Raw Real For Instrumentation Engineers

INSTRUMENT DOCUMENTS
I/O List
I/O List is a document containing list of instrumentations which serve as an input or output of control system.
Therefore, only the tag number that physically has a cable which connects to the control system appears on I/O
List.
When there are more than one control system in a plant (let say PCS and SIS), the I/O list shall clearly indicates
which instruments is assigned to which control system or may separate them to different section in the document.
In I/O list, the following information should be stated but not limited to:
Tag number
Loop Number
Service description
P&ID Number
Type of Instrument
Location
I/O Type
Control System
Range or set point
The information column in which I/O list contains may be as simple as above, however some project require I/O
list to be detailed by having alarm list, controller action, logic 0/1descriptor. Later on, I/O list would include
I/O number assignment (rack, slot, channel number) which information to be provided by control system vendor.
Reference document
1. Instrument Index
Filter all tag numbers that has an Input Output to make the I/O list
The purpose of I/O List
I/O list is used to determine the size of control system required by project, by counting how many I/O exists within
a plant by each control system
I/O LIST
Project Name
: Dummy project
Project Number
: XABCD0123
NO
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
TAG
NUMBER
LOOP
NUMBER
FIT-0100
FT-0102
LIT-0100
LIT-0101
LIT-0102
LY-0100
PIT-0100
PIT-0101
PY-0100
TIT-0100
XSV-0100
XSV-0101
XSV-0102
XSV-0103
ZSC-0100
ZSC-0101
ZSC-0102
ZSC-0103
ZSO-0100
ZSO-0101
ZSO-0102
ZSO-0103
LT-1101
LY-1101
LT-1201
LY-1201
LT-1202
ZSO-1201
ZSC-1201
SOV-1201
F-0100
F-0102
L-0100
L-0101
L-0102
L-0100
P-0100
P-0101
P-0100
T-0100
V-0100
V-0101
V-0102
V-0103
V-0100
V-0101
V-0102
V-0103
V-0100
V-0101
V-0102
V-0103
L-1101
L-1101
L-1201
L-1201
L-1202
V-1201
V-1201
V-1201
Document Number: J-CPP-LST-00-0002

Revision: 0
INSTRUMENT TYPE
FLOW INDICATING TRANSMITTER - DP TYPE
FLOW TRANSMITTER - TURBINE TYPE
LEVEL INDICATING TRANSMITTER - MAGNETOSTRICTIVE
LEVEL POSITIONER
PRESSURE INDICATING TRANSMITTER
PRESSURE POSITIONER
TEMPERATURE INDICATING TRANSMITTER
SOLENOID VALVE
SOLENOID VALVE
SOLENOID VALVE
SOLENOID VALVE
LIMIT SWITCH CLOSE
LIMIT SWITCH CLOSE
LIMIT SWITCH CLOSE
LIMIT SWITCH CLOSE
LIMIT SWITCH OPEN
LIMIT SWITCH OPEN
LIMIT SWITCH OPEN
LIMIT SWITCH OPEN
LEVEL POSITIONER
LEVEL POSITIONER
LIMIT SWITCH OPEN
LIMIT SWITCH CLOSE
SOLENOID VALVE
SERVICE
Production Separator Gas Outlet
Production Separator Condensate Outlet
Production Separator Oil Level Control
Production Separator Oil Level
Production Separator Interaface Level
Production Separator Gas Pressure Control
Production Separator Gas Pressure
Production Separator Gas Outlet to Flare
Production Separator Gas Outlet Temperature
Production Production Separator Gas Blowdown to Flare
Production Separator Gas to Mercury Removal
Production Separator Water Outlet
Gas Compressor Suction Scrubber
Suction Scrubber Outlet to Degassing Column
Compressor Discharge Scrubber
Discharge Scrubber Outlet to Degassing Column
Compressor Discharge Scrubber
P&ID NUMBER
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0002
P-CPP-PID-01-0002
P-CPP-PID-01-0002
P-CPP-PID-01-0002
P-CPP-PID-01-0002
P-CPP-PID-01-0002
P-CPP-PID-01-0002
P-CPP-PID-01-0002
LOCATION
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
I/O
TYPE
SYSTEM
AI
AI
AI
AI
AI
AO
AI
AI
AO
AI
DO
DO
DO
DO
DI
DI
DI
DI
DI
DI
DI
DI
AI
AO
AI
AO
AI
DI
DI
DO
PCS
PCS
PCS
SIS
SIS
PCS
PCS
SIS
PCS
PCS
SIS
SIS
SIS
SIS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
SIS
PCS
PCS
SIS
CALIBRATION
MIN
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-
MAX
350
150
100
100
100
100
40
40
100
50
100
100
100
100
100
-
SET
POINT
ENG.
UNIT
MMScfd
m3/hr
%
%
%
%
barg
barg
%
degC
%
%
%
%
%
-
REMARKS
Instrument Data Sheet

Instrument Data Sheet is a document containing specification and information of an instrument device. It specifies
general information of instrument such as tag number identification, service description, location (line
number/equipment number), P&ID number or drawing number reference, process data (if applicable), calibrated
range (if applicable), material, performance details (such as accuracy, linearity if applicable), hazardous
certification (for electrical device), accessories required, etc. The details of information in data sheet may differ
among each types of instrument such as transmitter, switch, gauge, control valve.
Reference document: Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID), Heat and Material Balance (HMB), line list,
instrument specification, piping specification, calculation, vendor catalog.
Preparing a data sheet requires some document/drawing references. The following steps describe the work flow:
1. P&ID provides general information such as instrument tag number, service description, line
number/equipment number, P&ID number.
2. Process data. Some of the following process data should be available for selection of instrument; fluid
type, fluid state (gas/liquid), design pressure, operating pressure, design temperature, operating
temperature, flow rate, density, viscosity, specific gravity, ratio specific heat (gas), molecular weight (gas).
However, the information of process data which is required to be specified in the data sheet varies depends
on the instrument type. For example, a pressure gauge data sheet does not require ratio of specific heat. By
knowing those process data, Instrument engineer may select material of instrument, calibrated range, body
rating, etc. Process data can be obtained from process discipline document named Heat and Material
Balance. Other way, instrument engineer may look to the line list, also issued by process discipline, to get
general process data. However, compared to HMB, only limited process data is provided in line list
document.
3. Project specification. Company has specification which details minimum requirement for instrumentation.
In addition, it also provides standard that shall be applied to instrument in order to have uniform
specification for certain instrument throughout the plant. This is intended to minimize the spare part and
tools, also to give ease of maintenance.
4. Calculation. Some instrument need to be calculated to have a proper size. This calculation is required prior
data sheet preparation. Control valve, pressure safety valve, orifice plate, thermowell are some of
instruments which need to be calculated.
5. Vendor catalog. It is recommended to refer vendor catalog during data sheet preparation to ensure that the
device is available on the market. Skipping this activity could result difficulties in finding the instrument
on the market during procurement phase. If the instrument is not available on the market, it could change
the design, not only the instrument design but also could revert back up to process design. Not only rework, it also could result to project delay.
6. Code and Standard. Last but not least, cross check to the related code and standard is needed although
this issue mostly has been covered in project specification.
The purpose of instrument data sheet
When the data sheet completed, it is attached to requisition which to be sent to several vendors. Vendors will offer
their quotation with various model and manufacturer among the offers. It is an instrument engineer responsibility
to evaluate all quotation and determine which offer is technically acceptable.
Having been considered its technical and commercial aspects, the instrument is purchased. Following the purchase
order, vendor will submit supporting document and drawing. Based on vendor data, instrument data sheet may be
updated to accomodate details to make the data sheet as-built.
Finally, data sheet along with its supporting vendor data are stored in library or document control and will be
refered during construction, operation and maintenance.
DATA SHEET
PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
GENERAL
1
2
3
4
5
PROCESS
CONDITIONS
6
7
8
9
10
Fluid Type/State
Temperature Design/Operation
Pressure Design/Operation
NACE Requirement
See List on Page 2

See List on Page 2
See List on Page 2
See List on Page 2
TRANSMITTER
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Element Type
Element Material
Fill Fluid
Body Material
Body Rating
Mounting
Electronic Case Material
Bolt & Nut Material
Process Connection
Electrical Connection
Enclosure Protection Class
Certification - Area Classification
Power Supply
Output Signal
Adjustable Range
Calibration Range
Accuracy
Repeatability
Diaphragm
316 SS
Silicone
316 SS
250 barg (*)
2" Pipe mounting
316 SS
Stainless Steel
1/2" NPTF
1/2" NPTF
IP 65
Exd, Zone 1 IIB T3
24 VDC, Loop Powered
4-20 mA, HART
See List on Page 2
See List on Page 2
0.1 +/- % span
0.1 +/- % span
DIAPHRAGM
SEAL
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Process Connection
Diaphragm Material
Upper
Fill Fluid
Capillary Length
Flushing Ring
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
OPTIONS
37
38
39
40
41
42
LCD
Mounting Bracket
Valve Manifold Type
Manifold Mounting
Nameplate
PURCHASE
DATA
Tag No.
Service
Line No.
P&ID No.
Document No.
Sht. No.
Project No.
Project Name
See List on Page 2

See List on Page 2
See List on Page 2
See List on Page 2
Equipment No.
Rating
Lower Housing Material
Fill Fluid Density
Capillary Material
Material
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Yes
2" pipe bracket - Stainless Steel
2 Way Valve
316 SS
Integrated to transmitter
Yes, Note 1
*
43 Manufacturer
44 Model
45
Notes
(*) : Vendor to verify/complete
1. Instrument to have mechanically attached SS nameplate hardstamped with the instrument tag number.
2. Vendor should refer to Company's Sepecification "Engineering and Design of Instrumentation Systems".
REV
DATE
DESCRIPTION
BY
CHECKED
APPROVED
CLIENT
No.
Tag Number
Service
P&ID
Line No /
Equipment No
Fluid
Press.Design/Oper.
(barg)
Temp.Design/Oper.
(C)
Adjust. Range
(barg)
Cal. Range
(barg)
NACE Required
PIT-0100
Prod. Separator Gas Press. Tr.1
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
V-0100
HC
31 / 14~28
-20 ~ 120 / 75 ~ 130
VTA
0 ~ 40
Yes
PIT-0101
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
V-0100
HC
31 / 14~28
-20 ~ 120 / 75 ~ 130
VTA
0 ~ 40
Yes
PIT-0200
P-CPP-PID-01-0101
V-0200
HC
31 / 14~28
-20 ~ 120 / 75 ~ 130
VTA
0 ~ 40
Yes
PIT-0201
P-CPP-PID-01-0101
V-0200
HC
31 / 14~28
-20 ~ 120 / 75 ~ 130
VTA
0 ~ 40
Yes
Notes
VTA: Vendor to Advise
REV
DATE
DESCRIPTION
BY
CHECKED APPROVED
CLIENT
Document No.
Sht. No.
DATA SHEET
PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
Project No.
Project Name
Instrument Loop Diagram

Loop diagram represents detailed drawing showing a connection from one point to control system. It could be
connection between
Field instrument to control system (or vice versa)
Signal from Control Panel to control system (or vice versa)
Signal from MCC to control system (or vice versa)
Signal form one control system to another system
Loop diagram shows instrument (in a symbol) and its terminal numbers which are to be connected, cable number,
junction box number, terminal number assigned for the specified instrument, multipair cable and pair number ,
marshalling cabinet number, terminal number in marshalling cabinet, control system details (rack, slot, I/O
channel). It also clearly indicates locaton of each equipment by means of border line as a limit.
Loop Diagram usually shows a single control loop which means it could only contains just one input (sensor to
control system), just one output (control system to final element) or combination of both
Reference drawing
To have the loop diagram completed and provide complete infomation, the following are list of data required along
with its source/reference:
Instrument Terminal number. Most instrument could be assumed to use (+) and (-). Terminals. Instrument
which needs special arrangement such as smoke detector or instrument which in series loop, requires
manufacturer connection detail to make the cable is properly connected.
Junction box terminal number, this information could be obtained from JB wiring connection
Marshalling terminal number, this information could be obtained from marshalling wiring connection.
I/O point detail information. Obtaion this information from I/O assignment which is produced by system
integrator or control system vendor.
The purpose of instrument loop diagram

