
(2) Their influences exerted on the nearby water area, facilities, topography, currents, and other
environment after their construction.
(3) Room for future development of the port.
[Commentary]
(1) Protective facilities refers to breakwaters, jetties, seawalls, training jetties, sluices, locks, revetments, levees,
groins, parapets, etc.
(2) The functions of protective facilities for harbors include ensuring harbor calmness, maintaining water depth,
preventing beach erosion, controlling the rise of water level in the areas behind levees during storm surges, and
diminishing invading tsunami waves, as well as protecting harbor facilities and land areas from waves, storm
surges, and tsunami. In recent years, protective facilities have also been required to provide facilities for water
frontage amenities such that people can enjoy contact with the nature or appreciate the harbor environment. In
many circumstances, protective facilities are expected to provide several of these functions. In these situations,
therefore, careful consideration is required when designing the protective facilities to adequately fulfill these
various functions.
(3) When constructing protective facilities for harbors, their layout and structural type must be decided after giving
careful consideration to the influences that will be exerted on the nearby navigation channels and basins,
mooring facilities, topography, currents, and other environments. The influences caused by protective harbor
facilities are as follows:
(a) When protective facilities are constructed on a coast of sandy beach, they may cause various morphological
changes to the surrounding area such as beach accretion or erosion.
(b) Construction of breakwaters may increase the wave height at the outside of protective facilities because of
reflected waves.
(c) In the inside of a harbor, the calmness of water area may be disturbed because of multiple wave reflections
triggered by construction of new protective facilities or harbor oscillations due to the changes of harbor shape.
(d) Construction of protective facilities may bring about changes in the surrounding tidal currents or flow
conditions of a river mouth, thus inviting localized changes of water quality.
(4) Because of the fact that protective facilities also provide a habitat for marine organisms such as fish, marine
plants, and plankton, the biological and ecological environments must also be taken into consideration when
planning a facility layout and making structural design.
(5) When placing protective facilities adjacent to the areas such as natural park zones or cultural facilities, it is
preferable to consider not only the functions of the facilities themselves but also external appearance such as
shape and color. In addition, in situations where water frontage amenity functions will be added to protective
facilities, convenience and safety of people must also be taken into consideration.
(6) Because the failure of protective facilities would have an enormous impact on the safety of vessels in the harbor,
mooring facilities, and land areas, a thorough investigation of facility safety during the design, construction, and
maintenance phases is required.
1.2 Maintenance (Notification Article 54)

Protective facilities for harbors shall be maintained in good conditions based upon appropriate standards
and guidelines, considering the natural conditions and construction characteristics in question, so that they
will fully perform their functions.
[Technical Notes]
Refer to Part , Chapter 3 Maintenance.
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Chapter 2 Breakwaters
2.1 General
When designing breakwaters, the following matters shall be investigated:
(1) Layout of breakwaters
(2) Influence on the surrounding topography
(3) Harmony with the surrounding environments
(4) Design conditions
(5) Structural types of breakwaters
(6) Possibility of multiple use of breakwater
(7) Design method
(8) Construction method
(9) Economic aspects
[Technical Notes]
In recent years, the water frontage amenity functions such as facilities for recreational fishing have been added to
breakwaters, and situations calling for multiple use continue to increase. When designing this type of breakwater with
water frontage amenity, designers can refer to the Technology Manual for Port and Harbour Environmental
Enhancement Facilities.
2.2 Layout of Breakwaters (Notification Article 55)

Breakwaters shall be appropriately located so that the conditions specified in Part , 2.6 Calmness of
Navigation Channel and Part , 4.4 Calmness of Basin will be satisfied.
[Commentary]
(1) Breakwaters are built to maintain the calmness in harbors, facilitate cargo loading and unloading, ensure the
safety of ships during navigation or anchorage, and protect harbor facilities. To fulfil these requirements, the
following objectives should be met:
(a) Breakwaters should be so placed that the harbor entrance is at the location not facing the direction of the most
frequent waves or the direction of the design storm waves in order to suppress the energy of waves entering
the harbor.
(b) Breakwaters should be so laid out that they will effectively shelter the harbor against the most frequent waves
and the largest storm waves.
(c) The harbor entrance should have a sufficient effective width so that it will not present an obstacle to ship
navigation, and it should orient the navigation channel in a direction that makes navigation easy.
(d) Tidal currents around the harbor entrance should be as slow as possible.
(e) The influences of reflected waves, Mach-stem waves, and wave concentration on the navigation channels and
mooring basins should be minimized.
(f) Breakwaters should enclose a sufficiently large water area that is needed for ship berthing, cargo loading and
unloading, and ship anchorage.
These objectives are also mutually contradictory goals, however. A narrow harbor entrance width, for example,
is best in order to achieve the calmness in a harbor but is inconvenient for navigation. The direction of most
frequent waves and the direction of the strongest waves are not necessarily the same. In this kind of situation the
breakwater layout must be determined through a comprehensive investigation of all the factors such as
conditions of vessel utilization, construction cost, construction works, and easiness or difficulty of maintenance.
For the estimation procedures for tranquillity within a harbor, refer to Part II, 4.5 Transformations of Waves
and Part II, 4.6.3 Wave Transmission. Also, refer to Part , Chapter 2 Navigation Channels regarding the
harbor entrance width and direction, and Part , Chapter 4 Basins with regard to water surface area within a
harbor.
(2) In situations where concerns for deterioration of water quality exist, consideration must be given to the
exchangeability of seawater with the outside sea so that seawater within the harbor does not stagnate.
(3) When building breakwaters, the natural conditions and construction conditions must be considered, and
economic aspects must also be investigated. Especially, the followings should be taken into consideration:
(a) Layouts that cause wave concentration should be avoided.
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(b) Locations with the especially soft and weak ground should be avoided, and breakwaters should be located at
the places where construction works can be easily carried out.
(c) Topographic features such as headlands and islands should be utilized as the wave shelter as much as possible.
(d) On sandy beach coasts, breakwaters should be so laid out to minimize the sedimentation of littoral drift in the
harbor.
(e) Adequate consideration should be given to the influence of breakwater construction on the adjacent areas.
Refer to Part II, 4.5.4 [3] Transformation of Waves at Concave Corners, near the Heads of Breakwaters,
and around Detached Breakwaters with regard to the wave concentration. For breakwaters that will be built
on sandy beach coasts, refer to Part II, Chapter 10 Littoral Drift and Chapter 5 Facilities to Prevent
Shoaling and Siltation.
(4) Breakwaters should be so laid out that they do not form an obstacle to the future development of the port and
harbor.
(5) The effective harbor entrance width means the width of the channel at the specified depth of water, not merely
the width across the water surface of harbor entrance. The speed of the tidal currents cutting across the harbor
entrance ideally should be less than 2 to 3 knots under the normal conditions.
(6) In the areas surrounding shoals, the wave height often increases owing to wave refraction. In some case, impact
wave forces will act on the breakwater built on a seabed with steep slope. It should be noted that a very large
structure may be required when a breakwater is placed over or directly behind a shoal.
(7) With detached breakwaters, it should be noted that, if the length of the breakwater is less than a few times the
length of incident waves, the distribution of wave heights behind the breakwater will take a considerable
variation due to the effect of wave diffraction around both ends of the breakwater and the breakwater stability
will be affected accordingly. With regard to the effect of wave diffraction, refer to Part II, 4.5.3 Wave
Diffraction and Partt II, 4.5.4 [3] Transformation of Waves at Concave Corners, near the Heads of
Breakwaters and around Detached Breakwaters.
(8) The level of calmness required within the harbor should be investigated from the standpoints of cargo handling
operations and the limiting wave height for safe anchorage. For the calmness levels within basinss, refer to Part ,
4.4 Calmness of Basin.
2.3 Design Conditions of Breakwaters

The following shall be taken as the design conditions of breakwaters:
(1) Calmness within the harbour
(2) Winds
(3) Tidal levels
(4) Waves
(5) Water depth and geotechnical conditions of seabed
(6) Other factors
2.4 Selection of Structural Types

Selection of the breakwater structural type shall be made by taking into consideration the characteristics of
each structural type and making a decision after a comparative investigation of the following matters:
(1) Layout of breakwaters
(2) Environmental conditions
(3) Service conditions
(4) Construction conditions
(5) Economic aspects
(6) Construction period
(7) Importance of breakwaters
(8) Availability of construction materials
(9) Maintenance
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[Technical Notes]
(1) Breakwaters are normally classified according to structural type as follows (refer to Fig. T- 2.4.1(a) (i) 1)):
Sloping
breakwaters
Rubble mound type sloping breakwaters

Concrete block type sloping breakwater
Caisson type upright breakwater
Concrete block type upright breakwater
Upright
breakwaters
Cellular concrete block type upright breakwater

Mass concrete block type upright breakwater
Breakwaters
Caisson type composite breakwater

Cellular concrete block type composite breakwater
Composite
breakwaters
Concrete block type composite breakwater

Mass concrete block type composite breakwater
Caisson breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating concrete blocks

Other types of breakwaters
(2) For the breakwaters other than sloping, upright, and composite breakwaters, refer to Chapter 3 Other Types of
Breakwaters.
Seaward Side
Harbor Side
ete
cr
cons
d
rme ock
efo bl
HWL
Def
Concrete crown
D
Armor stone
Scour matting
orm
bloed co
cks ncr
ete
Rubble
Armor stone
(a) Rubble Mound Type Sloping Breakwater
Harbor Side
Rubble
Precast concrete
Seaward Side
ete
cr
cokns
d
e
rm loc
efo b
HWL
Scour matting
con Defo
cret rm
e bl ed
ock
s
Cubic concrete blocks
Rubble
(b) Concrete Block Type Sloping Breakwater
Seaward Side
HWL
Harbor Side
Concrete crown
Concrete cap
Foot protection
concrete blocks
Deformed concrete blocks
Caisson
Foot protection
concrete blocks
Rubble
(c) Caisson Type Upright Breakwater
Fig. T- 2.4.1 (a-c) Examples of Breakwaters
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Seaward Side
Harbor Side
Concrete crown
HWL
Concrete blocks
Foot protection concrete bloc
Armor stone
ot protection concrete blocks

Armor stone
Rubble
(d) Concrete Block Type Upright Breakwater
Harbor Side
Seaward Side
Concrete crown
HWL
Foot protection concrete blocks
Concrete cap
Caisson
Deformed concrete blocks

Armor stone
Rubble
(e) Caisson Type Composite Breakwater
Seaward Side
Harbor Side
Concrete crown
HWL
Armor stone
Caisson
Rubble
Concrete cap
Armor stone
Replacement sand
(f) Caisson Type Composite Breakwater (in case of soft silt sea bed)
Seaward Side
Harbor Side
Concrete crown
HWL
Cellular concrete block
Armor stone
Armor stone
Rubble
(g) Cellular Concrete Block Type Composite Breakwater
Seaward Side
HWL
Armor stone
Concrete crown
Harbor Side
Concrete blocks
Armor stone
Foot protection
concrete blocks
Rubble
(h) Concrete Block Type Composite Breakwater

Fig. T- 2.4.1 (d-h) Examples of Breakwaters (continued)
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Seaward Side
Harbor Side
Concrete crown
HWL
Wave dissipating blocks
Riprap block
Concrete cap
Caisson
Armor stone
Rubble
Rubble
HWL
Seaward Side
Concrete crown
Wave dissipating
blocks
Foot protection
concrete blocks
Foot protection concrete

blocksRubble
Harbor Side
Concrete cap
Caisson
Armor stone
Rubble
Armor stone
Foot protection concrete

blocks
(i) Caisson Breakwater Covered with Wave-dissipating Concrete Blocks

Fig. T- 2.4.1 (i) Examples of Breakwaters (continued)
2.5 Determination of Cross Section

2.5.1 Upright Breakwater (Notification Article 46, Clause 1)
The crest elevation of a breakwater shall be appropriately determined at 0.6 times the design significant
wave height or greater above the mean monthly-highest water level. In this case, the appropriate height
shall be established with consideration given to the factors such as the calmness of a basin and the
protection of port and harbor facilities behind the breakwater.
[Commentary]
(1) For ports and harbors where the influence of storm surges should be considered, the datum sea level for
determining the crest elevation of the breakwaters should preferably be taken at the tidal level obtained by
adding an appropriate deviation of storm tide based on the past records to the mean monthly-highest water level.
(2) For determination of the crest elevation of a breakwater with an added amenity purpose that will be used by the
general public, a separate investigation of splash or overtopping rate is required from the standpoint of public
usage and safety.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The crest elevation of a breakwater should be not less than 0.6 times the design significant wave height above
the mean monthly-highest water level (HWL).
(2) In most of existing breakwaters, the crest elevations have been determined as in the following:
(a) In a harbor of large ships calling, where the water area behind the breakwater is so wide that wave overtopping is allowed to some extent, the crest elevation is set at 0.6H1/3 above the mean monthly-highest water
level in situations where it is not necessary to consider the influence of storm surge.
(b) In a harbor where the water area behind the breakwater is small and is used for small ships, overtopping waves
should be prevented as much as possible. Hence the crest elevation is set at 1.25H1/3 above the mean monthlyhighest water level.
(3) In the region where large storm waves close to the design waves attack frequently with long duration, even the
activity of a harbor of large ships calling with a wide water area behind the breakwaters may be limited by the
influence of waves overtopping the breakwaters, even if the breakwater has the crest elevation of 0.6H1/3 above
the mean monthly highest water level. Accordingly, in such a harbor, the crest elevation is preferably set higher
than 0.6H1/3 above the mean monthly-highest water level.
(4) The thickness of the concrete crown should be 1.0 m or more in situations where the design significant wave
height is 2 m or greater, and at least 50 cm when the wave height is less than 2 m, to avoid its destruction by
overtopped waves.
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(5) Because the works of caisson placement, sand filling, and placing of the concrete lid and concrete crown will be
constrained with the tide if the top elevation of the caisson is low, the top of the caisson is normally set higher
than the mean monthly-highest water level.
(6) To make placement of crown concrete easy, the top elevation of uppermost blocks of concrete block type upright
breakwaters and cellular concrete block type breakwaters should not be lower than the mean sea water level
(MSL). It should be above the mean monthly-highest water level, if possible.
2.5.2 Composite Breakwater

The crest elevation of upright section shall follow 2.5.1 Upright Breakwater. But when the ground is soft
and there is the possibility of settlement, the crest elevation shall be set higher, or the breakwater shall be
designed as a structure that enables easy raising of its superstructure afterward.
[Commentary]
(1) The concrete crown thickness, the installation height of upright section, and the crest elevation of the composite
breakwater should be based on those for upright breakwater.
(2) The top elevation of the rubble mound foundation should be set as deep as possible, to prevent the generation of
impulsive breaking wave forces.
(3) To increase the sliding resistance of upright section, a high rubble backing is effective. In this situation, rubble
stones must be tightly placed so as to have firm grips each other; otherwise overtopping waves may scatter
rubbles easily. If necessary, the surface of rubble backing should be covered with concrete blocks of large size.
(4) If it is expected that the soft ground settles and rubbles sink substantially, countermeasures to the settlement and
sinking, such as soil improvement or use of mattresses beneath the rubble section to spread the weight of the
caisson, must be implemented.
[Technical Notes]
(1) A rubble mound foundation is effective to broadly spread the weight of the upright section, to provide a level
ground where the upright section is placed, and to prevent scouring by waves. To achieve these functions, the
thickness of rubble mound is required to be 1.5 m or greater.
(2) The berm width of the rubble mound foundation should be determined to ensure the required degree of stability
against the circular slip failure caused by the eccentric and inclined load on the breakwater. In the locations with
rough waves, the berm width should normally be 5 m or wider on the seaward side and about 2/3 that of seaward
side on the harbor side.
(3) The slope gradient of the rubble mound foundation is determined based upon the calculation of stability. In
many cases, the seaward side of the breakwater normally has a gradient between 1: 2 to 1: 3, and the harbor side
has a gradient between 1: 1.5 to 1: 2, depending upon wave conditions.
2.5.3 Sloping Breakwater

(1) The crest elevation shall follow 2.5.1 Upright Breakwater.
(2) The crown width shall be determined from the results of appropriate hydraulic model tests.
[Commentary]
(1) Because sloping breakwaters have waves permeating through them, the wave height inside the harbor will be
larger than that of upright breakwater even if the crest elevation is the same. Refer to Part II, 4.6 Wave Runup,
Overtopping, and Transmission with regard to wave overtopping and transmission.
(2) When waves overtop heavily, a sufficiently broad crown width is required because the armor units on the top of
the breakwater will become unstable.
(3) For breakwaters extending from the shore and built by the end-on system from the shore, the crown width of the
breakwaters should be determined based on not only stability calculation but also consideration for convenience
of construction.
(4) The slope gradient should be appropriately determined based upon the stability calculation.
(5) For breakwaters on the soft ground, the crest elevation and construction method should be set based on 2.5.2
Composite Breakwater.
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[Technical Notes]
(1) If the crest of breakwater armored with concrete blocks is set at an elevation of 0.6H1/3 above the mean monthlyhighest water level, the crown width should be equivalent to that of three or more blocks as shown in Fig. T2.5.1. Because the stability of the breakwater top section will depend upon the characteristics of the armor units
and wave conditions, however, it is desirable to determine the width based upon appropriate hydraulic model
experiments.
(2) There are many cases where the slope gradient for rubble mound type sloping breakwaters is about 1: 2 on the
seaward side of the breakwater and about 1: 1.5 on the harbor side, and about 1: 1.3 to 1: 1.5 in the case of
breakwaters armored with wave-dissipating concrete blocks. When the gradient of the slope and the mass of the
armor units are different between the upper and lower portions of the slope on the seaward side of the
breakwater, the point at which the gradient and the mass of armor units change should be deeper than 1.5H1/3
below the design water level.
0.6
1/3
or more
3 blocks or more
Design water level
Concrete blocks
The number of pieces listed above are the number of

hatched blocks in the upper layer of the crown.
Fig. T- 2.5.1 Sloping Breakwater Crown Width
2.5.4 Caisson Type Breakwater Covered with Wave-Dissipating Concrete Blocks

(1) The crest elevation of the upright section shall be determined by referring to 2.5.1 Upright
Breakwater.
(2) The crest elevation of the wave-dissipating works preferably shall be set the same as that of the
upright section.
(3) The thickness of the crown concrete and the installation height of caissons shall be determined by
referring to those of upright breakwaters. The thickness of the rubble mound foundation shall be
determined by referring to that of composite breakwaters.
[Commentary]
(1) For a caisson type breakwater covered with wave-dissipating blocks, the overtopping waves and transmitting
waves will be smaller than those for a vertical breakwater or composite breakwater. Refer to Part II, 4.6 Wave
Runup, Overtopping and Transmission with regard to overtopping waves and transmitted waves.
(2) Wave-dissipating works have the functions of decreasing the wave pressure, overtopping waves, transmitting
waves and reflecting waves. Accurate evaluation of these functions should preferably be made based upon
(3) When the crest elevation of wave-dissipating works is lower than that of the upright section, the impulsive
breaking wave force is likely to act on the upright section. In the opposite case where the former crest elevation
is higher than the latter, blocks at the crown will become unstable.
(4) If the vertical faces of the upright section are not fully covered with wave-dissipating blocks at the tip of
breakwater extension, large wave forces are likely to act on these vertical faces.
[Technical Notes]
In order to achieve a sufficient wave-dissipating effect, the crown width of the wave-dissipating works must have the
width equivalent to two or more units of wave dissipating concrete blocks 2).
2.6 External Forces for Stability Calculation

2.6.1 General
When calculating stability of breakwaters, external forces such as the wave force, hydrostatic pressure,
buoyancy, and the breakwater deadweight shall be considered.
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[Commentary]
(1) In addition to the above, wind pressure, seismic force, the collision force of drifting objects, and earth pressure
must also be considered as external forces, if necessary. When a lighthouse is placed on the breakwater head, the
wind pressure and seismic force acting on the lighthouse must be taken into consideration.
(2) The leaning load from wave-dissipating concrete blocks is not considered in normal situations. When it is to be
taken into consideration, refer to Part II, 5.2.4 Wave Force on Upright Wall Covered with Wave-Dissipating
Concrete Blocks.
2.6.2 Wave Forces

(1) Calculation of wave force shall be based on Part II, Chapter 5 Wave Force.
(2) The tidal level used for calculating wave force shall be the tidal level that makes the structure most
unstable. This tidal level shall be determined according to Part II, Chapter 6 Tides and Abnormal
Water Levels.
2.6.3 Hydrostatic Pressure
When there is a difference between the still water levels of the harbor and seaward sides of a breakwater,
the differential hydrostatic pressure due to the water level difference shall be considered.
2.6.4 Buoyancy
The buoyancy acting on the upright section below the still water level must be taken into consideration.
When there is a difference between the still water levels of the harbor and seaward sides of a breakwater,
the buoyancy must be calculated for the section below the plane that connects the water levels on the both
sides of breakwater.
2.6.5 Deadweight
The deadweight of breakwater can be calculated using the densities of materials used to make the
breakwater.
[Commentary]
Refer to Part II, 15.2 Deadweight and Surcharge concerning material densities.
2.6.6 Stability during Earthuakes

Examination of stability of breakwaters during an earthuakes can be omitted except for special cases.
[Commentary]
(1) For breakwater whose cross section is determined based on sliding stability against the waves, the calculation of
stability during an earthquake can be omitted.
(2) In cases where a breakwater has a slender cross section because the design wave height is small and the water
depth is deep, the examination of stability against overturning caused by dynamic water pressure during an
earthquake is necessary. In addition, in the case of tsunami breakwaters, the stability during an earthquake is
extremely important because a tsunami is likely to arrive after the earthquake. A calculation of stability against
sliding and overturning caused by dynamic water pressure during an earthquake is therefore necessary. Refer to
Part II, 14.4.2 Dynamic Water Pressure during Earthquake with regard to dynamic water pressure during an
earthuake.
2.7 Stability Calculation

2.7.1 Stability Calculation of Upright Section (Notification Article 48, Clauses 1 to 3)
(1) In principal, examination of the stability of the upright section of gravity type breakwater shall be
based on the design procedures using the safety factors against failures.
(2) When the design procedures based on the safety factors are used, it shall be standard to examine the
stability of the upright breakwater, the upright section of the composite breakwater, the superstructure
of the sloping breakwater, and the upright section of the breakwater covered with wave-dissipating
blocks, by using the items listed in (a) through (c) below.
(a) Examination of stability against sliding is made using equation (2.7.1). In this examination, an
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appropriate value of safety factor that corresponds to the characteristics of the structure shall be
used.
m ( W0 U )
Fs -------------------------P
In this equation, Fs, m, W0, U and P represent the following:
Fs safety factor against sliding of the upright section
m friction coefficient between the upright section and rubble mound foundation
W0 weight of the upright section in still water (kN/m)
U uplift force acting on the upright section (kN/m)
P horizontal wave force acting on the upright section (kN/m)
(2.7.1)
(b) Examination of stability against overturning is made using equation (2.7.2). In this examination, an
appropriate value of safety factor that corresponds to the characteristics of the structure shall be
used.
W0t MU
(2.7.2)
Fs ----------------------MP
In this equation, Fs, t, MU, and MP represent the following respective quantities, and W0 shall have
the same value as in equation (2.7.1).
Fs safety factor against overturning of the upright section
t horizontal distance between the center of gravity and the heel of the upright section (m).
MU moment due to the uplift force around the heel of the upright section (kNm/m)
MP moment due to the horizontal wave force around the heel of the upright section (kNm/m)
(c) Examination of stability against bearing capacity of the foundation at the bottom of the structure is
made according to the provisions in Part V, 2.5 Bearing Capacity for zEccentric and Inclined
Loads.
(3) In cases where the reliability design method is used, necessary examination of the structure stability
shall be carried out by establishing the appropriate threshold values, for instance, the expected sliding
distance, that correspond to the functions demanded of the facility and the characteristics of the
structure.
[Commentary]
(1) Part II, 5.2 Wave Force Acting on Upright Wall should be referred to when estimating wave forces, and the
appropriate values of safety factor should be established by referring to (a) through (c) below.
(a) It should be standard for the safety factor against sliding to be 1.2 or greater for wave actions. When the
stability of the breakwater has been confirmed by hydraulic model experiments, however, it is acceptable for
the safety factor to be less than 1.2, but it should not be less than 1.0.
(b) It should be standard for the safety factor against overturning to be 1.2 or greater for wave actions and 1.1 or
greater for earthquakes.
(c) It should be standard for the safety factor against the bearing capacity to be 1.0 or greater for wave actions.
(2) In some cases, a friction-increasing mat is laid down underneath the bottom of upright section in order to
increase the friction coefficient between the upright section and the rubble mound foundation. Refer to Part II,
Chapter 16 Coefficient of Friction regarding to friction-increasing mats.
(3) With regard to examination of the breakwater stability, it is also possible to adopt the reliability design method
that probabilistically calculates the actions of all waves which the breakwater will encounter during its lifetime
and examines the stability against these waves 3),4),5),6).
(4) For examination of the bearing capacity of the foundation, the expected settlement can be calculated using the
reliability design method as well.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In the design methods based upon the safety factors against failures, as a general rule, the breakwater is so
designed that it should not slide, and this is the reason that the sliding safety factor against design waves is given
a margin of 0.2 or greater. Nevertheless, even for a breakwater designed with this method, the probability that
sliding will not occur is not zero from the standpoint of statistical uncertainty of design factors. Consequently,
even though the same safety factor is used for design, the encounter probability of sliding or the expected sliding
distance will vary depending upon design conditions.
The reliability design method can statistically evaluate the sliding stability of the breakwater, by using either
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one of the following; the method that calculates the encounter probability of sliding during the lifetime 3),4), or the
method that calculates the expected sliding distance based on the consensus that sliding of breakwater up to a
certain threshold value is permitted so long as the functions of breakwater are not impaired 5),6). In the evaluation,
the encounter probability of sliding or expected sliding distance should be less than some appropriate allowable
limit. For the cross section designed by the reliability design method, however, the safety factor against sliding
ought to maintain the value 1.0 or greater. The expected sliding distance always means the average value, and so it
is necessary to remember that some breakwater possibly slides over a distance longer than the calculated mean
value.
By adopting the reliability design method and permitting a deformation of breakwater to some extent, the
breakwater can be designed more economically than by using the methods based on the safety factor against
failure. Several items that should be considered when using the reliability design method are listed below. For
details, refer to the reference 6).
(a) Occurrence probability of deepwater wave height
Calculate the deepwater wave height with the extreme distribution function for storm wave heights at the site,
and apply the normal distribution to the calculated wave height to take into account the uncertainty due to the
sample variability of extreme wave data.
(b) Occurrence probability of tidal level
Calculate the tidal level variation using the four principal tidal constituents and establish the cumulative
distribution of tidal levels over the lifetime. Also take into consideration any storm surge anomaly to the
extent as judged necessary.
(c) Wave deformation calculation
Calculate the design wave height in front of structures from the deepwater wave height, using Part II, 4.5
Transformations of Waves. For the wave height for the actual design, however, take into consideration its
statistical variation that is assumed to be represented by the normal distribution.
(d) Calculation of wave force
Calculate the wave force using Part II, Chapter 5 Wave Force. However, take into consideration its statistical
variation that is assumed to be represented by the normal distribution.
(e) Deadweight
Take into consideration its statistical variation that is assumed to be represented by the normal distribution.
(f) Friction coefficient
Set the value of friction coefficient based on Part II, Chapter 16 Coefficient of Friction, taking into
consideration its statistical variation that is assumed to be represented by the normal distribution. Although it
is believed that the coefficient depends on the number of years after the structure was built or whether sliding
failure has occurred, these need not to be taken into consideration here because of many uncertainties
regarding these effects.
(g) Determination of sliding
Assume that the breakwater will slide when the sliding safety factor falls below 1, and carry out the numerical
integration or simulation of the motion of upright section, taking into consideration the statitical variations in
all of the elements (a) through (f). Then calculate the encounter probability of sliding under an extreme storm
event and the encounter probability of sliding during the lifetime of breakwater. In addition, use the sliding
model of Shimosako et al. 6) to calculate the expected sliding distance as well.
Shimosako et al. 6) carried out these calculations using the Monte Carlo simulations. For example, in the case
where the reliability design method is used with the threshold value of 30 cm or 50 cm for the allowable limit for
expected sliding distance, the breakwater width and cross section are often found smaller and more economical
than those calculated by the conventional design method with a sliding safety factor of 1.2. However, the degree
of cross-sectional reduction greatly depends upon the design conditions. It is probable that the cross section may
become much larger on the contrary. In general, in the breaker zone where the upper limit of wave heights is
determined by the water depth, there is a large economical benefit of using the reliability design method. When
it is applied to actual designs, it is necessary to take appropriate consideration to the statistical variations of the
various items mentioned above. In addition, it is also necessary to appropriately establish the threshold values
for the allowable encounter probability of sliding and the allowable expected sliding distance corresponding to
the importance or the lifetime length of the breakwater.
(2) With regard to the bearing capacity of the foundation, Tsuchida et al. 7) calculated the expected settlement during
the lifetime of breakwater built on the foundation with an insufficient bearing capacity by using the reliability
design method, for the breakwater designed by the simplified Bishop method with the safety factor of 1.0. By
using this method, it is also possible to design a breakwater based on the concept of expected settlement.
(3) When the harbor side of the upright section is backed up with a mound of rubble stones and/or concrete blocks,
careful attention must be paid to the following matters:
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(a) Investigations should be made on the possibility of hindrance to anchorage, mooring, and navigation of
vessels within the harbor.
(b) The safety factors against sliding and overturning by wave forces exerted upon the upright section must have
the value of 1.0 or greater without any backing behind the breakwater. A small safety factor may cause violent
rocking of the upright section, increase in the heel pressure, and sliding or overturning of the upright section
into the seaward side during wave troughs.
(c) Adequate armoring must be provided so that the backing will not be damaged by overtopped waves.
(d) The backing height h should preferably be 1/3 or greater of the height of the upright section, and the width b
should be the same as or greater than the height h.
(e) In the case of concrete block backing, construction should be made to ensure that there are no voids between
the concrete blocks and the upright section.
(4) The sliding resistance when the harbor side of the upright section is backed up with a mound of rubble stones or
concrete blocks muzst satisfy equation (2.7.3).
m1 W 1 + R
----------------------- 1.2
(2.7.3)
P
where
P horizontal wave force acting on the upright section (kN/m)
W1 effective weight of the upright section in still water after subtraction of uplift force (kN/m)
m1 friction coefficient between the upright section and the rubble mound
R sliding resistance force of the backing of rubble stones or concrete blocks (kN/m)
The sliding resistance force R can be found using the following procedure:
(a) Sliding resistance force of rubble stones (refer to Fig. T- 2.7.1)
(2.7.4)
R = Ws tan (+)
where
Ws total weight of the rubble stones in still water above the sliding surface, excluding the weight of those
in the uppermost layer (KN/m)
angle of the sliding surface ()
= tan-1 m2 ( m2 is the friction coefficient between rubble stones, m2 = 0.8) ()
Equation (2.7.4) can be obtained by balancing the forces exerted on the rubble section, and the slide resistance
force can be calculated as the smallest value of R while changing by try and error.
(b) Sliding resistance force of concrete blocks (refer to Fig. T- 2.7.2)
(2.7.5)
R= m2Ws
where
Ws total weight of concrete blocks in still water, excluding the weight of those in the uppermost layer
(kN/m)
m2 friction coefficient between the concrete blocks and the rubble mound foundation
Fig. T- 2.7.1 Sliding Resistance Force of Rubble Stone
Fig. T- 2.7.2 Sliding Resistance Force of Concrete Blocks
(c) Takeda et al. experimentally showed that the resistance force

R is a function of the ratio of wave height to water depth at
the breakwater, as equation (2.7.6) demonstrates (refer to Fig.
T- 2.7.3).
(2.7.6)
R = aWs
a = 0.9 0.2 (H / h' 0.5): in the case of rubble stones
a = 0.4 0.2 (H / h' 0.5): in the case of concrete blocks
where
Ws
a
H
h'
b
H
h'
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Ws
Fig. T- 2.7.3 Sliding Resistance Surface of a

Reinforcing Body
weight in still water of the rubble stones or concrete blocks (kN/m)

coefficient of resistance
wave height (m)
water depth on top of rubble mound (m)
When H / h 0.5, however, H / h should be set as equal to 0.5.
W1
2.7.2 Stability Calculation of Sloping Section

The rubble mounds of composite breakwaters and sloping breakwaters shall be examined against the slip
failure and the safety of armor units.
(1) Slip Failure
Examination shall be made against the slip failure caused by the eccentric and inclined loads on
composite breakwaters.
(2) Required Mass and Layer Thickness of Armoring Material
In addition to having the adequate stable mass against wave force for each armor unit, the armor layer
shall have a thickness that is capable of preventing the inner materials from being sucked out.
[Commentary]
(1) With regard to the slip failure caused by eccentric and inclined loads, refer to Part , 2.5 Bearing Capacity for
Eccentric and Inclined Loads.
(2) The required mass for armor units for sloping breakwaters and caisson breakwaters covered with wavedissipating blocks should be calculated according to Part II, 5.3.1 Armor Units on Slope. When the armor
units are not randomly but uniformly placed or stonepitched, the required mass can be determined based on the
judgment of the responsible engineer. It should be standard for the armor layer to have the thickness of two units
when random placing is used.
(3) The required mass for armor units of the rubble mound foundation of composite breakwater should be calculated
according to Part II, 5.3.2 Armor Units on Foundation Mound of Composite Breakwater.
[Technical Notes]
(1) As a general principal, the required mass of rubbles or blocks below the armor layer should be approximately
1/20 of the mass of armor units or greater, although in the case of a sloping breakwater, the mass should
preferably be 1/10 to 1/15 or greater. The mass of stones below the filter layer, as a general principal, should be
1/20 of the mass of filter units or greater.
(2) For situations where a face of slope is covered with sand mastic asphalt, careful stability calculation is required,
giving full consideration to the past construction projects and research results.
2.7.3 Stability Calculation of Whole Section (Notification Article 48, Clause 4)

For gravity type breakwaters, an investigation of the stability against circular slip as prescribed in Part ,
6.2 Stability Analysis and an investigation of settlement with due consideration to the characteristics of
the ground and structure shall be undertaken to ensure the stability of the breakwater section as a whole.
[Commentary]
(1) See Part , 6.2.1 Stability Analysis Using Circular Slip Surface Method with regard to circular slip. For
settlement, see Part , Chapter 5 Settlement of Foundations. Refer to Part , Chapter 7 Soil Improvement
Methods with regard to soil improvement methods.
(2) The tide level that is used for the calculation on stability for the whole section should be the tide level that
provides the smallest factor of safety. Refer to Part II, 6.1 Design Water Level concerning determination of
tide level.
2.7.4 Stability Calculation for Head and Corner of Breakwater

(1) It shall be standard to set the mass of the armor stones or blocks at the breakwater head being larger
than that of the trunk section of the breakwater.
(2) In the case of soft ground, the slip in the direction parallel to the alignment of the breakwater shall
also be examined. In this instance, the side friction resistance can be taken into account.
(3) When a lighthouse is built on the breakwater head, the stability calculation shall be made by taking
into consideration the seismic force, wave force, and wind pressure acting on the lighthouse.
(4) Design consideration shall be given to the increase of wave height at the concave corner of
breakwater.
[Commentary]
(1) Because there are uncertainties concerning the stability at the head of an upright breakwater or composite
breakwater when compared with that at the breakwater trunk with respect to scouring of the foundation mound
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or external forces acting on armoring units, the mass of the armor units should preferably be set larger than that
for the breakwater trunk. Refer to Part II, 5.3.2 Armor Units on Foundation Mound of Composite
Breakwater with regard to the calculation of the armor unit mass. In particular, the armor units used for the
breakwater head of a sloping breakwater or caisson breakwater covered with wave-dissipating blocks should
preferably have a mass of 1.5 times or greater than that at the breakwater trunk, and should be installed in a form
of circular mound. For the calculation of the mass of the armor units of sloping breakwaters and caisson
breakwaters covered with wave-dissipating blocks, refer to Part II, 5.3.1 Armour Units on Slope.
(2) Refer to Part , 6.2.1 Stability Analysis Using Circular Slip Surface Method concerning a slip in the
direction parrallel to the alignment of a breakwater.
(3) A breakwater head at which a lighthouse is built must be designed to have a sufficient stability considering
additional loads caused by the lighthouse. In addition, provision of the necessary ancillary facilities to maintain
the lighthouse functions must be considered. Refer to Part II, 3.3 Wind Pressure concerning wind and wind
pressure acting on a lighthouse.
(4) Because there are examples of damage on the shoreside end of the breakwater that was built with structures of
simple construction type, adequate care must be given.
(5) Around a concave corner in the alignment of upright breakwaters and composite breakwaters, an increase of
wave height can occur because of superposition of reflected waves from two wings of the breakwaters in
addition to the wave concentration at the concave corner itself. Because several cases of damage caused by such
the wave height increase are reported, this aspect should be carefully investigated based on Part II, 4.5.4 [3]
Transformation of Waves at Concave Corners, near the Heads of Breakwaters, and around Detached
Breakwaters and Part II, 5.2.5 Effect of Alignment of Breakwater on Wave Force when deciding a
breakwater layout and calculating the stability.
2.8 Details of Structures

2.8.1 Upright Breakwater
(1) The thickness of a concrete lid of the caisson type and the cellular concrete block
type breakwaters shall be carefully determined in consideration of wave conditions
and construction conditions.
(3) The blocks of concrete block type breakwater shall be made as large as possible. In
particular, the lowest layer shall preferably
be made of one concrete block without
combining multiple blocks.
Damaged cases
Thickness of concrete cap (m)
(2) The crown concrete shall be so placed to

ensure solidity with the main body of
breakwater. In addition, longitudinal joints
shall be provided at an appropriate interval
or at the junctions of caissons, when caissons are used.
Constructed cases
(4) Provision of footing in the lowest layer

block of cellular concrete block type
breakwater is preferable for enhancing stability.
Fig. T- 2.8.1 Examples of Concrete Lid Thickness
[Technical Notes]
(1) The thickness of the concrete lid should normally be 30 cm or greater, and should be 50 cm or greater in the area
of rough sea condition. There are also examples of thickness of 1.0 m or greater in the cases where wave
conditions are severe and the concrete lid are left without placement of cown concrete for a long time. (refer to
Fig. T- 2.8.1)
(2) Longitudinal joints should be provided at an interval of 10 to 20 m on the crown concrete of monolithic
breakwaters with in-situ placement concrete.
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2.8.2 Composite Breakwater

Unless the top of the rubble mound foundation is set unusually deep or the waves are small and the rubble
stones are large enough for stability, it is preferable to place foot protection blocks to prevent scouring of
the rubble mound. The foot protection blocks shall be placed in contact with the upright section.
[Commentary]
(1) The rubble mound foundation of composite breakwater is extremely important to ensure the stability of the
upright section. Particularly if the rubble mound beneath the upright section is scoured or washed out, the
upright section will lean or easily experience sliding failure, and then the upright structure will be destroyed at
worst. It is therefore necessary to protect the rubble mound beneath the upright section with foot protection
blocks and prevent damage from scouring or washout due to the action of waves or currents.
(2) Provision of vertical holes in the foot protection blocks reduces the uplift pressure acting on the blocks and
greatly increases their stability against the waves.
[Technical Notes]
(1) It is recommended that two or more rows of foot protection blocks be placed on the seaward side of the upright
section and one or more rows on the harbor side.
(2) Because the study by Tanimoto et al. 8) shows that too large holes in foot protection blocks reduce the effect of
preventing scouring and washing out, the opening ratio of about 10% is optimal.
(3) It is best to search for the necessary thickness of the foot protection blocks using equation (2.8.1).
(2.8.1)
t H 1 3 = d f ( h h ) 0.787
where
t necessary thickness of the foot protection blocks (m)
d f 0.18 for the breakwater trunk, 0.21 for the breakwater head
h water depth of breakwater construction (m)
h' water depth at the top of rubble mound foundation (not including the armor blocks and foot protection
blocks) (m)
The application range should be h/ h = 0.4 1.0.
For the calculation of the foot protection block dimensions, the necessary thickness can be determined using
equation (2.8.1) and the dimensions listed in Table T- 2.8.1. Examples of the block shapes and dimensions are
shown in Fig. T- 2.8.2.
Table T- 2.8.1 Required Thickness and Dimensions of Foot Protection Blocks
Required thickness of
foot protection blocks
t (m)
Dimensions
l (m) b (m) t (m)
0.8 or less
1.0 or less
1.2 or less
1.4 or less
1.6 or less
1.8 or less
2.0 or less
2.2 or less
2.5 1.5 0.8

3.0 2.5 1.0
4.0 2.5 1.2
5.0 2.5 1.4
5.0 2.5 1.6
5.0 2.5 1.8
5.0 2.5 2.0
5.0 2.5 2.2
Mass (t/unit)
Block with openings
6.23
15.64
24.84
37.03
42.32
47.61
52.90
58.19
Block without
openings
6.90
17.25
27.60
40.25
46.00
51.75
57.50
63.25
(4) Foot protection blocks at the harbor side must be designed by taking into consideration the influence of waves
inside the harbor, waves during construction, and overtopping waves. The number of the cases of failure of foot
protection blocks inside a harbor is quite small until now, and it is acceptable to use a mass that is lighter than the
mass of the foot protection blocks of seaward side. In the past designs there were many cases where the mass
was one-half of that at the seaward side. The mass must not be smaller than the mass required by the waves
inside the harbor or the waves during construction. Especially, the mass should be carefully determined for
location where the offshore end of a breakwater under construction remains as a temporary head during the offwork season of each year.
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Fig. T- 2.8.2 Shapes and Dimensions of Foot Protection Blocks
(5) In situations where there are concerns about scouring or sucking-out of rubble stones, preventive
countermeasures should be undertaken. Methods used for scour prevention at the toe of slope are the provision
of a berm of rubbles at the end of slope, and the placement of concrete blocks, mattress work, asphalt mats, or
composite resin mats. For prevention of settlement of the rubble mound due to washout, mattress works and
other methods including the spreading of canvas sheets are employed.
2.8.3 Sloping Breakwater

(1) Protection works against scouring at the toe of slope and sucking-out of sand beneath the breakwater
shall be incorporated into the foundations of sloping breakwaters, to the extent as needed.
(2) In general, when placing a superstructure on concrete block type or rubble mound type sloping
breakwaters, the base of the superstructure shall be filled up with stones or small concrete blocks.
(3) In a place affected by littoral drift, preventive works for blocking sand passing through the breakwater
shall be provided, because suspended sediment carried by waves may cause shoaling of the harbor
basin.
2.8.4 Caisson Type Breakwater Covered with Wave-Dissipating Concrete Blocks
To the extent as required, preventive works against scouring and sand sucking shall be provided near the
toe of the mound of wave-dissipating concrete blocks.
2.9 Detailed Design of Upright Section

Design of the components of caissons, cellular concrete blocks, and L-shaped concrete blocks shall follow
Part Precast Concrete Units.
2.10 Breakwaters for Timber-Handling Facilities

2.10.1 Breakwaters for Timber Storage Ponds and Timber Sorting Ponds (Notification Article 46,
Clause 3, and Article 47, Clause 3)
(1) When building breakwaters for timber-handling facilities, the crown shall be built high enough to
prevent timbers from drifting out during the time of unusually high sea level but to be compatiple with
the breakwater structure and the use of the pond.
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(2) When building breakwaters for timber-handling facilities, the breakwater shall be designed in
accordance with the provisions of this chapter and Chapter 3 Other Types of Breakwaters, and it
shall ensure the structural stability against the collision force of the timber to the extent as necessary.
2.10.2 Fences to Prevent Timber Drifting
(1) The crown height and the interval between piles of the drift fence shall be designed as capable of
preventing timbers from drifting away, and a coping is to be provided to the extent as necessary.
(2) The drift fences and timber mooring piles shall be of the structures stable enough to withstand the
collision force and tractive force of timbers.
2.11 Storm Surge Protection Breakwater (Notification Article 46, Clause 2, and Article 47,
Clause 2)
(1) When building breakwaters having the main function of acting as a countermeasure against storm
surges, the alignment and the crest elevation of the breakwater shall be determined appropriately
considering the effectiveness of breakwaters on storm surge reduction and so on.
(2) When building the storm surge protection breakwaters, the stability shall be maintained against
various physical characteristics of storm surges, in addition to structural stability against normal
external forces such as wave forces.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The crest elevation of the storm surge protection breakwater should be determined at the level necessary against
the sum of the design storm tide level and the design wave hight.
(2) The stablility of the whole section of breakwater should be examined by assuming the suinultaneous occurrence
of the design storm tide level and the peak of design waves. The rise of the water level on the harbor side due to
water inflow by storm surges should also be considered. During an earthquake, the inertia force and dynamic
water pressure that will exert on the breakwater as external forces should be taken into consideration.
(3) It should be noted that, when the foundation of a breakwater for storm surge protection is highly ypermeable,
water flows in through the foundation and the storm surge reduction function is lessened. To the extent as
required, a seep-proof screen etc. are to be provided.
(4) In some situations, water flows through the rubble mound foundation of the breakwater because of the tide level
difference between the inside and outside of the breakwater, causing scouring of the foundation ground. In this
kind of circumstance, it is necessary to consider countermeasures such as spreading layers of cobbles and stones
or mattress work. See Part II, 6.6 Groundwater Level and Permeation [Technical Notes] (2) (d), regarding
infiltration through rubbles.
2.12 Tsunami Protection Breakwater (Notification Article 46, Clause 2, and Article 47,
Clause 2)
(1) When building breakwaters having the main function of acting as a countermeasure against tsunami,
the alignment and the crest elevation of the breakwater shall be determined appropriately, considering
the effectiveness of breakwater on tsunami height reduction and so on.
(2) When building the tsunami protection breakwaters, the stability shall be maintained against tsunami
attack considering various physical characteristics of tsunamis, in addition to the structural stability
against normal external forces such as wave forces.
[Commentary]
(1) For tsunami protection breakwaters, the same matters as for storm surge protection breakwaters should be
investigated, such as tsunami height reduction effectiveness and the flow velocity through a harbor entrance.
The crest elevation of tsunami protection breakwaters should be set at a higher one of the crown height needed
against allowable overtopping for the design wave or that needed against allowable tsunami overtopping at
HWL. Refer to Part II, 6.4 Tsunami for information concerning tsunamis.
(2) Both the hydrostatic pressure due to the water level difference between the inside and outside of the breakwater
and the wave force of the tsunami act as the external forces on the breakwater. Furthermore, careful attention
must be paid to the fact that the water level behind the breakwater is not always the same as the still water level
because of the tsunami inflow and outflow. Because there are many uncertainties regarding the wave force
exerted by tsunami, the magnitude of wave force must be verified through some appropriate methods such as
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(3) An experimental study by Tanimoto et al. 9) has confirmed that in the situation where a tsunami flows in through
a narrow harbor entrance, the flow velocity will increase and there are produced strong vortices that exert a
substantial influence on the stability of the riprap material of the submerged mound section of breakwater.
Tsunami also exercises strong tractive forces on the bed, which are said to be even greater than those by storm
surges. Attention, thefore, must be paid in particular to the reinforcement for stability of the breakwater section
at a harbor entrance and to scour prevention works for the foundation ground.
(4) As tsunami protction breakwaters are often constructed in the locations where the water is deep, the upright
section of breadwater needs to be tall and the stability becomes vulnerable during an earthuake. Consequently,
the earthquake resistance should be examined by calculation of seismic response taking into account the
nonlinearity of the rubble mound material. Furthermore, because greater seismic forces generally act on the
higher part of a tall structure, the design procedure is sometimes taken by varying the seismic coeffecient
according to the elevation from the bottom of the structure. In addition, the stability of the slope surface of
rubble mound during an earthuake should preferably be examined.
(5) Because the rubble mound becomes thicker as the water becomes deeper, it is necessary to pay careful attention
to the stability of the rubble mound against wave forces and wave transformation on the slope surface of rubble
mound. It will also be necessary to make extra-banking for the rubble mound against large shrinkage of the
rubble mound by its own weight.
(6) The effectiveness of breakwaters for tsunami height reduction was confirmed through the analysis of the habor
resonance based on the tide records that were obtained in Ofunato Bay at the time of the Tokachi-Oki earthquake
tsunami (May 1968) in comparison with the observation data taken before construction of the tsunami
breakwater. As shown in Fig. C- 2.12.1, the wave height ratio M (bay-end amplitude to incident amplitude) with
the breakwater was quite small for the range of periods longer than 25 minutes, compared with the case without
the breakwater, thus demonstrating the tsunami reduction effectiveness. This effectiveness has also been proven
by Ito et al. 10) through numerical calculations.
Water level observation station

Ofunato
Before breakwater
was built
Water level observation station
Tsunami protection breakwater
After breakwater
was built
Pacific
Ocean
Fig. C- 2.12.1 Effectiveness of Tsunami Protection Breakwater (Case of Ofunato Bay)
[Technical Notes]
With regard to the wave force by tsunami, the change in wave force in the transition zone from short-period waves to
long-period waves has been measured for three types of rubble mound heights in model tests. The results have shown
that, if the wave period becomes remarkably long, the effect of rubble mound height can be ignored and that the wave
force approaches the value calculated by Godas wave pressure formula (see Part II, 5.2.2. Wave Forces of
Standing and BreakingWaves) with setting of a2 = 0. From this information, the wave force by long-period waves
in the case of the Kamaishi Harbor entrance breakwater was determined as described in Part II, 6.4 Tsunami. In Fig.
T- 2.12.1, the pressure p is given by 1.1 r0gH, where r0 is the density of water, g the acceleration of gravity, and H
the tunami wave height.
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Fig. T- 2.12.1 Wave Force of Long-Period Waves
[References]
1)
2)
Yoshiyuki ITO: History of discussions on breakwater design, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 69,1969,78p. (in Japanese).
Michio MORIHIRA, Shusaku KAKIZAKI, Toru KIKUYA: Experimental study on wave force damping effects due to
deformed artificial blocks, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 6, No. 4, 1967, pp. 1-31 (in Japanese).
3) Tomotsuka TAKAYAMA, Yasumasa SUZUKI, Hiroyasu KAWAI, Hideyoshi FUJISAKU: Approach to probabilistic design
for a breakwater, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 785, 1994, 36p. (in Japanese).
4) Takashi NAGAO, Noboru OKUBO, Susumu KAWASAKI, Yukio HAYASHI: Safety factor of breakwater total system under
the reliability design method (3rd report) - summary of the applicability of the levels 1 and 2 method -, Rept of PHRI, Vol.
37, No. 2, 1998, pp. 131-176 (in Japanese).
5) Hiroyasu KAWAI, Tomotsuka TAKAYAMA, Yasumasa SUZUKI, Tetsuya HIRAISHI: Failure probability of breakwater
caisson in consideration of tidal level variation, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 36, No. 4, 1997, pp. 3-41 (in Japanese).
6) Ken-ichiro SHIMOSAKO, Shigeo TAKAHASHI: Reliability design method of composite breakwater using expected sliding
distance, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 37, No. 3, 1998, pp. 3-30 (in Japanese).
7) Takashi TSUCHIDA, Tang YiXin: The optimum safety factor for stability analyses of harbor structures by use of the circular
arc slip method, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 35, No. 1, 1996, pp. 117-146 (in Japanese).
8) Katsutoshi TANIMOTO, Tadahiko YAGYU, Tsutomu MURANAGA, Kozo SHIBATA, Yoshimi GODA: Stability of armor
units for foundation mounds of composite breakwaters by irregular wave tests, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 21, No. 3, 1982, pp. 3-42
(in Japanese).
9) Katsutoshi TANIMOTO, Katsutoshi KIMURA, Keiji MIYAZAKI: Study on stability of dike at the opening section of
tsunami protection breakwaters, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 27, No. 4, 1988, pp. 93-121 (in Japanese).
10) Yoshiyuki ITO, Katsutoshi TANIMOTO, Tsutomu KIHARA: Digital computation on the effect of breakwaters against longperiod waves (4th report), Rept of PHRI, Vol. 7, No. 4, 1968, pp. 55-83 (in Japanese).
-375-
Chapter 3 Other Types of Breakwaters

3.1 Selection of Structural Type
When employing a breakwater type other than those covered in Chapter 2 Breakwaters, the most
appropriate structural type shall be selected according to the design conditions (wave conditions, water
exchangeability, need for suppression of wave reflection, required calmness inside the harbour, ground
conditions, etc.) and shall be designed based on the most appropriate design method or hydraulic model
experiments.
[Commentary]
In addition to the topics covered in Chapter 2 Breakwaters, there is a diverse variety of breakwater types including
shape, function, and materials 1). Many of these types respond to the functional requirements such as low wave
reflectivity or water exchangeability, the site-specitic characteristics of design conditions such as the ground, water
depth and waves, and particular utilization characteristics such as temporary usage. An appropriate type that satisfies
the required functions must be selected, based on extensive examination of the characteristics of each type.
[Technical Notes]
(1) This chapter deals with special breakwaters with structures different from the breakwaters discussed in Chapter
2 Breakwaters. Although the names of these particular types of breakwaters and their classification have not
been established yet, they can be classified at the present time, as follows:
Gravity type special

breakwater
Deformed concrete
caisson type
breakwater
Upright breakwater with wave

absorbing work
(curved slit caisson breakwater,
dual cylinder caisson
breakwater, semi-circular
caisson breakwater, etc.)
Upright waveabsorbing block

breakwater
Slope-shaped breakwater
(trapezoidal caisson breakwater,
sloping-top caisson breakwater,
sloping-top caisson breakwater
covered with wave-dissipating
blocks, etc.)
Breakwater filled with wavedissipating blocks in the caisson
Other types
of
breakwater
Other gravity type

breakwater
Pile-supported type
breakwater
(curtain wall breakwater, steel
pile-supported breakwater,
etc.)
Breakwater with wide footing
on soft ground
Floating breakwater
Pneumatic type breakwater
Other non-gravity type of
breakwater
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Other deformed concrete type

breakwater
(a) Gravity type special breakwaters are the structures that resist wave force with its own weight, and they have
higher wave-dissipating performance or higher stability against wave action by improving the upright sections
of conventional composite breakwaters. This type can be devided into the permeable type that allows water
exchange and the impermeable type that does not: the latter is more common. The breakwaters other than
gravity type have the structures that resist wave actions mainly with forces other than gravity such as pile
resistance force, clay ground surface cohesion, or mooring rope tension, and they are normally permeable
ones.
(b) Gravity type special breakwaters can be broadly classified into the deformed concrete caisson breakwaters
that use specially-shaped caissons, and the upright wave-absorbing block breakwaters that are made of
perpendicular stacks of specially-shaped concrete blocks. Deformed concrete caisson breakwaters can be
further classified into the wave-absorbing caisson breakwaters, the sloping caisson breakwaters, and the
breakwater filled with wave-dissipating blocks in the caisson. There are various kinds of structures in upright
wave-absorbing blocks, and they are normally used in places where waves are small such as in the inside of
harbors.
(c) Although wave-absorbing caisson breakwaters are generally used in locations where waves are comparatively
small, dual cylinder caisson breakwaters with perforated-wall can be used in deep water and rough sea areas.
(d) Non-gravity type breakwaters have advantages at the special conditions such as soft ground, but they also
have restrictions on their application in terms of performance and stability against waves, and are generally
applied for places where the wave height is comparatively small such as in inner bays or the inside of harbors.
(e) Pile-supported type breakwaters have the structures that resist wave forces with pile resistance, and they
include curtain wall or steel pile-supported types.
(f) Breakwaters with wide footing on soft ground have the structures that resist horizontal wave force with the
cohesion between the bottom of the structure and the clayey ground surface. If necessary, resistance is added
by using piles. These structures were developed in order to build breakwaters over the soft clayey ground and
are economical in such a condition, because the soil improvement works become unnecessary.
(g) Floating breakwaters are the structures held in place by mooring lines fixed to anchors to act as a breakwater.
Although there are a variety of shapes for the floating body, many are pontoon type. These structures must be
appropriately anchored in order to prevent them from breaking loose during storm weather conditions and
causing secondary accidents.
(h) Pneumatic type breakwaters attenuate waves with air bubbles discharged from underwater air piping. While
having special advantages such as not obstructing vessel navigation, they are effective only for short-period
waves.
(2) Because many of these breakwaters mentioned above also have a certain restriction on application by the
conditions in which the breakwater can be employed, careful investigation and selection of the appropriate type
corresponding to the site conditions is required.
(3) Because the types of breakwaters mentioned above have the shapes different from conventional types, their
hydraulic characteristics such as the wave forces, wave transmission, wave reflection and water exchangeability
are still not well known. Thus, the design must be carried out based upon hydraulic model experiments.
3.2 Gravity Type Special Breakwaters

3.2.1 General
Design of gravity type special breakwaters shall be made by referring to Chapter 2 Breakwaters, and
their structural dimensions shall appropriately be determined considering the shapes and required
functions.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Determination of Design Conditions
Determination of design conditions should be based on 2.3 Design Conditions of Breakwaters. For waveabsorbing breakwaters, however, the target waves to be dissipated may be determined for the intended purpose
and wave conditions separately from the design wave to be used for examinations of stability and calculations of
structural members.
(2) Determination of Structural Dimensions Related to Functions
For upright wave-absorbing breakwaters, the structural dimensions related to the wave absorption function must
be investigated and appropriately determined. In addition, for breakwaters that use deformed concrete caissons,
the required dimensions are influenced by the respective characteristics of shapes and they must be appropriately
determined. Because the wave transmission coefficient, in particular, depends upon the shape, the crest elevation
must be determined appropriately in consideration of the transmission characteristics of the structure in
question, and so are the dimensions of the opening set up in the caisson walls for water exchange.
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(3) Basic Cross Section Design

The design of the basic cross section except for the structural dimensions related to the function should be based
on 2.5 Determination of Cross Section.
(4) Calculation of External Forces
The calculation of external forces should be based on 2.6 External Forces for Stability Calculation. Because
the wave force greatly depends on the structural shape, however, an appropriate calculation method
corresponding to the structure in question or hydraulic model experiments corresponding to the conditions must
be employed. For a breakwater with complicated structure, in particular, it is necessary to undertake a thorough
investigation with regard to the local wave pressure acting on the structural members, in addition to the total
wave force that is examined for stability calculation of the whole upright section.
(5) Investigation of Stability
Investigation of the stability should be based on 2.7 Stability Calculation.
(6) Calculation of Structural Members
The design calculation of structural members should be made based on Part , Chapter 4 Upright WaveAbsorbing Caissons.
3.2.2 Upright Wave-Absorbing Block Breakwater

[1] General
The upright wave-absorbing block breakwater shall be designed by thoroughly investigating the wave
absorption function, selecting the appropriate concrete block, and conducting hydraulic model experiments
if necessary.
[Commentary]
(1) An upright wave-absorbing block breakwater is a block-type upright or composite breakwater made by
vertically stacking special blocks (upright wave-absorbing blocks). Various shapes of concrete blocks have been
developed as upright wave-absorbing blocks, but the wave absorption functions of each type should be
adequately examined and the appropriate type of blocks should be selected.
(2) The wave reflection coefficient of upright wave-absorbing blocks greatly depends upon the wave period. When
determining the reflection coefficient, it is best to carefully consider the influence of wave period based on
hydraulic model experiments corresponding to the design conditions. It is also acceptable to estimate it by
referring to the data from past experiments.
(3) With the exception of large-scale blocks to be used as a single block structure, upright wave-absorbing block
breakwaters are generally used in inner bays or the inside of harbors where wave heights are relatively small.
[2] Crest Elevation

The crest elevation of upright wave-absorbing block breakwaters shall be determined by referring to 2.5.1
Upright Breakwater, taking into consideration both the crest elevation of the crown to fulfill the function
of stopping wave overtopping and that of the wave-absorbing section. The wave-absorbing effectiveness
shall be taken into consideration when deciding the crest elevation of the wave-absorbing section.
[Commentary]
Overtopping and transBreakwater crest elevation
mitted waves of an
Crest elevation of upright
upright wave-absorbing
Concrete crown
wave-absorbing block
block breakwater are
Upright waveabsorbing block
small compared with
HWL
those of a composite
LWL
breakwater, but they are
larger than those of a
Bottom level of upright
caisson breakwater fully
wave-absorbing block
covered with wave-dissipating blocks. So, the
crest elevation should
Rubble mound
be determined after giving adequate consideration to the utilization Fig. T- 3.2.1 Crown Height of an Upright Wave-absorbing Block Breakwater
conditions in the area
behind the breakwater. In addition, when determining the crest elevation, the minimum thickness of the concrete
crown for construction should be ensured.
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[Technical Notes]
(1) The wave-absorption effectiveness of an upright wave-absorbing block breakwater depends upon the crest and
bottom elevations of the upright wave-absorbing blocks.
(2) The crest elevation hc should be set at least 0.5 times higher than the target significant wave height above the
mean monthly-highest water level. The bottom elevation hu should preferably be two times the target significant
wave height or larger below the mean monthly-lowest water level (refer to Fig. T- 3.2.1). Note that the target
significant wave height may not be the same as the design significant wave height.
[3] Wave Force

The wave force acting on an upright wave-absorbing block breakwater shall be calculated based on Part II,
5.2.8 Wave Force on Upright Wave-Absorbing Caisson.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The wave force acting on an upright
wave-absorbing block breakwater
should be taken as shown in Fig. T3.2.2, and the buoyancy should be considered for the displaced volume below
the still water level. The uplift pressure
acting on each layer of blocks or the
concrete crown, when considering the
stability of the section above each layer
or the crown, is assumed to be of a triangular distribution with the value
equivalent to the wave pressure of the
front wall at which the uplift is calculated and is 0 at the rear toe.
(2) The wave force reduction effectiveness for oblique incident waves
should not be taken into consideration unless ascertained by model
experiments.
SWL
Buoyancy
Uplift pressure
Fig. T- 3.2.2 Wave Pressure Distribution Used to Examine Stability
3.2.3 Wave-Absorbing Caisson Breakwater

[1] General
The appropriate type of structure shall be selected for a wave-absorbing caisson breakwater based on an
adequate examination on wave-absorption performance, and then the structure shall be designed by
conducting hydraulic model experiments as necessary.
[Commentary]
A wave-absorbing caisson breakwater will have the following merits compared with the conventional upright
breakwater.
(1) It can reduce wave reflection.
(2) It can reduce overtopping and transmission.
(3) It can reduce wave forces. In particular, when a rubble mound is relatively high, the ware force acting on a waveabsorbing caisson breakwater does not increase so remarkably, whereas a conventional caisson breakwater may
generate large impulsive breaking wave forces with the same mound height. Other examples of its merits, such
as aeration effects by generating air bubbles and an additional function of wave chamber as fish reefs, can also
be cited 3).
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[Technical Notes]
(1) Wave-absorbing caisson is a caisson
that has a permeable wall and a wave
Top slab (permeable or non-permeable)
There are also many cases without an top slab
chamber on its front section, and it can
Concrete crown
dissipate wave energy with these strucCaisson body
tures 4). Figure T-3.2.3 shows the strucPerforated wall
tural features of a wave-absorbing
Rear wall
Wave chamber
Porous wall
In general, in many cases
Intermediate
caisson in schematic form. Depending
(round holes, square holes)
there are no intermediate
horizontal
permeable wall
permeable walls
upon the shape and combination of the
Slit wall
Intermediate
(vertical, horizontal)
various elements, various structures, such
vertical permeable
wall
Other
as a vertical slit caisson, a horizontal slit
caisson, a curved slit caisson, or a porous
Bottom slab
caisson, are possible. When selecting a
wave-absorbing caisson among various Fig. T- 3.2.3 Structural Features of Wave-Absorbing Caissons
structural types, it is necessary to select
the appropriate structural type by taking
into consideration the design conditions, utilization conditions, and cost, after thoroughly examining its characteristics such as wave-absorption performance and the stability against waves.
(2) With regard to the various types of wave-absorbing caisson breakwater structures and characteristics, refer to the
New Type Breakwater Technology Manual.
[2] Determination of Target Waves to Be Absorbed

The target waves can be determined by taking into consideration the intended purpose of wave absorption
and the local wave climate separately from the design waves employed for examination of structural
stability and calculation for the structural members.
[3] Determination of Dimensions for Wave-Absorbing Section
The structure and dimensions of the wave-absorbing section consisting of the perforated wall and the wave
chamber shall be determined appropriately, giving consideration to the wave-absorption characteristics of
the structure in question and the tidal level variations, so that the wave reflection coefficient for
absorption-target waves becomes lower than the target value.
[Technical Notes]
With regard to the reflection characteristics of vertical slit caissons that do not have a top slab, refer to the study by
Tanimoto and Yoshimoto 5).
[4] Wave Force for Examination of Structural Stability

The wave force used to investigate stability shall be based on Part II, 5.2.8 Wave Force on Upright
Wave-Absorbing Caisson.
[5] Wave Force for Design of Structural Members
For the design calculation of structual members, the severest ware force applicable for each member shall
be used.
[Commentary]
Refer to Part II, 5.2.8 Wave Force on Upright Wave-Absorbing Caisson and Part , 4.2 External Forces Acting on
Members regarding wave forces acting on the members of the wave-absorbing caisson.
3.2.4 Sloping-Top Caisson Breakwater

[1] General
The appropriate structure for a sloping-top caisson breakwater shall be selected after thorough examination
of its wave transmission characteristics, and preferably it shall be designed by conducting hydraulic model
experiments.
[Commentary]
A sloping-top caisson breakwater is a breakwater that makes the horizontal wave force smaller while simultaneously
making use of the vertical wave force acting on the sloping-top section for increasing the stability of the caisson.
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Because wave transmission is larger than that of an ordinary upright breakwater, the crest elevation should be
determined after considering calmness within harbor basins more carefully.
Wave transmission coefficien,
(1) As the gradient of sloping surface becomes

steeper for a sloping-top caisson breakwater, wave transimission is suppressed but
wave pressure becomes larger. Then, the
advantage of wave pressure reduction lessens. Based upon experiments conducted for
the various slope gradient, which shows no
remarkable changes in the wave transmission coefficient with gradient change, the
slope gradient is recommended to be set at
45 for the wave pressure reduction effectiveness and conveniences of construction
works. Other structural details should follow 2.8 Details of Structures.
KT
[Technical Notes]
Symbol
Sloping-top
caisson
breakwater
Upright breakwater
(2) As shown in Fig. T-3.2.4, transmitted wave

height of the sloping-top caisson breakwater is at a level about twice that of a upright
breakwater with the same crest elevation.
Fig. T- 3.2.4 Wave Transmission Coefficient and
When the crest elevation is set as equal to
Relative Crown Height
the design significant wave height H1/3
above the design water level, it is possible
to lower transmitted wave height to the same level as the case of an upright breakwater having the crest elevation of 0.6 times the design significant wave height.
(3) Normally the sloping surface of a sloping-top caisson breakwater is set to begin at the still water level. However,
with a semi-submerged shape in which the toe end of the sloping surface is set below the still water level, further
reduction of wave forces is possible.
(4) With provision of a mound of wave-dissipating blocks in front of an upright part of a sloping-top caisson
breakwater, not only the reflected waves are further reduced but also the entire structure becomes more stable
than an ordinary sloping-top caisson breakwater. Depending upon the crest elevation of the wave-dissipating
concrete blocks, however, impulsive breaking wave force may possibly be generated. In addition, careful
attention must be paid to the stability of concrete blocks, because the wave-dissipating blocks that are installed
around and below the still water level are exposed to strong downflow from the sloping section.
[2] Wave Force

The design wave force shall be determined according to hydraulic model experiments or an appropriate
calculation method.
[Technical Notes]
(1) As a general principle, the wave force acting on a sloping-top caisson breakwater should be obtained based upon
hydraulic model experiments. But, if not feasible, it can be calculated using the following equations (refer to
Fig. T- 3.2.5.):
F X = F SH + F V = l SL F 1 sin 2 a + l V F 2
(3.2.1)
F Z = F SV + F U = l SL F 1 sin a cos a + 0.5 p U B
(3.2.2)
l SL = min [ m a x { 1.0, 23 ( H L ) tan 2 a + 0.46 tan 2 a + 1 sin 2 a }, 1 sin 2 a ]
(3.2.3)
l V = min [ 1.0, max { 1.1, 1.1 + 11d c L } 5.0 ( H L ) ]

(3.2.4)
where
FX total horizontal wave force acting on the sloping-top caisson breakwater (kN/m)
FZ total vertical wave force acting on the sloping-top caisson breakwater (kN/m)
FSH horizontal component of the wave force acting on the sloping section of a sloping-top caisson
breakwater (kN/m)
FSV vertical component of the wave force acting on the sloping section of a sloping-top caisson breakwater;
the axis extending downward is defined as positive (kN/m)
FV wave force acting on the upright section of a sloping-top caisson breakwater (kN/m)
FU uplift acting on the bottom of a sloping-top caisson breakwater (kN/m)
F1 component of the horizontal wave force acting on the vertical wall corresponding to the sloping section
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of a sloping-top caisson breakwater, as calculated with Goda's wave pressure formula (kN/m)
F2 component of the horizontal wave force acting on the vertical wall corresponding to the upright section
of a sloping-top caisson breakwater, as calculated with Goda's wave pressure formula (kN/m)
l SL modification coefficient of the wave force acting on the sloping section
l V modification coefficient of the wave force acting on the upright section
a gradient of the sloping section ()
p uplift pressure at the front toe of the ordinary caisson as calculated with Goda's wave pressure formula
U
(kN/m2)
B caisson width of the sloping-top caisson breakwater (m)
H wave height (m)
L wavelength (m)
d c height from the still water level to the bottom level of the sloping section (When the bottom level is
above the still water level, d c is defined as positive) (m)
The coefficient l SL is defined as below in the following three domains
(a)When H/L is comparatively small
l SL = sin 2 a ; thus, F SH = F 1 , F SV = F 1 tan - 1 a
(b)When H/L is large
l SL = 1.0 ; thus, F SH = F 1 sin2 a , F SV = F 1 sin a cos a
(c)When H/L is between 1) and 2)
lSL becomes smaller as H/L increases.
With regard to l V , when H/L is comparatively small, l V = 1.0, and as H/L grows larger, l V decreases.
It shoud be noted however that this wave force calculation method is meant for the open sea area where the
water depth is comparatively large and the design wave period is long. Before this calculation method was
proposed, the wave force had been calculated assuming l SL = l V =1.0, as a simple calculation method. That
calculation produced a value somewhat on the safer side, except when H/L is comparatively small.
B
F1
hc
FSH
FV
F2
FU
h'
dc
FSV
pU
Rubble mound
Fig. T- 3.2.5 Wave Force Acting on Sloping Top Caisson Breakwater
(2) There is a study by Sato et al. on the wave force acting on a sloping-top caisson breakwater covered with wavedissipating blocks.
3.3 Non-Gravity Type Breakwaters (Notification Article 49)

For breakwaters having structural forms other than those of a gravity type breakwater, the stability shall be
appropriately ensured based on the provisions of Chapter 2 Breakwaters and 3.2 Gravity Type Special
Breakwaters as well as other provisions concerning structural stability. When using unique structural
forms, however, the stability of the structure shall be ensured based upon appropriate hydraulic model
experiments or appropriate analytical procedures corresponding to the characteristics of structures.
3.3.1 Curtain Wall Breakwater
[1] General
The appropriate structure for a curtain wall breakwater shall be selected by taking into consideration the
wave reflection and transmission coefficients, and when required, it shall preferably be designed by
conducting hydraulic model experiments.
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[Commentary]
A curtain wall breakwater is a pile-supported structure of
permeable type and has been developed for areas such as
inner bays where the wave height is relatively small or
where the sea bottom soils are weak and soft. This
breakwater type is roughly classified into the single
curtain type and the double curtain type, depending upon
the configuration of the concrete curtain panel, either in a
single row or in double rows (see Fig. C- 3.3.1). They can
be further classified into various types depending upon
the type of piles supporting the curtain panels or the
shapes of the slits in the curtain panels. In addition, a
breakwater without the curtain pannel, which withstands
wave actions with steel piles, is called a steel pile
breakwater. The design concepts for curtain wall
breakwaters can be applied to steel pile breakwaters as
well.
Curtain
Pile
(a) Single curtain wall breakwater
[Technical Notes]
(b) Double curtain wall breakwater
Fig. C- 3.3.1 Classification of Curtain Wall Breakwaters
Wave Transmission coefficient, KT = HT/HI
(1) To study curtain wall breakwaters, Morihira et al. 6)

conducted model experiments that focused on a
single, solid curtain type. Based on the results, the
depth of the bottom of curtain wall can be found
from Fig. T- 3.3.1 when the wave transmission
coefficient is prescribed, and the crown height of the
curtain can be found from Fig. T- 3.3.2. The curtain
crown height in Fig. T- 3.3.2 has been derived
through modification of experimental data by
designating R/H =1.25 for d/h = 1.0; it does not
represent a crown height that can completely prevent
overtopping. In the figures, d is the depth of the
curtain wall bottom, h is the water depth, L is the
wavelength, R is the curtain crown height, and H is
the wave height. The relationship between the wave
reflection coefficient and the relative curtain depth
for the single curtain type is shown in Fig. T- 3.3.3.
Wave reflection coefficient, KR (%)
Fig. T- 3.3.1 Relationship between Wave Transmission Coefficient and d/h

(Single Curtain)
Fig. T- 3.3.2 Crown Height Calculation Curve

(Single Curtain)
Fig. T- 3.3.3 Relationship between Wave Reflection

Coefficient and d/h (Single Curtain)
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/
=
Experimental values
Hayashi, etal.
(2) With a pile breakwater, it is possible to drive the steel

piles into the ground while leaving a certain space
between them so as to form a permeable-type
breakwater. Based upon the study by Hayashi et al.,
the relationship between wave transmission
coefficient KT and the ratio of pile spacing to pile
diameter b/D is shown in Fig. T-3.3.4. The moment
generated by the wave force is reduced as the spacing
between the piles is broader, but this effect is seen
only up to the level b/D = 0.1. For this form of
breakwater, careful attention must be paid to scouring
of the ground between the piles.
KT HT HI
Wiegel
Theoretical values
Hayashi, et al
Wiegel
water depth
Fig. T- 3.3.4 Relationship between Wave Transmission

Coefficient and the Ratio of Pile Spacing to
Pile Diameter
[2] Wave Force

The wave force acting on a curtain wall breakwater of single curtain type differs from that of double
curtain type, and it also varies depending upon the shapes and sizes of the slits in the curtain pannel.
Because of these factors, the force shall be calculated based upon hydraulic model experiments or by an
appropriate calculation method.
[3] Design of Piles
Calculation of the stress intensity in piles of a curtain wall breakwater shall be based on Part , 9.5
Design of Piles. The pile penetration depth for curtain wall breakwaters shall be calculated according to
Part , Chapter 4 Bearing Capacity of Pile Foundations.
3.3.2 Floating Breakwater
[1] General
The appropriate structure for a floating breakwater shall be selected by taking into consideration the wave
transmission characteristics and the stability, and then shall be designed by conducting hydraulic model
experiments as necessary.
[Commentary]
(1) Floating breakwaters are composed of several floating bodies aligned on water to prevent wave propagation, and
they have the merits that they neither hinder sea water flows or littoral drifts, nor depend on the tidal range or
ground conditions, and have a mobility. At the same time, they have such shortcomings that they allow relatively
large transmitted waves, their sheltering effectiveness greatly depends upon wave characteristics, they can be
used only for small waves because of their limited strength against wave forces, and their resistance mechanism
of anchor system against cyclic shock loads has not been well known. In addition, there is the concern that the
floating bodies may drift and inflict secondary damage if their mooring lines are severed.
(2) The layout and shape of floating breakwaters should be determined so that the required calmness is achieved.
When determining these factors, hydraulic model experiments should preferably be conducted and the wave
transmission coefficient should be measured. With regard to analytical procedures, there are the approximate
calculation method of two-dimensional rectangular floating body motions based on Ito et al. 7) and the Ijima
theory concerning freely floating bodies.
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[Technical Notes]
Floating breakwater design can best be carried out by following the block diagram shown in Fig. T- 3.3.5.
Selection of the design conditions

Required performance: wave dissipating performance: movement of floating breakwater
Calculation of design external force
Determination of major components : width, length
Establishment of structure and cross section
(Including draft and freeboard)
Calculation of weight, etc.
Evaluation of stability of the floating body (at static water, during towing, and installation)

(Calculation of motions of a free-floating body)
Calculation of motions and wave transmission coefficient
Assumption of mooring constant
Size and length of chain
Necessity of sinker and its volume
Evaluation of safety of mooring system

Calculation of design load
Basic design of floating body
Design of fixed anchors and mooring lines
(deck, bottom, siding, inclined face wall, etc.)
Check for stability
Detailed design
Fig. T- 3.3.5 Design Sequence for Floating Type Breakwaters
[2] Selection of Design Conditions

When designing floating breakwaters, the following factors shall be considered:
(1) Factors Pertaining to the Function of Floating Type Breakwaters
(a) Waves to be controlled (height, period, and direction)
(b) Tide level and water depth
(c) Required degree of calmness
(2) Factors Pertaining to the Stability of Floating Type Breakwaters
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Design wave (height, period, and direction)

Tide level and water depth
Currents (current velocity and direction)
Winds (wind velocity and direction)
Ground conditions
Allowable amplitudes of motions
Others (vessel collisions, etc.)
(3) Design External Forces

The external forces used in design shall follow Part II, Chapter 8 External Forces Acting on
Floating Body and its Motions.
[3] Design of Mooring System
For the design related to mooring, refer to Part II, 8.3 Motions of Floating Body and Mooring Force and
examine the safety of mooring system.
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[Commentary]
(1) Mooring-related design can be divided into two stages:
(a) First stage in which the tensions that will be exerted on mooring lines and sinkers are determined through
static and dynamic analyses by assuming various conditions concerning mooring-related matters such as the
mooring method and line length.
(b) Second stage in which detailed design of the actual mooring lines and sinkers is carried out and the stability is
confirmed, based on the tensions and other findings in the first stage above.
(2) A mooring system should be selected by taking into consideration the matters such as the forces that will act on the
system, water depth, tidal range, sea bottom conditions, waves, soil conditions, and length of the mooring lines.
(3) The mooring anchor should be so designed that both its horizontal and vertical resistances are greater than the
horizontal force and vertical force acting on it, respectively.
(4) Dynamic analysis of the mooring lines consists of determining the fluctuating tension and displacement that
arise from the motions of floating body. This analysis can be classiffied into the following two procedures:
(a) Methods to analyze these factors based on the static mooring characteristics.
(b) Methods to analyze these factors based on the dynamic response characteristics of mooring lines.
(5) Forces acting on the mooring anchor are described in Part , 12.4.3 Design of Mooring Anchor.
[4] Design of Floating Body Structure

The floating body shall have the sufficient strength for the safety of structure as a whole as well as for
every structural member.
[Commentary]
(1) When selecting the material quality of the structural members of floating breakwater, it is necessary to
adequately consider the characteristics of the materials and the costs.
(2) The loads that should be considered from the standpoint of structural strength for floating breakwaters can be
divided into static load and dynamic load, as shown below.
Static load
deadweight (including weight of materials on board)

hydrostatic pressure
Dynamic load
wave load (load acting as an external pressure to produce sectional force)

wind load
load from tidal currents and ocean currents
mooring load
other loads (load from towing, load accompanying installation operations, collision force, etc.)
For floating breakwaters, the following is the normal loads to be considered from the standpoint of strength
analysis:
Longitudinal strength. . .stresses resulting in the static water or under wave actions (longitudinal bending
moment, shearing force, torsional moment).
Lateral strength . . . . . . .shearing forces that occur when exposed to wave actions (bending moment,
shearing force) in a direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of floating
body.
Sectional strength . . . . .stresses (same as above) that occur in wall pannels and girders.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Longitudinal strength calculation methods are devided into two categories, one of which considers floating body
motions, and the other that does not consider. Among calculation methods that do not consider floating body
motions, the Muller equation, the Prestressed Concrete Barge Standards, and the Veritus Rule are frequently
used. On the other hand, the Ueda equation 8) is used as a calculation method that does take into account the
floating body motions. A comparison of the methods of both categories is cited in the references 8), which can be
referred to when applying the calculations.
(2) Refer to Part , 12.3 Design of Pontoon concerning the stability of floating bodies.
[References]
1)
Katsutoshi TANIMOTO, Suketo HARANAKA, Shigeo TAKAHASHI, Kazuhiro KOMATSU, Masahoko TODOROKI,
Mutsuo OSATO: An experimental investigation of wave reflection, overtopping and wave forces for several types of
breakwaters and sea walls, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 246, 1976, 38p. (in Japanese).
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2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Tadahiko YAGYU, Miyuki YUZA: A compilation of the existing data of upright breakwater with wave dissipating
capacity, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 358, 1980, 314p. (in Japanese).
Yasushi HOSOKAWA, Eiichi MIYOSHI, Osamu KIKUCHI: Experiments on hydraulic characteristics and aeration capacity
of the slit caisson type seawall, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 312, 1979, 23p. (in Japanese).
Jarlan, G. E.: A perforated vertical wall breakwater, The Dock and Harbour Authority, Vol. 41 No. 488, 1961, pp. 394-398.
Katsutoshi TANIMOTO, Yasutoshi YOSHIMOTO: Theoretical and experimental study of reflection coefficient for wave
dissipating caisson with a permeable front wall, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 21, No. 3, 1982, pp. 43-77 (in Japanese).
Michio MORIHIRA, Shusaku KAKIZAKI, Yoshimi GODA: Experimental investigation of a curtain-wall breakwater, Rept
of PHRI, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1964, 27p. (in Japanese).
Yoshiyuki ITO, Shigeru CHIBA: An approximate theory of floating breakwaters, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 11, No. 2, 1972, pp.
Shigeru UEDA, Satoru SHIRAISHI, Kazuo KAI: Calculation method of shear force and bending moment induced on
pontoon type floating structures in random sea, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 505, 1984, 27p. (in Japanese).
-387-
Chapter 4 Locks
4.1 Selection of Location (Notification Article 58)
In order that lock operations can be carried out safely and smoothly during vessels ingress and egress, the
lock location shall be selected appropriately in response to the natural conditions at the site and the
principal dimensions and number of vessels to accommondate.
[Commentary]
(1) Because vessels ingress and egress may become difficult owing to the factors such as winds, waves, tidal
currents, and littoral drift, it is optimal to choose a calm water area for the lock location. In cases where the water
is not calm, breakwaters should be constructed, or training jetties or guiding jetties are extended to make the
water zone calm in the vicinity of the lock.
(2) The size and number of vessels that will pass through the lock are also the factor in the selection of the location.
That is, the lock must be located at the site where a sufficiently wide area of water can be secured for anchorage
and turning basin for use by waiting vessels.
(3) In addition to the above, the locks location must be selected with adequate consideration given to the conditions
of land usage or traffic conditions of the inland area.
4.2 Size and Layout of Lock (Notification Article 52, Clause 1 and Clause 2)
(1) The lock shall have a layout suitable for the natural conditions at the site and the principal dimensions
and number of vessels to accommondate, in order that lock operations can be carried out safely and
smoothly during vessels ingress and egress.
(2) The lock chamber dimensions shall be determined appropriately based on the following standard
dimension calculation equations. When using the following equations, appropriate values shall be
employed for the depth clearance, and the allowances for width and length by giving due
consideration to the motions of vessels in the lock.
(a) Effective water depth = draft of vessel to accommodate + keel clearance
(b) Effective width = width of vessel number of vessels in tranversal direction + width allowance
(c) Effective length = length of vessel number of vessels in one longitudinal line + length allowance
[Technical Notes]
(1) The names of various parts of a lock are shown in Fig. T- 4.2.1.
Front gate chamber
Lock chamber
Rear gate chamber
Effective
width of lock chamber
Effective width of gate
chamber
Gate recess
Effective length of lock chamber
Plane view
Lock gate
Sill height
Side view
Fig. T- 4.2.1 Names of Respective Parts of Lock
(2) Generally, the clearances for the various dimensions for locks depend upon the vessel size. Fukuda, however,
has proposed the following values for locks used by small vessels:
Allowance for effective water depth:
Allowance for effective width:
Allowance for effective length:
0.2 1.0 m
0.2 1.2 m
3 10 m
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4.3 Selection of Structural Type

