Diversity, Ethnicity and Consumption

Wendy Kennedy, Deakin University, Australia

John Hall, Deakin University, Australia
Abstract: This paper aims to examine diversity and identity issues from a marketing perspective. The traditional marketing
practice of segmenting markets could be viewed as the antithesis of diversity as it relies on identifying homogenous characteristics of a population. It is uneconomical and generally less effective to market to a broad range of consumers than to
do so for a specific group with homogenous characteristics. However, segmentation is not possible without diversity. Segmentation requires the presence of substantial differences in consumer characteristics and behaviour in a population to be
truly effective. Marketing and its relationship to diversity, however, extends beyond segmentation and into issues of an individual's sense of identity and belonging. The literature suggests that an individual's identity is expressed through consumption and this can include ethnic identity. With an increasingly diverse, multicultural society in many countries, it is timely
to look more closely at cultural identity and its relationship to consumption. Hofstede's work on cultural characteristics
inherent in a particular country, continue to be widely used in international business. However, cultural identity and characteristics attributed to individuals in their country of birth may change when they immigrate to another country. Acculturation in a host country affects how immigrants see themselves and wish to be perceived. This can be problematic for marketers
attempting to segment and reach consumers on the basis of their ethnicity. If consumption is an expression of identity as
the literature suggests, then marketing has a role to play in either influencing or responding to issues of diversity and
identity in the population at large. This paper examines the current literature on consumption, consumer behaviour and
ethnic identity.
Keywords: Ethnic identity, Diversity and market segmentation, Consumption and ethnicity

Introduction

RADITIONAL MARKETING PRACTICES, such as segmentation, could be

viewed as having an inverse relationship to
the concept of diversity. Segmentation aims
to identify individuals on the basis of similar characteristics (such as values and beliefs) to form homogenous groups that allow product offerings to be
presented and delivered in the most cost effective
way. However, diversity is also important for segmentation purposes. Segmentation requires the
presence of substantial differences in consumer
characteristics and behaviour in a population to be
truly effective.
The concept of identity has a much more complex
relationship with marketing. While marketing practices seek to use consumer identity as a variable when
attempting to segment a diverse market, they also
have a role to play in the formation of identity, including ethnic identity.
The characteristics that comprise ethnic (or cultural) identity have been the subject of ongoing atten-

tion by researchers. Personality, values and beliefs

have been the main constructs used to identify unique
characteristics of particular ethnic groups. The work
of Geert Hofstede and Shalom Schwartz has contributed significantly to cross cultural studies in these
areas.
However, the ability to apply country specific
characteristics to values, personality and beliefs has
always presented challenges to researchers in terms
of the validity and equivalence of the measuring instruments used. An increase in immigration and
therefore, diversity within many countries presents
new challenges to researchers that have not been
addressed in any great detail by cross-national studies
of ethnicity.
Increasing diversity is a global trend that is reflected in population statistics from Australia, Canada,
the UK and the USA. For example Table 1 shows
the increase in the proportion of permanent ethnic
residents in these countries over the 1990s and into
the 2000 era (the actual year in which statistics were
obtained are in parenthesis):

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE DIVERSITY, VOLUME 5

Table 1: Increase in Proportion of Permanent Ethnic Residents by Country

Country

% of ethnic residents - 1990s era

% of ethnic residents - 2000 era

Canada

1% (1990s) (Canadian Council 2003)

18% (2001) (Canadian Council 2003)

UK

6% (1991) (British Council 2001)

9% (2001) (British Council 2001)

USA

11% (1990) (U.S. Census Bureau 2000)

15% (2000) (U.S. Census Bureau 2000)

Australia

22% (1996) (ABS & Hugo 2002)

23% (2002) (ABS 2004)1

While the proportion of immigrants in the Australian population has barely changed, the composition of nationalities has become more
diverse, and so too has their reasons for migrating (ABS & Hugo 2002).

Immigration is accompanied by acculturation processes that affect the way in which immigrants perceive their ethnic identities. Uni-dimensional theories
of acculturation assume that immigrants will relinquish aspects of their previous culture in exchange
for new cultural paradigms in their host country.
However, recent times have seen the emergence of
hybrid, bicultural individuals who are more inclined
to retain their original cultural framework and switch
between their ethnic identity and those of their host
country as the situation warrants.
This can be problematic for marketers attempting
to segment consumers in multicultural communities
on the basis of their ethnicity.
The purpose of this paper is to present a synopsis
of current issues in relation to consumption and ethnicity, in particular:

Consumption as an expression of identity,

Ethnic identity,
Cross cultural research issues,
Acculturation and its effect on ethnic identity,
and
Ethnicity as a variable for segmentation.