It is used in checking of a correct installation and connection when tested during pre-commissioning,
commissioning and also for trouble shooting during operation.
Cable Schedule
Cable Schedule is a document containing list of instrument cable. This document shows cable as well as gland
required by each instrument or connection. The information of the cable schedule shall consists:
Cable Number
Cable Type / Specification
Cable Size
Cable Length
Source and destination termination description
Cable gland type and size for each incoming cable
Reference document: Instrument Index / I/O List

Reference drawing: Instrument Cable Layout, Interconnection block diagram
Filter tag numbers that has a wire from instrument index.
I/O list will cover most of the tag number, because it only show instrument tag number which has I/O and
therefore require wires.
Please note that instrument which is not loop powered requires additional cable for power.
Instrument cable layout and interconnection block diagram will make the preparation of cable schedule more
convenience in specifying cable source and destination.
The purpose of Cable Schedule
Cable schedule is a reference in preparing Material Take-Off of cable for procurement. However, cable length
shown on this document are approximate only. Therefore, there should be contigency for material procurement to
allow spare for cable cutting, unexpected barrier in the field, riser, etc.
Cable schedule will be refered also during construction phase, however it is not recommended to cut the cable
based on the lenght information stated on the cable schedule. For actual cutting during installation, the common
practice is to pull the cable from its drum and cut in the field.
CABLE SCHEDULE
Project Name
: Dummy project
Project Number
: XABCD0123

Revision: 0
CABLE
NO
CABLE NO
FROM
CABLE
PROJECT
SPEC
NUMBER OF
PAIR / CORE/
TRIAD / QUAD
SIZE
(mm2)
LENGTH
(m)
INSULATON
RATING
EQUIPMENT
NO
TO
DESCRIPTION
LOCATION
GLAND
SIZE
GLAND SPEC
(J-CPP-SPC-00-0020)
EQUIPMENT
NO
DESCRIPTION
LOCATION
GLAND
SIZE
GLAND SPEC
(J-CPP-SPC-00-0020)
SOV-0100
C02DFL
2/C
1.5
30
1000 V
XSV-0101
SOLENOID VALVE
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-D-SIS-001
DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
SOV-0101
C02DFL
2/C
1.5
30
1000 V
XSV-0102
SOLENOID VALVE
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-D-SIS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
SOV-0102
C02DFL
2/C
1.5
20
1000 V
XSV-0103
SOLENOID VALVE
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-D-SIS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
SOV-0103
C02DFL
2/C
1.5
20
1000 V
XSV-0104
SOLENOID VALVE
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-D-SIS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
SOV-0200
C02DFL
2/C
1.5
30
1000 V
XSV-0201
SOLENOID VALVE
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-D-SIS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
SOV-0201
C02DFL
2/C
1.5
30
1000 V
XSV-0202
SOLENOID VALVE
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-D-SIS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
SOV-0202
C02DFL
2/C
1.5
20
1000 V
XSV-0203
SOLENOID VALVE
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-D-SIS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
SOV-0203
C02DFL
2/C
1.5
20
1000 V
XSV-0204
SOLENOID VALVE
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-D-SIS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
C19DFL
19/C
1.5
200
1000 V
JB-D-SIS-001
LD
M32
HZ-BR-001
MR-SIS-001
SIS MARSHALLING CABINET
CR
M32
NO-BR-001
13 ZSC/O-0100
P02DFL
2/PR
0.75
30
300 V
ZSC/O-0100
LIMIT SWITCHES
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-D-PCS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
14 ZSC/O-0101
P02DFL
2/PR
0.75
30
300 V
ZSC/O-0101
LIMIT SWITCHES
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-D-PCS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
15 ZSC/O-0102
P02DFL
2/PR
0.75
20
300 V
ZSC/O-0102
LIMIT SWITCHES
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-D-PCS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
16 ZSC/O-0103
P02DFL
2/PR
0.75
20
300 V
ZSC/O-0103
LIMIT SWITCHES
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-D-PCS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
17 ZSC/O-0200
P02DFL
2/PR
0.75
30
300 V
ZSC/O-0200
LIMIT SWITCHES
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-D-PCS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
18 ZSC/O-0201
P02DFL
2/PR
0.75
30
300 V
ZSC/O-0201
LIMIT SWITCHES
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-D-PCS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
19 ZSC/O-0202
P02DFL
2/PR
0.75
20
300 V
ZSC/O-0202
LIMIT SWITCHES
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-D-PCS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
20 ZSC/O-0203
P02DFL
2/PR
0.75
20
300 V
ZSC/O-0203
LIMIT SWITCHES
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-D-PCS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
P24DFL
24/PR
0.75
200
300 V
JB-D-PCS-001
LD
M40
HZ-BR-001
MR-PCS-002
PCS MARSHALLING CABINET
CR
M40
NO-BR-001
9
10 JD-C-FL-0001
11
12
21
22 JD-P-FL-0001
23
24
25
FIT-0100
P01AFL
1/PR
0.75
30
300 V
FIT-0100
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-A-PCS-001
ANALOG INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
26
FT-0102
P01AFL
1/PR
0.75
30
300 V
FT-0102
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-A-PCS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
27
LIT-0100
P01AFL
1/PR
0.75
30
300 V
LIT-0100
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-A-PCS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
28
LY-0100
P01AFL
1/PR
0.75
30
300 V
LY-0100
LEVEL POSITIONER
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-A-PCS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
29
PIT-0100
P01AFL
1/PR
0.75
30
300 V
PIT-0100
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-A-PCS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
30
PY-0100
P01AFL
1/PR
0.75
30
300 V
PY-0100
PRESSURE POSITIONER
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-A-PCS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
31
TIT-0100
P01AFL
1/PR
0.75
30
300 V
TIT-0100
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-A-PCS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
P12AFL
12/PR
0.75
200
300 V
JB-A-PCS-001
LD
M32
HZ-BR-001
MR-PCS-001
PCS MARSHALLING CABINET
CR
M32
NO-BR-001
32
33 JA-P-FL-0001
34
35
36
LIT-0101
P01AFL
1/PR
0.75
30
300 V
LIT-0101
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-A-SIS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
37
LIT-0102
P01AFL
1/PR
0.75
30
300 V
LIT-0102
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-A-SIS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
38
PIT-0101
P01AFL
1/PR
0.75
30
300 V
PIT-0101
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-A-SIS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
39
LT-1202
P01AFL
1/PR
0.75
30
300 V
LT-1202
LD
1/2"NPT
HZ-BR-001
JB-A-SIS-001
LD
M20
HZ-BR-001
P08AFL
8/PR
0.75
200
300 V
JB-A-SIS-001
LD
M25
HZ-BR-001
MR-SIS-001
SIS MARSHALLING CABINET
CR
M25
NO-BR-001
40
41 JA-P-FL-0002
42
Page 1 of 1
Cause and Effect

Some project categorizes Cause and effect is part of process document and some other projects consider Cause and
effect is part of instrument deliverables. Literally, cause means something that makes something else happen and
effect is what happens as a result of the cause.
The interaction between cause and effect could simple to complex. For a simple example in process control: cause
could be a tank high liquid level alarm and effect could be open the tank outlet valve. The complex example could
be like this: If minimum two flame detectors detect fire in area 1 and coincide with one flame detector detect fire
in area 2, then it should close valve A, close valve B, open valve C, de-energize the power outlet, etc.
Cause and effect is presented as a form of matrix. The causes are listed in left section while the effects are listed on
top section, both are described in form of tag number with their descriptions (other additional information such as
P&ID may supplement). The marked intersection between both means that they are related as cause-effect. Marks
could be in form of letter X which mean effect will be activated, T which mean effect will be activated with
time delay, P which mean cause will give permissive to an effect.
Reference document: SAFE Chart, philosophy
SAFE Chart presents the required safety devices for each process equipment. SAFE Chart shall ensure all safety
requirements have been fulfilled and what executive actions the safety devices take.
Philosophy provide the narration and engineer shall translate it to cause and effect interaction so that the plant
operates as the intended philosophy.
The purpose of Cause and Effect document
Cause and effect document will be translated to program language by control system engineer and implemented in
control system as logic. These logic will always monitor plant during operation and works if pre-determined
condition attained.
Separator Gas Outlet
Separator Condensate Outlet
SDV
SDV
Separator Water Outlet
Feed Gas Inlet to Separato
NOTE
CAUSE & EFFECTS
SEPARATOR
SDV
DESCRIPTION
GENERAL
SDV
01-0001
XSV- 0103
CLOSE
01-0001
XSV- 0102
00-0007
01-0001
XSV- 0101
NOTE
CLOSE
TYPE
CLOSE
P & ID
XSV- 0001
TAG No.
CLOSE
DESCRIPTION
TAG No.
PRODUCTION SEPARATOR
ACTION
P & ID
TYPE
CENTRAL PROCESS PLATFORM
SI
PRODUCTION SEPARATOR
Pressure High High
PAHH-0101
01-0001
HARD
Pressure Low Low
PALL-0101
01-0001
HARD
Condensate Level High High
LAHH-0101
01-0001
HARD
Condensate Level Low Low
LALL-0101
01-0001
HARD
SI
Interfalce Level Low Low
LALL-0103
01-0001
HARD
SI
SI
X
X
X
PUSHBUTTONS-HMI
HMI
HS-0101
SOFT
INTERTRIPS
RESET
Condensate Surge Drum USD
USD-01-32
INT
Production Water USD
USD-01-20
INT
Production Separator USD
USD-01-01
INT
RST-SEP
SOFT
X
X
X
R1 R1 R1 R1
Instrument Index
Instrument index is a document containing list of instrument devices within a plant. Instrument index shall include
tag number of all physical instruments (e.g. field instrument, physical alarm and indicator) and pseudo instrument
which commonly named soft tag (e.g DCS indication, alarm, controller).
Instrument index shall be created at the beginning of project and considered as a live document which should be
kept updated eventhough the plant has been operated. Instrument index shall be revised if there is any plant or
system modfication which impact to additional, removal, or resetting of instrument.
In instrument index document, the following information should be stated but not limited to:
Tag number
Loop Number
Type of Instrument
Location
Service description
P&ID Number
Line number or equipment number
I/O Type
Control System
Range or set point along with engineering unit used
Applicable reference Document (Instrument Data Sheet Number, Hook-up Drawing Number, Instrument
Layout Number, Loop Drawing Number)
Package Number
Manufacturer
Model Number
The following references are required in preparing instrument index to make it complete of information:
Reference drawing: P&ID, HMB
1. P&ID (Piping and Instrumentation Diagram)
From P&ID all instrument tag number are gathered along with its associated information such as service
description, instrument type, line/equipment number, set point. A good quality P&ID may have distinct symbol
that distinguish control system to which each instrument connected.
2. HMB (Heat and Material Balance)
We can determine measurement range of instrument based on process data on each stream from HMB (Heat and
Material Balance).
Reference document: Cause & Effect
Instrument index should include fire and gas related tag numbers. Fire and gas devices usually do not appear in
P&ID, they are stated in cause and effect instead.
The purpose of instrument index
From its self explanatory name, instrument index will be referred as an index for many purposes as follow:
As a basis to prepare the I/O list by extracting only the tag number which has I/O point
Searching, Listing, Filtering a tag number
The following link is typical instrument index (for example only):
INSTRUMENT INDEX
Project Name
: Dummy project
Project Number
: XABCD0123
NO
TAG
NUMBER
1 BDV-0100
2 FAH-0102
2
FE-0100
5
FI-0100
6 FIC-0102
7 FIT-0100
8 FQI-0102
9
FT-0102
10
FX-0100
12 LAH-0100
13 LAH-0102
14 LAHH-0101
15 LAL-0100
16 LAL-0102
17 LALL-0101
18 LALL-0103
19 LCV-0100
20 LIC-0100
21 LIC-0102
47
LG-0110
22
LIT-0100
23
LIT-0101
24
LIT-0102
26
LY-0100
27 PAH-0100
28 PAHH-0101
29 PAL-0100
30 PALL-0101
31 PCV-0100
47
PG-0110
34 PIC-0100
35 PIT-0100
36 PIT-0101
37 PSV-0110
38 PSV-0111
39 PSV-0112
41
PY-0100
42 RO-0100
43 SDV-0101
44 SDV-0102
45 SDV-0103
47
TG-0110
48
TI-0100
49 TIT-0100
50 SOV-0100
51 SOV-0101
52 SOV-0102
53 SOV-0103
55 ZIC-0100
56 ZIC-0101
57 ZIC-0102
58 ZIC-0103
60 ZIO-0100
61 ZIO-0101
62 ZIO-0102
63 ZIO-0103
65 ZSC-0100
66 ZSC-0101
67 ZSC-0102
68 ZSC-0103
70 ZSO-0100
71 ZSO-0101
72 ZSO-0102
73 ZSO-0103
LOOP
NUMBER
V-0100
F-0102
F-0100
F-0100
F-0102
F-0100
F-0102
F-0102
F-0100
L-0100
L-0102
L-0101
L-0100
L-0102
L-0101
L-0103
L-0100
L-0100
L-0102
L-0110
L-0100
L-0101
L-0102
L-0100
P-0100
P-0101
P-0100
P-0101
P-0100
P-0110
P-0100
P-0100
P-0101
P-0110
P-0111
P-0112
P-0100
F-0100
V-0101
V-0102
V-0103
T-0110
T-0100
T-0100
V-0100
V-0101
V-0102
V-0103
V-0100
V-0101
V-0102
V-0103
V-0100
V-0101
V-0102
V-0103
V-0100
V-0101
V-0102
V-0103
V-0100
V-0101
V-0102
V-0103