4.3.1 Gate (Notification Article 52, Clause 3)
Lock gates shall have a structure that is safe for the size of the lock, operation time, water level difference,
and external forces such as waves, and shall fulfill the requirements given below.
(1) Gates main structure, gate supports, and surrounding fixed sections shall be safe against the loads
under the normal conditions and during an earthuakes, and these loads shall be securely supported by
the foundation structure.
(2) Gates shall be watertight.
(3) Gates shall be operated surely and smoothly.
(4) Machinery parts and other moving parts shall be easy to inspect.
[Technical Notes]
The gates used for locks should have preventive measures against abrasion and corrosion of structural members.
4.3.2 Lock Chamber (Notification Article 52, Clause 4)

The lock chamber shall have a structure appropriate to meet the conditions such as the foundation
condition, water level difference between inside and outside the lock chamber, the dimensions and number
of vessels to accommodate, and the quantity of water pumped into and drained out of the lock chamber.
4.4 External Forces and Loads Acting on Lock (Notification Article 52, Clause 5)
The gate chambers and lock chamber of a lock shall be of structures that are safe against the foundation
reaction force, the deadweights of the side walls and floor slab, the weight of the gate, and the impact force
from vessels.
[Technical Notes]
When designing lock gate chambers and lock chambers, the deadweight of the ancillary facilities such as the
operation room and the machinery rooms should be taken into consideration to the extent as necessary.
4.5 Pumping and Drainage System (Nortification Article 52, Clause 6)

The pumping and drainage system for adjusting the water level in the lock chamber shall be such that its
operation would not induce excessive motions of vessels inside the lock chamber, and it shall be capable of
pumping and draining water in the chamber quickly.
4.6 Auxiliary Facilities (Nortification Article 52, Clause 7)

Locks shall have the following auxiliary facilities installed to the extent as necessary.
(1) Emergency facilities
(2) Lighting facilities
(3) Electric power facilities
(4) Control and instrumentation facilities
(5) Maintenance facilities
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Chapter 5 Facilities to Prevent Shoaling and Siltation

5.1 General
In the locations where shoaling of harbors and navigation channels is expected, the mode and rate of
shoaling shall be grasped through detailed investigations on the phenomena that cause shoaling.
Appropriate countermeasures shall be taken after giving consideration to the various effects that shoaling
prevention works will cause and to their construction and operational costs.
[Commentary]
Shoaling refers to the phenomenon of shallowing of basins and channels, when littoral drift, wind-blown sand, and
river discharged sediment invade the inside of harbors such as navigation channels and anchorage areas, and then
obstruct harbor functions by reducing water depth through sediment subsidence and deposition. There is also the case
that the depth of navigation channel becomes locally shallower than the required depth with no increase nor reduction
of net earth volume, as caused by the formation of sand waves 1) or by the failure of slope shoulders of a dredged
navigation channel. Siltation refers to the shoaling caused by deposition of silt or other fine sediment.
Shoaling occurs by the causes listed below.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Invasion and deposition of littoral drift (caused by waves and/or currents)

Subsidence and deposition of river discharged sediment
Settlement and deposition of wind-blown sand
Sediment movement within the area considered or the change in location of sediment deposition
Sediment movement caused by wave agitation within a harbor, by failure of slope shoulders in navigation
channel, by formation of sand waves, etc.
5.2 Jetty
5.2.1 Layout of Jetty (Notification Article 56)
(1) Jetties shall be appropriately located by considering the characteristics of sediment transport, so as to
exercise the expected function of longshore transport control.
(2) In principal, a jetty at the updrift side shall be placed perpendicular to the shoreline within the surf
zone. In the offshore zone, a jetty shall be so placed that sediment transport shall be diverted to the
updrift side of harbor entrance.
(3) For the case that a jetty is placed at the downdrift side of the harbor to prevent sediment from being
dragged inside from the downdrift shore, the jetty shall be placed perpendicular to the shoreline, and
shall have an appropriate length in consideration of the direction and deformation of incident waves.
When a jetty is designed to function as a breakwater as well, it shall be placed in the appropriate
location in consideration of its required function as the breakwater.
(4) If a jetty is required in places such as the vicinity of a navigation channel inside a harbor, it shall be
constructed in an appropriate location in consideration of the natural conditions.
[Commentary]
Breakwaters of a harbor located at sandy coast serve the dual functions of jetties and breakwaters, and both the
functions cannot be separated. In this section the common practice is followed and refer to such structure as
breakwaters, except when its function as jetties is prominent.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Layout of Updrift Side Breakwaters
The updrift side breakwater should be extended beyond the surf zone in the direction perpendicular to the
shoreline, in order to cause deposition of littoral drift at the updrift side of the breakwater (refer to Fig. T- 5.2.1).
When this extension part is short or slanted towards the downdrift side from the shoreline, the efficiency of
sediment catchment at the updrift side is reduced and sediment can easily move along the breakwater towards
the harbor entrance. When this section is extended with a slant angle towards the downdrift side from the
shoreline, it can easily become the cause of local scouring at the updrift side. In the area deeper than the breaker
line, the breakwater should be slanted so that it simultaneously stops waves and disperses littoral drift toward the
updrift side of the harbor entrance with the aid of reflected waves or Mach-stem waves (refer to Fig. T- 5.2.1) 2).
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(2) Position of the Downdrift Side Breakwater and Construction Time

When the updrift side breakwater is extended and crosses the extension line of the downdrift side breakwater,
deposition will start at the downdrift side of the latter breakwater. Sand bar will then be formed from the shore
toward the harbor entrance, and it will cause beach erosion at the far downdrift shore. 3) On the other hand, if the
downdrift side breakwater is extended during construction of the updrift breakwater and the slant section of the
latter is not extended enough, remarkable local erosion may be caused at the harbor side of the downdrift
breakwater, as shown Fig. T- 5.2.2 (a). Conversery, if the extension of the downdrift breakwater is delayed, it
may cause deposition in the harbor and erosion at the downdrift shore as shown in Fig. (T) 5.2.2 (b).
Very carefull attention should therefore be paid to the extension speed of both the updrift and downdrift side
breakwaters, and care must be taken to maintain the appropriate balance of extensions.
Contour lines
Waves
Deposition
breakwater
Longshore sediment transport
breakwater
Breaker line
Breakwater (jetty)
Reflected waves
Fig. T- 5.2.1 Conceptual Layout of Breakwater (Jetty)
Deposition
Accretion
Erosion
Erosion
(a) Case with rapid extension of the downdrift-side breakwater
(b) Case with slow extension of the downdrift-side breakwater
Fig. T- 5.2.2 Construction Time of Downdrift Side Breakwater
(3) Length of Breakwater and Water Depth at Its Tip

Because longshore sediment transport occurs mainly in the surf zone, breakwaters should be extended offshore
beyond the surf zone. In small harbors where the water depth at the end of the breakwater remains within the
surf zone during storms, it is difficult to completely prevent littoral drift from entering the harbors. At major
ports in Japan, it is common that the water depth at the end of the updrift side breakwater is almost equivalent to
the maximum depth of the navigation channel, which sometimes exceeds 20 m.
5.2.2 Details of Jetty (Notification Article 50)

A jetty shall have an appropriate crown height to ensure their required function of sediment control in
consideration of the suspended sediment transport into the inside of a harbor by wave overtopping, and
shall retain structural stability in light of the influence of external forces and loads exerted on the jetty.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Structural Forms of Jetty
Because the required function of a jetty is to stop sediment transport firmly, in principal a jetty should have a
nonpermeable structure. Where rubble stones or concrete blocks are used to build a jetty around the shoreline,
the core is to be filled with quarry run or small stones of up to 100 to 200 kg; there are also cases where the
harbor side of the jetty is covered with nonpermeable materials such as sand mastic asphalt. In the following
situations, it is preferable to adopt the structure of wave absorbing types.
(a) When there is a large concern about scouring by currents.
(b) When there are concerns of shoaling caused by reflected waves or of causing obstruction to the navigation of
vessels.
(2) Crown Height of Jetty
Although it is preferable for jetties not to allow overtopping of waves to prevent the inflow of suspended
sediment, there are also cases where overtopping is permitted due to structural restrictions or by reasons of
construction costs. The crown height should be determined by taking the following into considerations:
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(a) Section around the shoreline

A runup wave should not be allowed to overtop the jetty. Because sand carried by runup waves may overtop
the jetty crown if it is low, the shore connection part should have a crown that is sufficiently high. It is
preferable to execute a raise of crown and a landward extention of jetty, examing the situation after
construction.
(b) Section that is located between the shoreline and the breaker line
It should be standard to use 0.6H1/3 above the mean monthly-highest water level (HWL), where H1/3 should be
the significant wave height around the tip of jetty.
(c) Section that is located outside the breaker line
It should be standard to use a height that is obtained by adding some freeboard to the mean monthly-highest
water level. In the water deeper than the breaker zone, the suspended sediment is concentrated near the seabed
and overtopping water contains almost no sediment, and therefore overtopping can be permitted.
5.3 Group of Groins

[Technical Notes]
The length, interval, and structure of groups of groins that are constructed on the updrift side of harbors to prevent
shoaling should be determined in accordance with the Manual for Construction of Coastal Protection Facilities.
5.4 Training Jetties

5.4.1 Layout of Training Jetties (Notification Article 57, Clause 1)
To fulfill their function, training jetties shall be appropriately located in consideration of the characteristics
of the longshore sediment transport at site and the tractive forces of rivers during flood and drought
periods.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Multiplicity of Functions of River Mouth Training Jetties
River mouth training jetties should have a groin-like function to stop longshore sediment transport, in additions
to the function to stabilize a rivers waterway by guiding the river flow and to maintain water depth by
increasing the river flow tractive force, while simultaneously having the ability to release and not to hinder the
discharge during flood period.
(2) Layout of Training Jetties
Examples of the layout of training jetties
in relation to the direction of longshore
sediment transport are shown in Fig. T5.4.1 4). The most preferable one for
maintaining the water depth of river
mouth is to extend two parallel training
jetties, because a single training jetty
alone is not effective. Where two
training jetties of different lengths are
put in place, usually it is effective to
make the training jetty on the downdrift
side longer.
Bending the updrift training jetty
towards the downdrift side will prevent
sediment moving into the rivers
waterway and make the sediment
transported alongshore pass smoothly to
the downdrift side.
For actual examples of river mouth
improvement, refer to the reference 5).
A narrow but deep

gut is preserved Grows shallow
Longshore
sediment transport
Longshore
sediment transport
River mouth will move
towards the downdrift side
A narrow but deep

gut is preserved Grows shallow
Longshore
sediment transport
Longshore
sediment transport
Longshore
sediment transport
Fig. T- 5.4.1 Varieties of Training Jetty Layout 4)
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5.4.2 Water Depth at Tip of Training Jetty (Notification Article 57, Clause 2, Clause 3)
(1) The water depth at the tip of training jetty shall be equal to or deeper than the water depth of the
navigation channel in the vicinity of the training jetty.
(2) The tip of training jetty shall be located in the offshore zone of the breaker line.
5.4.3 Structure of Training Jetty (Notification Article 51)
Training jetties shall be of impermeable structures in principal, and they shall be so built that the structural
stability is maintained by taking into consideration the influence of scouring by waves and the river flow
acting on them.
[Commentary]
Because the training jetty is generally longer than groins and is exposed to intensive wave actions, it is necessary to
consider scouring at the head and sides of a jetty. In addition, it should be considered that the river side of the training
jetty will be subject to scouring action by the river flow.
5.5 Facilities to Trap Littoral Transport and Sediment Flowing out of Rivers
[Technical Notes]
When it is aimed to prevent shoaling due to littoral drift by means of maintenance dredging, an appropriate facility to
trap the sediment should be built at a proper location, at which the facility can prevent sediment from invading to
navigation channels or basins. The facility should be able to reduce the wave actions around it and increase the
dredging efficiency. The type and layout of these sand trap facilities must be determined by taking into consideration
their capability to trap the sediment, the dredging conditions, and the construction and operational costs, based on
adequate investigations and researches.
(1) Facilities to Trap the Sediment Transport
As the method to trap the sediment, provision of a calm water area for sediment subsidence and deposition is
commonly employed in various countries, by means of building a detached breakwater or partially reducing the
crown heigh of updrift breakwater. There are also sediment trap facilities such as pocket dredging executed in
the navigation channel crossing a large sand bar in the sea floor of straits, which is gradually restored by the
natural process after dredging. Pocket dredging is also done on the river bed, where shoaling occurs by river
discharged sediment.
(2) Proper Location of Facilities to Trap the Sediment Transport
There are two methods to place the facility. The one is to locate it at the area where deposition occurs easily
under the natural condition as shown in Fig. T- 5.5.1 (a), (b), and (c). The other is to create the artificial
situation that leads to settlement of sediment within the zone of intensive sediment transport as shown in Fig. T5.5.1 (d), (e), and (f). To identify the specific locations suitable for trapping sediment in the most efficient
manner, understanding of the conditions and mechanism of sediment transport is indispensable. In addition to
the efficiency of trapping sediment, it is also the important factor to select the place of the facility that the
conditions are good for dredging operations of deposited sediment; i.e., it is easy to keep sufficient depth for
navigations of dredgers, and the dredging area should be calm enough to allow easy dredging works.
Sea floor sand bar
Pocket dredging
River mouth port
Pocket dredging
Navigation channel
(b)
(a)
Bre
(c)
ake
(d)
rs
Submerged breakwater
(e)
(f)
Fig. T- 5.5.1 Locations of Facilities for Sediment Trap

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5.6 Countermeasures against Wind-Blown Sand

5.6.1 General
In situations where wind-blown sand causes a problem of shoaling of harbors and navigation channels or
where there is a need to protect the surrounding regional environment from wind-blown sand, appropriate
prevention measures against wind-blown sand shall be taken as necessary.
[Commentary]
Wind-blown sand, i.e., sand that is moved by winds, is carried into harbors or navigation channels where it settles and
deposits, and cause shoaling there. In some cases it also accumulates on road surfaces and is dispersed into residential
areas, disrupting the daily living of the resident. In particular, there are many instances that open digging of dune or
land reclamation cause problems related to wind-blown sand, and thorough countermeasures must be prepared in
advance.
5.6.2 Selection of Countermeasures

Countermeasures against wind-blown sand shall be determined with thorough understanding of the
characteristics of each countermeasure in consideration of the present conditions and forecast of future
conditions of wind-blown sand.
[Technical Notes]
The following methods are commonly used as prevention methods against wind-blown sand:
(1) Sand Fences and Windbreaks
It is a conventional method to
install sand fences with the height
of about 1 m in multiple rows to
arrest wind-blown sand, and to
expect an artificial dune growing
up as a sand protection work. In
recent years, there have been
observed many cases to install
high windbreaks sorrounding grain
storage areas or in the vicinity of
reclamation areas.
(2) Multiple Low Fences
This is a method to suppress the
movement of surface sand by
installing multiple low fences that
increase the roughness of land surface and reduce the wind shearing
forces.
(3) Covering Works
This is a method to cover the sand
surface with some artificial material and thus restrict sand movement.
First stage: Creation of an artificial dune

Sedimentation fence, step 1
Second stage: Covering of dune surface
Temporary covering works
(Multiple low fences)
(Transplanting of
plants)
(Plantation works)
Tree cover
Third stage: Afforestation

(Trees and shrubs)
Fig. T- 5.6.1 Steps of Artificial Dune Creation Works
(4) Plantation Works

This is s method to grow plants on sand surface with which sand surface is covered. This is thought to be one of
covering works.
(5) Afforestation Works
This is a method in which trees are planted at the downwind side of a wind-blown sand deposition, thereby
serving to prevent wind-blown sand.
Prevention measurs against wind-blown sand that are applied in view of so-called coastal erosion control, with the
purpose to stabilize the shape of sand beaches, are to be carried out in combination of various methods. The
sequences and methods are generally shown in Fig. T-5.6.1. For details, see the reference 6). In addition, refer to the
Civil Engineering Handbook 7) concerning trees and shrubs highly suitable for coasts.
[References]
1)
Hiroaki OZASA: Field investigation of submarine sand banks and large sand waves, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1975,
pp. 3-46. (in Japanese).
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2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Norio TANAKA: Change in seabed and beach near by sand beach port, PHRI, Seminar Proceeding, 1974, pp. 1-46. (in
Japanese).
Shoji SATO, NorioTANAKA, Katsuhiro SASAKI: Change in seabed configuration during construction of Kashima Port
(case study), Rept of PHRI, Vol.13,No.4, 1974, pp. 3-78. (in Japanese).
Japan Soc. Civil Engrs.: Civil Engineering Handbook, 1974, pp. 2268-2270 (in Japanese).
Taka-aki UDA, Akira TAKAHASHI, Hideaki MATSUDA: Charactaristic of land configuration or river mouth and
investigation on prevension measures to deformation in Japan, PWRI Report, No.3281, 1994, 123p. (in Japanese).
Kazuo TANAKA, Yuki NAKAJIMA, Jiro ENDO, Eiji KANEUCHI: Erosion Control of Shore, Erosion Control Series 9, The Japan Society of Erosion Control Engineering, Ishibashi Books, 1985 (in Japanese).
Japan Soc. Civil Engrs.: Civil Engineering Handbook, 1974, pp. 2718-2720 (in Japanese).
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Chapter 6 Revetments
6.1 Principle of Design
The following matters shall be examined when designing revetments:
(1) Adequate crown height that can protect reclained land from waves and storm surges while not
hindering land utilization.
(2) Structure that is stable against external forces such as wave forces and earth pressure.
(3) Structure that prevents landfill leakage.
(4) Consideration to influences on surrounding water areas, including prevention of flowing out of
muddy water during reclamation works.
(5) Safe and comfortable structure for users in the case of amenity-oriented seawall.
[Technical Notes]
In green park areas, revetments should be preferably designed by taking into consideration the water frontage
amenity aspects 1).
(1) Amenity-oriented seawall should be designed with cross sections which prevents users from falling into the sea.
In addition, supplemental facilities such as handrails to keep users from falling off must be appropriately
installed.
(2) For facilities where high waves are expected to cause wave overtopping and to rush up water to the place of
users normal stroll, appropriate measures such as warning signs should be provided to alert users to the danger.
(3) Refer to the manual 2) for designing amenity-oriented seawalls.
(4) The width and gradient of the passageway along the revetment should preferably be designed to ensure the safe
movement by wheelchairs used by elderly and/or handicapped people 3).
6.2 Design Conditions

The following design conditions are usually taken into consideration:
(1) Waves, tidal level, tidal currents, water depth
(2) Subsoil conditions.
(3) Earthquakes and seismic force
(4) Dynamic water pressure during an earthuakes
(5) Properties of soil for landfill
(6) Utilization circumstances of reclaimed land and revetments
(7) Allowable quantity of wave overtopping
(8) Surrounding water area conditions
(9) Construction method (particularly the method of closure)
(10) Reclamation method
[Technical Notes]
(1) When determining the crown height and structure of revetment, the allowable overtopping rate is the critical
factor. Allowable overtopping rate should be appropriately set in consideration of the conditions behind the
revetment. For more details, refer to Part II,
,4.6.2 Wave Overtopping.
(2) Refer to Part II,
, Chapter 11 Subsoil with regard to landfill soil conditions.
, Chapter 12 Earthquakes and Seismic Force with regard to earthquakes and seismic force.
, Chapter 14 Earth Pressure and Water Pressure with regard to dynamic water pressure
during an earthquake.
(5) In the case of reclamation where a large water area is enclosed by revetments, the opening becomes smaller with
the progress of revetment construction, and the considerable rapid flow occurs at closing points that is caused by
difference of water levels between the inside and outside of revetments. Therefore, careful consideration is
required for structure of revetments at the final closing point, which should have enough stability against the
calculated flow speed.
(6) As for the water level inside the enclosed reclamation area, two kinds of water levels are to be considered, i.e.,
the water level inside reclamation and the residual water level after landfill. The water level inside reclamation is
used in calculation of seepage flow or in design of a waste water treatment plant. Residual water level is the
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water level immediately behind the revetment, which is used for stability calculation of the revetment. But,
when the residual water level is used in the calculation of circular slip failure, the calculation may underestimate
the danger of circular slip failure if the inside water level near the revetment is higher than the residual water
level. In the such case, stability of revetment should be calculated using the water level inside the reclamation.
(a) Water level inside reclamation
The water level inside reclaimation should be established by considering the stability of revetment both during
the consruction and after completion, and the influence on the surrounding water.
(b) Residual water level
For reclamation revetments, the structures with low permeability are often used to reduce pollution due to
seepage through revetments. For this reason, the residual water level behind them is generally higher than
that behind quaywalls or ordinary revetments.
According to the past design examples of reclamation revetments of gravity type, there are more cases to
decrease permability by increasing the thickness of backfilling material than the cases to provide the
revetment itself with structures of low permability. Thus in the former type of revetments, the residual water
level to be used in design may be set equivalent to the water level behind gravity type revetments, because
the water level immediately behind such the redamation revetments structure show the behavior similar to
that of gravity type revetments.
For reclamation revetments using a sheet pile, there are examples where grout material is poured into the
sheet pile joint or a double sheet pile structure is used to increase the waterproofness. For these cases, the
residual water level for design use should be carefully determined in consideration of permeability of the
revetment as well as the construction procedures.
(7) In cases where a reclamation revetment is built adjoining to the existing land area, construction of the revetment
may cause the groundwater level to rise or may result in deterioration of groundwater quality. Adequate
attention should be given to these aspects when studying the reclamation layout plan and revetment structure. It
is preferable to investigate the conditions of the groundwater in the land area in advance. In addition, in cases
where it is thought that reclamation revetment construction will cause deterioration of the groundwater quality,
countermeasures such as construction of a cutoff wall must be considered in order to insulate the groundwater of
the land from the reclaimed area.
(8) The seepage analysis shall be made in order to estimate the rate of seepage that will flow to the sea area through
the reclamation revetment. Darcys law should be applied to the seepage analysis.
(a) Permeability of steel sheet pile structures
The permeability of steel sheet pile structures cannot be derived from Darcys law. However, it can be applied
by using an appropriate equivalent width and the equivalent coefficient of permeability for that width. In
addition, because it cannot be assured that a laboratory test could reproduce the joint conditions of the
protorype structure in proper scale, it is preferable to use the values measured in situ.
Reference 4) is available concerning the permeability of steel sheet pile type structures. It describes the
result of analyses taking into account the in-situ measurements on residual water levels at five project sites.
In the analyses, it was assumed that the sheet pile wall below the seabed are impermeable and the part of
wall above the seabed is equivalent to the permeable layer of 1 m thick to which Darcys law can be applied.
The results obtained for the coefficient of permeability (equivalent coefficient of permeability) were in the
range of 1 10-5 3 10-5 cm/s. The results of the similar analysis carried out for two examples of steel
pipe pile type quaywall (diameter of approximately 80 cm) yielded a value of 6 10-5 cm/s. It should be
mentioned that the coefficient of permeability for backfilling material of the foregoing surveys was in
the range of 10-2 10-3 cm/s.
The permeability of sheet pile joint has the following characteristics:
In cases without backfilling material, the sheet pile joint has the similar nature as a narrow orifice of abrupt
sectional reduction, and can be expressed in equation (6.2.1) with the constant n = 0.5 5),6).
n
q = Kh
where:
q flow rate per unit joint length (cm3/s/cm)
h difference in the water level between the front and the rear of the sheet pile (cm)
K, n constant
(6.2.1)
In cases with backfilling material, the property of the backfilling material greatly affects the quantity of
seepage through the joint. In the vicinity of the backfilling material behind the sheet pile joint, there are
spots at which Darcys law cannot be applied. There has been an effort to evaluate the permeability as a
composite joint that includes a certain thickness of backfill and sheet pile joint. This idea is effective for
seepage analysis. Shoji et al. 7) proposed an empirical equation based on the experiments considering both
the difference in the degree of tensile force in the joint and conditions with or without sand filling. From the
result of experiment, for the case that there is backfilling and joints are filled with sand, it was found that the
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constant n could be given an approximate value of 1.0 and the K value representing the result of experiment
was derived.
In cases where a waterproof measure is applied at a sheet pile joint, the extent of permeability reduction will
differ depending upon the type of sealing material and its method of application and should be judged with
reliable experimental results that take into consideration the construction conditions at site. Some examples
of field test have shown that the rate of seepage was reduced to the level of 20% to 40% of the rate without
water sealing material 8).
(b) Permability of foundation ground
Permeability of natural ground
Regarding the permability of natural ground, the coefficient of permability for each soil layer which
composes the natural ground should be calculated by referring Part II, 11.2.3 Coefficient of Permability of
Soil.
Permeability of soil improvement sections
In situations where soil improvement is applied when constructing a reclamation revetment, it is necessary
to investigate the change in permeability caused by the soil improvement in addition to evaluating the
permeability of natural ground.
In case that the foundation is made of rocks, careful investigations and consideration of permability should
be required, because the rock foundation may contain cracks or fault, which govern the rate of seepage 9).
6.3 Structural Stability (Notification Article 53, Clause 2)

The calculation on stability for revetments shall be carried out according to Part , Chapter 4 Gravity Type
Quaywalls and other provisions concerning the stability of structures, corresponding to the revetment
structural types.
6.4 Determination of Cross Section (Notification Article 53, Clause 1)

Revetments shall have an appropriate crown height with due consideration to the factors such as the
overtopping rate and tidal level during storm surge, so that preservation of the land area behind the
revetment shall be secured and the use of the revetment and the land behind it shall not be hindered.
[Commentary]
The crown height of revetments should have the required height against the design wave at the design storm tide level
with addition of a freeboard, and should be decided considering the allowable overtopping rate (refer to Part II, 4.6.2
Wave Overtopping).
[Technical Notes]
In case of reclamation by pump dredgers, suspended soft sediment is concentrated behind a revetment and there are
instances in which the earth pressure greater than anticipated pressure may act on the revetment or the hydrostatic
pressure behind the revetment may act to the elevation as high as the revetment crown. These must be given adequate
consideration when calculating the stability.
6.5 Details
(1) Depending upon the wave conditions, scour-prevention works and apron works on and/or behind the
revetments shall be provided.
(2) Appropriate protection against seepage shall be made in consideration of the nature of reclamation
material, structure of revetment, and residual water level, etc.
(3) Ancillary facilities such as stairs shall be installed if necessary.
[References]
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Japan Soc. Civil Engrs.: Landscape Design of Port, Gihodo, December 1991 (in Japanese).
Coastal Development Institute of Technology: Port Environment Improvement Facilities Manual, 1991 (in Japanese).
Institute for Transport Policy Studies: Guideline for Facility Building for Elderly and Handicapped Peoples in Public
Passenger Terminals, 1994 (in Japanese).
Mitsuaki FURUDOI, Takeshi KATAYAMA: Investigation of residual water levels, Report of PHRI, No.115, 1971 (in
Japanese).
Koichi KUBO, Mamoru MURAKAMI: Experiment on watertightening of sheetpile walls, Soil and Foundation, Vol.11.
Kazuya YAMAMURA, Tadahiko FUJIYAMA, Masao INUSOKU, Kenjiro NIBA: Experiment on watertightening of
sheetpile walls, Public Works Res. Inst. Report, Vol.123, No.3, 1964 (in Japanese).
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7)
8)
9)
Yoshihiro SHOJI, Seiji KOMEDA, Yukiharu TOMITA: Experiment on permability of sheetpile walls, Report of PHRI,
Vol.21, No.4, 1982, pp.41-82 (in Japanese).
Nippon Steel Co.,: Report on Watertightening Test of Sheetpile Walls, 1969 (in Japanese).
Rock Engineering for Civil Engineers, Gihodo, 1975, pp.238-254 (in Japanese).
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PART VIII MOORING FACILITIES

Chapter 1 General
1.1 General Consideration
In the design of mooring facilities, careful consideration shall be given to their relationship with navigation
channels, basins, and protective facilities, their influence on topography, harbor and other facilities, and the
environment in the neighboring locations, as well as the space for the future development of the port.
[Commentary]
(1) The types of mooring facilities are specified in Article 2, Clause 5 of the Port and Harbour Law. These are
quaywalls, mooring buoys, mooring piles, open-type wharves, floating piers, small craft quays, and slipways.
(2) In determination of the dimension of a mooring facility, the cargo and passenger trend, the ship size trend, and
the change of transport system in future should be carefully examined.
(3) Layout of mooring facilities should be determined so that the ship maneuvering be easy for berthing and
unberthing by carefully considering marine and atmospheric conditions, topography and subsoil conditions. The
land transport network and the neighboring land utilization should also be carefully studied to determine the
layout. In particular, when locating the following types of mooring facilities, the requirements specified in the
respective paragraphs should be satisfied:
(a) Mooring facilities used by passenger ships should be isolated from the areas where hazardous cargoes are
handled, and there should be secured a sufficient area of land in the vicinity of the facilities for waiting room
and parking lots.
(b) Mooring facilities used by vessels loaded with hazardous cargoes should be located in accordance with the
following conditions:
They are isolated from such facilities as housings, schools, and hospitals.
The required safety distance from other mooring facilities and sailing vessels is secured.
Countermeasures against spills of hazardous materials are easily mobilized.
(c) Mooring facilities at which considerable amount of noise may be generated by vessels or cargo handling
equipment should be isolated from such facilities as housings, schools, and hospitals to preserve the good
environment for daily living.
(d) Mooring facilities at which conspicuous dust and offensive odours may be generated during cargo handling
works should be isolated from such facilities as housings, schools, and hospitals to preserve the good
environment for daily living.
(e) Offshore mooring facilities should not hinder the navigation or anchorage of vessels.
1.2 Maintenance of Mooring Facilities (Notification Article 77)

In principle, mooring facilities shall be maintained in accordance with appropriate standards in
consideration of the structural characteristics of the facility so that the facilities can perform the required
function.
[Technical Notes]
For the inspection and/or assessment of damage, and repair of mooring facilities, refer to Part
, Chapter 3
Maintenance.
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Chapter 2 Dimensions of Mooring Facilities

2.1 Length and Water Depth of Berths (Notification Article 64, Clause 2 and 3)
(1) When the target vessel can be identified, the length and water depth of berth shall be determined as
follows:
(a) The length of a berth shall be set in principle by adding the lengths of the bow and stern mooring
ropes to the length overall of the target vessel.
(b) The water depth of a berth shall be set in principle by adding an appropriate keel clearance to the
maximum draft.
(2) When the target vessel cannot be identified, appropriate length and water depth shall be used.
(3) The datum level to measure the water depth of mooring facilities shall be the datum level for
construction work stipulated in Part
, Chapter 2 Datum Level for Construction Work.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The standard length of a berth is obtained by adding the required lengths of the bow and stern mooring ropes to
the length overall of the target vessel considering that the berth serves a single target vessel.
(2) When a vessel is moored parallel to a quay, the mooring ropes shown in Fig. T- 2.1.1 are required. The bow and
stern ropes are usually set at an angle of 30 to 45 with the quay face, because these ropes are used to prevent
both the longitudinal movement (in the bow and stern directions) and lateral movement (in the onshore and
offshore directions) of the vessel.
(3) The standard depth of a berth is obtained by adding an appropriate keel clearance to the maximum draft of target
vessel. For the keel clearance, a value equal to about 10% of the maximum draft is used as a standard. For a
mooring facility used by vessel under storm weather conditions, margins for the ship motions by winds and
waves should be added to the keel clearance.
(4) When the target vessel cannot be identified in advance, such as in the case of a port facility for public use, the
dimensions of the berth may be determined using Table T- 2.1.1 as reference. The premise here is that the vessel
is moored parallel to the quay. For ferryboats, the dimensions of berths for bow or stern mooring are also listed.
(5) Table T- 2.1.1 lists the water depth of berth based on Table T- 2.1.1 of Part
, 2.1 Dimensions of Target Vessel
using a minimum unit of 50 cm. In designing a berth, it is necessary to consider the draft and length of the vessel
and other factors in an appropriate manner.
(6) With regard to ferryboats, the dimensions of berths for long-distance ferryboats (sailing distance of 300 km
and more) and those for short-distance ferryboats (sailing distance of less then 300 km) are given in different
tables, because the vessel dimensions of two types differ eath other.
(7) With regard to passenger ships, the dimensions of Japanese passenger ships and those of foreign passenger ships
are given in different tables, because the dimensions of two types differ each other.
(8) In case of a berth where flammable dangerous cargoes are handled, it is necessary to secure a distance of 30 m or
more from oil tanks, boilers, and working areas that use open fire, to the cargo handling area and the mooring
vessel at the berth. However, when there is no risk of catching fire of the cargo in the event of leakage, because of
the surrounding topography or structure of facilities of the berth, the distance may be shortened to around 15 m.
(9) In case of a berth where flammable dangerous cargoes are handled, it is necessary to secure a distance of 30 m or more from other anchored vessels
and also to secure a distance of 30 m or more from
other vessels navigating nearby to provide a room
for their maneuvering. However, the distance may
be increased or decreased as necessary in consideration of the size of cargo carrying vessel, the type
and size of vessels anchored or navigating nearby,
and the status of ship congestions.
bow line
stern line
spring lines
breast lines
(10) When the target vessel is a small cargo ship of

Japan and its dimensions cannot be known in
advance, the berth dimensions listed in Table T2.1.2 may be used as a reference. However, care
should be exercised when using these figures, as
the dimensions of small cargo ships of Japan vary
widely.
Fig.T- 2.1.1 Arrangement of Mooring Ropes
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(11) The main dimensions of berths for container ships and ferryboats in Table T- 2.1.1 are also listed in Part ,
1.2.1 Length and Water Depth of Berths and Part , 2.2.1 Length and Water Depth of Berths. For details,
refer to the respective sections.
Table T- 2.1.1 Standard Main Dimensions of Berths for Cases Where the Target Vessels Cannot Be Identified
1. Cargo Ships
Deadweight tons
(DWT)
Length of berth
Water depth of berth

4.5 m
5.5
6.5
7.5
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
19.0
80 m
100
110
130
160
170
190
240
260
280
300
320
330
370
1,000
2,000
3,000
5,000
10,000
12,000
18,000
30,000
40,000
55,000
70,000
90,000
100,000
150,000
2. Container Ships
Deadweight tons
(DWT)
Length of berth

12.0 m
13.0
14.0
15.0
250 m
300
330
350
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
3. Japanese Ferries
3-A Short- and Medium-Distance Japanese Ferries (sailing distance less than 300 km)
Wharf for ferries with bow and/or stern ramps
Gross tons (GT)
Quay length of bow

and stern side
Length of berth
3.5 m
4.0
4.5
5.5
6.5
7.0
60 m
80
90
130
160
180
20 m
20
25
25
30
30
400
700
1,000
2,500
5,000
10,000
3-B Long-Distance Japanese Ferries (sailing distance 300 km or more)
Gross tons (GT)
Wharf for ferries with

side ramps
Length of berth
6,000
10,000
13,000
16,000
20,000
23,000
190 m
220
240
250
250
260

Quay length of bow
and stern side
30 m
30
35
40
40
40
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Length of berth
170 m
200
220
230
230
240

7.0 m
7.5
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.5
4. Japanese Roll-on Roll-off Ships

Deadweight tons
(DWT)
Length of berth
100 m
130
150
180
200
230
700
1,500
2,500
4,000
6,000
10,000

4.5 m
5.5
6.5
7.5
8.0
8.5
5. Passenger Ships
5-A Passenger Ships that Belong to Japan (passenger ships with Japanese flag)
Gross tons (GT)
Length of berth
110 m
140
160
190
240
280
2,000
4,000
7,000
10,000
20,000
30,000

4.5 m
5.5
6.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
5-B Passenger Ships that Belong to Other Countries

Gross tons (GT)
20,000
30,000
50,000
70,000
Length of berth
220 m
260
310
340

9.0 m
9.0
9.0
9.0
6. Japanese Pure Car Carriers

Gross tons (GT)
500
1,500
3,000
5,000
12,000
18,000
25,000
Length of berth
90 m
120
150
170
210
240
260

4.5 m
5.5
6.5
7.5
9.0
10.0
11.0
7. Tankers
Deadweight tons
(DWT)
1,000
2,000
3,000
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
30,000
50,000
70,000
90,000
Length of berth
80 m
100
110
130
170
190
210
230
270
300
300

4.5 m
5.5
6.5
7.5
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
140.
16.0
17.0
Table T- 2.1.2 Standard Main Dimensions of Mooring Facilities for Cases Where the Target Vessels
Cannot Be Identified (for Japanese Small Cargo Ships)
Deadweight tons
(DWT)
500
700
Length of berth
60 m
70
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4.0 m
4.0
2.2 Crown Heights of Mooring Facilities (Notification Article 64, Clause 1)

The crown of a mooring facility shall be set at an appropriate height that is suitable for the main
dimensions of the target vessel and the natural conditions of the surrounding area. The tidal level that is
used as the datum in the determination of the crown height shall be the mean monthly-highest water level.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In cases where the target vessels cannot be identified, the values listed in Table T- 2.2.1 can be used as a
standard.
Table T- 2.2.1 Typical Crown Heights of Mooring Facilities above the High Water Level
When the tidal range is
3.0 m or more
When the tidal range is

less than 3.0 m
Mooring facilities for large vessel

(with a water depth of 4.5 m or more)
0.5 1.5 m
1.0 2.0 m
Mooring facilities for small vessel

(with a water depth of less than 4.5 m)
0.3 1.0 m
0.5 1.5 m
2.3 Ship Clearance for Mooring Facilities

The wall and front toe of the quaywall shall not contact with a berthing vessel.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In the cross sections of a vessel, the bottom corner sections are slightly rounded and have bilge keels projecting
from them. In many cases, the radius of curvature of the corner sections and the height of the bilge keels are 1.0
to 1.5 m and 30 to 40 cm, respectively. Therefore the envelope of corner sections may be assumed nearly 90
including the bilge keels. The planned water depths of berths are generally deeper than the full-load draft of the
target vessel by 0.3 m or more.
(2) Figure T- 2.3.1 shows the ship clearance for mooring facilities that is set by taking into consideration the above
facts and past examples 1), 2). The ship clearance of mooring facilities may be determined using this figure as
reference. However, care will normally be exercised in using the ship clearance shown in the figure, because the
rolling, pitching and heaving motions of vessel at berth have not been taken into consideration in the figure.
height of fender from the face line of quaywall

when it is compressed
Proposed water depth
Face line of quaywall
Construction limit line
Fig. T- 2.3.1 Ship Clearance for Mooring Facilities
2.4 Design Water Depth

A design water depth of a mooring facility shall be determined by considering its planned water depth as
well as the structural type, the original sea bottom depth, the method and accuracy of execution of work,
and the scouring susceptibility in front of the mooring facility.
[Commentary]
(1) In general, the design water depth is not equal to the planned water depth. The design water depth is ordinarily
obtained by adding a margin to the planned water depth in order to guarantee the required stability of the
mooring facility. As this margin varies according to the structural type, the water depth of the site, the
construction method and accuracy, and the scouring susceptibility, it is important to determine the design water
depth carefully in consideration of these factors.
-405-
(2) When it is difficult to determine the depth of scouring due to berthing vessels or by currents, it is advisable to
provide scour prevention measures as described in 2.5 Protection against Scouring.
2.5 Protection against Scouring

When large scouring is anticipated in front of a mooring facility due to currents or turbulence, the front of
the mooring facility shall be protected with armour stones, concrete blocks, or other materials against
scouring.
2.6 Ancillary Facilities

Refer to Part , Chapter 19 Ancillary Facilities.
[References]
1) Japan Port and Harbour Association, Port Construction Work Design Handbook, 1959, p.215 (in Japanese).
2) Shigekazu MIYAZAKI, A study on wharf construction limits, Jounal of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 36, 8,
1951, pp.26-27 (in Japanese).
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Chapter 3 Structural Types of Mooring Facilities

The structured types of mooring facilities shall be determined by considering their structual characteristics
and examining the following matters:
(1) Natural conditions
(2) Usage conditions
(3) Conditions of construction works
(4) Construction and maintenance costs
(5) Employment of different structural types in a port
[Technical Notes]
Mooring facilities are normally classified according to their structural types as in the following:
(1) Gravity type quaywalls
(2) Sheet pile quaywalls
(3) Sheet pile quaywalls with relieving platform
(4) Cellular-bulkhead type quaywalls
(a) Steel sheet pile cellular-bulkhead quaywall
(b) Steel plate cellular-bulkhead quaywall
(5) Open-type wharves
(a) Open-type wharves on vertical piles
(b) Open-type wharves on coupled raking piles
(6) Detached piers
(7) Floating piers
(8) Dolphins
(9) Slipways and shallow draft quays
(10) Air-cushion vehicle landing facilities
(11) Mooring buoys and mooring posts
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Chapter 4 Gravity Type Quaywalls

Gravity type quaywalls are classified into caisson type quaywalls, L-shaped block type quaywalls,
rectangular concrete block type quaywalls, cellular concrete block type quaywalls, and cast-in-place
concrete type quaywalls. The provisions in this chapter shall apply to all of these gravity type quaywalls.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Figure T- 4.1.1 shows an example of gravity type quaywalls.
HWL
LWL
Filling sand
Sand erosion
prevention plate
Backfilling stones
Sand erosion
prevention sheet
nd
g grou
Existin
Proposed water depth

Current water depth
Fig. T- 4.1.1 Example of Cross Section of Gravity Type Quaywall
(2) A wedged bottom caisson quaywall whose bottom is slanted downward in the onshore direction has an
advantage over the normal quaywall, because a large resistance force can be achieved against the horizontal load
(such as earthquake forces). On the other hand, it is necessary to give careful consideration to the large bottom
reaction force and rocking motion during an earthquake in the design process. For design methods, see
references 1) and 2).
4.2 External Forces and Loads Acting on Walls

As the external forces and loads acting on the wall of a gravity type quaywall, the following shall be
considered:
(1) Surcharge
(2) Deadweight of the wall
(3) Earth pressure and residual water pressure
(4) Buoyancy
(5) Seismic forces
(6) Dynamic water pressure during an earthquake
(7) Tractive forces of vessels
Of the external forces acting on the qwaywall, those forces which have a low probability of simultaneous
occurrence with seismic forces may be neglected or can be reduced.
[Technical Notes]
(1) As shown in Fig. T- 4.2.1, the wall body of a gravity type quaywall can be taken as the portion between the face
line of quaywall and the vertical plane passing through the rear toe of the quaywall. Normally a backfill is
provided at the rear of the quaywall. In many types of gravity quaywalls, some part of this backfill acts as selfweight of the quaywall, and the portion of the backfill can be considered as a part of the quaywall body. But it is
difficult to apply this concept to all cases unconditionally, because the extent of backfill considered as a part of
the quaywall body varies depending on the shape of the quaywall body and the mode of failure. However, it is
common practice to define the extent of backfill considered as a part of the quaywall body as shown by hatching
in Fig. T- 4.2.1 to simplity the design calculation, because modest changes in the location of the quaywall body
boundary plane do not affect the stability of the quaywall body significantly.
-408-
(a) Wall of L-shaped concrete

block type
(b) Wall of concrete

block type
(c) Wall of cellular concrete

block type
(d) Wall of caisson

type
Fig. T- 4.2.1 Determination of Quaywall Body
(2) In the case of structure like a concrete block type quaywall for which stability must be examined for each
horizontal layer, the virtual wall body should be considered as follows (usually, keys are formed between blocks
for better interlocking, but in this examination, their effect may be ignored.):
Wall body portion
(a) Examination of sliding

As shown in Fig. T- 4.2.2, the portion in front of the vertical plane passing through the rear toe at the
examining level should be regarded as the wall body.
Wall body portion

Horizontal plane to
be assessed for stability
Horizontal plane to
be assessed for stability
Fig. T- 4.2.2 Determination of Wall Body Portion for
Stability of Sliding at Horizontal Joints
Fig. T- 4.2.3 Determination of Wall Body Portion

for Stability of Overturning
(b) Examination of overturning

For the examination of overturning, when there are two blocks at the examining level, the portion in front of
the vertical plane passing through the rear toe of the upper block on the sea side block can be regarded as a
part of the wall body. For example, as in case of Fig.T- 4.2.3, it is assumed that the weight of block B and the
weight of backfill A above the block B do not contribute to the resisting force against overturning.
(c) Examination of bearing capacity
If the same virtual wall body as that used against examination of overturning is employed for calculation of
the safety factor for bearing capacity, it becomes quite small. However, when the weight of the wall body is
locally concentrated on the ground, settlement occur in that portion. Therefore, the load is actually expected to
be distributed over a wide area without being overly concentrated. Results of examination on the stability of
existing structures show that the portion in front of the vertical plane passing through the rear toe of the
quaywall can be considered as a virtual wall body. However, it is preferable to use one solid block of the
bottom to ensure enough bearing capacity.
(3) The residual water level should be set at the elevation with the height equivalent to one third of the tidal range
above the mean monthly-lowest water level (LWL). The design water level is determined in accordance with
Part , 6.1 Design Water Level.
(4) In general, the range of residual water level difference becomes large as the tidal range increases and as the
permeability of the wall body material becomes small. As the water behind the wall body permeates through
voids in wall joints, foundation mound, and backfill, the residual water level difference can be reduced by
increasing the permeability of these materials. However, care is necessary, as this approach may cause leakage
of the backfilling material.
The standard residual water difference (1/3 of the tidal range) is that for cases where a certain level of
permeability can be established after a long period. In those cases where permeability is low from the beginning
-409-
or reduction in permeability is expected in the long term, it is desirable to assume a large residual water level
difference in consideration of those conditions. When the wave trough acts on the front face of the wall body, it
is considered that a residual water level difference increases. However, in ordinary quaywall design, the increase
in the residual water level difference due to the waves needs not be considered 3).
(5) For the wall friction angle, it is desirable to use an angle of 15 for all types of structures.
(6) The surcharge is determined in accordance with Part , Chapter 15 Loads.
(7) As shown in Fig. T- 4.2.4, the buoyancy is calculated on the assumption that the part of the wall body below the
residual water level is submerged in the water.
The part below this line is subjected to buoyancy
Front water level

Wall body
The part subjected to buoyancy
Fig. T- 4.2.4 Assumption for Calculating Buoyancy
(8) For seismic forces, the values and descriptions given in Part , Chapter 12 Earthquakes and Seismic Force
can be used as reference. The loads that can be excluded in stability calculations during an earthquake because
of no simultaneous occurrence are as follows:
(a) Tractive forces of vessels
(b) Reaction forces of cargo handling equipment in operation or during storm conditions
(c) The sidewalk live load and snow load (however, snow load should be considered based on the past data in
heavy snow region)
(9) For the dynamic water pressure during an earthquake, refer to Part , Chapter 14 Earth Pressure and Water
Pressure.
(10) In many cases, the fender reaction force is not taken into consideration in quaywall design, because the
deadweight of the coping and the earth pressure of the material behind the quaywall work as the resistance
forces. In the design of coping, however, the fender reaction force is taken into consideration.
4.3 Stability Calculations

4.3.1 Items to Be Considered in Stability Calculations
In the stability calculations of a gravity type quaywall, the following items should be examined in general:
(1) Sliding of the wall
(2) Bearing capacity of the foundation
(3) Overturning of the wall
(4) Circular slip
(5) Settlement
4.3.2 Examination against Sliding of Wall (Notification Article 66, Clause 1-1)
The safety factor against sliding of a gravity type quaywall shall be calculated using equation (4.3.1). In
this case the value of safety factor shall be set appropriately in accordance with the characteristics of the
structure.
fW
F s ------(4.3.1)
P
where
W resultant vertical force acting on the wall (kN/m)
P resultant horizontal force acting on the wall (kN/m)
f coefficient of friction between the bottom of the wall body and the foundation
F s safety factor
-410-
[Technical Notes]
(1) The safety factor should be 1.2 or more in ordinary conditions and 1.0 or more in extraordinary conditions.
(2) The resultant vertical force should be the weight of the virtual wall body with subtraction of buoyancy and
without a surcharge on the virtual wall body. The vertical component of earth pressure acting on the virtual plane
should also be added.
(3) The resultant horizontal force should include the following:
Horizontal component of the earth pressure acting on the rear plane of the virtual wall body with a
surcharge applied.
Residual water pressure
In the stability calculations during an earthquake, the seismic force acting on the mass of the wall body with
no buoyancy subtracted should be included in the resultant horizontal force in addition to the above and
. The earth pressure should be the horizontal component of earth pressure during the earthquake.
Furthermore, if there is a cargo handling equipment on the wall, the horizontal force transmitted through its
legs should be considered.
(4) With regard to the coefficient of friction, see Part , Chapter 16 Coefficient of Friction.
4.3.3 Examination Concerning Bearing Capacity of Foundation (Notification Article 66, Clause 1-3)
Examination concerning the bearing capacity of the foundation shall be made appropriately in accordance
with Part
, 2.5 Bearing Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined Loads.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In the case of examination as a shallow foundation, the force acting on the bottom of the quaywall is the
resultant force of vertical and horizontal loads. The examination should be made according to Part , 2.5 Bearing
Capacity for Eccentric and Inclined Loads.
(2) In general, the assessment of reaction force onto the bottom of quaywall is made for cases where no surcharge is
applied on the quaywall. When a surcharge is applied on the quaywall, the distance of eccentricity decreases, but
the bottom reaction may increase as the vertical component of the load increases. Thus there may be cases where
assessment needs to be made for cases in which a surcharge is applied.
(3) The thickness of a foundation mound is determined by examining the bearing capacity of the foundation, the
flatness of the mound surface for installing the wall body, and the degree of alleviation of partial stress concentration in the ground. The minimum thickness should be as follows:
0.5 m or more, and 3 times the diameter of the rubbles or more in case of a quaywall with a water depth of
less than 4.5 m.
1.0 m or more, and 3 times the diameter of the rubbles or more in case of a quaywall with a water depth of
4.5 m or more.
4.3.4 Examination Concerning Overturning of Wall (Notification Article 66, Clause 1-2)
The safety factor against the overturning of gravity type quaywall shall satisfy equation (4.3.2).
Wt
F s ------Ph
(4.3.2)
where
F s safety factor
t distance between the line of application of the resultant vertical forces acting on the quaywall and
the front toe of the quaywall (m)
h height of the application line of the resultant horizontal forces acting on the quaywall, above the
bottom of the quaywall (m)
The quantities W and P in the above equation have the same values as those in equation (4.3.1).
[Technical Notes]
The safety factor should be 1.2 or more in ordinary conditions and 1.1 or more in extraordinary conditions.
4.3.5 Examination on Soft Foundation (Notification Article 66, Clause 2)

For gravity type quaywalls, the required stability of the structure shall be secured against the circular slip
and the settlement due to the consolidation of the ground as described in Part , 6.2 Stability Analysis, in
consideration of the characteristics of the ground and the structure.
-411-
4.4 Stability Calculations of Cellular Concrete Blocks

In the case of a cellular concrete block type quaywall (with no bottom slab), an examination shall be made
against the overturning of the quaywall taking into consideration the reductionn of resistance force due to
the separation of the filling from the cellular blocks.
[Commentary]
Cellular concrete blocks that do not have a bottom slab are different from other types of gravity quaywalls in that they
maintain their integrity with the help of the filling. For this type of quaywall, therefore, it is necessary to carry out
stability calculations with respect to overturning that take into consideration the risk that blocks may detach
themselves from the filling, in addition to the stability assessments required for other types of gravity quaywalls.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The safety factor of overturning should satisfy equation (4.4.1).
Wt + M f
F t ------------------(4.4.1)
Ph
where
W resultant vertical force on the quaywall with the weight of filling excluded (kN/m)
P resultant horizontal force acting on the quaywall (kN/m)
t distance between the line of application of the resultant vertical force acting on the quaywall with the
weight of filling excluded and the front toe of the quaywall (m)
h height of the line of application of the resultant horizontal forces acting on the quaywall above the
bottom of the quaywall (m)
M f resisting moment provided by the friction between cellular blocks and filling (kNm/m)
F t safety factor
The safety factor should be 1.2 or more in ordinary conditions and 1.1 or more in special conditions.
(2) If F t < 1, the overturning moment due to external forces becomes larger than the resisting moment caused by
the resultant vertical force on the cellular concrete blocks and the frictional forces between blocks and filling.
The cellular concrete blocks thus will overturn leaving the filling. In such a case, countermeasures against
overturning should be taken, such as the increase of the weight of cellular concrete blocks or the provision of
partition walls.
(3) The resisting moment Mf provided by the friction between cellular blocks and filling is obtained as follows:
In Fig. T- 4.4.1, the moment around the point A is l1F1 + l2F2. The thrusts P1 and P2 are the resultant forces of
earth pressures due to filling acting on the front and rear inner walls of cellular blocks respectively, and F = fP,
where f is the coefficient of friction between the filling material and the inner walls of cellular blocks. With
regard to the earth pressure of filling acting on the inner walls, see Part , 3.3.2 Earth Pressure of Filling and
Residual Water Pressure.
Similarly, the friction force acting on the partition walls of cellular blocks should also be considered.
q: earth pressure due to the

vertical load transmitted to filling
H: H = b
p: earth pressure due to filling
p = KHg'
K: coefficient of earth pressure
g': unit weight of filling material
P1, P2: resultant force of earth pressure

Fig. T- 4.4.1 Determination of Frictional Resistance
(4) The coefficient of friction used for the examination of the sliding of cellular concrete blocks with no bottom slab
should be 0.6 for the part of reinforced concrete and 0.8 for the part of filling stones, but for the sake of
convenience, 0.7 can be used on average.
-412-
4.5 Effects of Backfill

When a backfill of good quality is used for a gravity type quaywall, the quaywall can be designed by
considering the effect of the backfill.
[Commentary]
Backfill is expected to bring the following effects:
(1) Reduction in the earth pressure due to an increase in the angle of internal friction
(2) Drop in the residual water level due to an increase in permeability
(3) Prevention of the outflow of the landfill material
[Technical Notes]
(1) Effect of Earth Pressure Reduction by Backfill
The effect of earth pressure reduction by backfill can be calculated by using an analytical method that takes into
consideration the composition and strength of the soil layers behind the quaywall 4). In ordinary gravity type
quaywalls, rubble or cobble stones are used as backfilling material. In this case, the effect of earth pressure
reduction can be evaluated using the following simplified method 5):
(a) When the cross section of backfill is triangular:
When backfill is made in a triangular shape from the point of intersection of the vertical line passing through
the rear toe of quaywall and the ground surface with an angle of slope less than the angle of repose a of the
backfilling material as shown in Fig. T- 4.5.1 (a), it may be assumed that the whole part of the rear of wall is
filled with the backfilling material.
When the reclaiming material is cohesive soil slurry, application of filling-up or filter sheets to the surface
of the backfill should be considered in order that the cohesive soil slurry cannot pass through the void of the
backfill and to reach the quaywall.
(b) When the cross section of backfill is rectangular:
In the case of triangular shape backfill with a slope steeper than the angle of repose of the backfilling material
or any other irregular shape of backfill, the effect should be considered as in the case of rectangular shape
backfill which has an area equivalent to the backfill in question.
The effect of the rectangular backfill shown in Fig. T- 4.5.1 (b) should be considered as follows:
When the width b of the rectangle shape backfill is larger than the height of the wall, consideration can be
made as in the case of triangular backfill of Fig. T- 4.5.1 (a). When the width b is equal to 1/2 of the height, it
should be assumed that the earth pressure equivalent to the mean of that due to the backfill and that due to the
reclaimed soil acts on the quaywall. When the width b is 1/5 or less of the height of the wall, the earth pressure
reduction effect due to the backfill should not be considered.
(a) Triangular shape backfill
(b) Rectangular shape backfill
Fig. T- 4.5.1 Shape of Backfill
(2) It is recommended to provide filling-up or filter sheets on the back face of the backfill in order to protect landfill
material from piping out through the backfill caused by the change of the residual water level and to stop
settlement of the base course for the apron.
(3) No method has been developed yet to define the extent of increase in the earth pressure due to the infiltration of
landfill material, because it varies depending on the grain size of landfill material and the size of backfilling
material. Therefore it is common practice to take preventive measures such as the provision of filter sheets or
filling-up on the slope of the backfill when infiltration is expected to produce a significant adverse effect.
(4) When there is a risk that outflow of backfilling material may occur due to site conditions such as settlement, seal
plates should be installed for the joints of the quaywall.
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4.6 Detailed Design

The detailed design of a gravity type quaywall shall be made for the following matters:
(1) Strength of structural members
(2) Protection against the lealcage of reclaimed soil
(3) Shape and dimensions of keys for concrete blocks
(4) Structure of coping
(5) Ancillary works
[References]
1) Katsumi KISHIYA, Yasuhiro KUNISHIGE, Satoshi HIRANO, Masato YAMASHITA: Characteristics and design methods
for wedged bottom caisson quaywalls, Abstracts of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 1998
(in Japanese).
2) Toshikazu MORITA, Gen KIMURA, Katsuyuki SHIROMIZU, Hidenori TANAKA: A study on the behavior of wedged
bottom caisson quaywalls during earthquake, Abstracts of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers,
1998 (in Japanese).
3) Teruaki FURUDOI, Takeo KATAYAMA: Field observation of residual water level, Tech. Note of PHRI, No.115,1971 (in
Japanese).
4) Takashi TSUCHIDA, Yoshiaki KIKUCHI, Tetsuo FUKUHARA, Takeo WAKO, Kazuhiro YAMAMURA: Slice method for
earth pressure analysis and its application to light-weight fill, Tech Note of PHRI, No.924, 1999 (in Japanese).
5) Shichi KITAJIMA, Hiroshi SAKAMOTO, Shhei KISHI, Takuji NAKANO, Syusaku KAKIZAKI: On some problems
being conserved with preparation for the design standards on port and harbour structures Tech. Note of PHRI, No.30,1967,
pp.32-43 (in Japanese).
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Chapter 5 Sheet Pile Quaywalls

5.1 General (Notification to Article 67, Clause 1)
In principle, the examination for structural stability for a steel sheet pile quaywall equipped with anchorage
shall be made by checking the stabilities of both the sheet pile wall and anchorage work.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Fig. T- 5.1.1 shows an example of sheet pile quaywall design.
Thickness of concrete pavement = 0.20
Thickness of base course = 0.30
HWL
Tie rod
LWL
Backfilling stones
Steel pipe pile
Wooden pile (pine)

Rubble stones
Sandy soil
Steel sheet pile
(Units: m)
Fig. T- 5.1.1 Example of Sheet Pile Quaywall Design (Vertical Pile Anchorage Type)
(2) The sheet pile wall design methods currently in use are as follows:
(a) Design methods based on classic earth pressure theories
Free earth support method
Fixed earth support method
(b) Design method that evaluates the embedded section as an elastic support
P.W.Rowes method
5.2 External Forces Acting on Sheet Pile Wall

5.2.1 External Forces to Be Considered
The following forces shall be considered as the external forces acting on a sheet pile wall:
(1) Earth pressure
(a) Active earth pressure behind the sheet pile wall
(b) Subgrade reaction in front of the embedded portion of sheet piles
(3) Earthquake forces that act on (1)
(5) Tractive forces of vessels
(6) Berthing forces of vessels
-415-
[Commentary]
The forces listed above are the ones whose effects are to be rather large. In cases where the sheet pile coping is large,
it may also become necessary to take into consideration earthquake forces that act on the coping. Any other external
force that is considered to produce a significant effect on the sheet pile wall should be taken into consideration as
appropriate.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The active earth pressure is normally used as the earth pressure that acts on the sheet pile wall from the backside.
For the frontside reaction that acts on the embedded part of the sheet pile, it is necessary to use an appropriate
value such as the passive earth pressure or a subgrade reaction that corresponds to the deflection of the wall.
(2) When the free earth support method and the equivalent beam method are used in a stability calculation for a
sheet pile wall, it should basically be assumed that the earth pressure and residual water pressure act as shown in
Fig. T- 5.2.1, and the pressure values should be calculated in accordance with Part , Chapter 14 Earth
Pressure and Water Pressure.
The wall friction angle used for calculation of the earth pressure acting on the sheet pile wall may usually be
taken at 15 for the active earth pressure and -15 for the passive earth pressure, respectively (when the ground
is sandy soil layer).

essure
Passive earth pressure
earth pr
ressure
Active earth p
LWL
Active
LWL
On cohesive soil
On sandy soil
Fig. T 5.2.1 Earth Pressure and Residual Water Pressure to Be Considered for Design of Sheet Pile Wall
(3) Since the earth pressure changes in response to displacement of the sheet pile wall, the actual earth pressure that
acts on the sheet pile wall varies depending on the following:
(a) The construction method (i.e., whether backfill is executed or the ground in front of the sheet piles is dredged
to the required depth after the sheet piles have been driven in)
(b) The lateral displacement of the sheet pile at the tie rod setting point
(c) The length of the embedded part of the sheet pile
(d) The relationship between the rigidity of the sheet pile and the characteristics of the sea bottom ground.
(4) When Rowes method (elastic beam analysis
method) is used in a sheet pile stability calculation,
it is assumed that the earth pressure and residual
water pressure act as shown in Fig. T- 5.2.2 and a
reaction earth pressure that corresponds to the coefficient of subgrade reaction and the earth pressure at
rest act on the front surface of the sheet pile.
(5) When there is some cargo handling equipment (e.g.,
crane) on the quaywall, it is necessary to take into
consideration the earth pressuredue due to the deadweight and the surchage of the equipment.
LWL
GL
Tie rod
Active earth pressure

Subgrade reaction
(6) In the determination of the reaction force of earth

pressure that acts on the front surface of the embedded part of the sheet pile, it is necessary to assume Earth pressure at rest
that dredging of the sea bottom will be excecuted to
a certain depth below the planned depth, in considFig. T- 5.2.2 Earth Pressure and Residual Water Pressure
eration of the accuracy of dredging work.
(7) In the case of an earth retaining wall of an open-type
wharf, the sea bottom in front of the sheet pile wall
-416-
to Be Considered for Design of Sheet Pile

Walls which Uses P.W. Rowe's Method
has a composite shape of horizontal and sloped surfaces. In such a case, the passive earth pressure may be
calculated using Coulombs method in which the design passive earth pressure is trially calculated with several
failure planes of different angles. The smallest value among them is adopted as the passive earth pressure 1).
However, it is necessary to consider the empirical evidence by experiments that the behavior of the ground in
front of the sheet pile wall can be well predicted under the assumption of the ground being an elastic body.
(8) The residual water level to be used in the determination of the residual water pressure needs to be estimated
appropriately in consideration of the structure of the sheet pile wall and the soil conditions.
The residual water level varies depending on the characteristics of the subsoil and the conditions of sheet pile
joints etc., but in many cases the elevation with the height equvalent to two thirds of the tidal range above the
mean monthly-lowest water level (LWL) is used for sheet pile walls. In the case of a steel sheet pile wall driven
into cohesive soil ground, however, care should be exercised in the determination of the residual water level,
because it is sometimes nearly the same as the high water level. When sheet piles made of other materials are to
be used, it is desirable to determine the residual water level based on the result of investigations of similar
structures.
(9) For the dynamic water pressure during an earthquake, refer to Part , Chapter 14 Earth Pressure and Water
Pressure.
(10) The berthing forces of vessels may be considered only for the design of the coping in general. The tractive force
of vessel is not considered when the foundation for bollards is to be constructed separately. However, when
bollards are to be installed on the coping of the sheet pile wall, it is necessary to take into consideration the
tractive force of vessel in the design of the coping, tie rod, and wale.
5.3 Design of Sheet Pile Wall

5.3.1 Setting Level of Tie Rod
The setting level of tie rod shall be determined by considering the convenience in execution and
construction cost.
[Commentary]
The design cross sections of the sheet piles and the tie rod vary widely depending on the tie rod setting position. In
the determination of the tie rod setting level, therefore, it is necessary to consider the convenience in execution and
construction cost.
5.3.2 Embedded Length of Sheet Piles (Notification Article 67, Clause 2-1)
In principle, the embedded length of sheet piles shall be determined in such a way that the bottom end of
the sheet piles is firmly fixed in the ground and an appropriate level of safety factor is attained.
[Commentary]
The mechanical behavior of sheet pile wall changes according to the embedded length. The sheet pile wall behaves as
a free earth support wall when the embedded length is short and as a fixed earth support wall when the embedded
length is long. To realize a safe sheet pile wall design, it is essential to make sure that the bottom end of the sheet pile
is fixed securely, which means that the wall must be designed as a fixed earth support wall.
Traditionally the free earth support method based on a classic earth pressure theory has been used to determine
the embedded length. Takahashi et al. 2) have demonstrated that embedded lengths obtained by this method frequently
correspond to the fixed earth support conditions when an appropriate value of safety factor is used. The equivalent
beam method used to determine the sheet pile cross section assumes that the sheet piles are in the fixed earth support
condition.
[Technical Notes]
The mechanical behavior of sheet pile wall equipped with an anchorage work is strongly affected by the rigidity of
the sheet piles, characteristics of the ground, and embedded length. In particular, the mechanical behavior varies
according to the embedded length.
The design method described in this chapter is based on the premise that the bottom end of the sheet pile wall is
fixed. The embedded length at which the bottom end of sheet pile wall is assumed fixed varies according to the
rigidity of the sheet piles and the characteristics of the ground. The embedded length determination method employed
in the free earth support method based on earth pressure theory has some shortcomings: e.g., the rigidity of the
sheet piles are not considered, and when the bottom end of the sheet pile wall is fixed, the assumed passive earth
pressure distribution does not coincide with Coulombs triangle distribution. However, the embedded length thus
determined secures the state of fixed earth support under certain conditions.
The sheet pile embedded length determination method used in the free earth support method are described in the
following:
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(1) When calculating the embedded length of a sheet pile using the free earth support method, equation (5.3.1)
should be satisfied for the moments caused by the earth pressure and residual water pressure (see Fig. T- 5.2.1 of
5.2.1 External Forces to Be Considered) with respect to the tie rod setting point.
(5.3.1)
MP = FMA
where
MP moment at the tie rod setting point by the passive earth pressure (kNm/m)
MA moment at the tie rod setting point by the active earth pressure and residual water pressure (kNm/m)
F safety factor
The safety factor may be set at 1.5 or more in ordinary conditions and 1.2 or more in extraordinary conditions in
case of a sheet pile wall driven in sandy soil, and 1.2 or more both in ordinary and extraordinary conditions in
hard cohesive soil.
(2) In the case of cohesive soil ground, the stability of embedded part is not established unless equation (5.3.2) is
satisfied.
4c > w + Sg h + g w hw
where
c cohesion of soil at sea bottom (kN/m2)
w surcharge (kN/m2)
g unit weight of soil (kN/m3) (submerged unit weight for the part below the residual water level)
h thickness of soil layer above the sea bottom (m)
g wunit weight of sea water (kN/m3)
hw difference between the residual water level and the water level in front of the wall (m)
(5.3.2)
When the sea bottom ground is soft and equation (5.3.2) is not satisfied, it is necessary to improve the sea
bottom ground with an appropriate method or take appropriate measures such as the use of relieving platforms.
5.3.3 Bending Moment of Sheet Piles and Reaction at Tie Rod Setting Point
The maximum bending moment of sheet piles and reaction at the tie rod setting point shall be calculated
with an appropriate method that takes into consideration the rigidity and embedded length of the sheet
piles and the hardness of the ground.
[Commentary]
It has long been known that the mechanical behavior of sheet pile wall is affected by the rigidity and embedded
length of the sheet pile and the hardness of the ground. In the past, design water depths for quaywalls were relatively
shallow, the sheet piles used were those having relatively low rigidity such as U-section steel sheet piles, and the
bending moment inflection point was located at the sea bottom or a shallower point when used in sandy soil ground
with a medium or high degree of compaction. Therefore, a simplified method called the equivalent beam method
had been used.
However, as a result of the increase in the number of quaywalls with deeper design water depths in recent years,
steel sheet piles with relatively high rigidity, such as steel pipe sheet piles, are now being used frequently. Therefore
care should be exercised in using the traditional equivalent beam method, because the bending moment inflection
point may be located below the sea bottom and the section forces may be underestimated.
[Technical Notes]
(2) Equivalent Beam Method

The equivalent beam method calculates the maximum
bending moment and reaction force at the tie rod setting point
of the sheet piles by assuming a simple beam supported at the
tie rod setting point and the sea bottom with the earth pressure
and residual water pressure acting as the load above the sea
bottom (see Fig. T- 5.3.1).
Reaction at the tie

rod point (Ap)

Tie rod
Active earth
pressure
(1) The maximum bending moment and reaction force at the tie
rod setting point of sheet piles may be determined using the
equivalent beam method described below or Rowes method.
However, care should be exercised when using the equivalent
beam method, because the section forces may be under
estimated when the rigidity of the sheet piles is high.
Fig. T- 5.3.1 Equivalent Beam for Obtaining

Bending Moment
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5.3.4 Cross Section of Sheet Piles

The cross section of a sheet pile shall be determined to ensure that the stress calculated in accordance with
5.3.3 Bending Moment of Sheet Piles and Reaction of the Tie Rod Setting Point does not exceed the
allowable stress for the material.
5.3.5 Consideration of the Effect of Section Rigidity of Sheet Piles (Notification to Article 67,
Clause 2-2)
In principle, the cross section of the sheet pile shall be an appropriate one that has been selected in
consideration of the cross-sectional rigidity of the sheet pile.
[Commentary]
As described in 5.3.2 Embedded Length of Sheet Piles [Technical Notes], the behavior of sheet pile wall equipped
with the anchorage work is strongly affected by the rigidity and embedded length of the sheet piles and the
characteristics of the ground. In particular, the rigidity of the sheet piles strongly affects the determination of the
embedded length. Therefore it is essential to take into consideration the effect of the cross-sectional rigidity of the
sheet pile in the selection of the sheet piles in design.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The approach that uses the free earth support method and the equivalent beam method in combination has been
popularly used because of its proven track record and ease of use, but it is not a design method that takes into
consideration the cross-sectional rigidity of the sheet pile.
(2) The analysis method described below, which is a modified Rowes method, examines the embedded part of sheet
piles as a beam set on an elastic media.
(a) Elastic beam analysis method of sheet piles
This elastic beam analysis method is applied to the
sheet pile wall with the theoretical equation for
beams on elastic media, introducing an elastic
coefficient of subgrade reaction for the ground into
which the sheet pile wall is driven. The basic
equation for the embedded part is as follows:
EI d 4 y/dx4 = p (x) = pA0 (lh/D) x y (5.3.3)
where
E Youngs modulus of sheet pile (MN/m2)
I geometrical moment of inertia of sheet
pile wall per unit width (m4/m)
pA0 load intensity at the sea bottom generated
by the active earth pressure and residual
water pressure (MN/m2/m).
lh coefficient of subgrade reaction to the
sheet pile wall (MN/m3)
D penetration depth of sheet pile (m)
GL
RWL
WL
x y
AD
As there is no general solution to a differential

equation of this form, a special technique is
required to solve equation (5.3.3). Bloom and
A0
Rowe proposed a method to obtain the coefficient
of each term in a numerical analysis by assuming a
Fig. T- 5.3.2 Earth Pressure Distribution for
power series as the solution.
the Analysis of Sheet Pile Wall
Based on Rowes method 3), Takahashi and
Ishiguro have published details of a method to derive a solution of the deflection curve equation of sheet pile
wall and a computer-based numerical calculation method 4). Takahashi et al. have amended this method to
better reflect the behavioral characteristics of actual sheet pile walls as follows (see Fig. T- 5.3.2):
(5.3.4)
EI d 4y/dx4 = p (x) = pA0 + KADg x K0g x [lh / (DF rf)] x y
where
KAD coefficient of active earth pressure in the embedded part of the sheet pile wall
g unit weight of soil (MN/m3)
K0 coefficient of earth pressure at rest.
DF converged embedded length of sheet pile wall (m)
rf ratio of the exerting depth of the primary positive reaction earth pressure acting on the front surface
of the embedded part of the sheet pile to DF
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(b) Characteristic embedded length of sheet pile wall

Use of the analysis method described above reveals that the behavioral characteristics of sheet pile wall
change according to its embedded length. That is, the stability of the sheet pile wall is not established until the
embedded length of the sheet pile reaches a certain value. The embedded length at which this critical stability
state is established is called the critical embedded length DC. When the embedded length is further extended
and made longer than the critical embedded length, the bending moment of the sheet pile wall reaches the
maximum peak bending moment MP of free earth support state. The embedded length that attains this
condition is called the transitional embedded length DP . If the embedded length is further extended, the
bending moment reaches the converged maximum bending moment MF of fixed earth support state. The
minimum embedded length that attains this condition is called the converged embedded length DF.
(c) Flexibility number
As a measure to indicate the rigidity of a sheet pile wall as a structure, the following flexibility number
proposed by Rowe is used:
r = H 4/EI
where
r flexibility number (m3/MN)
H total length of sheet pile (m)
(5.3.5)
Rowe uses the sum of total height H of the sheet pile wall (from the sea bottom to the top of the sheet pile
wall) and the embedded length D of fixed earth support state (that is, H + D) as the total length of sheet pile.
Takahashi et al. suggest a new index called the similarity number that is derived by using the flexibility
number and ground characteristics. By using the height HT from the sea bottom to the tie rod setting point for
the length H in equation (5.3.5), the similarity number is defined as follows:
(5.3.6)
w = rlh
where
w similarity number
lh coefficient of subgrade reaction of sheet pile (MN/m3)
By expressing the mechanical characteristics of a sheet pile wall with a similarity number, the effect of the
rigidity of the sheet piles can be estimated quantitatively.
(d) Coefficient of subgrade reaction of sheet piles
There are a very few reference data that gives measured or suggested values of coefficient of subgrade
reaction of the sheet pile lh. Therefore it is desirable to obtain these values by means of model experiments
and/or field measurements. The proposed values that have traditionally been used include the values proposed
by Terzaghi and the ones proposed by Takahashi et al., which have been obtained by modifying Terzaghis
values. The research conducted by Takahashi et al. shows that the effect of errors in the coefficient of subgrade
reaction is not fatal for practical use 2). Thus the values proposed by Takahashi et al. may normally be used as
the coefficient of subgrade reaction of sheet pile wall.
Values proposed by Terzaghi 5)
The values proposed by Terzaghi are as listed in Table T- 5.3.1.
Table T- 5.3.1 Coefficient of Subgrade Reaction for Sheet Pile Wall in Sandy Ground (lh)
(Units: MN/m3)
Relative density of sand
Loose
Medium
Dense
24
38
58
Coefficient of subgrade reaction (lh)
Values proposed by Takahashi et al. 2)

Takahashi et al. confirmed that the result of Tschebotarioffs model experiment of sheet pile wall 6) does not
contradict with the values proposed by Terzaghi. They related the coefficient of subgrade reaction listed in
Table T-5.3.1 with the N-value, using the Terzaghis relationship between the coefficient of subgrade
reaction and the relative density, and another Terzaghis relationship 7) between the N-value and the relative
density. Then they adopted the smaller value of coefficients of subgrade reaction for the safety and
connected the resultant values with a smooth line as shown in Fig. T-5.3.3. They also related the
coefficients of subgrade reaction with the angle of interval friction as shown in Fig. T-5.3.4, using one
equation (5.3.7) of Dauhams equation that gives a smaller angle of internal friction for a given N-value.
f =
12N + 15 ()
(5.3.7)
However, it should be noted that Fig. T- 5.3.4 is a slightly expedient one, as Danhams equation include
cases that give the larger angle of internal friction depending on the grain shape of sandy soil.
Figures T- 5.3.3 and T- 5.3.4 also exhibit the values proposed by Terzaghi in addition to the values
proposed by Takahashi et al.
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Coefficient of subgrade reaction lh (MN/m3)

Values proposed by Terzaghi
Values proposed by Takahashi et al
N-value
Coefficient of subgrade reaction lh (MN/m3)

Fig. T- 5.3.3 Relationship between Coefficient of Subgrade Reaction (lh) and N-Value
Values proposed by Terzaghi
Values proposed by Takahashi et al.