Definitions
Pires (1999), highlights problems with the interchangeable nature of terminology applied to ethnicity
and cultural studies. Indeed the research examined
in this paper uses the terms ethnicity, culture, cultural, multicultural and cultural diversity in the same
context. Culture is considered to be a loose, fuzzy
concept that is difficult to define (Pressey & Selassi
2002). However, Schnpflug (2001a) offers a concise
and uncomplicated definition, The term cultural
may apply to traits acquired by any process of non
genetic transmission, whether by imprinting, conditioning, observation, imitation, or as a result of direct
teaching (Schnpflug 2001a:131).
The term ethnicity is closely related to culture but
includes a genetic aspect, In simple terms, ethnicity
can be viewed as a characteristic of racial group
membership on the basis of some commonly shared
features. Ethnicity can also be described in terms of
biological makeup of individuals and the extent to
which genetic factors play a role in conveying as-

pects of ethnicity, including consumption behaviour

(Aaker 1999, in Jamal 2003).
Weber (1960) serves to illustrate the circular
nature of these definitions when describing ethnic
groups as those human groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common descent because of
similarities of physical type or of custom or both, or
because of memories of colonisation and immigration, for example, culture (Weber 1968, in Lindridge
& Dibb 2002:272).

Consumption as an Expression of
Identity
Kozinets (2002) provides a broad definition of consumption as the many human acts that people perform as they interact with the material world around
them (Kozinets 2002:24).
According to OCass and McEwen (2004) the acquisition of material goods is considered to be one
of the strongest measures of social success and
achievement. These markers of social standing can
be displayed conspicuously, to visually represent
status [referred to as conspicuous consumption]
(OCass & McEwen 2004) or serve a more underlying purpose of securing friendships and social acceptance (OShaughnessy & OShaughnessy 2002). An
individuals identity can also be expressed through
the symbolic meaning of their material possessions
and how they choose to relate to them (Dittmar 1992,
in OCass & McEwen 2004) (Lindridge & Dibb
2002; OShaughnessy & OShaughnessy 2002).
The role of consumption in shaping identity and
consumer behaviour has not been without criticism,
particularly the level of materialism exhibited by
consumers (Pachauri 2002). That is, the importance
a consumer attaches to worldly possessions (Belk
1985, in Eastman et al. 1997:54), and judging own
and others success by the number and quality of
possessions accumulated (Richins & Rudmin 1994,
in Eastman et al. 1997:54).
Dysfunctional behaviour such as shoplifting has
been attributed to materialism (Tonglet 2001), along
with the undermining of traditional values of work
and citizenship (Stevenson 2002). From this perspective, the individualistic nature of materialism can be

WENDY KENNEDY, JOHN HALL

perceived as being at odds with collective values

such as family or religious values (Burroughs et al.
& Rindfleisch 2002).
However, the perceptions of consumption related
behaviour are reported to be influenced by cultural
value systems (Burroughs et al. 2002; Lindridge &
Dibb 2002). Some countries, adopt a more positive
outlook to consumption perceiving the acquisition
of possessions as empowering and self-enhancing
(Burroughs et al. 2002).
The degree of status attributed to various products
differs across cultures, depending on the meaning
attached to the item (Belk 1988 in Eastman et al.
1997). The importance of meaning in consumption
is closely aligned with ethnic identity, as a study of
the consumption experiences of British Pakistanis
illustrates:
Consumption of ethnic products, such as food
and clothes, retained a sense of belonging to
their ethnic group (identifiable with the difference-identity principle), while ownership of
consumer durables was deemed as establishing
links with British CaucasiansBritish
Pakistanis buyer behaviour, in this situation,
appears to be directly affected by their sense of
ethnic identity (Jamal & Chapman 2000, in
Lindridge & Dibb 2002:272).