Revision: 0
INSTRUMENT TYPE
BLOWDOWN VALVE
FLOW ALARM HIGH
FLOW ELEMENT - SENIOR ORIFICE
FLOW INDICATION
FLOW INDICATING CONTROLLER
FLOW TOTALIZING INDICATOR
FLOW STRAIGHTENING VANES
LEVEL ALARM HIGH
LEVEL ALARM HIGH
LEVEL ALARM HIGH HIGH
LEVEL ALARM LOW
LEVEL ALARM LOW
LEVEL ALARM LOW LOW
LEVEL ALARM LOW LOW
LEVEL CONTROL VALVE
LEVEL INDICATING CONTROLLER
LEVEL INDICATING CONTROLLER
LEVEL GAUGE
LEVEL POSITIONER
PRESSURE ALARM HIGH
PRESSURE ALARM HIGH HIGH
PRESSURE ALARM LOW
PRESSURE ALARM LOW
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE
PRESSURE GAUGE
PRESSURE INDICATING CONTROLLER
PRESSURE SAFETY VALVE
PRESSURE POSITIONER
RESTRICTION ORIFICE
SHUTDOWN VALVE
SHUTDOWN VALVE
SHUTDOWN VALVE
TEMPERATURE GAUGE
TEMPERATURE INDICATION
SOLENOID VALVE
SOLENOID VALVE
SOLENOID VALVE
SOLENOID VALVE
LIMIT SWITCH CLOSE INDICATION
POSITION LIGHT OPEN
POSITION LIGHT OPEN
POSITION LIGHT OPEN
POSITION LIGHT OPEN
LIMIT SWITCH CLOSE
LIMIT SWITCH CLOSE
LIMIT SWITCH CLOSE
LIMIT SWITCH CLOSE
LIMIT SWITCH OPEN
LIMIT SWITCH OPEN
LIMIT SWITCH OPEN
LIMIT SWITCH OPEN
STATUS LOCATION
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
FIELD
HMI
FIELD
HMI
HMI
FIELD
HMI
FIELD
FIELD
HMI
HMI
HMI
HMI
HMI
HMI
HMI
FIELD
HMI
HMI
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
HMI
HMI
HMI
HMI
FIELD
FIELD
HMI
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
HMI
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
HMI
HMI
HMI
HMI
HMI
HMI
HMI
HMI
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
FIELD
SERVICE
Production Separator Gas Blowdown to Flare
Production Separator Interface Level
Production Separator Pressure
Production Separator Oil Level Control
Production Separator Gas Pressure Control
Production Separator Gas Pressure
Production Separator Safety Valve
Production Separator Gas Blowdown to Flare
Production Separator Temperature
EQUIPMENT
NUMBER
P&ID NUMBER
V-0100
V-0100
V-0100
V-0100
V-0100
V-0100
V-0100
V-0100
V-0100
V-0100
V-0100
-
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
P-CPP-PID-01-0001
LINE NUMBER
4"-PG-C2N-1099
24"-PG-C2N-2156
24"-PG-C2N-2156
6"-PL-C2N-2159
24"-PG-C2N-2156
6"-PL-C2N-2159
24"-RV-C2N-7065
-
10"-PG-C4N-1000
10"-PG-C4N-1000
10"-PG-C4N-1000
4"-PG-CS1-1872
24"-PG-C2N-2156
6"-PL-C2N-2159
4"-OW-C4N-3070
24"-PG-C2N-2156
-
PACKAGE
NUMBER
I/O
TYPE
SYSTEM
AI
AI
AI
AI
AI
AO
AI
AI
AO
AI
DO
DO
DO
DO
DI
DI
DI
DI
DI
DI
DI
DI
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
SIS
PCS
PCS
SIS
SIS
PCS
PCS
PCS
SIS
SIS
PCS
PCS
SIS
PCS
SIS
PCS
PCS
SIS
PCS
PCS
PCS
SIS
SIS
SIS
SIS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
PCS
CALIBRATION
MIN
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-
MAX
350
150
100
100
100
100
40
40
40
100
50
50
50
-
SET
POINT
ENG.
UNIT
DATA SHEET NO.
LAYOUT DWG NO.
LOOP DWG NO.
HOOK-UP DWG NO.
100
45
36
55
25
31
16
29
36
34
26
28
18
14
24
31
31
32.5
-
m3/hr
MMScfd
m3/hr
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
barg
barg
barg
barg
barg
barg
barg
barg
barg
barg
barg
%
degC
degC
degC
-
J-CPP-DS-00-0001
J-CPP-DS-00-0005
J-CPP-DS-00-0011
J-CPP-DS-00-0006
J-CPP-DS-00-0002
J-CPP-DS-00-0010
J-CPP-DS-00-0009
J-CPP-DS-00-0009
J-CPP-DS-00-0009
J-CPP-DS-00-0002
J-CPP-DS-00-0015
J-CPP-DS-00-0011
J-CPP-DS-00-0011
J-CPP-DS-00-0003
J-CPP-DS-00-0003
J-CPP-DS-00-0003
J-CPP-DS-00-0007
J-CPP-DS-00-0001
J-CPP-DS-00-0001
J-CPP-DS-00-0001
J-CPP-DS-00-0016
J-CPP-DS-00-0012
-
J-CPP-LAY-00-0001 Sht 6
J-CPP-LOP-00-0001 Sht.080
J-CPP-HOK-00-0001 Sht 4
MANUFACTURER
MODEL
NUMBER
REMARKS
INSTRUMENTDRAWINGS
Instrument Cable Layout

Instrument Cable Layout shows routing of instrument cables according to plant or platform layout. In addition,
instrument cable layout shows the details related to instrumentation cable such as:
Location of field devices to be wired

Location of junction box
Cable number
Cable going up/down
Reference drawing: Instrument Location Plan
From Instrument Location Plan, disregard the instrument which does not require wiring such as Gauges,
Pressure Safety Valve, etc.
Route the electronic instrument to the nearest junction box accordingly (make necessary separation to
junction box for analog or digital, SIS or BPCS or Fire & Gas, IS or Non-IS).
Route the multi-pair/multi-core cable from junction box to control room/other rooms.
Cable routing should be as short as possible, however consider some factors which should be avoided such
as high interference noise, hot source, etc. Please refer to API 552.
The purpose of instrument cable layout

Instrument cable layout together with interconnection block diagram are to be used as a reference for preparing
instrument cable schedule in determining the following:
List of the cable required and its length

The point of source and destination of cable end connection
Instrument cable layout is also a reference to identify the existence of all instrument cables in the plant or platform.
No example is provided here since instrument cable layout depends on plant or platform layout. However below
symbols may be used for items related to instrument cable layout.
Note that, above example shows symbols

which may differ among projects. The important thing is one shall be consistent with the symbol in the entire
instrument cable layout drawing and shall list the symbols in the legend section.
Shutdown Logic Diagram

Shutdown logic diagram (also known as ESD logic diagram) shows a hierarchy of shutdown level within a plant or
platform. Shutdown logic diagram start from telling a big picture of shutdown level, typically the level starts from
0 continues with the higher number (1, 2, ). The lower number represents the more critical shutdown. The
subsequent sheets continues with detail hierarchy for each process unit.
Shutdown logic diagram describes the cause that may trigger the shutdown and the effect that may results once
signal is activated. This diagram also shows the action such as time delay, start-up inhibit, reset that will be
performed for each action.
The location of each instrument that act as a trigger/cause shall be specified clearly.
Reference document:SAFE Chart, philosophy
SAFE chart presents the required safety devices for each process equipment. SAFE chart shall ensure all safety
requirements have been fulfilled and what executive actions the safety devices have to take.
Philosophy provide the narration and engineer shall translate it to cause and effect interaction so that the plant
operates as the intended philosophy.
The purpose of Shutdown logic diagram
Shutdown logic diagram may be used as a reference in preparing cause and effect diagram.
Shutdown Level Hierarchy
Shutdown level hierarchy is a classification of shutdown into a group which is categorized by intention priority.
These shutdown levels will be implemented in Safety Instrumented System and will function to protect the
personnel, equipment and environment as per their specific purpose. The higher number of shutdown level shall
initiate the lower level groups.
Shutdown level hierarchy may differ among each plant and platform. The number of level may vary and shall be
determined by considering all safety factors to suit the needs and condition of each plant or platform. The
following is an example only of general shutdown level that may exist within a plant or platform in an ascending
order of risks severity:
Level 1 Unit Shutdown (USD)
Unit Shutdown (USD) is the shutdown of individual process or utility system or subsystem and intended to prevent
equipment from operating outside process limits that may cause damage to the equipment or adversely affect the
process. USD can be initiated automatically by various process sensors or manually through means of push button
on the panel or Human Machine Interface (HMI). A unit shutdown shall not impair the operation of other system
in the plant or platform. Shutdown of one vendor package is also classified into this level of shutdown.
Level 2 Process Shutdown (PSD)
Process Shutdown (PSD) is shutdown of all process system. PSD is activated automatically by various process
sensors. PSD will shutdown and isolate all related process equipment or systems, to limit the probability of an
abnormal operating condition leading to an emergency situation.
Level 3 Emergency Shutdown (ESD)
Emergency Shutdown (ESD) is shutdown to minimize the consequences during emergency. ESD can be
automatically initiated by load shedding functions or manually by the operator through push button on the panel.
ESD will shutdown and isolate all designated process related equipment, including inlet and outlet ESD valves.
Depends on each project some plant will allow the power generation, utilities, and fuel gas system keep running
during this condition.
Level 4 Emergency Depressurize Shutdown (EDP)
Emergency Depressurize Shutdown (EDP) will shutdown, isolate and depressurize all equipments by opening the
de-pressuring valves to flare. In this condition, main power generation system will be shutdown and the emergency
power generator will start. EDP is manually activated by the operator through push button.
As mentioned before, the number of level shutdown in the hierarchy may differ among each project. In some
platform, there are other levels of shutdown i.e.total process shutdown and abandon facility shutdown. On
platform abandonment, all source of electrical power will be totally isolated except DC battery system for the
navigation aids.
Instrument Data Sheet