Angle of internal friction (o)
Fig. T- 5.3.4 Relationship between Coefficient of Subgrade Reaction (lh) and Angle of Internal Friction (f)
(e) Design embedded length

In the determination of the embedded length of sheet piles using Rowes method, a value that satisfies
equation (5.3.8) can be used.
(5.3.8)
d s = D F H T 5.0916 w 0.2 0.2591
where
d s ratio of the embedded length of sheet pile to the height of the tie rod setting point above the sea
bottom
DF embedded length of sheet pile (m)
HT height of the tie rod setting point above the sea bottom (m)
w similarity number (= r lh)
r flexibility number (= HT4 / EI) (m3/MN)
E Youngs modulus of sheet pile (MN/m2)
I geometrical moment of inertia of sheet pile wall per unit width (m4/m)
lh coefficient of subgrade reaction to sheet pile wall (MN/m3)
The embedded length calculated with this equation is the converged embedded length. According to the study
conducted by Takahashi et al., an increase of just a 2%-plus in the maximum bending moment occurs when an
embedded length corresponding to 70% of the converged embedded length is employed. Therefore the use of
the converged embedded length as the design embedded length provides a safety factor in itself, and there is
no need to consider a safety factor here.
(f) Maximum bending moment of sheet pile and reaction force of the tie rod setting point
In the determination of the maximum bending moment of sheet piles and the tie member fixing point reaction
force while considering the effects of the coefficient of subgrade reaction and the bending moment of sheet
piles, correction factors shown in Figs. T- 5.3.5 and T- 5.3.6 are to be used. The maximum bending moment
-421-
-422-
Fig. T- 5.3.5 Relationship between Correction Factor (and Similarity Namber (
ordinary conditions
seismic conditions
and the tie member fixing point reaction force calculated by means of the equivalent beam method are
multiplied by these correction factors to obtain the corrected values. The seismic coefficient of 0.2 has been
used in preparing Figs. T- 5.3.5 and T- 5.3.6. Values obtained from these figures may be used for seismic
design unless a very detailed design is required.
The symbol m in Fig. T- 5.3.5 denotes the ratio of MF to MT, where MF denotes the maximum bending
moment that is generated when the embedded length is the converged embedded length DF in the deflection
curve analysis, while MT denotes the maximum bending moment obtained by the equivalent beam method that
uses the tie rod setting point and the sea bottom as the supporting points.
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Fig. T- 5.3.6 Relationship between Correction Factor () and Similarity Number ()
ordinary conditions
seismic conditions
The symbol t in Fig. T- 5.3.6 denotes the ratio of TF to TT, where TF denotes the tie member fixing point
reaction force that is generated when the embedded length is the converged embedded length DF in the
deflection curve analysis, while TT denotes the tie member fixing point reaction force calculated with the
equivalent beam method.
5.4 Design of Tie Rods

5.4.1 Tension of Tie Rod
The tension acting on a tie member shall be calculated in accordance with 5.3.3 Bending Moment of
Sheet Pile and Reaction at Tie Rod Setting Point.
[Commentary]
The tie rod tension that is calculated in accordance with 5.3.3 Bending Moment of Sheet Pile and Reaction at Tie
Rod Setting Point is a tension per meter of quaywall length, but tie rods are usually installed at fixed intervals, and in
some cases, tie rods may be attached at a certain angle with the line perpendicular to the sheet pile wall to avoid an
existing structure located behind the wall. Therefore, it is necessary to calculate the tie rod tension considering these
site conditions.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The tension that acts on a tie rod is calculated by equation (5.4.1).
(5.4.1)
T = A p l sec q
where
T tension of tie rod (kN)
Ap reaction at the tie rod setting point according to 5.3.3 Bending Moment of Sheet Pile and Reaction at
the Tie Rod Setting Point (kN/m)
l tie rod setting interval (m)
inclination angle of tie rod to the line perpendicular to the sheet pile wall ()
(2) In some cases, bollards are installed on the coping of a sheet pile wall and the tractive forces of vessels acting on
the bollards are transmitted to tie rods. Usually, the coping is assumed a beam with the tie rods as elastic
supports and the tie rod tension may be calculated using equation (5.4.2), assuming that the tractive force is
evenly shared by four (4) tie rods near a bollard. When the tractive force of vessel is sustained by the tie rods, the
allowable stress of the tie rods may be evaluated as that of extraordinary condition.
T = ( A p l + P 4 ) sec q
where
P horizontal component of the tractive force that acting on a bollard (kN)
(5.4.2)
The tractive force of vessel should be in accordance with Part, 2.2.4 Tractive Force Acting on Mooring Post
and Bollard.
5.4.2 Cross Section of Tie Rod (Notification Article 67, Clause 3)

The cross section of a tie rod shall be determined to ensure that the tensile stress calculated from the
reaction at the tie rod setting point is within an acceptable range. In principle, the reaction at the tie rod
setting point shall be calculated in consideration of the cross-sectional rigidity of the sheet pile.
[Commentary]
In principle, the cross section of tie rod is determined by means of the allowable stress method.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The allowable tensile stress of tie rod should be equal to or less than 40% of the guaranteed yield stress in
ordinary conditions and 60% or less in extraordinary conditions.
(2) The allowable tensile stress of tie wire should be set with the safety factor of 3.8 or larger against breaking
strength in ordinary conditions and 2.5 or larger in extraordinary conditions.
(3) The descriptions in (1) and (2) above have taken into consideration the following matters:
(a) The case study on the collapse of sheet pile walls during the Niigata Earthquake in 1964 8) and the result of a
model shaking experiment on a sheet pile wall conducted by the Port and Harbour Research Institute have
shown that a tension larger than that calculated in accordance with 5.4.1 Tension of Tie Rod may act on the
tie rod during an earthquake 9).
(b) The tie rod may be bent and a stress larger than the calculated value may act on the tie rod if settlement occurs
in the landfill material at the rear of the sheet pile wall in ordinary conditions.
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For tie rod materials, the ratio of the allowable tensile stress to the yield stress is reduced to 2/3 of that for
ordinary steel structures and the values of safety factor against breaking strength are selected as listed in Table
T- 5.4.1.
Table T- 5.4.1 Properties of Tie Rod Materials
Type
SS400
SS490
Breaking
strength
(N/mm2)
Allowable stress
(N/mm2)
Yield stress (N/mm2)
235 or more
(for diameter of 40 mm
or less)
402 or more
215 or more
(for diameter of more
than 40 mm)
275 or more
(for diameter of 40 mm
or less)
490 or more
255 or more
(for diameter of more
than 40 mm)
Yield stress
Elongation divided by
(%)
breaking
strength
Ordinary
conditions
Seismic
conditions
94
141
24 or more
86
129
110
Safety factor
(breaking strength
divided by allowable
stress)
Ordinary
conditions
Seismic
conditions
0.58
4.27
2.85
24 or more
0.53
4.67
3.12
165
21 or more
0.56
4.45
2.97
102
153
21 or more
0.52
4.80
3.20
High tension
steel 490
490 or more
325 or more
130
195
24 or more
0.66
3.77
2.51
High tension
steel 590
590 or more
390 or more
156
234
22 or more
0.66
3.78
2.52
High tension
steel 690
690 or more
440 or more
176
264
20 or more
0.64
3.92
2.61
High tension
steel 740
740 or more
540 or more
216
324
18 or more
0.73
3.43
2.28
5.5 Design of Wale

The maximum bending moment of a wale shall be calculated with an appropriate calculation method.
[Commentary]
Many equations have been proposed to calculate the maximum bending moment of wale. The maximum bending
moment should be determined in such a way that a safe and economical cross section is obtained in consideration of
site conditions.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The maximum bending moment of wale may be calculated using equation (5.5.1).
M = Tl / 10
where
M maximum bending moment of wale (kNm)
T tension of a tie rod calculated in accordance with 5.4.1 Tension of Tie Rod (kN)
l tie rod setting interval (m)
(5.5.1)
Equation (5.5.1) is obtained by analyzing a three-span continuous beam supported at the tie rod setting points
and subjected to the reaction at the tie rod point (Ap) as an uniformly distributed load.
(2) When bollards are to be installed on the coping, it is necessary to design the wale near one of the bollards using
a tie rod tension that takes into consideration the tractive force of vessel in accordance with [Technical Notes]
(2) of 5.4.1 Tension of Tie Rod. In this case, an allowable stress 1.5 times as large as that for ordinary
conditions may be used. However, when the wale is embedded into the coping, the effect of the tractive force
may be ignored.
5.6 Examination for Circular Slip (Notification Article 67, Clause 5)

Sheet pile quaywalls shall be designed with an appropriate safety factor against circular slip having a slip
surface that extends below the bottom end of the sheet pile in accordance with Part , 6.2 Stability
Analysis.
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5.7 Design of Anchorage Work

5.7.1 Selection of Structural Type of Anchorage Work
The structual type of anchorage work shall be selected by considering the construction cost, construction
period, construction method, and ground height before execution of work.
5.7.2 Location of Anchorage Work (Notification Article 67, Clause 4-1)
In principle, the location of the anchorage work shall be set at an appropriate distance from the sheet pile wall
to ensure the structural stability of the quaywall, depending on the characteristics of the anchorage work.
[Commentary]
The location of the anchorage work should be determined appropriately in consideration of the structural type of the
anchorage work, because (a) the stability of the anchorage work itself is affected by its position and (b) the location at
which the stability is achieved varies depending on the structural type.
There should be a sufficient distance between the anchorage work and sheet pile wall so that the stability of both
the sheet pile wall and anchorage work is secured.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The location of concrete wall anchorage should be so determined to ensure that the active failure plane starting
from the intersection of sea bottom and sheet pile and the passive failure plane of the concrete wall anchorage
drawn from the bottom of the anchorage do not intersect below the ground surface as shown in Fig. T- 5.7.1.
Tie rod
Residual lane
water re p
level ilu
e fa
tc iv
A
Concrete wall
anchorage
e failu
re plan
e
WL
Passiv
Fig. T- 5.7.1 Location of Concrete Wall Anchorage Works
Sheet pile
Sheet pile
WL
Tie rod
Residual ane Pas
water e pl failusive
level ilur
planere
a
f
e
tiv
Ac
Vertical pile
anchorage
(2) The location of vertical pile anchorage should be so determined to ensure that the passive failure plane from the
point of lm1/3 below the tie rod setting point of the anchorage and the active failure plane from the intersection of
sea bottom and sheet piles do not intersect at the level below the horizontal surface containing the tie rod setting
point at the anchorage as shown in Fig. T- 5.7.2. The value of lm1 is the depth of the first zero point of bending
moment for a free-head pile below the tie rod setting point, while the horizontal surface containing the setting
point of tie rod at the anchorage is assumed as the ground surface.
Fig. T- 5.7.2 Location of Vertical Pile Anchorage
(3) The location of sheet pile anchorage may be determined in accordance with the method described in (2) when
the sheet piles can be regarded as long piles. When the sheet piles cannot be regarded as long piles, the location
of anchorage may be determined by ignoring the part deeper than the level lm1/2 below the tie rod setting point at
the sheet pile anchorage and then applying the method described in (1).
Residual
level
pl
fa
anchorage
v
ti
e
ur
il
an
water
Coupled-pile
(5) For ordinary sheet pile quaywalls whose tie rods run
horizontally, an angle of -15 may be used as the wall
friction angle in the determination of the passive failure
plane that is drawn from the vertical pile anchorage or
sheet pile anchorage.
Tie rod
WL
Sheet pile
(4) For the method to obtain the first zero point of the
bending moment of the vertical pile anchorage and
sheet pile anchorage and the method to determine
whether a sheet pile anchorage can be considered as a
long pile, refer to Port and Harbour Research Institutes
method described in Part , 4.3.4 Estimation of Pile
Behavior Using Analytical Methods.
Fig. T- 5.7.3 Position of Coupled-Pile Anchorage
(6) The location of coupled-pile anchorage should be behind the active failure plane of the sheet pile wall drawn
from the sea bottom when it is assumed that the tension of the tie rod is resisted only by the axial bearing capacity of the piles (see Fig. T- 5.7.3). When the tension of the tie rod is evaluated to be resisted by both the axial and
lateral bearing capacity in consideration of the bending resistance of the piles, it is necessary to locate the
anchorage in accordance with the method described in (2).
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5.7.3 Design of Anchorage Work (Notification Article 67, Clause 4-2)

In principle, anchorage work shall be designed in consideration of the structural characteristics of the sheet
pile quaywall and the anchorage work using an appropriate method, so that the stability of the anchorage
work is secured.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Design of Concrete Wall Anchorage
(a) Stability of concrete wall anchorage
The height and placing depth of concrete wall anchorage may be determined to satisfy equation (5.7.1), on the
assumption that the tie rod tension and the active earth pressure behind the concrete wall anchorage are
resisted by the passive earth pressure in front of the concrete wall anchorage (see Fig. T- 5.7.4).
F = EP / (AP + EA)
(5.7.1)
where
F safety factor
AP: reaction at the tie rod setting point according to 5.3.3 Bending Moment of Sheet Pile and Reaction
at Tie Rod Setting Point (N/m)
EA resultant active earth pressure acting on concrete wall anchorage (N/m)
EP resultant passive earth pressure acting on concrete wall anchorage (N/m)
In the calculation of the earth pressure acting on concrete wall anchorage, the surcharge should be assumed to
act as shown in Fig. T- 5.7.4 (i.e., the surcharge is only considered in the calculation of active earth pressure,
and not of passive earth pressure). In this calculation, the safety factors should be 2.5 or larger in ordinary
conditions and 2.0 or larger in extraordinary conditions.
Fig. T- 5.7.4 External Forces Acting on Concrete Wall Anchorage
(b) When the active failure plane of the sheet pile and the passive failure plane of the concrete wall anchorage
drawn in accordance with 5.7.2 Location of Anchorage Work intersect below the ground surface level, it is
desirable to consider the fact that the passive earth pressure EP acting on the vertical surface above the
intersection point does not function as a resistance force (see Fig. T- 5.7.5); it should be subtracted from the
value of EP of equation (5.7.1). When the intersection point is located above the residual water level, the
active earth pressure to be subtracted may be calculated using equation (5.7.2).
lu
re
iv
ct
i
fa
la
Pa
ssi
ve
fai
lur
ep
la
ne
Passive earth
pressure to be
subtracted (
E p)
Fig. T- 5.7.5 Earth Pressure to Be Subtracted from the Passive Earth Pressure that Acts on Anchorage Wall When the Active
Failure Plane of Sheet Pile Wall and the Passive Failure Plane of Concrete Wall Anchorage Intersect
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EP = KPg hf2 / 2
where
KP coefficient of passive earth pressure
g unit weight of soil (N/m3)
hf depth from the ground surface to the intersection of the failure planes (m)
(5.7.2)
(c) Cross section of concrete wall anchorage

Concrete wall anchorage should be designed safely against the bending moment caused by the earth pressure
and the tie rod tension. In general, the maximum bending moment may be calculated by assuming that the
earth pressure is approximated to an equally distributed load and the concrete wall anchorage is a
continuous slab in the horizontal direction and a cantilever slab fixed at the tie rod setting point in the vertical
direction, and then using equation (5.7.3).
MH = Tl / 12
MV = Th / 8l
where
MH horizontal maximum bending moment (Nm)
MV vertical maximum bending moment per meter in length (Nm/m)
T tie rod tension according to 5.4.1 Tension of Tie Rod (N)
l tie rod interval (m)
h height of concrete wall anchorage (m)
(5.7.3)
The layout of the reinforcing bars for MH may be determined on the assumption that the effective width of the
concrete wall anchorage is 2b with the tie rod setting point as the center, where b is the thickness of the
concrete wall anchorage at the tie rod setting point.
(2) Design of Vertical Pile Anchorage
Vertical pile anchorage may be designed as vertical piles with an external force due to tie rod tension.
(3) Design of Coupled-Pile Anchorage
Coupled-pile anchorage may be designed as a coupled piles with an external force due to tie rod tension.
(4) Design of Sheet Pile Anchorage
(a) When the sheet pile anchorage below the tie rod
setting point is long enough to be regarded as a long
pile, the cross section of the sheet pile anchorage
may be determined in accordance with (2) in the
above.
(b) Sheet piles anchorage that cannot be regarded as a
long pile may be designed in accordance with (1) in
the above on the assumption that the earth pressure
acts on a range down to lml/2 point below the tie rod
setting point, as shown in Fig. T- 5.7.6. The length
lm1 is the vertical distance from the tie rod setting
point to the first zero point of the bending moment of
sheet piles assuming that the sheet pile anchorage is
a long pile.
Fig. T- 5.7.6 Virtual Earth Pressure for Short

Sheet Pile Anchorage
5.8 Detailed Design

5.8.1 Coping
Coping shall be designed to be safe against the earth pressure behind the wall, the tractive forces of
vessels, and the berthing forces of vessels.
[Technical Notes]
Coping may be designed as a cantilever beam that is fixed at the top of the sheet pile and subjected to the earth
pressure as a load. However, it is necessary to consider the tractive forces of vessels and the active earth pressure
behind the wall for the parts on which bollards are installed and the berthing forces of vessels and the passive earth
pressure behind the wall for the parts on which fenders are installed. The only factor that should be considered with
regard to extraordinary conditions is the active earth pressure during an earthquake.
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5.8.2 Fitting of Tie Rods and Wale to Sheet Piles

The joint between the sheet piles and tie rods and the joint between the sheet piles and the wale shall be
designed in such a way that the horizontal force acting on the sheet pile wall is equally and safely
transmitted to each tie rod through the wale.
5.8.3 Tie Rod
Tie rods shall be designed to ensure that the tie rod tension obtained in 5.4.1 Tension of Tie Rod is
transmitted safely to the anchorage work. When the bending stress caused by the settlement of backfill soil
is anticipated, the design shall be made by taking it into consideration.
5.8.4 Fitting of Tie Rods to Anchorage Work
The fitting between anchorage work and tie rods shall be designed to ensure that the tie rod tension
obtained in 5.4.1 Tension of Tie Rod is transmitted safely and equally to the anchorage work.
[Technical Notes]
A continuous beam along the face line of quaywall is usually attached on top of the anchorage piles, and the tie rods
are attached to the beam. This beam may be designed as a continuous beam subjected to the tie rod tension and the
reaction force of the piles.
5.9 Special Notes for Design of Sheet Pile Wall on Soft Ground
[Technical Notes]
(1) The design of a sheet pile wall on soft ground should be made by comparing and examining the methods
according to 5.3 Design of Sheet Pile Wall, 5.4 Design of Tie Rods, and 5.7 Design of Anchorage Work, as
well as other design methods.
Unexpected large deformation may occur in sheet piles constructed on soft ground due to lateral flows that
are caused by the settlement of the ground behind the sheet pile wall. Such a sheet pile wall should be designed
to be safe against this type of deformation by using a suitable method of lateral flow prediction (several methods
have been proposed by researchers) 10).
(2) Care should be exercised in using the design methods for sheet pile quaywall described in the previous sections,
because many of these design methods assume that a steel sheet pile wall is driven mainly into sandy soil ground
or hard clayey soil ground. For soft ground, it is desirable to perform soil improvement work. When it is not
possible to perform soil improvement work because of site conditions, it is necessary to consider to use other
design methods in addition to the design methods described in the previous sections so that the quaywall will be
designed appropriately.
(3) The term soft ground here refers to the cases in which the sea bottom
ground is weak alluvial clay or similar type of soil.
(4) Other than the methods described in 5.3.2 Embedded Length of Sheet
Piles, the deflection curve method may be used in the design of the
embedded length of sheet piles driven into soft ground. This is a kind of
fixed earth support method based on a classic earth pressure theory on
sheet piles with long embedded length. In this method, elastic equations
are solved under the external force conditions shown in Fig. T- 5.9.1
with the conditions that the displacement and deflection angle is zero at
the bottom end of the embedded part and the displacement at the tie rod
setting point is zero.
(5) In the determination of the bending moment of sheet piles and the
tension of tie rod, it is desirable to use the method described in 5.3.3
Bending Moment of Sheet Pile and Reaction at Tie Rod Setting
Point as well as the elastic line method described in (4) and to examine
the results in a comprehensive manner.
Deflection curve
Fig. T- 5.9.1 Earth Pressure and

Deflection Curve
(6) It must be remembered that the determination of the embedded length and the cross section of the sheet piles in
a sheet pile wall design should be done using a single method and not using a combination of muliple methods.
[References]
1) Genpei SAWADA: Calculation method of passive earth pressure for sheet pile wall embedded to inclined sea bottom Tech.
Note of PHRI, No.9, 1964 (in Japanese).
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2) Kunio TAKAHASHI, Yoshiaki KIKUCHI, Yuji ASAKI: Analysis of flexural behavior of anchored sheet pile walls, Tech.
3) P. W. Rowe: A theoretical and experimental analysis of sheet-pile walls, Proc. I. C. E., Vol. 4, Pt. 1, 1955.
4) Kunio TAKAHASHI and Ken ISHIGURO: Vertical beam analysis of pile and sheet pile under lateral load, Sankaido Press,
1992, pp. 177-183 (in Japanese).
5) K.Terzaghi: Evaluation of Coefficients of Subgrade Reaction, Geotechnique, Vol. 5, 1955, pp. 297-326.
6) Tschbotarioff: Large Scale Earth Pressure Tests with Model Flexible Bulkheads, Princeton Univ. 1949.
7) Terzaghi and Peck (translated by Hoshino et al.): Soil Mechanics-Applications, Maruzen, 1970, p. 192 (in Japanese).
8) Port and Harbour Bureau, 1st District Port Construction Bureau, and Port and Harbour Research Institute, Ministry of
Transport: Report on damage to port facilities by Niigata Earthquake Part 1, 1964, p. 101 (in Japanese).
9) ditto, Part 2, 1965, p. 213 (in Japanese).
10) Yasuo KASUGAI, Kenichiro MINAMI and Hiroyuki TANAKA: Estimation of deformation for port facilities by lateral flow
of soft ground, Tech. Note of PHRI, No.276, 1992 (in Japanese).
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Chapter 6 Sheet Pile Quaywalls with Relieving Platform

The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to the design of quaywall with relieving platform that
comprises a relieving platform, a sheet pile wall in front of the relieving platform, and relieving platform
piles.
[Commentary]
Sheet pile quaywall with a relieving platform normally comprise a platform, a sheet pile earth retaining wall in front
of the relieving platform, and relieving platform piles. This chapter gives provisions on quaywalls with relieving
platforms. The relieving platform is in many cases constructed as an L-shaped structure of cast-in-place reinforced
concrete and is usually buried under landfill material, but sometimes a box shape platform is used to reduce the
weight of the platform and the earthquake forces that act on it (see Figs. C- 6.1.1 and C- 6.1.2).
WL
WL
Platform
Hollow
Platform
Platform piles
Sheet pile wall
Fig. C- 6.1.1 Structure of Quaywall with Relieving

Platform (L-Shaped Platform)
Fig. C-T- 6.1.2 Structure of Quaywall with Relieving

Platform (Box Shape Platform)
6.2 Principles of Design

(1) The design of a quaywall with a relieving platform shall be made separately for the sheet piles, the
relieving platform, and the relieving platform piles.
(2) In the design of a quaywall with a relieving platform, the stability of the structure as a whole shall be
examined against sliding, overturning, and circular slip.
[Commentary]
(1) The sheet piles should be designed in accordance with Chapter 5 Sheet Pile Quaywalls, and the relieving
platform and its supporting piles should be designed in consideration the reaction force acting on the upper part
of sheet piles, earth pressure, surcharge, deadweight, and earthquake forces as the external forces and in
accordance with Part
, Chapter 4 Bearing Capacity of Pile Foundations.
(2) As for the stability analysis of the structure as a whole, the provisions given in Chapter 4 Gravity Type Quaywalls should be observed with respect to sliding and overturning, and the provisions given in Part
, Chapter 6
Stability of Slopes should be observed with respect to circular slip. Examination of stability with respect to
circular slip is required for soft ground, but generally not required for relatively hard ground such as sand and
sandy soil.
6.3 Determination of Height and Width of Relieving Platform

The installation level and shape of the relieving platform shall be appropriately determined in
consideration of the external force conditions, cost, easiness of construction work, etc.
[Technical Notes]
The design of the installation level and shape of the relieving platform should be made by taking careful
consideration to the following points:
(1) When the height of relieving platform is large and its bottom is located at a low elevation, the earth pressure
acting on the sheet piles can be lessened, therefore making the cross section and embedded length of the sheet
piles smaller. But this generally requires a heavier weight of relieving platform, so accordingly larger seismic
forces against it. Therefore this results in requiring a larger quantity and longer length of relieving platform
piles. A search should be made for the solution with the minimum cost.
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(2) It is recommended to lower the bottom of the relieving platform down to the residual water level to prevent the
corrosion of relieving platform piles, because the ground below the relieving platform bottom may settle and
produce void below it, which enhances corrosion with the presence of air.
(3) The width of relieving platform is normally determined in such a way that the relieving platform and the active
failure plane of the sheet piles drawn from the sea bottom intersect so that the earth pressure acting on the sheet
pile wall is reduced. In doing this, it is necessary to check that a sufficient width is secured that accomodates the
required number of relieving platform piles to be deployed in an appropriate manner.
6.4 Earth Pressure and Residual Water Pressure Acting on Sheet Piles
The earth pressure and residual water pressure acting on sheet piles shall be calculated appropriately in
consideration of the structural characteristics of the quaywall with a relieving platform.
[Technical Notes]
(1) When the active failure plane of sheet piles from the intersection between the sea bottom and sheet piles
intersects the relieving platform, the active earth pressure acting on the sheet pile wall should be calculated on
the assumption that the bottom of the relieving platform is the virtual ground surface as shown in Fig. T- 6.4.1.
(2) The residual water pressure acting on the sheet pile wall should be considered the same as that of the case
without a relieving platform. But the force to be adopted should be the residual water pressure acting on the
range below the bottom level of relieving platform (see Fig. T- 6.4.1).
(3) The passive earth pressure in front of the sheet pile should be determined in accordance with Chapter 5 Sheet
Pile Quaywalls.
Design water level
(LWL)
Fig. T- 6.4.1 Earth Pressure and Residual Water Pressure Acting on Sheet Pile Wall
6.5 Design of Sheet Pile Wall

The embedded length of sheet piles shall be such that the bottom end of sheet piles is secured sufficiently
against the external forces that act on the sheet pile wall. The cross section of the sheet piles shall be such
that the stress calculated by a method suitable for the structural characteristics of the quaywall with a
relieving platform does not exceed the allowable strength of the material.
6.5.1 Embedded Length of Sheet Piles
[Technical Notes]
The embedded length of sheet piles of a sheet pile wall with a relieving platform should be basically designed in
accordance with 5.3 Design of Sheet Pile Wall and 5.9 Special Notes for Design of Sheet Pile Wall on Soft
Ground by assuming the joint between the sheet pile wall and relieving platform as a hinger support and replacing
the tie rod setting point with the bottom elevation of relieving platform.
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6.5.2 Cross Section of Sheet Piles

[Technical Notes]
(1) The cross section of sheet piles should be basically designed in accordance with 5.3 Design of Sheet Pile Wall
and 5.9 Special Notes for Design of Sheet Pile Wall on Soft Ground by replacing the tie rod setting point with
the bottom elevation of the relieving platform.
(2) In addition to the bending moment due to earth pressure, the bending moment and vertical force transmitted
from the relieving platform act on the sheet piles of a sheet pile wall. Normally the bending moment transmitted
from the relieving platform is not taken into consideration, because it usually acts in a direction opposite to that
of the maximum bending moment that acts on the sheet piles (and thus reduces the maximum bending moment).
(3) Normally the vertical force transmitted from the relieving platform to the sheet pile wall is not taken into
consideration because the front row of relieving platform piles are usually driven in as close to the sheet pile
wall as possible and this dramatically reduces the vertical force acting on the sheet piles.
6.6 Design of Relieving Platform and Relieving Platform Piles

6.6.1 External Forces Acting on Relieving Platform
The following shall be considered as the external forces acting on the relieving platform:
(1) Horizontal force transmitted from the sheet pile wall
(2) Earth pressure and residual water pressure acting on the rear of the relieving platform
(3) Deadweight of the relieving platform, weight of soil on the relieving platform, and surcharge
(4) Seismic force acting on the above (3)
[Technical Notes]
(1) The horizontal force transmitted from the sheet pile wall should be calculated with the method same as that for
the reaction at the tie rod setting point obtained in accordance with 5.4 Design of Tie Rods by regarding the
bottom elevation of relieving platform as a tie rod setting point.
(2) It should be assumed that (a) the earth pressure acting on the rear of the relieving platform acts on the vertical
plane that contains the rear face of the relieving platform, and (b) the part above the bottom of relieving platform
is subjected to the active earth pressure and the part below the bottom is subjected to both the active and passive
earth pressure up to the point where the sum of the two becomes 0, as shown in Fig. T- 6.6.1.
Earth
pressure
Acting on sheet pile

reaction force
Design water level (LWL)
Pp
Pa
Pp
Pa Pp
Fig. T- 6.6.1 External Forces Acting on Relieving Platform
(3) The tractive force of vessels and fender reaction force also act on the relieving platform, but usually these
external forces need not be considered.
(4) The external forces transmitted from the sheet pile wall to the relieving platform include the horizontal force and
bending moment. However, the transmission of the bending moment is ignored for the sake of safety, because
the attachment of the sheet piles to the relieving platform may not be secure enough.
(5) The earth pressure and residual water pressure acting on the back of the relieving platform should be calculated
in accordance with Part , Chapter 14 Earth Pressure and Water Pressure. In the calculation of earth
pressure, surcharge should be taken into consideration. In the part below the bottom of relieving platform, there
exist the passive earth pressure acting on the front of the vertical plane at the rear of platform and the action
earth pressure acting on the rear of the vertical plane. The difference between them acts as the active earth
pressure down to the depth where the two pressures are balanced.
6.6.2 Design of Relieving Platform

Relieving platform shall be designed appropriately in consideration of its structural shape.
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[Technical Notes]
(1) A relieving platform should be designed as a continuous beam supported by the head of the relieving platform
piles. When the relieving platform is an L-shaped structure, the upright section should be designed as a
cantilever beam supported at the slab section.
w +wd
(2) A relieving platform should be designed as a continuous beam for both the direction of quaywall alignment and
the direction perpendicular to the alignment (see Fig. T- 6.6.2). Loads should not be distributed in the two
directions.
Bending moment
Coupled
piles
w + wd
Bending moment due to surcharge
M0 : maximum bending moment of

the upright section
Ap : reaction force of sheet pile wall
at the upper supporting point
w : surcharge
wd : load due to soil and deadweight of
relieving platform
Bending moment transmitted from the upright section
Tension
Fig. T- 6.6.2 Continuous Beam Assumed in Design of Relieving Platform
6.6.3 Design of Piles

Relieving platform piles shall be designed appropriately in consideration of the ground conditions,
assignment of external forces and loads to piles, easiness of construction work, cost, etc.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Piles should be designed in accordance with Part , Chapter 4 Bearing Capacity of Pile Foundations as a pile
foundation that is subjected to the external forces described in 6.6.1 External Forces Acting on Relieving
Platform.
(2) In principle, relieving platform piles should consist of a combination of coupled piles and vertical piles. The
horizontal external force may be assigned to the coupled piles only, and the vertical external force may be
assigned to the vertical piles only. It may be assumed that each of the coupled piles shares the horizontal force
equally.
(3) In the design of relieving platform piles, assessment should be made for the most dangerous state of each pile by
varying the surcharge, direction of earthquake forces, and sea level within the design condition ranges.
6.7 Examination of Stability as Gravity Type Wall

The examination of the stability of a quaywall with relieving platform as a whole shall be made by
assuming that the quaywall with relieving platform is a kind of gravity type wall.
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[Technical Notes]
A quaywall with relieving platform may be considered as a rectangular gravity wall defined by a vertical plane containing the rear
face of the relieving platform and a horizontal plane containing the
bottom ends of the front side batter piles of the coupled piles, as
6.8 Examination of Stability against Circular Slip

When a sheet pile quaywall with a relieving platform is to be
constructed on soft ground, an examination should be made
on the stability against the circular slip passing the ground
Fig. T- 6.7.1 Virtual Wall as Gravity Type Wall
below the lower end of the sheet pile wall.
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Chapter 7 Steel Sheet Pile Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywalls

The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to the design of quaywalls with steel sheet pile cellularbulkhead structure.
[Commentary]
The design method described in this chapter is based on the results of cellular-bulkhead model tests 1), 2) conducted on
a sandy soil ground with an embedded length ratio of 0 to 1.5 and a equivalent wall width / wall height ratio of 1 to
2.5. For the cases where (1) the embedded length ratio is very small (less than 1/8), (2) the equivalent wall width is
very small relative to the wall height, or (3) the quaywall is to be constructed on a clayey soil ground or ground
improved by the sand compaction piles, etc., further examinations should be made as required in addition to the
examination using the design method described in this section, because these cases involve factors that cannot be
fully clarified with the method described here.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The design of a steel sheet pile cellular-bulkhead quaywall is preferably made in accordance with the sequence
depicted in Fig. T-7.1.1.
Determination of design conditions

Assumption of wall dimensions
Re-assumption of wall
body dimensions
Calculation of external forces

Examination against
shear deformation
Estimation of coefficient of subgrade reaction
Calculation of subgrade reaction
and wall body displacement
Examination of bearing
capacity of the subsoil
Examination
against sliding of wall
Examination of
displacement of wall top
Examination of stability against
circular slip
Layout of cells and arcs
Consideration of soil
improvement
Calculation of sheet pile tension

Detailed design
Fig. T- 7.1.1 Sequence of Design of Steel Sheet Pile Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywall
(2) It is recommended that the hollow space in the cells be filled to a sufficient density with sand or gravel of good
quality. It is not desirable to use a clayey soil as the filling material. When clayey soil is to remain in the cells, it
is necessary to make separate examination because the deformation of the cells may become significantly large.
(3) When a foundation for a crane, quay shed, or warehouse is to be built within a cell, it is desirable to use bearing
piles to transmit the load to the bearing stratum.
(4) An example of steel sheet pile cellular-bulkhead quaywall is shown in Fig. T- 7.1.2.
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Face line
HWL
LWL
Cell D
PC pile L
Fig. T- 7.1.2 Example of Steel Sheet Pile Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywall
7.2 External Forces Acting on Steel Sheet Pile Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywall

As the external forces acting on the steel sheet pile cellular-bulkhead, the following shall be considered:
(1) External Forces Acting on the Cellular-Bulkhead Itself.
(a) Earth pressure
Earth pressure behind the wall
Earth pressure in front of the wall
Earth pressure of the filling
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Seismic force and dynamic water pressure that act on the wall
Weight of the wall
Surcharge
(2) External Forces Acting on the Coping

(a) Horizontal force
Horizontal component of earth pressure
Seismic forces acting on the coping, the soil above the coping, and surcharge
(b) Vertical forces
Weight of the coping and the soil above the coping and surcharge
Vertical component of earth pressure
[Technical Notes]
(1) Calculation of external forces are based on Part , Chapter 12 Earthquake and Seismic Force, Part ,
Chapter 14 Earth Pressure and Water Pressure, and Part
, Chapter 15 Loads.
(2) The rear of the wall is subjected to active earth pressure above the sea bottom. It should be assumed that the part
of the wall below the sea bottom is subjected to (a) active earth pressure in the examination of shear deformation
and (b) earth pressure generated by surcharge pressure such as the weight of backfilling and surcharge load in
the examination of stability of the structure as a whole (see Fig. T- 7.2.1).
According to the model tests, it can be said that the part of wall below the sea bottom is subjected to the loads
corresponding to the earth pressure at rest, because the deformation of the embedded section of the cell is small.
According to the results of vibration experiments, the earth pressure acting on this part works as a resisting force
against overturning of the wall. In the design of quaywall, therefore, the earth pressure that is generated by
backfilling and surcharge under ordinary conditions should be used as this earth pressure, as shown in equation
(7.2.1) (see Fig. T- 7.2.2).
-437-
p ac = 0.5 ( Sg h + w )
i i
where
pac earth pressure acting on the rear of wall below the sea bottom (kN/m2)
gi unit weight of each layer of backfilling (kN/m3)
hi thickness of each layer of backfilling (m)
w surcharge (kN/m2)
(7.2.1)
(3) In principle, the residual water level of the backfilling should be taken at the elevation with the height equivalent
to two thirds of the tidal range above the mean monthly-lowest water level (LWL). However, when using a
backfilling with low permeability, the residual water level may become higher than this and thus it is desirable to
determine the residual water level based on results of investigations of similar structures. The residual water level
in the filling material used to fill the cells may be set to the same level as that of the backfilling for the wall body.
(4) For the sea bottom and above, the seismic coefficient to be used in the calculation of the seismic force that acts
on the filling material is the design seismic coefficient. For the part below the sea bottom, this value is reduced
linearly in such a way that it becomes zero at 10 m below the sea bottom. In principle, the seismic coefficient is
not considered for the part deeper than that level (see Fig. T- 7.2.3).
Surcharge
RWL
LWL
backfilling
Wall body
Sea bottom

Fig. T- 7.2.1 Earth Pressure Acting on the Back of Wall Body (for Examination of Shear Deformation)
Seismic coefficient
Surcharge
RWL
LWL
Wall body
backfilling
Sea bottom
Sea bottom
Earth pressure that acts on the part
below the sea bottom
(according to equation (7.2.1))
Fig. T- 7.2.2 Earth Pressure Acting on the Back of Wall Body

(for Examination of the Stability as Gravity Wall)
Fig. T- 7.2.3 Design Seismic

Coefficient for Filling
7.3 Examination of Wall Width against Shear Deformation

7.3.1 General
The examination of the strength of the wall body against shear deformation shall basically be made for the
loads acting on the wall under ordinary conditions.
[Commentary]
The cell shell and filling of the steel sheet pile cellular-bulkhead usually act as an integrated structure, because the
filling is constrained in the cell shell. Therefore the deformation of the cell wall body may be ignored relative to its
displacement and the overall behavior of the cell wall body may be considered the same as that of a rigid body. This
has been verified by model tests in which cell wall bodies did not show significant deformation under the loads much
larger than the external forces that are expected to act on the cell wall body both under ordinary conditions and during
an earthquake. In general, therefore, it can be said that shear failure does not occur in the filling. However, when the
diameter of the cell is very small or the strength of the filling material is extremely low, it may not be possible to
consider the cell wall body as a rigid body. Therefore it is necessary to make examination of the strength of the filling
against shear deformation due to the loads under ordinary conditions in order to reduce deformation of the cell wall
body to a negligible level.
-438-
7.3.2 Equivalent Width of Wall

For designing the width of wall, equivalent width of wall may be used. The equivalent width of wall shall
be the width of a rectangular virtual wall whose cross-sectional area is the same as the combination of cell
and arc section.
[Commentary]
The equivalent width of wall is the width of a rectangular virtual wall body that is used in place of the wall body
combined with cells and arc sections to simplify design calculations (see Fig. C- 7.3.1). The virtual wall is defined in
such a way that the area of the horizontal cross section of the virtual wall body becomes the same as that of the
combined cells and arc sections.
B= S/L
B: equivalent wall width (m)
L: effective length of one set of cell (m)
S: area of set of cell (m2)
(a) Circular cells
(c) Clover Leaf Type Cells

(b) Diaphragm Type Cells
Fig. C- 7.3.1 Plan View of Cellular-Bulkhead Structure and Equivalent Width B
[Technical Notes]
The equivalent width of wall should be such that the equations (7.3.1) and (7.3.2) for the shear deformation of wall
body are satisfied.
(7.3.1)
Md F Mr
M d F M r
where
M d deformation moment with respect to wall bottom (kNm/m)
M d deformation moment with respect to sea bottom (kNm/m)
M r resisting moment with respect to wall bottom (kNm/m)
M r resisting moment of filling material of cell with respect to sea bottom (kNm/m)
F safety factor
(7.3.2)
In principle, the safety factor against the shear deformation should be 1.2 or greater.
7.3.3 Calculation of Deformation Moment

The deformation moment shall be an overturning moment at the sea bottom or the wall bottom due to
external forces such as active and passive earth pressures above the sea bottom or the wall bottom and
residual water pressure.
[Commentary]
In the calculation of deformation moment, earth pressure is considered only in terms of the horizontal component.
The vertical component is not taken into consideration. The vertical force of the surcharge is not taken into
consideration in the calculation of deformation moment. However, the surcharge is taken into consideration in the
calculation of active earth pressure (see Fig. C- 7.3.2).
-439-
Surcharge
Md
LWL
R.W.L.
backfilling soil
Residual water
Active earth
pressure
pressure
Sea bottom (surface)
Active
earth
pressure
Fig. C- 7.3.2 Loads and Resisting Forces to Be Taken into Consideration in the Examination of Shear Deformation
7.3.4 Calculation of Resisting Moment

The resisting moment of wall shall be calculated appropriately in consideration of the structural
characteristics of the cellular-bulkhead wall and deformation of the wall.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The result of model tests 1) shows that the resisting moment with respect to the wall bottom may be increased by
increasing the embedded length ratio D/H (see Fig. T- 7.3.1). This can be calculated using equation (7.3.3).
values of individual cases.
Deformation moment obtained by experiment
Shear resistance moment according to the modified formula of Kitajima
Note: Plotted values are mean
R
Case No.
Group A
Group B
Group C
Group D
Group E
Embedded length ratio (
D /H )
Fig. T- 7.3.1 Relationship between Resisting Moment and Embedded Length Ratio
(7.3.3)
Mr = (1 + a D/H) (Mro + Mrs)
where
Mr resisting moment with respect to wall bottom (kNm/m)
Mro resisting moment of the filling with respect to wall bottom (kNm/m)
Mrs resisting moment due to the friction force of sheet pile joints, with respect to wall bottom (kNm/m)
D embedded length (m)
H height from wall bottom to wall top (m) (see Fig. T- 7.3.2.)
a increment factor for the embedded length ratio (D/H)
For the increment factor a, it is recommended to use 1.0, which is close to the lowest value found in the
experiment results shown in Fig. T- 7.3.1, because the equation given above has been derived based on
experiments and not fully clarified theoretically.
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644474448
(a) Equation for calculating the resisting moment of filling

In the determination of the resisting moment of filling at the wall bottom, it is assumed that an active
failure plane is generated from the bottom of the front of the wall and a passive failure plane is generated from
the bottom of the rear of the wall and the active and passive earth pressures act on the respective failure
planes, as shown in Fig. T- 7.3.2. The active and passive failure angles as well as the active and passive earth
pressures are calculated using the following Rankines equations:
p f
: active failure plane
z a = --- + --4 2
p f
: passive failure plane
z p = --- --4 2
(7.3.4)
1 sin f
p a = K a g h , K a = ------------------- : active earth pressure
1 + sin f
+ sin f
p p = K p gh , K p = 1------------------- : passive earth pressure
1 sin f
where
f internal friction angle of filling ()
The moment caused by the earth pressure acting on the shear plane may be calculated by using equation
(7.3.5) referring to Fig. T- 7.3.2.
M ro =
0 ( pp pa ) ( d x )
2
--- tan q dx
3
(7.3.5)
LWL
H
x
pa
pp
d
D
Fig. T- 7.3.2 Assumed Shear Planes of Filling
When the geotechnical constants of the ground and those of the filling differ, equation (7.3.5) becomes
complex as the failure angle and the earth pressure level vary from one soil layer to another. However, when
there is no significant difference in the internal friction angle between the ground and filling, or when the
embedded length ratio is large and the failure planes do not reach the filling, the following simplified equation
may be used:
1
3
(7.3.6)
M ro = --- g 0 R 0 H 0
6
2 2
R 0 = --- n 0 ( 3 n 0 cos f ) tan f sin f
3
where
g 0 equivalent unit weight of filling (unit weight of the filling which assumes that the unit weight is
uniform throughout the filling; normally g 0 = 10 kN/m3 is used.)
n 0 = B/H0
B equivalent wall width (m)
H0 equivalent wall height measured from wall bottom.
The equivalent wall height is employed to calculate the resisting moment due to the filling by using the
equivalent unit weight of the filling. It is evaluated by means of equation (7.3.7).
1
H 0 = ---- Sg i h i
g0
(7.3.7)
-441-
where
g i unit weight of the i-th layer of filling (kN/m3)
hi thickness of the i-th layer (from wall bottom to wall top) (m)
(b) Equation for calculating resisting moment due to friction force of the joints of sheet piles
The resisting moment due to friction force of joint is calculated as follows:
1
3
M rs = --- g 0 R s H s
6
3
R s = --- ns f tan f
2
where
g 0 equivalent unit weight of filling (kN/m3)
internal friction angle of filling ()
n s = B/Hs
f coefficient of friction between sheet pile joints; usually 0.3 is used.
Hs equivalent wall height measured from the wall bottom.
(7.3.8)
(7.3.9)
The equivalent wall height Hs is employed to calculate the resisting moment due to the friction force between
the sheet pile joints when the equivalent unit weight of the filling is used. It is evaluated using equation
(7.3.10) so that the resultant force of the distributed earth pressure, ignoring surcharge, between the wall
bottom and wall top (see Fig. T-7.3.3 (a)) becomes equal to that of the equivalent earth pressure distribution
(see Fig. T- 7.3.3 (b)). In this calculation, 1 2 tan f is used as the coefficient of earth pressure of the filling.
Note that this is different from the coefficient of earth pressure used in the calculation of hoop tension.
SP i
H s = 2 ---------------g 0 tan f
where
Pi resultant earth pressure of the i-th layer of filling (kN/m)
(a) Earth pressure distribution
(7.3.10)
(b) Equivalent earth pressure distribution
Fig. T- 7.3.3 Equivalent Wall Height
(2) In the calculation of the resisting moment of the filling with respect to the sea bottom, equations (7.3.11) and
(7.3.12) may be used.
1
M r = --- g 0 R 0 H 0 3
6
R0 = n 0 2 (3 n 0 cos f ) sin f
where
n 0 =B/H0
M r resisting moment of sheet pile cell with respect to sea bottom (kNm/m)
f internal friction angle of the filling above sea bottom ()
H 0 equivalent wall height measured from sea bottom.
(7.3.11)
(7.3.12)
The equivalent wall height H 0 is employed to calculate the resisting moment due to the filling by using the
equivalent unit weight of the filling. It is evaluated by means of equation (7.3.13).
1
H 0 = ----Sg i h i
(7.3.13)
g0
where
g i unit weight of the filling of the i-th layer above sea bottom (kN/m3)
hi thickness of the i-th layer above sea bottom (m)
-442-
(3) Increasing the strength of the filling heightens the rigidity of the cellular-bulkhead wall. Therefore, improvement
work of filling is effective in increasing the stability of the cellular-bulkhead wall.
7.4 Examination of Stability of Wall Body as a Whole

7.4.1 General
In the examination of stability of wall body as a whole, the wall shall be considered as a gravity wall
supported by the ground.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In the examination of the stability of the wall as a whole, the subgrade reaction generated against the load and
the displacement of the wall are calculated by considering the wall as a rigid body elastically supported by the
ground.
(2) Within the elastic range of the ground, the subgrade reaction force is calculated as the product of the modulus of
subgrade reaction and the displacement. Here it is considered that the stability of the wall as a gravity wall is
obtained when the subgrade reaction force and the displacement of the wall do not exceed the respective
allowable limits.
7.4.2 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction

In principle, the modulus of subgrade reaction used in the examination of the stability of wall as a gravity
wall shall be determined based on the results of in-situ investigation.
[Commentary]
The modulus of subgrade reaction includes the modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction, the modulus of vertical
subgrade reaction, and the horizontal shear modulus at the wall bottom.
[Technical Notes]
The modulus of subgrade reaction may be calculated as below, based on the results of in-situ investigation:
(1) Modulus of Horizontal Subgrade Reaction
Modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction may be calculated by referring to Yokoyamas diagram 3) shown in
Part , 4.3.4 Estimation of Pile Behavior Using Analytical Method [Technical Notes] (3) as below.
KH = 2N
where
KH modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction coefficient (N/cm3)
N N-value
(7.4.1)
When the ground consists of the strata of different characteristics, the modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction
should be calculated for each stratum.
(2) Modulus of Vertical Subgrade Reaction
For the modulus of vertical subgrade reaction at the wall bottom, the same value as the modulus of horizontal
subgrade reaction at the wall bottom should be used. When the ground consists of the strata of different
characteristics, the modulus of vertical subgrade reaction should correspond to the stratum at the wall bottom.
However, when there is an extremely soft stratum below the wall bottom, it is necessary to give careful
consideration to its effects.
(3) Horizontal Shear Modulus
The horizontal shear modulus at the wall bottom may be calculated by means of equation (7.4.2) using the
modulus of vertical subgrade reaction.
KS = l KV
(7.4.2)
where
KS horizontal shear modulus (N/cm3)
l ratio of the horizontal shear modulus to the modulus of vertical subgrade reaction
KV modulus of vertical subgrade reaction (N/cm3)
Past studies suggest the use of l values in the range of 1/2 to 1/5 4), 5). In the case of steel sheet pile cellularbulkhead however, it is considered that the value of l may be set as about 1/3.
7.4.3 Calculation of Subgrade Reaction and Wall Displacement

The subgrade reaction and wall displacement shall be calculated on the assumption that the wall under the
load is supported by the subgrade reaction force and the vertical frictional force along the wall surface.
-443-
[Commentary]
The subgrade reaction acting on the embedded part of steel sheet pile cellular-bulkhead and the wall displacement
should be calculated on the assumption that the wall subject to the external forces is supported by the horizontal
subgrade reaction, vertical subgrade reaction and horizontal shear reaction at the bottom of wall, and vertical
frictional force along the front and rear of the wall.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Subgrade Reaction
(a) Horizontal subgrade reaction
Horizontal subgrade reaction may be calculated by means of equation (7.4.3) shown in (5), but this should not
exceed the passive earth pressure intensity calculated in accordance with Part, Chapter 14 Earth Pressure
and Water Pressure to prevent the yielding of the ground. The angle of wall friction used to calculate passive
earth pressure should basically be taken at -15.
Figure T- 7.4.1 illustrates the distribution of subgrade reaction of a sample case in which the subgrade
reaction reaches the passive earth pressure up to a certain depth.
(b) Vertical subgrade reaction
The vertical subgrade reaction at the wall bottom acts in a trapezoidal or triangular distribution. It should be
assumed that no tensile stress is generated.
Cell
Portion where subgrade

reaction reaches the passive
earth pressure intensity
Sea bottom
Passive earth
pressure intensity
Backfilling soil
Cell embedment
portion
Portion where subgrade reaction force

does not reach the passive earth pressure intensity
Horizontal subgrade reaction due to the displacement of the cell
Fig. T- 7.4.1 Example of Distribution of Horizontal Subgrade Reaction
(2) Vertical Frictional Force

It should be assumed that vertical frictional force acts on the front and rear of the wall and is calculated as the
product of the horizontal earth pressure or subgrade reaction force and tan d , where d denotes the angle of wall
friction.
(3) Distribution of External Forces
Figure T- 7.4.2 shows standard distribution patterns of the external forces acting on steel sheet pile cellularbulkhead quaywall such as loads and subgrade reaction forces, etc.
tan
reaction
subgrade
reaction
Horizontal
Horizontal subgrade
acting on the part
Sea bottom
Seismic forces
Dynamic water pressure
Earth pressure
Dead weight
LWL
below the ground Horizontal component of

active earth pressure
tan
surface
tan
Surcharge
RWL
Active earth
pressure
Residual water
pressure
Earth pressure
that acts on the
part below the
ground surface
Shear reaction at the bottom surface
(Trapezoidal distribution)
Vertical subgrade reaction force
(Triangular distribution)
Fig. T- 7.4.2 Distribution Patterns of External Forces Acting on Steel Sheet Pile Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywall
-444-
Center axis
Center axis
(4) Displacement Modes of Wall

As shown in Fig. T- 7.4.3, it is assumed that the cell wall rotates around its center of rotation O, which is
horizontally away from the center axis of the cell by the distance e and vertically away from the sea bottom by
the depth h. When the center of rotation is located inside the cell, the horizontal subgrade reaction is generated in
the rear of the wall for the part below the center of rotation.
O
O
(a) When the center of rotation is

located outside the wall body
(b) When the center of rotation is

located inside the wall body
Fig. T- 7.4.3 Displacement Modes of Wall
(5) Equation for Calculating Subgrade Reaction and Wall Displacement

Figure T- 7.4.4 shows a calculation model for a case in which (a) horizontal force, vertical force, and moment
act at the intersection of the ground surface and the center axis of the cell wall and (b) the ground comprises n
layers of soil. Equations for calculating the subgrade reaction and cell wall displacement of the model shown in
Fig. T- 7.4.4 are as follows:
Cell
Backfilling soil
Ground surface
Layer 1
Layer 2
Layer 3
Layer
Horizontal subgrade reaction
di
dn
Layer
n
Shear reaction
q
q
(Trapezoidal distribution)
Vertical subgrade reaction
(Triangular distribution)
Fig. T- 7.4.4 Calculation Model for Subgrade Reaction and Wall Displacement
-445-
(a) When the vertical subgrade reaction acts in a trapezoidal distribution

Horizontal subgrade reaction (kN/m)
p 21 = K H2 ( h d 1 )q
p 22 = K H2 ( h d 1 d 2 )q
i1
p i1 = K Hi h d j q
j=1
p i2 = K Hi h d j q
j=1
n1
p n1 = K Hn h d j q
j=1
p n2
= K Hn h d j q
j=1
64444444444744444444448
p 12 = K H1 ( h d 1 )q
(7.4.3)
Vertical subgrade reaction (kN/m3)

q 1 = K V ( e + B 2 )q
q 2 = K V ( e B 2 )q
(7.4.4)
Shear reaction force that acts at the wall bottom (kN/m)

Q = K S ( h D )q A
(7.4.5)
Horizontal displacement of the wall (m)

d z = ( h z )q
(7.4.6)
Angle of wall rotation ()

MK 1 + HK 3
q = -------------------------------K 1 K4 K 2 K 3
(7.4.7)
Depth of the center of wall rotation (m)

MK 2 + HK 4
h = ----------------------------MK 1 + HK 3
(7.4.8)
Distance from the wall center axis to the center of rotation of the wall (m)
n
n
i1
d i
1 V
e = ----------- --- h K Hi d i tan d i + K Hi d i d j + ---- tan d i
KV A q
2
i=1
i=1
j = 1
where
n
K1 =
K Hi di + K S A
i=1
i1
d i
K 2 = K Hi d i d j + ---- + K S AD
2
i = 1
j = 1
-446-
(7.4.9)
i1
di B
K 3 = K Hi d i d j + ---- + --- tan d i + K S AD
2 2
i = 1
j = 1
i
i1
d 2
i1
d i
1
B
i
K 4 = K Hi d i ----- + d j d j + --- d j + ---- tan d i + K S AD 2 + ------ K V A 3

3
12
2
2
i = 1
j=1 j=1
j = 1
The angle of wall friction d is negative for strata whose horizontal subgrade reaction force acts on the front
of the wall, and positive for strata whose horizontal subgrade reaction force acts on the rear of the wall.
(b) When the vertical subgrade reaction acts in a triangular distribution
The horizontal subgrade reaction, horizontal wall displacement, angle of rotation, and depth of the center of
rotation are expressed in the same form as those in (a).
Vertical subgrade reaction (kN/m2)
B
q 1 = K V e + --- q
(7.4.10)
Shear reaction that acts at the wall bottom (kN/m)

Q = K S ( h D )qA
where
B
A = e + --2
(7.4.11)
Distance between the wall center axis and the center of rotation of the wall (m)
e =
n
n
i1
d i
B
2 V
------ --- h K Hi d i tan d i + K Hi d i d j + ---- tan d i --
KV q
2
2
i=1
i=1
j = 1
(7.4.12)
where
n
K1 =
K Hi di + K S A
i=1
i1
d i
K 2 = K Hi d i d j + ---- + K S AD
2
i = 1
j = 1
i1
di B
K 3 = K Hi d i d j + ---- + --- tan d i + K S AD
2
2
i = 1
j = 1
i
i1
d 2
i1
d i
1
B
i
K 4 = K Hi d i ----- + d j d j + --- d j + ---- tan d i + K S AD 2 + --- K V A 2 ( B e )

3
2
6
2
i = 1
j=1 j=1
j = 1
The angle of wall friction d should be negative for strata whose horizontal subgrade reaction acts on the
front of the wall, and positive for strata whose horizontal subgrade reaction acts on the rear of the wall.
The notations used in equations in (a) and (b) are as follows:
V vertical force acting on the wall (kN/m)
H horizontal force acting on the wall (kN/m)
M moment acting on the center of the wall at the level of ground surface (kNm/m)
(external forces that act on the wall are those for the unit length in the direction along the face line
of wall)
D embedded length (m)
di thickness of each soil layer of the ground between sea bottom and wall bottom (m)
B equivalent width (m)
-447-
KHi modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction of each layer of the strata between sea bottom and wall
bottom (kN/m3)
KV modulus of vertical subgrade reaction at cell bottom (kN/m3)
KS horizontal shear modulus (at bottom) (kN/m3)
A area of wall bottom per unit length of the wall in the direction face line (m2/m)
A area of wall bottom per unit length of the wall in the direction of face line (when the value of
vertical subgrade reaction is positive)(m2/m)
7.5 Examination of Bearing Capacity of the Ground

The subgrade reaction acting on the wall bottom shall not exceed the allowable bearing capacity for the
ground.
7.6 Examination against Sliding of Wall

For the examination of wall stability against sliding, the shearing stress between the wall bottom and the
ground shall not exceed an allowable shearing stress.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The allowable shear resistance force acting between the wall bottom and the ground is calculated in accordance
with equation (7.6.1).
1
Q a = ----- (Vertical resultant force of subgrade reaction) tan f
Fs
where
Qa allowable shear resistance force (kN/m)
internal friction angle of the soil at wall bottom ()
Fs safety factor; 1.2 or greater for ordinary conditions and 1.0 or greater during an earthquake
(7.6.1)
(2) The vertical components of the earth pressure acting on the front and rear of the wall that should be taken into
consideration include (a) the vertical component of the active earth pressure, (b) the friction force due to the
earth pressure below the ground surface, and (c) the vertical component of the passive earth pressure. The
vertical component of earth pressure is considered a positive force when it acts in the same direction as that of
the wall weight.
(3) When the internal friction angle of the soil above the wall bottom is different from that below the wall bottom, it
is recommended to use the smaller value as the internal friction angle at the wall bottom.
7.7 Examination of Displacement of Wall Top

In principle, the horizontal displacement of the wall top shall not exceed the allowable limit of
displacement.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In general, the allowable displacement is determined in consideration of the structural stability and usage of the
structure. Because an excessive displacement of the wall top may hamper functional operation of mooring
facilitis even when the subgrade reaction force etc. are lower than the respective allowable limits, it is desirable
to define an allowable displacement.
(2) In the determination of an allowable displacement for a mooring facility, the following factors are taken into
consideration 6):
(a) Structural stability
(b) Function
(c) Construction and maintenance cost
(3) In the determination of allowable displacement, it is usually convenient to use the relationship between the top
displacement of gravity type or sheet pile structures and the levels of damage that has been obtained from past
earthquake damage reports 7). This relationship is shown in Fig. T- 7.7.1. The figure shows that the ratio of the
top displacement to the wall height (d/H) is larger than 1.5% for most of the structures that have been
categorized into Damage Level II . When performing design calculations in accordance with the method
described in this section, therefore, it is desirable to make the allowable horizontal displacement for the wall top
equal to or less than 1.5% of the wall height.
-448-
Table T- 7.7.1 Damage Levels

Damage level
Description
No damage.
No damage has been found in the main body, but destruction and/or
deformation has been found in ancillary structures.
II
Significant deformation has occurred in the main body.
III
The structure still holds its original shape, but the main body is
considered to have been wrecked.
IV
The structure has been demolished and collapsed.
Top displacement of structure / height of structure

measured from sea bottom to wall top (%)
Sheet pile structures

Concrete block structures
Concrete caisson structures
Other gravity-type concrete
structures
Damage level
Fig. T- 7.7.1 Damage Level and Top Displacement to Wall Height Ratio

When the ground is not so hard, examination of stability against circular slip shall be made as necessary. In
principle, the circular slip surface shall not go through the inside of the wall in this analysis.
[Commentary]
When the internal friction angle of the soil behind the wall and the ground is 30 or larger, the examination of stability
against circular slip is often omitted. In the case of steel sheet pile cellular-bulkhead quaywalls, it may be assumed
that the wall is a rigid body and thus the circular slip surface does not go through the inside of the wall.
7.9 Layout of Cells and Arcs

The cells and arcs shall be arranged to make the area of the cellular-bulkhead to be equal to the area of the
virtual wall with the equivalent width obtained in 7.3 Examination of Wall Width against Shear
Deformation or 7.4 Examination of Stability of Wall Body as a Whole.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Cells should be arranged evenly along the total length of the face line of the quaywall wherever possible. In
general, it is advisable to set the cell center interval being 10 to 15% larger than the cell diameter.
(2) Arcs should be arranged in such a way that they are connected perpendicularly to the wall of cell shell. The
radius of the arc should be made smaller than that of the cell.
(3) In general, front tips of arcs tend to shift forward during and/or after the filling work. Therefore it is advisable to
arrange arcs in such a way that their front tips are located about 100 to 150 cm inside the front face line of cell
walls. It is also advisable to arrange cells in such a way that their front face line is located about 30 cm inside the
design face line of the quaywall.
7.10 Calculation of Hoop Tension

Hoop tension of sheet pile of the cells and arcs shall not exceed the allowable hoop tension.
-449-
[Technical Notes]
(1) Sheet pile tension is usually calculated at the sea bottom. In principle, an allowable hoop tension value of 2,000
kN/m is used for a straight sheet pile having joint tensile strength of 5,900 kN/m, and an allowable sheet pile
tension value of 1,500 kN/m is used for a straight sheet pile having joint tensile strength of 3,900 kN/m.
(2) Hoop tension should be calculated in accordance with equation (7.10.1).
T = [(g0H0 + q) Ki + gwhw]R
where
T tension of sheet pile (kN/m)
Ki coefficient of earth pressure of the filling
g0 equivalent unit weight of the filling (kN/m3)
gw unit weight of sea water (kN/m3)
H0 equivalent wall height (m)
hw difference between water level inside cell and that in front of cell (m)
R radius of cell (m)
q surcharge (kN/m2)
(7.10.1)
(3) The equivalent wall height H0 should be calculated using equation (7.3.13) in 7.3.4 Calculation of Resisting
Moment [Technical Notes] .
(4) When no compaction is performed, the coefficient of earth pressure can be set as 0.6 for the filling material.
When the filling is to be compacted, tan should be used as the coefficient of earth pressure of the filling,
because the internal pressure of the cell and the internal friction angle of the filling become larger. The
coefficient of filling earth pressure of the filling for the arc sections should be 1/2 tan.
7.11 Design of T-Shaped Sheet Pile

7.11.1 General
Cells and arcs shall be connected by using T-shaped sheet piles.
[Technical Notes]
T-shaped sheet pile is a sheet pile with a special cross section
to join the cell to arcs (see Fig. T- 7.11.1).
Fig. T- 7.11.1 T-Shaped Sheet Pile
7.11.2 Structure of T-Shaped Sheet Pile

The structure of T-shaped sheet pile shall have sufficient safety against the tension acting on the sheet pile
of cells and arcs.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The standard structures of T-shaped sheet pile are shown in Figs. T- 7.11.2 and T- 7.11.3.
(Material equivalent to SM-490A)
Rivet 25 (SV-400)
Rivet interval: 85mm
Straight sheet pile (SY-295) = 12.7mm
t
PL 270 x 14 (material equivalent to SM-490A)
(Units: mm)
Fig. T- 7.11.2 Standard Cross Section of T-Shaped Sheet Pile (for rivet connection with rivet intervals of 85 mm)
-450-
PL - 200 x 12 (SM-490A)
Straight sheet pile (SY-295) = 12.7mm

t
(Units: mm)
Fig. T- 7.11.3 Standard Cross Section of T-Shaped Sheet Pile (for welding connection)
(2) Strength of the cross sections shown in Figs. T- 7.11.2 and T- 7.11.3 has been confirmed by a breaking test
where the tensile strength of the joint of the sheet pile in a cell is 3,900 kN/m (allowable sheet pile tension =
1,500 kN/m) and the arc diameter is 2/3 or less of the cell (tensile strength = 2,600 kN/m, allowable sheet pile
tension = 980 kN/m). The rivet and welding joints for tests were made in a factory.
7.12 Detailed Design

7.12.1 Design of Pile to Support Coping
Piles to support coping shall be designed against the vertical force and horizontal force, and/or bending
moment.
7.12.2 Design of Coping
The reinforcement arrangement calculation of coping shall be made appropriately on the following parts:
(1) Upright part
(2) Bottom slab
[References]
1) Kunio TAKAHASHI, Setsuo NODA, Katsumi KANDA, Satoshi MIURA, Taisaku MIZUTANI, Shigeki TERASAKI:
Horizontal loading tests on models of steel pile cellular-bulkhead-Part 1 Static behavior, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 638,
1989 (in Japanese).
2) Setsuo NODA, Kunio TAKAHASHI, Katsumi KANDA, Shigeki TERASAKI, Satoshi MIURA, Taisaku MIZUTANI,:
Horizontal loading tests on models of steel pile cellular-bulkhead-Part 2 Dynamic behavior, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 639,
1989 (in Japanese).
3) Yukimitsu YOKOYAMA: Design and Execution of Steel Pile, Sankaido, 1963, pp.95-96 (in Japanese).
4) Iwao YOSHIDA, Ryunoshin YOSHINAKA: Engineering properties of Akashi and Kobe Strata, Rept. of Public Works
Research Inst., Vol. 129, 1966 (in Japanese).
5) Iwao YOSHIDA, Yoshio ADACHI: Experimental studies of static horizontal resistance of caisson foundation, Rept. of
PWRI, Vol. 139, 1970, pp. 24-25.
earthquake resistance of steel plate cellular-bulkheads with embedment, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 21, No. 3, 1982 (in Japanese).
7) Yukio SAIMURA, Kiyohiro MORIMOTO, Yukinori TAKASE: Results of field measurement on the earth pressure of fill of
the embedded steel pipe pile cellular-bulkhead, Proc. 36th Annual Meeting of JSCE, Part 3, 1981 (in Japanese).
-451-
Chapter 8 Steel Plate Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywalls

The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to the design of quaywalls with placement-type and
embedded-type steel plate cellular-bulkhead structures.
[Commentary]
Placement-type steel plate cellular-bulkhead quaywalls are steel plate cellular-bulkhead quaywalls without an
embedded section. In many cases these quaywalls are constructed on a strong foundation subsoil whose bearing
capacity is considered sufficiently large or on the subsoil that has been improved to have sufficient bearing capacity.
Embedded-type steel plate cellular-bulkhead quaywalls are steel plate cellular-buklhead quaywalls whose steel plate
cells are partly embedded into sandy subsoil to improve the stability of the structure.
8.2 Placement-Type Steel Plate Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywalls

The provisions in this section shall be applied to the design of steel plate cellular-bulkhead quaywalls
without an embedded section.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The design of placement-type steel plate cellular-bulkhead quaywalls is usually made according to the procedure
depicted in Fig. T- 8.2.1.

Assumption of wall dimension
No
Examination against shear deformation

Yes
Examination of stability of
the wall body as a whole
No
Yes
Examination of bearing capacity of
the ground
No
Yes
Examination of stability against circular slip
No
Consideration of subsoil improvement
Yes
Determination of cell plate thickness
Detailed design
Fig. T- 8.2.1 Sequence of Design of Placement-Type Steel Plate Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywall
(2) Figure T - 8.2.2 shows an example of placement-type steel plate cellular-bulkhead quaywalls.
(3) In general, (a) the examination of wall deformation is required for design in ordinary conditions only and (b) the
examination of wall stability against overturning is required for seismic design only.
(4) For the cell filling material and the backfill material, well-compacted sand of good quality or a material that does
not liquefy, such as gravel, should be used in order to eliminate the risk of liquefaction during an earthquake.
-452-
Face line
V-shaped rubber fender

HWL
LWL
Steel plate cell

Filling material
Steel pipe pile
Frontal protection sand

Replaced sand
Steel pipe pile

(Units: m)
Steel pipe pile
Fig. T- 8.2.2 Example of Steel Plate Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywall
8.2.2 External Forces Acting on Steel Plate Cellular-Bulkhead

The external forces acting on steel plate cellular-bulkhead shall be in accordance with 7.2 External Forces
Acting on Steel Sheet Pile Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywall.
8.2.3 Examination of Wall Width against Shear Deformation
Examination of the shear deformation of the wall body shall be made for the loads acting under ordinary
conditions. The equivalent wall width of the wall body shall be determined in accordance with 7.3.2
Equivalent Width of Wall. Calculation of the deformation moment shall be performed in accordance with
7.3.3 Calculation of Deformation Moment. The resisting moment shall be calculated appropriately in
consideration of the structural characteristics of the cellular-bulkhead and the deformation of the wall.
[Commentary]
The term deformation moment in the above paragraph refers to the moment at the sea bottom due to external forces
acting on the wall body above the sea bottom, including active earth pressure and residual water pressure.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The safety factor against shear deformation should basically be 1.2 or greater for ordinary conditions (i.e., nonearthquake environments).
(2) When the deformation of the wall body is not to be allowed (i.e., when the horizontal displacement of the cell
top is approximately less than 0.5% of the cell height), the resisting moment against deformation is calculated
using equations (8.2.1) and (8.2.2).
Mrd = (1/6) g 0 Hd3 Rd
Rd =
where
Mrd
Hd
Rd
g 0
n d
B
f
nd
2(3
(8.2.1)
n d cos f ) sin f
(8.2.2)
resisting moment against deformation of steel plate cellular-bulkhead (kNm/m)

equivalent wall height used in the examination of deformation of cellular-bulkhead (m)
deformation resistance coefficient
equivalent unit weight of filling (kN/m3)
equivalent wall width / wall height ratio used in calculating resisting moment, n d = B/Hd'
equivalent wall width (m)
internal friction angle of filling material ()
-453-
(3) In the calculation of resisting moment, the equivalent wall height of the wall Hd is calculated by means of
equation (8.2.3). The height Hd is that above the sea bottom.
1
Hd = ----S g i h i
g0
where
g i unite weight of the i-th layer of filling (KN/m3)
h i thickness of the i-th layer (from sea bottom to wall top) (m)
g 0 equivalent unit weight of filling (kN/m3) ; normally, g 0 = 10 kN/m3
(8.2.3)
In the calculation of the equivalent wall height Hd , surcharge may be ignored as discussed in 7.3.4 Calculation
of Resisting Moment.
(4) When the filling material can be regarded as uniform, the height Hd of the quaywall top above the sea bottom
can be used in place of the equivalent wall height Hd of equation (8.2.1).
8.2.4 Examination of Stability of Wall Body as a Whole

Examination of the stability of the wall body as a whole against sliding shall be performed in accordance
with 4.3.2 Examination against Sliding of Wall. In the calculations to examine the stability of a steel
plate cellular-bulkhead against overturning, the stability of cellular-bulkhead shall be examined against the
external forces acting above the wall bottom, including earth pressure, residual water pressure, and
earthquake forces.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The safety factor against overturning for extraordinary conditions should be 1.1 or greater.
(2) The resisting moment of steel plate cellular-bulkhead against overturning is calculated by means of equations
(8.2.4) and (8.2.5).
Mro = (1/6) g0 H 3 Rt
2
(8.2.4)
(a2
b2)
+ 6n b
(8.2.5)
Rt = n (3 n cos f ) sin f + 3
where
Mro resisting moment of steel plate cellular-bulkhead against overturning (kNm/m)
a = Ka tan d
b = Ka tan d + ( n /2) (4 - n cos f ) tan f tan d
n = n (a + b )
H
equivalent wall height of the cellular-bulkhead to obtain the resisting moment against overturning (m)
Rt overturning resistance coefficient
n equivalent wall width /wall height ratio of the cellular-bulkhead, n = B/H
B
equivalent wall width of the cellular-bulkhead (m)
d wall friction angle of filling material () ; normally, d = 15is used.
Ka active earth pressure coefficient of filling material
For other symbols, refer to those used in equations (8.2.1) and (8.2.2).
(3) The equivalent wall height H used to calculate the
resisting moment against overturning should be calculated using equation (8.2.6).
1
H = g----S g i h i
(8.2.6)
0
where,
g i unite weight of the i-th layer of filling (kN/
m3)
h i thickness of the i-th layer (from wall bottom
to wall top) (m)
(4) Because the equation to calculate the overturning
resistance coefficient Rt is complex, the relationship
between Rt, f , and n is given in Fig. T- 8.2.3. The
figure assumes that d is 15.
(5) In general, the filling of a steel plate cellular-bulkhead
used as a quaywall is not uniform because the major
portion of such filling is located under the water surface and thus subjected to buoyancy. Therefore, the
equivalent wall height is used here as in the calcula-454-
Fig. T- 8.2.3 Relationship between Overturning

Resistance Coefficient Rt , n , and f
tion of the resisting moment of the steel sheet pile cellular-bulkhead against deformation. When the filling material can be considered as uniform, the total wall height of the cellular-bulkhead H may be used in the same
calculation in place of the equivalent wall height H of equation (8.2.4). Figure T- 8.2.3 may be used in this calculation as well.
(6) The overturning moment is the moment at the bottom of cellular-bulkhead due to the external forces acting
above the bottom. The equivalent wall height of the cellular-bulkhead H used in the calculation of the resisting
moment should be a height above the cell bottom.
8.2.5 Examination of Bearing Capacity of the Ground

The maximum subsoil reaction force generated at the front toe of the cellular-bulkhead shall be calculated
appropriately in consideration of the effect of the filling material acting on the front wall of the cellularbulkhead .
[Technical Notes]
(1) The maximum subsoil reaction force generated at the front toe of the cellular-bulkhead should be examined by
means of equation (8.2.7).
1
V t = --- gH 2 tan 2 f
2
where
Vt maximum reaction force generated at the front toe of cellular-bulkhead (kN/m)
g unit weight of filling (kN/m3)
H total wall height of the cellular-bulkhead (m)
f internal friction angle of filling material ()
(8.2.7)
Equation (8.2.7) represents the weight of the filling material mass which is hanging on the front wall under the
assumption that the product of the earth pressure coefficient of the filling material and the wall friction
coefficient is equal to tan 2 f . When the filling material is not uniform, therefore, calculation may be performed
in the same manner as that for earth pressure calculation.
(2) The wall height H should normally be considered as the height of the wall top above the wall bottom. However,
when the superstructure of the cellular-bulkhead is supported by foundation piles, it may be considered as the
height of the bottom of superstructure above the wall bottom.
(3) Equation (8.2.7) represents the cell front toe reaction force when the overturning moment is roughly equal to the
overturning resistance moment of equation (8.2.4). Without occurrence of overturning, the reaction force is
smaller than the value obtained from equation (8.2.7). According to a model experiment, the maximum front toe
reaction force Vt is nearly proportional to the overturning moment. Therefore reaction force without occurrence
of overturning should be calculated using equation (8.2.8).
(8.2.8)
V = Vt (M / Mro)
where
V front toe reaction force of the cellular-bulkhead corresponding to overturning moment M (kN/m)
M overturning moment (kNm/m)
Mro resisting moment against overturning (kNm/m)
Hence, use of larger cell radius makes the cellular-bulkhead safer against overturning by increasing the resisting
moment Mro, while reducing the front toe reaction force V.
(4) The examination of the bearing capacity of the ground should be calculated referring to Part ,Chapter 2
Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations.
8.2.6 Examination of Stability against Circular Slip

The examination of the sability of the wall against circular slip shall be made in accordance with 7.8
Examination of Stability against Circular Slip.
8.2.7 Determination of Thickness of Steel Plate of Cell Shell
The thickness of steel plate of the cell shell shall be determined by calculating appropriately the maximum
horizontal tension acting on the cell shell.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The maximum horizontal tension acting on the cell shell should be calculated by means of equation (8.2.9).
T = [(g0Hd + q) tan f + gw hw] R
(8.2.9)
-455-
where
T
R
Hd
hw
g0
gw
f
q
horizontal tension (kN/m)

radius of cell (m)
equivalent wall height above the sea bottom surface (m) (refer to equation (8.2.3))
difference between the water level in front of the cell and that of the inside of the cell (m)
equivalent unit weight of filling (kN/m3)
unit weight of sea water (kN/m3)
internal friction angle of filling material ()
surcharge (kN/m2)
When the filling material is uniform, the height of the cell top above the sea bottom Hd can be used in place of
the equivalent wall height Hd .
(2) The thickness of the cell plate should be such that the stress due to the tension of equation (8.2.9) becomes equal
to or less than the allowable stress in accordance with Part
, 2.3 Allowable Stress. Considering corrosion and
rigidity of the cell shell, a minimum cell plate thickness of 6 mm should be used.
8.2.8 Layout of Cells and Arcs

The layout of cells and arcs shall be determined in accordance with 7.9 Layout of Cells and Arcs
8.2.9 Detailed Design
The detail design of placement-type steel plate cellular-bulkhead quaywall shall be made in accordance
with 7.12 Detailed Design.
8.3 Embedded-Type Steel Plate Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywalls

The provisions in this section shall be applied to the design of steel plate cellular-bulkhead quaywalls with
an embedded section.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The designing of embedded-type steel plate cellular-bulkhead quaywall is usually made in accordance with the
procedure depicted in Fig. T- 8.3.1.
(2) Embedded-type steel plate cellular-bulkhead structures are structures whose stability has been improved by
means of embedment of their steel plate cell shell in sandy subsoil. The design method described in this section
is based on the results of model experiments on embedded steel plate cell shell mainly driven into sandy subsoil
and applies to embedded-type steel plate cellular-bulkhead structures whose embedded length is about 1/8 or
more of the wall height 1), 2). For cases where (a) the sobsoil is hard and it is not possible to achieve an embedded
length of 1/8 or more of the wall height, (b) the ratio of the equivalent wall width to the wall height is
significantly different from those of ordinary cells, which are about 1/2 to 2, and/or (c) the structure is to be
constructed on clayey subsoil or subsoil improved by means of sand compaction piles etc., further examination
should be made in addition to the design method described in this section, as these cases involve unsolved
problems.
-456-

Assumption of wall dimensions
Re-assumption of wall dimensions or
consideration of soil improvement
Examination
against shear deformation
Estimation
of coefficient of subgrade reaction
Calculation of subgrade reaction
and wall displacement
Examination
of bearing capacity of subsoil
Examination
against sliding of wall
Examination
of wall top displacement
Examination
of stability against circular slip
Consideration of soil improvement

Determination of plate thickness
of cells and arcs
Detailed design
Fig. T- 8.3.1 Sequence of Design Embedded-Type Steel Plate Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywall
(3) Figure T- 8.3.2 shows an example of embedded-type steel plate cellular-bulkhead quaywalls.
LWL
Filling sand
Steel plate cell
Silty clay
Replacement sand
Compaction area
Fig. T- 8.3.2 Example of Embedded-Type Steel Plate Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywall
8.3.2 External Forces Acting on Embedded-Type Steel Plate Celluler-Bulkhead

The external forces acting on embedded-type steel plate cellular-bulkheads shall be calculated in
accordance with 7.2 External Forces Acting on Steel Sheet Pile Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywall.
8.3.3 Examination of Wall Width against Shear Deformation
Examination of the strength of the wall body against shear deformation shall be made in accordance with
7.3 Examination of Wall Width against Shear Deformation.
-457-
8.3.4 Examination of Stability of Wall Body as a Whole

Examination of the stability of embedded-type steel plate cellular-bulkhead as a whole shall be made in
accordance with 7.4 Examination of Stability of Wall Body as a Whole.
8.3.5 Examination of Bearing Capacity of the Ground
Examination of the bearing capacity of the ground shall be made in accordance with 7.5 Examination of
Bearing Capacity of the Ground.
8.3.6 Examination against Sliding of Wall
Examination of the stability of the cellular-bulkhead against sliding shall be made in accordance with 4.3.2
Examination against Sliding of Wall and 7.6 Examination against Sliding of Wall.
8.3.7 Examination of Displacement of Wall Top
Examination of the horizontal displacement at the top of the cellular-bulkhead shall be made in accordance
with 7.7 Examination of Displacement of Wall Top.
8.3.8 Examination of Stability against Circular Slip
Examination of the stability of the cellular-bulkhead against circular slip shall be made in accordance with
7.8 Examination of Stability against Circular Slip.
8.3.9 Layout of Cells and Arcs
The layout of cells and arcs shall be determined in accordance with 7.9 Layout of Cells and Arcs.
8.3.10 Determination of Plate Thickness of Cell Shell and Arc Section
The maximum horizontal tensile stress generated in the cell shell and arc sections shall not exceed the
allowable stress.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The maximum horizontal tensile stress generated in the cell shell and arc section should be calculated using
equation (8.3.1).
(8.3.1)
s=T/t
where
s maximum horizontal tensile stress generated in the cell shell or arc section (kN/mm2)
t plate thickness of the cell shell and arc section (mm)
T maximum horizontal tension acting on the cell shell or arc section under ordinary conditions (kN/mm).
In addition to the horizontal tensile stress due to the filling, the cell shell is subjected to vertical stress and
shearing stress. According to model experiments and in-situ measurements, however, the horizontal tensile
stress is dominant among the stresses generated in the cell shell. Therefore, examination of the strength needs to
be made only against the horizontal tension.
(2) The maximum horizontal tension acting on the cell shell and arc section should be calculated in accordance with
8.2.6 Determination of Thickness of Steel Plate of Cell Shell.
(3) As a method to determine the cell plate thickness against the stress generated during the driving of the cell shell,
equation (8.3.2) has been suggested based on results of cylindrical cell buckling experiments and past
construction data.
t 0.032 ( RND / E)0.5
where
t plate thickness of cell shell (mm)
E Youngs modulus of steel material (kN/mm2)
R radius of cell shell (cm)
N average N-value of the subsoil into which the cell shell is to be driven
D driven depth of cell shell (cm)
(8.3.2)
It is desirable to make the plate thickness larger than about 8 mm, because 8 mm is the minimum thickness that
has been proven to be safe through past construction experiences.
-458-
8.3.11 Joints and Stiffeners

The joints between the cell shells and arc sections shall be structurally safe against the maximum
horizontal tension acting on the arcs. They shall also be structurally safe against the stresses generated
during manufacturing, transportation, and installation work.
Detailed design of embedded-type steel plate cellular-bulkhead quaywall shall be conducted in accordance
with 7.12 Detailed Design.
[References]
1) Shoichi KITAJIMA, Setsuo NODA, Tanekiyo NAKAYAMA: An experimental study on the static stability of the steel plate
cellular-bulkheads with embedment, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 375, 1981 (in Japanese).
earthquake resistance of steel plate cellular-bulkheads with embedment, Rept of PHRI, Vol. 21, No. 3, 1982 (in Japanese).
-459-
Chapter 9 Open-Type Wharves on Vertical Piles

(1) The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to the design of open-type wharves on vertical piles.
(2) Open-type wharves on vertical piles shall be designed to satisfy the performance requirements against
the loads due to berthing and mooring of ships, earthquakes, etc.
[Commentary]
(1) The provisions in this chapter are basically applied to open-type wharves on vertical steel pipe piles or shaped
steel piles, and may also be used for similar structures provided that the dynamic characteristics of the structures
be taken into consideration.
(2) Open-type wharves on vertical piles should be designed in accordance with the method described in this chapter.
Examination of general earthquake-resistant characteristics other than those described in this chapter should be
made in accordance with Part
, Chapter 12 Earthquaks and Seismic Forces.
(3) In the design of open-type wharves on vertical piles, it is necessary to give consideration to their dynamic
behaviors during an earthquake, because these structures are generally more flexible than other types of
structures including those of gravity type. Examination of earthquake-resistant performance considering the
dynamic behavior of the structure should be made in accordance with 9.6 Examination of EarthquakeResistant Performance.
(4) The design of open-type wharves described here is based on the assumption that no major deformation should
occur in the foundation or the ground behind the structure due to liquefaction etc. When there is a risk of major
deformation of the foundation or nearby ground, therefore, it is necessary to take appropriate preventive
measures.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Design of open-type wharves on vertical piles should normally be made in accordane with the procedure
depicted in Fig. T- 9.1.1.
In the design flow shown in the figure, (a) a cross section of open-type wharf is designed at first to resist nonearthquake forces, (b) the cross section is examined against earthquake force, and (c) the design proceeds to
detailed design stage if the earthquake-resistance performance of the cross section is satisfactory. If not, the
cross section should be modified and examined again. That is, the steel pipe piles are designed in accordance
with the allowable stress method for non-earthquake forces in the first step of the design flow, and the load
carrying capacity design method is used in the second step against earthquake forces, which assumes that the
deformation of steel pipe piles enters the plastic zone during an earthquake in absorbing seismic force energy.
(2) In principle, the performance requirement should mean (a) that the stress generated in the steel pipe pile
should be smaller than the allowable stress against non-earthquake forces, and (b) that the settlement, damage
level, etc. are acceptable in terms of the allowable values defined based on the importance of the facility or other
relevant criteria against earthquake forces. The bearing capacity of the pile and overall stability of the structure
may also be used as the measures of performance requirement.
(3) Figure T- 9.1.2 shows an example of open-type wharves on vertical piles. As shown in the figure, an open-type
wharf comprises a pile-supported section and an earth retaining section.
(4) When the wharf is to be constructed on the ground where consolidation or compression of soil is expected to
occur, it is desirable to separate the earth-retaining section from the pile-supported section, because the earthretaining section usually settles more than the pile-supported section. It is advisable to give careful consideration
in the design and/or construction work to the fact that dragged settlement or lateral movement of subsoil may
occur in part or all of the pile-supported section due to the settlement of the earth-retaining or landfill section
even when the pile-supported section has been separated from the earth-retaining section.
(5) It has been reported that pile-supported sections were damaged due to the liquefaction of their foundation and/or
the ground behind the earth-retaining revetment in the Hyogoken Nanbu Earthquake (1995). The typical damage
was (a) the buckling of steel pipe piles near the boundaries between different soil strata due to the liquefaction of
the ground and (b) the buckling of steel pipe pile head and/or coping cracking due to the loads generated when
the revetment was pushed seaward. Because it is not clear yet how to incorporate these phenomena into the
design, it is stated in [Commentary] (4) of this section that sufficient measures should be taken to prevent the
occurrence of these phenomena.
However, as it is difficult to totally prevent the deformation of the ground during an earthquake, it is
desirable to examine in advance the expected degree of ground deformation and the effect of the deformation on
facililies through numerical analysis or another appropriate method for particularly important facilities.
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Design conditions
Determination of the size of each block and the cross section and arrangement of piles
Analysis of slope stability
Assumption of superstructure dimensions
Stability calculation for the earth-retaining section
Arrangement of mooring posts and fenders
Calculation of the deadweight of superstructure etc.
Calculation of design external forces

Surcharge
Vertical forces
Wind load (crane, etc.)
Live loads (crane, etc.)