Ethnic Identity
Jamal (2003) presents two perspectives on identity.
The first suggests that it is a complex internal process
involving cognition, emotion and knowledge,
whereas the second proposes that individuals construct their own identity by drawing on heterogeneous elements taken from a diversity of cultural
representations and practices (Jamal 2003: 1602).
Jasinskaja-Lahti & Liebkind (1996) suggest that
ethnic identity requires an individual to firstly, label
themselves as being of a particular ethnicity and to
subsequently identify with others of the same ethnic
group (Jasinskaja-Lahti & Liebkind 1999:527).
Domains that have been used to identify ethnic
identity include:

Language use and proficiency in the culture

concerned (Laroche et al. 1996; Tsaiet al. 2000);
Affiliation with others of the same cultural/ethnic
group (Laroche et al. 1996; Tsai et al. 2000);
Participation in cultural related activities that
represent the cultural group (Laroche et al. 1996;
Tsai et al. 2000);
Pride in being a member of the cultural group
(Laroche et al. 1996; Tsai et al. 2000);
Preference for the food of the particular cultural
group (Laroche et al. 1996; Tsai et al. 2000);

Spouse ethnic identity (Laroche et al. 1996;

Nauck 2001);
Mass media usage in the language of the culture
(Laroche et al. 1998)
Physical representations of the culture (objects,
artefacts) (McIntosh et al. 2002); and
Level of emotional attachment to icons representing the culture (Fung 2001; McIntosh et al.
2002).

The ethnic labels that an individual attributes to

themselves are relatively enduring (Jasinskaja-Lahti
& Liebkind 1999). However, the meaning attributed
to that identity can change substantially over time
(Phinney 1990) and the degree to which individuals
consider themselves to have an ethnic identity can
vary dramatically from one individual to another
(Chung & Fischer 2001).
From a marketing perspective, the value of
identifying the ethnicity of consumers lies in the
ability to predict the consumption and buying behaviour of a group of individuals who share the same
ethnic characteristics. Being able to do so increases
the effectiveness of marketing communications and
the ability to efficiently deliver product offerings to
meet consumers needs.
The search for constructs that will allow consumer
behaviour to be predicted is ongoing and the contribution of cross-cultural research in this regard is
outlined in the next section.

Cross-cultural Research Issues

Personality type has long been considered a construct
that can predict the behaviour of individuals. MacDonald (1998) presents an evolutionary perspective
purporting that personality has evolved to suit the
demands of local geographical environments over
time. Thus, personality characteristics will differ
according to geographical origins (MacDonald 1998).
Personality tests have been used to predict the
behaviour of individuals and groups that share the
same personality characteristics or traits. The most
popular personality model, known colloquially as
The Big Five, is based on the premise that the structure of personality can be reduced to five dimensions:
Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness,
Neuroticism (Emotional stability) and Openness to
change (experience) (Paunonen et al. 1996; Allik et
al. 2004).

Equivalence of Measuring Instruments

The popularity of the Big Five, and personality test
derivatives such as the NEO Personality Inventory
(Costa & McCrae, 1985, 1992, in Paunonen 1996)
may be related to its ability to transcend a variety of
cultural differences in administration of the measur-

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE DIVERSITY, VOLUME 5

ing instrument and interpretation of results. Church

& Lonner (1998), commenting on the value of crosscultural personality tests conclude, Considerable
strides have been made in operationalizing the diffuse
concept of culture in terms of selected cultural dimensions (e.g., individualism-collectivism, [and] independent vs interdependent self-construals) (Church
& Lonner 1998:49).
Many researchers emphasize the importance of
equivalence issues in quantitative cross cultural research (Church & Lonner 1998; Caprara et al. 2000;
Myers et al. 2000; Cervellon & Dube 2002; Spini
2003; Allik et al. 2004). Byrne & Campbell (1999)
explain, we cannot overemphasize the importance
of having a solid understanding of ones data. Such
knowledge derives not only from the rigorous preliminary screening and analysis of data but also from
the recognition of possible cultural differences(Byrne & Campbell 1999:571).
Problems arise when the instrument of measurement is merely translated into another language
without due consideration of cultural differences.
There are likely to be problems in the way the questionnaire may be understood, or in interpreting the
causes of behaviour measured as they are unlikey to
be the same for all countries (Chun-Tung Lowe 1998;
Paunonen & Ashton 1998; Byrne & Campbell 1999;
Chudry & Pallister 2001). Construct, measurement
and scalar equivalence is required to ensure that these
difficulties are addressed. Van de Vijer & Leung
(1996, 1997, in Eid 2003) summarize the three types
of equivalence required (construct, measurement and
scalar) for a measurement instrument to be considered valid, and therefore, suitable for use in crosscultural settings:

regarding personality: Social integration/Cultural

inwardness, and Reputation/Social morality values
(Church & Lonner 1998).

