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StaticLoad
Astaticloadisamechanicalforceappliedslowlytoanassemblyorobject.Loaddoesnot
changeinmagnitudeanddirectionandnormallyincreasesgraduallytoasteadyvalue
Thisforceisoftenappliedtoengineeringstructuresonwhichpeoples'safetydependson
becauseengineersneedtoknowthemaximumforceastructurecansupportbeforeitwill
collapse.
Dynamicload
Adynamicload,resultswhenloadingconditionschangewithtime.Loadmaychange
inmagnitudeforexample,trafficofvaryingweightpassingabridge.
Loadmaychangeindirection,forexample,loadonpistonrodofadoubleactingcylinder.
Vibrationandshockaretypesofdynamicloading.
Factorofsafety (F.O.S):
Theratioofultimatetoallowableloadorstressisknownasfactorofsafetyi.e.Thefactorof
safetycanbedefinedastheratioofthematerialstrengthorfailurestresstotheallowable
orworkingstress.
Thefactorofsafetymustbealwaysgreaterthanunity.Itiseasiertorefertotheratioof
stressessincethisappliestomaterialproperties.
F.O.S=failurestress/workingorallowablestress
StaticFailureTheories
MaximumPrincipalStressTheory(RankineTheory):
Theprincipalstresses1(maximumprincipalstress),2(minimumprincipalstress)or3
exceedstheyieldstress,yieldingwouldoccur.
Fortwodimensionalloadingsituationforaductilematerialwheretensileandcompressive
yieldstressarenearlyofsamemagnitude:
Yieldingoccurswhenthestateofstressisattheboundaryoftherectangle.
MaximumPrincipalStrainTheory(St.Venantstheory):
If1and2aremaximumandminimumprincipalstrainscorrespondingto1and2,inthe
limitingcase:
BoundaryofayieldsurfaceinMaximumStrainEnergyTheoryisgivenbelow
MaximumShearStressTheory(TrescaTheory):
Atthetensileyieldpoint2=3=0andthusmaximumshearstressisy/2.
Yieldsurfacecorrespondingtomaximumshearstresstheoryinbiaxialstresssituationis
givenbelow :
Maximumstrainenergytheory(Beltramistheory):
Failurewouldoccurwhenthetotalstrainenergyabsorbedatapointperunitvolume
exceedsthestrainenergyabsorbedperunitvolumeatthetensileyieldpoint.
AboveequationresultsinEllipticalyieldsurfacewhichcanbeviewedas:
Distortionenergytheory(VonMisesyieldcriterion):
Yieldingwouldoccurwhentotaldistortionenergyabsorbedperunitvolumeduetoapplied
loadsexceedsthedistortionenergyabsorbedperunitvolumeatthetensileyieldpoint.
TotalstrainenergyETandstrainenergyforvolumechangeEVcanbegivenas:
Atthetensileyieldpoint,1=y,2=3=0whichgives,
ThefailurecriterionisthusobtainedbyequatingEdandEdy,whichgives
Ina2Dsituationif3=0,sotheequationreducesto,
Thisisanequationofellipseandyieldequationisanellipse.
Thistheoryiswidelyacceptedforductilematerials
CotterandKnuckleJoints
Acotterjointisatemporaryfasteningandisusedtoconnectrigidlytwocoaxialroadorbarswhich
aresubjectedtoaxialtensileorcompressiveforces.
SocketandSpigotCotterJoints
Inasocketandspigotcotterjoint,oneendoftherodsisprovidedwithasockettypeofendas
showninfigureandtheotherendoftherodisinsertedintoasocket.Theendoftherodwhichgoes
intoasocketisalsocalledspigot.
FailuresinSocketandSpigotCotterJoints
FailuresinSleeveandCotterJoints
KnuckleJoint
Itisusedtoconnecttworodswhoseaxiseithercoincideorintersectandlieinoneplane.
Thisjointgenerallyfoundinthelinkofacyclechaintierodjointforrooftruss,valverod
jointwitheccentricrodtensionlinkinbridgestructure,leverandrodconnectionofvarious
types.
Itissometimesalsocalledforkedpinjoint.
FailuresinKnuckleJoint
Toconnectthetransmissionshafttorotatingmachineelementslikepulley,gear,sprocketor
flywheel.
Cotterandknucklejointsarenotusedforconnect
Fatigue
Fatigueloadingisprimarilythetypeofloadingwhichcausescyclicvariationsintheapplied
stressorstrainonacomponent.