Instrument Data Sheet is a document containing specification and information of an instrument device. It specifies
general information of instrument such as tag number identification, service description, location (line
number/equipment number), P&ID number or drawing number reference, process data (if applicable), calibrated
range (if applicable), material, performance details (such as accuracy, linearity if applicable), hazardous
certification (for electrical device), accessories required, etc. The details of information in data sheet may differ
among each types of instrument such as transmitter, switch, gauge, control valve.
Reference document: Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID), Heat and Material Balance (HMB), line list,
instrument specification, piping specification, calculation, vendor catalog.
Preparing a data sheet requires some document/drawing references. The following steps describe the work flow:
1.
P&ID provides general information such as instrument tag number, service description, line
number/equipment number, P&ID number.
2.
Process data. Some of the following process data should be available for selection of instrument; fluid
type, fluid state (gas/liquid), design pressure, operating pressure, design temperature, operating temperature, flow
rate, density, viscosity, specific gravity, ratio specific heat (gas), molecular weight (gas). However, the information
of process data which is required to be specified in the data sheet varies depends on the instrument type. For
example, a pressure gauge data sheet does not require ratio of specific heat. By knowing those process data,
Instrument engineer may select material of instrument, calibrated range, body rating, etc. Process data can be
obtained from process discipline document named Heat and Material Balance. Other way, instrument engineer
may look to the line list, also issued by process discipline, to get general process data. However, compared to
HMB, only limited process data is provided in line list document.
3.
Project specification. Company has specification which details minimum requirement for instrumentation.
In addition, it also provides standard that shall be applied to instrument in order to have uniform specification for
certain instrument throughout the plant. This is intended to minimize the spare part and tools, also to give ease of
maintenance.
4.
Calculation. Some instrument need to be calculated to have a proper size. This calculation is required prior
data sheet preparation. Control valve, pressure safety valve, orifice plate, thermowell are some of instruments
which need to be calculated.
5.
Vendor catalog. It is recommended to refer vendor catalog during data sheet preparation to ensure that the
device is available on the market. Skipping this activity could result difficulties in finding the instrument on the
market during procurement phase. If the instrument is not available on the market, it could change the design, not
only the instrument design but also could revert back up to process design. Not only re-work, it also could result to
project delay.
6.
Code and Standard. Last but not least, cross check to the related code and standard is needed although
this issue mostly has been covered in project specification.
The purpose of instrument data sheet
When the data sheet completed, it is attached to requisition which to be sent to several vendors. Vendors will offer
their quotation with various model and manufacturer among the offers. It is an instrument engineer responsibility
to evaluate all quotation and determine which offer is technically acceptable.
Having been considered its technical and commercial aspects, the instrument is purchased. Following the purchase
order, vendor will submit supporting document and drawing. Based on vendor data, instrument data sheet may be
updated to accomodate details to make the data sheet as-built.
Finally, data sheet along with its supporting vendor data are stored in library or document control and will be
refered during construction, operation and maintenance.
Instrument Interconnection Block Diagram

Interconnection block diagram is a drawing showing interconnection between each device including instrument,
junction box, marshalling cabinet, panel, etc. This drawing can provide a glance view of overall connection of
system. Some interconnection block diagrams provide detail information start from every field instruments up to
control system. In larger project, this interconnection block diagram shows only from junction box / package
system to main control system while the connection from junction box to each instrument is shown in junction box
wiring diagram. Interconnection block diagram should also indicate cable number of each cable connecting two
devices.
Reference drawing: Instrument and control architecture diagram, instrument cable layout
To prepare an interconnection block diagram, reference should be made to instrument architecture diagram and
Instrument cable layout.
Instrument and control architecture diagram shows overall instrument and control system within a plant. Hence by
having a look to architecture diagram, the preparation of interconnection block diagram is easier.
Instrument cable layout shows every instruments connection to its junction box.
The purpose of interconnection block diagram drawing
As a reference for preparing junction box wiring diagram/ connection list and marshalling cabinet wiring diagram
which both subsequently are required for preparing instrument loop diagram.
Together with instrument cable layout, this drawing is also used as a reference for preparing instrument cable
schedule.
Instrument Hook-up Drawing

Hook-up drawing is a detailed drawing showing typical installation of instrument in a correct manner so that
instrument operates properly (gives accurate indication and prevent any issued which could potentially affect the
measurement such as liquid trap in gas impulse line).
Hook-up drawing indicates tubing slopes, position of instrument in reference to process tapping point, scope break
between instrument vs piping.
Hook-up drawing also gives information the requirement of bulk material for each installation. It also details its
specification (size, type and material) and the quantity.
There are two types of hook-up drawing:
Process Hook-Up
This hook-up drawing contains typical installations for instrument which connects to the process
Pneumatic Hook-Up
This hook-up drawing contains typical installations for instrument which requires instrument air such as control
valve, actuated valve
Reference drawing: P&ID, Installation Detail Specification, Piping Specification
P&ID tells the designer which instrument requires a hook-up drawing. A good designer can also read whether the
instrument tapped in gas service or liquid service.
Battery limit between instrument and piping shall be made clear, this is stated in P&ID symbol and typical sheet or
piping documents.
Installation detail specification will also specify items that should be utilized and factor that should be considered
in one installation
The purpose of Instrument Hook Up Drawing
As stated earlier, information of the requirement of bulk material is stated for installation on each sheet hence the
bulk material required for the whole drawings could be summarized and tabulated in a document named Material
Take Off.
During project construction phase, this drawing is also referred as a guidance of how to install the instrument
properly.
Calibration Form
Calibration form provide list of action to be done when performing instrument calibration. Instrument Calibration
is required to make sure that instrument will function properly prior to installation. Before shipping, vendor has
already done the calibration after setting the range to pre-determined value as requested by the end-user. It is
common by contractor to re-check the instrument by performing bench calibration. However, some end-user prefer
to install it directly.
The following is typical calibration form for transmitter, gauges and control valve.
Transmitter calibration form:
Transmitter Calibration Form
Control valve calibration form:
Control Valve Calibration Form
Pressure gauge calibration form:
Gauge Calibration Form
Project No:
INSPECTION & TEST RECORD
INSTRUMENT
CALIBRATION
Project Name:
Document No:
(CONTROL VALVE)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
Tag Number:
System:
Manufacturer:
Data Sheet No:
Model Number:
P&ID No:
Range:
Eng Unit:
Layout Drawing No:
ITEMS
OK
N/A
INSPECTION CHECKLIST
Check Instrument tagplate details against data sheet
Check Instrument has no physical damage
Check no water ingress/condensation
CALIBRATION
Operate the valve by stroking 0, 25, 50, 75, 100, 75, 50, 25% of travel
Check valve fail position against instrument data sheet by removing electrical signal
Check valve fail position by isolating instrument air/hydraullics source to valve
Check control valve accessories for condition and correct operation such as positioner, limit
switch, air filter regulator, solenoid valve, etc
Valve supply pressure
Bench set pressure
Positioner or I/P transducer supply pressure
Valve travel
Test medium
Electrical Power Suppy
Fail Close/Fail Open
Fail position time
Accessories operation
Positioner
Air Filter Regulator
Limit Switch
Others
Solenoid Valve
Rising (%)
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input mA
valve position
Completed By
Name
Sign
Date
Witnessed By
Accepted By
PUNCH
ITEM
Project No:
INSTRUMENT
CALIBRATION
Project Name:
Document No:
(TRANSMITTER)
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Eng Unit:
Layout Drawing No:
ITEMS
OK
N/A
PUNCH
ITEM
CALIBRATION
Raise input signal and record corresponding output signal at readings of 0, 25, 50, 75,
100% of range
Lower input signal and record corresponding output signal at readings of 100, 75, 50, 25,
0% of range
Check above results are within manufacturers stated accuracy, otherwise adjust and re-do
items above
Input
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% Span
Falling
Actual
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% Span
Error %
Actual
% Span
Error %
0
25
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75
100
Completed By
Name
Sign
Date
Witnessed By
Accepted By
Project No:
INSTRUMENT
CALIBRATION
Project Name:
Document No:
(GAUGE)
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Tag Number:
System:
Manufacturer:
Data Sheet No:
Model Number:
P&ID No:
Range:
Eng Unit:
Layout Drawing No:
ITEMS
OK
N/A
PUNCH
ITEM
CALIBRATION
Raise input signal and record corresponding output signal at readings of 0, 50, 100% of
range
Lower input signal and record corresponding output signal at readings of 100, 50, 0% of
range
Check above results are within manufacturers stated accuracy
Input
Reading
Rising
% Span
Falling
Actual
Actual
% Span
Error %
Actual
% Span
Error %
0
50
100
Completed By
Name
Sign
Date
Witnessed By
Accepted By
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Instrument Cable Fire Resistant vs Flame

Retardant
What is the difference between Fire resistant cable and Flame retardant cable? Please also explain the
typical application for both of them.
Fire resistant cable is cable which will continue to operate normally in the presence of prolonged fire for a
specified time under defined conditions. Fire resistance cable shall pass test as per IEC 60331.
Flame retardant cable are not rated to continue to operate under fire circumstance but it will resist the propagate of
fire into a new area by having behavior in fire under defined conditions which is proven by passing the test as per
IEC 60332.
Fire resistant cable is applied to critical circuit which operates on energized to trip or energized to operate and
circuit which needs to still operate during fire such as:
Instrument Cable related to signal for activating ESD2, ESD1, abandon platform.
Instrument Cable for fire fighting equipment such as deluge valve solenoid valve.
Cable for safety evacuation and emergency service.
Flame retardant cable is applied to circuit other than mention above. It serve for instrument loop which operates in
fail safe mode.
In term of cable construction, it is essential to distinguish the outer sheath colour between flame retardant cable
and fire resistant cable. Commonly, fire resistant cable has red outer sheath/jacket while flame retardant may have
grey or black outer sheath/jacket.
Difference between Shutdown Valve (SDV) and

Emergency Shutdown Valve (ESDV)
The construction and accessories of Shutdown Valve (SDV) and Emergency Shutdown Valve (ESDV) are similar.
What is the basis to distinguish their name?
Their name is distinguished only from their services. Shutdown Valve referred to actuated valve which is closed
during partial or total process shutdown of system to which the valve protects. Emergency Shutdown Valve is
actuated valve which is closed when triggered by signal from ESD level signal during emergency condition
occurs.
Emergency Shutdown Valves are commonly located in incoming line and outgoing line of the plant or platform.
Please note that some projects do not use term ESDV for tag numbering, instead Term SDV is used for
shutdown valve disregard their services. In this case, shutdown logic diagram would indicate which actuated valve
acts as Emergency Shutdown Valve.
Instrument Drawing in Modification Project

If you want to add a new pressure transmitter in existing plant, what existing instrument drawings are affected
during design phase?
Instrument layout drawing shall be revised to include new pressure transmitter.