Construct (structural) equivalence means that

the same construct is measured in different
cultures. Construct equivalence implies that
different items measuring the same construct
are structurally related in the same way in different cultures. Measurement unit equivalence
deals with the question of whether a measurement unit (e.g., difference between two scale
scores) is equivalent between cultures. The assumption of scalar equivalence is fulfilled if
[the] measurement unit equivalence holds and
the origin of the scale does not differ between
cultures (Van de Vijver & Leung 1996, 1997,
in Eid et al. 2003:195).

Values are considered to be important in guiding the

behaviour of individuals (Chun-Tung Lowe 1998).
Values research, in a cross-cultural sense, has been
heavily influenced by Hofstedes (1980) national
dimensions of culture. Hofstedes seminal work entailed the following five indices of culture that could
explain work related values across many countries:
Power distance, Uncertainty avoidance, Individualism/Collectivism, Masculinity/Femininity and Longterm orientation/Short term orientation (Hofstede
1980).
The Collectivist-Individualist constructs have been
the most widely used (Church & Lonner 1998;
Caprara et al. 2000; Merritt 2000; Benet-Martinez
et al. 2003; Van Herk et al. 2004; Bond et al., 2004;
Johnson et al. 2005) in a variety of international
business contexts (Merritt 2000).
More recently, Schwartz (1994) identified ten
culture-level value dimensions: Power, Achievement,
Hedonism, Stimulation, Self-direction, Universalism,
Benevolence, Tradition, Conformity, Security
(Schwartz 1994). Schwartz and Bardi (2001) sub-

While the Big Five personality test is reported to be

valid in measuring cross-cultural differences, some
dimensions relating to non-Western aspects of personality were not included. The subsequent development of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (Cheung & Leung 1998) to assess fundamental
Chinese values identified another two dimensions

Response Bias
Tests developed in one country can fail to achieve
their aims in other countries. This can be due to cultural differences in the way individuals respond to
the measuring instrument (response bias), (Church
& Lonner 1998; Paunonen & Ashton 1998; Caprara
et al. 2000; Cheung & Rensvold 2000; Schwartz &
Bardi 2001; Van Hemert et al. 2001; Byrne &
Watkins 2003; Eid et al. 2003; Allik et al. 2004;
Smith 2004; Van Herk et al. 2004; Johnson et al.
2005).
Response bias can result in the following respondent behaviour:

A belief that a higher score is a better score

A preoccupation with individual defects and deficiencies
Agreeing or disagreeing with almost every
statement on the instrument (Cheung & Rensvold
2000)

While some of these problems can be ameliorated

in the questionnaire design stage (Paunonen &
Ashton 1998; Cheung & Rensvold 2000; Chudry &
Pallister 2001; Van Hemert et al. 2001), they still
represent the potential for inappropriate labelling of
ethnic groups for marketing purposes or for other
applications involving ethnic groups.

Values & Beliefs Research

WENDY KENNEDY, JOHN HALL

sequently proposed that countries attribute different

levels of importance to these value dimensions
(Schwartz and Bardi, 2001).
However these approaches to understanding differences between countries have their limitations.
Kurman & Ronen-Eilon (2004) argue that while
values are useful in understanding culture, they have
less to do with the practical applications of the theory
and therefore the concrete, mundane behaviour of
individuals (Kurman & Ronen-Eilon 2004:202). The
use of social axioms, or general beliefs about the
world, is an alternative approach that provides researchers with an understanding of the day to day
interpersonal societal functioning of individuals
within [emphasis added] a culture (Leung & Bond
2002; Kurman & Ronen-Eilon 2004).
As the majority of values research has focused on
a country by country level, it lacks the detail or the
understanding of cultural differences at a local incountry level (Chung & Fischer 2001), hence the
research interest in social axioms highlighted by
Kurman (2004). Indeed, the increasingly multicultural nature of communities in some countries is having
an impact on cross-cultural research. For example,
cultural diversity found in Brazil, Canada, China,
Germany, Hong Kong and the USA, may preclude
these countries from further usefulness in cross-cultural research, as they are no longer homogenous
enough to enable cross-cultural comparisons with
other countries (Chung & Fischer 2001).
As the literature illustrates, the study of crosscultural differences and ethnic identity is complex
and increasingly so when immigration factors are
also taken into account. Research suggests that cultural identity and characteristics attributed to individuals in their country of birth may change when
they immigrate to another country. Acculturation in
a host country affects how immigrants see themselves
and wish to be perceived by others. Therefore, an
understanding of the acculturation process is an essential prerequisite for understanding ethnic identity
and cultural diversity issues in general.