Uplift (when the wharf is expected to be subjected
Horizontal forces
Reaction force of fenders

Tractive force
to significant wave actions)
Assumptions about the sea bottom subsoil
Calculation of the section forces acting on each pile
Examination of the stresses generated in each pile
Examination of the bearing capacity of each pile

Axial direction
Tranaverse direction
Examination of the displacement of wharf as a whole
Cross section to examine the earthquake-resistant perfotmance
Examination of earthquake-resistant performance

Level 1 ground motion
Level 2 ground motion
(in the case of a wharf strengthened against strong earthquake)
Detailed design
Fig. T- 9.1.1 Flowchart of the Designing of Open-Type Wharf on Vertical Piles
(6) When cargo handling equipment, such as container cranes, is to be installed on an open-type wharf on vertical
piles, it is desirable to install it in such a way that all of its feet are positioned on either the pile-supported
section or earth-retaining section. If, for example, one foot of a cargo handling equipment is positioned on the
pile-supported section and another is positioned on the earth-retaining section, the equipment becomes
susceptible to adverse effects such as differential settlement and unsychronized seismic motions, due to the
difference in the response characteristics of the two sections. When it is unavoidable to position one foot of a
cargo handling equipment on the pile-supported section and another on the earth-retaining section, it is
recommended to provide a sufficient foundation work (such as foundation piles) to prevent differential
settlement due to the settlement of the shore side foot. In this case, it is common practice not to locate a fixed
foot of cargo handling equipment (such as portal crane) on the pile-supported section.
(7) When cargo handling equipment, such as container cranes, is to be installed on an open-type wharf on vertical
piles, it is recommended to conduct an earthquake response analysis in consideration of the combined vibration
of the cargo handling equipment and the pile-supported section, because the response characteristics of the pilesupported section during an earthquake may vary widely depending on the mass ratio and the natural period
ratio between the equipment and the pile-supported section. For details, refer to Part , 2.4 Cargo Handling
Equipment.
(8) It is recommended that the calculation of the bending moment of piles be performed for both the parallel and
transverse directions to the wharf face line.
(9) When it is considered necessary to examine the effect of the rotation of the deck block in the calculation of
member forces acting on the piles, the design calculation should be made by taking this effect into account.
(10) At the areas where significant wave actions are expected, it is recommended to examine the following resistance
characteristics against the uplift forces acting on the superstructure and access bridge:
(a) Stability of the access bridge against the uplift and the pulling resistance of the piles
(b) Strength of the members of the superstructure and access bridge against the uplift
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For details on the uplift by waves, refer to Part

, 5.5.1 Uplift Acting on Horizontal Plate near the Still Water
Level.
Shoreside
(Apron)
Seaside
Bollard 250kN
Connection plate
Curbing
Concrete pavement
HWL
Backfilling sandstone
Fender H = 600
LWL
Mortar lining
Foundation rubble stones (30 to 50 kg)
Steel pipe pile SKK 490
= 1000
= 1000
= 1000
Fig. T- 9.1.2 Example of Open-type Wharf on Vertical Piles
9.2 Layout and Dimensions

9.2.1 Size of Deck Block and Layout of Piles
The size of a deck block and the distances between piles and pile rows shall be determined appropriately in
consideration of the following:
(1) Apron width
(2) Location of the quay shed
(3) Sea bottom ground (especially slope stability)
(4) Existing revetments
(5) Matters related to construction work such as the concrete casting capacity
(6) Static loads and live loads (especially crane sizes)
9.2.2 Dimensions of Superstructure
The dimensions of the superstructure of pile-supported section shall be determined appropriately in
consideration of the following:
(1) Distances between piles and pile rows, and the shape and dimensions of piles
(2) Static loads and live loads
(3) Tide level
(4) Easiness of form work and timbering
(5) Ground conditions
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(6) Arrangement of bollards

(7) Arrangement, shape, and dimensions of fenders
9.2.3 Arrangement of Fenders and Bollards
Fenders and bollards shall be so arranged that exertion of eccentric external forces to a single deck block
be minimized as much as possible.
9.3 External Forces Acting on Open-Type Wharf

9.3.1 Design External Forces
(1) The main external forces acting on the pile-supported section of an open-type wharf shall be as listed
in Table 9.3.1.
Table 9.3.1 Design External Forces
Vertical forces
Deadweight of the superstructure
Static loads
Live loads
Train load
Vehicle load
Cargo handling equipment load
Sidewalk live load
Tractive force of vessel
Uplift
Horizontal forces
Earthquake forces acting on the superstructure
Earthquake forces acting on the static loads
Earthquake forces acting on the live loads
Wind load acting on the live loads
Reaction force of the fender
Tractive force of vessel
(2) The earthquake forces acting on the superstructure, static loads, and live loads shall be considered in
the examination of the earthquake-resistant performance of the pile-supporting section.
(3) The external forces acting on the earth-retaining section shall be determined by taking the relevant
forces described in the respective chapters of this part according to its structural type and then adding
the reaction force of the access bridge to it.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Among the external forces listed in Table 9.3.1, the earthquake forces, the wind load and the tractive force of
vessel should normally be considered as the loads under extraordinary conditions.
(2) It is a common practice that the deadweight of the superstructure and the earthquake forces acting on the
superstructure shown in the table include the deadweight of the piles and the earthquake forces acting on the
piles, respectively.
(3) The static loads should be determined in accordance with Part , 15.3 Static Load. The earthquake forces due
to static loads may normally be considered to act on the upper surface of the deck slab. However, when the
center of gravity of the static loads is located at an especially high level, it is important to take the height of the
center of gravity as the point of application of the horizontal force.
(4) Live loads should be determined in accordance with Part , 15.4 Live Load. The earthquake force due to a railtype traveling crane (see in 9.1 Principle of Design [Technical Notes] (7)) should be calculated by multiplying
its deadweight by the seismic coefficient, and the force can be considered to be transmitted from the wheels to
the pile-supported section.
The wind load acting on crane etc. should be determined in accordance with Part , 3.3 Wind Pressure.
(5) The fender reaction force should normally be calculated in accordance with 19.4 Fender System using the
external forces calculated in accordance with Part
, 2.2.2 Berthing and Part
, 2.2.3 Moored Vessels, and the
reaction force should be considered as a load under ordinary or extraordinary conditions depending on the
approaching velocity. When an approaching speed of about 10 cm/s or more is assumed for an general cargo
vessel, the reaction force may be considered as a load under extraordinary conditions. For approaching speeds at
which vessels berth frequently, it is recommended to consider the reaction force as a load under ordinary
conditions.
The impact force generated by the oscillatory motions of moored vessels should also be considered as a load
under ordinary or extraordinary conditions depending to the meteorological and marine conditions of the site.
For general berths, this force may be considered as a load under extraordinary conditions when a vessel is
moored there for refuge mooring in an unusual environment such as typhoon.
(6) The tractive force of vessels should be determined in accordance with Part , 2.2.4 Tractive Force Acting on
Mooring Post and Bollard. In many cases one bollard is installed to one deck block.
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9.3.2 Calculation of Fender Reaction Force

The calculation of fender reaction force shall be made in accordance with Part
, 2.2 External Forces
Generated by Vessels.
[Technical Notes]
(1) When rubber fenders are installed as a damper on an ordinary large wharf with deck blocks of 20 to 30 m in
length, a common practice is to provide two rubber fenders on one block. In many cases, fender intervals of 8 to
13 m are used. A measurement of the berthing behavior of various sizes of vessels has been made by installing
1.5-meter-long rubber fenders on an ordinary large wharf. The measurement has revealed that it is appropriate to
calculate the berthing force on the assumption that the vessels approaching energy is absorbed by one fender.
Therefore, the reaction force may basically be calculated on the assumption that the berthing energy is absorbed
by one fender when using rubber fenders as a damper. However, this does not apply when fenders are deployed
continuously along the face line of a wharf.
cu
e
rc
fo
n
tio
rv
ac
cu
en
t-
re
gy
er
en
em
t-
en
ac
pl
is
D
Energy or reaction force
(3) Figure T- 9.3.1 shows an example of the pair of displacement - energy curve and displacement - reaction
force curve of a rubber fender. If a single fender absorbs
an berthing energy of E1, the corresponding fender deformation d1 is obtained. Then, using the other curve, the
corresponding reaction force acting on the pier is obtained
as H1(d1 C H1). However, if fenders are deployed too
close to each other and the berthing energy is absorbed by
two fenders, the approaching energy acting on one fender
becomes E2 = E1/2 and this causes the corresponding
fender deformation d2 . As can be seen from the figure ( d2
D H2), the reaction force acting on the pier is almost
the same as that generated in the single fender case,
because of the characteristics of rubber fender. Thus the
horizontal reaction force acting on the pier becomes 2H2
2H1, which means that the horizontal force to be used in
the design is twofold. When using fenders that have such
characteristics, therefore, it is desirable to give careful
consideration to this behavior of reaction force in the
designing and locating of fenders.
rv
e
(2) The berthing energy is also absorbed by the displacement of the pile-supported section. However, it is a common
practice not to take this into consideration because in many cases the energy absorbed by the pile-supported
section accounts for less than 10% of the total berthing energy.
pl
is
e
ac
Displacement
Fig. T- 9.3.1 Rubber Fender Characteristics Curve
9.4 Assumptions Concerning Sea Bottom Ground

9.4.1 Determination of Slope Inclination
When an earth-retaining structure is to be constructed behind a slope beneath the superstructure of opentype wharf, the structure shall be located appropriately in consideration of the stability of the slope.
[Technical Notes]
For soft subsoil, it is recommended that
slope stability be examined against a
n
circular slip as well. However, a slope
natio
incli
e
beneath the superstructure of an open-type
p
o
gn sl
wharf is rarely comprised of a soft clay
Desi
Design seabed
layer, and are usually comprised of a
sandy soil layer or rubble stones. When an
Fig. T- 9.4.1 Position of Earth-Retaining Structure behind Slope
earth-retaining structure is to be
constructed behind a slope, therefore, it is
desirable to locate it in the area behind an imaginary slope obtained by drawing a straight line from the foot of the
actual slope at the angle a with the horizontal line given by equation (9.4.1) (see Fig. T- 9.4.1).
a=fe
(9.4.1)
where
a inclination angle of imaginary slope measured from the horizontal line ()
f internal friction angle of the main material of actual slope ()
e tan-1kh
kh horizontal seismic coefficient in the water
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Equation (9.4.1) cannot apply to hard mudstone or bedrock slopes.
9.4.2 Virtual Ground Surface

In calculation of lateral resistance and bearing capacity of piles, a virtual ground surface shall be assumed
at an appropriate level for each pile.
[Technical Notes]
When the inclination of the slope is considerably steep, the virtual ground surface for each
pile to be used in the calculation of lateral resistance or bearing capacity may be set at an elevation that corresponds to 1/2 of the vertical
distance between the surface of the slope at the
pile axis and the sea bottom in front of the slope
(see Fig. T- 9.4.2).
Fig. T- 9.4.2 Virtual Ground Surface
9.5 Design of Piles

9.5.1 General (Notification Article 69, Clause 1-1)
It shall be standard to calculate the lateral resistance, bending moment, and axial force of piles, and the
bending moment and shear force of the superstructure with an appropriate method selected based on the
structural characteristics of the open-type wharf on vertical piles.
[Commentary]
(1) Piles used for open-type wharves on vertical piles are usually deployed in the form of groups of piles, and the
connection between the piles and coping often takes the form of a rigid joint. In such a case, structural analysis
of the pile-supported section can be made by replacing it with a rigid frame or a frame structure (in which the
ground is evaluated as an elastic spring), under the assumption that each pile is embedded up to an appropriate
depth.
(2) For analysis of a single pile subject to lateral forces, the PHRI method or Changs method can be used.
According to Part
, 4.3.4 Estimation of Pile Behavior Using Analytical Methods, it is recommended to use
the former method. However, for the behavior of piles with free ends (such as those used for a pier structure)
under the actions of design loads, the virtual fixed point method based on Changs method may be used
because there is almost no difference between the results obtained from the PHRI method and that obtained from
Changs method.
9.5.2 Coefficient of Horizontal Subgrade Reaction

In the calculation of the lateral resistance of piles, it is desirable to obtain the coefficient of horizontal
subgrade reaction of the subsoil through lateral loading tests of piles in situ. In case that no tests are
conducted, it may be estimated by means of analytical methods.
[Commentary]
There are some measured data available on the coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction obtained by the tests in
which the lateral loads were applied to piles until they nearly reached to their yield points (as in the case of piles of
open-type wharves). Although some of these data have been related to the N-value, the coefficient of horizontal
subgrade reaction cannot be estimated accurately from the N-value. Thus, it is desirable to estimate it by means of
lateral loading tests in situ (refer to Part , 4.3.3 Estimation of Pile Behavior Using Loading Tests).
[Technical Notes]
When lateral loading tests of piles are not carried out, the coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction of the subsoil
may be estimated with the method described in Part , 4.3.4 Estimation of Pile Behavior Using Analytical
Methods. When using Changs method, equation (9.5.1) may be utilized for this purpose. However, some in situ
measurement data indicate that the coefficient value of horizontal subgrade reaction of rubble stones is smaller than
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the estimate by means of equation (9.5.1) with Changs method. Thus, careful examination and judgement are
necessary.
(9.5.1)
kh = 1.5N
where
kh coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction (N/cm3)
N average N-value of the ground down to a depth of about 1/b
b refer to 9.5.3 Virtual Fixed Point
9.5.3 Virtual Fixed Point

When analyzing the open-type wharf as a rigid frame structure by assuming a fixed point located below the
sea bottom, the virtual fixed points of the piles shall be defined appropriately.
[Technical Notes]
When performing a rigid frame calculation for an open-type wharf on vertical piles, the virtual fixed points of the
piles may be considered to be located at a depth of 1/b below the virtual ground surface. The value of b is calculated
by means of equation (9.5.2).
4 kh D
(cm-1)
(9.5.2)
b = --------4EI
where
kh horizontal subgrade reaction coefficient (N/cm3)
D diameter or width of the pile (cm)
EI flexural rigidity of the pile (Ncm2)
9.5.4 Member Forces Acting on Individual Piles (Notification Article 69, Clause 1-2 )
It shall be standard to calculate appropriately the horizontal forces acting on the heads of individual piles,
pile intervals, displacements of the wharf as a whole and individual piles, pile head moments of individual
piles, and axial forces of individual piles by considering the rotation of each block of the pile-supported
section and other factors.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The horizontal force acting on the heads of individual piles may be calculated using the following equations:
(a) When it is not necessary to consider the rotation of the deck block:
K Hi
H i = ---------------H
K Hi
(9.5.3)
(b) When it is necessary to consider the rotation of the deck block:

When the symmetry axis of the deck block is perpendicular to the face line of the wharf and the direction of
action of the horizontal force is parallel to the symmetry axis, the horizontal force may be calculated using
equation (9.5.4).
K Hi x i
K Hi
(9.5.4)
H i = ---------------H + --------------------- eH
2
hi
K
K
x
Hi Hi i
i
Face line
where
Hi horizontal force on the i-th pile (kN)
KHi horizontal spring constant of the i-th pile (kN/m)
12EIi
K Hi = -----------------------3
1
h + -- i b i
Center of gravity of
the pile group

hi vertical distance between the i-th pile head and the
virtual ground surface (m)
Symmetry ax
e
bi see 9.5.3 Virtual Fixed Point (m-1)
i
H
EIi flexural rigidity of the i-th pile (kNm2)
i
H horizontal force acting on the block (kN)
e distance between the blocks symmetry axis and the
i-th pile
line of action of the horizontal force (m)
xi distance between the blocks symmetry axis and the Fig. T- 9.5.1 Distance between the Center of
Gravity of the Pile Group and
i-th pile (m)
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Individual Piles
(2) The displacements of the wharf as a whole and individual piles may be calculated using equations (9.5.5)
through (9.5.7). The definitions of the symbols are the same as those described in (1).
(a) Horizontal displacement of the pile-supported section d (m)
H
d = -------------- K Hi
(9.5.5)
(b) Rotational angle of the pile-supported section a ()

eH
a -------------------- KHi x i2
(9.5.6)
(c) Horizontal displacements of the heads of individual piles i (m)
i d + a xi
(9.5.7)
(3) The pile head moments of individual piles may be calculated using equation (9.5.8).
1
1
M i = --- h i + ---- H i
2
b i
(9.5.8)
where
Mi pile head moment of the i-th pile (kNm)
(4) The axial force of individual piles may be calculated using equation (9.5.9).
(9.5.9)
Pi = hPi + vPi
where
Pi axial force of the i-th pile (kN)
hPi axial force of the i-th pile due to horizontal force (kN)
vPi axial force of the i-th pile due to vertical load (kN)
M i 1 , i + M i, i 1 M i, i +1 M i +1 , i
hPi = S i, i 1 + S i, i +1 = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------l
S i, i 1 shear force acting on the head of the i-th pile due to the horizontal force of the side beam of the
(i1)-th pile (kN)
S i, i +1 shear force acting on the head of the i-th pile due to the horizontal force of the side beam of the
(i1)-th pile (kN)
M i 1 , i bending moment acting on the head of the (i1)-th pile due to the horizontal force of the side beam
of the i-th pile (kNm)
M i, i 1 bending moment acting on the head of the i-th pile due to the horizontal force of the side beam of
the (i1)-th pile (kNm)
M i, i +1 bending moment acting on the head of the i-th pile due to the horizontal force of the side beam of
the (i1)-th pile (kNm)
M i +1 , i bending moment acting on the head of the (i1)-th pile due to the horizontal force of the side beam
of the i-th pile (kNm)
l beam span (pile interval) (m)
678
The values of M i, i 1 and M i, i +1 should be evaluated by equation (9.5.10) for the intermediate supports, and
they should be taken as equal to the pile head moment Mi for the end supports. (see Fig. T- 9.5.2).
M i, i 1 = aM i
(9.5.10)
M i, i +1 = bM i
The values of a and b may be taken as follows:
2-span beam:
a = 0.6, b = 0.6
3-span beam: 2nd pile head; a = 0.5, b = 0.7
3rd pile head; a = 0.7, b = 0.5
Fig. T- 9.5.2 Pile Head Moments

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9.5.5 Cross-Sectional Stresses of Piles

Appropriate methods shall be used in the calculation of the cross-sectional stresses of vertical piles
supporting the deck.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The cross-sectional stresses of vertical piles should be calculated using equation (9.5.11), and the allowable
stresses for piles should be calculated as those of the members subjected to the axial force and bending moment
by meanes of Table T- 2.3.2 of Part , 2.3.3 Steel Piles and Steel Pipe Sheet Piles.
P
M
s c = --- , s b = ----A
Z
where
s c stress due to the axial force of pile (N/mm2)
s b stress due to the bending moment of pile (N/mm2)
A cross-sectional area of pile (mm2)
P axial force of pile (N)
Z section modulus of pile (mm3)
M bending moment of pile (Nmm)
(9.5.11)
(2) Shear stress is normally negligible in vertical piles for open-type wharf. Therefore, the examination of shear
stress may be omitted for the piles, unless the loading conditions are special.
9.5.6 Examination of Embedded Length for Bearing Capacity (Notification Article 69, Clause 1-3 )
It shall be standard to calculate appropriately the embedded length of each vertical pile by considering the
characteristics of the ground and the pile lateral resistance in accordance with Part , 4.1 Allowable Axial
Bearing Capacity of Piles. In this case, the bearing capacity of a pile driven into a sloped ground can be
calculated with the assumption that the soil layers below the virtual ground surface are the effective
supporting layers.
9.5.7 Examination of Embedded Length for Lateral Resistance
The embedded length of each vertical pile shall be determined appropriately in accordance with the
method of analysis of the pile lateral resistance.
[Technical Notes]
The embedded lengths of vertical piles are generally taken at 3/b below the virtual ground surface based on the
results of pile lateral resistance analyses. The value of b should be calculated in accordance with 9.5.3 Virtual Fixed
Point.
9.5.8 Examination of Pile Joints

(1) When a pile joint is to be used in a pile, the pile shall be designed to be safe against the impact stress
generated in the joint during driving, in addition to the external forces described in 9.3.1 Design
External Forces.
(2) The location of pile joint shall be determined carefully in consideration of construction conditions so
that no excessive stress is generated in the pile.
[Technical Notes]
For the method to join piles, refer to Part , 4.5.3 Joints.
9.5.9 Change of Plate Thickness or Material of Steel Pipe Pile

Any change relating to plate thickness or material of a steel pipe pile shall be made in accordance with
Part 4.5.4 Change of Plate Thickness or Material of Steel Pipe Piles.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In many cases, the plate thickness and/or material of steel pipe piles of ordinary open-type wharves are changed
at a depth of 2/b to 3/b below the virtual ground surface.
(2) The strengths of joints and sections of thickness change should be examined carefully because there are some
examples in which piles of open-type wharves buckled at these sections due to ground deformation and others
during an earthquake in a deep ground where no bending stresses are generated under normal load conditions.
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9.6 Examination of Earthquake-Resistant Performance

Earthquake resistance of open-type wharves shall be examined to ensure that they satisfy the performance
requirement in the expected seismic motion environment.
[Commentary]
(1) As described in 9.1 Principle of Design, it should be checked and confirmed that the pile-supported section of
an open-type wharf will satisfy the performance requirement during an earthquake using an appropriate method.
In this examination, the performance of open-type wharves which are to be constructed as ordinary mooring
facilities should be examined against the Level 1 ground motion as described in Part , Chapter 12
Earthquakes and Seismic Force, and the performance of open-type wharves to be constructed as high seismic
resistant facilities should be examined against both the Level 1 and the Level 2 ground motions.
(2) In those cases where the natural period of a pile-supported section and that of the ground are close to each other
or the natural period of the seismic motion is close to these two, a kind of resonance may occur and cause a
larger response of pile-supported section than that expected to occur under ordinary conditions. In such a case, it
is necessary to take appropriate measures, such as to adopt a different structural type of the pile-supported
section for shifting its natural period and to performe a subsoil improvement work for changing the natural
period of the ground.
(3) The structure of an access bridge connecting the pile-supported section and the earth-retaining revetment should
be determined in consideration of the following:
(a) When an access bridge is securely fixed, an unexpectable excessive horizontal force may act on the
superstructure of pile-supported section in the mode of earthquake motions in which the distance between the
pile-supported section and the earth-retaining section is shortened.
(b) The structure of an access bridge should be such that the access bridge will be able to adequately
accommodate the expected displacement of the pile-supported section and prevent itself from falling off in the
mode of eathquake motions in which the distance between the pile-supported section and the earth-retaining
section is elongated.
[Technical Notes]
(1) It is recommended that seismic design of open-type wharves be basically conducted in accordance with the
sequence depicted in Fig. T- 9.6.1.
Selection of cross section for examination of earthquake-resistant
performance
Determination of seismic coefficient to be used in performance

examination against Level 1 seismic ground motion
Simplified method
Elasto-plastic analysis
Dynamic response analysis
Examination of the earthquake-resistant performance

against Level 1 ground motion
Type of failure
Load carrying capacity
Maximum and residual displacement
Bearing capacity of pile
Heigh seismic resistant wharf
Ordinary wharf
Determination of the seismic coefficient to be used in performance

examination against Level 2 ground motion
Simplified method
Elasto-plastic analysis
Dynamic response analysis
Examination of the earthquake-resistant performance

against Level 2 ground motion
Type of failure
Load carrying capacity
Maximum and residual displacement
Bearing capacity of pile
End
Fig. T- 9.6.1 Flowchart of Examination of Earthquake-Resistant Performance of Open-Type Wharf

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(2) When the cargo handling equipment such as container cranes is to be installed, it is desirable to examine the
overall earthquake-resistant performance that takes into consideration the combined vibrations of the pilesupported section and the equipment as described in 9.1 Principle of Design [Technical Notes] (7), in addition
to performing the examination of the earthquake-resistant performance of the pile-supported section itsef.
(3) The earthquake-resistant performance levels required of pile-supported sections differ depending on the
importance of facility and other criteria. However, the damage level, maximum displacement, residual
displacement, etc. may be used as typical performance indexes. In determining the performance level, it is
necessary to give careful consideration to the easiness of the repair and/or restoration work of damaged pilesupported section.
(4) The earthquake-resistant performance examination method described in this section is used for open-type
wharves of ordinary dimensions on vertical steel pipe piles. Thus, it may be applied to structures which exhibit
similar behaviors during earthquakes. However, when the structure is to be constructed on the horizontal ground
without a slope or when batter piles are to be used, it is necessary to carefully consider its applicability.
9.6.1 Assumption of Cross Section for Earthquake-Resistant Performance Examination

The cross section of an open-type wharf for examination of the earthquake-resistant performance shall be
selected in an appropriate manner.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In principle, a cross section designed for external loads other than earthquake loads should be used for
examination of the earthquake-resistant performance of pile-supported sections as described in 9.1 Principle of
Design [Technical Notes] (1). In the areas in which relatively strong earthquakes may occur however, it is
desirable to use data from similar existing structures and facilities in the neighborhood as reference data for the
selection of cross section, because the final cross section is likely to be determined by earthquake-resistant
performance.
(2) When the result of earthquake-resistant performance examination shows that the selected cross section could not
achieve the required performance during an earthquake, modification of the cross section should be performed.
9.6.2 Examination Method of Earthquake-Resistant Performance

Examination of the earthquake-resistant performance of an open-type wharf shall be performed for the
earthquake forces considered in the design by appropriately modeling the ground and the pile-supported
section.
[Commentary]
(1) Because examination of the earthquake-resistant performance of an open-type wharf is made in terms of the type
of failure and/or damage that occur during an earthquake, the load carrying capacity, the maximum and residual
displacement, and the bearing capacity of piles, it is necessary to use the analysis models of the ground and the
pile-supported section that enable appropriate evaluation of these characteristics. In particular, when a strong
earthquake force such as the Level 2 ground motion is expected to act on the pier, it is necessary to model the
nonlinearity of the structural elements appropriately.
(2) In examination of earthquake-resistant performance, the earthquake forces may be considered in the horizontal
direction only, unless the wharf requires special examination to the vertical direction for the structural reasons.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Although many studies are being conducted on the dynamic behavior and earthquake-resistant performance of
open-type wharves during earthquakes, there are still many characteristics that are yet to be made clear. In
general, open-type wharves are considered to have large load carrying capacity against strong earthquakes (such
as those with the Level 2 ground motion) because they can withstand large deformations. However, because the
ground motion and deformation of the structural members of a wharf may exceed their elastic limits under
strong seismic motions and they may be in the respective plastic zones, it is necessary to bear in mind that the
design of wharf using the virtual fixed point method described in 9.5 Design of Piles may result in the dangerous
side of safety.
It is recommended that the examination of the earthquake-resistant performance of open-type wharf be
performed using either (a) simplified method, (b) elasto-plastic analysis method, or (c) nonlinear dynamic
analysis method described below.
(a) Simplified method
This method evaluates the load carrying capacity of open-type wharf by summing up the strength of the steel
pipe piles, while assuming that the wharf superstructure is a rigid body. This method is applicable to wharves
on vertical piles in which the rigidity ratios between the pile rows do not differ significantly from each other.
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Examination is performed to confirm that the inertial force is smaller than the load carring capacity and the
bearing force of the pile is lower than the ultimate bearing capacity and to check the levels of maximum
and residual displacement, by considering an earthquake energy absorption capacity corresponding to the
allowable displacement ductility factor for the pile.
(b) Elasto-plastic analysis method
This method evaluates the load carrying capacity of open-type wharf by regarding the pile-supported section
as a pile - rigid frame structure model and by taking into consideration the lateral resistance of the subsoil
and the elasto-plastic behavior of the steel pipe piles and superstructure. It is thought that the influence of the
section force redistribution effect is significant when the structure of the wharf is complex or batter piles are
used together with vertical piles. In such cases, detailed analysis using the elasto-plastic method or other
relevant method needs to be employed, because the simplified method may overestimate the load carrying
capacity.
In the elasto-plastic method, the type of failure of the wharf is first analyzed based on examination of the
damage events that will occur in the wharf (e.g., generation of plastic hinges, yielding of the ground spring,
damage to the superstructure, etc.), and then earthquake-resistant performance is examined accordingly. In
addition, the magnitudes of the maximum and residual displacements are examined.
(c) Nonlinear dynamic analysis method
This method examines the strength of open-type wharf by modeling the whole structure and performing
nonlinear dynamic analysis using the finite element analysis, etc. When the overall structure including the
revetment structure behind the pile-support section is complex, or when large deformation of the ground is
expected, examination is performed by modeling the entire system including the wharf and ground. For
nonlinear dynamic analysis, the same technique used in elasto-plastic analysis may be mobilized.
(2) Examination by means of the load carrying capacity is a method to allow occurrence of a certain damage and/or
failure in some parts of the wharf. Therefore, it is necessary to specify the range and degree of tolerable damage
according to the functions required of the wharf after an earthquake, importance of the wharf, easiness of repair
and restoration work, etc.
9.6.3 Determination of Seismic Motion for Examination of Earthquake-Resistant Performance

In principle, the seismic motion that is used in the examination of earthquake-resistant performance shall
be obtained through dynamic analysis of the ground.
[Technical Notes]
(1) When the nonlinear dynamic analysis described in 9.6.2 Examination Method of Earthquake-Resistant
Performance is not performed, the earthquake forces to be inputted to the pile-supported section should be
determined by means of the modified seismic coefficient method. The seismic coefficient should be determined
based on the natural period of the pile-supported section using the linear acceleration response spectrum derived
from the response acceleration at a depth of 1/b below the virtual ground surface that is obtained from dynamic
analysis of the ground at the construction site. Figure T- 9.6.2 shows a flowchart of the determination of seismic
coefficient for examination of earthquake-resistant performance.
Dynamic analysis of ground

Determination of maximum base acceleration
Natural period of the pier
Preparation of ground response analysis model
Cross section for earthquake-resistant performance examination
Calculation of the natural period of the ground

Ground response analysis (SHAKE etc.)
Response acceleration at a depth of 1/
"Pile-Rigid Frame" model etc.

below the sea bottom
Calculation of acceleration response spectrum
Calculation of the natural period of the pier
Determination of the seismic coefficient for earthquake-resistant performance examination
Fig. T- 9.6.2 Flowchart of Determination of Seismic Coefficient to Be Used

in the Examination of Earthquake-Resistant Performance
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(2) In the determination of the strength level of the Level 1 ground motion, the common practice is to assume a
seismic motion with a return period of 75 years. The expected value of bedrock acceleration is that of ground
motion listed in Table T- 12.4.1 of Part
, 12.4 Design Seismic Coefficient according to the regional
classification of the pier construction site. The design seismic coefficient for examination of earthquakeresistant performance is obtained by dividing the response acceleration of the ground corresponding to the
natural period of pile-supported section by the acceleration of gravity. The response acceleration of the ground is
derived from the acceleration response spectrum at a depth of 1/b below the sea bottom (b is calculated using
equation (9.5.2) of 9.5.3 Virtual Fixed Point) that is computed from the input of the expected value of bedrock
acceleration by means of the multiple reflection model SHAKE described in Part , 12.5 Seismic Response
Analysis. For the dissipation damping constant to be employed in the calculation of the acceleration response
spectrum, the values listed in Table T- 9.6.1 may be used according to the type of ground.
Table T- 9.6.1 Dissipation Damping Constant
Natural period of the ground (Tg)
Damping constant
Shorter than 0.1 s
0.1
0.1 s or longer and shorter than 0.5 s
0.2
0.5 s or longer
0.3
(3) When the dynamic analysis of ground described in (4) is not performed, the standard seismic coefficient values
shown in Fig. T- 9.6.3 (that were obtained from results of analysis 1) of open-typed wharves having standard
dimensions) may be used. The seismic coefficient can be obtained from the figure for different regional
classifications (region categories A to E based on the regional seismic coefficients defined in Part , 12.4
Design Seismic Coefficient) and the natural periods of the ground and the pile-supported section.
(4) The seismic coefficient for the Level 2 ground motion is obtained by determining the expected value of
maximum bedrock acceleration using the method described in Part , 12.4 Design Seismic Coefficient and
using the technique described in (2) above. In principle, the seismic coefficient of the Level 2 ground motion
should be obtained by performing dynamic analysis of the ground, because no reliable methods for determining
the standard seismic coefficient for the Level 2 ground motion have yet to be developed.
(5) The natural period of ground described in (1) and (2) may be calculated by means of equation (9.6.1) using the
shear wave speed and the layer thickness of each layer for the soil layers between the upper surface of armor
stone and the bedrock surface for engineering analysis directly below the pile-supported section.
Hi
T g = 4S ------V si
where
Tg natural period of the ground (s)
Hi thickness of the i-th layer (m)
Vsi shear wave velocity in the i-th layer (m/s)
(9.6.1)
(6) The natural period of the pile-supported section may be calculated with equation (9.6.2) using (a) the horizontal
spring constant of the pile-supported section as a rigid frame structure whose virtual fixed point (see 9.5.3
Virtual Fixed Point) is located at a depth of 1/b below the sea bottom and (b) the sum of the deadweight of the
pile-supported section and the surcharge acting on it during an earthquake.
W
(9.6.2)
T s = 2p --------------g SK Hi
where
Ts natural period of pile-supported section (s)
W sum of deadweight acting on one pile row and surcharge during an earthquake (kN)
g acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
KHi horizontal spring constant of the i-th pile (kN/m) (see 9.5.4 Member Forces Acting on Individual
Piles)
To obtain the value of KHi, it is necessary to evaluate b by appropriately assuming the horizontal subgrade
reaction coefficient of the subsoil. Equation (9.5.1) described in 9.5.2 Cofficient of Horizontal Subgrade
Reaction is an equation to calculate a static subgrade reaction coefficient, and it is not appropriate to apply this
equation to dynamic analysis. As the number of data and research results on dynamic subgrade reaction
coefficient is small, it is recommended to use a value about twice as large as the coefficient obtained by equation
(9.5.1) to calculate the natural period of a pile-supported section in accordance with the Specifications for
Highway Bridges. There is also a report which says that the natural period of a pile-supported section can be
calculated more accurately when the virtual ground surface is not considered. 1)
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When the bending moment generated in the pile exceeds the fully plastic state moment (i.e., generation of
plastic hinge), the fully plastic state rigidity of the pile (Mp /p in Fig. T- 9.6.6) should be used for the flexural
rigidity of a pile.
1.00
Region A
1.00
Region B
Seismic coefficient
Seismic coefficient
3
1
0.10
0.01
0.1
1.0
3
1
0.10
0.01
0.1
10
1.0
Period (units: s)
Region C
1.00
Seismic coefficient
Seismic coefficient
1.00
2
3
1
0.10
0.01
0.1
1.0
10
Region D
2
3
0.10
0.01
0.1
1.0
Period (units: s)
Seismic coefficient
1.00
10
Period (units: s)
10
Period (units: s)
Region E
2
3
0.10
Legend
0.01
0.1
Tg
0.1
0.1
0.5
Tg
Tg
0.5
Tg ; natural period of the ground calculated

1.0
with equation (9.6.1) (units: s)
10
Period (units: s)
Fig. T- 9.6.3 Standard Seismic Coefficient for the Level 1 Ground Motion
9.6.4 Examination of Load Carrying Capacity Using Simplified Method

In the examination of the load carrying capacity of an open-type wharf using the simplified method, the
pile-supported section shall be represented with a frame structure model and the horizontal displacement
ductility factor of the pile-supported section shall be used.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In the simplified method described in 9.6.2 Examination Method of Earthquake-Resistant Performance, the
examination of load carrying capacity is fundamentally carried out by making assumptions based on the
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Newmarks Equal-Energy Principle shown in Fig. T- 9.6.4 and using an equivalent linearized system with one
degree of freedom having the same rigidity as the first rigidity of the wharf - ground structural system. The
basic equation for examination is as follows:
Ra khW
(9.6.3)
where
Ra load carrying capacity of pile-supported section during an earthquake (kN)
kh seismic coefficient derived from linear response (using the method described in 9.6.3 Determination of
Seismic Motion for Examination of Earthquake-Resistant Performance)
W deadweight of pile-supported section and surcharge acting during an earthquake (kN)
Horizontal force P
Pe: horizontal elastic response force

Py: horizontal force corresponding to the elastic limit
d p: horizontal elasto-plastic response displacement

d e: horizontal elastic response displacement
d y: horizontal displacement corresponding to the elastic limit
Horizontal displacement
Fig. T- 9.6.4 Elasto-Plastic Horizontal Response Displacement of Pier Superstructure
The load carrying capacity of the pile-supported section during an earthquake, Ra is calculated by equation
(9.6.4):
(9.6.4)
R a = 2m a 1 + q ( m a 1 ) 2 P y
where
ma allowable displacement ductlily factor
q ratio of the secondary gradient (gradient of the line CD in Fig. T- 9.6.4) to the primary gradient
(gradient of the line OC) in the load - horizontal displacement graph. However, when the allowable
displacement ductility factor is determined by means of the method described in (3), q is assigned the
value of 0.
Py horizontal force corresponding to the elastic limit (kN)
(2) The allowable displacement ductility factor used in (1) is expressed as the ratio of the allowable horizontal
displacement to the horizontal displacement at the elastic limit of superstructure. The elastic limit is a point at
which the horizontal displacement starts to increase sharply in the horizontal load - horizontal superstructure
displacement relationship of the wharf. This may normally be considered as the state that the pile head bending
moment reaches the fully plastic state moment (see equation (9.6.7)) in a majority of the piles in the rows normal
to the face line of the wharf.
(3) The allowable displacement ductility factor should essentially be determined in consideration of the progress of
the failure and/or damage of the wharf. The displacement ductilily capacity of an open-type wharf as a whole is
governed by the displacement ductility capacity of the steel pipe piles. The standard allowable displacement
ductility factor (that is based on the Py of equation (9.6.4)) may normally be determined using the values listed
in Table T- 9.6.2 for the Level 1 seismic motion and those obtained from equation (9.6.5) for the Level 2
seismic motions. The recommendations are based on the result of examination of the load - deformation
relationship by a frame structure model of the steel pipe piles normally used for the open-type wharf and that of
a laboratory loading test on a structural model. The importance levels listed in Table T- 9.6.2 are those defined
in Table - 12.4.4 of Part , 12.4 Design Seismic Coefficient.
ma = 1.25 + 62.5 (t / D) 2.5
where
ma allowable displacement ductility factor for the Level 2 seismic motion
t thickness of steel pipe pile (mm)
D diameter of steel pipe pile (mm)
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(9.6.5)
Table T- 9.6.2 Standard Allowable Displacement Ductility Factor for the Level 1 Seismic Motion
Importance level
Allowable displacement ductility

factor (ma)
Special
1.0
Class A
1.3
Class B
1.6
Class C
2.3
(4) The horizontal force Py corresponding to the elastic limit can be calculated by assuming that all the pile head
displacements are equal in the pile - rigid frame structure model. As this involves complex calculations
however, Py may normally be calculated in the simplified method by using equation (9.6.6) which was derived
based on the result of the examination of the load - deformation relationship in the pile - rigid frame model
using the dimensions of the steel pipe piles generally used in the open-type wharf.
Py= 0.82 Puall
P uall =
2M
pi
S --------------------
(9.6.6)
1
h + -- i b i
where
Mpi fully plastic state moment of the i-th pile calculated using equation (9.6.7) to appear later (kNm)
hi, bi refer to 9.5.4 Member Forces Acting on Individual Piles [Technical Notes] (1).
The term Puall indicates the horizontal load level at which the bending moments of all the piles of the wharf
reach the fully plastic state moments both at the pile heads and underground virtual fixed points. This is the
upper limit load that the wharf can withstand from the viewpoint of structural analysis. The equation that Py
equals to 82% of Puall is based on the results of parametric analysis performed on open-type wharves of ordinary
sizes.
(5) The residual displacement can be obtained by drawing a straight line with the inclination of the initial gradient
(initial rigidity) from the point of the maximum response displacement in the horizontal load - displacement
relationship and by reading off the displacement at its point of crossing with the abscissa.
9.6.5 Examination of Load Carrying Capacity Using Elasto-Plastic Analysis

In the examination of the load carrying capacity of an open-type wharf using elasto-plastic analysis, the
pile-supported section shall be represented by a frame structure model, and the nonlinearity of steel pipe
piles, concrete superstructure, and the ground shall be taken into consideration.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In the examination of the earthquake-resistant performance of an open-type wharf as an ordinary mooring
equipment, it is recommended to define a state before the generation of a plastic hinge in the ground (i.e., fully
plastic state moment) as the ultimate state, because it is difficult to discover buckling of a steel pipe pile in the
underground and to repair it. In addition, examination of maximum displacement and residual displacement
should also be made by using the allowable displacement ductility factor listed in Table T- 9.6.2 as a reference.
The section forces generated in the reinforced concrete superstructure and the pile bearing capacity should also
be examined.
(2) In the examination with respect to the Level 1 ground motion of open-type wharves constructed as high seismic
resistant facilities, examination should be made as to whether they are within the elastic behavior limits. The
examination of this type of wharves with respect to the Level 2 seismic motion may be made in the same manner
as that of (1).
(3) The load carrying capacity during an earthquake is calculated by means of equation (9.6.4) using the horizontal
displacement of the superstructure that corresponds to the tolerable damage level and the elastic limit load
obtained from the elasto-plastic analysis. In this calculation, the ratio q of the secondary to the primary gradients
in the load - horizontal displacement relationship and the displacement ductility factor corresponding to the
displacement of the tolerable damage level may be defined as shown in Fig. T- 9.6.5.
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Load
Tolerable damage level

-
Displacement
Fig. T- 9.6.5 Examination of Load Carrying Capacity Using Elasto-Plastic Method
Bilinear model
Trilinear model
Curvature
Fig. T- 9.6.6 Bending Moment - Curvature Relationship of Steel Pipe Pile
(4) Analysis using the elasto-plastic method is usually made in the following manner:
N
M y = f y ---- Z e
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(a) Analysis is performed by reducing the flexural rigidity of a steel pipe pile depending on the magnitudes of the
axial force and bending moment that are generated in the pile. The relationship between the bending moment
and curvature of a steel pipe pile is represented by a trilinear model that has an upper limit value equal to the
fully plastic state moment (see Fig. T- 9.6.6). A bilinear model (shown with the broken line in Fig. T- 9.6.6),
which makes the calculation simpler, may be used in place of the trilinear model in the cases of open-type
wharves of ordinary sizes, as there is no significant difference in calculation results between the bilinear and
trilinear models for those wharves.
The fully plastic state moment Mp, yielding moment My, yield curvature y, and fully plastic state
curvature p may be calculated by means of equation (9.6.7).
ap
M p = M p0 cos -------
2
(9.6.7)
Mp
My
f y = ------- , f p = ------- f y
My
EI
where
Mp0 fully plastic state moment of steel pipe pile when no axial force is acting (Nmm); Mp0 = Zp fy
Zp plastic sectional modulus of steel pipe pile (mm3); Z p = ( 4 3 ) [ r 3 ( r t ) 3 ]
r radius of steel pipe pile (mm)
a ratio of the acting axial force N to the yield axial force N0 (N0 = Afy) when no bending moment is acting
A cross-sectional area of steel pipe pile (mm2)
Ze sectional modulus of steel pipe pile in the elastic domain (mm3)
EI flexural rigidity of steel pipe pile (Nmm2)
fy design yield strength of steel pipe pile (N/mm2)
(b) The element characteristics of reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete superstructure should be obtained
from an elasto-plastic model that is defined by the bending moment - curvature relationship shown in Fig. T9.6.7.
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The moments Mc, My, and Mu in the figure

represent the cracking moment, reinfocing bar
yield moment, and ultimate bending moment,
respectively. As a standard procedure, the
ultimate bending moment etc. should be
calculated using the limit state design method
described in Part , Chapter 3 Concrete.
Since the load carrying capacity decreases
sharply when a shear failure occurs in the
concrete structure, it is necessary to design it in
such a way that a bending failure occurs before a
shearing failure and a sufficient degree of safety
is secured against the shear failure.
Curvature
Fig. T- 9.6.7 Bending Moment - Curvature Relationship
of Concrete Superstructure
(c) The pushing-in bearing capacity of pile should be calculated by means of a bilinear model whose initial
gradient and upper limit are equal to the axial subgrade reaction coefficient of the pile and the pile pushing-in
upper limit PNU, respectively. The latter is calculated by equation (9.6.8).
(9.6.8)
PNU = min (Ru, Rpu)
where
Ru ultimate bearing capacity of the pile that is calculated from the ground conditions (kN) (refer to Part
, 4.1.5 Estimation of Ultimate Axial Bearing Capacity by Static Bearing Capacity Formulas.)
Rpu upper limit of pushing-in bearing capacity that is calculated from the axial compressive load
corresponding to the yield point of steel pipe pile (kN)
(d) The pulling-out bearing capacity of pile should be evaluated with a bilinear-type elasto-plastic model. The
upper limit of pulling-out bearing capacity should be calculated in accordance with Part , 4.2.3 Maximum
Pulling Resistance of Single Pile.
(e) The horizontal subgrade reaction may normally be represented by a bilinear-type elasto-plastic model.
(5) In many cases, the ultimate state of flexural deformation performance of a steel pipe pile is determined by the
plastic buckling and/or long column buckling of the steel pipe. The strain (emax) at local buckling in a steel pipe
pile is given by the following equation:
emax = 0.44 t / D
where
D diameter of steel pipe pile (mm)
(9.6.9)
When it is necessary to prevent the local buckling of steel pipe piles, it is necessary to perform examination by
assuming that generation of the strain calculated by equation (9.6.9) is the ultimate state. The magnitude of the
bending moment that produces the strain at local buckling is almost equal to the value of the fully plastic state
bending moment calculated by equation (9.6.7) in steel pipe piles of ordinary dimensions that are used for opentype wharves.
9.7 Design of Earth-Retaining Section (Notification Article 69, Clause 2 )

The examination of the structural stability of the earth-retaining section of open-type wharf on vertical
piles shall be made in accordance with the relevant structural stability guidelines, such as Chapter 4
Gravity Type Quaywalls and Chapter 5 Sheet Pile Quaywalls in consideration of its structural type.
[Technical Notes]
Whenever possible, the superstructure and the earth-retaining section of an open-type wharf should be connected by
means of a simply supported slab having clearances or buffer material provided on the both sides of slab, in order to
prevent the forces acting on the earth-retaining section from being transmitted to the superstructure and to be able to
accommodate the differential settlements between the superstructure and the eath-retaining section. The
superstructure and the earth-retaining section are usually constructed in such a way that the minimum clearance
roughly equal to the maximum horizontal displacement of the open-type wharf be secured between them.

In principle, the stability of the earth-retaining section of open-type wharf on vertical piles against circular
slip shall be examined in accordance with Part , 6.2.1 Stability Analysis Using Circular Slip Surface
Method.
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9.9 Detailed Design

9.9.1 Load Combinations for Superstructure Design
The loads to be used for superstructure design shall be an appropriate combination of the deadweights and
surcharges acting on the deck slab, access bridges, and beams, in order to secure the safety of the opentype wharf.
[Technical Notes]
In the design of superstructure, the following load combinations should be used and the superstructure should be safe
against their actions.
(1) Deck Slab and Access Bridge
deadweight and static load
deadweight and live load
deadweight and uplift
(2) Beam
deadweight and static load
deadweight and live load
deadweight, moment generated at pile head due to the action of horizontal force, and static load when the
horizontal force is acting
load due to elastic settlement of the piles
9.9.2 Calculation of Reinforcing Bar Arrangement of Superstructure

In principle, calculation of reinforcing bar arrangement of reinforced or prestressed concrete superstructures shall be made based on the limit state design method.
[Commentary]
(1) Sufficient reinforcement should be provided against shear failure of the superstructure so that shear failure will
not precede bending failure.
(2) Since the superstructure is exposed to severe deterioration environment than other structures, it is necessary to
take appropriate measures to satisfy the requirements for structural details such as the covering depth and the
reinforcement required for the control of crack width under the serviceability limit state, so that a sufficient level
of durability is retained.
9.9.3 Design of Pile Head

Pile heads shall be designed to be safe against the various stresses generated there.
[Commentary]
(1) The design of pile heads should be performed in accordance with Part
, 4.5.2 Design of Joints between Piles
and Superstructure.
(2) Because the premise of the seismic design of open-type wharf is such that the joints between the superstructure
and piles function as fully rigid joints, detailed design should be made to satisfy this condition during an
earthquake as well.
(3) When welding is applied in construction, examination should be made to confirm that the weld connections
between reinforcing bars and plates as well as those between those steel piles and plates are strong enough.
[Technical Notes]
(1) It is recommended that the method of joining the pile heads and the superstructure and the embedment length of
piles in the superstructure be determined through loading tests or other relevant measures, because the bond
strength characteristics of a joint between a steel pipe and concrete have not fully been clarified yet. When it is
not possible to conduct loading tests, the embedment length may be determined using the methods described in
paragraphs (2) and (3) below. It should be borne in mind that when the fixed condition (fully rigid joint) defined
in the design or earthquake-resistant performance examination is not satisfied in the pile head section, the
magnitude of horizontal displacement of the superstructure tends to become larger than that estimated in the
design.
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(2) When the axial forces are to be transmitted from the beams to the piles through the bonding between the
circumference of pile heads and the concrete, the embedment length may be determined by means of the
following methods in consideration of the cross-sectional shape of piles.
Because the thickness of the concrete above the pile heads is usually small in open-type wharf, the
embedment length of pile is calculated in accordance with equation (9.9.1) on the assumption that there is no
punching shear of concrete and the loads are transmitted from the beams to piles only through the bonding
between the pile circumference and concrete without assistance of shear strengh of concrete against punching.
P
(9.9.1)
l -------------g b
y f bod
where
l embedment length (mm)
P calculated vasue of axial force acting on pile in design (N)
y outer perimeter of the cross section of pile (mm)
fbod design bond strength between the pile and concrete (N/mm2)
g b element factor (it may be assumed as g b = 1.0)
When a design value fbod for the bond strength between the pile and concrete cannot be obtained from
experiments etc., the equation fbod = 0.11 fck' 2/3 /gc may be used, because the main reinforcing bars of the beam
are usually fixed to the pile heads and this makes the bond strength between the pile and concrete roughly equal
to that between the round bars and concrete. The terms fck' and gc represent the characteristic value of the
compressive strength of concrete (N/mm2) and the material factor of concrete (it may be assumed that gc = 1.3),
respectively.
(3) The embedment length required for the transmission of the pile head
moment should be determined in accordance with Part , 4.5.2
Design of Joints between Piles and Superstructure. This determination should theoretically be made against the combined stress of
the bearing stress of the pile owing to the horizontal force and that
owing to the bending moment, but the bearing stress owing to the
horizontal force is normally negligibly small and thus it may be
ignored.
It is advisable not to make the concrete slab width B of the part
adjoining the pile too small (see Fig. T- 9.9.1). When this width is
insufficient, concrete will scale off during the punching shear state
and concrete will be unable to bear the bearing stress.
Fig. T- 9.9.1 Bearing Stress Generated

in Pile Head
[Reference]
1) Hiroshi YOKOTA, Naoto TAKEHANA, Kenichiro MINAMI, Kunio TAKAHASHI, Noriyuki KAWABATA: Consideration
of design seismic coefficients of an open type wharf based on dynamic response analyses , Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 37, No. 2,
1998, pp. 75-130 (in Japanese).
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Chapter 10 Open-Type Wharves on Coupled Raking Piles

The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to open-type wharves with coupled raking piles that bear the
horizontal force acting on the wharf.
[Commentary]
An open-type wharf on coupled raking piles is a wharf structure that resists the horizontal force acting on the wharf
(including the earthquake force, fender reaction force, and tractive force) with coupled raking piles. Therefore, this
type of wharves must be constructed on the ground that yields the sufficient bearing capacity for coupled raking piles.
Because the coupled raking piles are so layed out to resist the horizontal forces in the direction normal to the face line
of the wharf, the horizontal displacement in that direction is smaller than that of open-type wharves on vertical piles.
Coupled raking piles are seldom layed out to resist the horizontal forces in the direction of wharf face line. Therefore,
it is desirable to examine the strength of the wharf against the horizontal force parrallel to the face line in the manner
same as the examination for open-type wharves on vertical piles.
The examination of the strength of wharf during an earthquake should be made using the seismic coefficient
method, but when earthquake-resistant performance needs to be examined, the nonlinear dynamic analysis method or
the elasto-plastic analysis method described in 9.6.2 Examination Method of Earthquake-Resistant Performance
[Technical Notes] (1) should be used. Otherwise open-type wharves on coupled raking piles may basically be
considered the same as open-type wharves on vertical piles.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Figure T- 10.1.1 shows an example of open-type wharf on coupled raking piles.
Prestressed
Concrete girder
Water supply pipe
LWL
Stone fill
ne
sto
or
Ar
on
ti
da
les
bb
ru
un
Fo
Replaced quarry refuse
Steel
pipe pile
Steel
pipe pile
Steel
pipe pile
(Units: m)
Fig. T- 10.1.1 Example of Open-Type Wharf on Coupled Raking Piles
(2) When coupled raking piles are not layed out in a manner to resist the forces in the direction of wharf face line,
the wharf resists them with the lateral resistance of piles. In this case, the calculation of the embedded length of
piles must be made by examining their lateral resistance.
(3) The uplift forces acting on the superstructure and access bridges should be calculated in accordance with Part,
5.5.1 Uplift Acting on Horizontal Plate near the Still Water Level.
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10.2 Layout and Dimensions

10.2.1 Size of Deck Block and Layout of Piles
The size of a deck block and the layout of piles of open-type wharf on coupled raking piles shall be
determined in accordance with 9.2.1 Size of Deck Block and Layout of Piles.
[Technical Notes]
The distance between piles or between centers of coupled raking piles is usually set to 4 to 6 m in consideration of
loading conditions and construction work. It is desirable to use a large raking angle of coupled piles from the
viewpoint of securing resistance against horizontal force, but in many cases an inclination of 1: 0.33 to 1: 0.2 is used
because of constraints of keeping minimum distances from other piles and construction work-related constraints such
as the capacity of pile driving equipment available.
10.2.2 Dimensions of Supersutructure

The dimensions of the superstructure of open-type wharf on coupled raking piles shall be determined in
accordance with 9.2.2 Dimensions of Superstructure.
[Technical Notes]
The beam width of the superstructure of open-type wharf on coupled raking piles varies depending on the method of
joining the heads of coupled piles, but it ordinarily becomes wider than that on vertical piles.
10.2.3 Arrangement of Fenders and Bollards

The arrangement of fenders and bollards shall be determined in accordance with 9.2.3 Arrangement of
Fenders and Bollards.
10.3 External Forces Acting on Open-Type Wharf on Coupled Raking Piles

10.3.1 Design External Forces
The external forces acting on open-type wharf on coupled raking piles shall be determined in accordance
with 9.3.1 Design External Forces.
[Technical Notes]
When designing piles for an open-type wharf on coupled raking piles, a deadweight of 21 kN/m2 may be used as the
weight of reinforced concrete superstructure.
10.3.2 Calculation of Fender Reaction Force

The calculation of fender reaction force shall be made in accordance with 9.3.2 Calculation of Fender
Reaction Force.
10.4 Assumptions Concerning Sea Bottom Ground

10.4.1 Determination of Slope Inclination
The determination of the inclination of slope beneath the superstructure shall be made in accordance with
9.4.1 Determination of Slope Inclination.
10.4.2 Virtual Ground Surface
Refer to 9.4.2 Virtual Ground Surface.
10.5 Determination of Forces Acting on Piles and Cross Sections of Piles

10.5.1 Horizontal Force Transmitted to Heads of Coupled Raking Piles (Notification Article 70,
Clause 1)
The horizontal forces that are transmitted to the heads of the coupled raking piles of open-type wharf on
coupled raking piles shall be calculated appropriately in consideration of the cross sections, raking angles,
and lengths of coupled piles. In this calculation, it can be assumed that the horizontal forces are totally
borne by the coupled raking piles.
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[Technical Notes]
(1) When the cross section and/or the raking angle differ among the piles, the horizontal force to be transmitted to
the head of each pair of coupled raking piles should be calculated using equation (10.5.1) or (10.5.2) (see Fig. T10.5.1).
(a) When the piles can be fully considered as bearing piles
When it is not necessary to consider the rotation of the deck block:
Ci
H i = ---------- H
S Ci
(10.5.1)
When it is necessary to consider the rotation of the deck block:

Ci
Ci xi
- eH
H i = ---------- H + ---------------S Ci
S Ci x i2
i
(10.5.2)
where
sin 2 ( q i1 + q i2 )
C i = ---------------------------------------------------------------------- ( N m )
l i1
l i2
--------------- cos 2 q i2 --------------- cos 2 q i1
A i1 E i1
A i2 E i2
H horizontal force acting on the deck block (N/m)
horizontal force to be transmitted to the i-th pair of coupled raking piles (N/m)
H
i
e distance between the centerline of coupled raking piles group and the point at which the
horizontal force acts (m)
xi distance between the i-th pair of coupled raking piles and the centerline of coupled raking piles
group (m)
li total length of the pile (m); when there is a pulling force, the length l for friction pile is used.
Ai cross-sectional area of pile of the i-th pair of raking piles (m2)
Ei elastic modulus of pile of the i-th pair of raking piles (N/m2)
qi1,qi2 angle between piles of the i-th pair of raking piles and vertical plane ()
In the above, the subscripts 1 and 2 indicate pile numbers within a pair of coupled raking piles. The
coordinate of the centerline of the coupled raking piles group can be calculated using the equation SCi i/
SCi.The valuable i indicates the coordinate of each pair of coupled raking piles in the direction of wharf
face line relative to a given coordinate origin.
(b) When the piles can be fully considered as friction piles:
Sandy soil
Equations (10.5.1) and (10.5.2) are used with li being replaced with ( 2l i + l i ) 3 .
Cohesive soil
Equations (10.5.1) and (10.5.2) are used with li being replaced with ( l i + li ) 2 .
where
l i
li
length of the portion of the i-th pile along which skin friction does not act effectively (m)
total length of the i-th pile (m)
Horizontal force
Center line of coupled raking piles group

Vertical pile
Coupled raking piles

Fig. T- 10.5.1 Distance between the Centerline of the Coupled Piles Group and Each Pair of Coupled Raking Piles
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(2) When the cross section, raking angle and length are equal among all raking piles, the horizontal force
transmitted to each pair of coupled raking piles is calculated by means of equations (10.5.3) and (10.5.4).
(a) When it is not neccesary to consider the rotation of the deck block:
1
H i = --- H
n
where
n number of couples of piles
(10.5.3)
(b) When it is neccesary to consider the rotation of the deck block:

xi
1
- eH
H i = --- H + --------n
S x 2i
(10.5.4)
10.5.2 Vertical Load Transmitted to Heads of Coupled Raking Piles (Notification Article 70, Clause 2)
The vertical load transmitted to each pair of coupled raking piles shall be calculated appropriately in
consideration of the layout and structure of the piles as well as the external forces acting on the wharf.
[Technical Notes]
For the pushing-in force acting on the piles due to each vertical load, the reaction force calculated by assuming the
superstructure as a simply supported beam at the locations of piles may be used.
10.5.3 Pushing-In and Pulling-Out Forces of Coupled Raking Piles (Notification Article 70, Clause 3)
The pushing-in and pulling-out forces of each pair of coupled raking piles shall be calculated appropriately
based on the vertical and horizontal loads defined in consideration of the use status of the wharf.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The pushing-in and pulling-out forces of each raking pile may be calculated in accordance with Part , 4.3.6
Lateral Bearing Capacity of Coupled Piles using (a) the horizontal force transmitted to each pair of coupled
raking piles that is calculated in accordance with 10.5.1 Horizontal Force Transmitted to Heads of Coupled
Raking Piles and (b) the vertical load transmitted to the head of a pair of coupled raking piles that is calculated
in accordance with 10.5.2 Vertical Load Transmitted to Heads of Coupled Raking Piles.
(2) The pushing-in force of each vertical pile within a open-type wharf on coupled raking piles should be evaluated
as the reaction force calculated in accordance with 10.5.2 Vertical Load Transmitted to Heads of Coupled
Raking Piles.
10.5.4 Cross-Sectional Stresses of Piles

Cross-sectional stresses of piles shall be calculated appropriately by considering each pile as a pile
subjected to the axial force and bending moment.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The cross-sectional stresses of vertical piles should be calculated as a pile subject to the axial load, and those of
raking piles should be calculated as a pile subject to either the axial load alone or both the axial load and bending
moment (refer to 9.5.5 Cross-Sectional Stresses of Piles).
(2) The bearing capacity of raking piles can be calculated by referring to the provisions of [Technical Notes] (1) or
(2) in Part , 4.3.6 Lateral Bearing Capacity of Coupled Piles. When using the method prescribed in (1), it is
recommended to reduce the allowable stresses of piles by 20% to 30% from those prescribed in 9.5.5 CrossSectional Stresses of Piles [Technical Notes] (3) in or order to neutralize the effects of bending moments and
secondary stresses that are neglected in this design method.
(3) It is usual that the coupled raking piles have their inclinations in the direction perpendicular to the face line of an
open-type wharf. Therefore, it is normal to design the piles as those subject to the axial load against external
forces acting perpendicular to the face line. (refer to 10.6 Examination of Strength of Wharf in the Direction
of Its Face Line).
(4) Open-type wharves on coupled raking piles are normally constructed on the ground with sufficiently large
bearing capacity. Therefore, the piles should be carefully designed by examining the effects of impact stresses,
buckling, and others during pile driving (refer to Part , 4.5.1 Examinations of Loads during Construction).
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10.6 Examination of Strength of Wharf in the Direction of Its Face Line

(1) When coupled raking piles are so layed out to resist the forces acting on the wharf in the direction of
its face line, the strength of wharf in the direction of its face line shall be examined in accordance with
the method described in 10.5 Determination of Forces Acting on Piles and Cross Sections of Piles,
in the manner same as that for examination of strength with respect to the direction normal to the
wharf face line.
(2) When there is no coupled raking pile layed out to resist forces acting on the wharf in the direction of
its face line, examination of strength shall basically be made in accordance with 9.5. Design of Piles
in the manner same as that for open-type wharves on vertical piles.
10.7 Embedded Length of Raking Pile

The bearing capacity of raking pile shall be examined in accordance with 9.5.6 Examination of
Embedded Length for Bearing Capacity and 9.5.7 Examination of Embedded Length for Lateral
Resistance.
10.8 Design of Earth-Retaining Section

The design of earth-retaining section shall be performed in accordance with 9.7 Design of EarthRetaining Section.

The stability against circular slip shall be examined in accordance with 9.8 Examination of Stability
against Circular Slip.
10.10Detailed Design
The detailed design of the coping and connection plate shall be performed in accordance with 9.9 Detailed
Design.
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Chapter 11 Detached Pier

The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to the design of a detached pier, which comprises a detached
pier section and an earth-retaining section behind the pier.
[Technical Notes]
Pine pile
Figure T- 11.1.1 shows an example of a cross section of detached pier.
Steel sheet
pile type
Replaced sand
Cohesive soil
Cohesive soil
Sandy soil
(Units:m)
Fig. T- 11.1.1 Example of Cross Section of Detached Pier

A detached pier shall be designed to be stable against all the loads acting on the piers and girders. In
addition, the type and dimensions of bridge crane, the traveling characteristics of crane, and the settlement
of rails after installation shall be duly considered in determination of the structure of detached pier.
11.3 Design of Detached Pier

11.3.1 Layout and Dimensions
The distance between the piers and the land, the gauge of rails for crane, and the span between piers in the
direction of the face line shall be determined from the viewpoint of cost and easiness of construction work,
by considering the dimensions of crane, the ground conditions of sea bottom, and others.
11.3.2 External Forces and Loads
In principle, external forces and loads to be considered in the design of a detached pier shall be the
following:
(1) Vertical Forces
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Wheel loads of cargo handling equipment

Tractive forces of vessels
Deadweight of superstructure
Deadweight of piers
(2) Horizontal Forces

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Tractive forces of vessels

Berthing force of vessels
Wind load acting on cargo handling equipment
Seismic force acting on cargo handling equipment
Seismic force acting on superstructure
Seismic force acting on piers
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[Commentary]
(1) In the design of a detached pier, the wave force and uplift, and the wind load acting on the superstructure are
taken into consideration as appropriate, in addition to the forces listed above.
(2) The braking force of the cargo handling equipment is always included in the horizontal forces for the design of
girders, but it is taken into account as the necessity arises in the design of piers.
11.3.3 Design of Piers

Piers shall be designed appropriately in consideration of their structural type.
[Commentary]
Design of piers should be carried out in accordance with Chapter 9 Open-Type Wharves on Vertical Piles or
Chapter 10 Open-Type Wharves on Coupled Raking Piles. However, design of piers of gravity type or steel sheet
pile cellular type should be made by referring to Chapter 4 Gravity Type Quaywalls or Chapter 7 Steel Sheet
Pile Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywalls, respectively.
11.3.4 Design of Girder

Girders shall be designed to be safe against the vertical as well as horizontal forces and loads.
[Commentary]
Structural elements having the sufficient strength against the expected vertical and horizontal forces should be used
for the girders of a detached pier, because the rails for a crane are directly installed on the girders. In the examination
of vertical loads, the increase in the wheel loads due to the wind load or earthquake force acting on the bridge crane
should be taken into account.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Girders are often designed as a simple beam to cope with the differential settlement of the piers.
(2) When both legs of the bridge crane are fixed ones, the horizontal load acting on each leg is determined by
apportioning the total horizontal load to each leg based on the proportion of the wheel load. When the bridge
crane has a fixed leg and a suspended leg, the total horizontal load should be given to the fixed leg for making
the design on the safer side. At the same time, however, the horizontal force being one-half of the force acting on
one fixed leg in the case of the both legs being fixed should be applied to the suspended leg.
11.4 Ancillary Equipment

Ancillary equipment such as fenders, mooring posts and gangways shall be provided with a detached pier.
[Technical Notes]
For fenders and mooring posts, Chapter 19 Ancillary Facilities can be referred to. For gangways and slabs, a
sidewalk live load is set as approximately 5.0 kN/m2.
11.5 Detailed Design

11.5.1 Superstructure
The cross section of the superstructure shall be determined in accordance with 9.9.1 Load Combinations
for Superstructure Design.
11.5.2 Gangways
Gangways shall be designed in accordance with the Specifications for Highway Bridges and
Commentary (Japan Road Association) and the Technical Standards for Installation of Grade Separation
Facilities and Commentary (Japan Road Association).
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Chapter 12 Floating Piers

(1) The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to floating piers having floating bodies (hereinafter
referred to as pontoons) that are moored by means of mooring chains, etc.
(2) The design methods given in this chapter shalls be applied to floating piers installed in places where
the actions from waves, tidal currents, and winds are relatively weak.
[Commentary]
(1) Figures C-12.1.1 and C-12.1.2 show the main components of a floating pier and the structure of a pontoon. A
floating pier comprises pontoons, an access bridge that connects the pontoons with land, gangways that
interconnect pontoons, mooring chains that moor pontoons, mooring anchors, and other elements.
(2) Design of various floating structures to be utilized by unspecified groups of many people should also be
performed in accordance with the guidelines given in this chapter.
Mooring anchor
Mooring
chain
Pontoon
Gangways
Access bridge
Fig. C-12.1.1 Notation of Respective Parts of Floating Pier
chain hole
Protective
steel
sheet
Fender
Manhole
Partition
wall
Fairleader
Chain post Mooring post
Partition
wall Supporting
beam
Slab
Side wall
Bottom slab
Fig. C-12.1.2 Notation of Respective Parts of Pontoon
[Technical Notes]
When the site conditions are outside the coverage of this chapter, design work is to be conducted in accordance with
the Technical Manual for Floating Body Structures and by referring to Part , 5.5 Wave Force Acting on
Structure Located near the Still Water Level, Part , Chapter 8 External Forces Acting on Floating Body
and Its Motions, and Part , 3.3.2 Floating Breakwater as necessary.
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Floating piers shall be so designed that they are stable and safe during the handling and loading / unloading
of cargoes and the embarking / disembarking of passengers and vehicles and that they have sufficient
durability. The mooring system including mooring chains and anchors shall be designed to have sufficient
strength against the anticipated external forces.
12.3 Design of Pontoon

12.3.1 Dimensions of Pontoon (Notification Article 72, Clause 3)
A pontoon shall have a surface area and freeboard appropriate for its purpose of utilization. Dimensions of
a pontoon shall be appropriate to make it stable against the external forces and loads acting on it.
12.3.2 External Forces and Loads Acting on Pontoon
The external forces and loads that shall be considered in the design of a pontoon are as follows:
(1) Static load and live load
(2) Reaction forces of gangways and access bridge
(3) Hydrostatic pressure
(4) Deadweight
(5) Counterweight
[Commentary]
The fender reaction force, wave force, current force, and dynamic water pressure need not be considered unless
required to do so because of special site conditions etc. However, when there is a reasonable risk that the pontoon
may be subjected to wave actions, it is necessary to consider the following forces: the wave forces exerted upon the
stationary pontoon that is assumed to be rigidly fixed in position and the fluid forces due to the motions of the
pontoon 1) (refer to Part , Chapter 8 External Forces Acting on Floating Body and Its Motions). In this case,
the mooring force is to be calculated by taking into consideration the motions of the pontoon.
[Technical Notes]
A live load of 5.0 kN/m2 for passengers is commonly used for floating piers, which are mainly used for people
boarding and unboarding passenger ships.
12.3.3 Stability of Pontoon (Notification Article 72, Clause 4)

Pontoons shall be designed appropriately in such a way that the structural stability levels required for their
purposes of utilization are secured.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In the examination of the stability of a pontoon, the following requirements should be satisfied:
(a) The pontoon must satisfy the stability condition of a floating body and have the required freeboard, even with
actions of the reaction force from the access bridge and full surcharge on the deck and with presence of some
water inside the pontoon owing to leakage.
(b) Even when the full surcharge on the deck is loaded on only one side of deck divided by the longitudinal
symmetrical axis of the pontoon and the reaction force from an access bridge is applied on this side (if the
bridge is attached there), the pontoon must satisfy the stability condition of a floating body and the inclination
of the deck should be equal to or less than 1:10 with the smallest freeboard of 0 or more.
(2) The height of the water accumulated inside the pontoon by leakeage to be considered in the examination of
pontoon stability is usually taken at 10% of the height of pontoon. The freeboard to be maintained in this case is
mostly about 0.5 m.
(3) When the pontoon is subjected to a uniformly distributed load, the pontoon may be regarded as stable when
equation (12.3.1) is satisfied.
gwI
(12.3.1)
-------- CG > 0
W
where
I geometrical moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area at the still water level with respect to the
longitudinal axis (m4)
W weight of pontoon and uniformly distributed load (kN)
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gw specific weight of seawater (kN/m3)
CG distance between the center of buoyancy and that of gravivity
When the pontoon is partially filled with water by leakage, the pontoon may be regarded as stable when equation
(12.3.2) is satisfied. The symbols W, I, C, and G of the equation refer to those at the state with water inside.
gw
----- ( I Si ) CG > 0
(12.3.2)
W
where
i geometrical moment of inertia of the water surface inside each chamber with respect to its central axis
parallel to the rotation axis of the pontoon (m4)
When the pontoon is subjected to an eccentric load, the pontoon may be regarded as stable when the value of
tan obtained by solving equation (12.3.3) satisfies equation (12.3.4) (see Fig. T-12.3.1).
b2
d
b 2 tan a
-------- tan 2 a + c --- tan a P [ a + ( h c ) tan a ] = 0
( W 1 + P ) -----------------------2
12d cos 2 a 24d
2( h d)
tan a < -------------------b
1
tan a < -----10
where
W1 weight of pontoon (kN)
P total force of eccentric load (kN)
b width of pontoon (m)
h height of pontoon (m)
d draft of pontoon when P is applied to the center of pontoon (m)
c height of the center of gravity of the pontoon measured from the bottom (m)
a deviation of P from the center axis of pontoon (m)
a inclination angle of pontoon ()
(12.3.3)
(12.3.4)
Fig. T-12.3.1 Stability of Pontoon Subjected to Eccentric Load
12.3.4 Design of Individual Parts of Pontoon (Notification Article 72, Clause 5)

Stresses generated in the individual parts that comprise the pontoon shall be examined by using an
appropriate method selected in consideration of the use of the pontoon, external forces and loads acting on
the respective parts, and their structural characteristics.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Floor slab
A floor slab is normally designed as a two-way slab fixed on four sides with supporting beams and side walls
against the loads that yield the largest stress out of the following combinations of loads.:
(a) When only static load acts on a pontoon
Static load and deadweight
(b) When live load acts on a pontoon
Live load and deadweight
(c) When the supporting point of an access bridge is set on a pontoon (without adjustment tower)
Supporting point reaction force of an access bridge and deadweight
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(2) Side Walls

A side wall is normally designed as a two-way slab fixed on four sides with a floor slab, a bottom slab, and side
walls or supporting beams, against hydrostatic pressure acting when the pontoon submerges by 0.5 m above the
deck.
(3) Bottom Slab
A bottom slab is normally designed as a two-way slab fixed on four sides with side walls or supporting beams,
against hydrostatic pressure acting when the pontoon submerges by 0.5 m above the deck.
(4) Partition Walls
A partition wall is designed as a slab fixed on four sides.
(5) Supporting Beams and Supports
The supporting beams of the floor slab, bottom slab and sidewalls and the center support are normally designed
as a rigid frame box under the condition that the maximum load is acting on the floor slab of the pontoon and the
hydrostatic pressure for the draft of the pontoon being equal to its height is applied.
(6) When the wave actions are to be taken into consideration, calculations of section forces are made using Mullers
equation 2), the method of Prestressed Concrete Barge, or Dn Rule. When it is necessary to consider effects
of the motions of the floating body, waves height and period, and water depth, the method with cross-sectional
division by Ueda et al 1), 3), 4), 5) may be used.
12.4 Design of Mooring System

12.4.1 Mooring Method (Notification Article 72, Clause 1)
The method to moor the pontoons of a floating pier shall be selected appropriately in consideration of the
natural conditions of the installation area so that the floating pier can serve its purposes adequately.
12.4.2 Design of Mooring Chain
[1] Design External Forces (Notification Article 72, Clause 6)
The structure of mooring chains shall be examined by using an appropriate method in such a way that the
chains can hold securely a pontoon in position under the action of the largest force.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The guidelines given in this section applies for the pontoons moored by chains, which have been used most
frequently in floating pier design.
(2) With regard to external forces, the combination among the following that gives the largest total force may be
used.
(a) Fender reaction force and tidal current force
(b) Tractive force of ships mooring lines and tidal current force
(c) Wave force and tidal current force
[2] Setting of Chain

Each chain shall be set to one of the chain posts provided at the four corners of a pontoon through a chain
hole, and fixed to the sea bottom by an anchor.
[3] Diameter of Chain
The diameter of the chain shall be determined not to be broken during the high tide by the external forces
specified in [1] Design External Forces.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The maximum tension that acts on each chain is ideally determined through dynamic analysis of the chain and
the pontoon, but as this is very difficult, static analysis may be used as a second-best method. A chain is
normally designed on the condition that only one chain must resist against all the external forces (see Fig. T12.4.1).
Assuming that the chain forms a catenary line, the maximum tension that acts on the chain is given by
equation (12.4.1).
T = P sec q2
(12.4.1)
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The horizontal force that acts on the mooring anchor is the same as the horizontal force acting on the pontoon,
and the vertical force acting on the anchor is given by equation (12.4.2).
Va = P tanq1
(12.4.2)
The vertical force that acts on the joint between the chain and the pontoon is given by equation (12.4.3).
Vb = P tan q2
(12.4.3)
The angles q1 and q2 are calculated by solving equation (12.4.4) with an assumed chain length l and an assumed
chain weight w per unit length of the chain.
P
(12.4.4)
l = ---- ( tan q 2 tan q 1 )
w
P
h = ---- ( sec q 2 sec q 1 )
w
Fig. T-12.4.1 Notations Related with Mooring Chain
The horizontal distance between a mooring anchor and the pontoon when a horizontal force is acting on the
pontoon is given by equation (12.4.5), and thus the amount of horizontal shift of the pontoon from its stationary
position under no horizontal force can be easily evaluated.
P
(12.4.5)
K h = ---- [ sinh 1 ( tan q 2 ) sinh 1 ( tan q 1 ) ]
w
Because the catenary line of the chain of normal diameter can be approximately represented with a straight line,
it can be assumed in equations (12.4.1) to (12.4.3) that q 2 = q 1 = sin 1 ( h l ) and K h = l 2 h 2 .
where
T maximum tension that acts on the chain (kN)
P horizontal external force (kN)
Va vertical force that acts on the mooring anchor (kN)
Vb vertical force that acts on the joint between the chain and pontoon(kN)
q1 angle that the chain makes with the horizontal plane at the joint between the mooring anchor and chain
()
q2 angle that the chain makes with the horizontal plane at the joint between the mooring chain and pontoon
()
l length of the chain (m)
w submerged weight per unit length of the chain (kN/m)
h water depth beneath the bottom of pontoon (m)
Kh horizontal distance between the mooring anchor and the joint between the pontoon and chain (m)
(2) In the determination of the diameter of the chain, careful consideration should be given to the abrasion,
corrosion, and biofouling of chain. In addition, appropriate maintenance work needs to be carried out on the
chain, including periodical checks on the chain and its replacement on an as-necessary basis.
(3) When determining the chain diameter using numerical dynamic simulation, the characteristics of displacement restoration force relationship of the mooring system need to be determined using an appropriate method such as the
catenary theory 6).
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12.4.3 Design of Mooring Anchor

[1] Design External Forces
In the design of mooring anchors, the maximum tension that acts on the mooring chain as calculated in
12.4.2 Design of Mooring Chain shall be used as the design external force.
[Technical Notes]
The following values calculated in 12.4.2 Design of Mooring Chain may be used as external forces:
(a) Vertical force
: Va = P tan q1
(b) Horizontal force : P
For Va, P, and q1, refer to Fig. T-12.4.1.
[2] Design of Mooring Anchor (Notification Article 72, Clause 7)

A mooring anchor shall be capable of providing the resistance forces required to keep the pontoon stable
against the maximum tension that acts on the mooring chain and shall be designed with an appropriate
factor of safety.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Normally the following forces are considered as the resistance forces of a mooring anchor, but it is
recommended that in-situ stability tests be made for a mooring anchor:
(a) In the case of concrete block:
On clay:
Horizontal resistance force: Cohesion of the surfaces of bottom and sides, difference between the passive
and active earth pressures
Vertical resistance force:
Submerged weight, effective overburden weight
On sand:
Horizontal resistance force: Bottom friction force, difference between the passive and active earth pressures
Vertical resistance force: Submerged weight, effective overburden weight
The vertical force employed in the calculation of the bottom friction force is the difference between the
submerged weight of the block and the vertical component of the chain tension that acts on the block.
(b) In the case of steel mooring anchor:
Horizontal resistance force: Holding power
Vertical resistance force:
Submerged weight
The holding power of a steel mooring anchor is calculated by means of equation (12.4.6).
64748
Soft mud: TA = 17 WA2/3

Hard mud: TA = 10 WA2/3
Sand : TA = 3 WA
Flat rock: TA = 0.4 WA
where
TA holding power of the mooring anchor (kN)
WA submerged weight of the mooring anchor (kN)
(12.4.6)
(2) For mooring anchor stability, a safety factor of 1.2 or more may be used.
12.5 Design of Access Bridge and Gangway

12.5.1 Dimensions and Inclination (Notification Article 72, Clause 2)
An access bridge and gangways of a floating pier shall have appropriate dimensions and inclinations which
ensure that the floating pier provides the required handling performance for passengers, vehicles, and
cargoes.
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12.5.2 Design of Access Bridge and Gangway