Variableloadingdueto:ChangeinthemagnitudeofappliedloadExample:punchingor
shearingoperationsChangeindirectionofloadapplicationExample:aconnectingrod
ChangeinpointofloadapplicationExample:arotatingshaft.
FatigueFailure:
Machineelementssubjectedtofluctuatingstressesusuallyfailatstresslevelsmuchbelow
theirultimatestrengthandinmanycasesbelowtheyieldpointofthematerialtoo.
Thesefailuresoccurduetoverylargenumberofstresscycleandareknownasfatigue
failure.
Fatiguefailuresareinfluencedby
o Natureandmagnitudeofthestresscycle
o
o
o
Endurancelimit
Stressconcentration
Surfacecharacteristics
Rivetedjoints:
Therearetwobasiccomponentsofrivetedjoints:
o Rivets
o Twoormoreplates.
Thepopularmaterialsfortherivetsare:Steel,Brass,Aluminium&Copperasperthe
requirementoftheapplicationforfluidtightjointsthesteelrivetsareused
WeldedJoints
Itisapermanentjoint.
Whenthetwopartsarejoinedbyheatingtoasuitabletemperaturewithorwithout
applicationofpressure.
WeldingProcesses
FusionWelding
ThermitWelding
GasWelding
ElectricArcWelding
ForgeWelding
TypesofWeldedJoints:
LapJointorFilletJoint
Inlapjoint,overlappingtheplateandweldingtheedgeoftheplatestakesplaceinwelding
process.
Thestrengthofdifferenttypesoffilletjointcanbegivenaccordingtotheirweldingprocess
as
Shearstrengthinparallelfilletweld,
where,P=Tensileforceontheplates
h=Legoftheweld
l=Lengthoftheweld
=Permissibleshearstress
Fordoubleparallelfilletweld,
P=1.414h/
StrengthofTransverseFilletWeld
o p=ThroatareaAllowabletensilestress
o =0.707slt
Fordoubletransversefilletjoint
P=1.414hlt
SpecialCasesofFilletWeldedJoint
CircularFilletWeldSubjectedtoTorsion
Shearstress
or
where,T=Torqueactingorrod
h=sizeofweld
t=Throatthickness
CircularFilletWeldSubjectedtoBendingMoment
Bendingstress:
LongFilletWeldSubjectedtoTorsion
Shear stress:
ButtJoint
StrengthofButtJoint
o ForsingleVbuttjoint,
P=tlt
o
FordoubleVbuttjoint,
P=(t1+t2)lt
EccentricLoadedWeldedJoints
Whentheshearandbendingstressesaresimultaneouslypresentinajoint.
Maximumnormalstress
Maximumshearstress
Directorprimaryshearstress
StrengthofBoltedJoint
Maximumtensilestressinthebolt
where,dc=Corediameter
TorqueRequirementforBoltTightening
where,
Pi=Pretensioninbolt,dm=0.9d
d=Nominaldiameter
ForISOmetricscrewthread=30
ForISOmetric=25
EccentricLoadonBracketwithCircularBase
Iftherearennumberofbolts,thenloadinabolt
Inabovecasewhenn=4
Maximumloadinbolt
where,cos=1
FactorofSafety(FOS)inBoltedJoints
Itisdefinedastheratiooffailurestresstoallowablestress.
Forductilematerial,
Forbrittlematerial,
where,Syt=Yieldstrengthofcomponentmaterial
Sut=Ultimatetensilestressofcomponentsmaterial
=Allowablestress.
StressconcentrationFactor
Itisdefinedastheratioofhighestvalueofactualstressneardiscontinuitytonominalstress
obtainedbyelementaryequationsforminimumcrosssection.Itisdenotedbykt.
where,0,0=Nominalstresses
Themagnitudeofstressconcentrationfactordependsuponthegeometryofthe
component.
Inthiscase,kt=1+2(a/b)
where,
a=Semiaxisofellipseperpendiculartothedirectionofload
b=Semiaxisofellipseparalleltothedirectionofload
Ifb=0then,holeislikeasverysharpcrackthen,kt=
Ifa=bthen,holebecomesacircularholethen,kt=1+2=3
FluctuatingLoad
Itisdefinedastheload,ofwhichmagnitudeanddirectionbothchangeswithrespectto
time.
Massstressandstressamplitude
Forrepeatedstress,
Forreversedstress,
and
Gears
Gearcanbedefinedasthemechanicalelementusedfortransmittedpowerandrotarymotionfrom
oneshafttoanotherbymeansofprogressiveengagementofprojectionscalledteeth.