Acculturation and its Effect on Ethnic

Identity
Stevens et al. (2004) provides a succinct definition
of acculturation as a process that entails contact
between two cultural groups, resulting in numerous
cultural changes in both parties. In effect, however,
the contact experiences have much greater consequences for the non dominant group members
(Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits 1936 in Stevens et
al. 2004:689; Berry 2001, in Stevens et al. 2004:689).
Berrys (1992, 1997) seminal acculturation model
is quoted frequently in the literature (Laroche et al.
1996; Nesdale et al.1997; Ward & Rana-Deuba 1999;

Chung & Fischer 2000; Euler et al. 2001; Ben-Shalom et al. 2003; Snauwaert et al 2003). The model
outlines four possible acculturation strategies can
result in an immigrant either: Integrating, Assimilating, Segregating or Marginalizing. Immigrants orient
their own acculturation process through their level
of involvement with members of other [local] cultures. The decisions made by immigrants in this regard are heavily influenced by the level of acceptance
from the receiving society (Nauck 2001).
The terms assimilation and integration used in
acculturation models require definition. Assimilation
refers to a displacement of an original ethnic identity
and the adoption of characteristics of the host culture.
Integration implies that the immigrant possesses
knowledge and understanding of the host country
but does not relinquish aspects of their own ethnic
identity (Kurman & Ronen-Eilon 2004).
Berrys model assumes a linear path in which immigrants are willing to discard their previous culture.
However a more recent Unique Behaviour Model
proposes that unique cultural styles can emerge
through a blending of the immigrants old culture and
their host culture (Quester & Chong 2001).
A summary of acculturation studies by Berry
(2001) helps to illustrate the complexities of factors
influencing the acculturation process. Early uni-dimensional assimilation approaches to acculturation
have fallen out of favour (Birman & Tricket 2001),
with researchers preferring a more flexible approach
(Laroche et al. 1996; Laroche et al. 1998; Chung &
Fischer 2000; Knafo & Schwartz 2001; Quester &
Chong 2001; Ben-Shalom et al. & Horenczyk 2003;
Davies & Fitchett 2004). This multi-dimensional
approach purports that immigrants are likely to develop their own unique cultural styles through a
blending of their old culture and the host culture
(Wallendorf & Reilly 1983, in Chung & Fischer
2000; Quester & Chong 2001). The blending of cultural styles suggests that these consumers will respond differently to marketing approaches than other
residents of the host country.
The influence of acculturation on ethnic identity
extends beyond the immediate effects on immigrants
and into successive generations.

Transmission of Values
According to Pires (1999), some of the original cultural values of immigrants are retained in the host
country through a process of generational transmission. The degree of retention depends on parenting
styles and the type of values involved (Pires 1999).
Constructs or domains that are most likely to be
transferred include political values, religious beliefs
and lifestyle, value orientations, and general points
of view regarding social constructs (Schnpflug
2001b)

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Bicultural Identity and Frame Switching

Researchers have recently identified the emergence
of individuals who possess dual cultural identities
that enable them to engage in cultural frame switching in which they move between different cultural
meaning systems in response to situation cues (Benet-Martnez et al. 2002:493).
Cultural frame switching takes place when a bicultural individual is in a situation that requires them
to make a decision requiring either a collective or
individualist frame of reference. The individual needs
to decide which cultural frame they should operationalize to effect the action required (Hong et al. 2003).
Cultural frame switching is activated by priming
bicultural individuals with cues that remind them of
their ethnic identity. In a study involving the exposure of Chinese American bicultural students to
Chinese or American icons, Hong et al. (2003) found
that these cues would activate cultural frame
switching only if the situation was appropriate for
them to do so; if they felt that a Chinese approach
was required to solve the problem (Hong et al. 2003).
Interestingly, as far back as 1996, ethnicity was
considered to be a fluid concept in which ethnic
boundaries were continually changing (Laroche et
al. 1998). When recent increases in immigration are
combined with acculturation processes and the
emergence of bicultural individuals, ethnicity could
be considered as more fluid than ever. Consumers
are likely to conform neither individually nor as a
group to any one specific segment or a category
(Jamal 2003:1614). This has significant implications
for marketing.