Access bridges and gangways shall be designed in accordance with the Specifications for Highway
Bridges with Commentary (Japan Road Association) and the Technical Standard with Commentary for
Installation of Grade Separation Facilities (Japan Road Association).
12.5.3 Adjusting Tower
An adjusting tower shall be designed to be sufficiently safe against the reaction forces of the access bridge
and seismic forces.
[Technical Notes]
Figure T-12.5.1 shows an example of adjusting tower.
Fig. T-12.5.1 Adjusting Tower
[References]
1) Shigeru UEDA, Satoru SHIRAISHI, Kazuo KAI: Calculation method of shear force and bending moment induced on
pontoon type floating structures in random sea, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 505, 1984 (in Japanese).
2) Jean Muller: Structural Consideration Configurations , University of California Extension Berkeley, Seminar on Concrete
and Vessels, Sept. 1965.
3) Shigeru UEDA, Satoru SHIRAISHI, Takashi ISHISAKI: Calculation method of forces and moments induced on pontoon
type floating structures in waves, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 31, No. 2, 1992 (in Japanese).
4) Shigeru UEDA, Satoru SHIRAISHI, Takashi ISHISAKI: Example of calculation of forces and moments induced on pontoon
type floating structures with figures and tables of radiation forces, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 731, 1992 (in Japanese).
5) Shigeru UEDA: Analytical method of ship motions moored to quaywalls and the applications, Tech. Note of PHRI, No.
504, 1984 (in Japanese).
6) Shigeru UEDA, Satoru SHIRAISHI: Determination of optimum mooring chain and design charts using catenary theory,
-493-
Chapter 13 Dolphins
The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to the design of berthing facilities of dolphin-structure such
as pile type, steel cellular-bulkhead type, and caisson type.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Figure T-13.1.2 shows an example of a pile type dolphin
Breasting dolphin
Mooring dolphin
Mooring dolphin
Cargo handling platform
Cargo handling platform

Mooring post
Bitt
Mooring post
Bitt
Mooring post
HWOST
LWOST
original sea botton
Bearing subsoil
(Units: mm)
Fig. T-13.1.2 Example of Pile Type Dolphin
13.2 Layout
The layout of a dolphin-berth shall be determined appropriately in consideration of the dimensions of the
target vessels that are to use the berth, water depth, wind direction, wave direction, and tidal currents, as
well as no adverse effects on the navigation and anchorage of other vessels.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In the determination of the layout of breasting dolphins, the following items need to be examined:
(a) Dimensions of the target vessel
The broadside of large vessels that use dolphins is usually composed of a straight line defining the outline of
the central part (which accounts for about 3/4 of the length overall (L) of vessel) and two curves defining the
outline of the bow and stern parts (each of which accounts for about 1/8 of the length overall (L) of vessel). It
is recommended that the breasting dolphins be layed out in such a way that the vessels can be berthed to them
with the straight line part.
When a special cargo handling equipment is required for dolphins such as in the case of oil dolphins, a
cargo handling platform is installed midway between the breasting dolphins. In this case, it is desirable to
locate the cargo handling platform with its seaside front slightly backward from that of the breasting dolphins,
in order to prevent the ship berthing force acting directly on the cargo handling platform.
(b) Water depth, wind direction, wave direction, and tidal currents
It is desirable to layout dolphins in a way that the longitudinal axis of dolphins becomes parallel to the
prevailing directions of winds, waves, and tidal currents. This helps to ease vessel maneuvering during
berthing and undocking and to reduce external forces that act on the dolphins when the vessel is moored.
(2) The normal layout of mooring dolphins is such that they are set at the positions located on the lines drawn with
the angle of 45 from the bitts on ships bow and stern and having a certain setback from the front face of the
breasting dolphins.
(3) The distance between breasting dolphins is closely related to the length overall (L) of the target vessels. Figure
T-13.2.1 gives the relationship between the breasting dolphin interval and the water depth derived from past
construction data for reference.
-494-
Distance between breasting dolphins (m)
Pile type
Steel sheet pile cellar cofferdam type
Caisson type
Water depth (m)
Fig. T-13.2.1 Distance between Breasting Dolphins
13.3 External Forces Acting on Dolphins

The following shall be considered as the external forces acting on dolphins:
(1) Berthing force
(2) Tractive force from vessels mooring lines
(3) Vertical forces due to deadweight and live load.
(4) Seismic force on structures and cargo handling equipment
(6) Wind pressure on cargo handling equipment
13.4 Pile Type Dolphins

In the basic design of pile type dolphins, the following items shall be examined as a general rule:
(1) Stresses of the piles (stresses due to the horizontal force, vertical force, and torsion)
(2) Embedded lengths of the piles
(3) Deflection of the dolphin
[Technical Notes]
(1) The items listed above should be examined according to Chapter 9 Open-Type Wharves on Vertical Piles
and Chapter 10 Open-Type Wharves on Coupled Raking Piles.
(2) When pile type dolphins are employed, the berthing energy may normally be calculated on the assumption that it
is absorbed by the deformations of the fenders and the piles.
(3) Large tankers are usually berthed at a slant angle with the dolphin alignment line. As the characteristics of
fenders vary depending on the berthing angle, it is recommended in such a case to use the characteristics curve
appropriate to the berthing angle. In addition, a slanting berthing entails the risk that some of the fenders
attached to a breasting dolphin may not absorb the berthing energy effectively. Therefore, it is desirable to
examine carefully which fenders will come in contact with the hull of vessel in consideration of the berthing
angle.
13.5 Steel Cellular-Bulkhead Type Dolphins

In the basic design of steel cellular-bulkhead type dolphins, the following items shall be examined as a
general rule:
(1) Equivalent wall width to shear deformation
(2) Embedded length of cellular-bulkhead
(3) Stability of the wall body as a whole (sliding, overturning, bearing capacity)
(4) Tension of cell shell
(5) Foundations for cargo handling equipment and mooring post.
-495-
[Technical Notes]
(1) Examination of the items (1) to (4) above should be made in accordance with Chapter 7 Steel Sheet Pile
Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywalls and Chapter 8 Steel Plate Cellular-Bulkhead Quaywalls, and examination of
the item (5) is made in accordance with Part , Chapter 4 Bearing Capacity of Pile Foundations and
Chapter 21 Foundation for Cargo Handling Equipment.
(2) In the case of a cylindrical cellular type, the equivalent wall width can be calculated using equation (13.5.1).
B = 3R
where
R radius of cylindrical cell (m)
(13.5.1)
13.6 Caisson Type Dolphins

In the basic design of caisson type dolphins, the following items shall be examined as a general rule:
(1) Sliding of caisson
(2) Overturning of caisson
(3) Subsoil bearing capacity
(4) Rotation of caisson
(5) Strength of structural elements
[Commentary]
Rotation of a caisson occurs when an eccentric external force acts on a dolphin. Examination of stability against
rotation must be made even when the results of the examination of the items (1) to (3) listed above are satisfactory,
because the confirmation of the stability with respect to the items (1) to (3) does not guarantee that the caisson is safe
against rotation. In the examination of stability against rotation, it is assumed that the resisting force is the friction
force along the caisson bottom which is proportional to the bottom reaction to be calculated in accordance with Part
, 1.4.5 External Forces after Construction. The safety factor is determined in accordance with 4.3.2 Examination
against Sliding of Wall.
-496-
Chapter 14 Slipways and Shallow Draft Quays

14.1 Slipways
Slipways shall be designed in such a way that no operational or structural problem would arise.
[Commentary]
(1) A slipway is a facility used to take ships up to the shore and down to the sea for such purposes as repair,
protection from storm waves and storm surges, and land storage of ships during winter.
(2) In many cases, rails or cradles are employed in the lifting and lowering of ships of 30 tons or larger in gross
tonnage, but the provisions in this section applies to facilities used to lift and lower ships smaller than 30 tons in
gross tonnage directly over the slope of slipway.
(3) Figure C-14.1.1 defines the notations of various parts of a slipway.
MSL
Concrete block covering

Foundation
Height of front wall

Armouring
Sea bottom in front
of the slipway
Slope
Front wall
Intermediate retaining wall
Ship storing yard

Concrete pavement
Foundation
retaining wall
Fig. C-14.1.1 Slipway
14.1.2 Location of Slipway

Locations of slipways shall be determined in such a way that the following requirements are satisfied:
(1) The frontal water area is calm.
(2) The frontal water area is free from siltation or scouring.
(3) Navigation and anchorage of other ships are not hindered.
(4) There is an adequate space in the background for the work for ship lifting and lowering as well as for
ship storage.
14.1.3 Dimensions of Individual Parts
The elevations of individual sections and the length of the slipway, the area of the yard behind the slipway,
the depth of the water in front of the slipway, the inclination of the slipway, and the area of the anchorage
in front of the slipway shall be designed in consideration of the types and sizes of ships that are to untilize
the slipway as well as the ease of usage.
[1] Elevations of Individual Parts
[Technical Notes]
(1) It is recommended that the crown of the front wall of the landing section be located at a level lower than the
mean monthly-lowest water level (LWL) by the amount of the draft of ships under consideration. It is owing to
the requirement that it is possible to lift ships even at the low water of neaps. The draft of the ship should be the
light draft for the case of repair, refuge, and wintertime storage, and should be the full-load draft for the case of
lifting small fishing boats filled with catches. For slipways that are to be constructed in the areas where tidal
ranges are small or for the slipways that are to be used even at the low water springs with high waves, it is
necessary to lower the crown elevation of the front wall further.
(2) The ground elevation of the ship storage area should be determined in accordance with 2.2 Crown Heights of
Mooring Facilities. However, when the ship storage area is located adjacent to a quaywall, the ground elevation
of the ship storage area may be set equal to the crown elevation of the quaywall to facilitate ease of usage. In
cases where waves are high in the basin in front of the ship storage area, the wave runup height should be taken
into consideration.
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[2] Slipway Length and Background Space (Notification Article 76, Clause 1)
The slope length of the slipway and the area of the background space shall be adequate for the handling of
the ships being considered.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The area of the background space refers to the yard area in which lifted ships are stored. This ordinarily means
the area of the flat portion of land, but may include a part of the upper slope when the ground elevation of the
ship storage area is high. It is desirable to make the length of this part of the slope about 5 m longer than the
length overall of the largest ship is to be stored.
(2) The distance between lifted ships for storage should be 2 m or more in the direction of the ships bow, and 1 m or
more in the direction of the ships beam.
[3] Water Depth

[Technical Notes]
The reference depth of water in front of the slipway is the sum of the draft of the ship being considered and a margin
of 0.5 m
[4] Gradient of Slipway (Notification Article 76, Clause 3)

The gradient of slipway shall be determined appropriately in consideration of the shape of ships that are to
use the slipway, the characteristics of foundation, and the tidal range, so that the lifting of ships can be
performed smoothly.
[Technical Notes]
(1) When the slope is to be utilized by small ships, it is desirable to design the slope as having a single-gradient.
Single-gradient slopes are frequently used in slipways for human power-based lifting of ships that are
constructed in shallow waters. For this type of slipways, a slope inclination of 1:6 to 1:12 may be used as a
reference.
(2) When the water in front of the slipway is deep or the area of the construction site is limited, the slope may be
built with two or more gradients. When this is the case, a two-gradient slope may be employed when the crown
elevation of the front wall is about -2.0 m, and a three-gradient slope may be employed when the crown
elevation of the front wall is lower than -2.0 m. The following values may be used as reference gradients:
When the slope has two gradients:
Front slope:
1:6 to 1:8
Rear slope:
1:8 to 1:12
When the slope has three gradients:
Front slope:
an inclination steeper than 1:6
Central slope:
1:6 to 1:8
Rear slope:
1:8 to 1:12
[5] Basin Area (Notification Article 76, Clause 4)

The basin in front of a slipway shall have an appropriate area that allows a smooth operation of ship lifting
and/or lowering without damage to the ships, and a safe and smooth navigation of nearby ships.
[Technical Notes]
(1) When the ship is lowered to the sea by free fall over the slope, the ship runs over a certain distance after hitting
the water with the speed it gains during the fall. This distance is more than about five times the ships length
overall, although it varies depending on the slope inclination, slope friction, and fall distance. However, because
the ship becomes maneuverable after running a distance about 4 to 6 times its length, it is sufficient to secure a
distance about five times the ships length overall from the waterfront line of the slope to the other end of the
basin. When strong tidal currents exist, it is necessary to add an appropriate margin.
(2) When the ship is lowered to the sea gently by means of wire ropes and other means, a distance of about three
times the ships length overall will suffice to define the required basin area.
-498-
14.1.4 Front Wall and Pavement

[1] Front Wall (Notification Article 76, Clause 2 and 5)
(1) The structure of the front wall of slipway shall be designed appropriately in consideration of the
dimensions of ships that are to use the slipway, the crown elevation of the front wall, and the ship
lifting method.
(2) The frontwall of slipway shall be designed appropriately in accordance with applicable guidelines
given in Chapter 4 Gravity Type Quaywalls through Chapter 10 Open-Type Wharves on
Coupled Raking Piles and Chapter 17 Other Types of Mooring Facilities in consideration of the
structure of the wall, so that the stability of the wall is secured.
[2] Pavement
The pavement shall be designed in such a way that the following requirements are satisfied:
(1) The pavement will not be broken by the anticipated loads of ship weights etc.
(2) The pavement will not be broken by waves actions.
(3) The pavement will not be broken by differential settlement of the foundation.
[Technical Notes]
In most cases, the pavement is constructed using cement concrete. The average dimensions are as follows:
Cast-in-place concrete:
Slab thickness : 20 to 35 cm
Joint interval : 5 to 10 m
Precast concrete block:
Slab size
:2m2m
Slab thickness : About 30 cm
However, when waves are expected to become high or in the case of restoration work after a natural disaster, the
block thickness may be determined in accordance with Fig. T-14.1.11. As for the base course, it is common practice
to use a design thickness of about 30 cm and to make thorough compaction in order to avoid differential settlement.
Wave height
1/3
(m)
t : thickness (cm)
Period
(s)
Fig. T-14.1.1 Required Thickness for Precast Concrete Block and Height of Waves in Front of Slipway
14.2 Shallow Draft Quay (Notification Article 75)

Shallow draft quays shall be designed appropriately in accordance with applicable guidelines given in
Chapter 4 Gravity Type Quaywalls through Chapter 10 Open-type Wharves on Coupled Raking
Piles as well as Chapter 12 Floating Piers and Chapter 17 Other Types of Mooring Facilities
according to the characteristics and use of the facility, so that the structural safety is secured.
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Chapter 15 Air-Cushion Vehicle Landing Facilities

Air-cushion vehicle landing facilities shall be located at an appropriate position and have an appropriate
structure for the safe boarding of passengers and safe and smooth landing of the vehicle.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Air-cushion vehicle landing facilities are normally constructed on the shore. These facilities usually use slopes
similar to those of slipways as described in Chapter 14 Slipways and Shallow Draft Quays to land and glide
down air-cushion vehicles.
(2) Figure T-15.1.1 illustrates an air-cushion vehicle.
(3) Figure T-15.1.2 shows an example of the layout of air-cushion vehicle landing facilities.
Fan for floating
Propeller
Antenna
Air rudder
Propeller
Steering seat
Flexible skirt
Leg
Submarine
(Placed in water and used as rudder)
Fig. T-15.1.1 Air-Cushion Vehicle (MV-PP5)
Fueling
Garage
facility
Parking lot
River
Slip
Apron
Sound-proof wall
Passenger
Rotary
a
ip
x
Ta
shed
in
rk
g
Park
ea
ar
Fig. T-15.1.2 Example of Layout of Air-Cushion Vehicle Station
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15.2 Location
In determining the location, the following requirements shall be taken into consideration:
(1) The water basin in front of the facility is calm.
(2) The effects of strong winds and beam winds on the vehicle are minimum.
(3) Operation of the vehicles does not hinder navigation and mooring of other ships.
(4) Influences of noise and water spray from the operation of vehicles upon other navigation ships and
neighboring area are minimum.
[Commentary]
(1) Air-cushion vehicles are excellent of stability in high-speed operation, but they are susceptible to influences of
winds during low-speed operation such as required to approach and leave a landing facility. In the determination
of the location of an air-cushion vehicle station, therefore, it is necessary to give careful consideration to the
level of calmness of the basin in front of the facilities and the direction of the prevailing wind.
(2) As noises from an air-cushion vehicle may be as high as 100 dB (at a distance of 50 m from the vehicle), it is
necessary to locate air-cushion vehicle landing facilities far away enough from hospitals, schools and housing
areas, or to shut off the noises by surrounding the facilities with sound-proof walls.
15.3 Air-Cushion Vehicle Landing Facilities

The air-cushion landing facilities shall be provided with a slipway, apron, and passenger boarding facility.
In addition, lighting facilities, a hanger, sound-proof walls, an oil supply facility, a repair facility and
others shall be provided as necessary.
15.4 Dimensions of Individual Parts

[Technical Notes]
(1) Slope
(a) The structure of the slope should be determined in accordance with Chapter 14 Slipways and Shallow Draft
Quays.
(b) The width of the slope should be determined in consideration of the lateral movement of the air-cushion
vehicle during the landing or gliding-down operation due to beam winds. Usually a width about three times
the width of the vehicle is provided.
(c) The inclination of the slope should be determined in consideration of its psychological effect on passengers,
performance of the air-cushion vehicle, and site-related limitations. Usually an inclination of 1:10 or gentler is
adopted.
(2) Apron
In many cases the apron width is the same as that of the slope and the apron length is about two times the length
of the air-cushion vehicle. In cases where two or more air-cushion vehicles utilize the landing facility
simultaneously, a parking space should be provided alongside the apron.
(3) Hangar
When a hangar is to be constructed, it should be located adjacent to the apron to facilitate the servicing and
maintenance of air-cushion vehicle and to provide the refuge space of air-cushion vehicle in rough weather. The
dimensions of the hangar should be as follows:
Width: 1.5 times the width of the air-cushion vehicle (per vehicle)
Length: 1.2 times the length of the air-cushion vehicle (per vehicle)
Height: There should be a clearance of about 0.5 m from the ceiling to the top of the air-cushion vehicle
when the vehicle is lifted afloat.
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Chapter 16 Mooring Buoys and Mooring Posts

16.1 Mooring Buoys
16.1.1 Principle of Design (Notification Article 73, Clause 1)
The mooring buoy shall have an appropriate structure and the stability in consideration of the mooring
method used, the natural conditions at the site, and the dimensions of the target vessel to be moored at the
buoy.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Mooring buoys are structurally categorized into three types. These are sinker type, anchor chain type, and sinker
and anchor chain type. The sinker type mooring buoy comprises a floating body, main chain, and sinker. It does
not have a mooring anchor, as shown in Fig. T-16.1.1(a). The anchor chain type mooring buoy comprises a
floating body, anchor chain, and mooring anchor. It does not have a sinker, as shown in Fig. T-16.1.1(b).
Although the construction cost is lower as compared with the other types, it is not suitable for cases where the
area of the mooring basin is limited, because the radius of vessels swinging motion is large. The sinker and
anchor chain type mooring buoy comprises a floating body, main chain, ground chain, mooring anchor, and
sinker, as shown in Fig. T-16.1.1(c). The sinker and anchor chain type mooring buoys are being used widely in
ports and harbors. This type of buoys can be used even when the area of the mooring basin is small, because the
radius of vessels swinging motion can be reduced by increasing the weight of the sinker.
Floating body
Floating body
Floating body
Main chain
Main chain
Anchor chain
Ground chain
Sinker
Mooring anchor
Mooring anchor
Sinker chain
Sinker
(a) Sinker Type
(b) Anchor Chain Type
(c) Sinker and Anchor Chain Type
Fig. T-16.1.1 Types of Mooring Buoys
(2) In general, it is recommended that the design of mooring buoy be performed in the procedure depicted in Fig. T16.1.2.
Calculation of the tractive force
Determination of the weight and shape of the mooring anchor
Assumption of the weight of the sinker and the diameter and length of the sinker chain
Calculation of the diameter and length of the ground chain
Determination of the diameter and length of the main chain
Calculation of the buoyancy of the floating body
Detailed design
Fig. T-16.1.2 Flowchart of Mooring Buoy Design
(3) Figure T-16.1.3 shows a typical makeup of mooring buoy.
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Mooring chain
Fender
Lift chain
A: Harp shackle (mooring ring)

or quick-release hook
B: Anchor shackle
C: Swivel piece
D: Joining shackle
E: Mooring piece
F: Long ring
G: Joining shackle
H: Anchor shackle
I: Joining shackle
J: Anchor shackle
K: Chain (inside the buoy)
L: Main chain
M: Sinker chain
N: Chain or ground chain
P: Sinker or pan
Q: Anchor or screw anchor
R: Buoy
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
Fig. T-16.1.3 Typical Makeup of Mooring Buoy
(4) This chapter provides guidelines for the design of sinker and anchor chain type mooring buoys, because the
sinker type and anchor chain type buoys are simplified versions of the sinker and anchor chain type buoy.
(5) In the design of a mooring buoy, the following items should be considered:
(a) Mooring conditions:
Mooring method (single-buoy mooring or two-point mooring)
Allowable range of the vessels motion (allowable swinging radius)
(b) Natural conditions:
Winds
Tidal currents
Waves
Soil condition of mooring basin
Water depth
Tide level
(c) Dimensions of vessel to be moored at the buoy
Length overall
Draft
Molded breadth
Height of the hawser hole as measured from the water surface
Front and side projected areas above the water surface
Front and side projected areas below the water surface
16.1.2 Tractive Force Acting on Mooring Buoy (Notification Article 73, Clause 2)
In principle, the tractive force that acts on a mooring buoy through the hawser of a vessel shall be
calculated in consideration of structural characteristics of the mooring buoy, based on the external forces
determined in accordance with the provisions in Part
Design Conditions and the existing data on the
tractive forces of vessels moored at buoys.
[Technical Notes]
(1) It is recommended that the tractive force which acts on a mooring buoy be determined in consideration of the
loads that exert upon moored vessels (including those due to winds, tidal currents, and waves) and using the
existing tractive force data on the buoys of the same type as reference 1), 2).
(2) Wind and wave forces are dynamic loads, and thus there are many uncertainties with regard to their relationships
with the tractive forces of vessels. However, the tractive force may be calculated by referring to 2.2.3 Moored
Vessels.
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(3) When the motions of buoy due to wave actions cannot be ignored, their effect should be included in the
calculation of the wave force and the wave-making resistance.
(4) In a dynamic analysis of a moored floating body, the response characteristics of the floating body vary widely
depending on the wave period. If the analysis is made using monochromatic waves only, either underestimated
or overestimated results are obtained. When performing a dynamic analysis of the motions of a floating body,
therefore, it is necessary to employ irregular waves having a directional spectral characteristics.
(5) Table T-16.1.1 lists examples of design conditions and loads for mooring buoys built in the past.
Table T-16.1.1 Some Examples of Design Conditions and Loads for Mooring Buoys
Vessel to use the
mooring buoy
(DWT)
Tractive
force
(kN)
Mooring
method
Wind speed
(m/s)
Tidal
currents
(m/s)
Wave height
(m)
1,000
Single-buoy
mooring
50
0.5
2.0
185
3,000
50
0.5
4.0
409
15,000
15
0.51
0.7
245
20.000
20
1.0
589
130,000
60
0.67
10.0
1,370
260,000
25
0.51
3.0
1,840
30,000
Two-point
mooring
15
1,490
100,000
Six-point
mooring
20
1.5
1,470
16.1.3 Design of Individual Parts of Mooring Buoy

[1] Mooring Anchor (Notification Article 73, Clause 3)
The sizes and required strengths of individual parts of a mooring buoy, including the mooring anchor,
sinker, sinker chain, ground chain, main chain, and floating body, shall be determined appropriately in
accordance with the relevant provisions in Chapter 12 Floating Piers and in consideration of the tractive
forces of vessels, the structure of the mooring buoy, and the mooring method in use, etc.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Normally three mooring anchors are used for a mooring buoy. In the design of a mooring buoy, however, it
should be assumed that only one of the three anchors resists the horizontal force.
The arrangement of the mooring anchors should be made in such a way that the buoy will not capsize even
when one of the anchor chains is cut.
(2) In principle, it should be assumed that the horizontal force that acts on the mooring buoy is resisted by the
mooring anchors resistance force only. The holding power of the mooring anchors should be calculated in
accordance with 12.4.3 Design of Mooring Anchor.
[2] Sinker and Sinker Chain

[Technical Notes]
(1) Normally a sinker chain of 3 to 4 m in length is used for a mooring buoy. It is recommended not to use an
excessively long sinker chain, because it makes the range of the upward movement of the sinker larger and
increases the risk of the tangling of the sinker chain and thus the risk of abrasion and accidental breaking of the
chain. The sinker chain should be of the same diameter as that of the main chain.
(2) The vertical and horizontal forces that act on the sinker should be calculated based on the chain tension of
floating body and the distance of horizontal movement of the floating body as calculated 3) in accordance with
[4] Main Chain.
678
PV = TA sinq1 = (TC - wl) sinq1

PH = TA cosq1 = (TC - wl) cosq1
(16.1.1)
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where
PV , PH
q1
TA
TC
w
l
vertical and horizontal forces that act on the sinker, respectively (kN)
angle that main chain makes with the horizontal plane at the sinker attachment point ()
tension of main chain at the sinker attachment point (kN)
tension of main chain at the floating body attachment point (kN)
submerged weight of the main chain per unit length (t/m)
length of main chain (m)
64748
The angle q1 is obtained by solving the following equations:

T A cos q 1
l = --------------------- ( tan q 2 tan q 1 )
w
T A cos q 1
1
1
DK = --------------------- [ sinh ( tan q 2 ) sinh ( tan q 1 ) ]
w
(16.1.2)
where
DK distance of horizontal movement of the floating body (m)
q 2 angle that main chain makes with the horizontal plane at the floating body attachment point ()
When a tractive force equal to the design force is applied, the alignment of the floating body chain becomes
approximately a straight line and thus the following approximation can be used:
DK
(16.1.3)
q 2 q 1 = cos -1 -------l
(3) Weight of Sinker
Currently a sinker weight of about 50 kN is most frequently used for 5,000 GT vessels, and a sinker weight of
about 80 kN tons is most frequently used for 10,000 GT vessels. Determination of the sinker weight should be
made using these values as references (the values mentioned above indicate submerged weight). Sinkers may be
of any shape and material as long as they satisfy the weight requirement, but in Japan the common practice is to
use disk-shaped cast iron sinkers and concrete is seldom used. It is said that use of disk-shaped cast iron sinkers
having a slightly concaved bottom surface improves the adhesion of the sinker to the soft sea bottom ground
significantly.
(4) The role of the sinker is to absorb the impact force that acts on the chain and to make the main chain shorter.
When the main chain is to be shortened to reduce the range of ship movement, therefore, the weight of the sinker
must be increased accordingly.
(5) In certain cases, buried anchors may be used instead of sinkers.
[3] Ground Chain

[Technical Notes]
(1) Because chains are manufactured with a lot length of 25 m, a ground chain of 50 m long is usually used. The
angle with which the chain makes with the sea bottom at the mooring anchor attachment point should be smaller
than 3, because the holding power of the mooring anchor drops sharply as the angle increases beyond 3. In
many cases, the weight of the ground chain is designed in such a way that the ground chain satisfies the abovementioned condition when the anticipated tractive force acts on the buoy. When the tractive force is large, the
attachment angle that the mooring anchor makes with the ground chain may be made smaller by using a ground
chain longer than the above-mentioned value.
The inclination angle q1 of the ground chain at the mooring anchor attachment point can be calculated by
using equation (12.4.4) described in 12.4.2 [3] Diameter of Chain. The symbols in equation (12.4.4) are
redefined as follows (see Fig. T-16.1.4):
l length of the ground chain (lg in Fig. T-16.1.4) (m)
h vertical distance between the upper end of the ground chain and the sea bottom (i.e., the sum of the
length of the sinker chain, height of the sinker, and allowance (hg in Fig. T-16.1.4) (m)
P horizontal component of the tractive force that acts on the floating body (kN)
w submerged weight of the ground chain per unit length (kN/m)
q 2 inclination angle of the ground chain at the upper end of the chain ()
In this calculation, the value of q 1 should be calculated by assuming the values of lg, w, and hg ; q1 should be
kept at 3 or less.
(2) The maximum tension Tg of the ground chain should be calculated using equation (12.4.1) described in 12.4.2
[3] Diameter of Chain. Here P represents the horizontal component of the tractive force of vessel that acts on
the buoy, and q 2 represents the inclination of the ground chain at the upper end of the chain. The diameter of the
ground chain should be such that the chain can withstand this tension.
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(3) The allowable tensile force of chain should be calculated in accordance with 12.4.2 Design of Mooring Chain.
In the case of mooring buoys, however, the diameter of chain is usually determined not on the basis of strength
only, but on the basis of total analysis that takes into consideration any measures taken to reduce forces that act
on the chain such as the use of a heavier chain to absorb the energy of impact forces, and the use of a shorter
chain to reduce the radius of the vessels swinging. In general, the chain diameter is selected in such a way that
the maximum tension to be exerted upon the chain will be 1/5 to 1/8 of the breaking strength.
Fig. T-16.1.4 Notation for Sinker and Anchor Chain Type Mooring Buoy
[4] Main Chain

[Technical Notes]
(1) The length lf of the main chain should be designed in such a way to lessen the tension acting on both the main
chain and the mooring hawser as well as to reduce the raduis of the vessels swinging. The ratio of the main
chain length to the water depth may affect the degree of abrasion of the main chain, but their relationship has not
been clarified yet.
(2) It is recommended that the tension acting on the main chain and the displacement of the floating body be derived
by means of a simulation, but the data of past tests conducted under similar conditions may also be used to
determine the tension and displacement. Or these may be calculated using the method described below.
(3) The submerged weight of the main chain per unit length wf (t/m)
can be calculated using equation (12.4.4) described in 12.4.2 [3]
Diameter of Chain.
Here, l and h of this equation represent the length of the main
chain (lf in Fig. T-16.1.4) (m) and the vertical distance between
the upper and lower ends of the main chain (hf in Fig. T-16.1.4)
(m), respectively. In other words, h is the vertical distance between
the floating body attachment point and the upper end of the sinker
chain with the sinker being lifted up to the point where the bottom
of the sinker is completely detached from the sea bottom surface.
The force P represents the horizontal component (kN) of the
tractive force that acts on the buoy, and q 2 and q 1 represent the
inclination angles () of the main chain at the upper and lower
ends, respectively ( q 2 and q 1 in Fig. T-16.1.4).
The inclination angle q 1 of the main chain at the lower end of
the chain can be calculated as exhibited in Fig. T-16.1.5 from the
conditions of balance among the main chain lower end tension Tfv ,
the ground chain upper end tension Tg , and the sinker chain upper
end tension Tsv , where Tsv is the same as the submerged weight of
the sinker and sinker chain. The tension Tg and its direction are
calculated in accordance with [3] Ground Chain.
Fig. T-16.1.5 Tensions of Ground Chain
(4) The tension of the main chain at its upper end should be calculated using equation (12.4.4) described in 12.4.2
[3] Diameter of Chain. Here the horizontal component of the tractive force is used as the horizontal external
force. The angle q 2 that the floating body chain makes with the horizontal plane at the floating body
attachment point can be calculated by means of equation (12.4.4) described in 12.4.2 [3] Diameter of Chain
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using the previously calculated submerged weight of the main chain per unit length. This tension is used to
examine the strength of the main chain.
(5) The horizontal displacement DK of the floating body can be calculated by means of equation (12.4.5) described
in 12.4.2 [3] Diameter of Chain. Here q1 and q2 of the equation are defined below.
q 1 : angle that the main chain makes with the horizontal plane at its lower end ( q 1 in Fig. T-16.1.4) ()
q 2 : angle that the main chain makes with the horizontal plane at its upper end ( q 2 in Fig. T-16.1.4) ()
The resultant value of displacement should be examined in comparison with the size of the mooring basin. If it is
found too large, the main chain should be shortened, the weight of the sinker should be increased, or the unit
length weight of the main chain should be increased.
[5] Floating Body

[Technical Notes]
The floating body should be designed in such a way that it does not submerge when the mooring buoy is subjected to
the design tractive force. When no vessel is moored, the floating body should be afloat with the main chain (and part
of the ground chain and sinker chain, as the case may be) suspended beneath it with the condition that a freeboard
equal to 1/2 to 1/3 of its height must be maintained above the water surface. The buoyancy should be designed to
meet these two requirements. The floating body buoyancy required to meet the requirement under the action of
tractive force is calculated by means of equation (16.1.4).
P
(16.1.4)
F = V a -------------------------lc 2
---- 1
d
where
F required buoyancy of the floating body (kN)
V= vertical force that acts on the floating body (kN) (this is calculated by means of equation (12.4.2) described
in 12.4.2 [3] Diameter of Chain).
P design tractive force (kN)
lc length of the mooring hawser (m)
d vertical distance between the vessels hawser hole and the water surface (m)
However, the total buoyancy that is actually required is the sum of the buoyancy required to resist the tractive force
and the deadweight of the floating body.
16.2 Mooring Posts (Notification Article 74)

Mooring posts shall be designed in accordance with the relevant provisions given in Chapter 9 OpenType Wharves on Vertical Piles and Chapter 10 Open-Type Wharves on Coupled Raking Piles in
consideration of their structural characteristics, so that the required level of structural stability and safety
and smooth use of the facility will be achieved.
[References]
1) Yasumasa SUZUKI: Study on the design of single point buoy mooring, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 829, 1996 (in Japanese).
2) Tetsuya HIRAISHI, Yasuhiro TOMITA: Model test on countermeasure to impulsive tension of mooring buoy, Tech. Note
of PHRI, No. 816, 1995, 18p. (in Japanese).
3) Dep. of the Navy Bureau of Yards & Docks: Mooring Guide, Vol. 1, 1954, 61p.
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Chapter 17 Other Types of Mooring Facilities

17.1 Quaywall of Wave-Absorbing Type
The quaywall of wave-absorbing type structure shall be designed to have the required capability of wave
energy absorption and shall be located at strategetic positions in enhancing the calmness in a harbour.
[Commentary]
Waves within a harbor are the result of superposition of the waves entering the harbor through the breakwater
openings, the waves transmitted over the breakwaters, the wind waves generated within the harbor, and the waves
reflected inside the harbor. By using quaywalls of wave-absorbing type, the reflection coefficient can be reduced to
0.3 to 0.6 from that of 0.7 to 1.0 of solid quaywalls. To improve the harbor calmness, it is important to design the
alignments of quaywalls and openings of breakwaters in a careful manner. The suppression of reflected waves
through the provision of wave energy dissipating structures within the harbor is also an effective means of improving
the calmness.
17.1.2 Determination of Structural Form

Quaywalls of wave-absorbing type are structurally categorized into wave-absorbing block type and upright
wave-absorbing caisson type. An appropriate structural type shall be selected in consideration of the
dimansions of the quaywall and the design wave conditions.
[Commentary]
(1) Quaywalls of wave-absorbing block type are constructed by stacking layers of concrete blocks of complicated
shapes that create hollows in between. This type is normally used to build relatively small quaywalls. The shape
of blocks used varies according to design requirements. The quaywall width is determined by stability
calculation as a gravity type quaywall.
(2) Upright wave-absorbing caisson type quaywalls include slit-wall caisson type and perforated-wall caisson type.
This type is normally used to build large quaywalls. The wave-absorption efficiency can be enhanced by
optimizing the aperture rate of the front wall, the water chamber width, and others for the given wave conditions.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The quaywall of wave-absorbing type is generally composed of a perforated (slit) front wall, a water chamber
and an impermeable rear wall. It aims to reduce the reflection coefficient through the dissipation of wave energy
owing to the horizontal jet flow passing through slits or perforations in the front wall and the roughness
resistance inside the structure. Thus, while extreme storm waves are used for the structural design, ordinary or
frequent storm waves are employed for examination of the wave dissipating capability.
(2) The reflection coefficient should be determined by means of a hydraulic model experiment whenever possible,
but it may be determined in accordance with Part VII, 3.2.2 Upright Wave-Dissipating Block Breakwater
and Part VII, 3.2.3 Wave-Absorbing Caisson Breakwater. Figures T-17.1.1 through T-17.1.3 show examples
taken from the results of model experiments 1), 2) on slit-wall caissons and perforated-wall caissons.
(3) It is recommended that the crown elevation of the wave absorption section of a wave-absorbing block type
quaywall is set as high as 0.5 times the significant wave height or more above HWL (mean monthly-highest
water level) and that the bottom elevation of the wave absorption section is set as deep as 2 times the significant
wave height or more below LWL.
(4) The water chamber width of the upright wave-absorbing caisson type quaywall may be determined in the
manner same as that of the wave-absorbing block type quaywall. It is recommended however that the effects of
the ceiling slab height and the air holes of the slab on the reflection coefficient are to be examined by means of a
hydraulic model experiment.
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Side section
Top view
Front view
Fig. T-17.1.1 Slit-Wall Caisson Type Quaywall for Model Experiment
HWL
LWL
Period
Slit bottom
WL
HWL
LWL
Reflection coefficient
Legend
Deep water wave steepness

Fig. T-17.1.2 Relationship between Reflection Coefficient and
Slit Length of Slit-Wall Caisson Type Quaywall
(without filling blocks)
Fig. T-17.1.3 Reflection Coefficient of Perforated

Caisson under Action of Irregular
Waves 1)
17.2 Cantilever Sheet Pile Quaywall

(1) The provisions in this section shall be applied to the design of quaywalls with a cantilever sheet pile
wall that retains the earth behind it.
(2) The design method described in this section shall be applied for the sheet piles driven in sandy soil.
[Commentary]
The design method described in this section assumes that the ground comprises a sandy soil, and therefore cannot be
used in the case of a clayey soil ground. It is advisable to avoid constructing a cantilever sheet pile wall on a clayey
-509-
soil ground whenever possible, because there are still many unknown factors about the design of cantilever sheet pile
walls on such a ground. It is also not desirable to build cantilever sheet pile walls on a clayey soil ground from
engineering standpoints, because there may be adverse effects such as the deformation owing to creep.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Cantilever sheet pile walls resist the earth and water pressure that acts on the back of the sheet piles with the
horizontal subgrade reaction force of the embedded part. The calculation of the bending moment generated in
the sheet pile wall should be made in accordance with Part V, 4.3.4 Estimation of Pile Behavior Using
Analytical Methods.
(2) Figure T-17.2.1 shows an example of cantilever sheet pile quaywall.
Mooring Bitt
Apron
(Concrete pavement)
Curbing
Crown height
V-type rubber fender
HWL
Pavement holding concrete work
(Crown height of steel

pipe sheet pile)
Reclaimed material
LWL
Original ground surface
Backfilling cobble
Design water depth
Steel pipe type sheet pile
(Unit: m)
Fig. T-17.2.1 Example of Cantilever Sheet Pile Quaywall
17.2.2 External Forces Acting on Sheet Pile Wall

The external forces acting on a cantilever sheet pile wall shall be determined in accordance with 5.2
External Forces Acting on Sheet Pile Wall.
[Technical Notes]
h
art
ee
+
re
n
+
ee
nd
w sure
)a
re
es
r
e
p
su
c
)
s
n
e
h
e
e
t
pr ssur
er ear
iff
er
e
D tive
at
pr
w
c
rth
al
(a
a
u
id ve e
s
re ssi
a
(p
t
be
re
ssu
pre
re
ss
Pa
ssu
rth
ea
ive
ssu
pre
Sea bottom
pre
ter
a
al w
idu
tiv
res
(2) The earth pressure and residual water pressure

should be calculated in accordance with 5.2.1
External Forces to Be Considered.
LWL
Ac
(1) Where the sea bottom ground is of sandy soil, a

virtual bottom surface is assumed at the elevation
where the sum of the active earth pressure and
residual water pressure is equal to the passive earth
pressure. It is assumed that the earth pressure and
residual water pressure will act on the part of
cantilever sheet pile wall above such the virtual
bottom surface, as illustrated in Fig. T-17.2.2.
Virtual bottom
surface
Fig. T-17.2.2 Determination of Virtual Surface Bottom
-510-
17.2.3 Determination of Cross Section of Sheet Piles

The maximum bending moment in a sheet pile wall shall be calculated appropriately by using an analysis
method corresponding to the mechanical behavior characteristics of the wall.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The maximum bending moment in a sheet pile wall is normally calculated by the PHRI method concerning the
lateral resistance of piles.
(2) The lateral resistance of pile should be calculated in accordance with Part V, 4.3.4 Estimation of Pile Behavior
Using Analytical Methods.
(3) When steel pipes are used as sheet piles, the secondary stress often develops in steel pipes of a sheet pile wall
due to the deformation of the steel pipe cross section (i.e., a circular cross section is deformed into an elliptic
one) that is caused by the earth and residual water pressure. Cantilever sheet pile walls are the structures
characterized by large displacement, and there is a risk about such walls that a relatively high secondary stress
may develop in the areas around the point where the bending moment becomes maximum. The larger the
diameter of the steel pipe, the higher the level of secondary stress becomes. In such a case, therefore, it is
desirable to perform examination of strength against the secondary stress. The secondary stress of a steel pipe is
calculated using equation (17.2.1).
D 2
s = p ---- 2.1 10 4
t
where
s secondary stress (N/mm2)
p earth pressure and residual water pressure acting on the sheet pile wall (kN/m2)
D diameter of pipe (mm)
t plate thickness of pipe (mm)
(17.2.1)
17.2.4 Determination of Embedded Length of Sheet Piles

The embedded length of sheet piles shall be equal to or longer than the effective length of piles that is
calculated in accordance with Part V, 4.3 Allowable Lateral Bearing Capacity of Piles.
[Technical Notes]
Because a cantilever sheet pile wall retains the earth behind the wall in the mechanism same as piles do, the
embedded length of the sheet pile may be calculated in the same way as in the case of a pile. In the PHRI method for
the lateral resistance of piles, the required embedded length is calculated as 1.5 lm1, where lm1 represents the depth of
first zero point of the bending moment of cantilever pile. It should be noted that the embedded length calculated here
is that measured not from the sea bottom surface, but that measured from the virtual bottom surface.
17.2.5 Examination of Displacement of Sheet Pile Crown

A cantilever sheet pile quaywall shall be designed in
such a way that the displacement of the sheet pile crown
does not hinder safe and effective use of the quaywall.
[Technical Notes]
(1) As there is no regulation specifying an allowable
displacement for the sheet pile crown of cantilever sheet
pile quaywalls, the quaywall is designed in such a way
that the crown displacement does not hinder the safe and
effective use of the quaywall. Therefore, it is necessary to
determine the acceptable level of displacement
appropriately in consideration of the utilization
conditions. In many cases, the upper limit values of 5 cm
and 10 cm are adopted for normal and earthquake
environments, respectively.
(2) The sheet pile crown displacement d is expressed as the
sum of the following three quantities (see Fig. T-17.2.3):
Sea bottom
Virtual bottom surface
Fig. T-17.2.3 Displacement of Pile Crown
(a) Deflection of the sheet pile at the virtual bottom

surface ( d 1 )
(b) Deflection of the sheet pile in the part above the virtual bottom surface ( d 2 )
-511-
(c) Sheet pile top displacement generated by the inclination of the sheet pile above the virtual bottom surface with
the deflection angle of the sheet pile at the virtual bottom ( d 3 )
The deflection d 1 and displacement d 3 are generally calculated by means of the PHRI method described in
Part V, 4.3.4 Estimation of Pile Behavior Using Analytical Methods. The deflection d 2 is generally
considered as equal to the deflection calculated by assuming that the wall is a cantilever subjected to the earth
pressure behind the wall and other forces.
17.2.6 External Forces during Construction

Cantilever sheet pile quaywalls shall be designed to have sufficient safety against the external forces that
act on them during construction work.
Detailed design of a cantilever sheet pile quaywall shall be carried out by referring to the provisions in 5.8
Detailed Design.
17.3 Sheet Pile Quaywall with Batter Anchor Piles

The provisions in this section shall be applied to the design of sheet pile type quaywalls that are built by
coupling the sheet pile heads with the batter anchor piles driven in the ground behind the sheet piles that
retain the earth in the back.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The design of sheet pile quaywalls with batter anchor piles is preferably made according to the procedure
depicted in Fig. T-17.3.1.
(2) Figure T-17.3.2 shows an example of a cross section of a sheet pile quaywall with batter anchor piles.
Provisional determination of structural dimensions

(Cross section and embedded length of the sheet pile;
height of the connection points of sheet pile with anchor pile;
cross section and embedded length, interval,tilting angle, etc.
of batter anchor pile)
Calculation of earth pressure and residual water pressure
Calculation of the acting forces (horizontal and vertical) on the connecting

point between sheet pile wall and batter anchor pile.
Examination of the cross sections of sheet pile and batter
anchor pile
Examination of embedding lengths of sheet pile wall and
batter anchor pile
Examination of circular slip
Design of soil improvement works
Detailed design
Fig. T-17.3.1 Flowchart of Design of Sheet Pile Quaywall with Batter Anchor Piles
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LWL
Sheet pile
Batter anchor pile
(Units: m)
Fig. T-17.3.2 Example of Sheet Pile Quaywall with Batter Anchor Pile
17.3.2 External Forces Acting on Sheet Pile Wall with Batter Anchor Piles
The external forces acting on a sheet pile wall with batter anchor piles shall be determined in accordance
with 5.2 External Forces Acting on Sheet Pile Wall.
17.3.3 Calculation of Horizontal and Vertical Forces Acting on Connecting Point
The calculation of the forces acting on the connecting point between a sheet pile and a batter anchor pile
shall be made appropriately in consideration of the structural characteristics of connecting point.
[Technical Notes]
The horizontal and vertical forces acting on the connecting point between a sheet pile and a batter anchor pile can be
calculated by assuming that the connecton is a pin structure.
17.3.4 Determination of Cross Sections of Sheet Pile and Batter Anchor Pile
The maximum bending moments generated in a sheet pile and in a batter anchor pile shall be calculated by
assuming the both piles as the beams that bear the concentrated loads of the horizontal and vertical forces
acting on the connecting point as well as the distributed loads of the earth pressure and residual water
pressure. The cross sections of the sheet pile and the batter anchor pile shall be so designed that the stresses
yielded by the maximum moments in these piles do not exceed the allowable strengths.
17.3.5 Determination of Embedded Lengths of Sheet Pile and Batter Anchor Pile
The embedded length of the sheet pile or batter anchor pile that is required to resist the forces acting in the
axial direction as well as the direction perpendicular to the axis shall be calculated in accordance with Part
V, Chapter 4 Bearing Capacity of Pile Foundations. However, the bearing capacity in the axial
direction of the sheet pile and that of the batter anchor pile shall be examined through the loading and
pulling tests in situ.
Detailed design of the sheet pile quaywalls with batter anchor piles shall be made by referring to the
provisions in 5.8 Detailed Design and Part V, 4.5.2 Design of Joint between Piles and Superstructure.
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17.4 Sheet Pile Quaywall with Batter Piles in Front

The provisions in this section shall be applied to the design of sheet pile quaywalls that are built by
coupling the sheet pile heads with the batter anchor piles driven in the ground in front of the sheet piles that
retain the earth in the back.
[Commentary]
(1) Sheet pile quaywalls with batter piles in front are normally constructed with an open-type superstructure built in
front of the sheet pile wall. There are two cases that the open-type superstructure may or may not be integrated
into the sheet pile wall, but this section provides guidelines for the cases in which the superstructure and sheet
pile wall are integrated. For the cases in which the open-type superstructure is not integrated into the sheet pile
wall, refer to Chapter 5 Sheet Pile Quaywalls, Chapter 9 Open-Type Wharves on Vertical Piles, and
Chapter 10 Open-Type Wharves on Coupled Raking Piles.
(2) The design method described in this section is based on the sheet pile design with the equivalent beam method.
Therefore, the structural types covered by this section are steel sheet pile walls driven into a sandy soil ground or
a hard clayey soil ground.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The design of the sheet pile quaywall with batter piles in front is preferably made in the procedure depicted in
Fig. T-17.4.1.

Provisional determination of the size of one block of the superstructure,
piles, cross section of sheet piles, and layout
Provisional determination of the superstrusture
Calculation of the earth pressure, residual water pressure, and other external forces on the sheet pile
Determination of the embedded length of sheet pile
Examination of circular slip Design of soil improvement work
Calculation of the support reaction and bending moment of the sheet pile
Determination of sheet pile cross section
64748
Calculation of design external forces

Vertical component of earth pressure

Vertical forces Deadweight
Static loads
Live loads (truck, crane, etc.)
Layout of mooring posts and fenders

Support reaction of sheet pile due to
Earth pressure and residual water pressure
force
Horizontal forces Seismic
Wind load (crane, etc.)
Berthing force
Tractive force
6447448
Calculation of the deadweight of superstructure, etc.
Assumptions concerning the sea bottom subsoil (gradient of slope, virtual bottom surface, kh value)
Calculation of distribution of forces to each pile head
Distribution of horizontal forces to batter piles
Distribution of the vertical forces
Calculation of axial force on each pile
Calculation of bending moment at connection of sheet pile and batter pile
Examination of the stresses of pile
678
Calculation of the embedded length of the pile

Vertical bearing capacity
Horizontal resistance
Examination of the stability to the uplift on the superstructure
Detailed design
Fig. T-17.4.1 Flowchart for Design of Sheet Pile Quaywall with Batter Piles in Front
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(2) Figure T-17.4.2 shows an example of a cross section of a sheet pile quaywall with batter anchor piles in front.
(Apron width)
Mooring bitt
Rubber fender
HWL
LWL
Rubble stones
(Design sea water depth)
Steel pipe pile
Steel pipe pile
Steel pipe pile
(Units: m)
Fig. T-17.4.2 Example of Sheet Pile Quaywall with Batter Anchor Piles in Front
17.4.2 Layout and Dimensions

(1) The size of one block of the superstructure and layout of piles shall be determined in accordance with
9.2.1 Size of Deck Block and Layout of Piles.
(2) Dimensions of the superstructure shall be determined in accordance with 9.2.2 Dimensions of
Superstructure.
[Technical Notes]
It is recommended that layout and inclination of the batter piles be determined in consideration of their positional
relationship with other piles and construction work-related constraints such as those concerning the capacity of pile
driving equipment. A pile inclination of about 20 is normally used for batter piles.
17.4.3 Design of Sheet Pile Wall

Design of the sheet pile wall shall be made in accordance with Chapter 5 Sheet Pile Quaywalls.
[Technical Notes]
The embedded length, supporting point reaction force, and bending moment of the sheet pile may be calculated in
accordance with Chapter 5 Sheet Pile Quaywalls by assuming that the joint between the batter pile and sheet pile is
one of the supporting points.
17.4.4 Design of Open-Type Superstructure

Design of the open-type superstructure shall be made in accordance with Chapter 9 Open-Type Wharves
on Vertical Piles and Chapter 10 Open-Type Wharves on Coupled Raking Piles.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The deadweight of reinforced concrete of the open-type superstructure can be calculated with a unit weight of 21
kN/m2 in the design of the vertical and batter piles and sheet piles.
-515-
(2) The external forces acting on the open-type superstructure should be calculated in accordance with 9.3.1 Design
External Forces. The external force of the earth pressure and residual water pressure acting on the sheet pile
wall may be considered as the supporting point reaction force at the connecting point between the batter pile and
sheet pile.
(3) The fender reaction force should be calculated in accordance with 9.3.2 Calculation of Fender Reaction Force.
(4) Assumptions concerning the sea bottom should be made as specified in 9.4 Assumptions Concerning Sea
Bottom Ground. Estimation of the lateral resistance and other behavior of piles can be made by Changs
method.
(5) Horizontal forces on the quaywall are assumed to be borne entirely by the batter piles. The vertical loads acting
on the pile heads can be calculated as the support reaction forces under the assumption that the open-type
superstructure is a simple beam supported at the positions of pile heads. The axial forces on the batter pile and
sheet pile should be calculated according to equation (4.3.21) in Part V, 4.3.6 Lateral Bearing Capacity of
Coupled Piles, using the horizontal force on the quaywall and the vertical load distributed to pile heads. For the
axial force of a vertical pile, the vertical load distributed to the pile head may be used.
(6) The bending moment at the connection of the batter pile and the sheet pile may be calculated as the moment due
to the earth pressure, residual water pressure and other horizontal forces, by assuming that the batter and sheet
piles consitute a rigid frame fixed at the virtual fixed point. The virtual fixed point of piles should be defined as
specified in 9.5.3 Virtual Fixed Point.
(7) The stresses of the piles should be calculated by means of equation (9.5.11) described in 9.5.5 Cross-Sectional
Stresses of Piles, by assuming that individual piles are subjected to either the axial force only or the
combination of axial force and bending moment.
17.4.5 Embedded Length

The embedded lengths of the vertical, batter, and sheet piles shall be determined through the examination
of the bearing capacity and lateral resistance of the piles.
[Technical Notes]
Examination of the embedded length with respect to the bearing capacity should be made in accordance with 9.5.6
Examination of Embedded Length for Bearing Capacity, and examination of the embedded length with respect to
the lateral resistance should be made in accordance with 9.5.7 Examination of Embedded Length for Lateral
Resistance.

(1) The detailed design of sheet pile quaywalls with batter piles in front shall be made by referring to the
provisions in 5.8 Detailed Design and 9.9 Detailed Design.
(2) The connecting point of the sheet pile wall and batter anchor pile shall be so designed that the
transmission of load is made satisfactorily.
(3) The open-type superstructure shall be so designed that it fully withstands the bending moment
conveyed from the sheet pile wall.
[Commentary]
The connecting point between the sheet pile wall and batter pile should be designed by providing a sufficient margin
of safety with some reinforcement, because the breakage or damage at the connecting point could lead to the collapse
of the entire quaywall.
The bending moment generated in the head of the sheet pile is transmitted to the open-type superstructure.
Therefore, it is recommended that this bending moment be taken into consideration in the design of the superstructure.
17.5 Double Sheet Pile Quaywall

The provisions in this section shall be applied to the design of double sheet pile quaywalls.
[Commentary]
Double sheet pile quaywalls are earth retaining walls that consist of two rows of sheet pile walls, jointed by tie
members etc., and filled in the space between the walls with sandy soil.
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[Technical Notes]
(1) Figure T-17.5.1 depicts the fundamental procedure of the conventional design method of double sheet pile
quaywall.
Assumption of dimensions of the wall

(wall height, wall width, embedded length, etc.)
Calculation of external forces (earth pressure, wave force, water pressure, earthquake force, etc.)
Calculation of the shear resistance of the filling material
Determination of the embedded length of the sheet pile (as a single sheet pile wall having ordinary anchorage work)
Calculation of the stresses of the sheet pile (as a single sheet pile wall having ordinary anchorage work)
Calculation of the tension of the tie member
Calculation of the bending stress of the waling
Calculation of the total stability of the wall (sliding, circular slip, etc.)
Calculation of the displacement of the wall
Detailed design (coping, partition wall, etc.)
Fig. T-17.5.1 Flowchart for Design by Conventional Method
(2) In the design of double sheet pile quaywalls, the design methods for steel sheet pile cellular-bulkhead quaywalls
or sheet pile quaywalls with sheet pile anchorage have conventionally been applied. Therefore, when designing
a double sheet pile quaywall with the conditions that are similar to those used in existing quaywalls, these
conventional methods may be used.
In the conventional methods, the displacement of double sheet pile wall is not examined. However, it is
important to examine the amount of displacement when employing a double sheet pile structure for a large-sized
permanent structure. As a solution to this problem, Sawaguchi 3) proposed a design method to calculate the
displacement of a double sheet pile structure. Later, Ohori et al. 4) proposed a design method that examines the
behavior of double sheet pile walls in a comprehensive manner, based on Sawaguchis method.
17.5.2 External Forces Acting on Double Sheet Pile Quaywall

The external forces that act on a double sheet pile wall may be calculated in accordance with 7.2 External
Forces Acting on Steel Sheet Pile Cullular-Bulkhead Quaywall.
17.5.3 Design of Double Sheet Pile Quaywall
Double sheet pile quaywalls shall be designed using an appropriate method in consideration of the design
conditions and the importance of the quaywall.
[Technical Notes]
(1) When designing a double sheet pile quaywall with the design conditions that are similar to those used for
existing quaywalls, the following traditional methods may be used as appropriate:
(a) The calculation to determine the width between two sheet pile walls to achieve the required strength against
shear deformation is made in accordance with 7.3.2 Equivalent Width of Wall.
(b) The calculation of the deformation moment is made in accordance with 7.3.3 Calculation of Deformation
Moment.
(c) The calculation of the resisting moment is made in accordance with 7.3.4 Calculation of Resisting Moment.
However, the resisting moment due to the frictions at the joints between sheet piles of the partition walls is not
considered normally.
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(d) The embedded length of sheet piles is determined as the longer one of either that calculated by the method for
sheet piles having ordinary anchorage (refer to 5.3.2 Embedded Length of Sheet Pile) or that satisfying the
allowable wall top horizontal displacement requirement (refer to 7.4 Examination of Stability of Wall Body
as a Whole and 7.7 Examination of Displacement of Wall Top). In the case of an important structure, it is
desirable to perform a behavior analysis beforehand, using the method by Ohori et al. or other suitable
methods.
(e) The bending stress of the sheet pile may be analyzed, in consideration of past construction data etc., by
assuming that the sheet pile wall behaves just like an ordinary sheet pile wall with anchorage subjected to the
active earth pressure by the filling material, irrespectively of the distance between the two sheet pile walls.
(f) The calculation of the tension of the tie member should be made in accordance with 5.4.1 Tension of Tie
Rods.
(g) The design of the waling should be made in accordance with 5.5 Design of Wale.
(h) A double sheet pile quaywall can be considered as a kind of gravity wall. Thus it is necessary to make
examination of the stability against sliding of the quaywall and the slope stability including the quaywall, as in
the case of a cellular-bulkhead type quaywall (refer to 4.3 Stability Calculations). The stability against
sliding must be examined at the virtual bottom surface, which is taken at either the sea bottom or the
horizontal plane at the toe of the sheet pile wall that yields the smaller factor of safety. In the former case, the
resistance of the sheet pile wall below the sea bottom should be ignored.
In the examination of the slope stability including the double sheet pile quaywall, the embedded length of
the double sheet pile quaywall must be compared with the required embedded length calculated for a
corresponding single sheet pile quaywall with anchorage. If the former is found longer than the latter, the
resistance of the portion of sheet piles below the calculated toe of the latter sheet piles should be ignored
against the circular slip plane passing the level below the toe.
(i) The slab and upright section of the superstructure are designed in accordance with 6.6.2 Design of Relieving
Platform. Foundation piles are sometimes driven into the filling material to support the superstructure. These
piles should have sufficient safety against the horizontal and vertical forces transmitted from the
superstructure. Here it is assumed that the vertical force transmitted from the superstructure is entirely borne
by the piles, and the vertical bearing capacity of the pile is calculated by ignoring the skin friction between the
pile and the filling material. The horizontal force that acts on the superstructure is transmitted to the double
sheet pile quaywall partly through the piles and partly through the sheet piles. Therefore it is necessary to
determine what percentages of the horizontal force are borne by the two.
(2) When a double sheet pile quaywall is to be used as an important structure, it is desirable to examine its
mechanical behavior by using Sawaguchis method 3) or the method by Ohori et al. 4), without relying on the
conventional methods.
Sawaguchis method is an approximation method that calculates displacement by assuming that the filling
material is an incompressible elastic body and by examining the structure as a hybrid structure that consists of
the sheet pile walls and filling material. The method by Ohhori et al. is a calculation method that makes a shear
deformation analysis of the filling material by dividing the filling material into layers and applies Changs
method for the analysis of the embedded section of the sheet pile, based on Sawaguchis concept. This is a
computer-based numerical calculation method. The elasto-plasticity of the ground is evaluated with the shear
modulus of the filling material and the subgrade reaction coefficient of the embedded section of the sheet piles,
both of which are represented as the functions of deformation.
[References]
1) Katsutoshi TANIMOTO, Suketo HARANAKA, Shigeo TAKAHASHI, Kazuhiko KOMATSU, Masahiko TODOROKI,
Mutsuo OSATO: An experimental investigation of wave reflection, overtopping and wave forces for several types of
breakwaters and sea walls , Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 246, 1976, 38 p. (in Japanese).
2) Yoshimi GODA, Yasuharu KISHIRA: Experiments on irregular wave overtopping characteristics of seawalls of low crest
types, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 242, 1976, 28 p. (in Japanese).
3) Sawaguchi, M.: Lateral behavior of a double sheet pile wall structure, Soils and Foundations, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1974, pp. 45-59.
4) Kouichi OHORI, Yoshihiro SHOJI, Kunio TAKAHASHI, Hiroshi UEDA, Michihiko HARA, Yutaka KAWAI, Keisuke
SHIOTA: Static behavior of double sheet pile wall structure, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 23, No. 1, 1984, pp. 103-151 (in
Japanese).
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PART I MOORING FACILITIES
Chapter 18 Transitional Parts of Quaywalls

In the design of the transitional part of quaywalls the following matters shall be taken into consideration:
(1) Natural conditions in the vicinity of the transitional part
(2) Conditions of the structures adjacent to the transitional part
(3) Sequence of execution and availavility of construction machineries
18.2 Transitional Part Where Frontal Water Depth Varies

The design conditions for the transitional part between the quaywalls at different water depths shall be the
same as those for the quaywall at the deeper side, and the design method and safety factor shall be taken as
specified for the structural type of respective transitional parts.
18.3 Transitional Part Where Quaywalls of Different Type Are Connected

At the location where two quaywalls of different types are connected, the two structures are connected
with each other either directly or with insertion of a transitional section. The design conditions for the
structure of transitional section shall be selected from those of the two connecting quaywalls that are more
unfavorable for the stability of the transitional section.
18.4 Outward Projecting Corner

For the structure of transitional section at an outward projecting corner, the design conditions shall be
selected from those for the two connecting quaywalls that are more unfavorable for the transitional section.
[Commentary]
Careful consideration should be made in designing the structure of a transitional section that forms an outward
projecting corner, because the an outward corner may sometimes pose stability problems. It is advisable to avoid
making a sharp angle corner, because it would demand a complex structural design and make construction work more
difficult.
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Chapter 19 Ancillary Facilities

19.1 General
Port facilities shall be provided with ancillary facilities as necessary. In particular, mooring facilities for
vessels that transport dangerous goods shall have the following ancillary facilities:
(1) Provision against Leakage and Spillage of Dangerous Goods
Mooring facilities for vessels that transport dangerous goods shall be of such structure that the facility
will not be damaged or excessively corroded in the event of a leakage accident during the handling of
dangerous goods at the facility. When it is necessary to prevent direct spillage of dangerous goods into
the sea, drainage facilities such as side ditches and holding basins / tanks shall be provided. Provision
of equipment for preventing oil spills is subject to Article39, Clause 3 of the Law Relating to the
Prevention of Marine Pollution and Maritime Disaster (Law No. 136 of 1970) and the associated
orders.
(2) Railings, Signs, and Notices
Entrances to a mooring facility for vessels that transport dangerous goods shall be provided with
railings or fences to prevent unauthorized people from entering the mooring facility, or with signs or
notices to notify that entry into the mooring facility is restricted to authorized people.
(3) Fire Fighting Equipment and Alarm Systems
Mooring facilities for vessels that transport dangerous goods shall be provided with fire fighting
equipment such as fire extinguishing foam ejector, fire extinguishers, and sprinklers. They shall also
have alarm systems that are capable of activating audible alarm upon detection of a fire or a sign of
fire and a communicating system that enables to immediately notify the people who can take
appropriate measures of the fire fighting.
[Commentary]
(1) Ancillary facilities include:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
Mooring posts, bollards, and mooring rings

Fender system
Curbing
Stairways and ladders
Water supply facilities
Drainage facilities
Fueling and electric power supply facilities
Other facilities
Skirt guard
Passenger embarkation / disembarkation facilities
Vehicle embarkation / disembarkation facilities
Lifesaving facilities
Railings, ropes, etc.
Fire fighting equipment and alarm systems
Lighting facilities
Lavatories and telephones
Marker lamps and signs
Others
19.2 Mooring Equipment

The mooring equipment for a mooring facility, excluding the slipways, shall have sufficient strength for
the mooring of vessels in consideration of the natural conditions at the site such as the topography, weather
and marine phenomena as well as the size of vessels such as the length overall, molded breadth, molded
draft, and gross tonnage.
19.3 Mooring Posts, Bollards, and Mooring Rings

19.3.1 General
Mooring facilities shall be equipped with mooring posts, bollards, and/or mooring rings.
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19.3.2 Arrangement of Mooring Posts, Bollards and Mooring Rings (Notification Article 80)
The arrangement of mooring equipment shall be such that the mooring of vessels and the handling of
cargoes can be done in a smooth and safe manner. The mooring equipment such as mooring posts, bollards,
and mooring rings shall be arranged appropriately in consideration of the positions of bitts aboard the
vessels.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Mooring posts that are used in stormy weather should be installed in the proximity of both ends of the wharf at
the distance as far away as possible from the waterfront line. Bollards should be installed on the wharf and near
the waterfront line, so that they can be used for mooring vessels under ordinary weather conditions and for
berthing / leaving of vessels. In the determination of the bollard interval and the minimum number of bollards
per berth, the values listed in Table T-19.3.1 may be used as reference.
Table T-19.3.1 Intervals and Minimum Required Number of Bollards (per Berth)
Gross tonnage of vessel
Maximum interval of
bollards (m)
Minimum number of bollards

per berth (unit)
Less than 2,000 GT
10 15
2,000 GT or greater, and less than 5,000 GT
20
25
35
45
(2) When a quay is a small one for small ships and there is no risk of upward pulling of mooring ropes by ships,
deployment of bollards at intervals of 10 to 20 m along the waterfront line will suffice and there is no need to
deploy mooring posts. For small quays, mooring rings having a strength equivalent to that of the bollards may be
installed at intervals of 5 to 10 m instead of the bollards. When small quays are provided with mooring rings,
they should be installed at an appropriate level in consideration of the tide level. In many cases, the mooring of
small ships to mooring rings is made with one mooring rope connected to the bow and another to the stern of the
ship, and therefore the mooring ring interval should be 5 to 10 m.
(3) Mooring posts should normally be deployed to suit the use of the vessels being considered. Mooring posts are
usually deployed in such a way that the angle between the vessels axis and mooring rope becomes as close to
90 as possible so that the mooring posts provide a sufficient resistance against the external forces that act on the
vessel in the direction perpendicular to the vessels axis. The number of mooring posts installed on a berth is
usually two.
The bow and stern ropes are stretched to suppress the surging motion of a vessel. For this purpose, the angles
between these ropes and the vessels axis are made small, but the angles should not be smaller than 25to 30
.
Installment of bollards becomes necessary to satisty this requirement. Figure T-19.3.1 shows typical
arrangements of mooring posts and bollards.
Stern rope
Bow rope
Bollard
Mooring post
(a) When the angles at which the mooring ropes from the mooring posts
make with the vessels axis are 90
Bollard
Mooring post
(b) When the angles at which the mooring ropes from the mooring posts
make with the vessels axis are 45
Fig. T-19.3.1 Typical Arrangements of Mooring Posts and Bollards
19.3.3 Tractive Force of Vessel

The tractive forces of vessels shall be calculated appropriately in consideration of the berthing and
mooring conditions of vessels.
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[Technical Notes]
The tractive forces of vessels should be calculated in accordance with Part II, 2.2.4 Tractive Force Acting on
Mooring Post and Bollard.
19.3.4 Structure (Notification Article 78)

Mooring post and bollards shall be structurally safe against the vessels tractive forces that act on them.
[Commentary]
The tractive forces of vessels that act on mooring posts and bollards should be determined in accordance with Part II,
2.2.4 Tractive Force Acting on Mooring Post and Bollard.
[Technical Notes]
The structure of mooring post may be determined in accordance with the Standard Design of Mooring Post of
Standard Design of Port Structures (Issue 1) published by the Japan Port Association.
19.4 Fender System

19.4.1 General
The layout, structure and others of the fender system of a mooring facility shall be designed appropriately
in consideration of the berthing forces of vessels and the forces generated by the motions of moored
vessels.
[Technical Notes]
(1) When a vessel is berthed to a
wharf or when a moored vessel
is put into motion owing to wind
and wave forces, the berthing
force and friction force are generated between the vessel and
the mooring facility. To prevent
damages to the vessels hull and
mooring facility due to these
forces, a fender system is
installed on the mooring facility.
However, when the vessel has a
fender system such as ship fenders or tires (e.g., small ships,
certain types of ferries) and the
maneuvering of such a vessel is
done very carefully in consideration of the fender systems
energy absorption capacity, the
mooring facility does not necessarily have to be equipped with
a fender system, because the
berthing force is relatively low.
Determination of
target vessel
Layout of fenders
(During berthing)
Determination of the coefficient of
eccentricity and approaching velocity
(When a vessel is moored)

Determination of the layout and type
(characteristics) of mooring ropes
Calculation of the berthing energy
Determination of the wave conditions,

wind speed, current velocity etc.
Assumption of the type and shape

of fender
Assumption of the type and shape

of fender
Calculation of the absorbed energy,

reaction force, and deformation
of the fender
Calculation of the vessel motion,

fender deformation and reaction force
Is the fender deformation within
the allowable deformation?
Isnt the fender deformation too small ?
(2) For fender systems, rubber and

pneumatic fenders are popularly used. Other types such as
foam types, water pressure
types, oil pressure types, suspended weight types, pile types,
and timber types are also used 2).
Determination of the
fender to be used
Fig. T-19.4.1 Flowchart of Fender Design
(3) Fender systems should be

provided with contact panels etc. as necessary to reduce the load per unit area (bearing or surface pressure) in
order to prevent the damage to the vessels hull. To reduce the shearing force that acts on the fender systems, it is
recommended to attach epoxy resin plates etc. to the surface of the contact panel.
(4) Design of rubber fenders, pneumatic fenders, and pile type fenders should basically be conducted in the
procedure shown in Fig. T-19.4.1.
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19.4.2 Arrangement of Fenders (Notification Article 81)

Fenders shall be arranged in such a way that the fenders can absorb the required portion of the berthing
energy of the target vessel and the vessel will not come in direct contact with the mooring facility 3 ) ,4 ) .
19.4.3 Berthing Energy of Vessel (Notification Article 82)
In principle, the berthing energy of vessel that is used in the design of fenders shall be calculated in
accordance with Part II, 2.2 External Forces Generated by Vessels.
19.4.4 Selection of Fender (Notification Article 83)
In principle, fenders shall be selected appropriately in consideration of the following:
(1) The characteristics of the structure of the mooring facility and the vessels to berth there.
(2) In the case of a mooring facility being exposed to wave actions, the motions of moored vessels and the
berthing conditions of vessels including the berthing angles.
(3) The exertion of the fender reaction force generated during vessels berthing upon the structural
members of the mooring facility.
(4) The ranges of variation in the physical characteristics of fenders due to the deviations of the
manufactured products from the standard, the response to dynamic loading, and the thermal response
to the air temparature, etc.
[Technical Notes]
Absorbed energy
(1) The berthing force is calculated from the energy absorption curve that is obtained by adding the energy absorbed
by the deformation of fenders Ef1 and that absorbed by the deformation of the berth structure Ef2, as shown in
Fig. T-19.4.2.
(Berth Structure) + (Fenders)

Fenders
Berth Structure
Reaction force (load)
Fig. T-19.4.2 Calculation of Berthing Force
(2) Gravity type quaywalls, sheet pile quaywalls, and quaywall with relieving platform have sufficient levels of
resistance capacity against normal berthing forces. However, flexible structures such as open-type wharves,
detached piers, and dolphins have relatively low horizontal resistance capacity (especially in the case of a
vertical pile type mooring facility). Therefore, care should be taken to ensure that the berthing force becomes
smaller than the allowable horizontal load when using these types of structures.
(3) A fender system should also be safe against the shearing force due to the friction between the fender and the
vessels hull generated by oblique berthing of vessels. This force is normally calculated by means of the
equation suggested by Vasco Costa 5). When a vessel is berthed to the wharf at an angle of 6to 14with the
berths front line, this force becomes 10% to 25% of the fender reaction force.
(4) In mooring facilities that are exposed to wave actions, vessels move in both the horizontal and vertical
directions. The vessels motions may cause excessive shear deformation in fenders in addition to the normal
compressive deformation, which sometimes leads to breakage of fenders. If the shearing force is assumed to be
the friction force, the force is estimated as about 30% to 40% of the fender reaction force.
(5) The single pile structure (SPS) is a type of structure that absorbs the berthing energy by the deformation of piles
made of high tensile strength steel. In the design of dolphins that use SPS, it is necessary to calculate the amount
of energy absorption by considering the residual deformation of the piles due to repeated berthing. As shown in
Fig. T-19.4.3, the amount of energy absorbed by piles is calculated by using the displacement obtained by
subtracting the residual displacement from the loading point displacement.
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Load
The loading point displacement that takes the residual displacement into consideration is calculated by
means of equation (19.4.1).
(19.4.1)
Ph 3
y top = A 1 y 0 + A 2 i 0 h + --------3EI
where
ytop displacement of the pile at loading point, considering
residual displacement (m)
y0 pile displacement at sea bottom at the time of initial
Absorbed energy
loading (m)
i0 pile deflection angle at sea bottom at the time of initial
loading (rad)
P horizontal load (N)
h height of loading point (m)
Residual
EI flexual rigidity of pile (N m2)
displacement
displacement
A1, A2 influence coefficient due to repeated loading
Note: The term initial loading refers to the first application of a
load that is the largest among the past loading.
Table T-19.4.1 lists the values of influence coefficient due to
repeated loading that have been suggested on the basis of the result
of an on-site full-scale loading experiment and the result of a model
experiment 7).
Fig. T-19.4.3 Energy Absorbed by

Deformation of Piles
Table T-19.4.1 Values of Influence Coefficient Due to Repeated Loading

For obtaining the maximum
displacement
For obtaining the energy absorbed by

the deformation of piles
For obtaining the residual displacement
A1
1.4
0.4
0.8
A2
1.2
0.6
0.5
(6) Energy Absorption by Fenders

There are various types of rubber fenders such as V-shaped rubber fenders, circular hollow rubber fenders, and
rectangular hollow rubber fenders. Each of these types differs from others in terms of the relationship between
the reaction force and deformation as well as the energy absorption rate. Manufacturers catalogs show diagrams
of the amount of energy absorption versus deformation, and those of the reaction force versus deformation for
each type of fenders.
Constant-reaction force fenders such as V-shaped fenders are characterized with low-reaction forces and high
energy absorption rates. It should be borne in mind however that the total reaction force to the mooring facility
may become large when a vessel comes in contact with two to three fenders simultaneously. This is because of
the fact that the reaction force level rises nearly to the maximum value when the energy absorption rate reaches
to 1/3 of the design capasity.
(7) Variation in Characteristics of Rubber Fenders
Factors that cause variations in characteristics of fenders include the product deviations from the standards,
aging in quality, dynamic characteristics (velocity-dependent characteristics), creep characteristics, repetition
characteristics (compression frequency-dependent characteristics), oblique compression characteristics, and
thermal characteristics. In the design of fenders used to moor floating structures, these factors are important in
the evaluation of the safety of the mooring system. In the design of fenders for wharves, it is also appropriate to
give consideration to the product deviations, dynamic characteristics (velocity-dependent characteristics),
oblique compression characteristics, thermal characteristics, etc. For example, when the product deviation
(tolerance) of the fender is 10%, it is desirable to employ the energy absorption characteristics lowered by 10%
from the catalog value and to use the reaction force characteristics raised by 10% from the catalog value in the
design of the fenders and mooring facility. With regard to dynamic characteristics, it is recommended to confirm
that the reaction force of the fender at the time of berthing will not exceed the standard value shown in the
catalog in consideration of the berthing velocity of vessels. It should also be borne in mind that the fender
reaction force becomes higher in a low-temperature environment than in the standard temperature environment.
It has been recommended by a working group of the Permanent International Association Navigation
Congress (PIANC) to perform correction on the energy absorption and reaction force in the selection of fender,
in order to reflect changes in characteristics due to the environment in which the fender is used, such as the
vessels approaching velocity, the temperature, etc8). Actual values of these correction coefficients should be
checked with the manufacturer, as they vary depending on the approaching velocity, temperature, and type of
rubber used for the fender. It should also be borne in mind that the reaction force conveyed to the berth structure
may become larger when a small ship is berthed at a high approaching velocity than when a large vessel is
berthed at a low approaching velocity 6), 9).
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19.5 Safety Facilities

19.5.1 General
The mooring facilities shall be provided with a skirt guard or other safety equipment to hold small ships
from moving under piled piers. Safety equipment other than the skirt guard includes fences, ropes or
similar equipment, and signs showing safety passage for pedestrians. Installation of such equipment shall
be made as specified below.
19.5.2 Skirt Guard (Notification Article 84)
When there is a risk that small ships may accidentally underrun a mooring facility such as piled piers and
dolphins, an appropriate skirt guard shall be provided.
[Commentary]
At a piled pier, open-type wharf, dolphins or any other mooring facilities where small ships might go below the deck,
a skirt guard should be provided.
19.5.3 Fence and Rope (Notification Article 85)

Mooring facilities for passenger ships shall be provided with fences or ropes as necessary, to ensure the
safety of passengers, to secure the pathways for passengers, and to prevent vehicles from entering the
facility.
[Technical Notes]
Usually a standard height of 0.7 m is used for fences and ropes. For areas with a risk that passengers may fall off,
fences having a height of 1.1 m or more should be provided.
19.5.4 Signs or Notices

Refer to 19.11 Signs, Notices, and Protective Fences.
19.5.5 Curbing
Refer to 19.9 Curbing.
19.5.6 Fire Fighting Equipment and Alarm Systems
The provision of fire fighting equipment should be in conformity with the Fire Service Law, the
Orders on the Implementation of the Fire Service Law, and the Implementation Rules for the Fire
Service Law.
19.6 Service Facilities

19.6.1 General
The mooring facilities shall be provided with lighting appliances and other equipment required for
facilitating their usage. Here, other equipments required includes facilities for embarking and
desembarking passengers and vehicles, water supply facilities, drainage facilities, fueling facilities,
electric power supply facilities, marks and signs, lavatories, telephones, and others. Installation of these
facilities shall be made as specified in the subsections hereinafter.
19.6.2 Lighting Facilities
Refer to 19.12 Lighting Facilities.
19.6.3 Facilities for Passenger Embarkation and Disembarkation
Refer to Part , Chapter 5 Facilities for Passenger and Part , Chapter 2 Ferry Terminals.
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19.6.4 Vehicle Ramp (Notification Article 93)

The requirements for vehicle ramps are as follows:
(1) The width of a vehicle ramp shall be an appropriate value that is equal to or greater than the value
listed in Table 19.6.1. In the case of a movable bridge, the structural characteristics of the bridge shall
be taken into consideration in an appropriate manner.
(2) The inclination of a vehicle ramp shall be an appropriate value that is equal to or smaller than the
value listed in Table 19.6.1.
(3) The standard length of the horizontal part shall be 7 m. In the case of a small-scale facility, a length of
4 m may be used as a standard.
(4) The radius of the centerline of a curved section shall be an appropriate value equal to or larger than 15
m.
(5) Signs and notices shall be provided appropriately in consideration of the structural characteristics and
use of the facility.
Table 19.6.1 Width and Inclination of Vehicle Ramp (Notification Article 93)
Number of
lanes
Width (m)
Ramp mainly used by vehicles with a width

of 1.7 m or less (small-scale facility)
Ramp mainly used by vehicles with a width

of 2.5 m or less
3.75
6.5
Type of facility
Ramp frequently used by container trailers
Inclination (%)
Fixed section
Movable section
12
17
10
12
Note: The inclination of a facility that is to be frequently used as a ramp for container trailers shall be determined appropriately in
consideration of the safety of container trailers during embarkation / disembarkation and the state of their traffic on the
facility.
[Commentary]
The term small-scale facility refers to a vehicle ramp dedicated for small-sized vehicles and light vehicles.
[Technical Notes]
In the design of small-scale and standard-size facilities, the range of vertical movement at the tip of the movable part
is often set as equal to the spring tidal range (the difference between the mean monthly-highest water level and the
mean monthly-lowest water level) with an addition of 1 m.
19.6.5 Water Supply Facilities (Notification Article 88)

A mooring facility shall be provided with a water supply facility as necessary in consideration of the size
and use of the mooring facility. The provisions specified in Part , 4.2 Water Supply Facilities shall
apply as appropriate to the provision of the water supply facility for the mooring facility.
19.6.6 Drainage Facilities (Notification Article 87)
A mooring facility shall be provided with a drainage facility (such as drainage ditches and water drain
work) as necessary in consideration of the quality of the waste water, the structural characteristics and use
of the mooring facility.
19.6.7 Fueling and Electric Power Supply Facilities (Notification Article 89)
A mooring facility shall be provided, as necessary, with fueling and/or electric power supply facilities that
enable safe and efficient fueling and power feeding, in consideration of the size of vessels to moor at the
facility, type and scale of the cargo handling, and structural characteristics of the mooring facility.
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19.6.8 Signs or Notices

Refer to 19.11 Signs, Notices, and Protective Fences.
19.7 Stairways and Ladders (Notification Article 90)

The requirements for stairways, ladders, and other similar facilities toward the water surface shall be as
follows:
(1) They shall be located in such a way that they can be used easily in the event of an emergency.
(2) They shall have a structure that enables safe usage.
[Commentary]
It is recommended that mooring facilities to be used for the embarkation and disembarkation of passengers of ferries
and passenger ships are to be provided with one or more stairways, ladders, or other similar facility per berth.
[Technical Notes]
Ladders should be designed with a design load of 1 kN per meter of ladder length for both horizontal and vertical
directions. Metal fixtures should have especially high strength. Provision should be made to enable easy repair of the
ladder in the event of its breakage, corrosion, etc.
19.8 Lifesaving Facilities (Notification Article 91)

Mooring facilities that are to be used by a passenger ship of 500 tons or more in gross tonnage shall be
provided with appropriate lifesaving facilities as necessary.
19.9 Curbing (Notification Article 92)