ClassificationofGears
SpurGear
HelicalGear
BevelGear
WormGear
SpurGear
Inspurgears,teetharecutparalleltoaxisofthegear.
Circularpitch
Diametricalpitch
Module
Torquetransmittedbygear
Dynamicloadorincrementaldynamicload
Where,v=Pitchlinevelocity
c=Deformationfactor
b=Facewidthoftooth
Pt=Tangentialforceduetoratedtorque.e=Sumoferrorsbetweentwomeshingteeth
Estimationofmodulebasedonbeamstrength
Where,cs=Servicefactor,
cv=Velocityfactor
fs=Factorofsafety,
n=Speed(rpm)
Estimationofmodulebasedonwearstrength
HelicalGear
Theteethofhelicalgearcutintheformofhelixoranangleonthepitchcylinder.
Where,Pn=Normaldiametricalpitch
P=Transversediametricalpitch
=Helixangle
mn=mcos
mn=Normalmodule
m=transversemodule
Axialpitch
Pitchcirculardiameter
Toothproportions
o Addendumha=mn
o Dedendumhf=1.25mn
o Clearancec=0.25mn
Addendumcirclediameterda=d+2haor
Dedendumcirclediameter
Componentoftoothforces
Beamstrengthofhelicalgear
Sb=mnbbY
Where,m=Module,
b=Permissiblebendingstress
y=Lawisformfactor
DynamicloadorincrementaldynamicloadPd
Where,e=Sumoferrors,
C=Deformationfactor
Wearstrengthofhelicalgear
HerringboneGear
Inordertoavoidanaxialthrustontheshaftandthebearings,thedoublehelicalgearsor
Herringbonegearsareused.
BevelGears
Usetotransmitpowerbetweentwointersectingshafts.
Highspeedhighpowertransmission.
ClassificationofBevelGear
MitreGear:Whentwobevelgearsaremountedonshaftsthatareintersectingatright
angle.
CrownGear:Inpairofbevelgear,whenoneofthegearhasapitchangleof90o.
InternalBevelGear:Whentheteethofbevelgeararecutontheinsideofthepitch.
SkewBevelGear:Mountedonnonparallelandnonintersectingshafts.Itconstantof
straightteeth.
HypoidGear:Similartoskewbevelgear,nonparallelandnonintersectingshafts.Itconsists
ofcurvedteeth.
ZerolGear:Sprialbevelgearwithzerospiralangle.
ForceGear:Consistsofaspurorhelicalpinionmeshingwithaconjugategearordiskform.
Beamstrengthofbevelgear
Where,
bevelfactor.
Wearstrengthofbevelgears
Where,K=Materialconstant,
Bearing
Abearingisamechanicalelementthatpermitsrelativemotionbetweentwocomponentsor
parts,suchastheshaftandhousing,withminimumfriction.
PlainBearings(SlidingContactBearings)
Aplainbearingisanybearingthatworksbyslidingaction,withorwithoutlubricant.This
groupencompassesessentiallyalltypesotherthanrollingelementbearings.i
JournalorSleeveBearings
Thesearecylindricalorringshapedbearingsdesignedtocarryradialloads.
Thesimplestandmostwidelyusedtypesofsleevebearingsarecastbronzeandporous
bronze(powderedmetal)cylindricalbearings.
ThrustBearings
Thistypeofbearingdiffersfromasleevebearinginthatloadsaresupportedaxiallyrather
thanradiallywhichisshowninthefollowingfigure.Thin,disklikethrustbearingsare
calledthrustwashers.
BearingMaterials
Babbitts
BronzesandCopperAlloys
Aluminium
PorousMetals
Plastics
AntiFrictionBearings
Ball,roller,andneedlebearingsareclassifiedasantifrictionbearingssincefrictionhasbeen
reducedtoaminimum.
BearingLoads
RadialLoad
o
Loadsactingperpendiculartotheaxisofthebearingarecalledradial
loads.Althoughradialbearingsaredesignedprimarilyforstraightradialservice,
theywillwithstandconsiderablethrustloadswhendeepballtracksintheraceway
areused.
ThrustLoad
o
Loadsappliedparalleltotheaxisofthebearingarecalledthrustloads.Thrust
bearingsarenotdesignedtocarryradialloads.
BallBearings
Angularcontactbearingsareusedforcombinedradialandthrustloadsandwhereprecise
shaftlocationisneeded.Usesoftheothertwotypesaredescribedbytheirnames:radial
bearingsforradialloadsandthrustbearingsforthrustloads(Seethefollowingfigure).