Instrument Cable Layout shall be revised to show new cable routing for new pressure transmitter.
Junction box termination diagram / connection list shall be revised if the new transmitter is connected to
the existing junction box. The terminal number which is previously intended for SPARE shall now indicate
the new connection for transmitter cable. This is to show that the terminal strips are now occupied.
Marshalling cabinet termination diagram shall be revised to show connection of the new cable in the
available terminal strips and they are now occupied.
New loop diagram is required for construction and maintenance purpose.
New instrument hook-up drawing is required for correct installation.
PSV Types Selection
Safety Relief Valve (PSV) and explain how to select the right type for specific application?
Three types of Pressure Safety Relief Valve (PSV) are conventional, balanced bellows and pilot operated.
Conventional safety relief valves can be used on all services for liquid, gas, or vapor service if the total
backpressure is less than 10 percent of the set pressure.
Balanced bellows safety relief valve is used where the total backpressure exceeds 10 % of the set pressure
but does not exceed 50% of the set pressure, or where the superimposed back pressure varies widely
compared to the set pressure. It may also be selected to protect the spring and trim where corrosive fluid
may damage these parts.
Pilot operated safety relief valve shall be used when operating pressure is above 90% of set pressure or
where total backpressure may exceed 50% of set pressure as the valve lift is not affected by back pressure.
How to determine the thickness of tubing for specific

application?
Manufacturer publishes the maximum allowable working pressure information for each thickness of the
specified tubing size and material. If we have determined to use a specific material then we shall check that
the thickness stated in the catalog to withstand the pressure within the system.
Instrument Impluse Line

In instrument hook-up drawing, what is the the main differences between instrument installation for gas
service line and for liquid service line, especially for instrument which requires impulse line?
Instrument such as pressure transmitter, DP flow transmitter requires tubing as impulse line to sense the process
pressure. This tubing shall be tapped to process in the following manner:
In gas service line, process tap shall be facing upward, instrument is mounted higher than the process tap.
Tubing shall have slope upward from process tap to the instrument, this is to allow self drain of the liquid
component back to the main piping.
In liquid service line, process tap shall be facing downward, instrument is mounted lower than the process
tap. Tubing shall have slope downward from process tap to the instrument, this is to allow gas component
in liquid goes back to the main piping.
Is it possible to have process tap below the piping in gas service?

Yes it is, by accomodating condensate pot in the impulse line. However, this arrangement requires periodic
maintenance for emptying the condensate pot.

Retardant
IEC 60332.
fail safe mode.

The construction and accessories of Shutdown Valve (SDV) and Emergency Shutdown Valve (ESDV) are similar.
What is the basis to distinguish their name?
Their name is distinguished only from their services. Shutdown Valve referred to actuated valve which is closed
during partial or total process shutdown of system to which the valve protects. Emergency Shutdown Valve is
actuated valve which is closed when triggered by signal from ESD level signal during emergency condition
occurs.
Emergency Shutdown Valves are commonly located in incoming line and outgoing line of the plant or platform.
shutdown valve disregard their services. In this case, shutdown logic diagram would indicate which actuated valve
acts as Emergency Shutdown Valve.
Instrument Drawing in Modification Project

If you want to add a new pressure transmitter in existing plant, what existing instrument drawings are affected
during design phase?
Instrument layout drawing shall be revised to include new pressure transmitter.
Instrument Cable Layout shall be revised to show new cable routing for new pressure transmitter.
Junction box termination diagram / connection list shall be revised if the new transmitter is connected to
the existing junction box. The terminal number which is previously intended for SPARE shall now indicate
the new connection for transmitter cable. This is to show that the terminal strips are now occupied.
Marshalling cabinet termination diagram shall be revised to show connection of the new cable in the
available terminal strips and they are now occupied.
New loop diagram is required for construction and maintenance purpose.
New instrument hook-up drawing is required for correct installation.
PSV Types Selection
Mention three types of Pressure Safety Relief Valve (PSV) and explain how to select the right type
for specific application?
Three types of Pressure Safety Relief Valve (PSV) are conventional, balanced bellows and pilot operated.
Conventional safety relief valves can be used on all services for liquid, gas, or vapor service if the total
backpressure is less than 10 percent of the set pressure.
Balanced bellows safety relief valve is used where the total backpressure exceeds 10 % of the set pressure
but does not exceed 50% of the set pressure, or where the superimposed back pressure varies widely
compared to the set pressure. It may also be selected to protect the spring and trim where corrosive fluid
may damage these parts.
Pilot operated safety relief valve shall be used when operating pressure is above 90% of set pressure or
where total backpressure may exceed 50% of set pressure as the valve lift is not affected by back pressure.
Thermowell Sizing Questions

Describe the vibration phenomenon which should be considered in sizing a thermowell?
Fluid passing through a thermowell would create the von karman phemenon which occurs at particular frequency
value named as wake frequency. If value of natural frequency of the thermowell equals to that of wake frequency,
the thermowell would vibrate and might snap-off.
In designing a thermowell, the engineer shall ensure that the following requirements are satisfied:
Ratio of wake frequency to natural frequency < 0.8
Operating pressure < Maximum allowable static pressure (Pmax)
Thermowell length < Maximum allowable length (Lmax)
How long is the recommended length of thermowell compared to pipe diameter?
Thermowell length is recommended to have thermowell tip lies on the middle third of pipe. This is intended to
have more accurate measurement of process temperature. See below picture for detail.
In large pipe size, the above method is probably not applicable, due
to longer thermowell which subject to break due to process stream. In any case, the thermowell size shall fulfill the
requirement of ratio of wake to natural frequency, Maximum allowable static pressure (Pmax) and maximum
allowable length (Lmax)
Flashing and Cavitation Related Question

What is the difference between cavitation and flashing?
Flashing happens in the control valve if the liquid pressure drops to the value below its vapor pressure hence it
may form vapor component (like bubble). Similar to flashing, the vapor is formed in cavitation in the same way,
the difference is that the liquid pressure is increasing to a value over its vapor pressure during pressure recovery in
which makes the vapor turn back into liquid state afterwards.
During engineering design, how to select control valve which expected to experience flashing condition and
cavitation condition?
Flashing could be anticipated by hardened material trim therefore to overcome flashing, the selected control valve
shall have hardened material trim. However, hardened material trim is not sufficient to handle cavitation. Anticavitation trim shall be used otherwise the system design itself should be changed so cavitation is avoided.
Diaphragm Seal When to Use?

This post tries to describe the use of diaphragm seal since the standard installation of pressure instrument is by
using pressure transmitter which is remotely mounted from process taps and connected by impulse line which is
commonly a tubing. In some installation, standard installation using tubing is not suitable for the system thus
require diaphragm seal in lieu of tubing impulse line.
Compare to tubing impulse line, diaphragm seal costs more thus the use of diaphragm seal must be justified by its
functionality against the process requirement where impulse line becomes limitation.
Diaphragm seal provide the following benefits:
Prevent the process fluid getting clogged in the impulse line due to temperature change that may affect the
properties of the process fluid.
Prevent corrosive fluid contacting with the pressure sensor.
Prevent slurry or viscous fluid entering the impulse line and the sensor which may be plugging inside.
In level measurement, the use of diaphragm seal may be placed in lieu of wet leg arrangement which
require more maintenance on service where the process fluid inside the wet leg is not stable hence
eliminate the needs of refilling.
For high temperature service, diaphragm seal may reduce more process temperature compare to the use
impulse line, hence the transmitter is not exposed to the temperature which above its operating limit.
Hence diaphragm seal should be the choice when it is expected to encounter as such condition.
Instrument Air Consumption Calculation

Instrument air consumption shall be calculated during detail design to determine the plant utility air requirement
by pneumatic operated instrument as well as package which requires air for its utility such as purging or other
purpose. Instrument air consumption calculation will be the basis to size instrument air utility system which
consists of air compressor, air drier, and air receiver.
Actuated valve such as shutdown valve, blowdown valve and control valve are instruments which require
instrument air for their operation. Instrument air requirement of each instrument valves depends on its actuator size
and its operation. Shutdown valve and blowdown valve may be considered working intermittently, while control
valve working continuously. It should be noted that the instrument air required by control valve during steady
condition is much lesser than during its transient condition.
Assumption
To determine the instrument air consumption, some assumptions should be made (please note that these
assumptions are for example only, not as standard reference, and may differ on each project):
Normal air consumption demand
Control Valve
From total number of control valve, 90% of control valve operates in stable condition hence requires steady
state air consumption only, while 10% could be in unstable condition hence requires transient air
consumption.
Shutdown valve / Blowdown valve

Shutdown valve and Blowdown valve only require instrument air when they are operating which is
predominantly during start up after shutdown, so it is considered intermittent consumption and one can
assume that only some number of valve are working simultaneously. It could be assumed that 10% of the
valve will operate simultaneously for normal air demand calculation.
Peak air demand

From total number of control valve, 70% of control valve operates in stable condition hence requires steady state
air consumption only, while 30% is in unstable condition hence requires transient air consumption.
Shutdown valve / Blowdown Valve
Lets say 100% of the valve will operate simultaneously for normal air demand calculation.
*Note that the number of percentage state here is assumption only and may differs among each projects
Vendor data
The next step is to gather data from vendor / manufacturer catalog which provides information of instrument air
consumption.
The following is data taken from catalog:
Control valve in stable condition 0.3 scfm

Control valve in unstable condition 7 scfm
For actuated valve, the instrument air consumption depends on size of actuator (swept volume) which could be
obtained from vendor catalog. The required opening or closing time of the main valve will also influence the air
consumption rate.
Calculation
For instrument air consumption calculation, simply multiply the number of valve in the plant with the air
consumption data, then sum for all instruments. Do the calculation tabulation for both normal and peak condition.
In addition, other package which requires instrument air shall also be included.
Choosing Valve Actuator Power Source

Valve Actuator, based on the power source, falls into the three categories. Each power source of valve actuator has
unique characteristic which provide different advantage to make it suitable for specific application.
1. Pneumatic Actuator
Pneumatic actuator is the most commonly used type due to the cheapest price and availability of its power
source i.e. compressed air. The use of natural gas is also applicable if it is not feasible to install air
compressor system. It is used both for control valve which operates in throttling mode or actuated valve
which intermittently operates.
2. Hydraulic Actuator
The superiority of hydraulic actuators is its capability of supplying very high torques. Since hydraullic is
considered as non-compressible liquid it can provide fast stroking speed. A typical application of
hydraullic actuators is for wellhead valves since very high torques and stroking speed become a concern.
3. Electric Actuator
Electric actuators has smooth operation, provide very high torque values, and retain thrust. In process
platform, motor operated valve is used in sea water intake line where large valve which requires high
torque is operating in on-off mode.
The selection of valve actuator type by its power source shall consider several issues as follow:
Service in process system

Mode of operation such as on-off or throttling operation. The requirement of valve closing or opening time.
Remote valve location

For pipeline in the middle of nowhere, pneumatic actuated valve with supplementary air or nitrogen bottle
which periodically inspected is the only posibility.
Fail-safe requirement
Process requirement of valve to fail open, fail close or fail last. Standard motor operated valve will be fail
last when loosing power supply.
Valve operating torque
The actuator torque shall be larger than the required torque by valve in specified operating process and
condition. Safety factor shall be taken into account in selecting the size of the actuator.
Instrument Cable Specification

Instrument Cable Specification
During detailed design project, the cable shall be selected with suitable specification for the intended application.
In the beginning of the project, the specification for each cable part shall be carefully specified to satisfy the
requirement of application and environmental condition. Normally the instrument cable consists of conductors,
insulation, screen/shield, armor and outer jacket therefore the specification should covers and details each of them.
The following information only describes the structure and its example, however the specification for each project
may differ and shall be evaluated case by case hence details specified herein is not recommended to be copied and
used directly.
Conductor (to transfer the electrical current from higher voltage to lower voltage point)
Conductor material, commonly used material is copper. Tinned coated copper may also be selected to
prevent copper oxides which provides more durable and corrosion resistance
Design of the conductor, whether solid, stranded, flexible. Stranded conductor means the conductor is not
single, instead it consists of several smaller size conductors which allow more flexibility.
Size of the conductor cross section. Determining the size of the conductor requires information of the
device operating voltage and current, length and resistance of the cable as they will contribute to the
voltage drop across the cable. Cable shall be sized and ensured that the device at the end of the cable will
function properly at a given voltage.
Insulation (to physically and electrically separate each conductors)
Insulation material
The choice of insulation material is driven by several requirements such as electrical transmission properties,
minimum and maximum temperature rating, burning behavior, abrasion and corrosion resistant
Insulation thickness
The selection of insulation thickness, together with conductor specification, will be determined from the
requirement of the voltage rating and cable strength. Note that the insulation thickness also contributes to the the
flexibility of the cable.
Screen (to prevent interference)
Screen is constructed from aluminized polyester film/tape which provide protection from external interference.
The aluminum tape is spirally wrapped with 25% overlap to guarantee 100% coverage of cable element including
in bending area. Screen also consists of copper drain wire of which shall be electrically in contact with the screen
along the cable.
Armor (to protect the cable against mechanical stress/load during construction and operation)
The selection of cable armor mainly depends on the cable installation and required mechanical properties such as
maximum tensile loads, pressure loads, protection against rodent, minimum bending radius, direct burial
installation. There are several types of cable such as galvanized steel wire braid, galvanized steel wire tape and
galvanize steel wire round armor which each has advantages over each others.
Outher Sheath / Jacket (to physically protects the internal components of a cable)
Material of outer cable sheath/jacket shall be selected with regards to the following consideration:
Environmental condition (humidity, temperature, solar radiation)