The structure, shape, layout, and material of curbing shall be designed appropriately in such a way that the
safety of users in vehicles will be ensured and cargo handling work will not hindered, in consideration of
the use and structural characteristics of the mooring facility.
[Technical Notes]
The designing of curbing can be conducted by refering to the Curving Design Manual.
19.10 Vehicle Ramp

A vehicle ramp shall be designed in accordance with Part , 2.3 Design of Vehicle Ramp.
19.11 Signs, Notices and Protective Fences

19.11.1 General
Mooring facilities shall be provided with the following signs and notices or protective fences specified in
the following subsections as appropriate.
19.11.2 Provision of Signs
In order to ensure the safety of port users and to make for convenient use of ports, signs shall be provided
in the following cases:
(1) When it is necessary to ensure that port users can arrive at their destinations in a speedy and safe
manner and to provide guideboards of the location of port facilities.
(2) When it is necessary to warn port users about dangers associated with the use of facilities and cargo
handling works.
(3) When it is necessary to provide instructions to port users about methods to use facilities and guide
them to ensure safe and smooth use of facilities.
(4) When it is necessary to regulate the behavior of port users to ensure their safety and smooth activities,
to prevent disasters such as fire and falling accident, and to prevent environmental pollution by
littering.
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19.11.3 Types and Location of Signs

(1) Signs shall basically be the same in type as those used for ordinary roads and be designed
appropriately in consideration of their purposes in such a way that port users can easily recognize
them.
(2) Signs shall be installed at locations where they are easily recognized by port users and they do not
hinder the traffic and the cargo handling works.
[Technical Notes]
6.0
An example of a sign is shown in Fig T-19.11.8.
h: Character size
n: Number of characters
Fig. T-19.11.8 Example of Sign
19.11.4 Position of Sign

Signs shall be installed in accordance with the following guidelines:
(1) Horizontal Position
In principle, signs installed on roads shall be positioned in such a way that one edge of the sign plate
is aligned with the horizontal boundary of road clearance limits.
(2) Height
Signs shall be installed at an appropriate height at which users can easily recognize them (as in the
case of signs on ordinary roads) in consideration of their purposes.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Figure T-19.11.9 shows an example of the road clearance limits.
(2) Figure T-19.11.10 shows the height requirements for road signs.
Road clearance limits
Side walk clearance limit

0.25m
4.5m
2.5m
Road facility strip
Median strip
Fig. T-19.11.9 Clearance Limits for Roads
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2.8 m
1.0
5.0 m
Single-post type
1.0
(b) Warning
1.0 m or more
Dual-post type
(a) Information
1.0 m or more
2.1 m
Overhang type
(c) Instruction
(d) Regulation
Fig. T-19.11.10 Height of Signs
19.11.5 Structure of Sign

Signs shall be designed in such a way that the post(s), foundation work, and sign plate have sufficient
structural strengths in consideration of the following:
(1) The external forces that act on the sign shall be the deadweight, wind load, and earth pressure.
(2) The calculation of the wind load and the design of the foundation work shall be made in accordance
with the Guidelines for Construction of Foundation of Facilities Ancillary to Roads (Public Notice
from the Chief of the Planning Section, Road Construction Burean, Ministry of Construction; Road
Construction Planning Notice No.52, July 15, 1975).
(3) The posts shall be designed in such a way that they have sufficient strength and are aesthetically
acceptable, in consideration of the size of the sign plate and the place at which the sign is installed.
(4) The thickness of the sign plate shall be designed appropriately in consideration of the size of the plate
so that the sign will be kept discernible for a long time free from excessive distortion or deformation.
The sign plate shall be provided with appropriate stiffeners.
(5) Movable signs shall be designed in such a way that they can be moved easily and have a sufficiently
stable structure.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The wind load is calculated by means of the following equation:
1
P = --- raV 2 CA
2
where
P wind load (kN)
V design wind speed (m/s)
A area subjected to wind (effective projected area) (m2)
C drag coefficient
The following values should be used as standard:
post 0.7
plate1.2
ra : density of air, r a = 1.23 10-3 (t/m3)
For the design wind speed, the following values should be used as standard:
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(19.11.1)
Single-post type small signs40 m/s

Suspended large signs
50 m/s
The wind load should be treated as a short-term load.
(2) Thickness of Sign Plate
Recently aluminum alloys are frequently used for the base board of sign plates. Normally the following
thickness are used for the base board according to the size of the sign plate.
(a) Small sign plates (smaller than 1.0 m2) 1.2 mm
(b) Large sign plates (1.0 m2 or larger)
2.0 mm
19.11.6 Materials
(1) In principle, signs shall be made using the following materials:
(a) Sign plate:
aluminum alloy plate or synthetic resin plate
(b) Post:
steel pipe or aluminum pipe
(c) Metal fixtures: aluminum alloy of extruded shapes or steel
(2) All steel products being used shall be provided with adequate corrosion protection treatment on their
surface.
(3) When a reflector is to be used, a reflector sheet shall be used.
(4) All materials shall meet the applicable JIS requirements, or they shall be of equivalent quality.
[Commentary]
The JIS requirements for aluminum alloy plates, steel products, etc. are as follows:
Aluminum alloy plates: JIS H 4000 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Plates
Aluminum pipes:
JIS H 4100 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy of Extruded Shapes
Steel pipes:
JIS G 3444 Carbon Steel Pipes for General Structural Purposes
Reflector sheets:
JIS Z 9117 Reflector Sheets and Tapes Used for Safety Purposes
[Technical Notes]
There are a variety of reflector sheet products available, but the most commonly used ones are agglutinative materialencapsulated lens-type reflector sheets and air-encapsulated lens-type reflector sheets. Figure T-19.11.11 shows the
structure of these types.
Air-encapsulated lens-type
Agglutinative material-encapsulated lens-type
Transparent plastic film

Agglutinative material
Transparent plastic film

Air layer
Agglutinative material (spacer)
(cushion coat)
Spherical lenses
Reflection film
Adhesive layer
Liner
Fig. T-19.11.11 Major Types of Reflector Sheet and Their Structure
19.11.7 Maintenance and Management

Signs shall be maintained and managed in such a way that they are always kept in good condition.
19.11.8 Protective Fences
Protective fences shall be provided in such a way that they can sufficiently ensure the safety of facility
users, in consideration of the conditions of the area in question. The design, layout and others of protective
fences may be determined in accordance with the Guidelines for the Provision of Protective Fences.
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19.11.9 Barricades
Barricades shall be of such structure that they can be easily shifted and are resistant to damage during
shifting.
19.12 Lighting Facilities

Appropriate lighting facilities shall be provided at the wharves and related areas where cargo handling
works such as loading, unloading and transfer, berthing / leaving of vessels, and use by passangers and
others are made at night, in consideration of the state of usage of the mooring facility.
[Commentary]
(1) The provisions in this section apply to the installation, improvement, and maintenance of lighting facilities for
wharves that are used by passengers and other users at night or wharves at which cargo handling work, berthing
/ leaving of vessels, or other work is performed at night.
(2) For water frontage amenity facilities and areas for recreational purposes such as amenity-oriented revetments,
marinas, parks, and promenades, provision of appropriate lighting facilities should be considered as necessary
for the proper function(s) of the facility.
[Technical Notes]
In response to recent social demands concerning improvement of lighting facilities for port facilities, there have been
introduced many lighting facilities that are designed to highlight night scenery of buildings, parks, and waterfronts,
especially in the areas in and around cities and sightseeing spots. These lighting facilities are designed to provide not
only illumination, but also a good light color and color rendering performance that create serene, relaxing, and
enjoyable atmosphere in the place. On the other hand, needs have arisen to reconsider the policy for the provision of
lighting facilities from the viewpoints of preventing adverse effects of artificial light on environments of nearby areas
and promoting energy conservation as the number of illuminated facilities / areas has increased. Thus lighting
facilities for marinas, parks, etc. should be planned and designed appropriately on a case-by-case basis in
consideration of these needs as well as the required lighting functions.
19.12.2 Standard Intensity of Illumination

[1] Definition
The term standard intensity of illumination is defined as the average intensity of illumination at a
specified standard horizontal surface, and it refers to the minimum intensity of illumination that is required
to use the facility in question in a safe and efficient manner.
[Commentary]
(1) The most common measure of brightness in the design of lighting facilities is the intensity of illumination. The
term average intensity of illumination at a specified standard horizontal surface refers to the average value of
the intensity of illumination as measured on the floor or ground surface.
(2) Because this standard intensity of illumination designates the minimum value required, a higher intensity may
be used as necessary.
(3) Standards on intensity of illumination are being developed by the International Committee on Illumination
(CIE), which has already published A Guide to Design of Illumination for Outdoor Workplaces.
[2] Standard Intensity of Illumination for Outdoor Lighting (Notification Article 86, Clause 2)
The intensity of illumination for outdoor lighting facilities shall be designed appropriately in accordance
with the requirements specified in the JIS Requirements for Intensity of Illumination or other relevant
requirements in consideration of the type and style of the work, so that safe and smooth use of the facility
is ensured.
[Commentary]
For intensity of illumination for outdoor facilities, the values listed in Table C-19.12.1 should be used as standard, in
consideration of the type of the facility.
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Table C-19.12.1 Standard Intensity of Illumination for Outdoor Lighting

Facility
Apron
Wharf
Yard
Passageway
Safety and security
Roads
Road
and
park
Parking space
Greens zone
Standard intensity of illumination (lx)
Mooring facilities for passenger or vehicles, general cargo

berths, and container berths
50
Slopes for pleasure-boats, and aprons where dangerous cargo

is handled by pipelines
30
Aprons in which simple cargo handling work is performed

using pipelines and belt conveyers
20
Yards used to store, load and unload, and transport containers

and general cargoes
20
Boarding bridge for passengers and vehicles
75
Passageways for passengers and vehicles
50
Other passageways
20
All facilities
1~5
Major roads
20
Other roads
10
Parking area for ferries
20
Other parking area
10
Passage in green zone
[3] Standard Intensity of Illumination for Indoor Lighting (Notification Article 86, Clause 2)
The intensity of illumination for indoor lighting facilities shall be designed appropriately in accordance
with the requirements specified in the JIS Requirements for Intensity of Illumination or other relevant
requirements in consideration of the type and style of the work, so that safe and smooth use of the facility
is ensured.
[Commentary]
For intensity of illumination for indoor facilities, the values listed in Table C-19.12.2 should be used as standard, in
consideration of the type of the facility.
Table C-19.12.2 Standard Intensity of Illumination for Indoor Lighting
Facility
Passenger terminal
Shed and warehouse
Intensity of illumination (lx)
Waiting rooms
300
Passengers passage and boarding bridge.
100
Fish sorting sheds at berths for fishing boats.
200
Container freight stations and transit sheds used by vehicles only.
100
Sheds and warehouses used for simple cargo handling work
70
Other sheds and warehouses
50
19.12.3 Selection of Light Source

(1) Light source for wharf lighting shall be selected in such a way that the following requirements are
met:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
The light source shall be of a high efficiency and long service life.
The light source shall be stable against the variations of ambient temperature.
The light source shall provide a good light color and good color rendering performance.
The time of the stabilization of the light after turning-on shall be short.
(2) Any light source other than a light bulb shall be used together with an appropriate stabilizer.
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[Commentary]
(1) Types of Light Source
Light sources are classified by type as shown in Fig. T- 19.12.1.
Incandescent lighting
Light source
Electrical discharge lighting
Light bulbs
Tungsten halogen lamps
Low-pressure discharge lamps
High-pressure discharge lamps
HID lamps
(High-luminance lamps)
Fluorescent lamps
Low-pressure sodium vapor lamps
Mercury lamps (transparent-type, fluorescence-type)
Metal halide lamps
High-pressure sodium vapor lamps
Fig. T-19.12.1 Types of Light Source
[Technical Notes]
(1) Table T-19.12.1 lists the characteristics of various lamps.
Table T-19.12.1 Characteristics of Lamps
Characteristics
Lamp efficiency
(lm/w)
Light color
(k)
Color rendering
performance
(Ra)
Service life
(hours)
Type of lamp
Stability against
influences of
ambient
temperature
Activation
Reactivation
Dimming
Incandescent lamp
Low
15 to 20
Whitish
orange
2,800
Good
100
Short
Stable
1,000 to 2,000
Instantaneous
Instantaneous
Easy
Halogen lamp
Low
17 to 22
Whitish
Good
orange
100
3,000 to 3,200
Short
Stable
1,000 to 2,000
Instantaneous
Instantaneous
Easy
Fluorescent lamp
(white)
Intermediate
80 to 100
Relatively
White
good
3,000 to 4,000
50 to 95
Long
6,000 to
12,000
Influenced
Quick
Quick
Possible
2 to 3 seconds 2 to 3 seconds
Orange
1,700
Intermediate
9,000
Stable
20 minutes
Relatively
quick
10 seconds
Difficult
Stable
8 minutes in
normal
temperature
environment
Relatively
slow
10 minutes
or less
Possible up to
50%
Difficult
Low-pressure sodium Highest

lamp
100 to 180
Bad
Mercury vapor lamp
Relatively low (Bluish) white Intermediate

40 to 60
3,500 to 4,000 40 to 50
Long
9,000 to
12,000
Metal halide lamp
Intermediate
70 to 80
White
Good
4,000 to 6,500 70 to 90
Influenced to
Intermediate
a certain
6,000 to 9,000
extent
5 minutes in
normal
temperature
environment
Relatively
slow
10 minutes
or less
Whitish
orange
2,100
Long
9,000 to
12,000
5 to 10
minutes
Relatively
Possible up to
quick
50%
1 to 5 minutes
High-pressure sodium Intermediate

vapor lamp
60 to 120
Intermediate
25 to 80
Stable
Note: The figures for lamp efficiency, light color (k), average color rendering performance evaluation number (Ra), etc. were determined based on
A Guide to Design of Illumination for Indoor Workplaces (Table A.3.1) published by the Japan Illumination Association.
(2) Color Temperature and Warm / Cool Sensation

Color temperature (K) is a representation of light color in the form of numerical figure and directly related to
human beings warm / cool sensation. Light color becomes more reddish as the color temperature becomes
lower, and more palish as the color temperature becomes higher. Table T-19.12.2 lists the relationship between
the color temperature and warm / cool sensation.
Table T-19.12.2 Color Temperature and Warm / Cool Sensation
Color temperature (K)
Warm/cool sensation
3,300 or less
Warm
3,300 to 5,300
Intermediate
5,300 or more
Cool
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(3) Color Rendering Performance and Average Color Rendering Performance Evaluation Number
As a main index of color rendering performance, an average color rendering performance evaluation number
(Ra) is used. The number Ra is the average of the color rendering performance evaluation numbers obtained for
the eight designated test colors. The CIE (International Commission on Illumination) has defined limits of
application of various types of lamps for outdoor workplaces based on Ra. Table T-19.12.3 lists the color
rendering performance classes together with the corresponding average color rendering performance evaluation
numbers and lamp types, as well as the recommended use of each type.
Table T-19.12.3 Color Rendering Performance Classification for Outdoor Lighting
Color rendering
performance class
Average color rendering

performance evaluation number
(Ra)
80 Ra
Very good
60 Ra < 80
Good
40 Ra < 60
Relatively good
20 Ra < 40
Acceptable
High-pressure sodium vapor lamp
Ra < 20
Low-pressure sodium vapor lamp
Type of lamp
Use
Incandescent lamp
Fluorescent lamp
Metal halide lamp
High color rendering performance-type
high-pressure sodium vapor lamp
Work that involves selection

of hues
Mercury lamp
Ordinary work
Not suitable for work that

involves selection of colors
Not recommended
19.12.4 Selection of Lighting Equipment

[1] Outdoor Lighting
Lighting for outdoor illumination shall be selected in consideration of the following requirements:
(1) Lighting equipment shall be rainproof. When a large amount of flammable dangerous goods is to be
handled in the proximity of the lighting equipment, lighting equipment shall be explosion-proof.
(2) Materials for the lamp, reflector surface, and illumination cover shall be of good quality and have
high durability and good resistance against deterioration and corrosion.
(3) Sockets shall be of appropriate type for the respective light source.
(4) Stabilizers and the internal wiring shall be capable of withstanding the expected increase in the
temperature of the equipment.
(5) Lighting equipment shall be of high-efficiency type.
(6) Luminous intensity distribution shall be controlled appropriately in consideration of the use of the
equipment.
[2] Indoor Lighting
Lighting for indoor illumination shall be selected in consideration of the following requirements:
(1) Luminous intensity distribution shall be controlled appropriately in consideration of the use of the
equipment.
(2) Sockets shall be of appropriate type for the respective light source.
(3) Stabilizers and the internal wiring shall be capable of withstanding the expected increase in the
temperature of the equipment.
(4) Lighting equipment shall be of high-efficiency type.
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19.12.5 Design of Lighting

In the designing of lighting, the layout of lighting equipment shall be determined by considering the items
listed below for the lighting method, light source, and equipment selected, in consideration of the
characteristics of the area where the equipment is to be installed. Those equipment whose influence area
extends to the sea shall be deployed in such a way that they do not hinder the navigation of nearby ships.
(1) Standard intensity of illumination
(2) Distribution of intensity of illumination
(3) Glare
(4) Adverse effects of light and energy conservation considerations
(5) Light color and color rendering performance
[Commentary]
(1) Layout of Lighting Equipment
In the design of lighting, the lighting equipment should be layed out in such a way that the standard illumination
intensity requirements described in this 19.12.2 Standard Intensity of Illumination are sufficiently met after
examining the lighting method, distribution of intensity of illumination, glare from the lighting equipment, and
light color and color rendering performance of the light source.
(2) Distribution of Intensity of Illumination
Improper distribution of intensity of illumination at the irradiated surface not only makes passengers and
workers uncomfortable, but also creates dark areas in which people cannot see objects or other people clearly.
This may lead to reduction in work efficiency or accidents. In the design of lighting, therefore, it is necessary to
give careful consideration to the following:
(a) In the determination of the layout of lighting equipment, care should be taken to achieve an appropriate ratio
between the installation interval and height of the lighting equipment so that proper distribution of intensity of
illumination will be achieved.
(b) When an area is likely to be shadowed by plants or cargoes, ancillary lighting equipment should be provided.
(c) The Illumination Guide issued by the CIE lists the mean values that should be maintained for the intensity of
illumination at the floor or ground as well as the recommended values for degree of evenness. The degree of
evenness here is defined as the ratio of the minimum intensity of illumination to the average intensity of
illumination.
(3) Glare
The term glare refers to an excessively bright light or light with excessively uneven brightness that causes
temporary discomfort or a reduction in eyesight to people.
Glares caused by lighting equipment are categorized into glares that affect ships and glares that affect
passengers and workers.
(a) Glares that affect ships
When a ship crew member or pilot is affected by a glare, his ability to recognize navigational aids and
anchored ships is impaired. This may lead to ship maneuvering errors, which in turn may cause accidents such
as collision with other ship or a quaywall. Therefore, the layout and luminous intensity distribution of lighting
equipment should be carefully examined to ensure safe navigation of ships.
(b) Glares that affect workers and passengers
When a worker or passenger is affected by a glare, his ability to recognize cargoes, tags, and obstacles is
impaired. This may lead to reduction in work efficiency and unnecessary fatigue. Therefore, arrangements
should be made to prevent direct exposure of peoples eyes to light in consideration of the height of the eyes of
workers and passengers and the position of the lighting equipment. The CIE has recently introduced the upper
limits for glares in their lighting standards for outdoor workplaces as recommendations to ensure the efficient
visual works of workers and the safety of traffic.
(4) Adverse Effects of Light and Energy Conservation Considerations
Leakage of light from outdoor lighting facility produces adverse influences that obstruct astronomical
observation, cause glares hindering visual recognition of objects, and deteriorate ecosystems of animals and
plants. In addition, leakage of light results in a loss of energy. As these are problems that have social
implications, it is important to give careful consideration to these problems in the design of lighting.
(5) Light Color and Color Rendering Performance
Light sources for recreational facilities such as amenity-oriented revetments, promenades, and parks should be
selected in consideration of the suitability of light colors for the facility. In the case of a facility with high
intensity of illumination, it is desirable to give careful consideration to color rendering performance in the
selection of the light source.
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(6) Illumination Intensity Calculation Method

There are two illumination intensity calculation methods, namely, the flux method and point-by-point method.
The flux method employs a relatively simple equation and is used to calculate the required number of lighting
equipment. The point-by-point method can accurately calculates the intensity of illumination of a given point.
The point-by-point method enables to examine the distribution of the intensity of illumination, the average value
of which is calculated by the flux method. Thus the former is used to examine the evenness of the intensity of
illumination.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Calculation by Flux Method
By using the flux method, the average intensity of illumination of the irradiated area can be calculated as
follows:
N F UM
E = -----------------A
where
E average intensity of illumination (lx)
N number of lighting equipment (unit)
F total flux of one light source (lm)
U utilization factor (see (3) below)
M maintenance factor
A area of the irradiated surface (m2)
(19.12.1)
(2) Calculation by Point-by-Point Method

To determine the evenness of the intensity of illumination in the design of lighting, it is necessary to use the
point-by-point method. The point-by-point method first divides the area to be illuminated into a grid of
rectangular blocks, and then calculates the intensity of illumination at the center of each block.
The intensity of direct horizontal plane illumination Eh at point P on a given surface by a light source L is
given by equation (19.12.2) (see Fig. T-19.12.2).
I qa cos q
(19.12.2)
E h = ------------------2
l
where
Eh intensity of direct horizontal plane
illumination at P (lx)
I q luminous intensity in the direction
(cd)
l distance between the light source L
and P (m)
q incident angle ()
It is recommended that the shape of grid

blocks be made as close as possible to a
square. The length ratio of one side to the
other should be 0.5 to 2.0. The maximum size
p (i.e., length of the longer side) of grid
blocks should be the smaller of the two values
obtained by equation (19.12.3).
678
p = 0.2 5log d
p = 10
Fig. T-19.12.2 Horizontal Intensity of Illumination at Point P
(19.12.3)
where
d width of the area in which intensity of
illumination is to be calculated (m)
p maximum length of the longer side of
grid block (m)
Value of evenness (Eev) is the ratio of the
minimum intensity of illumination to the
average intensity of illumination, and the
latter is calculated by equation (19.12.4) (see
Fig. T- 19.12.3).
E1 + E2 + En
Fig. T-19.12.3 Division of Illuminated Area into Grid Blocks
(19.12.4)
E ev = ------------------------------------n
where
n number of grid blocks in which intensity of illumination is to be calculated
-536-
En intensity of illumination at the center of the n-th grid block

(3) The utilization factor gives the ratio of the flux that reaches the irradiated surface to the total flux of the light
source of the lighting equipment.
As the value of utilization factor of indoor lighting depends on the efficiency of the lighting equipment, the
area of the irradiated surface, conditions of the room, and the difference among reflection coefficients of various
parts of the room, it is important to take these factors into consideration in lighting calculations.
Utilization factor of outdoor lighting can be calculated using the efficiency of the lighting equipment and the
area of the irradiated surface. Actual values range from 0.2 to 0.5, and normally a utilization factor of 0.4 is
used.
19.12.6 Maintenance and Management

[1] Inspections
(1) Periodical inspections shall be conducted for the following matters:
(a) Light condition
(b) Conditions of stain and damage of the equipment
(c) Any peel of the coating
(2) Illumination intensity measurement shall be conducted periodically for several measurement points
per each facility. The measurement points shall be selected in such a way that the data taken
represents the overall intensity of illumination of the facility. For measurement of the intensity of
illuminations, several typical points shall be selected for the respective facilities, and the
measurement be made periodically.
[Technical Notes]
)
of light source (
Ml
Design luminous flux maintenance factor
As the flux of any light source wanes with the increase in the cumulative lighting time, it is necessary to replace the
lamp when the flux has become lower than the design flux. Figure T-19.12.4 shows the relationship between the
cumulative lighting time of lamp and the luminous flux maintenance factor Ml (ratio of flux after the passing of the
cumulative lighting time to initial flux (100-hour value)) for various lamp types.
Incandescent lamp
Cumulative lighting time (replacement interval)

NH : High-pressure sodium vapor lamp (External starter type and built-in starter type)
HF : Fluorescent mercury lamp
M
: Metal halide lamp
ML : Metal halide lamp (Low starting voltage type)

FL : Fluorescent lamp
LW : Incandescent lamp for general lighting purposes
Fig. T-19.12.4 Design Luminous Flux Maintenance Factor of Light Source
-537-
[2] Cleaning and Repair

(1) Cleaning
As accumulation of dirt on the inside and outside surfaces of lighting equipment degrades the
intensity of illumination at the yard or road surface, cleaning shall be performed based on the result of
visual inspection or illumination intensity measurement.
(2) Repair
When an inspection has revealed a failed or damaged part, that part shall be repaired quickly.
[Technical Notes]
The flux of lighting equipment lessens with time after the start of use owing to accumulation of dirt on the lighting
equipment. Therefore, it is necessary to clean the lighting equipment regularly so that the flux will not become lower
than the design flux. Figure T-19.12.5 shows the rate of reduction of design flux due to accumulation of dirt on the
lighting equipment (design luminous flux maintenance factor Md), and Table T-19.12.5 lists the grade of
maintenance factor curves in Fig. T-19.12.5 for various combinations of lighting equipment type and surrounding
environment.
Type of lighting equipment
Surrounding environment
Table T-19.12.4 Grade of Maintenance Factor Curves for Combinations of Lighting Equipment Type
and Surrounding Environment
Exposed type
Indoor
Outdoor
Bottom opening type Simplified sealing type (with bottom cover)

Indoor
Outdoor Indoor
Outdoor
Sealing type
Indoor
Outdoor
(Fluorescent
lamp)
(Light bulb)
Good
Intermediate
Bad
Design luminous flux maintenance factor

of lighting equipment
(Md)
(Notes)
(1) For locations where significant accumulation of dirt is expected (such as those inside a tunnel), it is recommended to use
the F to H curves.
(2) The illustrations of lighting equipment shown in the table are typical examples.
Elapsed time (cleaning interval)
Fig. T-19.12.5 Design Luminous Flux

of Lighting Equipment
-538-
[Month]
[References]
1) Hirofumi INAGAKI, Koichi YAMAGUCHI, Takeo KATAYAMA: Standardization of bollards and storm bitts for wharf,
2) Sigeru UEDA, Eijiro OOI: On the design of fending systems for mooring facilities in a port, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 596,
1987, pp. 122-127 (in Japanese).
3) Shoichi KITAJIMA, Hiroshi SAKAMOTO, Shohei KISHI, Takuji NAKANO, Syusaku KAKIZAKI: On some problems
being concerned with preparation for the design standards on port and harbour structures, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 30, 1967
(in Japanese).
4) loc. cit. 2), pp. 59-76.
5) Vasco Costa: The berthing ship, The Dock & Harbour Authority, Vol. XLV, May July, 1964.
6) Sigeru UEDA, Satoru SHIRAISHI: On the design of fenders based on the ship oscillations moored to quay walls, Tech.
7) Yoshiaki KIKUCHI, Kunio TAKAHASHI, Misao SUZUKI: Lateral resistance of single piles under large repeated loads,
8) PIANC: Report of PIANC Working Group No. 33 Guidelines for the Design of Fenders, Supplement to Bulletin, 2000.
9) PIANC: Report of the International Commission for Improving of Design of Fender Systems, Supplement to Bulletine, No.
45, 1984.
-539-
Chapter 20 Aprons
20.1 Principle of Design (Notification Article 95)
(1) The apron shall be provided between the face line of wharf and the sheds or the open storage yards in
order to ensure safe and smooth operations of temporary stacking of loading / unloading cargoes,
cargo handling work, entry and exit of cargoes, and traffic of cargo handling vehicles.
(2) The apron shall have an adequate area ensuring safe and smooth cargo handling.
20.2 Type of Apron

20.2.1 Width (Notification Article 96)
The width of apron shall be designed appropriately in consideration of the size and use of the wharf, and
the structure and use of the sheds or warehouses behind the wharf, so that safe and smooth cargo handling
is ensured.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Currently the values listed in Table T- 20.2.1 are being used as the standard apron width for ordinary wharves.
Table T- 20.2.1 Standard Apron Width
Water depth of berth (m)
Apron width (m)
Less than 4.5
10
4.5 or more and less than 7.5
15
7.5 or more
20
(2) For general cargo wharves, provision of the space for cranes, temporary stacking space, cargo handling space,
and access road should normally be considered. It is desirable to have an apron width of 15 to 20 m when there
is sheds behind the wharf and forklift trucks are used, and an apron width of 10 to 15 m when the back of the
wharf faces a road or open storage yards where trucks are to enter the apron for direct loading to and unloading
from ships.
20.2.2 Gradient (Notification Article 97, Clause 1)

The gradient of the apron shall be designed appropriately in consideration of the rainfall intensity and the
use of the area behind the apron so that cargo handling will be performed in a smooth manner.
[Technical Notes]
Ordinarily a gradient of 1% to 2% toward the sea is used, but a steeper gradient may be used for small quays. In
general, a relatively steep gradient is used for areas with a certain snowfall to facilitate the removal of snow. There
are also cases in which a reverse gradient is employed in consideration of the use of the apron and environmental
protection.
20.2.3 Type of Pavement

The type of pavement for the apron shall be comprehensively determined in consideration of the soil
condition beneath the subgrade, difficulty of construction, conditions of pavement in the neighborhood,
type of cargo handling, cost and maintenance, etc.
20.3 Countermeasures against Settlement of Apron (Notification Article 97, Clause 2)

For aprons, appropriate countermeasures shall be taken to prevent excessive settlement (due to sand
outflow or consolidation of the lower landfill material) that would hinder cargo handling work and the
traffic of vehicles.
[Commentary]
In general, the material below the subgrade of apron pavement is subject to settlement due to consolidation. There is
also a risk of settlement due to outflow of the landfill material used as part of the layers below the subgrade through
quaywall joints, or compression of the backfilling material behind the quaywall. There are many cases of the failure
of pavement that are thought to be attributable mainly to these types of settlement. Therefore, measures will normally
be taken to prevent these types of settlement such as the provision of countermeasure against sand outflow and the
compaction of the backfilling material behind the quaywall.
-540-
20.4 Load Conditions (Notification Article 98)

In the design of the pavement structure, the design load shall be selected in such a way that the calculated
pavement thickness would become largest, in consideration of the loads and their ground contact areas of
the trucks, truck cranes, forklift trucks, and straddle carriers to be mobilized, as well as the types of cargoes
and the mode of cargo handling.
[Technical Notes]
Table T- 20.4.1 lists the reference values of loads which are applied to the apron pavement.
Table T- 20.4.1 Load Conditions
Maximum load per
outrigger or wheel (kN)
Type of Load
Truck crane
Truck
Tractor-trailer
Contact area per outrigger or

wheel (cm2)
Contact pressure
(N/cm2)
Type20
200
1,250
160
Type25
250
1,500
167
Type30
290
1,700
171
Type40
390
2,000
195
Type50
490
2,300
213
Type80
740
2,850
260
Type100
900
3,400
265
Type120
1,060
3,850
275
Type150
1,310
4,500
291
T-25
100
1,000
100
For 20-ft
50
1,000
50
For 40-ft
50
1,000
50
For 40-ft yard use only
70
1,000
70
2t
25
300
83
3.5t
45
500
90
Forklift truck
Transfer crane
6t
70
800
88
10t
110
1,400
79
15t
170
2,300
74
20t
240
3,150
76
25t
300
3,800
79
35t
440
5,000
88
20t
200
2,400
83
25t
250
2,850
88
30t
290
3,250
89
110
1,200
92
Straddle carrier
20.5 Design of Concrete Pavement

20.5.1 Design Conditions
As for the design conditions for concrete pavement, the following shall be considered:
(1) Design load
(2) Traffic volume
(3) Bearing capacity of subgrade
(4) Materials
(5) Others
[Commentary]
(1) The design load should be the one that makes the concrete slab thickness largest among those calculated with the
candidate loads.
(2) The design bearing capacity coefficient K30 should be determined for the subgrade of the pavement area under
consideration.
-541-
[Technical Notes]
(1) The standard design bearing capacity coefficient K30 for the subgrade should be 200 N/cm3.
(2) The standard 28-day bending strength of concrete should be 450 N/cm2. The bending strength of concrete
should be determined in accordance with the JIS A 1132 Method of Making and Curing Concrete Specimens
and the JIS A 1106 Method of Test for Flexural Strength of Concrete
(3) In the design of concrete pavement, the Cement Concrete Pavement Guideline 1) issued by the Japan Road
Association and the Standard Specifications of Concrete (pavement) 2) issued by the Japan Society of Civil
Engineers may be used as references.
(4) The bearing capacity coefficient should be determined by means of plate load test specified in JIS A 1215. The
bearing capacity coefficient K30 used for calculation should correspond to a settlement of 0.125 cm.
(5) The bearing capacity coefficient to be used in design should be calculated by equation (20.5.1) using the
measured values at site from at least three points in a block where the subgrade is made of the same material.
Before applying the equation, the extreme values in the measurement should be removed.
Design bearing
capacity
coefficient
) (
Average of the bearing

capacity coefficient
values of the test points
) (
Maximum value
of bearing capacity
coefficient
) (
Minimum value
of bearing capacity
coefficient
(20.5.1)
d2
where d2 is the value listed in Table T- 20.5.1.

The plate load test will normally be performed at the rate of one or two points for every 50 m of the wharf in
the direction of extension line.
Table T- 20.5.1 Values of d2
Number of points (n)
10 or more
d2
1.91
2.24
2.48
2.67
2.83
2.96
3.08
3.18
(6) When the subgrade has already been constructed, the bearing capacity coefficient should be obtained by
performing a plate load test on the subgrade at the condition of maximum moisture content. When it is not
possible to conduct a plate loading test in such condition, the bearing capacity coefficient should be obtained by
correcting the value using equation (20.5.2). The CBR values in the equation should be obtained from
undisturbed soil samples.
Corrected bearing
Measured bearing
CBR (four-day submersion)

CBR (natural water content)
(20.5.2)
20.5.2 Composition of Pavement (Notification Article 99)

The composition of the apron pavement shall be determined in consideration of the pavement type, the
structure of base course, the characteristics of the materials used, etc., based on an appropriately defined
subgrade bearing capacity.
[Commentary]
(1) Concrete pavement normally comprises a concrete slab and a base course, which is constructed on the subgrade.
(2) The composition of pavement should be determined appropriately in consideration of the load conditions, traffic
conditions, subgrade conditions, meteorological conditions, and construction and maintenance costs.
(3) It is recommended to determine the design of the base course in such a way that the bearing capacity coefficient
of the base course becomes equal to 200 N/cm3 by preparing a test base course and making prototype tests.
When it is difficult to make the prototype tests, the thickness of the base course may be determined by using
design curves shown in Fig. C- 20.5.1. The minimum thickness of base course is 15 cm.
(4) The Cement Concrete Pavement Guideline 3) issued by the Japan Road Association may be used to assess the
grading and characteristics of base course material.
-542-
en
Gr
ad
ed
ag
Cru
she
r-ru
n, e
tc.
gre
ga
te
Base course thickness (cm)
by
ce
io
at
liz
i
ab
il
st
So
(Bearing capacity coefficient of base course)

K1
=
(Design bearing capacity coefficient of subgrade)
K2
K1: bearing capacity coefficient K30 of base course (200 N/cm3)
K2: bearing capacity coefficient K30 of subgrade
Fig. C- 20.5.1 Design Curves for Base Course Thickness
[Technical Notes]
(1) The composition of concrete pavement may be determined by using the values listed in Tables T- 20.5.2 and T20.5.3 as the reference.
Table T- 20.5.2 Base Course Thickness of Concrete Pavement
Design condition
Base course thickness (cm)
Design bearing capacity

coefficient K30 of subgrade
(N/cm3)
Equal to or above 50
and less than 70
Base course
Grading
adjusted
material
20
40
20
25
20
15
15
20
15
15
20
Cement
stabilization
and less than 100
Subbase course
Grading
adjusted
material
15
Crusher run
etc.
Total base
course
thickness
20
60
30
40
20
35
15
30
20
15
Table T- 20.5.3 Concrete Slab Thickness

Design load classification
Slab thickness (cm)
CP1
20
CP2
25
CP3
30
CP4
35
On the deck slab of open-type wharf
10
-543-
55
40
30
(2) The design load may be determined by using the values listed in Table T- 20.5.4 as the reference.
Table T- 20.5.4 Design Loads by Classification
Classification of
design load
CP1
CP2
CP3
CP4
Type of load
Load (kN)
Radius of contact
area (cm)
Forklift truck
(2t)
25
9.8
Tractor-trailer
(for 20-ft and 40-ft)
50
17.8
Forklift truck
(3.5t)
45
12.6
Tractor-trailer
(for 40-ft yard use

only)
70
17.8
Forklift truck
(6t)
70
16.0
Truck
(T-25)
100
17.8
Forklift truck
(10t)
110
21.1
110
19.5
Straddle carrier
Forklift truck
(15t)
170
27.1
Transfer crane
(20t)
200
17.6
Truck crane
(25 Type)
200
20.0
Forklift truck
(20t)
240
31.7
Truck crane
(25 Type)
250
21.6
(3) In the design of pavement in the cold region where the pavement is subject to freezing and thawing, the
thickness of pavement should be made greater than the depth of frost penetration. When the pavement thickness
is smaller than the depth of frost penetration, a frost blanket or a layer preventing frost penetration should be
provided.
(4) The concrete slab should be reinforced with wire mesh.
(5) When the bearing capacity coefficient of the subgrade is less than 50 N/cm3, the pavement should be designed
using Fig. C- 20.5.1 and Fig. T- 20.5.1 or equation (20.5.3).
(6) Figure T- 20.5.1 shows the relationship between the concrete slab thickness and bending stress. The bending
stress value in the ordinate has been calculated using equation (20.5.3), which is generally referred to as the
Picket equation or Arlington equation.
a
--
10CP
l
- 1 ----------------------------------
s = ------------2
a
h
0.925 + 0.22 ---
l
where
s
C
P
h
a
(20.5.3)
maximum stress of concrete slab at the right angle corner (N/mm2)

coefficient; when slip bars are used, C = 3.36 may be used.
load (kN)
thickness of concrete slab (cm)
radius of ground contact area (cm)
4
Eh 3
---------------------------------12 ( 1 n 2 )K 75
E = 3,500,000 N/cm2
l radius of relative stiffness of the pavement (cm),
l =
E elastic modulus of concrete (N/cm2),

n Poissons ratio of concrete n = 0.15
K75 design bearing capacity coefficient of subgrade (N/cm3)
Under the assumption that K30 / K75 = 2.8, the coefficient K75 = K30 / 2.8 = 200/2.8 70 (N/cm3) can
be used in equation (20.5.3).
-544-
0.45
u
Tr
ck
cr
an
e
(5
0
p
Ty
cm2
cm
.1
27
kN
,a
N
0k
49
cm
.2
25
Bending stress of concrete
0.20
cm
.9
39
0.25
,a
N
0k
39
0.30
a
P
,
N
)
cm
pe
0k
.6
Ty
44
23
0
(4
P
e
,a
an
t)
N
cr
5
k
0k
(3
uc
k
29
c
Tr
ru
P
tt
lif
)
rk
pe
Fo
Ty
0
cm
.6
(3
e
cm
21
cm
an
.0
8
.
cr
m
,a
20
k
34 .1c
N
uc
0k
Tr
30
,a
,a
25
a
kN
kN
P
,
0
00
N
30
2
0k
cm
P
P
25
.7
)
)
31
P
5t
pe
(2
e
Ty
,a
ck cran
0
ru
(2
kN
er
tt
e
sf
40
lif
an
2
an
rk
cr
cm
Tr
k
Fo
P
.6
uc
cm
27
Tr
)
.1
0t
27
(2
,a
N
ck
0k
ru
,a
tt
20
kN
lif
70
rk
P
1
Fo
ne
P
ra
)
cm
rc
5t
.1
sfe
(1
21
an
ck
Tr
ru
,a
tt
lif
kN
0
rk
11
Fo
cm
P
.5
)
19
0t
(1
a
,
ck
N
tru
0k
ift
11
rkl
cm
Fo
P
.8
17
er
rri
a
ca
N,
dle
0k
ad
10
Str
P
m
)
25
cm
.0c
T16
.8
k(
17
a
uc
,
Tr
a
kN
,
70
kN
P
70
cm
cm
6t)
.8
6
P
k(
2.
)
17
1
ruc
nly
ft t
o
kli
,a
,a
rd
For
kN
ya
kN
45
-ft
50
40
P
or
t)
P
r (f
3.5
aile
k(
ft)
r-tr
0ruc
t
4
t
cto
nd
klif
)
Tra
2t
For
ft a
(
cm
ck
(20
er
tru
9.8
ail
i ft
r-tr
,a
r kl
cto
kN
Fo
25
Tra
P
0.35
e)
0.40
0.15
15
20
25
30
35
CP1
CP2
CP3
CP4
40
45
50
55
Thickness of concrete (cm)
Fig. T- 20.5.1 Relationship between Concrete Slab Thickness and Bending Stress
20.5.3 Joints (Notification Article 100)

(1) In principle, the concrete pavement of apron shall be provided with joints.
(2) Joints of the concrete pavement of apron shall be arranged appropriately, in consideration of the size
of apron, structure of the wharf, and the type of joint. In addition, joints shall have a structure that is
appropriate for the type of joint.
[Commentary]
(1) Joints of concrete slabs are provided for the purpose of reducing stresses of concrete slab by allowing the
expansion, shrinkage, and warping of the slab to some extent. The interval of joints should be designed
appropriately in consideration of the ground conditions, the load conditions, and the structure of the base of the
apron.
(2) Joints are structurally weak parts of concrete pavement and also require construction work more complex than
other sections. The larger the number of joints used, the higher the costs of construction and maintenance
become. Therefore, it is advisable to use as small a number of joints as possible.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Longitudinal Joint
Longitudinal construction joints should be butt joints with tie-bars. When the concrete pavement is constructed
on a deck slab of open-type wharf, no tie-bars are used.
Longitudinal construction joints adjacent to the quaywall coping or the shed should be of the structure that
uses joint filler and joint plates.
The interval between longitudinal construction joints is determined in consideration of the type of paving
equipment used, total width of pavement, wheel distance of truck cranes, etc. Usually an interval of 3.5 to 5.0 m
is used.
-545-
Longitudinal construction joints are provided to facilitate construction work. It is known from experience
that the concrete slab is subject to longitudinal cracks when longitudinal construction joints are made at intervals
of 5 m or longer, and subject to transverse cracks when longitudinal construction joints are made at intervals of
2.5 m or less. Nowadays it is possible to make the maximum interval up to 7.5 m using large concrete finishers.
Such a large interval is convenient in terms of workability and construction cost, but it is recognized that a
longitudinal contraction joint must be provided along the center of each slab when the thickness of concrete slab
is 30 cm or less and the interval is 5.1 m or longer.
In terms of structural type, longitudinal contraction joints should be the dummy joints.
It is recommended that longitudinal construction joints are to be located along the shoulder line of the
backfill, above joints of the quaywall structure, and above the centerline of anchor sheet piles, in order to avoid
the effect of the change in bearing capacity of ground below the base course or the effect of the presence of
quaywall joints on the concrete slab of pavement.
(2) Transverse Joint
(a) Transverse contraction joint
Transverse contraction joints are dummy joints with slip-bars. When the concrete pavement is constructed on
the deck slab of open-type wharf, however, no slip-bars are used. The interval of transverse contraction joints
should be determined by referring to the data on past construction projects in the respective area.
Under normal meteorological conditions, a transverse contraction joint interval of about 5 m is often used.
It is advisable that contraction joints are located on the joints of the quaywall structure.
(b) Transverse construction joint
Transverse construction joints are butt joints with slip-bars. When the concrete pavement is constructed on the
deck slab of open-type wharf, however, no slip-bars are used. Transverse construction joints are provided
when some unavoidable reasons arises, such as to divide a daily construction area or as to stop concrete
placing work due to sudden rain or troubles of plant equipment. The location of transverse construction joints
should be at the positions assigned to the predetermined transverse contraction joints.
(c) Transverse expansion joint
A transverse expansion joint has the structure that comprises a joint-filler at surface, a joint plate at bottom,
and slip-bars. When the concrete pavement is constructed on the deck slab of open-type wharf, however, no
slip-bars are used. The interval between transverse expansion joints should be determined in consideration of
empirical data on past construction projects in the respective area. In many cases, a transverse expansion joint
interval of 100 to 200 m is used when the construction is conducted during a hot season, and a transverse
expansion joint interval of 50 to 100 m is used when the construction is conducted during a cold season. As
expansion joints constitute the serious weak point of pavement, the number of such joints should be made as
small as possible.
(3) Tie-bars are provided to prevent adjoining slabs from separating, and sinking / rising of either slab at joints. Tiebars also serve as a reinforcement to transfer the sectional force.
Because the apron pavement has a relatively small width and is physically constrained by the main structure
of the quaywall or sheds, separation of apron concrete slabs at joints rarely occurs. However, it is necessary to
provide tie-bars at longitudinal construction joints to prevent sinking / rising of either slab at joints due to
differential settlement of layers below the base course, and to accommodate a wide variety in the directions of
traffic load that is not observed on ordinary roads.
(4) Slip-bars transmit loads from one slab to another and prevent sinking / rising of either slab at joints. Transverse
contraction joints, transverse construction joints, and transverse expansion joints should all be provided with
slip-bars to ensure effective transmission of loads.
(5) Figures T- 20.5.2 through T- 20.5.5 exhibit standard structures of various types of joints.
Joint-filler
Joint-filler
Tie-bar
Chair
Slip-bar
Chair
(This side is coated with a paint
Wooden base
and grease or with two coats of

a bituminous material)
Fig. T- 20.5.2 Longitudinal Construction Joint
Fig. T- 20.5.3 Transverse Contraction Joint
-546-
Slip-bar
Joint-filler
Joint-filler
Cap
Slip-bar
Chair
Chair
Joint plate
Slip-bar
Fig. T- 20.5.4 Transverse Construction Joint
Fig. T- 20.5.5 Transverse Expansion Joint
20.5.4 Tie-Bar and Slip-Bar

Specifications and intervals of tie-bars and slip-bars shall be determined appropriately in consideration of
the situations that the vehicle traveling load acts on the apron pavement in both the longitudinal and
transverse directions.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In the determination of dimensions and intervals of tie-bars and slip-bars, the values listed in Table T- 20.5.5
may be used as the reference.
Table T- 20.5.5 Dimensions and Intervals of Tie-Bars and Slip-Bars
Classification
of design load
Slab
thickness
(cm)
Tie-Bar SD295A
Diameter
(cm)
Length
(cm)
Slip-Bar SS400
Interval
(cm)
Diameter
(cm)
Length
(cm)
Interval
(cm)
CP1
20
25
80
45
25
50
45
CP2
25
25
100
45
25
50
45
CP3
30
32
100
40
32
60
40
CP4
35
32
100
40
32
60
40
(2) For tie-bars, SD295A (deformed bar) as specified in the JIS G 3112 Steel Bars for Reinforced Concrete is
used.
(3) For slip-bars, SS400 (round bar) as specified in the JIS G 3101 Rolled Steel for General Structures is used.
20.5.5 End Protection

An end protection work along the landward side of pavement shall be provided at a location where there is
a risk of destruction of the base course due to infiltration of rain water or destruction of the concrete slab
and base course due to heavy loading.
20.6 Design of Asphalt Pavement

The following shall be considered as the design conditions for asphalt pavement:
(1) Design load
(2) Traffic volume
(4) Materials
(5) Others
[Commentary]
(1) The design load should be the one that makes the pavement thickness largest among those calculated with the
candidate loads.
(2) The design CBR should be determined for the subgrade of the pavement area under consideration.
-547-
[Technical Notes]
The CBR test can be carried out as specified in the JIS A 1211 Test Methods for the California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
of Soils in Laboratory. The subgrade soil should be compacted under the natural water content and submerged in
water for four days before obtaining the CBR value. Aggregates of 40 mm or larger in diameter should be removed
from the sample subgrade soil. The sample soil should be placed into a mould in three layers of equal thickness; each
layer should be compacted 67 times.
When the subgrade has already been constructed, the in-situ CBR test should be carried out at the site at the time
when the subgrade soil is most saturated with water. However the value of the in-situ CBR test may be corrected by
equation (20.6.1) if the in-situ CBR cannot be carried out at such the condition.
CBR (four-days submersion)
CBR (natural water content)
Modified CBR In-situ CBR
(20.6.1)
The design CBR can be obtained from such CBR values by equation (20.6.2) after removing extremely diviated
values.
(max.CBR value - min.CBR value)
Design CBR (average value of CBR at different points)
(20.6.2)
d2
where d2 is of a value listed in Table T- 20.5.1.
Sampling should be made at one or two places for every 50 m in the direction of the face line of the wharf and at
a depth greater than 50 cm from the completed subgrade or the exposed surface of a burrow pit for subgrade soil.

The composition of apron pavement shall be determined based on an appropriately designed subgrade
bearing capacity, in consideration of the pavement type, the structure of base course, the characteristics of
the materials used, etc.
[Commentary]
(1) Asphalt pavement normally comprises a surface course, a binder course, and a base course, which is constructed
on the subgrade. The base course is normally constructed in two stages (base course and subbase course).
(2) The composition of pavement should be designed appropriately in consideration of the load conditions, traffic
(3) The Manual for Asphalt Pavement 4) issued by the Japan Road Association should be applied for evaluating
the material characteristics and gradation of material.
(4) The layer equivalency factor to be employed for the equivalent pavement thickness TA is listed in Table C20.6.1.
Table C- 20.6.1 Layer Equivalency Factor
Layer
Construction method /
material
Requirements
Layer equivalency
factor
Surface and
binder courses
Hot asphalt mixture for

surface and binder courses
1.00
AC I~AC
Marshall stability level

3.43 kN or greater
0.80
A-treated material II
Marshall stability level

2.45 to 3.43 KN
0.55
A-treated material I
Grading adjustment
Corrected CBR 80 or greater
0.35
Grading adjusted
material
Crusher-run, slag, sand,

etc.
Corrected CBR 30 or greater
0.25
Corrected CBR 20 to 30
0.20
Bituminous stabilization
Base course
Subbase course
-548-
Remark
Grain material
[Technical Notes]
(1) Table T- 20.6.1 lists the standard composition of asphalt pavement.
Table T- 20.6.1 Standard Composition of Asphalt Pavement
Design conditions
Design load
Surface course
Type
h1
(cm)
Type
h2
(cm)
Type
h3
(cm)
h4 (cm)
TA (cm)
Equal to or
above 3 and
less than 5
AC I
AC
Grading adjusted
materiall
25
35
70
25.8
AC I
25
35
65
25.8
20
25
55
22.0
Equal to or
above 8 and
less than 12
Equal to or
above 12 and
less than 20
Base course
Total thickness
AC I
AC
Grading adjusted
materiall
AC I
20
30
55
22.0
AC I
AC
Grading adjusted
materiall
15
20
45
19.3
AC I
15
30
50
19.3
15
15
40
18.3
AC I
AC
Grading adjusted
materiall
AC I
15
20
40
17.3
15
15
40
18.3
AC I
AC
Grading adjusted
materiall
AC I
15
15
35
16.3
AC I
AC
4 or
greater
9 or
greater
Equal to or
above 3 and
less than 5
AC II
AC
Grading adjusted
material
25
35
70
25.8
AC II
25
35
65
25.8
Equal to or
above 5 and
less than 8
AC II
AC
Grading adjusted
material
20
25
55
22.0
AC II
20
30
55
22.0
Equal to or
above 8 and
less than 12
AC II
AC
Grading adjusted
material
15
20
45
19.3
AC II
15
30
50
19.3
15
15
40
18.3
Equal to or
above 20
On the deck
slab of opentype wharf
AP2 50 kN
Contact pressure
70 N/cm2 or
greater
Binder course
Subbase
course
Design CBR
of subgrade
(%)
Equal to or
above 5 and
less than 8
AP1 50 kN
Contact pressure
less than
70 N/cm2
Composition of pavement
Equal to or
above 12 and
less than 20
AC II
AC
Grading adjusted
material
AC II
15
20
40
17.3
Equal to or
above 20
AC II
AC
Grading adjusted
material
15
15
40
18.3
AC II
15
15
35
16.3
AC II
AC
4 or
greater
9 or
greater
On the deck
-549-
Table T- 20.6.1 Standard Composition of Asphalt Pavement (continued)

Design conditions
Design load
AP3 100 kN
Contact pressure
70 N/cm2 or
greater
Binder course
Subbase
course
Base course
Total thickness
Design CBR
of subgrade
(%)
Surface course
Type
h1
(cm)
Type
h2
(cm)
Type
h3
(cm)
h4 (cm)
TA (cm)
Equal to or
above 3 and
less than 5
AC II
AC
15
Grading adjusted
material
30
45
95
40.0
AC II
AC
10
20
45
80
40.0
25
30
75
34.8
Equal to or
above 5 and
less than 8
AC II
AC
15
Grading adjusted
material
AC II
AC
10
20
20
55
35.0
Equal to or
above 8 and
less than 12
AC II
AC
15
Grading adjusted
material
15
20
55
29.3
AC II
AC
10
15
15
45
30.0
Equal to or
above 12 and
less than 20
AC II
AC
15
Grading adjusted
material
15
15
50
28.3
AC II
AC
10
15
15
45
30.0
15
15
50
28.3
Equal to or
above 20
On the deck
Equal to or
above 3 and
less than 5
AP4 122 kN
Contact pressure
70 N/cm2 or
greater
AC II
AC
15
Grading adjusted
materials
AC II
AC
10
15
15
45
30.0
AC II
AC
4 or
greater
9 or
greater
AC II
AC
15
Grading adjusted
material
40
60
120
46.0
AC II
AC
10
20
70
105
45.0
30
45
95
39.5
Equal to or
above 5 and
less than 8
AC II
AC
15
Grading adjusted
material
AC II
AC
10
20
40
75
39.0
Equal to or
above 8 and
less than 12
AC II
AC
15
Grading adjusted
material
25
30
75
34.8
AC II
AC
10
15
35
65
34.0
15
25
60
30.3
Equal to or
above 12 and
less than 20
Equal to or
above 20
On the deck
AC II
AC
15
Grading adjusted
material
AC II
AC
10
15
15
45
30.0
15
15
50
28.3
AC II
AC
15
Grading adjusted
material
AC II
AC
10
15
15
45
30.0
AC II
AC
4 or
greater
9 or
greater
Note that H and TA in Table T- 20.6.1 are the total thickness of pavement and equivalent pavement thickness,
respectively.
In case of the deck slab of open-type wharf, the boxes of the binder course in Table T- 20.6.1 refer to the
value for the total of filling material and binder course. This course does not necessarily have to be asphalt
concrete.
When the design CBR of the subgrade is equal to or above 2 and less than 3, the subgrade should be replaced
with a good material or a cutoff layer should be provided. When the design CBR is less than 2, the subgrade
should be replaced with a good material and the pavement thickness should be designed separately.
-550-
(2) The design load is classified as listed in Table T- 20.6.2.

Table T- 20.6.2 Classification of Design Load
AP1
Tractor-trailer
For 20-ft, 40-ft, and 40-ft yard use only
AP2
Forklift truck
2t, 3.5t, 6t
AP3
Forklift truck
Truck
Transfer crane
Straddle carrier
Truck crane
10t, 15t
T-25
20t
Truck crane
Transfer crane
25Type
25t
AP4
20 Type
(3) The type and material of asphalt concrete should be as listed in Table T- 20.6.3
Table T- 20.6.3 Type and Quality of Asphalt Concrete
Type
Use
Number of blows for
Marshall stability test
Marshall stability (kN)
Flow value (1/100cm)
Porosity (%)
Degree of saturation (%)
AC
AC
AC
For surface course
AC
For binder course
50
75
50
75
4.9 or greater
20 40
35
75 85
8.8 or greater
20 40
25
75 85
4.9 or greater
15 40
36
65 80
8.8 or greater
15 40
36
65 85
Note: The columns of number of blows 75 times apply to cases where the tire ground contact pressure of
the design load is 70 N/cm2 or greater, or where the traffic of large vehicles is heavy and rutting is
expected.
(4) In the design of pavement for the cold region where the pavement is subjected to freezing and thawing, the
thickness of pavement should be made greater than the depth of frost penetration. When the pavement thickness
is smaller than the frost penetration depth, a layer preventing frost penetration should be provided.
20.6.3 End Protection

See 20.5.5 End Protection.
20.7 Design of Concrete Block Pavement

The following shall be considered as the design conditions for concrete block pavement:
(1) Design load
(2) Traffic volume
(4) Materials
(5) Others
[Commentary]
(1) The design load should be the one that makes the thickness of the concrete block largest among those calculated
with the candidate loads.
(2) The design bearing capacity coefficient K30 should be determined for the subgrade of the pavement area under
consideration.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The bearing capacity coefficient K30 of the subgrade should normally be 200 N/cm3.
(2) The 28-day bending strength of concrete should normally be 450 N/cm2.
(3) The bearing capacity should be determined by means of the plate load test specified in JIS A 1215. The
settlement used to obtain the bearing capacity coefficient is 0.25 cm.
-551-

The composition of apron pavement shall be designed based on an appropriately designed subgrade
bearing capacity, in consideration of the pavement type, the structure of base course, the characteristics of
the materials used, etc.
[Commentary]
(1) Concrete block pavement normally comprises a concrete block layer and a base course, which is constructed on
the subgrade.
(2) The composition of pavement should be designed appropriately in consideration of the load conditions, traffic
[Technical Notes]
(1) Table T- 20.7.1 lists the standard composition of concrete block pavement. The blocks here are of square shape.
Table T- 20.7.1 Standard Composition of Block Pavement
Design conditions
Design
load
BP1
BP2
BP3
BP4
Side length of
Design bearing capacity coefficient
block (m)
3
of subgrade K30 (N/cm )
Base course
Thickness of
block (cm)
Subbase
course
Total
Grading
Grain material thickness (cm)
adjusted
(cm)
material (cm)
Equal to or above 50 and

less than 70
less than 100
0.9
25
20
30
75
0.9
25
20
15
60
0.9
25
20
45

less than 70
less than 100
0.8
25
20
30
75
0.8
25
20
15
60
0.8
25
20
45

less than 70
less than 100
1.1
30
20
30
80
1.1
30
20
15
65
1.1
30
20
50

less than 70
less than 100
1.2
35
20
30
85
1.2
35
20
15
70
1.2
35
20
55
(2) The design load is classified as listed in Table T- 20.7.2.

Table T- 20.7.2 Classification of Design Load
BP1
Forklift truck
Tractor-trailer
2t, 3.5t, 6t
20-ft, 40-ft
BP2
Forklift truck
Tractor-trailer
Straddle carrier
10t
For 40 ft yard use only
-
BP3
Truck
Forklift truck
Truck crane
Transfer crane
Transfer crane
T-25
15t
20-Type
20t
25t
BP4
Truck crane
25-Type
(3) The base course should be designed in accordance with 20.5.2 Composition of Pavement [Commentary](3).
-552-
20.7.3 Joints
Joints of concrete block pavement shall be of such a structure that its function will not be lost due to
differential settlement of blocks.
[Technical Notes]
Figure T- 20.7.1 exhibits the structure of standard block pavement joint.
Joint-filler
Concrete block
Concrete block
Sand
Fig. T- 20.7.1 Structure of Joint
[References]
1)
2)
3)
4)
Japan Road Association: Cement Concrete Pavement Guideline, Maruzen, April 1997 (in Japanese).
JSCE: Standard Specifications of Concrete (Pavement), Maruzen, March 1996 (in Japanese).
loc. cit. 1)
Japan Road Association: Manual for Asphalt Pavement, Maruzen, February 1998 (in Japanese).
-553-
Chapter 21 Foundation for Cargo Handling Equipment

The foundation for rail-type traveling cargo handling equipment shall be designed appropriately in
consideration of the external forces that act on the foundation, allowable displacement for the foundation,
degree of difficulty of maintenance, effects on the wharf structure, construction and maintenance costs, etc.
[Technical Notes]
The displacement of rails is small at the time of completion of construction, but it increases with the lapse of time.
Therefore, it is common practice to make construction errors as small as possible. Tolerance differs somewhat among
manufacturers of equipment. Table T- 21.1.1 1) lists the installation and maintenance requirements that are
commonly employed.
Table T- 21.1.1 Requirements for Installation of Rails for Traveling of Equipment
Item
Installation requirements
Maintenance requirements
(upper limits for operation)
Rail span
10 mm or less for the entire rail

length

length
Lateral and vertical warps of rail
5 mm or less per 10 m of rails
10 mm or less per 10m of rails
Elevation difference between seaward

and landward rails
1/1000 of rail span or less
1/500 of rail span
Gradient in the travelling direction
1/500 or less
1/250 or less
Straightness

length

length
Vertical and lateral differences:

0.5 mm or less
Vertical and lateral differences:

1mm or less
Gap: 5 mm or less
Gap: 5 mm or less
10% or less of the original dimension
Rail joints
Wear of the head of rail
21.2 External Forces Acting on Foundation

External forces that act on the foundation for cargo handling equipment shall be designed appropriately in
due consideration of the type, size, and operation conditions of the cargo handling equipment.
[Technical Notes]
(1) External forces that act on the foundation of cargo handling equipment should be calculated in accordance with
the JIS B 8821 Specification for the Design of Crane Structures or the Crane Structure Standards (Labor
Ministry Notification). For the wheel loads of container cranes installed on the high seismic resistant quaywalls,
refer to Part , 2.4 Cargo Handling Equipment. The maximum wheel loads are to be examined in the crane
condifions as specified in a form of Table T- 21.2.1 2).
(2) The wheel loads are assumed to act to the sections of the entire length of rails when the crane is operational or
during earthquakes. During storms, the wheel loads act to the section where the crane is stationed.
(3) For the wheel loads that act on the rails when the crane is operational, a traveling load that is equal to 120% of
the maximum static wheel load of the crane should be considered. However, this should be 110% of the
maximum static wheel pressure of the crane when the traveling speed is less than 60 m/min 3).
-554-
Table T- 21.2.1 Specification From for Maximum Wheel Load

(Units: kN/wheel)
Seaward
Landward
Perpendicular to
rails
Parallel to rails
Vertical
In operation
Horizontal
Vertical
During storm
Perpendicular to
rails
Horizontal
Vertical
During an
earthquake
Horizontal
Perpendicular to
rails
Parallel to rails
Items to be listed
Crane capacity (t/h)
Deadweight of the crane (kN)
Wheel base (m)
Rail span (m)
Seaward (wheels)
Number of wheels
Landward (wheels)
Wheel interval (m)
Travelling speed of the crane (m/min)
Fixed leg / hinged leg
678
Legs
Crane conditions
21.3 Design of Foundation with Piles

21.3.1 Concrete Beam
(1) Concrete beams constructed on pile foundation shall be assumed to be a continuous beam supported
at the locations of pile heads. Effects of ground reactions shall be ignored.
(2) Concrete beams constructed on pile foundation shall be designed against the bearing pressure
between the rail and concrete, and against the loads transmited from the rail.
[Technical Notes]
The rail stress is usually calculated by assuming that the rail is an infinite continuous beam supported by elastic
foundation. This method is often used for the cases where the wheel loads are spread over the beam by means of
inserting an elastic material (such as rubber pads) between the rail and the concrete beam to prevent crushing of
concrete.
(a) The rail stress and the bearing pressure between the rail and concrete can be calculated using the method
described in 21.4.2 Concrete Beam [Technical Notes]. In this case, the symbols Ec, Ic, and K of equation
(21.4.1) should be read as follows:
Ec elastic modulus of the rail
Ic moment of inertia of the rail
K elastic modulus of the material placed under the rail (when tie pads are used, use the elastic modulus
of the tie pad)
When the bearing stress is too high, it should be reduced by means of stress spreading through insertion of
elastic plates under the rail.
(b) The fastening force between the rail and the foundation can be calculated by using the beam theory on elastic
foundation 4), but it is necessary to have a sufficient allowance for the effect of impact. For calculation of the
fastening force for the cases where the double elastic fastening method is employed, refer to Minemuras
study 5). In many cases, bolts with a diameter of about 22 mm are used at intervals of approximately 50 cm.
21.3.2 Bearing Capacity of Piles

Piles shall have the strength that is safe against the loads of the cargo handling equipment and its
foundation.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The force that acts on the piles should be the reaction force calculated in accordance with 21.3.1 Concrete
Beam.
(2) The bearing capacity of piles should be calculated in accordance with Part , Chapter 4 Bearing Capacity of
Pile Foundations.
(3) When piles are under the influence of the active earth pressure failure plane, the method described in 6.6.3
Design of Piles should be used.
-555-
(4) When piles are under the influence of the active earth pressure failure plane, the required embedment length
differs between the seaward piles and landward piles. However, it is common practice to use foundation piles of
the same length for both the seaward and landward, to prevent a differential settlement of the foundation. When
the piles on both sides are driven into the bearing stratum, there is no need to use the same embedded length.
21.4 Design of Foundation without Piles

21.4.1 Examination of Effects on Wharf
When no pile is used to support the foundation for cargo handling equipment, the effect of the loads of the
cargo handling equipment and its foundation on the main structure of wharf shall be examined.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Application of a load on the area behind a gravity type structure increases the earth pressure and may cause
forward sliding of the quaywall 6). The influence of a concentrated load on the earth pressure is large in the zone
at the levels immediately below the loading point. But the influence becomes smaller as the depth increases.
When the quaywall height is small and the quaywall length (in the direction of extension) is short, design should
be conducted carefully because of strong influence of concentrated load. When the load is applied directly on a
quaywall, the subsoil reaction force increases. In particular, when the load is applied on the quaywall at its front
end, the subsoil reaction force at the front toe becomes significantly large. In a quaywall of small width and short
length, this tendency of reaction force increase is amplified and thus design should be conducted carefully.
(2) In ordinary sheet pile quaywalls, the maximum stress occurs at a level midway between the tie member fixing
point and the sea bottom. However, when a concentrated load is expected to act on the area behind the sheet pile
wall, design should be conducted carefully because the maximum stress may occur at the level near the tie
member fixing point, although the concentrated load rarely produces an adverse effect on the embedded part of
the sheet pile. It is recommended that a sufficient overburden (earth covering) thickness for the tie members be
provided to avoid adverse effects on the tie members.
21.4.2 Concrete Beam

The reinforced concrete beam that is to be constructed directly on a rubble stone foundation built on the
original ground shall be designed in such a way that the beam is sufficiently safe against the bending
moment, shearing force, and deflection, and that the settlement of the beam is smaller than the allowable
amount of settlement.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The bending moment, shearing force, and deflection of a reinforced concrete beam that is constructed on a
rubble stone foundation can be calculated by means of equations (21.4.1) through (21.4.6).
(a) When the loading point is located around the center of the beam:
4
M =
Ec Ic
---------- SW i ebxi ( cos bx i sin bx i )
64K
(21.4.1)
1
S = --- SWi e bxi cos bx i
2
y =
(21.4.2)
1
----------------------3- SW i ebxi ( cos bx i + sin bx i )
64E c I c K
(21.4.3)
(b) When the loading point is located at the edge or joint of the beam:
Wi
M = S ------ eb xi sin bx i
b
(21.4.4)
S = SW i ebx i ( sin bx i cos bx i )
(21.4.5)
2Wi b
y = ------------- e bxi cos bx i
K
where
(21.4.6)
K
------------4E c I c
M bending moment of the beam section under examination (N mm)
S shearing force of the beam section under examination (N)
y deflection of the beam section under examination (mm)
b =
-556-
Ec
Wi
Ic
K
C
b
xi
modulus of elasticity of concrete (N/mm2)

wheel load (N)
moment of inertia of the concrete foundation (mm4)
modulus of elasticity of the ground; K = Cb
pressure required to cause a unit amount of settlement on a unit area of ground (N/mm3)
width of the concrete beam bottom (mm)
distance between the location of the wheel load and the beam section under examination (mm)
[References]
1) Society of Mechanization of Port Cargo Handling Equipment: Investigation report for standardization of ancillary facilities
(6th report), 1988 (in Japanese).
2) Society for Mechanization of Port Cargo Handling Equipment: Report of committee on researching of container handling
equipment, 1993 (in Japanese).
3) Architectural Institute of Japan: Design Standard for Steel Structures, 1994, p.4 (in Japanese).
4) Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers: Mechanical Engineering Course, Cargo Handling Equipment, 1959, 239 p.
5) Yoshio MINEMURA: Method to fix rail, Text of Track Maintenance Course, Track Maintenance Institute, 1958. p.4 (in
Japanese).
6) Shoichi KITAJIMA, Osami HORII: Mobile cargo handling equipment (mobile crane), Technical Note of PHRI No.29,
1967, pp.4-62 (in Japanese).
-557-
-558-
PART IX OTHER PORT FACILITIES

Chapter 1 Port Traffic Facilities
1.1 General
1.1.1 Scope of Application
The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to the design of facilities for land traffic in port zones.
1.1.2 Operation and Maintenance of Facilities for Land Traffic (Notification Article 103)
The port land traffic facilities shall be operated and maintained in accordance with appropriate standards
corresponding to their structural characteristics, so that vehicles, trains, and others can utilize them safely
and smoothly.
1.2 Roads
1.2.1 General (Notification Articles 104, 109 and 110)
(1) The road structure shall be determined appropriately in consideration of actual conditions of road use
such as traffic generation, design traffic volume, topography of the area, smooth connection with
other roads, etc.
(2) The structure of roads used mainly by pedestrians and bicycles shall be determined in consideration of
the state of utilization of the port facilities located nearby.
(3) For the roads that are connected to the high seismic resistant facilities or connected to the open spaces
that are designated as the place of temporary storage of relief supplies after strong earthquakes, the
road structures shall be determined appropriately as to ensure the required functions at the occasion of
earthquakes.
(4) Unless otherwise specified in this section, matters concerning road structures, locations, and the
related facilities shall be determined in accordance with the Enforcement Regulations for Road
Structures (Government Ordinance No.320 of 1970) in light of the characteristics of traffic
generated in ports and harbors.
1.2.2 Design Vehicles (Notification Article 105)
In case that heavy traffic of semitrailer trucks is expected, such vehicles may be defined as the design
vehicles.
1.2.3 Roadways and Lanes (Notification Article 107)
(1) The number and dimensions of road lanes shall be determined appropriately so that the flow of traffic
generated in the port shall not be congested.
(2) When the total traffic volume employed in the design of roadway is less than the design standard
traffic volume (defined by the maximum allowable total traffic volume per hour) for each type of road
listed in Table 1.2.1, the number of road lanes (excluding ascent lanes, turning lanes or speed change
lanes) shall be two.
Table 1.2.1 Design Standard Traffic Volume for Different Kinds of Roads (Notification Article 107, Appendix Table 14)
Type of road
Design standard traffic volume for double lanes

(vehicles/hour)
Road connecting port and major road

such as national highway
650
Other road
500
(3) In roads other than those specified in (2), there shall be four lanes or more (a multiple of two unless
otherwise required by traffic conditions). The exact number of lanes shall be determined in
-559-
accordance with the ratio of the design traffic volume of the road to the design standard traffic volume
per lane for the same type of road listed in Table 1.2.2.
Table 1.2.2 Design Standard Traffic Volume per Lane for Determination of Number of Lanes
(Notification Article 107, Appendix Table 15)
Type of road
Design standard traffic volume

(vehicles/hour/lane)
Road connecting port and major road

such as national highway
600
Other road
350
(4) The width of a lane shall be 3.25 m or 3.5 m in principle. The value of 3.5 m shall be the standard
width for roads frequently used by large-size vehicles. The width may be reduced to 3.0 m as required
by topographical constraints.
(5) A stopping lane may be planned on the left side of the roadway as necessary to ensure safe and
smooth traffic of vehicles.
[Commentary]
In general, the characteristics of peak traffic volume of the roads in ports can be estimated using the past traffic data
in ports, because such traffic volume is generated mainly by the transport and distribution of cargo handled in the
port. Then such characteristics of peak traffic volume can be considered in determination of design traffic volume.
Therefore the standard design traffic volume in Tables 1.2.1 and 1.2.2 is defined as maximum allowable vehicle
traffic volume per hour in order to determine the number of lanes.
The design traffic volume means the sum of both-way automobile traffic volume per hour defined in light of
future development in the surrounding area and the future conditions of motor vehicle traffic to be used as the basis in
designing the road. In this context, consideration should be given to the traffic conditions generated in the port zone
as well as to the characteristics of peak traffic.
[Technical Notes]
Matters to be considered in calculating the design traffic volume in the target year include the cargo generated from
the wharves, the land use in the surrounding area, the concentration of vehicle traffic, and the connections with other
roads. The estimate of design traffic volume generally begins with the trip generation and attraction, then proceed to
the trip distribution, and is completed with the assignment of traffic volume to various routes.
An example of methods to calculate the generated concentrated traffic volume is listed in Table T- 1.2.1.
Table T- 1.2.1 Calculation of Trip Generation and Attraction
Type of traffic
Calculation method
Traffic related to port cargo

transportation
A method to use actual values of the modal split ratio of motor

vehicles, load per truck, percentage of loaded trip, and related vehicle
ratio, based on the volume of cargo handled at the port.
Traffic generated from industries

located in the port zone
A method to use the number of trips generated per unit site area and
the number of employees.
Traffic generated from green area or

public attraction facilities
A method to use the data of similar facilities on the number of users

and the percentage of motor vehicle use.
1.2.4 Clearance Limit (Notification Article 108)

If traffic of special vehicles is expected, such as semitrailer trucks loaded with tall cubic containers and
mobile cranes, the clearance limit shall be defined appropriately to ensure safe passage of such vehicles.
[Technical Notes]
The height of semitrailer trucks loaded with marine containers is listed in Table T- 1.2.2.
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Table T- 1.2.2 Size of International Marine Containers and Height of Semitrailer Truck when Loaded with Container
Size
Size of international marine container
Type of container
Length
(mm)
Width
(mm)
Height
(mm)
Height of semitrailer truck

when loaded with container
(m)
Remarks
ISO Type 1C
20 8 8
6,058
2,438
2,438
3.748
Flat-bed chassis
ISO Type 1CC

20 8 86
6,058
2,438
2,591
3.796
Low-bed chassis
ISO Type 1A
40 8 8
12,192
2,438
2,438
3.643
Low-bed chassis
ISO Type 1AA

40 8 86
12,192
2,438
2,591
3.796
Low-bed chassis
ISO type 1AAA

40 8 96
12,192
2,438
2,896
4.101
Low-bed chassis
Note:
Floor height of chassis above the ground for international marine containers may differ slightly by manufacturers. Here,
the height is considered to be 1205 mm for low-bed chassis and 1310 mm for flat-bed chassis.
1.2.5 Widening of Roads at Bends

Lanes shall be widened at curves according to the design vehicle and the radius of the curve, unless
topographical or other conditions require otherwise.
[Technical Notes]
The widening at bends listed in Table T- 1.2.3 is applicable to roads in the port zone.
Table T- 1.2.3 Widening at Bends
Design vehicle
Ordinary motor vehicle
Semitrailer truck
Widening margin per lane (m)
Radius of curve (m)
90 or over and less than 160

60
90
45
60
32
45
26
32
21
26
19
21
16
19
15
16
150 or overand less than180

100
150
70
100
60
70
50
60
40
50
32
40
28
32
25
28
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.25
1.2.6 Longitudinal Slope

The longitudinal slope of a roadway shall be determined appropriately according to the design speed and
design vehicle for the road under design.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The longitudinal slope of a roadway should be set within the standard values as listed in Table T- 1.2.4
according to the design speed and design vehicle for the road under design. When required by topographical
conditions or other special reasons, the slope may be set within 2% to 3% above the values listed in the table.
Table T- 1.2.4 Limit of Longitudinal Slope
Design speed (km/h)
Design vehicle
Semitrailer truck
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
8%
9%
1%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
120
100
80
60
50
40
30
20
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(2) When a slope extends only for a certain length, the special limit of longitudinal slope as listed in Table T- 1.2.5
may be referred to.
Table T- 1.2.5 Special Limit of Longitudinal Slope for Limited Slope Length
Design vehicle
Design speed
(km/h)
Semitrailer truck
Slope
(%)
Limit of slope length

(m)
Slope
(%)
Limit of slope length

(m)
120
3
4
5
800
500
400
2
3
4
1,000
500
400
100
4
5
6
700
500
400
2
3
4
1,600
800
500
80
5
6
7
600
500
400
3
4
5
1,300
700
500
60
6
7
8
500
400
300
4
5
6
600
400
300
50
7
8
9
200
150
100
5
6
7
250
150
100
40
8
9
10
100
100
100
6
7
8
100
100
100
1.2.7 Level Crossings

The design of level crossings of roads in ports shall conform to the provisions of the Enforcement
Regulations for Road Structures, while taking into consideration the traffic volume at the level
crossing, the design vehicle, the conditions of surrounding road networks, the land use along the road, etc.
[Technical Notes]
The width of any additional lane (turning lane or speed change lane) at a level crossing may be determined with
reference to Table T- 1.2.6.
Table T- 1.2.6 Width of Lanes at Level Crossings
(units in m)
Width of lanes in basic roadway segment
Width of through lanes in

creating additional lanes
3.50
3.50 (3.25)
3.25 (3.00)
3.25
3.25 (3.00)
3.00
Width of additional lanes
Note: The values in the parentheses are the reduced values when constrained by topographic conditions.
1.2.8 Pavement (Notification Article 106)

The structure of pavement shall be determined according to the wheel load of running vehicles considering
the traffic volume of special vehicles such as semitrailer trucks and mobile cranes.
[Commentary]
In general, roads are planned and designed according to the Enforcement Regulations for Road Structures.
Pavement is designed based on the Cement Concrete Pavement Guideline 1), the Manual for Asphalt Pavement 2)
and Standard Specifications of Concrete (Pavement) 3) established according to the Enforcement Regulations for
Road Structure. Roads in port zones should therefore conform to these standards.
[Technical Notes]
Cement concrete pavement or asphalt pavement is used for roads in port zones in general.
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(1) The design of cement concrete pavement should follow the procedure depicted in Fig. T- 1.2.1.
(design traffic volume in unit road section,
traffic of semitrailor trucks or mobile cranes,
meteorological conditions, etc.)
Estimate of wheel load distribution of vehicles
Determination of bearing capacity factor at subgrade
Determination of bearing capacity factor at base course
Calculation of base course thickness
Calculation of concrete slab thickness
Calculation of frost penetration depth
Determination of total pavement thickness
Determination of joint
Fig. T- 1.2.1 Design Procedure for Cement Concrete Pavement
(2) The design of asphalt pavement should follow the procedure depicted in Fig. T- 1.2.2.
(design traffic vol in unit road section,
traffic of semitrailer trucks or mobile cranes, etc.)
Determination of cumulative number of equivalent 5-ton wheel load
Determination of design CBR
Calculation of total pavement thickness
Calculation of frost penetration depth
Determination of total pavement thickness
Determination of the thickness of each pavement part
Determination of overall composition

Fig. T- 1.2.2 Design Procedure for Asphalt Pavement
(3) The Cement Concrete Pavement Guideline 1) and the Asphalt Pavement Guideline 2) describe two methods
of determining the traffic volume for the design of pavement structure: (a) method using large commercial
vehicles per day and (b) method using the wheel load of vehicles.
1.2.9 Signs (Notification Article 102)

(1) Port traffic facilities shall be equipped with appropriate signs according to the type and use of the
facilities.
(2) The style of signs shall be determined appropriately in light of the visibility to port users and the
usage condition of traffic facilicities.
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(3) Signs shall be so placed that they may be clearly visible to port users and pose no obstacles to traffic
or cargo handling.
1.3 Car Parks

1.3.1 General
Car parks in ports (referring to the car park designated as port facilities) shall be in accordance with the
standards for structure and equipment provided in the Enforcement Order for the Car Park
(Government Ordinance No.340 of 1957). Other required matters shall be examined as necessnary.
[Commentary]
The basic law on the installation of car parks is the Car Park Law (Law No.106 of 1957). Standards for the
structure and equipment of parking lots are specified in its Enforcement Order. Car parks in ports should also be
in accordance with those standards. Special considerations for car parks in ports are to be specified separately.
Standards provided in the Enforcement Regulations for the Car Park Law for the structure and equipment of
car parks outside the roads are applicable to a car park with the parking area of 500 m2 or larger. Even if the car park
is smaller, it is preferable to comply with them as much as possible when constructing a car park.
1.3.2 Size and Location (Notification Articles 114 and 115)

(1) The size and location of a car park shall be determined so as not to pose any obstacle to the use of port
facilities and the smooth road traffic, in consideration of the traffic generated in a port and the
condition of roads in the vicinity.
(2) A car park shall be located off the roads. If topographical conditions or other reasons necessitate a car
park to be located on the roads, the size and location of a car park shall satisfy the following
conditions:
(a) Not to be located on a road connecting a port and a major inland highway.
(b) Not to be located at a place which may hinder the vehicles from going to and from the cargo
handling area or sheds.
(c) Not to be located at a place adjacent to a dangerous cargo handling area, unless required otherwise
by topographical conditions or other reasons.
(3) The width of roadways in the car park, the size of parking lots, and the width of roadways for driving
backward and turning cars into parking lots shall be determined appropriately according to the type of
cars using the car park, the parking angle, and the parking method.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Practice of design may be defined with reference to the Parking Lots Manual 4), the Standards of Car Park
Design and Constraction with Commentary 5) and Commentary and Practice of Enforcement Regulations for
Road Standards 6).
(2) Standard values for parking lot specifications and the configuration of parking lots may be determined with
reference to Table T- 1.3.1 and Fig. T- 1.3.1.
(3) See Part , 2.5.3 Car Parks for parking lots at ferry terminals.
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Table T- 1.3.1 Standard Values for Parking Lot Specifications
Special large vehicles
Large vehicles
Small vehicles
Type of
vehicle
Roadway width
Parking width at
Aw (m)
upper line
right angles
with road
Aw1
lower line
Sd (m)
Aw2
Parking width
in parallel
with road
Sw (m)
Unit parking
width
W (m)
Parking area
required per
vehicle
A (m2)
Corresponding
subfigure
numbers in
Fig. T- 1.3.1
Parking angle
()
Parking method
30
Forward parking
4.00
4.50
4.50
6.50
29.3
(a)
45
Forward parking
4.00
5.10
3.20
7.10
22.8
(b)
45 cross
parking
Forward parking
4.00
4.30
3.20
6.30
20.2
(c), (d)
60
Forward parking
5.00
5.45
2.60
7.95
20.7
(e)
60
Backward parking
4.50
5.45
2.60
7.70
20.0
(f)
90
Forward parking
9.50
5.00
2.25
9.75
21.9
(g)
90
Backward parking
6.00
5.00
2.25
8.00
18.0
(h)
30*
Forward parking
Forward starting
4.00
6.00
9.30
9.30
6.50
6.50
19.30
19.30
125.5
125.5
(i)
(i)
45*
Forward parking
Forward starting
7.00
6.50
11.50
11.50
4.60
4.60
25.00
25.00
115.0
115.0
(j)
(j)
60*
Forward parking
Forward starting
11.00
7.50
12.90
12.90
3.75
3.75
31.40
31.40
117.8
117.8
(k)
(k)
90*
Forward parking
Forward starting
19.00
11.00
13.00
13.00
3.25
3.25
43.00
43.00
139.8
139.8
(l)
(l)
Parallel
Backward parking
Forward starting
6.00
6.00
3.25
3.25
19.00
19.00
6.25
6.25
118.8
118.8
(m)
(m)
30*
Forward parking
Forward starting
6.50
10.50
11.50
11.50
7.00
7.00
28.50
28.50
199.5
199.5
(n)
(n)
45*
Forward parking
Forward starting
10.50
13.00
14.50
14.50
5.00
5.00
38.00
38.00
190.0
190.0
(o)
(o)
60*
Forward parking
Forward starting
14.00
15.00
16.50
16.50
4.00
4.00
45.50
45.50
182.0
182.0
(p)
(p)
90*
Forward parking
Forward starting
22.00
13.00
17.00
17.00
3.50
3.50
52.00
52.00
182.0
182.0
(q)
(q)
Parallel
Backward parking
Forward starting
6.00
6.00
3.50
3.50
25.00
25.00
6.50
6.50
162.5
162.5
(r)
(r)
Note: * indicates that parking lots are placed in a single row in the direction of parking.
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(a) 30 forward parking

(small vehicles)
(c) 45 cross parking type A

(small vehicles)
(e) 60 forward parking

(small vehicles)
(b) 45 forward parking

(small vehicles)
(i) 30 parking (large vehicles)
(j) 45 parking (large vehicles)
(k) 60 parking (large vehicles)
(l) 90 parking (large vehicles)
(d) 45 cross parking type B

(small vehicles)
(f) 60 backward parking

(small vehicles)
(m) Parallel parking (large vehicles)

(g) 90 forward parking
(small vehicles)
(h) 90 backward parking

(small vehicles)
(n) 30 parking (special large vehicles)
(p) 60 parking (special large vehicles)
(q) 90 parking (special large vehicles)
(r) Parallel parking (special large vehicles)
(o) 45 parking (special large vehicles)
(Units in m)
Fig. T- 1.3.1 Configuration of Parking Lots
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1.4 Railways
According to their classifications, railways in a port shall conform to the Structural Rule of Common
Railway (Ministry of Transport Ordinance No.14 of 1987) or the Structural Rule of Special Railway
(Ministry of Transport Ordinance No.19 of 1987). Tracks shall conform to the Track Construction
Regulation (Ministry of the Interior and Railways Regulation of 1923).
1.5 Heliports
Heliports shall conform to the Civil Air Law (Law No.231 of 1952).
1.6 Tunnels
1.6.1 General
Tunnels as port traffic facilities shall conform to the provision in Article 12 (2) of the Technical
Standards for Port and Harbour Facilities (the Ministrial Ordinance). The detailed specifications of
tunnels shall conform to the following principles:
(1) Notwithstanding the provision on ventilation in Article 12 (2) - 4 of the Ministrial Ordinance,
installation of ventilators may be omitted in a railway tunnel as ventilation is ensured by passage of
trains.
(2) The provisins in this section shall be applied to the immersed road tunnels in a port. Tunnels for other
usage or those of other types may comply with the relevant standards and specifications.
[Commentary]
(1) Tunnels as port facilities include road tunnels, railway tunnels, etc. From the viewpoint of construction
techniques, mountain tunnels, cut and cover tunnels, shield tunnels, and immersed tunnels are included. The
provisions in this section are applied specifically to road tunnels using the immersed tunnel method.
(2) Structural components in this section are defined in Fig. C- 1.6.1. Ventilation towers should be installed as
necessary.
Ventilation tower
Open
cut
On-ground
section
Ventilation tower
Immersed tunnel element

submerged section
Access road
On-ground
section
Open
cut
Access road
Immersed tunnel section
Fig. C- 1.6.1 Definition of Components of Immersed Tunnels
[Technical Notes]
For the design of immersed tunnel for port road, the Engineering Manual of Immersed Tunnel 7) may be referred to.
For seismic design, the reference 8) is used.
1.6.2 Principle of Planning and Design (Notification Article 111)

The location, alignment, and cross-sectional profile of a tunnel constructed with immersed box elements
(hereinafter referred to as immersed tunnel) shall be determined appropriately according to the condition
of tunnel use and the natural conditions.
[Commentary]
(1) The cross section of an immersed tunnel should be determined by taking into consideration the traffic volume of
vehicles, the ratio of large vehicles in total traffic, the need for a sidewalk, the need for a bicycle track, the types
of cables and pipes in a common duct, the allowance of hazardous goods transport, the existence of toll gates,
and connections with other roads.
Sufficient consideration should also be given to the future development plans of any other related facilities
including those concerning the probability of deepening of a waterway above the immersed tunnel. Future
utilization of the immersed tunnel should be carefully studied because any expansion of its function such as
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widening is difficult once it has been completed.