RadialBearings
Deepgroovebearingsarethemostwidelyusedballbearings.Inadditiontoradialloads,
theycancarrysubstantialthrustloadsathighspeeds,ineitherdirection.
Selfaligningbearingscomeintwotypes:internalandexternal.Ininternalbearings,the
outerringballgrooveisgroundasasphericalsurface.Externallyselfaligningbearingshavea
sphericalsurfaceontheoutsideoftheouterring,whichmatchesaconcavespherical
housing.
Doublerow,deepgroovebearingsembodythesameprincipleofdesignassinglerow
bearings.Doublerowbearingscanbeusedwherehighradialandthrustrigidityisneeded
andspaceislimited.
Angularcontactthrustbearingscansupportaheavythrustloadinonedirectioncombined
withamoderateradialload.
ThrustBearings
Flatracebearingsconsistofapairofflatwashersseparatedbytheballcomplementanda
shaftpilotedretainer,soloadcapacityislimited.Contactstressesarehigh,andtorque
resistanceislow.
Onedirectional,groovedracebearingshavegroovedracesverysimilartothosefoundin
radialbearings.
Twodirectional,grooveracebearingsconsistoftwostationaryraces,onerotatingrace,and
twoballcomplements.
RollerBearing(RollingContactBearings)
Theprincipaltypesofrollerbearingsarecylindrical,needle,tapered,andspherical.
Theyhavehigherloadcapacitiesthanballbearingsofthesamesizeandarewidelyusedin
heavyduty,moderatespeedapplications..
CylindricalBearings
Cylindricalrollerbearingshavehighradialcapacityandprovideaccurateguidancetothe
rollers.Theirlowfrictionpermitsoperationathighspeed,andthrustloadsofsome
magnitudecanbecarriedthroughtheflangerollerendcontacts.
NeedleBearings
Needlebearingsarerollerbearingswithrollersthathavehighlengthtodiameterratios.
Comparedwithotherrollerbearings,needlebearingshavemuchsmallerrollersforagiven
boresize.
Loose-needle bearings are simply a full complement of needles in the annular space between
two hardened machine components, which form the bearing raceways. They provide an effective
and inexpensive bearing assembly with moderate speed capability, but they are sensitive to
misalignment.
Caged assemblies are simply a roller complement with a retainer, placed between two hardened
machine elements that act as raceways. Their speed capability is about 3 times higher than that
of loose-needle bearings, but the smaller complement of needles reduces load capacity for the
caged assemblies.
Thrust bearings are caged bearings with rollers assembled like the spokes of a wheel in a wafer
like retainer.
TaperedBearings
Taperedrollerbearingsarewidelyusedinrollneckapplicationsinrollingmills,
transmissions,gearreducers,gearedshafting,steeringmechanisms,andmachinetool
spindles.Wherespeedsarelow,greaselubricationsuffices,buthighspeedsdemandoil
lubrication,andveryhighspeedsdemandspeciallubricatingarrangements.
SphericalBearings
Sphericalrollerbearingsofferanunequaledcombinationofhighloadcapacity,high
tolerancetoshockloads,andselfaligningability,buttheyarespeedlimited.
Singlerowbearingsarethemostwidelyusedtaperedrollerbearings.Theyhaveahigh
radialcapacityandathrustcapacityabout60percentofradialcapacity.
Tworowbearingscanreplacetwosinglerowbearingsmountedbacktobackorfaceto
facewhentherequiredcapacityexceedsthatofasinglerowbearing.
Brake
Abrakeisadevicebymeansofwhichartificialfrictionalresistanceisappliedtoamoving
machinemember,inordertoretardorshopthemotionofamachine.
Themostcommonlybrakesusefrictiontoconvertkineticenergyintobeat,thoughother
methodsofenergyconversionmaybeemployed.
SingleBlockorShoeBrake
Itconsistsofablockorshoewhichispassedagainsttherimofrevolvingbrakewheeldrum.
Theblockismadeofasoftermaterialthantherimofthewheel.
Iftheangleofcontactislessthan60othen,itmaybeassumedthatnormalpressureorforce
betweentheblockandthewheelisuniform.
CaseI:WhenthelineofactionoftangentialbrakingforcepassesthroughthefulcrumOofthelever.