Method of installation (indoor, outdoor, direct buried, on trays, etc.
Possibility of oil, chemical spills or abrasion
Behavior in fire (low smoke, zero halogen to avoid toxicant)
Flame retardant or fire resistant
Sparing philosophy
Determining the number of wire in multipair or multicore cable shall consider future expansion and maintenance.
Other requirement
Twisted pair shall be specified in 4-20mA analog signal cable to reduce the effect of interference. As
recommended by API 552 Transmission System, twisted wire shall have minimum of six crossover per foot. Eight
crossover per foot is a typical specification.
Calibration
Basic Equation for DP Level Transmitter Range Calculation
Shutdown Level Hierarchy
Shutdown level hierarchy is a classification of shutdown into a group which is categorized by intention priority.
These shutdown levels will be implemented in Safety Instrumented System and will function to protect the
personnel, equipment and environment as per their specific purpose. The higher number of shutdown level shall
initiate the lower level groups.
Shutdown level hierarchy may differ among each plant and platform. The number of level may vary and shall be
determined by considering all safety factors to suit the needs and condition of each plant or platform. The
following is an example only of general shutdown level that may exist within a plant or platform in an ascending
order of risks severity:
Level 1 Unit Shutdown (USD)
Unit Shutdown (USD) is the shutdown of individual process or utility system or subsystem and intended to prevent
equipment from operating outside process limits that may cause damage to the equipment or adversely affect the
process. USD can be initiated automatically by various process sensors or manually through means of push button
on the panel or Human Machine Interface (HMI). A unit shutdown shall not impair the operation of other system
in the plant or platform. Shutdown of one vendor package is also classified into this level of shutdown.
Level 2 Process Shutdown (PSD)
Process Shutdown (PSD) is shutdown of all process system. PSD is activated automatically by various process
sensors. PSD will shutdown and isolate all related process equipment or systems, to limit the probability of an
abnormal operating condition leading to an emergency situation.
Level 3 Emergency Shutdown (ESD)
Emergency Shutdown (ESD) is shutdown to minimize the consequences during emergency. ESD can be
automatically initiated by load shedding functions or manually by the operator through push button on the panel.
ESD will shutdown and isolate all designated process related equipment, including inlet and outlet ESD valves.
Depends on each project some plant will allow the power generation, utilities, and fuel gas system keep running
during this condition.
Level 4 Emergency Depressurize Shutdown (EDP)
Emergency Depressurize Shutdown (EDP) will shutdown, isolate and depressurize all equipments by opening the
de-pressuring valves to flare. In this condition, main power generation system will be shutdown and the emergency
power generator will start. EDP is manually activated by the operator through push button.
As mentioned before, the number of level shutdown in the hierarchy may differ among each project. In some
platform, there are other levels of shutdown i.e.total process shutdown and abandon facility shutdown. On
platform abandonment, all source of electrical power will be totally isolated except DC battery system for the
navigation aids.
Instrumentation Selection
When it has been decided that instrument is required to be installed for specific service, the next job is to select to
most suitable instrument type. The following are several factors that should be considered when choosing the right
instrument:
Process condition and properties
The fluid phase is the first thing to concern: gas, liquid or two-phase. Some type instruments are only suitable
for particular phase while some others works properly on all kind of fluid phase.
Selected instrument shall also withstand to pressure and tempeture operating of proces fluid.
The process condition of fluid whether clean, dirty or containing slurries will also limit the instrument type
selection. In addtion, corrosiveness of fluid will determine the selection of its material.
Range of process variable to be measured shall be specified. The wide range will require instrument type which
has high turn down ratio, it means some type of instrument which has low turn down ratio will not be applicable.
Some instrument type is not designed for high viscosity services. Turbine meter will not work properly in high
viscosity liqud, the float of magnetic level gauge might stuck and not floating to follow the level interface change.
Other properties such as reynold number shall be satisfied to particular number for some type of flow
instrumentation.
Performance requirements
Each Instrument has static and dynamic characteristics. Accuracy, repeatability and linearity are some of
characteristic that mostly being concern. The selection of instrument based on performance requirement is depend
on the purpose of the instrument whether is it for process monitor, process control, safety, inventory measurment
or custody transfer metering.
Environmental condition
The location of instrument shall be identified wheter it is classified as hazardous area or not. If so, the design of
instrument shall be properly chosen to certified device which comply with the intented area.
Ingress protection of instrument enclosure shall be specified to suit the enviroment whether it is located in dry,
dusted, offshore installation, etc.
The ambient temperature shall also be considered because it will affect some parts such as electronic parts,
elastic material such as seal, packing.
For harsh environment such as extreme temperature, the use of additional instrument enclosure which is
equipped with heater shall be taken into account.
Installation
Space usually becomes an issue especially in offshore platform. For exampel, the issue in flow measurment is that
some type of instrument requires straight run.
In other example, installation of level instrument which measuring low elevation sometime becamo an issue when
its bottom might contact with the structure surface.
Maintenance
There are several factors which will impact during maintenance process:
Requirement of process shutdown
The capability of instrument to be calibrated in bench or vendor workhop
Ease of dismantling
Special tools/equipment requirement
Requirement of specialist personnel
Availability of spart part
Cost
Besides initial cost of the goods price and its installation, maintenance cost should be thoroughly evaluated in all
aspects which comprise of spare part price, thrid party service and downtime/production loss if the instrument
required by plant operation.
For flow measurement, DP type flow meter creates process cost (pressure loss). If the pressure outlet of the
system is lower than the requirement, it needs more compression or pumping system which will significantly
increase the budget.
Valve Actuator
Valve actuator is a device which provide thrust to create motion on valve body. Valve actuator could be
categorized by its type as follow:
Power supplied to actuator: electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic.
Main element: diaphragm-spring return or piston type.
Mechanism: Scotch-Yoke or Rack and Pinion
Traffolyte Instrument Tag Number
Instrument devices shall be furnished with tag number. Common material for tag attached to the instrument
is 316 SS. For instrument which is mounted on instrument stand, the mounting stand should be furnished
with tag number from traffolyte (a brand name). The attachment of traffolyte tag number on the instrument
mounting stand is to avoid a problem which is usually encountered during maintenance so that when
instrument device is dismantled, personnel is able to identify the mounting stand which belong to particular
of instrument being serviced. Instrument attached to panel, both for indoor and outdoor, is also usually
tagged with traffolyte at the bottom of instrument location.
Traffolyte is a multi-layered phenolic which comprises of various color e.g black and white. To create a
number, the upper layer is engraved so that there is color difference between bottom and upper layer hence
form a readable text.
The most common color combination in black letter and white foreground which means the bottom layer
color is black while the upper layer color is white. The white phenolic is engraved hence the black layered
is visible as a text color.
Note that the same combination of black and white while reversing the position of layer (white letter with
black background) shall be avoided as this arrangement would create future issue: dust or sand may be
accumulated on the letter engraved hence cover the white color. Later the text will not clearly visible if to
much build up dust or sand.
Air Distribution Manifold (Instrument Air)

Instrument air distribution manifold is a pipe shaped chamber (manifold) with several branches of outlets for
delivering instrument air to multiple consumers such as control valve, actuated valve or other pneumatic operated
instrument.
The number of outlet of an instrument air distribution manifold may vary depend on the number of nearby
pneumatic instrument or valve. Each outlet is fitted with block valve which could be of ball valve or needle valve
type. Each outlet should have instrument tag number to which the outlet delivered the instrument air.
At the bottom of instrument air distribution manifold, a block valve is fitted for drain purpose. This drain valve is
required during maintenance to bleed the built-up condensed liquid.
Actuated Valve
Actuated Valve is a valve which is automatically operated by actuator. Actuated valve may refer to on-off valve
which operates in fully open or fully close or control valve which operates in throttling mode. However, term
actuated valve is mostly used for on-off services valve.
Actuated valve may also be named Shutdown Valve (SDV) and Blowdown Valve (BDV). Shutdown valve is
valve installed for safety purpose during plant shutdown, the valve is normally open during plant operating
condition and closed during plant shutdown. Blowdown valve is valve installed for safety purpose by
depressurizing the system during plant emergency condition, the valve is normally closed during plant operating
condition and open during depressurization.
Actuated valve mainly consists of:
Main Body Valve

Actuator
Limit Switches
Solenoid Valve or other pilot valve
Air Filter Regulator
Other ancillary equipments may be attached to the valve such as quick exhaust valve to achieve desired opening or
closing time, unidirectional flow regulator, etc. There are also some accessories for special application such as
volume bottle for remote application, position transmitter and partial stroke test facilities for partial stroke testing.
Actuated Valve Symbol in P&ID
Below picture shows actuated valve complete with solenoid, and limit switch symbol in P&ID .
Air to Open
An increase of air supply pressure to the actuator will make the main valve to open. In case there is no air supply
pressure to the actuator, the main valve will close or referred as Fail Close.
This entry was posted in Glossary A and tagged control valve. Bookmark the permalink
Air to Close
An increase of air supply pressure to the actuator will make the main valve to close. In case there is no air supply
pressure to the actuator, the main valve will open or referred as Fail Open.
This entry was posted in Glossary A and tagged control valve. Bookmark the permalink.
Mimic Panel
Actuator
Actuator is a device which supplies force to create motion for a final element. Actuator can be powered by means
of electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic supply. Term actuator mostly referred to a valve actuator. There are several
type of valve actuator such as diaphragm-spring return, piston, motorized gear.
Bridle (Stand Pipe)

Bridle, also named stand pipe, is a vertical pipe connected to the process tank or vessel so that the level of process
liquid within bridle is always equal to the level of process liquid within tank or vessel. Bridle is intended for
installation of multiple level transmitter such as level gauge or level transmitter. These level instrumentation are
installed to the bridle instead of the vessel or tank.
The use of bridle for level transmitter reduces the number of nozzles on the vessel or tank. If each level
instruments has two nozzles, then they require six nozzles on the vessel. However by using bridle, the number of
nozzle that should be provided on the vessel or tank is only two (or three) for the bridle.
Bridle is commonly constructed from 4 pipe and provided with vent and drain connection for maintenance.
Below picture shows bridle and its level instrumentation attached to.
Basic Process Control System (BPCS)