(2) If pedestrian and bicycle tracks are to be installed, due consideration should be given to the use by the elderly
and the physically handicapped persons.
(3) As the safety facilities in the event of accident or disaster, evacuation paths and emergency telephones should be
installed as necessary. Safety equipment and evacuation paths for fire should be provided, and the tunnel itself
should be a fireproof structure.
(4) The longitudinal slope of an immersed tunnel may be made as steep as possible within the restriction of design
speed for the road to enable reduction of construction cost in general. However, consideration should be given to
the fact that smoke concentration in the exhaust gas of vehicles increases rapidly as the slope becomes steeper,
thus raising the cost of ventilation equipment.
[Technical Notes]
(1) According to the structure of immersed tunnel box elements, fireproof coating may be required. In such cases,
the thickness of fireproof coating should be considered in determining the dimensions of inner section.
(2) Under the provision of the Road Law (Article 46), the port management body has the right to prohibit or
restrict the traffic of vehicles loaded with volatile or inflammable substances or other hazardous goods.
1.6.3 Depth of Immersion (Notification Article 112, Clause 2 and 3)

(1) The top surface of immersed tunnel box elements shall be covered with appropriate materials of
necessary thickness to ensure structural safety of the elements considering the penetration depth of
ships anchors dropped and/or dragged, the frequency of anchor drops and dragging, the buoyancy of
the tunnel, and scouring due to waves and currents, etc.
(2) The depth of immersion shall be designed appropriately in consideration of any future plan of
dredging in and around the area of the tunnel.
[Technical Notes]
The thickness of the coverage should preferably be 1.5 m or greater including the thickness of the protective concrete
coverage on top of the upper slab.
1.6.4 Structure and Length of Immersed Tunnel Elements

The structural type and the length of an immersed tunnel element shall be determined in consideration of
the sectional stress, construction method, construction cost, fabrication yard, etc.
[Commentary]
(1) The structural types of immersed tunnel elements are classified into steel shell type, concrete (reinforced
concrete, prestressed concrete) type, and composite (hybrid) type. The most appropriate structure should be
selected in light of their individual characteristics.
(2) The length of an immersed tunnel element should be determined in light of the sectional forces derived from
design computation including seismic analysis, joint structures, the size of fabrication yard, execution methods
of immersion and connection, and cost of construction including joint connection.
[Technical Notes]
Composite type elements, particularly that of steel-concrete sandwich structure, may be designed and constructed
according to the reference 9).
1.6.5 Ventilation Towers (Notification Article 112, Clause 6)

The structure of ventilation towers shall be designed with the appropriate method corresponding to the
characteristics of the structure and the ground against the external forces and loads acting on it.
[Commentary]
(1) Ventilation machines, electric power equipment, and control equipment should be installed functionally in a
ventilation tower. Its structure should be equipped with inlet and outlet ports for efficient ventilation as well as
with ducts connected with the immersed tunnel itself.
(2) Sufficient space should be provided inside a ventilation tower so that monitoring, inspection, and brief repair of
the installed equipment can be conducted smoothly. In particular, large components such as ventilation machines
should be so designed that their transportation in and out of the tower is easily executed.
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(3) The location and structure of inlet ports should be such that the intake of exhaust gas from the outlet or from the
entrance of the tunnel is kept as little as possible.
(4) The location of outlet ports should ensure that concentration of exhaust gas at the ground level remains under the
permissible level.
1.6.6 Access Roads

The structure of access roads shall be designed with due consideration to the traffic under planning, natural
conditions, social conditions, construction methods and construction cost.
1.6.7 Calculation of Stability of Immersed Tunnel Section (Notification Article 112, Clause 4)
It shall be standard to examine the structural stability of the immersed tunnel section in both the
longitudinal and transverse directions of the tunnel.
[Commentary]
An immersed tunnel is considerably long in the longitudinal direction. Thus it requires examination of structural
stability in the longitudinal direction as well as the transverse direction. The design loads to be considered are as
follows:
(1) Deadweight
(2) Live load
(3) Earth pressure
(4) Hydrostatic pressure
(5) Buoyancy and uplift
(6) Subgrade reaction
(7) Influence of settlement of the foundation
(8) Influence of temperature variation
(9) Load during construction
(10) Influence of creep and shrinkage of concrete
(11) Prestressing forces
(12) Earthquake
(13) Others (tsunami, anchor dropping and dragging, ship sinking, etc.)
[Technical Notes]
(1) Calculation in the transverse direction may regard an immersed tunnel itself as a rigid frame structure.
(2) Calculation in the longitudinal direction of an immersed tunnel should consider the effects of earthquake ground
motion, temperature variation, and settlement, by representing the tunnel as a beam supported on elastic springs
of the ground.
(3) It should be examined whether the foundation has the sufficient capacity to support the weight of the immersed
tunnel including the soil on its top. Due consideration should also be given to the settlement of foundation.
(4) The earthquake ground motion may be propagated to an immersed tunnel from every direction. However, the
maximum bending moment and shearing force appear in the transverse direction, while the axial force becomes
maximum in the longitudinal direction of the tunnel. For design purposes, examination should be made in these
two directions.
(5) An immersed tunnel may be constructed in a soft ground. In such cases, it should be confirmed that a slip failure
will not occur in the surrounding area due to an earthquake. Examination against liquefaction should also be
made when the tunnel is surrounded by loose, saturated sandy soil.
(6) Appropriate materials should be selected for filling in light of the safety against subsidence and surfacing,
liquefaction due to earthquake, and maintenance dredging of navigation channel.
(7) An immersed tunnel is a structure under the seabed and is often constructed in soft ground. Sufficient
examination should be made lest its functions should be lost due to water seepage from cracks or joints.
(8) There are several examples of the tunnel design that introduced the earthquake load in design calculation; i.e.,
Dears Island Tunnel, Bart Tunnel, Osaka Sakishima Tunnel, Kobe Port Minatojima Tunnel, etc.
1.6.8 Design of Immersed Tunnel Elements (Notification Article 112, Clause 1)

Immersed tunnel elements shall be designed by taking into consideration the following factors:
(1) Watertightness
(2) Cracks in concrete
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(3) Stability during towing and loading for immersion operation.

[Commentary]
The following factors should also be considered to ensure the structural safety of immersed tunnel elements:
(1) Load applied during and after construction
(2) Construction method
(3) Surfacing of the element due to buoyancy after immersion
(4) Ventilation and disaster prevention functions
(5) Any facilities attached to the tunnel
[Technical Notes]
(1) Design and construction should be made to avoide the generation of cracks in concrete as much as possible. In
addition, it is preferable to apply waterproof coating on the circumference of the element to ensure complete
watertightness.
(2) Cathodic protection should be applied to the outer steel shell plates.
1.6.9 Joints (Notification Article 112, Clause 5)

Joints of immersed tunnel elements shall be of the structure ensuring safety against the stress and
displacement during earthquakes as specified in Part , Chapter 12 Earthquakes and Seismic Force.
[Commentary]
The location and structure of joints of immersed tunnel elements are normally determined in consideration of the size
of fabrication yard, shifting of navigation channels, capacity of construction machines, differential settlement of the
foundation after completion, and influence of temperature variation. However, the location and structure of joints are
also important factors in assessing the earthquake resistance of an immersed tunnel. Thus, the earthquake resistance
needs to be adequately examined when determining the joint location and structure.
1.6.10 Control and Operation Facilities (Notification Article 113)

Immersed tunnels shall be equipped with the following facilities as necessary:
(1) Ventilation facilities
(2) Emergency facilities
(3) Lighting equipment
(4) Electric power facilities
(5) Security and instrumentation equipment
(6) Monitoring and control facilities
(7) Drainage facilities
[Commentary]
Ventilation is essential to immersed tunnels for preventing the adverse effect of exhaust gas from motor vehicles on
the air inside tunnels. Although natural ventilation may be sufficient for short tunnels, ventilation facilities should be
installed in principle for immersed tunnels for roads in port zones.
1.7 Bridges
1.7.1 General
Article 12 (3) of the Ministrial Ordinance provides the rules concerning bridges. Bridges shall conform to
the Enforcement Regulations for Road Structures (Government Ordinance No.320 of 1970) for road
bridges, and the Structural Rule of Common Railway (Ministry of Transport Ordinance No.14 of
1987) or the Structural Rule of Special Railway (Ministry of Transport Ordinance No.19 of 1987) for
railway bridges.
1.7.2 Design Requirements (Notification Articles 116 and 117)
(1) A bridge crossing over the space above any navigation channel or basin shall meet the following
requirements:
(a) The bridge girders shall be constructed at an appropriate elevation above the highest high water
level to ensure safe navigation of vessels.
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(b) The bridge piers shall not be located near the waterway nor obstruct the navigation of vessels, unless
the safety of navigation is ensured otherwise.
(c) Signs shall be posted as necessary to prevent vessels from colliding with the bridge girders or piers.
(2) A bridge crossing over the space above any mooring equipments or cargo handling facilities shall
meet the following requirements:
(a) The location of piers and the elevation of girders shall be set appropriately so that they may not
obstruct the safe and smooth use of the mooring or cargo handling facilities.
(b) Signs shall be posted as necessary to prevent cargo handling equipment and vehicles from colliding
with the bridge piers or girders.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The design of a bridge should take into consideration the future situation of the activities in the area when there
is any areal development plan.
(2) The decision on the clearance of a bridge over a navigation channel should be made by considering the
following factors:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Maximum mast height of the vessels entering the port

Tide
Trim of vessel
Wave height
Psychological impact on ship captains and mates
1.7.3 Structural Durability (Notification Article 118)

(1) Design of bridge structure and selection of structural materials shall be made appropriately in
consideration of the natural conditions surrounding the bridge.
(2) Application of painting or other measures shall be made for steel bridges to prevent or reduce the
corrosion of steel as necessary.
(3) The following measures shall be taken for concrete bridges to prevent the deterioration of
superstructure and substructure due to salt damage as necessary.
(a) Retain the required thickness of protective covering.
(b) Minimize the crack width on the surface of reinforced concrete.
(c) Take the following countermeasures particularly under a harsh condition or when maintenance is
difficult.
Surface treatment of reinforced concrete
Corrosion protection of reinforcement bars and prestressing steel
[Technical Notes]
The thickness of covering over reinforcement bars of a concrete bridge should be equal to or greater than the values
listed in Table T- 1.7.1 10).
Table T- 1.7.1 Minimum Thickness of Covering on Bars
(Units in cm)
Superstructure
Substructure
Girder
Lower surface of slab,

curb, and hand railing
5.0
Precast prestressed
concrete girder made by
pretensioning system
Other girders
5.0
7.0
Column
7.0
1.7.4 Fender System

Fenders shall be installed on bridge piers as necessary to protect them against the impact of vessel collision
as well as to reduce the damage to the colliding vessel.
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The fender requires appropriate maintenance that depends on its structure etc. to retain its functions in
good conditions.
[References]
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Japan Road Association: Cement Concrete Pavement Guideline, April 1997 (in Japanese).
Japan Road Association: Manual for Asphalt Pavement, February 1998 (in Japanese).
JSCE: Standard Specifications of Concrete (Pavement), 1996 (in Japanese).
Japan Parking Engineering Committee: Parking Lots Manual, 1981, Additional Description,1990 (in Japanese).
Japan Road Association: Standards of Car Park Design and Construction with Commentary, 1992 (in Japanese).
Japan Road Association: Commentary and Practice of Enforcement Regulations for Road Structures (in Japanese).
CDIT: Engineering Manual of Immersed Tunnel, April 1994 (in Japanese).
Subcommittee on Seismic Dessign of Tunnels, Earthquake Engineering Committee, JSCE: Basic Problems and Policy to
Design of Seismic Design of Tunnels, March 1998 (in Japanese).
9) CDIT: Design of Steel-Concrete Sandwich Structure and Construction of High Fluidity Concrete, November 1996 (in
Japanese).
10) Japan Road Association: Manual of Measure to Damage on Road Bridges from Salt Affect and Commentary, 1984 (in
Japanese).
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Chapter 2 Cargo Sorting Facilities

2.1 General
The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to the design of cargo sorting facilities.
[Technical Notes]
References 1), 2), and 3) may be consulted for design.
2.2 Cargo Sorting Areas (Notification Articles 121 and 122)

(1) The size of a cargo sorting area shall be designed appropriately by considering the kinds and
quantities of cargoes handled and their handling conditions.
(2) Cargo sorting areas shall be paved appropriately according to the purpose and condition of their use.
The structure of pavement shall conform to the provisions in Part , 20.5 Design of Concrete
Pavement and Part , 20.6 Design of Asphalt Pavement.
(3) The widths and curves of passageways shall allow safe and smooth operation of vehicles and cargo
handling equipment.
(4) A cargo sorting area shall be provided with drainage facilities such as drain ditches.
(5) The provisions of Part , 19.12 Lighting Facilities shall be applied to the lighting equipment in the
cargo sorting areas that are operated at night.
(6) A cargo sorting area that is dangerous for the public shall prohibit the entrance of public with
provisions of signs, boards, and fences.
(7) In a cargo sorting area where the contents of cargo may be blown and scattered by wind, walls or
other proper measures shall be provided around its perihery.
2.3 Quay Sheds (Notification Articles 125 and 126)

(1) Quay sheds shall meet the following requirements to ensure smooth cargo handling before the
entrance and after the departure of vessels.
(a) The size of a shed shall be determined appropriately by considering the kinds and quantities of
cargoes and their handling conditions.
(b) The widths and curves of passageways in a shed shall be determined to allow safe and smooth
operation of cargo handling equipment.
(2) Where dust is raised by cargo handling works, proper ventilating equipment shall be provided as
necessary.
(3) Quay sheds handling cargoes at night shall be equipped with appropriate lighting facilities as provided
in Part , 19.12 Lighting Facilities.
(4) When there is danger of inundation due to a storm surge, a tide gate or any other equipment shall be
installed for preventing the intrusion of sea water.
(5) Quay sheds shall be equipped with the provisions of appropriate signs to ensure safe and smooth use
as necessary.
[Commentary]
The structure of quay sheds should comply with the provisions of the Building Standard Law (Law No.201 of
1950).
2.4 Cargo Handling Equipment

2.4.1 General
Cargo handling equipment installed in cargo sorting facilities or mooring equipments shall have the
required structure and capacity, and be located at the position most appropriate to the purpose of the
facilities. It shall be guaranteed of the structural safety, be provided with the anti-pollution systems against
dusts and noise, and ensure smooth and safe operation in cargo handling activities.
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[Commentary]
(1) The purposes of cargo handling equipment in ports are to reduce labor works, to speed up cargo handling
activities, and to ensure safety. The selection of the type, structure and capacity of cargo handling equipment
should be made by considering the vessels to be served, the type, shape, volume, and particular conditions of
handled cargoes, as well as the relations with yard facilities behind, and the mode of secondary transportation.
(2) Sufficient space should be secured around cargo handling equipment for its various operations by clearing the
space of obstacles such as buildings and electric wires. Cargo handling equipment should be designed and
located so that it should not come into contact with vessels at berthing and leaving or while mooring.
(3) Countermeasures against noise and dusts are required for equipment handling bulk cargoes because their
handling is likely to produce noise and dusts. In particular, inflammable dusts require countermeasures against
explosion.
[Technical Notes]
At the time of an earthquake, the behavior of cargo handling equipment including cranes may be affected by the
ground conditions on which it is located 4), 5), 6). Container cranes are usually designed according to the crane
structural specifications with no consideration of dynamic interaction with the quay structures. As is the case with
high seismic resistant quaywalls, however, the impact of dynamic interaction between the quay and the cranes placed
thereon during a larger-scale earthquake should be amply examined in design.
Particularly in the case of an open-type wharf (i.e., pier), the impact of dynamic interaction between cranes and
the pier may be significant under certain conditions. The impact of dynamic interaction between container cranes and
the pier may differ according to their mass ratio, the natural period of container cranes, the natural period of the pier,
and the input earthquake ground motion. Such impact should be examined in designing container cranes through the
seismic response analysis of container cranes and the pier loaded with them, or by other appropriate method allowing
sufficient consideration of dynamic interaction between container cranes and the pier 7).
Detailed design should be referred to Guideline for Seismic Design of Container Crane 8).
2.4.2 Oil Handling Equipment (Notification Article 127)

(1) Loading arms shall be of a structure ensuring safety against the weight and pressure of oil within
them, their deadweight, and the loads generated by wind pressure and seismic force.
(2) The distance between loading arms and the face line of the mooring facilities shall be determined
appropriately in light of the length of the arms and the height of fenders so that they may pose no
obstacles to oil handling.
2.4.3 Operation and Maintenance of Cargo Handling Equipment
Cargo handling equipment shall be appropriately maintained to retain its operational performance in good
condition as well as to enable to take preventive measures against accidents 9), 10), 11).
2.5 Timber Sorting Areas (Notification Articles 123 and 124)

(1) The appropriate location and size of the land or water surface shall be secured for a timber sorting
area to enable safe and smooth timber handling.
(2) In timber sorting areas, measures allowing incineration shall be taken as necessary, including the
installation of special plants for bark incineration.
[Commentary]
(1) Security measures against drift wood and sunken wood should be taken as well as environmental preservation
measures against bark scattering.
(2) Timber sorting ponds should be located in calm water area.
(3) Timber sorting ponds should be equipped with facilities preventing the drifting of timbers.
(4) Timber-handling water area should be so located that the waterway connecting the mooring basin for timber
rafts and the sorting pond or timber yard will not obstruct the navigation of vessels by crossing major navigation
channels or mooring basins.
(5) See Part , 2.10 Breakwaters for Timber Handling Facilities.
[Technical Notes]
See references 12) and 13) for the configuration of timber sorting facilities.
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2.6 Sorting Facilities for Marine Products

Sorting facilities for marine products shall be designed to ensure synergistic relations among their
functions.
[Commentary]
Marine product sorting facilities consist of marine product sorting areas and related ancillary facilities. Marine
product sorting areas deal with all activities ranging from the water-washing to carrying-out of the catch, and are
covered with roofs for the maintenance of freshness, the prevention of pollution, and the preservation of working
conditions. Ancillary facilities include loading area, icehouse, bidding room, and the other facilities, which contribute
to enhancement of the functions of marine product sorting areas, as well as wastewater treatment facilities and freezer
facilities.
[Technical Notes]
See references 14), 15), 16) and 17) for the surface area required for marine product sorting and the planning of
ancillary facilities.
2.7 Sorting Facilities for Hazardous Cargo

(1) Sorting facilities for hazardous cargo shall conform to the Fire Service Law (Law No.186 of 1948),
the High Pressure Gas Security Law (Law No.204 of 1951) and regulations based on these laws.
(2) If the handled cargo itself does not constitute hazardous goods but is subject to fumigation under the
Imported Plant Quarantine Regulation (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Notification
No.206 of 1950), it is preferable to post signs around the cargo sorting area or shed conducting
fumigation clearly indicating that they are off limits to the public due to danger.
[References]
1) Shingo FUJINO, Yoshikazu KAWASAKI: Port Planning, New Civil Eng. Series No.81, Gihodo, 1981, pp.135-138 (in
Japanese).
2) Shingo NAKAYAMA: Port Engineering, Sankaido, 1985, pp.36-37 (in Japanese).
3) Japan Soc. Civil Engrs., Civil Engineering Handbook (4th Edition), Gihodo, 1989, pp.1620-1621 (in Japanese).
4) Suketo TANAKA, Takamasa INATOMI, Eiju IIZUKA: Seismic response analyses of gantry cranes of container berth and
the time of Hyougo-South Earthquake, Proc. 23th Conf. Earthquake Eng., 1995, pp.213-216 (in Japanese).
5) Takamasa INATOMI, Suketo TANAKA: Seismic characterristics of port cargo handling equipment, Proc. 4th Conf. on
Cargo Transportation and Distribution, Japan Soc.Mechanical Engrs., 1995, pp.62-67 (in Japanese).
6) Suketo TANAKA, Takamasa INATOMI, Eiju IIZUKA: Basic research for seismic response analyses of gantry cranes of
container berth at the time of Hyougo-South Earthquake, Jour. Structural Concrete, Vol.42A, 1996, pp.1229-1234 (in
Japanese).
7) Masashi MIYATA, Takahiro SUGANO, Junji HAMADA, Toshio TANABE, Susumu NAKAJIMA, Takeshi TANAKA:
Research study on seismic response interaction between piled pier and container cranes, Proc. 10th Japan Earthquake Eng.
Symp., 1998, pp.635-640 (in Japanese).
8) Yoshiharu NAKAZONO: Commentary to guideline for seismic design of container crane, Jour. Port Cargo Handling,
Vol.43, No.6, 1998, pp.635-640 (in Japanese).
9) Society of Mechanization of Port Cargo Handling Equipment: Code of Maintenance of Pulling Type Unloader Crane, 1979
(in Japanese).
10) Society of Mechanization of Port Cargo Handling Equipment: Code of Maintenance of Container Crane, 1980 (in
Japanese).
11) Society of Mechanization of Port Cargo Handling Equipment: Tables of Maintenance of Container Crane, 1983 (in
Japanese).
12) Ibid. 1), pp.184-189 (in Japanese).
13) Ibid. 3), p.1605 (in Japanese).
14) National Fishing Port Association, Manual of Fising Port Planning (92 Edition): 1992, pp.109-135 (in Japanese).
15) Toshio SATO, Planning of land use for fishing port facilities (4), Jour. Fishing Port, Vol.13, No.4, 1971, p.51 (in Japanese).
16) Toshio SATO, Planning of land use for fishing port facilities (5), Jour. Fishing Port, Vol.14, No.1, 1972, p.40, p.42 (in
Japanese).
17) Toshio SATO, Planning of land use for fishing port facilities (11), Jour. Fishing Port, Vol.16, No.2, 1974, p.28-33 (in
Japanese).
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Chapter 3 Storage Facilities

3.1 General
The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to the design of storage facilities.
3.2 Yards for Dangerous Cargo and Oil Storage Facilities (Notification Article 129)
(1) Yards for dangerous cargo and oil storage facilities shall be located in a close proximity, unless
topographical conditions or other reasons require otherwise.
(2) The open space with an appropriate width shall be reserved around the yards for dangerous cargo and
oil storage facilities in correspondence to the type of dangerous cargo and the structure of the
facilities.
3.3 Other Storage Facilities (Notification Article 130)

Other storage facilities shall conform to the provisions in Chapter 2 Cargo Sorting Facilities and this
chapter to ensure the functions required for facilities. As necessary, the structure and location of these
facilities shall be determined appropriately according to other related provisions.
[Commentary]
Other storage facilities include warehouse, open storage yard, timber yard, and coal storage yard.
(1) Warehouse
Warehouses should ensure safe and smooth storage in line with the standards for warehouses provided in Article
3 of the Regulation on Execution of Warehousing Business Law (Ministry of Transport Regulation No.59
of 1956).
(2) Open Storage Yard
Open storage yards should conform to the provisions in 2.2 Cargo Sorting Areas. The surface area of an open
storage yard should be calculated in consultation with reference 1).
(3) Timber Yard
Timber yards should conform to the provisions in 2.5 Timber Sorting Areas.
(4) Coal Storage Yards
[Reference]
1) Japan Soc. Civil Engrs.: Civil Engineering Hanbook (4th Edition), Gihodo, 1989, p.1606 (in Japanese).
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Chapter 4 Facilities for Ship Services

4.1 General
The provisions in this chapter shall be applied to the design of facilities for ship services.
[Commentary]
Ship service facilities include the water, oil and coal supply facilities for ships (excluding water boats, bunker boats,
tank trucks, and other mobile facilities), as well as ship repairing facility and ship storage facility.
4.2 Water Supply Facilities (Notification Article 132)

(1) The layout and capacity of hydrants shall be determined appropriately according to the type of the
vessels.
(2) Water supply facilities shall meet the following sanitation requirements:
(a) Hydrants shall be of a structure enabling the prevention of water pollution.
(b) Periodic and occasional water examinations shall be conducted, and hydrants shall be kept clean.
[Commentary]
(1) Intakes of hydrants should be located in a manner that facilitates the attachment of hoses and should have a
structure allowing the prevention of water pollution. In particular, drainage should be provided when they are
installed beneath the apron floor.
(2) Intakes should be equipped with caps.
(3) Periodic and occasional water examinations should be conducted according to Article 15 of the Regulation on
Execution of Water Works Law (Ministry of Health and Welfare Regulation No.45 of 1957). Periodic
inspections should also be conducted to ensure that hydrants are kept clean.
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Chapter 5 Facilities for Passenger

5.1 Facilities for Passenger Boarding
5.1.1 General
The provisions in this section shall be applied to the design of fixed and movable passenger boarding
facilities (hereinafter referred to as passenger boarding facilities).
[Commentary]
(1) Passenger boarding facilities should have the safe and efficient functions for use by passengers. They should be
separated from boarding facilities for vehicles.
(2) Passenger boarding facilities should not cause passengers to feel danger. They should also have a stable
structure against ship motions and winds.
5.1.2 Structural Types (Notification Articles 135 and 136)

(1) The structure of passenger boarding facilities shall meet the following requirements.
(a) The width of a passage shall be set at 75 cm or more considering the conditions of use.
(b) A passageway shall have ancillary provisions such as the sidewalls and hand rails on both sides, and
a skid proof agent shall be applied or a non-slippery material shall be used on the surface of
passageway.
(c) The rise of step of stairway shall be set in light of safety. A landing shall be set on the stairway as
necessary.
(d) The boarding facility shall not be used both for passengers and vehicles. If passengers can be
separated from vehicles, however, the facility may be used for both passengers and vehicles.
(e) The gradient of a slope shall be determined appropriately in light of safety.
(2) The allowable vertical displacement at the seaward end of a movable bridge for passenger boarding
shall be determined in light of the tidal range, the change in the molded draft, and the pitching and
rolling of ships.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Although the width of a passage requires a minimum of 75 cm, it is preferable to set at 1.2 m or more in light of
the use by the elderly and the physically handicapped persons.
(2) The gradient of a slope is normally be 12% or less, but preferably be 5% to 8% or less in light of the use by the
elderly and the physically handicapped persons.
(3) Sufficient care should be taken to enable safe passage of the elderly and the physically handicapped persons in
wheelchairs 1).
5.1.3 Design of Facilities for Passenger Boarding

Passenger boarding facilities shall be of safe structures and designed according to the Specifications for
Highway Bridge and Commentary (Japan Road Association) 2) and the Technical Standards for
Installation of Grade Separation Facilities (Japan Road Association) 3). Loads and external forces to be
considered in design are the deadweight, live load, wind load, load by an earthquake, thermal stress by
temperature variations, etc.
5.1.4 Ancillary Facilities
Ancillary facilities shall be equipped appropriately in light of the safety of passengers.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Handrails not only represent a preventive measure against falling but also work to ensure smooth passage by
alleviating passengers feel of danger. The height of handrails should be 1.1 m or more, which may prevent an
average-sized adult from jumping over the handrail. However, the handrails may not work effectively by itself
for infants, children, and users in wheelchairs. Therefore, stays, crosspieces, and/or netting should be installed.
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(2) Fences, ropes, and chains should be provided at the gateways, in order to guiding passengers safely to boarding
facilities. Fences should be at least 70 cm high to ensure safety. Ropes and chains should be extended tightly and
should not be loosened unnecessarily.
(3) When a roof is provided, the height should be 2.1 m or more.
(4) Emergency exits should be provided when the length of the passageway exceeds 60 m. The distance between
entrance / exit and emergency exit or that between emergency exits should be 60 m or less. Marking signs or
signs indicating an emergency exit should be provided in the passageway.
5.2 Passenger Building

5.2.1 General
[Commentary]
Passenger building should be equipped with the following facilities as necessary:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Ticket window
Waiting room
CIQ facilities
Baggage room, toilet, telephone, and other facilities serving passengers
Appropriate lighting equipment
Alarm device and other communication equipment
[Technical Notes]
The passenger building and ancillary equipment should be designed to allow safe movement of the elderly and the
physically handicapped persons in wheelchairs.
5.2.2 Design of Passenger Buildings

The design of passenger buildings shall consider the conditions of location, the characteristics of the
facility, and the number of passengers.
[Technical Notes]
The calculation of the floor area of a passenger building should consider the type of ships, the number of sailings per
day, the number of passengers, the concentration rate, the quantity of baggage handling, and the number of workers.
An appropriate size of the floor area should be calculated for ticket window, waiting room, baggage room, CIQ
facilities, office, worker station, toilet, telephone, and other facilities serving passengers.

Passenger buildings shall be equipped with required facilities for the safety, sanitation, and amenity of
passengers.
[Technical Notes]
Required facilities include the following.
(1) Evacuation facilities
(2) Ventilation facilities
(3) Lighting equipment
(4) Fire fighting facilities and alarm device
(5) Fences, ropes, and other similar facilities
(6) Signs
(7) Toilet
(8) Telephones
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Boarding gate
Sound guidance system
Handrail
Gangway
Shop
Public phone
Telephone with facsimile
Toilet for physically handicapped
Escalator
Elevator
Handrail
Water fountain
Guidance display for departure and arrival (super LED)
Sound guidance
system
Flickering guiding light

with sound guidance equipment
Counter
Parking lots for physically
handicapped
Office
Restaurant
Telephone with facsimile

Public phone
Toilet for physically handicapped
Billboard
Sound detecting guide map
Automatic door
Bench
Sound guidance system
Low counter
Guidance display
Sound detecting guide map
Handrail
Slope
Fig. T- 5.2.1 Model Passenger Building
[References]
1) Japan Transport Economics Research Center: Guideline for Facility Building for Elderly and Handicapped Peoples in Public
Passenger Terminals, 1994 (in Japanese).
2) Japan Road Association: Specifications of Highway Bridges, 1996 (in Japanese).
3) Japan Road Association: Technical Standard for Installation of Grade Separation Facilities, 1979 (in Japanese).
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PART X SPECIAL PURPOSE WHARVES

Chapter 1 Container Terminals
A container terminal serves as a focal point of marine container transport. It shall be planned and designed
with due considerations for the factors such as the trend of container transport, the economic activities of
its hinterland, the conditions of connected transportation, and the space of land available. Because the
smooth and efficient operations of container loading / unloading and storage of containers and container
cargo must be assured, a container terminal needs various facilities that are installed with proper
arrangement for their full functioning, and occupies a sufficiently wide area.
[Technical Notes]
(1) The size of a container terminal and the arrangement of facilities should be carefully determined in consideration
of the following requirements:
(a) It assures efficient cargo handling.
(b) It enhances the total system economic efficiency of land and sea container transportation: in particular, smooth
and efficient connection with land transportation systems is assured.
(c) It deals flexibly with future expansion of the terminal and innovations in container transportation and
handling.
(2) A basic plan for container terminal facilities should be formulated by considering the following factors:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
Design volume of containers to be handled

Cargo movement characteristics (export and import ratio, transit ratio, etc.)
Calling interval and types of container ships
Operation and management method of the terminal
Method of container handling at quays and yards
Area and shape of available land space
Conditions of storage facilities in direct hinterland
Transportation mode to hinterland and the traffic conditions
Land use and ship navigation conditions in the surrounding area
Activities of neighboring container terminals
(3) For planning and design of an efficient container terminal, detailed analysis should be conducted on the arrival
and departure of container ships, the movement of container cargo and containers in the terminal as well as the
conditions of transportation to and from hinterland. Such analysis should consider the following factors:
(a) System characteristics of the container terminal
Service time of the terminal (annual and daily service time of gates and container yards)
Container ship arrivals (distribution of arrival times)
Distribution of loading ratio and number of loading / unloading containers of each ship
Types of handled containers and conditions of cargo lot (the ratio of LCL cargo etc.)
Container collection and delivery (distribution of collections and deliveries)
Container staying time in the terminal
Distribution of empty containers
(b) Characteristics of container handling plans including the plan for storage in yard and handling at quay, as well
as the number of available cargo handling equipment and its work efficiency
(c) Specifications of equipment on quay and facilities in the container terminal
(d) Development costs of the container terminal, cargo handling equipment and related facilities, as well as the
total management cost
Fig. T- 1.1.1 shows an example of facility layout plan of an ocean-line container terminal.
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Transformer
Substation
Maintenance Shop
Fuel Station
Washing
Facility
Container Freight Station
Receptacle Container Reefer
Transformer Substaition
Container Yard
Fender
Crane Rail
Container Ship
350m
Container Crane
Green Belt
Road
Office
Gate
Lighting Tower
350m
Fig. T- 1.1.1 Example of Facility Layout Plan of Ocean-line Container Terminal (Kobe Port)
1.2 Design of Mooring Facilities

1.2.1 Length and Water Depth of Berths
The length and water depth of a berth for mooring a container ship shall be determined to allow safe and
smooth berthing of the target vessel.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Ships dealing with container transport include LO/LO (lift-on/lift-off) ships, RO/RO (roll-on/roll-off) ships, and
semi-container ships, each having a characteristic shape. Ships of the same type may also differ in shape
depending on the shipping company. Therefore, if the type and size of ship using the berth is specified, the
length and water depth of the berth should accommodate that ship. However, if the dimensions of the ship are
unknown at the stage of design, the berth length and depth can be determined as listed in Table T- 1.2.1.
Table T- 1.2.1 Berth Length and Depth of Container Wharf
Size of ship (DWT)
Berth length (m)
Berth depth (m)
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
250
300
330
350
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
(2) As in Part , 2.1 Length and Water Depth of Berths, standard specifications of berths in Table T- 1.2.1 are
based on Part , 2.1 Dimensions of Target Vessel.
1.2.2 Mooring Equipment

Mooring equipment shall be installed by considering the size and type of the container ships using the
berth and in compliance with Part , 19.3 Mooring Posts, Bollards and Mooring Rings.
[Commentary]
In comparison with general cargo ships using a berth with the same length and water depth, a container ship has a
larger ratio of gross tonnage to deadweight tonnage and a larger projective area above the water surface, because
containers are loaded even on the deck. Therefore, the structure of mooring equipment should be designed by
considering the fact that container ships generally have large projected areas above the water surface, which are
subject to the wind force.
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1.2.3 Fender System

Fender system shall be installed by considering the size and type of the container ships using the berth and
in compliance with Part , 19.4 Fender System.
[Commentary]
A container ship has larger displacement tonnage corresponding to the deadweight tonnage than that of a general
cargo ship using a berth with the same length and water depth. Specifications of fender systems should therefore be
determined in this light.
1.3 Design of Land Facilities

1.3.1 Apron
The size and facility design of apron shall be determined to allow the safe and smooth operation of
temporary placing of containers and hatch covers of container ship, and that of vehicles and equipment for
container handling.
1.3.2 Container Cranes
Container cranes shall have appropriate capacities by considering the size of the container ships to be
served, the size and type of containers, the number of containers to be handled, quaywall structure, the
method of cargo handling in the yard, as well as the type of cargo handling facilities and equipment in the
yard.
1.3.3 Container Yard
The size and layout of a container yard shall be determined appropriately to ensure smooth storing,
marshalling, receipt, and dispatch of containers or chassis. Facilities in the yard shall be designed
accordingly.
1.3.4 Container Freight Station
A container freight station shall be installed as necessary for the handling of small lots of cargo in the yard.
Its location shall be determined in considering traffic stream lines in the yard. The size of container freight
station and the cargo handling equipment to be used shall be determined appropriately to ensure safe and
smooth handling and temporary storage of cargo. The container freight station shall then be designed
accordingly.
1.3.5 Maintenance Shop
The location and size of a maintenance shop shall be determined to allow the smooth inspection and repair
of containers and the inspection, maintenance, and repair of vehicles and container handling equipment.
1.3.6 Administration Building
The location and size of an administration building shall be determined to allow the smooth management
and operation of the container terminal.
1.3.7 Gates
The location and size of gates shall be determined to allow the efficient check and weighing of containers
delivered to and from the container terminal as well as the smooth transfer of documents.
In a container terminal, if necessary, ancillary facilities such as a washing station, sewage treatment plant,
oil station, transformer substation, parking lots, and chassis yards shall be provided.
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Chapter 2 Ferry Terminals

A ferry terminal shall be designed with particular attention paid to both structural stability and safety of
users, because it is usual that a ferry terminal is utilized simultaneously by both passengers and vehicles,
day and night,
[Commentary]
(1) The location of ferry terminals should be selected by considering its interrelationship with other port facilities.
Considerations should also be made for the characteristics of ferry lanes, the size and use of the terminal, as well
as road traffic conditions in the hinterland.
(2) The configuration and location of facilities in a ferry terminal should be determined so that the navigation of
ferryboats, the rolling-on and rolling-off of vehicles, the embarking and disembarking of passengers, and the
queuing or parking of vehicles are ensured in a safe and smooth manner.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In addition to navigation channels, basins and mooring equipments, a ferry terminal should be equipped with the
following facilities (see Fig. T- 2.1.1).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Facilities for vehicle boarding

Facilities for passenger boarding
Roads
Car parks
Passenger terminal building
Safety facilities
(2) In addition to normal mooring equipment, a ferry terminal should be equipped with a shift berth as necessary. A
shift berth serves ferryboats put on hold or receiving oil and water supply so as to improve the efficiency of
mooring equipment utilization.
(3) External forces to be considered in designing ferry terminals include the wave force, earth pressure, wind
pressure, seismic force, fender reactions, tractive force of ferryboats, and traffic loads. For safety purposes,
particular attention should be paid to the mode of exertions of these external forces.
5m
)
Legend
Quay wall
(-7.5m)
Pier (-7.5m)
uay
wa
ll (
-5.
Water supply facility
Mooring basin
(-7.5m)
bli
cq
Car park
Seawall
Pu
Car park
Vehicle boarding
facility
Car park
Passenger
boarding facility
Passenger
terminal
Road No.11
Berth No.
Berth No.
5m)
Wharf (-7.
= 430m
5m
21
@
2 berths
Seawall 257m
At
tac
hm
ent
51
.4
3m
Car park
Mooring basin
Car park
Berth No.
Pier 190m
Viaduct
Berth No.4
Mooring basin
Shallow draft quay (-3.5m)

Bridge
Fig. T- 2.1.1 Example of Ferry Terminal Plan
-584-
2.2 Design of Mooring Facilities

2.2.1 Length and Water Depth of Berths
The length and water depth of berths for mooring ferryboats shall be determined appropriately to ensure
the safe and smooth use by the target ferryboat.
[Commentary]
The length and water depth of a berth can be determined with reference to Part , 2.1 Length and Water Depth of
Berths. Consideration should also be given to the location of vehicle ramps and the method of ship maneuvering
including the use of side thrusters.
[Technical Notes]
The length and water depth can be determined with reference to the values listed in Table T- 2.2.1 if the target
ferryboat cannot be identified in advance.
Table T- 2.2.1 Length and Water Depth of Ferry Terminal Berths for Japanese Ferries
Short- and medium-distance Japanese ferries (sailing distance less than 300km)
Target ferry
gross tonnage (GT)

Quay length of bow and
stern side (m)
Length of berth (m)
Water depth of berth (m)
60
80
90
130
160
180
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.5
6.5
7.0
20
20
25
25
30
30
400
700
1,000
2.500
5,000
10,000
Long-distance Japanese ferries (sailing distance 300km or more)

Target ferry
gross tonnage (GT)
Wharf for ferries with

side ramps
Length of berth (m)
6,000
10,000
13,000
16,000
20,000
23,000

Quay length of bow
and stern side (m)
Length of berth (m)
Water depth of
berth (m)
30
30
35
40
40
40
170
200
220
230
230
240
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.5
190
220
240
250
250
260
2.2.2 Mooring Equipment

Mooring facilities shall be provided with mooring equipment. The structure and arrangement of mooring
equipment shall be determined by considering the layout of mooring facilities and the size of ferryboat as
well as the wind force acting on the ferryboat.
[Commentary]
(1) The design of mooring equipment should be carried out by taking into account the fact that ferryboats are
generally vulnerable to wind force because of their large exposed areas. The wind force and tractive force should
be calculated according to Part , 2.2.3 [3] Wind Load Acting on Vessel and Part , 2.2.4 Tractive Force
Acting on Mooring Post and Bollard, respectively.
(2) Standard locations of mooring posts are as follows:
(a) For mooring facilities for ferryboats with bow and stern ramps, one or more mooring posts around the tip of
the berth and two or more mooring posts around the base of the berth.
(b) For mooring facilities for ferryboats with side ramps, one or more mooring posts around both ends of the
berth.
(3) See Part , 19.3 Mooring Posts, Bollards and Mooring Rings for bollards and other mooring equipment.
-585-
2.2.3 Fender System

Mooring facilities shall be provided with a fender system to protect the ferryboats hull from damage at
loading and berthing, and damage due to tide level changes.
[Commentary]
(1) Fender systems should be designed in accordance with Part , 2.2 External Forces Generated by Vessels.
(2) Fender systems should be installed considering the vertical range of the hull movement of ferryboat.
2.2.4 Protection Works against Scouring

For a ferry terminal, considerations shall be given for protection works against scouring in front of
mooring facilities.
[Commentary]
Most ferryboats are equipped with side thrusters to facilitate berthing and unberthing operations. The design of
mooring facilities should take into account the fact that use of side thrusters tends to cause more scouring than the
case without side thrusters. (see Part , 2.5 Protection against Scouring.)
2.3 Design of Vehicle Ramp

The design of vehicle ramp shall be made by considering the tidal range at the berth, the draft of the
ferryboats to be served, the location of vehicle ramp on ferryboats, and the ferryboat motions at the berth,
so as to ensure safe and smooth roll-on and roll-off operations of vehicles.
2.3.1 Width, Length, Gradient, and Radius of Curvature
The width, length, gradient, and radius of curvature of vehicle ramp shall be set in accordance with Part
,
19.6.4 Vehicle Ramp.
2.3.2 Ancillary Facilities and Signs (Notification Article 93, Clauses 1 and 5)
Signs and notices shall be posted appropriately according to the structural characteristics and utilization
conditions of the facilities.
2.3.3 Design of Moving Parts
(1) The structure of a moving part shall be designed by examining the stresses, deformations, and
stability so that sufficient safety is ensured during the operation of the ramp.
(2) As the external forces acting on the bridge of the moving parts, the following shall be considered:
(a) Deadweight, surcharge (vehicle load and sidewalk live load), and impact load as the primary loads.
(b) Wind load, thermal stress, and seismic force as the secondary loads.
(c) If necessary, the other loads such as snow load, braking load, and wave uplift shall be considered.
(3) A lift and its ancillary equipment shall be so designed that they would function on the safer side in the
events of the power shutdown and the excessive vibrations.
[Technical Notes]
(1) See Part , 15.4 Live Load for traffic load.
(2) The impact load should be defined as 40% of traffic load.
(3) The design of moving parts should be made as necessary against either the T traffic load or the L traffic load
defined in the Highway Bridge Specification and Commentary whichever exerts more adverse stress.
2.4 Facilities for Passenger Boarding

The design of passenger boarding facilities shall be made by considering the tidal range at the berth, the
draft of the ferryboats to be served, the location of boarding facilities on ferryboats, and the ferryboat
motions at the berth, so as to ensure safe and easy embarking and disembarking of passengers.
-586-
[Commentary]
(1) Passenger boarding facilities should be installed separately from vehicle boarding facilities as a general rule.
(2) The following requirements should be satisfied when the same boarding facilities have to be utilized for both
passengers and vehicles.
(a) Passengers should be separated from vehicles by fences or ropes.
(b) Sufficient safety measures should be taken, including the placement of guides to separate the time of use
between passengers and vehicles.
2.4.1 Width, Length, Gradient, and Ancillary Facilities

The width and other aspects of passenger boarding facilities shall be set in accordance with Part , 5.1
Facilities for Passenger Boarding.
2.4.2 Design of Moving Parts
The design of moving parts shall be made in accordance with 2.3.3 Design of Moving Parts.
2.5 Design of Other Facilities

2.5.1 Roads
The design of roads shall be made in accordance with Part , 1.2 Roads.
2.5.2 Passageways
A passageway used exclusively for passengers ideally shall extend from the passenger waiting room to the
boarding facilities.
2.5.3 Car Parks
Car parks at ferry terminals shall have sufficient areas for avoiding any deterioration of traffic conditions
in their vicinity in consideration of the number of boarding vehicles per ferryboat, utilization rate, and
concentration rate of arriving vehicles.
[Commentary]
Many factors should be considered in calculating the area of car parks, including the following:
(1) Number of berths
(2) Number of vehicles loaded on a ferryboat (separately for passenger cars and trucks)
(3) Frequency of arrival and departure of ferryboats and embarking / disembarking time
(4) Arrival pattern of vehicles (separately for passenger cars and trucks)
(5) Operation method of the car park
[Technical Notes]
The area of car parks in a ferry terminal may be calculated by multiplying the unit parking area necessary for an
eight-ton truck (50 m2) with the maximum number of vehicles loaded on a ferryboat using the terminal, in an
equivalent unit of eight-ton truck. The shares of unaccompanied vehicles and trailers should also be considered. The
number of vehicles loaded on an ordinary ferryboat is listed in Table T- 2.5.1. One passenger vehicle is equivalent to
0.5 eight-ton truck and one large bus corresponds to 1.5 eight-ton truck.
Table T- 2.5.1 Standard Number of Loaded Vehicles
Target ferry
(gross tonnage)
100
200
300
400
500
600
Maximum
number of loaded
8-ton trucks
11
14
16
19
22
24
Target ferry
(gross tonnage)
Maximum
number of loaded
8-ton trucks
34
51
68
85
102
119
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
-587-
Target ferry
(gross tonnage)
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
11,000
12,000
Maximum
number of loaded
8-ton trucks
136
153
170
187
204
221
2.5.4 Passenger Terminals

Passenger terminals shall be so designed to provide safe and efficient services for passengers.
[Commentary]
(1) Passenger terminals should be designed according to Part , 5.2 Passenger Building.
(2) Passenger terminals constitute a specific building defined in Articles of the Law for Promoting Construction
of Specific Buildings Available for Smooth Utilization by the Elderly and the Physically Handicapped.
Therefore, due consideration should be given to related laws and regulations.
(3) Any development of passenger terminal facilities should be conducted with reference to the Guideline on
Development of Facilities for the Elderly and the Physically Handicapped in Public Transportation
Terminals.
2.5.5 Safety Equipment

A ferry terminal shall be provided with equipment such as fences, crossing gate, fire-extinguishing
equipment, safety indications, safety lamps, and/or lifesaving equipment, as necessary.
-588-
Part XI Marinas
PART XI MARINAS
Part XI Marinas
Chapter 1 Introduction
The location of a marina shall be selected in light of the size and capacity as well as the natural conditions,
the social conditions, and the economical advantage. Harbor facilities in a marina shall be arranged in
consideration of the behaviors of boats and users, and mutual relations among facilities based on the
designed size of each facility, so as to ensure the safety, convenience and efficiency of the marina as a
whole. Due consideration shall also be given to preservation of natural environment and landscape.
[Commentary]
(1) Marinas refer to harbors consisting of navigation channels, basins for mooring and storing pleasure boats,
protective facilities, and service facilities such as club houses, car parks, boat yards, training facilities, and
greenery areas.
(2) The location of a marina should be determined through the assessment of the relevance of the site in terms of
geographical location, activities of pleasure boats, and feasibility of marina facilities construction in light of
natural conditions, social conditions, and economic advantage.
(3) Thorough investigations on the behaviors of boats and users and the safety of pleasure boat users are necessary
for the process of designing the configuration of facilities. Prospects for future development should also be
considered adequately.
(4) Facility plans for marinas should be made in consideration of the preservation of marine and land environment.
(5) Marina facilities should be harmonized with the surrounding landscape.
(6) It is preferable that marine facilities are to be arranged taking into account the utilization by disadvantaged
people including the elderly and the physically handicapped persons.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Harbor facilities in marinas are listed in Table T- 1.1.1
Table T- 1.1.1 Harbor Facilities in Marinas
(1) Navigation channels and mooring basins
(2) Protective facilities (breakwaters, seawalls)
(3) Mooring facilities (quays, open-type wharves, floating open-type wharves, mooring dolphins, mooring buoys, boat lifting/
lowering facilities (slipways, rail ramps, boat lifters))
(4) Facilities for ship services (water supply facilities, power supply facilities, repairing facilities, land-based storage facilities
(boat yards, boat houses, racks), club houses)
(5) Land traffic facilities (roads, car parks)
(2) In addition to the facilities shown in Table T-1.1.1, marina facilities include administration and operation
facilities (information facilities, communication facilities, lifesaving facilities, control facilities, etc.).
-589-
Chapter 2 Main Dimensions of Target Boats

The principal dimensions of the target boats shall be determined appropriately in light of the present
condition and future trend of pleasure boats in the area around the marina.
[Commentary]
Sufficient investigations on the maneuverability of the pleasure boats and their motion characteristics in the winds,
waves, and tidal currents should be made so as to ensure safe and smooth entry, departure, anchorage and mooring of
all the pleasure boats not only under normal weather conditions but also under emergency evacuation conditions due
to stormy weather.
[Technical Notes]
The principal dimensions of the target boats may be determined referring to Table T- 2.1.1, if it is not possible to
identify particular target boats.
Table T- 2.1.1 Standard Size of Pleasure Boats
Type
Length
overall
(m)
Extreme
breadth
(m)
Draft (m)
Mass (kg)
Cruiser
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
15.0
16.0
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.1
4.2
4.4
4.5
4.8
5.1
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.8
1.9
1.9
2.0
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.3
2.4
2.6
2.8
2,300
2,600
2,900
3,200
3,600
4,100
6,700
7,200
7,800
8,400
9,100
9,800
10,700
11,500
12,500
14,800
17,500
Dinghy
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.5
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.7
60
80
110
150
250
330
440
600
820
Motorboat
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.6
3.8
4.0
4.1
4.3
4.7
4.9
4.9
5.1
5.4
0.6
0.7
0.7
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1,800
2,100
2,800
7,600
8,700
10,000
11,600
13,400
15,600
18,300
21,500
25,600
29,800
-590-
PART XI MARINAS
Chapter 3 Navigation Channels and Basins

3.1 General
Design of navigation channels shall conform to Part Navigation Channels and Basins as well as to
the provisions hereinafter.
3.2 Navigation Channels

Navigation channels shall be arranged in the calm water with a sufficient width and depth in light of the
direction of prevailing wind, to ensure safe navigation of pleasure boats.
[Commentary]
(1) The width of navigation channels should be determined so as to ensure safe and smooth navigation of all the
pleasure boats using the marina.
(2) The depth of navigation channels should be determined appropriately in light of (a) the draft of the pleasure
boats, (b) the increase of draft due to the loads for cruising, (c) the boats trim, (d) the motion amplitudes of
pleasure boats, and (e) a margin for the keel clearance.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In some marinas, the width of navigation channel measures more than twice the length of pleasure boats with
engines and more than five times the length of pleasure boats without engines. In particular, considerations
should be given for simultaneous navigation of numerous pleasure boats if a yacht race is to be held.
(2) In some cases, as for the depth of navigation channel, a margin of 0.6 m to 1.0 m has been added to the draft of
the pleasure boats when the magnitudes of other factors were not identified.
(3) The influence of prevailing wind direction may be disregarded if sail boats are not allowed.
(4) The centerline of a curving section of navigation channels should be determined appropriately in light of the
turning capacity of the pleasure boats.
3.3 Mooring Basins

Mooring basins shall be located in the calm water with the depth and area sufficient to ensure safe mooring
and smooth maneuvering of pleasure boats.
[Commentary]
(1) The depth of mooring basins should be the same as the depth provided in 3.2 Navigation Channels, unless a
mooring area is specified for each single type of the pleasure boats.
(2) The calmness of mooring basins should be defined in compliance with Part , 4.4 Calmness of Basin and in
light of weather and usage conditions. In this regard, sufficient consideration should be given to waves
penetrating through a harbor entrance, transmitted waves over breakwaters, reflected waves, ship waves, long
period waves, and seiche.
[Technical Notes]
(1) In most cases, allowable wave height for the use of mooring basins (H1/3) is set at 0.3 m or less, and the wave
height in the basins under stormy weather (H1/3) is planned to remain at 0.5 m or less. Nonetheless, it is
preferable to envisage a lower wave height under stormy weather according to the types and sizes of boats and
the condition of use, unless land-based storage is possible for all those boats.
(2) In ensuring calmness, the layout, length and crown height of breakwaters should be planned appropriately. It is
also preferable to install wave-absorbing seawalls, permeable breakwaters, and slipways as well as to utilize the
wave-absorbing functions of beaches effectively.
[Reference]
1) Planning and Design Guidelines for Small Craft Harbors, American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994, 68p.
-591-
Chapter 4 Protective Facilities

The harbor entrance and the crown height and structural types of protective facilities shall conform to Part
Protective Facilities of Harbors and the following provisions shall also be taken into consideration:
(1) Harbor Entrance
The direction, location, water depth, and width of harbor entrance shall be arranged adequately in
consideration of the prevailing wind, wind waves, tidal currents, ships navigating nearby areas, and
littoral transport so as to ensure safe entry and departure of pleasure boats.
(2) Crown Height
The crown height of breakwaters and seawalls shall be designed appropriately in view of ensuring
required calmness.
(3) Structural Type
Consideration shall be given to the structural types of breakwaters and seawalls to ensure required
calmness.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Layout of protective facilities should be determined to facilitate safe return entry and evacuation of many
pleasure boats in case of sudden change in weather, and to provide a marina with a sufficient basin area.
(2) The direction of harbor entrance should be arranged so as to prevent direct penetration of wind waves and tidal
currents from outside and to ensure that the entrance will not be blocked by littoral sand drift. Care should be
taken to protect pleasure boats from transverse waves around the entrance so as to ensure their safe and easy
entry and departure.
Considering that dinghy yachts cannot move straight against the wind, as shown in Fig. T- 4.1.1, the
direction of harbor entrance should be kept at the angle between 45and 90
to the prevailing wind, as in Fig. T4.1.2.
Close hold
Wind
direction
Close hold
Close reach
Close reach
Board tack
Board tack
Prevailing wind
Wind abeam
Direction of
harbor entrance
Wind abeam
Broad reach
Broad reach
Quarter lee
Quarter lee
Fig. T- 4.1.1 Precluded Directions
Fig. T- 4.1.2 Direction of Harbor Entrance

and Prevailing Wind
(3) The location of harbor entrance should be arranged in consideration of the safety of ships navigating nearby. It
should also be ensured that pleasure boats will be free from the influence of wave concentration, wave breaking,
and tidal currents. Sufficient water depth and width should be secured at the entrance in light of the dimensions
for navigation channels.
(4) The crown height of breakwaters should ensure required calmness even against storm waves. Nonetheless,
consideration should also be given to the elevation of sighting on pleasure boats to ensure a clear vision for safe
navigation. Care should further be taken not to cut off the winds necessary for dinghy yachts sailing in the
harbor.
(5) As necessary, the seawalls of sloping, wave-absorbing, permeable types should be considered for adoption to
ensure calmness and cleanliness in the harbor.
(6) It is preferable to pay attention to the aesthetic view of breakwaters and seawalls.
-592-
PART XI MARINAS
Chapter 5 Mooring Facilities

5.1 General
The type and size of mooring facilities shall be determined appropriately in accordance with Part
Mooring Facilities and in light of the purpose of mooring, boat size, and tidal range.
[Technical Notes]
Specifications of mooring facilities may be determined with reference to Fig. T- 5.1.2. The distance between two
adjacent piers should be determined appropriately according to the number of pleasure boats to be moored between
the two piers so as to prevent any contact of pleasure boats with auxiliary piers or any contact between pleasure boats
themselves. Avoidance of wind-induced touching of the masts of cruiser yachts should be considered in the
arrangement of piers.
B2
B1
B1
B1
b'
W1
W2
B2
B2
W3
Width of piers
b :
b
Length overall of
pleasure boat
Length of berth
Slip
Distance between piers (minimum)

W
= (ship breadth) + b + (0.3 ~ 0.6 m)
= 2 (ship breadth) + b + (1.5 ~ 2.0 m)
= (ship breadth) + (1.0 ~ 2.0 m)
1
2
main piers 1.5 ~ 3 m
: auxiliary piers 1.0 ~ 1.5 m
Note: The distance between the piers should decided in consideration of wind-induced touching of masts for cruiser yachts.
Fig. T- 5.1.2 Examples of Mooring Facilities Specifications
5.2 Design Conditions for Mooring Facilities

Design conditions for mooring facilities shall be defined appropriately in accordance with to Part
Design Conditions and in light of their use as marinas.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Safety of floating piers should be examined in consideration of the following loads as necessary:
(a) Support load of any connection bridge on the pier
(b) Snow load in heavy snow areas
(c) Footway live load (see Figs. T-5.2.1 ~ T.5.2.3 for the methods of loading on floating piers.)
Auxiliary pier
Main pier
Auxiliary pier
Main pier
One-side
loading
Fig. T- 5.2.1 Example of Loading in Examining Stability of Main Floating Pier
-593-
One-side loading
Loading position
Fig. T- 5.2.2 Example of Loading in Examining

Stability of Auxiliary Floating Pier
Fig. T- 5.2.3 Example of Loading in Examining

Sinkage of Auxiliary Floating Pier
(2) Loads in examining the safety of floating piers against the sectional failure may be defined refering to Part ,
Chapter 8 External Forces Acting on Floating Body and Its Motions. Normally, waves, winds, tidal currents,
and wave drift forces are to be considered as acting on floating bodies. In addition to those forces, wave making
resistance is also to be considered as an external force on the motions of floating bodies.
(a) Methods of simple calculation of wave forces acting on floating piers themselves and moored pleasure boats
include the following:
Assuming that the hydrostatic pressure acts on a floating body, the wave force can be calculated according
to equation (5.2.1), by taking the difference between the water pressures in the front and rear walls as
P = r0 gHLpd
where
P
r0
g
H
Lp
d
(5.2.1)
wave force acting on floating body (kN)

density of seawater (t/m3) (1.03 t/m3)
gravitational acceleration (m/s2) (9.8 m/s2)
wave height (Hmax) (m)
length of floating body (m)
draft of floating body (m)
Floating body
Wave
Mean water level
Water pressure in rear
Water pressure in rear

Difference of water pressure
Water pressure in front
Fig. T- 5.2.4 Wave Force Calculation Assuming Hydrostatic Pressure Acting on Floating Body
When a large inertia force of the floating body or any action of breaking wave pressure is anticipated, the
wave force may be calculated according to equation (5.2.2), by considering the wave pressure calculated by
the Goda formula as lateral load, as shown in Fig. T- 5.2.5. As Fig. T- 5.2.5 applies to the action of wave
crest, consideration should also be given to the action of wave trough, as shown in Fig. T- 5.2.6. A
triangular distribution should be applied to the uplift, by taking the pressure p3 at the front end and zero at
the rear end of the floating body. When the breadth of the floating body B exceeds L/4 (L: wave length),
uplift should be distributed in a L/4-wide triangular form.
-594-
PART XI MARINAS
1 4p L
a 1 = --- -----------------------------
2 sinh ( 4h L )
6444474448
h* = 0.75 (1 + cosb)l1H
p1 = 0.5 (1 + cosb)a1l1r0 gH
p3 =a3 p1
(5.2.2)
d
1
a 3 = 1 --- ---------------------------------------
h 1 cosh ( 2h L )
where
H wave height (Hmax) (m)
h water depth (m)
r0 density of seawater (t/m3) (1.03 t/m3)
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2) (9.81 m/s2)
b angle between the line normal to the longitudinal axis of floating body and the principal wave
direction (with a deflection toward the former by up to 15
)
l1 modification coefficient of wave pressure (normally 1.0)
Wave pressure
according to Goda formula
Hydrostatic
pressure
Fig. T- 5.2.6 Pressure at Wave Trough
Fig. T- 5.2.5 Pressure at Wave Crest
(3) In calculating the wind force, the area of exposure should be defined appropriately in light not only of mooring
facilities but also of the mooring condition of pleasure boats and the layout of mooring facilities and surrounding
structures.
(4) External forces caused by the motions of moored pleasure boats and linked floating piers act on a floating body,
as well as the forces by waves, winds, and currents exerted on the floating body itself. Such external forces
should be calculated according to appropriate analytical methods or hydraulic model experiments.
(5) It is important to consider the tractive force of moored pleasure boats due to waves, winds, and currents under
stormy weather as well as the impact of collision at berthing of pleasure boats to the pier.
5.3 Floating Piers

5.3.1 General
Floating piers as mooring facilities in marinas shall conform to Part , Chapter 12 Floating Piers.
5.3.2 Structure
Main structures of floating piers and connecting mechanisms between main structures shall be durable and
able to resist the external forces calculated in 5.2 Design Conditions for Mooring Facilities.
5.3.3 Examination of Safety
The safety of floating piers shall be examined in accordance with Part , 12.3.3 Stability of Pontoon and
in light of mutual impact of floating bodies constituting the pier.
When the surcharge calculated in 5.2 Design Conditions for Mooring Facilities are exerted, floating
piers shall satisfy the stability condition of a floating body. The slope of the deck, the sinking of the
floating bodies, and the freeboard shall create no obstacles to their use.
In this case, the freeboard of floating piers shall be determined in light of the dimensions of the pleasure
boats to be served and the wave conditions to ensure smooth boarding and alighting of pleasure boat users.
-595-
[Commentary]
The slope and sinking of the deck and the freeboard should create no obstacles to the use of the floating pier when it
receives a uniform or concentrated load or an eccentric load corresponding to the surcharge calculated in light of the
dimensions of the floating pier, the condition of use, and the natural conditions.
[Technical Notes]
The examination of the stability of a floating pier should satisfy the following conditions:
(1) When the loads (a) ~ (c) in [Technical Notes] of 5.2 Design Conditions for Mooring Facilities (here referred
to as the Notes) act on the deck, the stability condition of a floating body should be satisfied and the necessary
freeboard should be maintained. The freeboard of a floating pier is usually set around 30 ~ 50 cm to ensure that
any user falling into the water can climb back up easily.
(2) When the footway live load under the condition of the load (c) of the Notes sketched in Fig. T-5.2.1 acts on one
side of the main pier along with the loads (a) and (b) as necessary, the slope of the deck should be 1:10 or less
and the smallest freeboard should be zero or greater.
(3) When the footway live load under the condition of the load (c) of the Notes sketched in Fig. T-5.2.2 acts on one
side of the auxiliary pier along with the loads (a) and (b) as necessary, the slope of the deck should be 1:10 or
less and the smallest freeboard should be zero or greater.
(4) When the footway live load under the condition of the load (c) of the Notes sketched in Fig. T-5.2.3 acts on the
auxiliary pier up to 1 m from the top along with the load (b) as necessary, the sinking of the deck should not be
excessive.
5.3.4 Structural Design

Based on 5.2 Design Conditions for Mooring Facilities, the structural members of a floating pier shall be
safe against the external forces acting on the pier under stormy weather, and during mooring and berthing
of pleasure boats.
[Technical Notes]
The structural members of a floating pier should be examined on their safety against the bending and shear around the
longitudinal and lateral axes. The stresses resulting from the motions of floating bodies or pleasure boats should also
be considered as necessary.
(1) As shown in Figs. T- 5.3.1 and 5.3.2, the bending moment or shearing force around the longitudinal axis should
be examined appropriately according to the structural type of the floating body, based on the concept of simple
beam or the Muller method.
(2) Bending moment or shearing force around the lateral axis should be examined appropriately based on the
concept of simple beam.
Dead load
Dead load
Buoyancy
Buoyancy
Fig. T- 5.3.1 Simple Beam (Separate Type)
Fig. T- 5.3.2 Muller Method (Monocoque Type)
5.3.5 Mooring Method

The mooring method of a floating pier shall be selected through the consideration of fulfilling the function
of fixing the pier on the water surface, ensuring the resistance against external forces including waves,
winds, and currents, and retaining the durability.
5.3.6 Access Bridges
Dimensions of an access bridge shall be determined appropriately so as not to undermine the safety of
users.
-596-
PART XI MARINAS
[Technical Notes]
(1) According to structural types, some bridges may move up and down in response to the change in water level,
while others may further move left and right in response to the motions of the pier.
(2) The breadth of an access bridge should be 75 cm or greater. In particular, an appropriate breadth should be
secured if consideration is required for utilization by disadvantaged people.
(3) It is preferable that the slope of an access bridge is not steeper than 1:4.
(4) It is preferable that access bridges are equipped with antiskid devices.
5.4 Ancillary Facilities

Ancillary facilities shall be installed as necessary for the purpose for prevention of danger, environmental
control, and efficient operation of the marina.
5.5 Lifting / Lowering Frame Facilities

The structural type and size of boat lifting / lowering frame facilities shall be determined appropriately in
light of the type, size and number of pleasure boats to be served as well as the handling capacity of the
facilities.
[References]
1) Sigeru UEDA, Satoru SHIRAISHI, Takashi ISHISAKI: Calculation method of forces and moments induced on pontoon type
floating structures in waves, Rept. of PHRI, Vol. 31, No. 2, 1992 (in Japanese).
2) Satoru SHIRAISHI, Haruo YONEYAMA, Kazuyuki YOKOI: Calculation method of forces and moments induced on combshaped floating structures in waves, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 828, 1996 (in Japanese).
3) Sigeru UEDA, Satoru SHIRAISHI, Kazuo KAI: Calculation method of shear and bending moment induced on pontoon type
floating structures in random sea, Tech. Note of PHRI, No. 505, 1984 (in Japanese).
4) Sigeru UEDA, Satoru SHIRAISHI: Determination of optimum mooring chain and design charts using catenary theory,
-597-
Chapter 6 Facilities for Ship Services

6.1 General
The type and size of ship service facilities shall be determined appropriately in accordance with Part ,
Chapter 4 Facilities for Ship Services to ensure smooth ship services in the marina.
[Commentary]
Ship service facilities include water supplying facilities, oil bunkering facilities, power supplying facilities, boat
washing facilities, lighting equipment, boat repair facilities, wastewater and refuse treatment facilities, club house,
and land-based storage facilities.
6.2 Land Storage Facilities

The type and size of land storage facilities shall be determined appropriately in light of the type, size, and
number of the pleasure boats to be served.
[Commentary]
Land storage facilities include boat yards, boat houses, boat racks, and multi-storied storage facilities. Their type and
size should be determined appropriately in light of the type of the pleasure boats. Dimensions of land storage
facilities should be determined in light of the operation area required by the equipment for boat shifting, in addition to
the size of the boats to be served.
[Technical Notes]
(1) Dimensions of land storage facilities can be determined with reference to Fig. T- 6.2.1.
(2) In the area frequently affected by stormy weather including typhoons or the areas with a long off-season, the
manner of storage should be determined with due consideration of local features.
Mark length
Mark width
L: ship
Road width
When tractors are not used:
S=A
length
B: ship
When traveling vehicles
breadth
(forklift, trailer) are used:

The value of S is defined
in light of the traveling
vehicles radius of gyration.
Fig. T- 6.2.1 Dimensions of Land Storage Facilities
-598-
PART XI MARINAS
Chapter 7 Land Traffic Facilities