Ifwheelisrotatinginclockwisedirectionthen,FreeBodyDiagram(FBD)ofwheelandblock
is
Ifwheelisrotatinginanticlockwisedirectionthen,FBDofwheelandblockis
Brakingforce
Brakingtorque
Whenwheelisrotatinginanticlockwisedirectionthen,thebrakingtorqueissameasabove
CaseII:Whenthelineofactingofthetangentialbrakingforce(Ft)passesthroughadistanceabelow
thefulcrumO.Then,therearetwocases:
ForClockwise:
Brakingforce
Brakingtorque
ForAntiClockwise:
Brakingforce
Brakingtorque
(asTB=Ftr)
CaseIII:Whenthelineofactionoftangentialbrakingforce(Ft)passesthroughadistance'a'above
thefulcrumO.
Forclockwise,
Brakingforce
Brakingtorque
(TB=Ftr)
ForAntiClockwise
Brakingforce
Brakingtorque
Whenthefrictionalforcehelpstoapplythebrakesthen,suchtypeofbrakesaresaidtoself
energizingbrakes.
WhenPisnegativeorequaltozerothen,theseareknownasselflockingbrakes.
SimpleBandBrake
Abandbrakeconsistsofaflexiblebandofleather,oneormoreropes,orsteellinedwith
frictionmaterial,whichembracesapartofthecircumferenceofthedrumiscalledsimple
bandbrake.
Weknow,
Brakingforceonthedrum=(T1T2)
Brakingtorqueonthedrum(TB)=(T1T2)r
WhenwheelrotatesintheclockwisedirectionandtakingmomentaboutfulcrumO
ForanticlockwiserotationofthedrumPl=T2b
where,b=PerpendiculardistancefromOtothelineofactionT1orT2
l=Lengthoftheleverfromthefulcrum
T1=twt
w=Widthoftheband
t=Thicknessoftheband
t=Permissiblestressintheband.
Clutch
Aclutchisamechanicaldevicethatprovidesforthetransmissionofpower(andtherefore
usuallymotion)fromonecomponent(thedrivingmember)toanother(thedrivenmember)
whenengaged,butcanbedisengaged.
FrictionClutch
Thefrictionclutchisusedtotransmitpowerofshaftsandmachineswhichmustbestarted
andstoppedfrequently.
Frictionsurfacesofaclutchremainincontacttoeachotherbyapplyinganaxialthrustor
loadw.
ConsideringUniformPressure
Theuniformpressurepcanbeevaluatedas.
Totalfrictionaltorquegiveninthiscase,
where,Rm=Meanradiusoffrictionsurfaces
ConsideringUniformWear
Totalfrictionaltorqueactingonclutch
whereRm=Meanradiusoffrictionsurfaces
Inuniformweartheory,Maximumpressureactsattheinnerradiusandminimumpressure
actsattheouterradius.
Averagepressureonthefrictionsurfaces
MultipleDiscClutch
Numberofpairsofcontactsurfaces
n=n1+n21
where,n1=Numberofdiscsonthedrivingshaft
n2=Numberofdiscsonthedrivenshaft
Totalfrictionaltorqueactingonthefrictionalsurface
T=wRm
where,
[incaseofuniformpressure]
[incaseofuniformwear]
where,r1andr2areouterandinnerradiiofthefrictionplates.
ConeClutch
Inconeclutch,driveriskeyedtothedrivingshaftbyasunkkeyandhasaninsideconical
surfaceorfacewhichexactlyfitsintotheoutsideconicalsurfaceofthedriven.
Totaltorqueontheclutch,
(foruniformpressure)
(foruniformwear)
=Semiangleofconeorfaceangleofthecone
where,w=Axialloadorthrust
Axialforcerequiredforengagingtheclutch,
=wn(sin+cos)
Axialforcerequiredtodisengagedtheclutch
wd=wn(cossin)
IffacewidthbandmeanradiusofconeclutchisRm.
Then,
Powertransmittedbyclutch
CentrifugalClutch
Centrifugalforceactingoneachshoeatrunningspeed
pc=m2r
Where,
Frictionforceactingoneachshoe=(PcPs)
Thedirectionofforceisperpendiculartotheradiusoftherimpulley.
Frictionaltorqueoneachshoe=(PcPs)R
Totaltorquetransmitted=Numberofshoes(PcPs)R
=n(PcPs)R
Arc=Angle(inradian)Radiual=R
Where,areaofcontact=lb
Forceexertedoneachshoe=plb
Pc Ps = lbp
Where,l=Contactlengthoftheshoe
b=Widthoftheshoe
p=Pressureintensityonshoe
q=Anglemadebyshoeatthecentreofspiderinradian
R=Contactradiusofshoe=insideradiusoftherimofthepulley