Ethnicity as a Variable for Segmentation

As stated earlier in this paper, one of the main aims
of segmentation is to predict the buying behaviour
of a group of consumers with homogenous characteristics (Bickert 1997; Dibb 1999, in Lindridge & Dibb
2002).
The domains or basis commonly used to segment
markets include:

Demographics,
Psychographics,
Benefits,
Usage,
Lifestyle,
Loyalty,
Image,
Situation, and
Socio-style. (Hoek et al. 1993)

Each of these domains is considered suitable criteria for segmentation as they have been proven to
be:

Measurable - capable of being measured (Pires

1999; Tonks 2001);
Stable relatively unchanged over time (Pires
1999; Tonks 2001);
Substantial of a size that would render them
profitable for the efforts expended in reaching
them (Pires 1999; Tonks 2001);
Accessible segments can be reached by marketing communications (Pires 1999; Tonks 2001);
and
Actionable consumers want the product offering (Pires 1999; Tonks 2001).

Research opinion suggests that segmentation on

the basis of ethnicity, particularly within a single
country is problematic for the following reasons:

The actual behaviour of consumers cannot be

attributed specifically to ethnicity as other factors
such as demographics may be involved (Pires
1999; Johnson & Garbarino 2001; Lindridge &
Dibb 2002);
The experiences associated with acculturation
are very individual and as such, the effects of
acculturation are difficult to apply to homogenous groupings (Davies & Fitchett 2004);
Cultural differences may not be as powerful in
predicting behaviour as some have claimed (Pires
1999; Pressey & Selassi 2002);
Equivalence problems are difficult to overcome
(Chudry & Pallister 2001); and
A conceptual framework relating to the behaviour
of ethnic consumers needs to be developed first
(Chudry & Pallister 2001; IJRM Editorial 2002).

Perhaps marketing efforts in relation to ethnicity

should be aligned with non traditional practices such
as Tribal Marketing (Cova & Cova 2002) and focusing on the Cosmopolitan consumer (Thompson &
Tambyha 1999; Cannon & Yaprak 2002), as these
methods may be better equipped to deal with the
consumer of the future described by Jamal (2003)
in a multicultural marketplace, marketers and consumers of different ethnic backgrounds coexist, interact and adapt to each other. In doing so, consumers
act as skilled navigators who frequently engage in
culture swapping to sample the many tastes, themes
and sounds of different cultures (Jamal 2003:1599).

Conclusion
This paper has presented a synopsis of current issues
in relation to diversity, ethnicity and consumption,
in particular:

Consumption as an expression of identity,

Ethnic identity,
Cross cultural research issues,

WENDY KENNEDY, JOHN HALL

Acculturation and its effect on ethnic identity,

and
Ethnicity as a variable for segmentation.

The role of marketing in shaping identity through

consumption has been discussed at length by researchers, usually with negative implications such as materialism and conspicuous consumption leading the
way.
However, this is a simplistic view that does not
reflect the true relationship between marketing
practices, consumers and society in general. The re-

lationship is complicated further when ethnicity is

taken into account. Attempts to use ethnicity as a
basis for traditional methods of segmentation are
problematic due to the changeable nature of ethnic
identity, the effects of acculturation and the emergence of bicultural individuals.
The future direction of marketing in light of these
developments is unclear but it would be reasonable
to suggest that issues of ethnicity, consumption and
marketing are far from resolved. However, they do
present interesting opportunities for further research.

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About the Authors

Ms Wendy Kennedy
Wendy Kennedys research interests include ethnic identity, multicultural marketing, social marketing, subjective
wellbeing and research methodology. She teaches undergraduate marketing subjects Advanced Market Research,
and Consumer Behaviour at Victoria University, and is currently undertaking a PhD scholarship at Deakin
University.
Assoc Prof. John Hall

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Dr John Hall is an Associate Professor of Marketing at Deakin University Melbourne where he is a director of
the Centre for Business Research. Prior to his current appointment he was a Marketing discipline leader and
course coordinator at Victoria University of Technology, Melbourne. His research interests include market
segmentation, consumer behaviour, marketing education, social marketing and the development and application
of marketing research techniques and technology.