Land traffic facilities shall be determined in accordance with Part , Chapter 1 Port Traffic Facilities
and in light of the utilization of the marina and the concentration of vehicles.
[Technical Notes]
The structure and size of roads and car parks related to marinas may be determined with reference to Table T- 7.1.1.
Table T- 7.1.1 Considerations in Designing Land Traffic Facilities
Facilities
Concept of development
Roads
Examination is required concerning the breadth and radius of gyration of

vehicles towing trailers loaded with pleasure boats.
Car parks
The area of car parks required is 1.5 times the area for one vehicle per
boat. A vehicle attached with a trailer needs about twice the area for
ordinary vehicles. It is preferable that car parks can be used as landing
sites for pleasure boats in emergencies.
-599-
-600-
INDEX
INDEX
INDEX
apparent seismic coefficient 187, 202, 204, 205, 335

approaching energy 464
approaching speeds 463
approximate lowest water level 4
apron 89, 184, 207, 208, 226, 229, 413, 462, 501, 532, 540, 541,
542, 545, 546, 547, 548, 552, 577, 583
apron works 398
arcs 449, 450, 456, 458, 459
area of improvement 329, 331
armor layer 84, 112, 113, 117, 118, 119, 369
armor stones 100, 112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 118, 119, 125, 140,
369
Arthur 149, 153
artificial dune 394
asphalt concrete for pavement 228
asphalt mats 228, 272, 372
asphalt pavement 547, 548, 549, 550, 553, 562, 563, 572, 573
asphalt paving guidelines 229
asphalt stabilization 228
assignment of traffic volume to various routes 560
astronomical tides 127
atmospheric pressure 128, 129, 130, 133, 138
availability of construction materials 359
average color rendering performance evaluation number 533, 534
average degree of consolidation 171, 172, 310, 340
axial bearing capacity of piles 284, 288, 290, 302, 468
axial compressive stress 212, 213, 214
axial spring constant of pile head 304
axial tensile stress 212, 213, 214
Symbols
B = 0 method 173
A
abnormal water levels 127, 365
abrasion resistance 26
absorbing caissons 267, 378, 380
access bridge 123, 124, 461, 463, 469, 478, 480, 487, 488, 489,
492, 493, 596, 597
accidental load 221, 222
active earth pressure 200, 201, 202, 204, 262, 266, 280, 325, 327,
329, 332, 333, 334, 415, 416, 418, 419, 427, 428, 432, 433,
437, 439, 441, 448, 453, 454, 492, 510, 518, 555, 556
active load 221
actual mooring lines 386
additional lane 562
adjusting tower 493
administration and operation facilities 589
AE (air entrained) concrete 225
afforestation works 394
aforementioned currents 138
air-cushion vehicle 407, 500, 501
air-cushion vehicle landing facilities 407, 500, 501
alarm systems 520, 525
alignment of breakwater 110, 370
alkali-aggregate reaction 224, 225
allowable axial bearing capacity of piles 284, 288, 290, 468
allowable axial compressive stress 213
allowable bearing capacity 274, 275, 276, 277, 280, 285, 288,
289, 294, 295, 307, 448
allowable bending compressive stress 213, 224, 305
allowable bond stress 224
allowable displacement ductility factor 471, 474, 475
allowable displacement for the sheet pile crown 511
allowable limit for expected sliding distance 367
allowable overtopping 373, 396, 398
allowable pulling resistance of piles 291, 292, 293
allowable shear resistance force 448
allowable shearing stress 224, 448
allowable stress method 211, 221, 224, 424, 460
allowable stresses 212, 213, 214, 215, 223, 224, 233, 305, 468,
483
allowable tensile stress 213, 224, 291, 293, 324, 424, 425
allowable upward displacement 293
aluminum 207, 218, 239, 530
aluminum alloy anodes 218
aluminum, titanium 234
amenity aspects 396
amenity-oriented seawall 396
amplitude amplification factor 134
anchor chain type mooring buoy 502, 506
anchorage work 415, 417, 419, 426, 427, 429
ancillary facilities 234, 370, 389, 398, 406, 486, 520, 557, 575,
578, 579, 583, 586, 587, 597
ancillary works 414
angle of friction between backfilling material and backface wall
201, 202
angle of friction of the wall 257
angle of internal friction 174, 175, 176, 200, 201, 202, 231, 232,
238, 239, 240, 315, 318, 329, 334, 335, 413, 420, 421
angle of repose 314, 413
apparent cohesion 173, 277, 278, 279, 314, 315, 316
B
backfill 200, 201, 202, 205, 217, 231, 234, 235, 262, 325, 326,
328, 329, 333, 336, 343, 397, 408, 409, 413, 416, 429, 437,
438, 540, 546
backfilling 201, 202, 231, 232, 234, 235, 238, 257, 325, 326, 397,
409, 413, 438, 540
backfilling materials 232
backfilling stones 257
backshore 154
bar type beach 155
barricades 531
base course material 232, 238, 542
basic cross section 378
basins 1, 32, 133, 150, 151, 345, 346, 348, 351, 352, 353, 355,
357, 358, 381, 390, 393, 401, 520, 574, 584, 589, 591
bathymetry measurement 150
bay characteristics 129
bay entrance correction factor 133, 134
beach deformation 154, 156, 163, 165, 166
beach erosion 126, 154, 165, 357, 391
bead 192, 234, 326, 327
beam method 418, 422
bearing capacity 167, 168, 174, 177, 232, 253, 254, 273, 274, 275,
276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287,
288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 301, 302, 303, 304,
305, 306, 307, 309, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 326, 336, 366,
367, 369, 384, 409, 410, 411, 426, 431, 434, 448, 452, 455,
458, 460, 465, 468, 470, 471, 475, 477, 480, 483, 484, 495,
496, 513, 516, 518, 541, 542, 544, 546, 547, 548, 551, 552,
555, 563
bearing capacity coefficient 542, 543
bearing capacity factors 274, 275
bearing piles 284, 285, 290, 304, 436, 482
bearing stress 212, 214, 224, 479, 555
bedload 148, 155, 156, 166
bedrock acceleration 188, 189, 191, 472
-I-1-
bending compressive stress 212, 213, 214, 224, 305

bending failure 304, 477, 478
bending tensile stress 212, 213, 214, 224, 305
berm 100, 105, 106, 107, 113, 117, 118, 363, 372
berm width of the mound 100, 108
berth configuration factor 16, 17
berthing energy 16, 17, 22, 464, 495, 523
berthing force 16, 415, 417, 428, 464, 485, 494, 495, 522, 523
berthing velocity 16, 17, 18, 19, 27, 524
berths 17, 19, 21, 26, 351, 353, 402, 403, 405, 532, 582, 585, 587
bilge keels 405
bitts 494, 521, 539
bituminous materials 228, 229
blast furnace 238, 239
blast furnace slag 238, 239, 328, 329, 333, 334, 343
block coefficient 20, 21, 22, 23
block failure 289
block type improvement 323
Bloom and Rowe 419
blown asphalt 228, 229
boat houses 589, 598
boat racks 598
boat yards 589, 598
bollard 22, 25, 26, 27, 417, 424, 425, 428, 463, 481, 520, 521, 522,
539, 582, 585
bore 132, 167, 177, 180
bottom reaction 251, 252, 253, 257, 260, 262, 266, 268, 269, 408,
411, 496
bottom slab 222, 242, 243, 244, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253,
254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 266, 269, 412, 451,
490
bottom slope 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 91,
92, 100, 103, 104, 106, 113, 116, 132, 148, 154, 160
Boussinesqs equation 69, 93, 99, 340
Boussinesqs solution 310
bow and stern side 403, 585
box shear test 175, 180
breaker 159
breaker index 78
breaker line 81, 390, 392, 393
breaker zone 36, 37, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 91, 109, 159, 162, 367, 392
breaking 32, 33, 36, 37, 41, 43, 49, 69, 78, 79, 80, 91, 93, 94, 97,
100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111,
113, 120, 121, 124, 125, 149, 153, 159, 230, 231, 319, 377,
451, 504, 594
breaking point 36, 75, 82, 83, 91, 107, 159
breaking strength 26, 424, 425, 506
breaking wave force 100, 101, 104, 107, 108, 109, 121, 364, 381
breaking wave height 78, 79, 80, 91, 110
breakwater 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65,
66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 90, 91, 94, 99, 102, 103, 104,
105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117,
118, 119, 124, 125, 221, 222, 223, 231, 244, 250, 251, 253,
261, 263, 266, 267, 270, 272, 277, 278, 322, 339, 348, 349,
350, 354, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365, 369,
370, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382,
383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 390, 391, 393, 508, 518, 574,
589, 591, 592
breakwater alignment 106, 110, 116, 119
breakwater caisson covered with a mound of wave-dissipating
concrete blocks 250
breakwater head 116, 118, 119, 162, 365, 369, 370, 371
breakwater trunk 113, 117, 118, 119, 369, 370, 371
breakwaters with wide footing 377
Brebner-Donnelly formula 118
Bretschneider method 46
Bretschneider-Mitsuyasu spectrum 38, 39
buckling 213, 308, 309, 458, 460, 475, 477, 483

buoyancy 145, 187, 243, 249, 251, 252, 253, 274, 275, 277, 289,
292, 335, 364, 365, 408, 410, 411, 454, 489, 502, 507, 568,
569, 570
buoys 142, 234, 351, 502, 503
C
caisson breakwater fully covered with wave-dissipating blocks
378
caisson breakwaters 124, 125, 222, 269, 360, 369, 370, 377
caisson type 193, 194, 222, 227, 322, 360, 361, 364, 370, 372,
494, 508, 509
caisson type composite breakwater 360, 361
caisson type dolphins 496
caisson type quaywalls 221, 227, 408
caisson type upright breakwater 360
calculation of deformation moment 439, 453, 517
calculation of time-settlement relationship 310
calmness 32, 94, 348, 349, 351, 353, 357, 358, 359, 362, 376, 381,
384, 385, 501, 508, 591, 592
cantilever sheet pile wall 509, 510, 511
canvas sheets 372
car parks 564, 584, 587, 589, 599
cargo handling 28, 32, 70, 93, 94, 133, 187, 207, 208, 209, 223,
227, 345, 351, 353, 354, 359, 401, 402, 410, 411, 416, 461,
470, 485, 486, 494, 495, 496, 526, 527, 528, 531, 532, 540,
541, 554, 555, 556, 557, 564, 571, 573, 574, 575, 581, 583
cargo handling equipment 207, 209, 401, 410, 411, 416, 461, 463,
470, 485, 486, 494, 495, 496, 554, 555, 556, 557, 571, 573,
574, 575, 581, 583
cargo handling equipment load 207, 209
cargo ship 2, 9, 10, 12, 17, 18, 19, 21, 354, 402, 403, 404, 582, 583
cargo sorting area 573, 575, 576
cast steel 212, 214
cast-in-place concrete 305, 408, 499
cast-in-place concrete piles with outer casing 305
catenary line 490, 491
catenary mooring 142, 143
catenary theory 491, 493, 597
cathodic protection method 217, 218, 219, 220, 226, 272
CBR test 548
CD condition 173, 174
ceiling slab 111, 112, 125, 268, 269, 508
celerity 95, 149, 159
cellular 459
cellular blocks 210, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 412
cellular concrete block type composite breakwater 360, 361
cellular concrete block type quaywalls 408
cellular concrete block type upright breakwater 360
cellular concrete blocks 210, 372, 412
cellular-bulkhead 194, 329, 407, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 443,
444, 449, 451, 452, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 486,
494, 495, 496, 517, 518
cellular-bulkhead type quaywalls 407
cement concrete pavement 542, 553, 562, 563, 572
cement-based hardeners 327
cement-mixed soils 333
center of buoyancy 243
center of gravity 20, 21, 243, 315, 366, 463, 466, 489
Changs method 295, 300, 465, 466, 516, 518
characteristic embedded length 420
characteristic values 154, 222, 225, 226, 263
chart datum level (CDL) 2, 4, 128, 131
CIQ facilities 579
circular arc analysis 194, 276, 277, 315, 316, 319
circular arc analysis of the modified Fellenius method 276
-I-2-
INDEX
circular hollow 524

circular slip 277, 315, 316, 318, 329, 331, 333, 340, 363, 369, 370,
397, 410, 411, 425, 431, 435, 449, 455, 458, 464, 477, 484,
512, 518
circular slip failure 315, 316, 318, 331, 333, 363, 397
clayey ground 174, 180, 275, 276, 277, 280, 281, 286, 289, 290,
293, 296, 310, 312, 314, 377
clearance limit 528, 560
clinker ash 239, 240
club houses 589
cnoidal wave 36
coal ash 8, 238, 239, 240
coal storage yards 576
coarse sand 169, 199, 328
coastal erosion control 394
coating materials 217, 234, 236
coating method 217, 220, 272
coefficient of consolidation 168, 172, 311, 313, 320, 321, 322,
342
coefficient of earth pressure 202, 203, 250, 258, 263, 293, 419,
442, 450
coefficient of friction 280, 293, 327, 410, 411, 412, 442
coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction 281, 465, 466, 472
coefficient of lateral subgrade reaction 300, 304
coefficient of linear thermal elongation 212
coefficient of permeability 113, 168, 169, 170, 173, 175, 195,
328, 397
coefficient of secondary compression 312
coefficient of stress distribution 319
coefficient of volume compressibility 168, 170, 171, 311, 319,
341
cohesion of soil 201, 317, 331, 334, 418
cohesive materials 334
cohesive resistance 280
collision force 268, 365, 373, 386
collision load 221
compensation currents 138
composite (hybrid) type 568
composite breakwater 90, 91, 99, 104, 105, 108, 112, 113, 114,
117, 118, 124, 125, 193, 360, 363, 364, 365, 369, 370, 371,
375, 377, 378
composite resin mats 372
composite seismic angle 202, 204
composite slabs 271
compressibility properties 310
compression frequency-dependent characteristics 524
compression index 171, 312
compression strength 181, 222
concave corners 41, 72, 110, 134, 359, 370
concentrated corrosion 216, 217, 220
concrete (reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete) type 568
concrete aggregate 238
concrete block pavement 551, 552, 553
concrete block type composite breakwater 360, 361
concrete block type sloping breakwater 360
concrete block type upright breakwater 360, 361
concrete blocks 72, 83, 84, 89, 91, 100, 103, 106, 109, 112, 113,
114, 116, 117, 119, 125, 140, 250, 253, 360, 362, 363, 364,
365, 367, 368, 372, 377, 378, 381, 391, 406, 414, 508
concrete crown 252, 362, 363, 378, 379
concrete lid 226, 248, 250, 251, 252, 253, 262, 272, 363, 370
concrete pavement 541, 542, 543, 545, 546, 553, 562, 563, 572,
573
concrete wall anchorage 426, 427, 428
cone Parameters 178
confining pressure 174, 278, 327, 337
consolidated and drained triaxial compression tests 330
consolidation characteristics 167, 168, 180

consolidation properties 170, 171, 177, 310, 311
consolidation rate 319, 342
consolidation settlement 170, 171, 173, 290, 310, 311, 312, 318,
325
consolidation tests 170, 310, 311, 312, 341
consolidation yield stress 172, 312, 327
constant of lateral resistance of ground 295
construction conditions 7, 173, 174, 235, 327, 358, 359, 370, 398,
468
construction cost 7, 8, 167, 358, 391, 417, 426, 502, 546, 568, 569
construction joints 226, 227
construction method 8, 199, 284, 286, 336, 358, 363, 396, 405,
416, 426, 548, 568, 569, 570
construction period 8, 174, 285, 320, 341, 359, 426
construction works 8, 154, 231, 234, 238, 278, 288, 314, 318, 319,
322, 323, 326, 358, 359, 381, 407
container cranes 461, 470, 554, 574, 575, 583
container freight station 532, 583
container ships 10, 14, 17, 19, 21, 27, 354, 403, 581, 582, 583
container terminals 581
container yard 581, 583
continuity of sediment flux 165
converged embedded length 419, 420, 421, 422, 423
coping 140, 256, 262, 345, 373, 410, 414, 416, 417, 424, 425, 428,
437, 451, 460, 465, 484, 545
copper granulated blast furnace slag 238
corrected peak bedrock acceleration 191
correction factor 103, 123, 421, 422
correction factor for scattered strength 324
corrosion control 216, 217, 218, 220, 234, 272
Corrosion Control and Repair Manual for Port and Harbor Steel
Structures 216
corrosion control rate 217, 218
corrosion rate 216, 217
Coulombs equation 304
Coulombs method 417
counterballast 243, 249
countermeasures against scouring 161
coupled piles 294, 301, 302, 303, 309, 434, 435, 481
coupled-pile anchorage 426, 428
covering 89, 91, 106, 109, 114, 117, 118, 119, 125, 129, 140, 223,
226, 227, 254, 259, 260, 264, 265, 266, 269, 478, 556, 571
covering of main reinforcements 254, 259, 260, 264, 265, 266,
269
covering works 394
crack widths 223
cracking 221, 223, 287, 460, 477
crashed concrete 240
creep 177, 223, 290, 312, 324, 510, 569
creep characteristics 290, 524
crest elevation 35, 36, 37, 81, 362, 363, 364, 373, 377, 378, 379,
381
cross-shore sediment transport 156
crown 396
crown concrete 363, 364, 370
crown height 83, 89, 91, 100, 104, 106, 108, 109, 113, 117, 256,
373, 378, 381, 383, 391, 396, 398, 405, 497, 591, 592
cruiser 590, 593
CU condition 173
curbing 520, 525, 527
current drag force 143, 144, 146
current efficiency 218
current force 7, 16, 22, 24, 121, 138, 144, 488, 490
current pressure coefficient 24, 25
current pressure force 24
current velocity 138, 140, 156, 385
-I-3-
currents and current force 7, 138

curtain wall breakwater 91, 376, 382, 383, 384
curved slit caisson breakwaters 125, 222
cut and cover tunnels 567
cyclic triaxial test 179, 180, 195, 198, 318
cylindrical failure surface 314
cylindrical members 119
cylindrical structures 100
design significant wave height 103, 118, 362, 379, 381

design standard traffic volume 559, 560
design tide level 252
design traffic volume 559, 560, 563
design vehicle 559, 561, 562
design water depth 405, 418
design water level 109, 127, 130, 133, 364, 369, 381, 409
design waves 41, 100, 107, 110, 116, 120, 362, 366, 373, 380
design wind velocity 29, 30
detached break-water 71
detached pier 124, 407, 485, 486, 523
detailed design 306, 372, 386, 414, 422, 428, 451, 456, 459, 460,
478, 484, 486, 502, 512, 513, 516, 574
deviation 19, 38, 39, 40, 49, 128, 130, 131, 184, 239, 240, 284,
362, 489, 523, 524
diagonal reinforcement 224
differential settlement 255, 312, 313, 461, 477, 486, 499, 546,
553, 556, 570
diffracted wave 68, 69, 94, 104, 110
diffraction 32
diffraction coefficient 33, 52, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65,
66, 67, 69, 71
diffraction diagrams 52, 68, 71
diffraction force 22, 23
dimensions of target vessel 9, 402, 582
dinghy 590, 592
direction perpendicular 120, 121, 139, 301, 386, 390, 434, 483,
513, 521
directional spectrum 38, 42, 98, 150
directional spreading function 38, 39
directional spreading method 69
directional spreading parameter 39, 52
dislodging 248, 253, 254, 256, 262, 263, 264
displacement - energy curve 464
displacement tonnage 9, 16, 17, 18, 22, 583
displacements of the stabilized body 325
dissipation volume 218
distance between centers of piles 305
distance between the center of buoyancy and that of gravivity 489
distribution functions 47, 48
distribution of intensity of illumination 535
divergent waves 95, 96, 97, 98
DOL criterion 49
dolphin 16, 142, 143, 353, 407, 494, 495, 496, 523, 525, 589
dolphin mooring 142, 143
double sheet pile quaywall 516, 517, 518
double-buoy mooring 351, 352
downdrift 390, 391, 392
drag coefficient 23, 119, 120, 121, 139, 140, 143, 144, 529
drag force 119, 120, 121, 138, 139, 144
drain pile diameter 319
drain piles 319, 320, 321, 339
drainage distance 172, 320
drainage facilities 28, 89, 520, 525, 526, 570, 573
dredged soil 238, 326
dredged spoils 326
drift force coefficient 145
driven depth of cell shell 458
drying shrinkage 223
dual cylinder caisson 376, 377
dynamic modulus of deformation 178
dynamic penetration resistance 306
dynamic properties 106, 178, 186, 192, 238, 239, 240, 284, 327
dynamic water pressure 200, 205, 206, 326, 332, 365, 373, 396,
410, 417, 437, 488
dynamic water pressure during an earthquake 205, 326, 365, 396,
408, 410, 415, 417, 433, 495
D
damage rate, damage level, relative damage 113
damage ratio 113, 114, 116, 117, 118, 119, 140
damping constant 178, 179, 180, 192, 472
damping factor 184, 186, 327
Darcys law 169, 397
datum level 402
datum level for construction work 2, 4, 128, 402
Dauhams equation 420
Davenport 24, 27
deadweight 7, 123, 173, 184, 187, 207, 209, 221, 244, 249, 257,
258, 262, 266, 269, 277, 282, 291, 292, 364, 365, 367, 386,
389, 403, 404, 408, 410, 416, 431, 433, 463, 472, 474, 478,
481, 485, 488, 489, 495, 507, 515, 529, 555, 569, 574, 578,
586
deadweight tonnage 2, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 19, 21, 582, 583
deadweight tons (DWT) 403, 404
deck slab 124, 463, 478, 543, 545, 546, 549, 550
deep foundations 273, 280, 281, 282
deep mixing (DM) machine 324
deep mixing method 193, 194, 322, 323, 334, 343
deepwater wave energy flux 160
deepwater wave steepness 84, 93, 106, 107
deepwater waves 32, 33, 35, 40, 41, 43, 49, 51, 94, 96, 97, 103,
149
definitions 2, 9, 10, 33, 128, 131, 323, 467
deflection 68, 223, 233, 302, 416, 422, 423, 429, 495, 511, 512,
524, 556, 595
deflection curve equation 419
deflection curve method 429
deformation level 114, 117, 192
deformation modulus 170, 177, 180, 327
deformation moment 439, 453, 517
deformation resistance coefficient 453
deformed concrete caisson type breakwater 376
degree of corrosion 220
degree of importance 5, 7, 89
density currents 138, 148
design bearing capacity coefficient 541, 542, 543, 544, 551, 552
design CBR 547, 548, 549, 550, 563
design conditions 7, 103, 104, 109, 111, 113, 118, 142, 174, 175,
220, 245, 246, 256, 261, 266, 285, 328, 358, 359, 366, 367,
376, 377, 378, 380, 385, 396, 502, 504, 512, 517, 519, 541,
547, 549, 550, 551, 552, 563, 593, 595, 596
design for compaction of loose sandly subsoil by the vibro-composer method 337
design lifetime 222
design load 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 253, 254, 269, 465, 527, 541,
543, 544, 547, 549, 550, 551, 552, 569
design luminous flux maintenance factor 537, 538
design method 1, 2, 100, 116, 178, 182, 187, 211, 221, 226, 227,
241, 242, 243, 256, 261, 267, 270, 320, 322, 326, 329, 339,
358, 366, 367, 408, 414, 415, 417, 419, 429, 436, 456, 477,
478, 483, 487, 509, 514, 517, 519
design of lighting 531, 535, 536
design seismic coefficient 7, 182, 183, 184, 186, 187, 256, 257,
438, 472, 474, 479
-I-4-
INDEX
equivalent coefficient of permeability 397

equivalent crown height coefficient 89
equivalent deepwater wave height 33, 74, 75, 80, 81, 91, 93, 107,
111, 112, 114, 157
equivalent N-value 196, 197, 198, 199
equivalent relative velocity 23
equivalent wall height 441, 442, 450, 453, 454, 455, 456
equivalent wall width 436, 441, 442, 453, 454, 456, 495, 496
equivalent width of wall 439, 453, 517
equivalent-thickness method 311
erosion area of cross section 114
estuarine hydraulic phenomena 148
estuarine hydraulics 7, 148
evaluation 5, 22, 27, 42, 75, 94, 105, 127, 147, 151, 168, 174, 182,
187, 198, 227, 280, 309, 313, 326, 331, 341, 364, 367, 430,
470, 524, 533, 534
excess pore water pressure 171, 191, 310, 312, 331, 334
expected sliding distance 366, 367, 375
Extended Goda Formula 102, 103, 109, 111
extended Tanimoto formulas 118
external force generated by berthing of a vessel 16
external stability 323, 325, 327
extremely soft subsoil 319, 320
e-log p curve method 171

earth 412
earth pressure 187, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 221, 234, 244, 250,
253, 257, 258, 260, 262, 263, 264, 266, 267, 268, 269, 277,
280, 281, 282, 293, 304, 318, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330,
331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 343, 365, 396, 398, 408, 410,
411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 427, 428, 429,
430, 431, 432, 433, 437, 438, 439, 441, 442, 444, 448, 450,
451, 453, 454, 455, 492, 510, 511, 512, 513, 516, 518, 529,
555, 556, 569, 584
earth pressure against wall 329
earth pressure calculation formula 330
earth pressure of filling 250, 253, 262, 263, 266, 412
earth pressure reduction 328, 329, 413
earth retaining section 460
earth-retaining structure 464
earthquake load 221, 222, 470, 569
earthquake-resistance performance 182, 460
earthquake-resistant performance 460, 463, 469, 470, 471, 472,
473, 474, 475, 478, 480
ebb tide 160, 161
eccentric and inclined load 274, 277, 278, 279, 315, 316, 363,
366, 369, 411
eccentric distance 282
eccentricity factor 16, 20
economical design 113
effective buckling length 213
effective diameter 321, 322
effective fetch length 44
effective grain size 169, 170
effective harbor entrance width 359
effective overburden pressure 175, 176, 196, 197, 293, 311, 330
effective stress analysis and total stress analysis 191
effective surcharge pressure 279
effective voltage 218
effective weight 277, 315, 316, 317, 326, 331, 368
elastic beam analysis method 416, 419
elastic constants 170, 310
elastic solution 310
elasto-plastic method 471, 476
electrical cone test 175
electrical static cone penetration test 176, 177
embedded length 274, 275, 277, 280, 281, 282, 286, 287, 289,
293, 294, 295, 304, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 429,
431, 432, 436, 440, 447, 456, 468, 480, 484, 495, 511, 512,
513, 515, 516, 518, 556
embedded length ratio 287, 436, 440, 441
embedded-type steel plate cellular-bulkhead 452, 456, 457, 458,
459
embedded-type steel plate cellular-bulkhead quaywalls 452, 456,
457
embedment length 478, 479, 556
emi-submerged shape 381
encounter probability 8, 41, 187, 366, 367
end bearing area 287
end protection 547, 551
energy loss 43, 44, 49, 132, 134, 135
enforcement regulations for road structures 559, 562, 570, 572
environmental conditions 7, 8, 216, 217, 218, 220, 225, 234, 327,
345, 359
epicenter 131
epoxy resin coated reinforcements 226
equivalent 197
equivalent acceleration 196, 197, 198
equivalent beam method 416, 417, 418, 419, 422, 423, 514
F
fabri-packed drain method 319
facilities for passenger boarding 578, 584, 586, 587
facility to trap the sediment 393
factor for effective cross-sectional area 324
fatigue failure 221, 223, 272
fatigue limit state 221, 223, 227, 242, 261
fatigue strength 224, 272
fault distance 188, 189
fences to prevent timber drifting 373
fender reaction 269, 410, 433, 463, 464, 480, 481, 488, 490, 516,
523, 524, 584
fender reaction force 410, 433, 463, 464, 480, 481, 488, 516, 523,
524
fenders 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 25, 27, 142, 234, 428, 463, 464, 481,
486, 495, 522, 523, 524, 539, 571, 574
ferries 9, 11, 17, 18, 21, 27, 345, 354, 403, 522, 527, 532, 585
ferronickel granulated slag 238
ferry terminals 525, 564, 584, 587
fetch 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 99
fetch length 42, 43, 44, 46, 129
fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) 234
field measurement 119, 138, 341, 342, 420, 451
field welding 215
fill 319, 438, 451
fill embankment 319
fillet welding 215
filling 221, 250, 252, 262, 263, 266, 412, 436, 437, 438, 440, 441,
442, 443, 449, 450, 454, 455, 456, 458, 518
filter sheet 234, 235, 413
final consolidation settlement 171, 310, 311
finite amplitude wave 35, 36, 106
finite amplitude wave theory 120
finite element analysis 311
finite multilayered 335, 336
finite water depth 149
fire fighting equipment 520, 525
Fisher-Tippett type II distribution 48
fixed earth support method 415, 429
fixed type 323
fixing length 224
FLAC 192
-I-5-
flexibility number 420, 421

FLIP 192
floating body 22, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 377, 384, 385, 386,
487, 488, 490, 502, 504, 505, 506, 507, 594, 595, 596
floating breakwater 142, 145, 147, 376, 377, 384, 385, 386, 387,
487
floating bridges 142
floating pier 401, 407, 487, 488, 490, 492, 499, 504, 593, 594,
595, 596
floating structures 7, 100, 142, 387, 487, 493, 524, 597
floating type 193, 323, 385
flocculation 150, 153
flood tide 160, 161
floor slab 123, 389, 489, 490
flow velocity parameter 119
fluid mud 150, 151, 153
fluid mud layer 151
fluorescent sand tracers 157, 159
FLUSH 192, 193
flux method 536
fly ash 225, 239, 240
foam treated soil 326
foot protection block 226, 371, 372
footing 105, 243, 251, 253, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 261, 264,
370, 376, 377
footway live load 593, 596
forced displacement method 318
foreshore 154, 160, 161
forged steel 214
foundation ground 273, 276, 277, 278, 279, 316, 373, 374, 398
foundations 273, 274, 276, 277, 279, 280, 281, 282, 310, 314,
317, 369, 372, 495, 518
free earth support method 415, 416, 417, 418, 419
frequency 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 19, 22, 24, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 43, 50,
99, 104, 150, 178, 221, 222, 223, 568, 587
frequency spectrum 24, 38, 39, 42, 99, 104
frequency spectrum of wind velocity 24
friction coefficient 24, 210, 331, 332, 366, 367, 368, 455
friction drag 143
friction increasing mats 229
friction piles 284, 285, 304, 306, 482
friction-increasing mat 366
frictional resistance 24, 140, 210, 280, 412
front toe reaction force 455
Froude-Kriloff force 22, 23
fueling and electric power supply facilities 520, 526
Fujita formula 28
fully plastic state moment 473, 474, 475, 476
Fundamental Law for Countermeasures against Natural Disaster
186
Goda pressure formula 102

Godas Formula for Estimating Surf Beat Amplitude 92
Godas wave pressure formula (kN/m) 382
gradient winds 29, 42
grain size characteristics 155, 169
grain size distribution curve 155, 169, 170, 195
granulated blast furnace slag 238, 328, 329, 333, 334, 343
gravity type quaywalls 182, 183, 193, 221, 222, 277, 398, 407,
408, 411, 413, 477, 486, 499, 523
gravity type special breakwater 376, 377, 382
gravity type structure 136, 277, 322, 339, 556
Green functions 69
Greens equation 132
grid 130, 193, 321, 322, 536, 537
groins 154, 161, 357, 392, 393
gross tonnage 2, 9, 10, 11, 16, 17, 21, 25, 26, 27, 497, 520, 521,
527, 582, 585, 587
gross tons 403, 404
groundwater level 135, 160, 161, 167, 281, 289, 340, 373, 397
group velocity 35, 43, 98, 150, 159, 166
grouting material 234, 237
Gumbel distribution 47, 48
gust factor 30
H
H-shaped steel 270, 287
Hachinohe bedrock incident waves 189
Hamada 150, 227
handicapped people 396, 398, 580
handrails 234, 396, 578
harbor 359
harbor calmness 32, 69, 94, 357, 508
harbor entrance 16, 22, 69, 74, 94, 134, 348, 349, 358, 359, 373,
374, 390, 391, 592
harbor paradox 134
harmful effects of freezing and thawing 225
harmonic analysis of tidal observation data 4
haunch 255, 272
hazardous cargoes 401
Hazen 47, 169
headed studs 271
heaving 146, 354, 405
heliports 567
Hertzs equation 212, 214
high crested upright wall 104
high seismic resistant structures 182, 183, 186, 187
high water of ordinary spring tides 128
high-density blocks 117
high-fluidity concrete 225
high-speed ferry 96
highest one-tenth wave 33, 37, 90
highest one-tenth wave height 37, 90
highest wave 33, 35, 37, 38, 77, 78, 80, 100, 102, 103, 105, 107,
108, 109, 120, 123
highest wave height 33, 35, 37, 38, 77, 78, 80, 102, 103, 105, 107,
108, 109, 120, 123
highly flowable concrete 225
Highway Bridge Specifications and the Commentary 213, 223
Hileys equation 306
Hino 24
hinterland 41, 89, 581, 584
Hiroi formula 103
holding powers 351
Hom-mas formula 132
hooks 255, 260, 261
Horikawa 107, 111, 124, 160
G
galvanic anodes method 218
gate supports 389
gates 389, 567, 581, 583
generalized Hudson formula 112, 113, 118
generated electricity flux 218
geometrical moment of inertia 419, 421, 488, 489
geostrophic wind 29
geosynthetics 234
geotechnical conditions 167, 359
glare 535
global warming 8
glued laminated timber 233
Goda equation 102
Goda formula 102, 103, 104, 105, 594
-I-6-
INDEX
horizontal coefficient of consolidation 311, 313, 321, 322

horizontal force 282, 294, 301, 303, 305, 309, 316, 386, 410, 411,
412, 429, 433, 434, 437, 445, 447, 451, 463, 464, 466, 467,
469, 474, 475, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 485, 486, 491,
492, 495, 504, 505, 516, 518
horizontal methods 257
horizontal plate 122, 123, 124, 462, 480
horizontal seismic coefficient 184, 186, 282, 464
horizontal shear modulus 443, 448
horizontal slit 267, 380
horizontal tension 455, 456, 458, 459
horizontal-plate type permeable breakwaters 91
Hudsons formula 112, 113, 117, 118
HWL 128, 216, 217, 362, 373, 392, 508
HWOST 128
hybrid caissons 270, 271, 272
hydraulic gradient 136, 169
hydraulic model experiments 16, 33, 39, 69, 71, 79, 80, 83, 84, 90,
100, 105, 106, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 117, 119, 121, 122,
132, 140, 143, 145, 146, 163, 267, 268, 364, 366, 373, 376,
377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 384, 595
hydraulic phenomena 148
hydraulic radius 148
hydrostatic pressure 102, 106, 108, 200, 221, 244, 248, 249, 250,
251, 252, 253, 327, 364, 365, 373, 386, 398, 488, 490, 569,
594
Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake 182, 183, 187, 189, 190, 192, 193,
194
hyperbolic wave 36
inshore 154
inspection 5, 117, 288, 401, 538, 568, 583
installation depth 222
integrity of concrete blocks 116
intensity of rainfall 28
intensity of wave pressure 101, 105, 107
intermediate soil 173, 174, 175, 181
internal friction angle 231, 274, 275, 277, 278, 279, 280, 314, 317,
329, 330, 334, 340, 441, 442, 448, 449, 450, 453, 455, 456,
464
internal water pressure 221, 244, 250, 253
International Hydrographic Organization 4
international marine chart datum 4
international marine container 561
IPCC 127, 136
Iribarren number 114
Iribarren-Hudson formula 113
Irie 162, 166
irregular wave 32, 39, 41, 50, 51, 52, 69, 71, 72, 74, 75, 80, 84,
99, 100, 102, 103, 107, 112, 113, 117, 119, 125, 141, 145,
150, 375, 504, 509, 518
Isbashs constant 140
Isbashs Equation 140
Ishiguro 419
Isozaki and Ujis MRI model 43
J
Japanese Agricultural Standards (JAS) 233
Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) 212
Japanese unified soil classification system 169, 180
jetty 357, 390, 391, 392, 393
Johnson 149, 153
joint board 234
joint distribution 47, 94
joint sealing materials 234
joints 135, 137, 142, 226, 227, 234, 235, 271, 272, 288, 291, 293,
307, 308, 370, 397, 409, 413, 442, 451, 459, 468, 478, 479,
517, 540, 545, 546, 553, 554, 569, 570
judgment of liquefaction 195, 198
I
IHO 4
illumination intensity calculation method 536
Immediate Settlement 310
immersed tunnel element 568, 569, 570
immersed tunnels 182, 183, 184, 192, 193, 567, 570
impact load 284, 586
impact velocity 123
impact wave force 122, 359
impermeable type 267, 377
importance factor 184, 186, 187
importance of breakwaters 359
improved subsoil system 323
impulsive breaking wave force 101, 104, 108, 109, 125, 363, 364,
379, 381
impulsive breaking wave force coefficient 104
impulsive pressure 102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 112, 124, 268
impulsive uplift 122, 124, 268
impulsive wave breaking force 100
impulsive wave pressure 102, 107, 108, 262
in-situ CBR 548
in-situ permeability test 169, 175
in-situ tests 179, 180, 323, 325
incident wave height 33, 52, 69, 110, 123, 132, 145
incident waves 22, 23, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 83, 91, 102, 109, 110,
112, 120, 133, 144, 146, 163, 189, 190, 191, 349, 359, 379,
390
increase factor 223, 330, 331
indoor lighting 532, 534, 537
inertia coefficient 119, 120, 121, 122
inertia force 119, 120, 121, 178, 373, 594
infiltration 234, 320, 373, 413, 547
infiltration of sediment 235
influence coefficients on crack width 243, 245, 247
inorganic lining 220
Inoues model 43
K
Karmans theory 123
Katoh 159, 160, 166
KC number 120
KD value 112, 113, 116
keel clearance 17, 348, 349, 350, 353, 388, 402, 591
Kelvins theory 96, 98
Keulegan-Carpenter number 120
Kirby and Parker1 151
L
L-shaped block type quaywalls 408
L-shaped blocks 256, 257, 258, 259
L-shaped member 139
L-type scouring 163
laboratory mixing tests 323, 330
laboratory model experiments, in situ prototype experiments 277
laboratory permeability test 169
lakes 2, 127
landfill 173, 174, 326, 328, 329, 330, 396, 460
landfill material 238, 329, 413, 424, 431, 540
lane 559, 560, 561, 562
large isolated structures 119
large-scale triaxial compression tests 231, 278
LAT 4
-I-7-
latent hydraulic property 328, 329

lateral axial spring constant of pile head 304
lateral bearing capacity 281, 282, 293, 294, 295, 301, 302, 304,
483, 511, 516
lateral displacement 303, 312, 328, 416
lateral flows 429
lateral loading tests 295, 300, 465
lateral resistance of piles 309, 465, 480, 511
lateral strength 386
layer equivalency factor 548
layout of breakwaters 351, 358, 359
length between perpendiculars 20, 21, 23
levee 81, 84, 89, 132, 246, 357
level 1 earthquake motion 183
level 2 earthquake motion 183, 187, 190, 191
level crossings 562
life cycle cost 5
lifesaving facilities 520, 527, 589
lifetime 7, 8, 41, 116, 125, 182, 183, 187, 211, 220, 221, 226, 230,
366, 367
lift coefficient 139, 140
lift force 120, 121, 125, 126, 138, 139, 140, 269
lighthouse 365, 369, 370
lighting facilities 389, 501, 520, 525, 531, 573
lightweight aggregate concrete 224
lightweight treated soil 326, 327, 328
lightweight treated soil method 326
limit state 243
limit state design method 2, 211, 221, 226, 227, 241, 242, 243,
256, 261, 267, 270, 477, 478
line load 310
liquefaction 7, 180, 181, 182, 193, 195, 196, 198, 199, 273, 284,
292, 318, 329, 330, 331, 333, 334, 336, 452, 460, 569
liquefaction countermeasure works 199
liquefaction prediction and judgment 195
littoral drift 7, 148, 150, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 165, 166,
355, 359, 372, 388, 390, 391, 393
live load 207, 209, 462, 463, 478, 488, 489, 495, 569, 578, 586
Lloyds Maritime Information 9, 347
LNG carriers 2
load - settlement curve 285
load and pile head displacement curve 295
load carrying capacity 460, 470, 471, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477
load carrying capacity design method 460
load factor 221, 222, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 257, 262, 268
load from cargo handling machinery 221
load inclination ratio 277
loading arms 574
loading tests 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 292, 295, 296, 301, 303,
306, 478
local buckling 477
lock 388, 389
lock chamber 388, 389
lock gate chambers 389
locks 357, 388, 389
logarithmic extreme value distribution 47
long linear wave equations 93
long piles 296, 426
long walls 323, 326
long waves 35, 128, 132, 133, 149
long-distance Japanese ferries 403, 585
long-period waves 16, 22, 40, 93, 94, 99, 134, 135, 374, 375
long-term consolidation 310, 312
longitudinal bending moment 386
longitudinal construction joints 545, 546
longitudinal slope 561, 562, 568
longitudinal strength 386
longshore currents 138, 148, 165

longshore sediment transport 156, 157, 355, 391, 392
longshore sediment transport rate 154, 158, 159, 165
Longuet-Higgins 149, 153
low crested upright wall 104
low water level 2, 220
low water of ordinary spring tides 128
lowest astronomical tide 4
LPG carriers 2
luni-solar diurnal tide 4
LWL 128, 216, 217, 220, 250, 263, 409, 417, 438, 497, 508
LWOST 128
M
mach-stem waves 358, 390
maintenance 1, 5, 8, 127, 150, 153, 218, 220, 233, 236, 355, 357,
358, 359, 389, 401, 407, 448, 491, 501, 531, 537, 538, 540,
542, 545, 548, 552, 554, 557, 559, 569, 571, 572, 574, 575,
583
maintenance dredging 153, 355, 393, 569
maintenance factor 536, 537, 538
maintenance Shop 583
Mannings roughness coefficient 148
Mannings roughness formula 132
Manual for Maintenance and Repair of Port and Harbor Structures
5
marinas 1, 531, 589, 591, 593, 595, 599
Marshall stability level 548
mass concrete block type composite breakwater 360
mass concrete block type upright breakwater 360
mast height 9, 347, 571
material factor 221, 222, 479
mattress works 372
maximum draft 353, 402
maximum horizontal tensile stress 458
maximum instantaneous wind velocity 30
maximum scouring depth 162
maximum wave 33, 47, 74, 97, 102, 103, 106, 107
mean adhesion 281, 286, 293
mean differential settlement ratios 313
mean high water level (MHWL) 128, 216
mean low water level (MLWL) 128, 216, 217, 218, 220
mean monthly-highest water level 128, 362, 363, 364, 379, 392,
405, 508, 526
mean monthly-lowest water level 128, 217, 220, 379, 409, 417,
438, 497, 526
mean period 33, 40, 91
mean sea level (MSL) 4, 127, 128, 353, 363
mean water level 36, 80, 91, 92, 120, 128, 130
mean wave 33, 37, 39, 90
mean wave height 33, 37, 39, 90
mega-float 142, 145
member factor 221, 222
mesh 42, 130, 544
metacenter 243
Meteorological Agencys Technical Observation Notes 30
method based on the gradation and N-value 195
method of cathodic protection by power impression 218, 219
method of Koegler 310
method of least squares 48
Miches equation 81
Mikasas consolidation theory 173
mild-slope wave equation 51
Ministry of Transport Notification 1, 2
Ministry of Transport Ordinance 1, 567, 570
MIR criterion 49
-I-8-
INDEX
Mitsuyasu equation 107

Mitsuyasu type spreading function 38
mixing blades 324
model experiments 16, 21, 32, 33, 39, 69, 71, 79, 80, 83, 84, 90,
100, 104, 105, 106, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 116, 117,
118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 132, 140, 143, 145, 146, 163, 222,
267, 268, 296, 364, 366, 373, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381,
382, 383, 384, 420, 456, 458, 508, 595
moderate heat portland cement 225
modification factor due to wave breaking 114, 116
modified Fellenius method 276, 277, 315, 316, 340
modified Rowes method 419
modulus of elasticty 212
modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction 443, 448
modulus of subgrade reaction 443
modulus of vertical subgrade reaction 443, 448
Mononobe-Okabe principle 334
Monte Carlo simulations 367
moored vessels 22, 28, 29, 133, 353, 463, 503, 522, 523
mooring / unmooring basin 353
mooring anchor 142, 351, 352, 386, 487, 491, 492, 502, 504, 505
mooring basin 7, 153, 502, 503, 507, 574
mooring buoy 142, 145, 146, 401, 407, 502, 503, 504, 506, 507,
589
mooring by universal joint 143
mooring chains 487, 488, 490
mooring equipment 142, 146, 475, 520, 521, 571, 573, 582, 584,
585
mooring facilities 1, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 26, 27, 221, 345, 352,
353, 357, 401, 402, 404, 405, 407, 469, 497, 499, 508, 520,
523, 525, 527, 532, 539, 574, 582, 585, 586, 589, 593, 595,
596
mooring force 142, 143, 145, 146, 385, 488
mooring lines fixed to anchors 377
mooring piles 354, 373, 401
mooring post 25, 26, 27, 226, 407, 424, 463, 486, 495, 502, 507,
520, 521, 522, 582, 585
mooring rings 26, 520, 521, 582, 585
mooring rope 25, 26, 93, 146, 377, 402, 521
mooring rope tension 377
mooring ropes 25, 26, 93, 402, 521
mooring with two anchors 351
mooring-related matters 386
Morisons equation 119, 120
motions of floating body 145, 385, 386
motions of moored vessel 22
motorboat 2, 96, 346, 590
mound materials 278
mountain tunnels 567
moving parts 389, 586, 587
Muller equation 386
Muller method 596
multi-storied storage facilities 598
multicomponent coupling method 69
multidirectional random waves 89
multilayered ground 276
multiple low fences 394
multiple reflection model 187, 191, 192, 472
multiple-vertical cylinder breakwaters 91
multiple-wing type permeable breakwaters 91
mv method 171
Myers formula 28, 130
N-value 168, 174, 175, 176, 177, 185, 189, 195, 196, 197, 198,
199, 279, 286, 290, 291, 293, 296, 297, 300, 318, 330, 336,
337, 338, 420, 443, 458, 465, 466
N-value at pile center 338
narrow band 37
natural beach 72, 154, 161
natural conditions 8, 41, 230, 347, 350, 355, 357, 358, 388, 390,
405, 407, 490, 502, 503, 519, 520, 567, 569, 571, 589, 596
natural period of ground 472
natural period of the pile-supported section 471, 472
natural periods 131, 133, 134, 186, 472
nautical charts 4
navigation aids 346
navigation channel 346, 347, 348
navigation of vessels 28, 70, 150, 346, 347, 348, 368, 391, 570,
571, 574
near highest high water level (NHHWL) 128
negative skin friction 284, 289, 290, 291, 308, 325
negative uplift pressure 105
negative wave force 105, 106
negative wave pressure 105, 106
net method 234
Newmarks equal-energy principle 474
Nihon Senpaku Meisaisho 9
Noda 187, 193, 194, 451, 459
nominal diameter 112, 114, 116
nominal strength 222
non-exceedance probability 48, 49
nonlinear interaction 42, 43, 149
nonlinear long wave theory 74
nonlinearity 22, 74, 122, 170, 178, 374, 470, 475
nonpermeable structure 391
Nonwoven cloth 235
normal distribution 47, 367
NOWPHAS 41
NS value 113
numerical calculation 52, 121, 133, 136, 150, 419, 518
numerical computation 69, 130, 131, 132, 166
numerical simulations 132, 146, 163, 165
nylon ropes 26
O
oblique compression characteristics 524
obliquely incident waves 68
observation records 128, 132
occurrence probability 37, 41, 94, 130, 367
ocean currents 128, 138, 386
ocean-line container terminal 581, 582
offshore petroleum stockpiling bases 142
offshore zone 156, 390, 393
Ofunato bedrock incident waves 189
one-dimensional consolidation 170, 171, 313, 320
one-line theory 165
open circuit anode voltage 218
open storage yard 208, 540, 576
open-type wharf 123, 124, 182, 223, 401, 407, 416, 460, 461, 462,
463, 464, 465, 466, 468, 469, 470, 471, 473, 474, 475, 476,
477, 478, 479, 480, 481, 483, 484, 486, 495, 499, 507, 514,
515, 523, 525, 543, 545, 546, 549, 550, 574, 589
open-type wharves on coupled raking piles 407, 480, 483, 486,
495, 499, 507, 514, 515
open-type wharves on vertical piles 407, 460, 465, 480, 484, 486,
495, 507, 514, 515
opening ratio of ventilation holes 268
operational function of the facilities 7
ordinary waves 32
N
n-th moment of the wave spectrum 40
N-type scouring 163
-I-9-
oretical generated electricity flux 218

organic lining 219, 220
original sea bottom depth 405
oscillatory motions of moored vessels 463
other non-gravity type of breakwater 376
outdoor lighting 531, 532, 534, 535, 537
overburden pressure 171, 175, 176, 177, 196, 197, 276, 293, 311,
330, 337
overconsolidated clay 311
overlapping length 224
overtopped waves 362, 368
overtopping 33, 41, 72, 80, 81, 84, 89, 90, 99, 362, 363, 364, 371,
373, 378, 379, 383, 386, 391, 392, 398, 518
overturning 112, 130, 295, 315, 323, 365, 366, 368, 409, 410, 411,
412, 437, 439, 452, 454, 455, 495, 496
overturning resistance coefficient 454
Ozasa and Brampton 165
pile joints 284, 291, 417, 440, 442, 468

pile lateral resistance 468
pile type dolphins 495
pile type fenders 522
pile-supported section 460, 461, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 467,
469, 470, 471, 472, 473, 474, 475
pile-supported type breakwater 376, 377
pipe type breakwaters 91
pipeline 139, 182, 192, 532
pitching 146, 354, 405, 578
placement-type steel plate cellular-bulkhead quaywalls 452
plain concrete 207, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 252
planar slip surface 314, 316
plantation works 394
plastic sectional modulus 476
plastic-board drain 320
plastics 234
plate load test 542, 551
pleasure boats 2, 589, 590, 591, 592, 593, 594, 595, 596, 597, 598,
599
plunging breakers 114
pneumatic fenders 522
pneumatic type breakwater 376, 377
point-by-point method 536
Poissons ratio 170, 179, 180, 212, 310, 327, 544
pontoon 234, 377, 386, 387, 487, 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493,
595, 597
porous caisson 380
Port and Harbor Construction Work Common Specifications 227
Port and Harbour Law 1, 401
Port and Harbour Law Enforcement Order 1
Port and Harbour Law Enforcement Regulations 1
Port Island bedrock incident waves 189
port traffic facilities 559, 563, 567, 599
portland blast-furnace slag cement 225
portland fly ash cement 225
pozzolan activity 239
precast wave-dissipating concrete blocks 72
preconsolidation pressure 319
prediction of liquefaction 195, 196, 198, 199
preloading method 320
premixing method 329, 331, 333
pressure coefficient 24, 25, 30, 108, 143, 144, 332, 455
pressure gradient 29
pressure moment coefficient 23
prestressed concrete 221, 476, 478, 490, 568, 571
Prestressed Concrete Barge Standards 386
Prestressed Concrete for Ports and Harbors Structure Design
Manual 221
prestressed high-strength concrete piles 305
primary consolidation 171, 172, 173, 312
principal direction 38, 41, 51, 52
principal lunar diurnal tide 4
principal lunar semi-diurnal tide 4
principal solar semi-diurnal tide 4
probability density function 19, 37, 39
progressive 124
progressive waves 23, 104, 107, 110, 123, 124
protective current density 219
protective facilities 1, 47, 345, 348, 357, 401, 589, 592
protective fences 525, 527, 530
protective potential 218, 219
prototype design 113
pulling resistance of the piles 461
pulling tests 292, 513
pump dredgers 398
pumping and drainage system 389
P
P-N-J method 46
parapet retreating type seawall 89
parapets 107, 357
parking lots 401, 564, 565, 566, 572, 583
partial safety factors 2, 221, 222
particle density 168, 238, 240, 330
particle size distribution 318, 337
partition slit column 269
passageways 532, 573, 587
passenger building 579, 580, 588
passenger ship 2, 527
passenger terminals 398, 580, 588
passive earth pressure 200, 201, 202, 204, 281, 282, 304, 325,
416, 417, 418, 427, 428, 429, 432, 433, 439, 441, 444, 448,
510
peak frequency 39
peak strength 327
peak waves 47, 48
penetration depth 287, 384, 419, 551, 563, 568
perforated wall 125, 267, 269, 380
perforated-wall caisson 106, 111
Permanent International Association Navigation Congress 524
permanent load 221, 222, 223, 244, 247, 248
permeability coefficient of the inner layer 114
permeable rubble-mound breakwater 135
permeable type 91, 377, 383, 592
permeable wall 380
permeation coefficient 135
permissible rate of overtopping 89
petrolatum lining 220
PHRI method 295, 296, 465, 511, 512
physical property of the facilities 8
Picket equation or Arlington equation 544
pile 291
pile breakwater 105, 383, 384
pile driven by hammer 286
pile driving formulas 306, 307
pile driving tests 307
pile foundation 167, 273, 284, 309, 384, 431, 434, 496, 513, 555
pile group 284, 288, 289, 290, 291, 293, 301, 305, 482
pile group block 289
pile head displacement 294, 295, 304, 475
pile head fixed 304
pile head hinged 304
pile head moments 466, 467
pile installation by inner excavation 287
pile installation method 287
-I-10-
INDEX
punching shear 224, 479

punching shear failure 276
pure car carriers 11, 19, 354, 404
pushing-in bearing capacity of pile 477
relieving 434
relieving platform 418, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 518, 523
relieving platform piles 431, 432, 433, 434
removal and replacement method, 318
repair 5, 401, 470, 471, 475, 497, 501, 527, 538, 568, 583, 598
replacement method 318, 328
required relative density 336
residual displacement 470, 471, 475, 523, 524
residual water level 167, 201, 202, 204, 205, 217, 232, 235, 258,
263, 331, 332, 396, 397, 409, 410, 413, 414, 417, 418, 427,
432, 438
residual water pressure 205, 221, 257, 260, 262, 263, 267, 269,
326, 408, 411, 412, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 432, 433, 437,
439, 453, 454, 510, 511, 512, 513, 516
resistance coefficient 97, 136
resisting moment 177, 278, 315, 412, 439, 440, 441, 442, 450,
453, 454, 455, 517
response analysis 22, 178, 182, 183, 186, 187, 189, 190, 191, 193,
194, 196, 198, 333, 461, 472, 574
responsible engineer 369
restoring force 143, 145, 146, 191, 192
resultant earth pressures 336
return period 8, 29, 41, 47, 48, 130, 183, 187, 188, 222, 472
revetment 89, 161, 183, 220, 261, 263, 267, 270, 272, 312, 322,
328, 329, 339, 357, 396, 397, 398, 460, 462, 469, 471, 531,
535
Reynolds number 30, 120, 121, 125, 136, 139, 140, 143, 144
rheology characteristic 151
Rices theory 40
rip currents 138
river mouth 149, 150, 357, 392, 395
rivers waterway 392
rivers 2, 98, 127, 128, 148, 154, 392, 393
road tunnels 567
roadway 559, 560, 561, 562, 565
rocking 368, 408
roll-on roll-off Ships 404
rolling 20, 146, 230, 349, 354, 405, 578
root mean square amplitude 93
Rowes method 415, 416, 418, 419, 421
rubber expansion joints 234
rubber fender characteristics curve 464
rubber fenders 464, 522, 524
rubber mat 235
rubbers 8, 234
rubble backing 363
rubble for foundation 231
rubble mound 72, 90, 91, 106, 112, 113, 114, 116, 118, 125, 136,
140, 162, 163, 230, 234, 235, 277, 279, 316, 360, 363, 364,
366, 368, 369, 371, 372, 373, 374, 379
rubble mound breakwater 112
rubble mound foundation 363, 364, 366, 368, 369, 371, 373
rubble mound type sloping breakwaters 360, 364, 372
rubble stones 112, 117, 140, 231, 326, 363, 367, 368, 371, 372,
391, 464, 465
runup 33, 80, 81, 82, 83, 131, 132, 166, 392
runup wave 392
Q
qu method 174, 175
quantity of overtopping 83, 84, 89, 132
quay sheds 573
quaywalls 23, 27, 70, 133, 135, 182, 183, 192, 193, 208, 221, 222,
244, 253, 263, 267, 272, 277, 278, 312, 322, 328, 329, 339,
349, 397, 398, 401, 407, 408, 411, 412, 413, 414, 418, 425,
431, 436, 449, 452, 456, 477, 486, 493, 496, 499, 508, 509,
512, 514, 517, 519, 523, 554, 574
R
radius of gyration 20, 213, 599
rail-type traveling cargo handling equipment 554
rails for traveling of equipment 554
railway tunnels 567
railways 567
random placement 113, 117
Rankines equations 441
rate of increase in strength 340
rate of overtopping 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89
ratio of strength increase 175, 319, 340
Rayleigh distribution 37, 38, 39
reaction at the tie rod setting point 418, 424, 427, 433
reaction forces 146, 410, 444, 488, 493, 516, 524
reaction from fender 268
ready-mixed concrete 225
rebound 307
rebound coefficient 307
REC criterion 49
reclamation revetments 397
recreational fishing 358
rectangular concrete block type quaywalls 408
recyclable resources 238
reduction of earth pressure 329, 332
reef 79, 80, 99, 110, 111, 113, 116, 125, 126, 379
reflected waves 23, 41, 70, 71, 94, 99, 132, 351, 357, 358, 370,
381, 390, 391, 508, 591
reflection 32, 69, 71, 72, 94, 110, 125, 132, 135, 145, 161, 187,
191, 192, 378, 380, 387, 508, 509, 537
reflector sheet 530
refraction 32, 33, 39, 41, 49, 50, 51, 52, 69, 70, 71, 74, 94, 98, 149,
150, 153, 159, 359
refraction coefficient 33, 41, 49, 50, 51, 69, 159
Regional Disaster Prevention Plan 186, 187
regional seismic coefficient 184, 185, 187, 188, 472
regular placement 117
regular waves 22, 49, 50, 51, 72, 75, 79, 80, 83, 89, 100, 107, 112,
113
reinforce 250
reinforced 211, 252
reinforced concrete 207, 211, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 241, 270,
271, 412, 431, 475, 476, 481, 515, 547, 556, 568, 571
reinforced concrete piles (RC piles) 305
reinforcement 5, 223, 225, 228, 229, 230, 260, 374, 451, 478, 516,
546, 571
relative damage 113, 116
relative density 168, 176, 300, 337, 420
reliability 1, 2, 42, 47, 110, 116, 175, 177, 190, 198, 217, 288,
293, 324, 366, 367, 375
reliability design method 1, 2, 116, 366, 367, 375
reliability factor of overlapping 324
S
S-M-B method 43, 44, 46
safe nautical depth 150
safety factor 1, 7, 26, 187, 222, 227, 243, 249, 274, 275, 276, 277,
278, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 289, 290, 291, 292, 294,
307, 310, 312, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 320, 324, 327, 331,
332, 340, 341, 365, 366, 367, 368, 375, 409, 410, 411, 412,
417, 418, 421, 424, 425, 427, 439, 448, 453, 454, 492, 496,
-I-11-
519
Sainflou formula 103
Sakai 150, 153
Sakamoto-Ijima method 44, 45
sand bar 391, 393
sand compaction pile method 175, 318, 336, 339, 340, 341, 342,
343
sand fences 394
sand filling 135, 363, 397
sand mastic asphalt 228, 229, 230, 369, 391
sand mat 238, 319, 320, 339
sand ripples 156
sand volume to be supplied 336
sandy beach 135, 154, 357, 359
sandy ground 274, 275, 277, 279, 280, 286, 289, 291, 293, 296,
310, 314, 420
Sato 156
saturated copper sulfate electrode 218, 219
saturated mercurous chloride electrode 218, 219
Savage 159, 166
scour prevention 234, 372, 374, 406
scour-prevention works 398
scouring 161, 162, 163, 234, 235, 363, 369, 371, 372, 373, 384,
390, 391, 393, 405, 406, 497, 568, 586
scouring prevention mats 229
sea bottom topography 32, 80, 82, 89, 100, 130, 346
seabed gradient 222
seal materials 234
seal plates 234, 235
seal rubber gaskets for immersed tunnel units 234
seals for dredging pipe joints 234
seawalls 80, 99, 166, 173, 174, 357, 396, 518, 589, 591, 592
seawater immersion ratio 217, 218
seawater-silver chloride electrode as the reference 218
secondary consolidation 171, 172, 173, 312
section modulus 468
sectional strength 308, 386
sediment grain size 154, 157, 160
sediment sorting action 154
sedimentation 153, 166, 359
seep-proof screen 373
seepage 137, 169, 237, 396, 397, 398, 569
seepage analysis 397
seepage efficiency 237
seepage limits 237
seiche 40, 93, 94, 127, 128, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 591
seismic coeffecient 374
seismic coefficient 182, 184, 186, 187, 188, 189, 193, 202, 204,
205, 332, 335, 422, 438, 463, 471, 472, 474
seismic coefficient method 178, 180, 182, 183, 184, 186, 187,
190, 333, 471, 480
seismic deformation method 182, 190, 192
seismic force 7, 178, 180, 182, 244, 277, 279, 314, 315, 316, 317,
334, 335, 365, 369, 374, 396, 408, 410, 411, 431, 437, 438,
460, 469, 485, 493, 495, 570, 574, 584, 586
seismic inertia force 326
seismic response analysis 178, 182, 183, 187, 189, 190, 191, 196,
198, 472, 574
self weight of embankment 318
self-hardening coal ash 333
selfweight 249
semi-container ships 582
semi-infinite breakwater 52, 53, 54, 55, 71, 74
semi-infinite elastic body 310
semitrailer truck 559, 560, 561, 562, 563
service conditions 207, 208, 209, 359
serviceability limit state 221, 222, 223, 243, 245, 246, 248, 256,
261, 478
setting level of tie rod 417
settlement 170, 171, 172, 173, 177, 184, 230, 234, 255, 273, 274,
276, 285, 290, 291, 302, 303, 310, 311, 312, 313, 318, 319,
323, 325, 328, 341, 342, 363, 366, 367, 369, 372, 390, 393,
409, 410, 411, 413, 424, 429, 460, 461, 477, 478, 485, 486,
499, 540, 542, 546, 551, 553, 556, 557, 569, 570
settlement of mound 242
settlement of piles 284, 291
settlement ratio 313, 341, 342
SHAKE 192, 193, 472
shallow draft quays 407, 497, 499, 500, 501
shallow foundations 273, 274, 326, 455
shallow water waves 34, 35, 43, 44, 45, 96, 103, 150
shape factor of foundation 274, 275
shear deformation 310, 312, 437, 438, 439, 453, 457, 495, 517,
518, 523
shear deformation of the wall body 453
shear failure 274, 276, 310, 438, 477, 478
shear modulus 177, 178, 179, 180, 192, 212, 327, 518
shear reinforcement 222
shear resistance steel 272
shear strain amplitude 178, 179, 180
shear strength 168, 173, 174, 175, 177, 231, 275, 289, 290, 314,
315, 327, 329, 339, 340, 341
shear stress 138, 178, 179, 192, 196, 197, 212, 213, 214, 260, 271,
312, 314, 315, 324, 448, 458, 468
shear wave velocity 189, 472
shearing force 224, 271, 386, 394, 522, 523, 556, 569, 596
sheet 426
sheet flow 155, 156
sheet pile 135, 136, 137, 184, 193, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217,
220, 318, 397, 398, 407, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421,
424, 425, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 435, 436,
437, 438, 440, 442, 443, 444, 448, 450, 451, 455, 468, 477,
486, 509, 510, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 523,
546, 556
sheet pile anchorage 426, 428, 517
sheet pile quaywall with (a) relieving platform 407, 431, 435
sheet pile quaywall with batter anchor piles 512, 515
sheet pile quaywall with batter piles in front 514
sheet pile quaywalls 407, 415, 425, 426, 431, 432, 477, 511, 512,
513, 514, 515, 516, 517, 523, 556
sheet pile wall 135, 136, 397, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421,
424, 426, 427, 429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 435, 509, 510, 511,
512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 556
Shermans formula 28
shield tunnels 567
ship dimensions 7, 27
ship navigation 358, 581
ship waves 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 591
ship-generated waves 94, 346, 351
shoaling 32, 33, 36, 41, 49, 69, 74, 75, 78, 81, 96, 130, 144, 153,
359, 372, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394
shoaling coefficient 41, 49, 69, 74, 75, 78, 81
shoreline 36, 51, 81, 91, 92, 104, 111, 129, 130, 140, 154, 156,
160, 165, 166, 390, 391, 392
short- and medium-distance Japanese ferries 403, 585
SI units 2, 3
side resistance 274, 280, 281
side thrusters 585, 586
sidewalk live load 207, 209, 410, 463, 486, 586
significant wave 32, 33, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 69,
70, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 90, 91, 93, 94, 101, 102, 103, 104, 107,
112, 114, 118, 120, 130, 162, 379, 392, 461, 508
significant wave height 33, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 69, 70,
76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 90, 93, 94, 101, 102, 103, 112, 114, 118,
-I-12-
INDEX
130, 162, 362, 379, 381, 392, 508

significant wave period 33, 38, 39, 43, 44, 70, 91, 102, 103, 104,
107, 114, 118, 120
signs or notices 520, 525, 527
siltation 150, 151, 152, 153, 359, 390, 497
similarity number 420, 421, 423
simplified Bishop method 277, 278, 315, 316, 367
simplified method 311, 312, 315, 327, 413, 418, 470, 471, 473,
475
single anchor leg mooring 142
single pile 285, 290, 291, 292, 293, 295, 465, 477
single pile structure 523
single-buoy mooring 351, 352
sinker and anchor chain type mooring buoys 502, 503
sinker type mooring buoy 502
sinking currents 138
Skewness parameter 155
skirt guard 520, 525
slag 232, 238, 239, 548
slenderness ratio 284, 288
slice method 315, 335, 336, 340
sliding 107, 108, 110, 112, 130, 155, 182, 194, 200, 204, 278, 329,
331, 332, 365, 366, 367, 368, 375, 409, 410, 412, 431, 448,
454, 458, 495, 496, 518, 556
sliding resistance 363, 368
sliding resistance force 368
sliding stability 365, 366
slip failure 279, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 329, 369, 569
slip surface 277, 278, 314, 316, 317, 477
slip-bars 546, 547
slipway 249, 401, 407, 497, 498, 499, 500, 501, 520, 589, 591
slit 89, 91, 111, 124, 267, 268, 269, 376, 380, 387, 508, 509
slit caisson 267, 268, 376, 380, 387
slope failure 314
slope gradient 106, 107, 114, 161, 232, 363, 364, 381
slope stability analysis 314, 317
slope-shaped breakwater 376
sloping breakwaters 125, 360, 363, 369, 370, 372
sloping caisson breakwaters 377
sloping-top caisson 104, 106, 376, 380, 381, 382
sluices 357
slump 225, 226
SMAC-type strong motion seismograph 189
small amplitude wave theory 33, 34, 35, 74, 120
small craft basins 150, 345, 355
small craft quays 401
smear 320
snow load 28, 207, 208, 410, 586, 593
social function of the facilities 8
soft clayey ground 310, 312, 377
softness factor 16, 17
soil improvement 175, 199, 273, 318, 319, 320, 322, 323, 338,
363, 369, 377, 398, 429, 512
soil improvement material 238
soil improvement methods 175, 273, 318, 369
soil skeleton 310, 312
solidified coal ash 333, 334
solidified geotechnical materials 333, 334, 335
solitary wave 36, 80, 98
sorting coefficient 155
sorting facilities for hazardous cargo 575
sorting facilities for marine products 575
spatially-distributed load 310
specific gravity 24, 112, 117, 140, 218, 231, 235
spectral methods 42, 43, 46
splash zone 216, 272
squeezed-out failure 276
SRC structure 270

stability 30, 32, 40, 49, 102, 104, 106, 107, 111, 112, 118, 125,
127, 141, 168, 173, 174, 178, 182, 183, 184, 193, 204, 205,
208, 210, 227, 230, 231, 242, 243, 258, 261, 273, 314, 316,
317, 318, 319, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 331, 333,
336, 339, 340, 341, 343, 351, 359, 363, 364, 365, 366, 369,
370, 371, 373, 374, 375, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 384,
385, 386, 391, 393, 396, 397, 398, 405, 408, 409, 410, 411,
412, 415, 416, 418, 420, 425, 426, 427, 431, 434, 435, 437,
438, 443, 448, 449, 452, 454, 455, 456, 458, 459, 460, 461,
462, 464, 477, 484, 488, 489, 492, 495, 496, 499, 501, 502,
507, 508, 518, 519, 533, 551, 569, 570, 584, 586, 593, 594,
595, 596
stability against bearing capacity 366
stability against overturning 365, 366, 452
stability against sliding 329, 365, 448, 518
stability analysis 278, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 333, 340, 369, 370,
411, 425, 477
stability during earthuakes 365
stability number 112, 113, 114, 117, 118, 119
stability of slope 273, 314, 318, 326, 431
stabilized body 237, 323, 324, 325, 326
stabilized soil 232, 322, 323, 324, 325
stabilizer content 329, 330
stainless steel 8, 234, 238
stairways and ladders 520, 527
standard concrete strength 224
standard intensity of illumination 531, 532, 535
standard laboratory consolidation test 171
standard penetration test 167, 168, 174, 175, 176, 177, 195, 196,
296
Standard Specifications of Concrete 221
standard spectrum 93
standard tensile strength 224
standing wave force 100, 101
standing wave height 74, 110, 132
standing waves 72, 74, 81, 103, 104, 106, 122, 123, 124, 132, 162,
163, 166
static bearing capacity formulas 284, 285, 286, 292
static load 28, 124, 180, 207, 208, 229, 285, 308, 386, 462, 463,
478, 488, 489
statistical properties 37, 103
steel cellular-bulkhead type dolphins 495
steel manufacture slag 238, 239
steel piles 212, 213, 287, 288, 290, 293, 300, 305, 306, 307, 308,
383, 384, 460, 468, 478
steel plate cellular-bulkhead quaywall 407, 452, 453, 456, 457,
459, 496
steel reinforcement 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227
steel sheet pile cellular-bulkhead quaywall 407, 436, 437, 444,
449, 453, 457, 486, 496, 517
steel sheet pile quaywall 415
steel sheet piles 212
steel shell type 568
Steel Ship Regulations 26
steel slag 232, 238, 239
step type beach 155
stepped seawall 89
Stewart 149, 153
stiffeners 459, 529
still water level 34, 37, 101, 103, 105, 108, 113, 116, 117, 120,
122, 123, 124, 132, 205, 206, 243, 365, 373, 379, 381, 382,
462, 480, 487, 488
stirrups 260
Stokes wave 36
Stokes third order wave theory 123
stone 91, 100, 112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 118, 119, 125, 136, 140,
-I-13-
207, 226, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 240, 243, 278, 279, 326,
363, 367, 368, 369, 371, 372, 373, 391, 406, 412, 413, 464,
465, 472, 556
stopping action or radiation stress 149
storm conditions 32, 410
storm surge 28, 29, 30, 127, 128, 129, 130, 132, 357, 362, 367,
373, 374, 396, 398, 497, 573
storm surge protection breakwater 373
storm tide 128, 129, 130, 362, 373, 398
storm waves 32, 99, 110, 154, 278, 358, 362, 497, 508, 592
straight asphalt 229, 230
strain dependency 170, 327
strain level 170, 178, 191, 310, 327
stream function 36, 98
stress concentration coefficient 340
stress distribution method 340
stress in soil mass 310, 311
stress intensity in piles 384
stress reduction coefficient 340, 341
stress sharing ratio 340, 342
structural analysis factor 221, 222
structural members 30, 102, 111, 119, 211, 223, 225, 226, 233,
257, 258, 267, 268, 377, 378, 380, 386, 389, 414, 470, 523,
596
structural steel 212, 213, 215
structure factor 221, 222
structure with steel plates 270
structured types 182, 407
subbase course material 238
submerged breakwater 91, 113, 140
submerged dykes 151, 153
submerged members 100, 121, 138, 140, 144
submerged unit weight 187, 201, 205, 274, 275, 277, 289, 315,
316, 317, 328, 332, 418
submerged upright breakwater 72
submerged zone 217
subsoil 7, 108, 167, 169, 171, 174, 176, 180, 182, 183, 184, 185,
186, 187, 189, 192, 195, 196, 198, 199, 235, 275, 304, 310,
311, 312, 314, 318, 319, 322, 323, 324, 326, 328, 329, 330,
331, 332, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343,
396, 401, 417, 452, 455, 456, 458, 460, 464, 465, 469, 471,
472, 496, 556
subsoil reaction 455, 556
super-large vessel 2
superstructure 113, 124, 125, 221, 222, 223, 226, 227, 256, 260,
268, 276, 291, 293, 294, 322, 363, 365, 372, 455, 461, 462,
463, 464, 465, 469, 470, 471, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 479,
480, 481, 483, 485, 486, 513, 514, 515, 516, 518, 571
superstructure of open-type wharf 221, 223, 226, 464, 481
supply rate 337
surcharge 7, 184, 201, 204, 207, 232, 244, 248, 250, 251, 252,
253, 257, 258, 260, 262, 263, 266, 268, 269, 276, 277, 314,
315, 316, 318, 319, 326, 327, 335, 365, 408, 410, 411, 418,
427, 431, 433, 434, 437, 438, 439, 442, 450, 454, 456, 472,
474, 478, 488, 586, 595, 596
surf beat 91, 92, 93, 111, 140
surf similarity parameter 114
surf zone 99, 103, 138, 141, 156, 159, 162, 166, 390, 391
surface covering 328
surface elevation 34, 119, 132
surface layer movement 154, 157
surface roughness 113, 120
surging 93, 146, 354, 521
surging breaker 114
suspended sediment 138, 155, 156, 159, 372, 391, 392
swash zone 156, 160
swaying 146, 354
swell 39, 40, 43, 46, 47, 94, 98, 353

swinging mooring 351
synthetic fiber ropes 26
T
T-shaped sheet piles 450
Takahashi 419
Takahashi et al. 104, 107, 108, 109, 111, 114, 116, 417, 419, 420,
421
Takayamas method 69
Talbots formula 28
Tanaka 156, 162, 163, 166
tankers 10, 12, 15, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 145, 354, 404, 495
target vessel 9, 10, 16, 17, 21, 23, 346, 347, 348, 351, 352, 353,
402, 405, 494, 502, 523, 582
taut mooring 142, 143
Technical Manual for Premixing Method 329
Technical Manual for the Deep Mixing Method in Land Construction Works 323
Technical Manual for the Deep Mixing Method in Marine Construction Works 323
Technical Manual for the Lightweight Treated Soil Method in
Ports, Harbors and Airports 326
temporary structures 7, 217
tensile strength 222, 224, 235, 236, 293, 450, 451, 523
tensile yield strength 222
tension of sheet pile 449, 450
tension of tie rod 424, 425, 428, 429, 518
terminology 2, 154, 155, 242, 323
Terzaghi 170, 180
Terzaghis consolidation theory 310, 312
theory of consolidation 170, 171, 173, 310
theory of elasticity 310
thermal characteristics 524
thickness of a concrete lid 370
thickness of steel plate 455, 458
three-dimensional experiments 140
threshold depth of sediment movement 154, 156, 157, 166
threshold wave heights for cargo handling 353
tidal currents 16, 24, 26, 138, 140, 144, 148, 242, 346, 347, 348,
350, 351, 352, 353, 355, 357, 358, 359, 386, 388, 396, 487,
494, 498, 503, 504, 590, 592, 594
tidal level 100, 359, 362, 365, 367, 375, 380, 396, 398, 405
tidal zone 216, 217, 272
tie rod setting point 416, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 424, 425, 426,
427, 428, 429, 432, 433
tie-bars 545, 546, 547
timber 210, 233, 305, 345, 354, 372, 373, 462, 522, 574, 576
timber sorting areas 574
timber sorting ponds 372, 574
timber storage ponds 372
timber-handling facilities 372, 373
time factor 171, 172, 310, 321, 322
time-dependent mild-slope irregular wave equations 69
time-dependent properties 312
Tokyo Peil 128
tolerable damage level 475
top displacement 448, 449, 512
torsional moment 386
total length of sheet pile 420
total movement 154, 157
total stability 329
TP 128
tractive force 16, 22, 25, 26, 27, 373, 374, 392, 415, 417, 424, 425,
428, 433, 463, 480, 485, 490, 495, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506,
507, 521, 522, 584, 585, 595
-I-14-
INDEX
tractive forces of vessels 25, 408, 410, 424, 428, 503, 521, 522
traffic loads 584
training jetties 154, 161, 357, 388, 392, 393
transformations of waves 41, 49, 358, 367
transitional embedded length 420
transmission 80, 90, 91, 94, 271, 358, 363, 364, 377, 379, 380,
381, 382, 383, 384, 479, 516, 546
transmitted waves 90, 91, 94, 364, 378, 384, 591
transverse contraction joint 546, 547
transverse expansion joint 546, 547
transverse waves 95, 96, 97, 98, 592
trapezoidal caisson 104, 124, 376
trapped air 122
treated soil 323, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 332, 333, 334, 343
treated subsoil 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334
trenches 151, 152
triaxial CD test 174, 175
trip distribution 560
trip generation and attraction 560
Tschebotarioffs model 420
tsunami 50, 127, 130, 131, 132, 136, 140, 373
tsunami barrier 130
tsunami period 130, 131
tsunami protection breakwater 140, 141, 373, 374, 375
tsunami runup 130
tsunami simulation 132
tsunami wave force 132
tsunami wave height 130, 131, 132
Tsuruya 153
tunnels 567, 570, 572
turbulent eddy viscosity 138
turning 346, 350, 352, 388, 559, 562, 564, 591
turning basin 352
turning diameters 346
two-layer placement 117
type of the breakwater 222
typhoon 28, 41, 44, 128, 130, 153, 463
V-shaped rubber fender 524

vacuum consolidation method 320
values proposed by Terzaghi 420
Van der Meers Formula 114
vane shear test 168, 175, 176, 177, 180
variable load 221, 222, 223, 248
Vasco Costa 523, 539
vehicle load 207, 209, 463, 586
vehicle ramp 526, 527, 585, 586
velocity coefficient 148
velocity pressure 30
velocity-dependent characteristics 524
Veritus Rule 386
vertical breakwater 70, 161, 364
vertical coefficient of consolidation 311
vertical drain method 318, 319, 341
vertical force 282, 386, 410, 411, 412, 433, 437, 439, 445, 447,
451, 463, 485, 491, 492, 495, 507, 513, 518
vertical loading tests 286, 287
vertical pile anchorage 415, 426, 428
vertical-slit type seawall 89
vertical-slit wall caisson 111
very soft clay 173, 175
vessel berthing force 221
vessel pulling force 221
vibratory pile driving method (vibrohammer method) 286
vinylon ropes 26
virtual fixed point method based on Changs method 465
virtual fixed points 466, 475
virtual ground surface 432, 465, 466, 468, 471, 472, 481
virtual mass factor 16, 21
visco-elasto-plasticity 311, 312
vortices 134, 139, 140, 156, 159, 374
W
Wagners theory 123
wale 417, 425, 429
wall body 408, 409, 410, 411, 438, 439, 443, 449, 453, 454, 457,
458, 495, 518
wall displacement 177, 443, 444, 445, 447
wall type improvement 322, 323, 324, 326
wall-type structure 100
warehouse 207, 208, 436, 532, 540, 576
warning signs 396
waste disposal sites 326
waste water treatment plant 396
water absorption rate 231
water exchangeability 376
water frontage amenity 84, 357, 358, 396, 531
water level 36, 41, 74, 75, 79, 80, 84, 91, 92, 93, 100, 111, 120,
123, 124, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 138, 148, 149,
154, 202, 205, 216, 217, 218, 220, 245, 246, 250, 281, 289,
327, 332, 350, 357, 362, 363, 364, 365, 373, 389, 396, 397,
398, 405, 417, 418, 450, 456, 570, 597
water particle acceleration 34, 119, 121
water particle velocity 34, 35, 36, 119, 120, 121, 126, 159
water quality 8, 219, 357, 358, 397
water supply facilities 520, 525, 526, 577, 589
water-cement ratio 225, 226
waterproofness 228, 397
wave actions 41, 102, 109, 112, 366, 377, 383, 386, 393, 461, 488,
490, 504, 523
wave breaking 75, 78, 79, 80, 81, 91, 98, 99, 103, 107, 111, 114,
116, 118, 119, 132, 141, 150, 159, 592
wave breaking point 75, 82, 83, 91, 107
U
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 159
ultimate axial bearing capacity 284, 285, 286
ultimate bearing capacity of the pile 286, 477
ultimate limit state 221, 222, 243, 245, 246, 248, 254, 256, 261
ultimate load 285, 286, 291, 295
ultrasonic propagation test 327
unconfined compressive strength 168, 174, 175, 177, 185, 189,
231, 279, 286, 287, 290, 300, 317, 324, 325, 327, 330, 331,
334
underwater concrete 210, 227
undisturbed samples 170, 174, 175, 179, 198, 287, 310
undrained shear strength 170, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180,
275, 276, 277, 315, 316, 319, 340
unevenly distributed load 208
uniformity coefficient 169, 170, 195, 240, 328
updrift 390, 391, 392, 393
uplift pressure 102, 104, 105, 109, 221, 244, 247, 252, 253, 267,
268, 371, 379, 382
upright breakwater 72, 91, 125, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365, 369,
370, 376, 378, 379, 381, 387
upright wall 72, 81, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108,
109, 110, 111, 114, 118, 132, 263, 365, 366
upright wave-absorbing caisson 111, 267, 378, 508
upright wave-absorbing structure 72
upwelling currents 138
utilization factor 536, 537
UU condition 173, 174
-I-15-
wave chamber 111, 112, 379, 380

wave crest 36, 37, 83, 95, 98, 101, 106, 116, 120, 123, 149, 245,
248, 250, 594, 595
wave development 42, 43, 44, 46, 47
wave diffraction 33, 52, 71, 74, 144, 359
wave direction 39, 41, 47, 49, 50, 51, 68, 70, 71, 72, 74, 94, 96,
97, 100, 101, 102, 104, 106, 108, 113, 116, 118, 119, 132,
157, 165, 353, 494, 595
wave energy balance equation 51
wave energy flux 49, 157, 159, 165
wave force 16, 22, 23, 27, 32, 36, 41, 70, 74, 75, 98, 99, 100, 101,
102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 116,
119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126, 132, 139, 140, 145, 180,
221, 222, 244, 247, 250, 251, 252, 261, 262, 263, 267, 268,
269, 277, 314, 315, 316, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369,
370, 373, 374, 375, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 384, 386,
396, 486, 487, 488, 490, 503, 504, 518, 522, 584, 594
wave force due to a broken wave 100
wave force under wave crest 101
wave force under wave trough 105
wave height 22, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44,
46, 47, 48, 49, 52, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79,
80, 81, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103,
104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 117,
118, 120, 123, 124, 130, 131, 132, 133, 146, 149, 150, 157,
159, 160, 162, 165, 222, 235, 347, 350, 353, 357, 359, 362,
363, 365, 367, 368, 369, 370, 374, 377, 379, 381, 382, 383,
392, 504, 508, 571, 591, 595
wave hindcasting 32, 41, 42, 47, 69
wave observation 32, 33, 37, 47, 94, 159
wave overtopping 81, 83, 84, 90, 99, 363, 378, 391, 396, 398, 518
wave pressure 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 133, 222,
230, 262, 269, 279, 315, 317, 364, 374, 378, 379, 381, 382,
594, 595
wave pressure modification factors 101, 109
wave reflection 69, 70, 71, 104, 110, 123, 135, 161, 162, 357, 376,
377, 378, 379, 380, 382, 383, 386, 518
wave refraction 33, 49, 69, 150, 359
wave runup 80, 83, 111, 117, 135, 156, 161, 166, 363, 364, 497
wave setup 79, 80, 91, 111, 130
wave shoaling 36, 49, 69, 74, 75
wave spectrum 32, 38, 39, 40, 42, 43, 51, 98, 99, 113, 146
wave steepness 35, 36, 39, 80, 91, 95, 107, 113, 114, 161
wave transformation 32, 33, 41, 71, 99, 374
wave transmission 90, 94, 358, 377, 380, 381, 383, 384
wave trough 105, 106, 245, 246, 248, 250, 263, 368, 410, 594, 595
wave velocity 34, 35, 49, 98, 180
wave-absorbing block 377, 378, 379, 508
wave-absorbing seawall with concrete block mound 89
wave-absorbing work 71, 72, 83, 106, 109
wave-absorption performance 379, 380
wave-dissipating blocks 109, 250, 364, 365, 369, 370, 376, 377,
378, 381, 382
wave-dissipating concrete blocks 72, 83, 84, 89, 91, 100, 103,
106, 109, 113, 114, 116, 117, 125, 253, 360, 362, 364, 365,
372, 381
wave-drift force 143, 144, 145, 146
wave-exciting force 143, 144, 145, 146
wave-making resistance 143, 145, 504
wavelength 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 50, 69, 71, 72, 74, 81, 91, 93, 95,
96, 101, 102, 103, 105, 107, 108, 109, 111, 114, 118, 119,
121, 123, 133, 134, 144, 145, 149, 150, 157, 159, 160, 163,
349, 350, 382, 383
wavelength in deepwater 91
weather charts 42
Weibull distribution 19, 47, 48
weight of filling 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 412, 441, 442, 453,
454, 455, 456

welded joints 272
welded zone 214, 215
well 226, 231, 234, 238, 256, 259, 260, 268, 277, 279, 283, 290,
292, 295, 296, 307, 308
wet unit weight 180, 201, 289, 328
wheelchairs 396, 578, 579
wide mound berm 105
width of flexural cracks 223
width of sediment movement zone 166
Wilsons method 44, 45
wind direction 29, 30, 31, 42, 44, 129, 130, 143, 494, 591
wind drag coefficient 143
wind drag force 143, 144, 146
wind drift currents 138
wind duration 42, 43, 46
wind force coefficients 23
wind load 23, 30, 386, 463, 485, 486, 529, 530, 578, 585, 586
wind pressure 7, 26, 27, 28, 30, 143, 144, 221, 365, 369, 370, 463,
495, 574, 584
wind pressure coefficient 30, 143, 144
wind setup 128, 129, 130
wind tunnel experiments 30, 143
wind velocity 23, 24, 26, 28, 29, 30, 32, 42, 43, 46, 89, 129, 130,
138, 143, 385
wind waves 39, 40, 43, 44, 46, 50, 94, 98, 131, 508, 592
wind-blown sand 154, 390, 394
wind-driven drift currents 138
windbreaks 394
Wooden Structure Design Standard 233
woven cloth 235
Y
Yamaguchi and Tsuchiyas model 43
yards for dangerous cargo 576
yawing 20, 146, 349, 350, 354
yield load 285, 286, 290, 295
yield strength 213, 222, 224, 476
Yu 149, 153
Z
zero-upcrossing method 37, 40, 131
zeroth moment of the wave spectrum 39
-I-16-

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The Overseas Coastal Area Development Institute of Japan

3-2-4 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 100-0013, Japan

Copyright 2002 by The Overseas Coastal Area Development Institute of Japan

Scope of Application .............................................................................................................................1

Chapter 2 Datum Level for Construction Work .........................................................................................................4

Part II Design Conditions

Dimensions of Target Vessel ...............................................................................................................9

Chapter 3 Wind and Wind Pressure ..........................................................................................................................28

Chapter 4 Waves ..............................................................................................................................................................32

Procedure for Determining the Waves Used in Design.............................................................32

[1] General .............................................................................................................................. 70

Chapter 5 Wave Force ................................................................................................................................................. 100

General ............................................................................................................................................... 100

General Considerations .......................................................................................................... 100

Chapter 6 Tides and Abnormal Water Levels....................................................................................................... 127

Design Water Level........................................................................................................................... 127

Chapter 7 Currents and Current Force ................................................................................................................... 138

General ............................................................................................................................................... 138

General ............................................................................................................................................... 142

Chapter 9 Estuarine Hydraulics ................................................................................................................................ 148

General ............................................................................................................................................... 148

Chapter 10 Littoral Drift .................................................................................................................................................. 154

Chapter 11 Subsoil ...........................................................................................................................................................167

Chapter 12 Earthquakes and Seismic Force ...........................................................................................................182

Chapter 13 Liquefaction .................................................................................................................................................195

Chapter 14 Earth Pressure and Water Pressure ...................................................................................................200

Earth Pressure of Sandy Soil under Ordinary Conditions .......................................................200

Chapter 15 Loads .............................................................................................................................................................207

Static Load under Ordinary Conditions ...................................................................................207

Chapter 16 Coefficient of Friction ................................................................................................................................210

Part III Materials

Selection of Materials........................................................................................................................ 211

Safety of Structural Elements .......................................................................................................... 211

Chapter 2 Steel ............................................................................................................................................................... 212

Materials ............................................................................................................................................. 212

General ................................................................................................................................... 212

Chapter 3 Concrete ....................................................................................................................................................... 221

General ............................................................................................................................................... 221

Chapter 4 Bituminous Materials ................................................................................................................................ 228

General ............................................................................................................................................... 228

General ................................................................................................................................... 228

Chapter 5 Stone ............................................................................................................................................................. 231

General ............................................................................................................................................... 231

Chapter 6 Timber ........................................................................................................................................................... 233

Quality of Timber ............................................................................................................................... 233

Structural Timber .................................................................................................................... 233

Chapter 7 Other Materials ........................................................................................................................................... 234

Metals Other Than Steel .................................................................................................................. 234

Grouting Materials .............................................................................................................................237

Chapter 8 Recyclable Resources .............................................................................................................................238

Part IV Precast Concrete Units

Combination of Loads and Load Factors ................................................................................243

Chapter 2 L-Shaped Blocks ........................................................................................................................................256

Chapter 3 Cellular Blocks ............................................................................................................................................261

Shape of Cellular Blocks .........................................................................................................261

Chapter 4 Upright Wave-Absorbing Caissons ......................................................................................................267

Chapter 5 Hybrid Caissons .........................................................................................................................................270

Design External Forces .................................................................................................................... 271

Section Force.......................................................................................................................... 271

General ............................................................................................................................................... 274

Chapter 3 Bearing Capacity of Deep Foundations ............................................................................................. 280

General ............................................................................................................................................... 280

Chapter 4 Bearing Capacity of Pile Foundations ................................................................................................ 284