Basic Process Control System (BPCS) is a system which handles process control and monitoring for the facility.
It will take inputs from sensor and process instruments and provide output based on control functions in
accordance with approved design control strategy.
Typically, Basic Process Control System (BPCS) performs the following functions:
Control the process within pre-set operating condition, optimize plant operation to produce a good quality
product and attempt to keep all process variables within its safety limit.
Provide operator interface for monitoring and control via operator console (Human Machine Interface)
Provide alarm/event logging and trending facilities
Generate production data reports
Basic Process Control System (BPCS) is also considered as one of safety layer preceding Safety Instrumented
System (SIS) within a facilities.
Back Pressure
Back pressure term is usually defined as the pressure that exists at downstream of instrument (e.g. at discharge line
of pressure safety valve). With regard to pressure safety valve application, back pressure may consist of built-up
back pressure and superimposed back pressure.
Back Flow Preventer

safety relief valve accessory which functions to eliminate the reverse flow through the main valve in case the the
back pressure at pressure safety relief discharge line exceeds main valve inlet pressure. In such condition, the back
pressure would would lift the piston hence cause flow reversal from discharge to inlet line. Back flow preventer
will provide a net downward force on the diaphragm or piston to keep the main valve closed as long as the set
pressure not achieved.
Bonnet
a packing box and seal which guide the stem during movement . Bonnet could be of standard or extented type. The
later type is used when extreme process temperature (high or low) becomes a concern since it can break the stem
packing. Extension is needed to bring the process temperature move toward the ambient temperature before
reaching the packing box. In term of connection type to valve body, bonnet could be bolted, threaded, or welded
type.
Calibration
output with that of produced by referenced standard instrument to determine the level of instrument accuracy. The
indication produced by standard instrument is a true value therefore standard instrument shall have a better
performance compared to instrument to be tested. The calibration results will show how close the measurement
output produced by instrument being tested to true value.
Calibration is needed because instrument device may experiencing the following condition:
There might be a disturbance signal which affecting measurement of true value.
Most process control or measurement require accuracy of process variable measurement.
COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE (Kd)

The ratio of the mass flow rate in an actual pressure safety valve to that of an ideal nozzle. It is used in calculation
for determining the flow through a pressure relief device or size of the selected orifice. Coeffient of discharged
data for a specific pressure safety valve may be obtained from vendor catalog.
Chattering (Chatter)
Unstable operation of pressure relief valve due to excessive built-up back pressure which might occur in
oversized pressure safety valve. In this condition the pressure relief valve disc moves reciprocally and contacts
with the seat during cycling in which condition the valve may be damaged.
Cable Gland
Cable gland is a cable fitting used for cable penetration into the equipment and make secure connection between
cable and the equipment. Cable gland also provides several functions in cable installation as follows:
As a cable strain-relief
To seal the equipment form surrounding ambient hence maintaining the characteristic of the equipment.
The explosion proof equipment/panel shall have Eexd certified cable gland to make the explosion proof
protection does not void
provision for making electrical connection to the mechanical protection i.e. armour or braid
The selection of cable gland shall consider several following factors:
Material, the enviromental condition and particle that cable gland might be exposed to
Size, depends on the intended cable size/diameter
Type of protection, Eexd/Eexe or general purpose
Cable type to be attached, armored/non-armoured
The required Degree of Ingress protection
Diaphragm
Diaphragm is one of a pressure sensor on which force exterted to its element is transmitted to be a stem
displacement. Diaphram element is use in pressure measurement with high resolution. See pressure measurement.

The construction and accessories of Shutdown Valve (SDV) and Emergency Shutdown Valve (ESDV) are
similar. What is the basis to distinguish their name?
Their name is distinguished only from their services. Shutdown Valve referred to actuated valve which is
closed during partial or total process shutdown of system to which the valve protects. Emergency
Shutdown Valve is actuated valve which is closed when triggered by signal from ESD level signal during
emergency condition occurs.
Emergency Shutdown Valves are commonly located in incoming line and outgoing line of the plant or
platform.
shutdown valve disregard their services. In this case, shutdown logic diagram would indicate which
actuated valve acts as Emergency Shutdown Valve.
Executive Action
Executive action means physical control function performed by the control system. In Safety Instrument
System (SIS), the executive action could be shut-off the actuated valve, turn off heater, etc. In Fire and Gas
System (FGS) the executive action could be extinguishant release, fire damper control, electrical isolation,
firewater controls etc.
Executive action in Safety Instrument System (SIS) will be the result of upset process condition or manual
initiation via push button. In Fire and Gas System, executive actions will be the result of a confirmed fire
or gas detection or on manual initiation (via Manual Call Point MAC or other means)
Eccentric Orifice Plate
Eccentric Orifice Plate is orifice which bore position is offset from center line of the pipe. It is used in
service if there is secondary fluid phase (gas contains liquid or liquid contains gas) in which the application
of vent hole or drain hole on the concentric orifice plate may adversely affect the accuracy in case the vent
or drain hole size requires large area to cater the secondary phase. Eccentric Orifice Plate is also used in
service where severe entrainment may occur such as in dirty gas or liquid, which in this case the solid or
slurries could plug the vent or drain hole.
If the primary phase is liquid which contains gas as secondary phase, the location of eccentric bore is offset
upward. If the primary phase is gas which contains liquid as secondary phase or if primary phase is liquid
which contains solid/slurries, the location of eccentric bore is offset downward.
Below picture shows the arrangement of eccentric bore of orifice plate.
Enclosure
Enclosure is a case, constructed as containment for equipment, to protect the enclosed equipment against
environment condition exposure and also to provide protection for personnel against incidental contact that may
result in personnel injury or equipment fault.
Fail Safe
Fail safe means that when the power source is lost, the controller causes the process go to a safe state. Safe state
mostly requires equipment to be shutdown, production to be halt and sometime process material to be released.
Fail safe makes the process system in safer state if either of the following condition occurs: abnormal process
condition, loss of power, loss of instrument air supply, or field cable faults.
To have system which operates in fail safe, the following condition should be fulfilled:
Switch shall have sensor contacts to be closed and the loop is energized during normal process operation.
In the event of power failure, valve will move to a predetermined position, which could be open or closed
and other final element would stop to operate such as motor would stop, heater would be turned off.
Status indication contact shall be closed to indicate running and open to indicate stop.
Fusible Plug Loop

Fusible Plug Loop is one of several means to detect fire by sensing heat. It consist of fusible plug, pressurized
tubing and a panel. Tubing will be pressurized by instrument air or nitrogen with constant pressure from the panel.
At the end of each tubing, fusible plug is located on the area where fire possibly present. It will melt at certain
temperature during fire subsequently release the pressure within the tubing. If the pressure falls below its set point,
the panel will execute pre-determined action such as generate fire alarm, activating sprinkler system, etc.
Fire Resistant Cable

Fire resistant cable is cable which will continue to function normally during and after a prolonged fire, it being
assumed that the fire is of sufficient magnitude to destroy the organic material of the cable in the region of the
applied flame (quoted form IEC 60331). Fire resistant cable shall meets the requirements of recommendation
stated in standard IEC 60331 Fire-resisting Characteristics of Electric Cables.
Fire resistant properties can be achieved by applying Mica Glass Tape (MGT) in cable insulation construction.

Retardant
IEC 60332.
fail safe mode.
Failure Rate
Failure rate is defined as the number of failures per unit of time. The failure rate is usually specified as numbers of
failure per million hours (e.g. 2.98 failures/1E06 hours). Some engineer prefer to use MTBF term which is a
reciprocal of failure rates and has unit in years (e.g. 38 years)
Gain
Gain is a process to increase or amplify a value or variable. The term gain may be encountered in a phrase such as
current gain, controller gain. Gain is expressed as the ratio of the magnitude of the output change to the
magnitude of the input change that caused the output change on a given system.
Hydraulic Power Unit (HPU)

Hydraulic Power Unit, together with Well Control Module, is part of Wellhead Control Panel (WHCP) which
provides hydraulic power to operate Production Wing Valve, Production Master Valve and
Downhole Safety Valve (DHSV) for each wellhead. Hydraulic Power Unit supplies hydraulic to these valves
which are designed to shut-in production of wells and isolate the processing facilities in response to shutdown
requirement and emergency condition. In some plant, production choke valve is also hydraulic operated hence
powered from Hydraulic Power Unit.
Hydraulic Power Unit consists of the following mechanical equipment and devices, but not limited to:
Hydraulic Reservoir
Reservoir for hydraulic liquid storage with capacity sufficient to the requirements of valve actuators total volume,
accumulator volume, hydraulic control lines volume, plus safety factor consideration
Hydraulic Pump
Hydraulic pump pressurizes each hydraulic supply header to the valves. Pump could of air driven pump or motor
driven pump type which depends on application. It is common to have high pressure pump and medium pressure
pump as the pressure to stroke the Downhole Safety Valve is higher than the other two valves. It is preferred to
have more than one pump for redundancy for each header.
Hydraulic accumulator
Hydraulic accumulator keeps the hydraulic supply header above the minimum hydraulic operating pressure to
allow the wellhead valves to move without running the hydraulic pumps. The size of hydraulic accumulator
depends on actuator volume and the number of valve strokes.
Ancillaries equipment such as, hydraulic tubing, filter, pressure gauge, pressure transmitter, check valve, ball
valve (isolation valve), pressure safety valve (PSV).
Below picture is typical Hydraulic Power Unit schematic yet may differs for each project.
Downhole Safety Valve may also named as SCSSV (Surface Controlled Sub-Surface Safety Valve)
Hermetically Seal
Hermetically seal is type of instrument device sealing which is designed to avoid hazardous gas ingress therefore
preventing contact with sources of ignition such as arcing contacts. Instrument device with hermetically sealed
design is suitable for use in Zone 2 or Division 2 and unclassified locations. The seal shall also be able to protect
inside equipment from moisture and humidity to prevent corrosion.
Hermetically seal must be constructed with certain material so that the instrument device seal must be strong and
permanent. It also shall withstand to harsh environment or severe weather, and chemical substance spill.
Instrument switches installed in process facilities mostly requires hermetically seal requirement, unless noted
otherwise.
Hazardous Area
Hazardous area is a region in which an explosive gas atmosphere is present or may be expected to be present in
quantities that would produce explosive or ignitable mixtures. This area requires precaution in design,
construction, installation and use of apparatus.
Ingress Protection
Ingress Protection express the degree of which enclosure protects the inside equipment. Ingress Protection is
specified by IP appended by two digits which represent the enclosure ability to prevent the ingress of dusts and
liquids. The first digit indicates the degree of protection of enclosure against the ingress of solid particle. It is also
usually used to designate the protection of enclosure against personnel contact with the equipment either live or
rotating. The second digit indicates the degree of protection of enclosure against the ingress of water.
IEC 60529 is international standard which describes details for degree of protection provided by enclosures.
IP Code
First digit
Second digit
0 non protected
0 non protected
1 vertically dripping water
1 object with diameter greater than 50 mm 2 dripping water with 15deg tilt
2 object with diameter greater than 12.5 mm 3 sprayed water
3 object with diameter greater than 2.5 mm 4 splashed water
5 water jets
4 object with diameter greater than 1 mm
6 powerful jetting/heavy seas
5 dust protected
6 dust tight
7 temporary immersion
8 continuous immersion
Junction Box
Junction box is an enclosure used for cables interconnection between field devices and control room. It encloses
terminal strips for cable termination. Junction box shall be designed to suit environmental condition where the box
will be installed and shall have certification of Ingress Protection code and hazardous area protection which
conform to the classified area.
Junction Box consists of the following parts, but not limited to:
Terminal block which comprises terminal strips for cable connections

Gland plate (for non metallic junction box) for cable gland earthing
An insulated earth bus bar for overall cable screen termination (optional, drain wire could be connected to
terminal strip)
Breather/drain plug
Mounting Rail complete with end bracket
Instrument Junction box typical schematic:
Below is picture of instrument junction box:
Junction Box for instrument digital signal should have bus

bar for connecting screen of individual cables and overall screen of multipair cable.
K-Factor
K-Factor is a turbine meter factor which represent the total number of pulses equivalent to one unit of volume
flow. This term is used in turbine meter since it has rotor blade which revolve as fluid pass through. The angular
speed of rotation is proportional to the volumetric flow rate and each time the rotor blade is closing the the
magnetic pick-up coil, it generates the voltage pulse.
Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)

Lower explosive limit (LEL) is the minimum concentration of a flammable gas or vapor that will propagate flame
when exposed to a source of ignition. A mixture below this concentration level is considered too lean to burn.
Term Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) sometime is used in lieu of LEL.
Linearity
Linearity is a measurement curve closeness to a straight line. The curve is drawn by averaging several
measurement in full range traverses both upscale and downscale. The maximum deviation between the output
reading curve and the straight line is defined by non-linearity. Hence, It is usually measured as a non-linearity yet
expressed as linearity.
Ideally the output reading of an instrument is linearly proportional of the value being measured nevertheless this
case is difficult to attain because of sensor/element characteristics.
Multi Cable Transit (MCT)

Multi Cable Transit (MCT) is a block system which provides sealing for cable penetration from hazardous area to
non-hazardous area (such as from field to Control Room) and cable penetration through gas tight or fire walls.
Multi Cable Transit (MCT) also provides protection from fire, smoke, water, gas, chemical liquid and pressure at
the point where cables penetrate building walls and floors.
Multi Cable Transit (MCT) mainly comprises of frame, sealing block module, stay plate and wedge.
Frame is the housing into which the blocks, stay plate and compression unit are fitted.
Sealing block module is an adaptive modules, which is to hold cable. Some type of block has a unique
feature to fit the cable by peeling the layers from the core of the seal to suit the cable size.
Stay plates are placed between rows of modules to prevent the possibility of module pull out.
Wedge as compression unit which applies pressure to the assembly sealing block and stay plate creating an
airtight seal.
Multi Cable Transit may also be used for pipe penetration from outdoor into the building.
Manual Call Point

Manual Call Point is a manually operated switches which purpose is to provide means of manual initiation of fire
alarm by operator. Manual Call Point is simple electrical switch that requires manual activation and set in open
position during normal operation to prevent spurious alarm. There are several operation mechanisms of manual
call point:
Break Glass Type
A box with a breakable window at the front. Inside there is a switch, usually held in the open position by means of
a spring-steel arm positioned against the window. When the window is broken the spring switch mechanism is
released and the contacts close, initiating an alarm.
Lift Flap and Push
This type uses a guarded pushbutton. Some types require an operator to lift a spring-loaded cover to access a
pushbutton (or pull-button). This action closes the contact, initiating an alarm.
Mimic Panel
Mimic panel is a fire and gas purpose panel on which shows a geographical layout of the installation and
equipment to represent rapid visual appraisal of any fire and gas hazard. Mimic panel shall be installed at
convience location to the personnel sight. Mimic panel for building should be installed somewhere near building
entrance.
Mimic panel shall be furnished with indicator/lamp to indicate the existence of fire or gas leak and
pushbutton/switches to do plant shutdown or extinghuisant system manual activation. The panel should also
provide indication of fire and gas equipment status such as fire water pumps, foam system, etc. Critical push
button shall have guard/protection such as flap or cover to avoid accidental operation.
The following picture shows example of mimic panel. The alternative construction for mimic panel is tile matrix
which allows easy modification for additional or removal items by changing the tile.
Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF)

Posted on February 21, 2011 by admin
Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) numbers represent predicted elapsed time between failures of a system
during operation. The number is a statistical approximation and not intended to specify when a system will fail.
For example, if a system has an MTBF of 20 years, it does not fully means that device lasts an average of 20 years
and then the system will fails. Statistically said, an MTBF of 20 years could be means that out of a total of 20
devices, one device fails within a one year period.
MTBF is used for repairable system (i.e. control system) while Mean Time to Failure (MTTF) is used for
replaceable system (i.e. resistor).
Noise
Noise is an unwanted component of a signal or variable. It is treated as a disturbance as it creates an error in signal
transmission or variable measurement.
Overpressure (Process)
Overpressure is excess pressure in a process equipment or pipe of its maximum allowable working pressure.
Overpressure can be caused by inflow exceeds outflow, which occurs if upstream flowrate control device fails or it
there is blockage in the downstream or if there is condition of gas blow-by from upstream component.
Overpressure can also be caused by thermal expansion of fluids if heat is added while the inlet and outlet are
closed.
Overpressure
Overpressure is the pressure increase over the set pressure of the relieving device. It is expressed in pressure units
or as a percentage of set pressure. Overpressure is the same as accumulation only when the relieving device is set
to open at the maximum allowable working pressure of the vessel.
Pulsation Dampener
Pulsation damper is a pressure gauge accessory used in application where process pressure may fluctuate rapidly.
In this condition, the actual pressure of process fluid is difficult to be read as the dial pointer also fluctuates. In
addition. rapid pressure fluctuation is also wearing out the component of pressure gauge. Pulsation dampener is
installed between pressure gauge and process to suppress the effect of pressure pulse and pressure peaks.
Positioner
Positioner is one of control valve accessory that functions as position controller. It works to control the amount of
air supply into the actuator for stroking the valve to approach desired opening as commanded by control system or
local controller. Positioner provides accurate opening of the main valve by means of its mechanical connection to a
moving part of final control element or actuator. In this arrangement, there is such a feedback to achieve desired
opening according to the control system output. Besides, positioner allows faster control valve response to
encounter process upset.
Quick Opening Characteristic

Quick opening is an inherent flow characteristic of which valve flow coefficient (Cv) is significantly increased
during valve traveling on minimum opening region and slightly increased during valve traveling on maximum
opening region.
Below picture shows relationship between travel against valve flow coefficient (Cv):
Quick opening valve is mostly used in application where valve is intended for on-off operation.
Rangeability
Rangeability is interchangably used with the term turn down ratio. It is mostly used in contol valve terminology
in defining the the ratio of the maximum to minimum controllable Cv.
Stanchion (Instrument Mounting Stand)

Stanchion is the other term for instrument mounting stand. It is a structure where instrument is mounted. Stanchion
is commonly constructed from 2 pipe with base plate. The instrument is attached to the stanchion by means of
bracket for 2 pipe.
Stanchion can accommodate single instrument or more. The form of stanchion depends on the number of
instrument to be mounted.
Stanchion may be furnished as necessary with earth boss for instrument protective earth of electrical instrument,
nameplate identifying to which tag number the stand belong to, and cable tray for cable installation to the
instrument. For instrument device which does not have electrical parts such as gauge, the requirement of earth
boss and cable tray can be eliminated.
Instrument drawing which details stanchion (instrument mounting stand) is shown in Instrument Installation
Drawing. This drawing contains detail of stanchion dimension and bill of material required for installation.
Safety Instrumented System (SIS)

Safety Instrumented System (SIS) is a system composed of sensors, logic solver and final control elements
designed and installed to protect personnel, equipment and environment by taking the process to a safe state.
Safety Instrument System shall perform any action to prevent or reduce the risk of abnormal process condition
which may be hazardous.
Safety Instrumented System (SIS) is the next layer of protection following plant design, Basic Process Control
System (BPCS) and alarm/operator intervention.
As mentioned earlier, SIS consists of the following devices:
Sensors
Sensor could be of switch or transmitter type. Transmitter measures process variable while switch will actuate if
process variable reaches preset value. Both provide information to logic solver hence it can be detected whether
process is in normal or abnormal condition.
Logic Solver
Logic solver is typically a controller. It receives signal from sensor as an input, performs pre-implemented logic
and program, then provides output to final control element. Logic solver consists of but not limited to input
module, output module, processor, power supply, communication module.
Final Control Element
Final control element is part or device which performs the action as required by logic solver. It can be form of
actuated valve or output contact.
SIS may include electrical, pneumatic, and hydraulic systems.
Term Emergency Shutdown System (ESD) has the same meaning and has recently used. However abbreviation of
ESD has other means of Electro-Static Discharge in electrical engineering subject. Therefore term SIS is currently
applied in instrumentation subject.
Start-up Bypass
Start up bypass is facilities provided for selected inputs, which are unhealty prior to process plant start up. The
example of inputs which requires start-up bypass is Low-Low process variable that designed to trip the system
such as Pressure Low-Low, Level Low-Low of transmitter reading or switch actuation
During activation of start-up bypass of any inputs, only shutdown trip which is inhibited. Input status shall remain
indicate instrument reading. Start-up bypass is activated manually by means of protected keyswitch from the
control room and shall have clear indication in the operator station that start-up bypass is being activated.
Start-up bypass is de-activated automatically once the input is confirmed healty (input has passed low-low trip
setting) or after pre-determined time or manually by removing the keyswitch.
Span
Span is the algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum range values. Span value is obtained by
subtracting the maximum value with the minimum value
Siphons
Siphons (also called Pigtail) is pressure gauge accessory which is utilized in steam service or in case temperature
of process fluid is greater than the maximum operating temperature of the pressure gauge. Siphons is intended to
prevent overheating the parts within the pressure gauge.
Siphons is also used in service for condensable process vapours. This is to allow the condensate to be self drainage
to the process.
Tray
Tray may refers to cable tray or tubing tray. Tray is used to support large number of cable or tubing between two
points. Tray material shall be selected according to environmental and installation conditions. Several types of
material are available such as 316 SS, GRP, galvanized steel and aluminium.
The design of tray is recommended to be perforated to prevent liquid or droplet trapped. Tray shall be protected
with tray cover for installation where possibility of fallen objects such as liquid spill, debris, etc, on the tray may
exist.
Besides supported by tray, cable may also be support by ladder for larger cable or by channel for fewer number of
cable.
Below picture shows perforated tray drawing.
Travel Stop
Travel stop is an optional part of control valve and is used to limit the valve opening. When using travel stop. the
maximum valve opening is set to a value so that valve can only open to pre-set travel, hence it can not reach full
rated travel.
Turn Down Ratio

Turn down ratio is the ratio between maximum value to minimum value of instrument range where instrument is
able to provide accurate measurement.
The turndown ratio may vary between each type of instrument. The following list is several type of flow
instrument and its turn down ratio:
1.
Orifice flow meter has 1:3 turn down ratio, for single DP transmitter.
2.
PD meter or turbine meter has 10:1 turn down ratio, some vendors claim they have manufactured model
which has higher turn down ratio.
3.
Coriolis flowmeter can provide as high as 100:1 turn down
U-LENGTH
U-length is also known as insertion length i.e. the length of which thermowell is inserted into the pipe plus its
nozzle if any. Insertion length is measured from edge of connection to the tip of the well. For Flange connection
thermowell the U-length is measured starts from the flange to the tip, while for threaded connection the U-length is
measured from the thread to the tip.
Vent Hole
Vent hole is a small hole which is provided in the upper region of orifice plate. Vent hole is required in liquid flow
service where gas entrainment may occur.
Vent hole size could affect the accuracy of flow measurement. However, if the diameter of the vent hole is less
than 10% of the orifice bore, then the unmeasured flow is less than 1% of the total flow.
Vent hole is not recommended in dirty fluid service or slurries as the hole could be plugged. In this application, the
use of eccentric orifice plate becomes alternative.
Valve Actuator
Valve actuator is a device which provide thrust to create motion on valve body. Valve actuator could be
categorized by its type as follow:
Power supplied to actuator: electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic.
Main element: diaphragm-spring return or piston type.
Mechanism: Scotch-Yoke or Rack and Pinion
Wobbe Index
The Wobbe Index (WI) represents the interchangeability of fuel gases such as natural gas, LNG. The value of
Wobbe index is equal to BTU per cubic foot divided by the square root of the specific gravity. In almost all gas
appliances, the flow of gas is regulated by making it pass through a hole or orifice. The usefulness of the Wobbe
index is that for any given orifice, all gas mixtures that have the same Wobbe index will deliver the same amount
of heat.
The higher gases Wobbe index indicates the greater the heating value of the quantity of gas that will flow through
a hole of a given size in a given amount of time.
The wobbe index is important and should be defined in the specifications of gas supply and transport utilities
because equipment is rated to operate over a specified Wobbe Index range.
Yoke
Yoke is part of the actuator which is connecting to the main body valve. Yoke is also a place to mount valve
accessories such as air pressure regulator, positioner, etc.
Zero Suppression
Zero suppression is a condition of which zero value of the measured variable is less than the lower range value.
Zero suppression occurs in level measurement using DP transmitter installed below the lower process taps.
In this condition, the fluid in the impulse line or capillary gives positive pressure on the transmitter which cause
the the DP transmitter provide positive pressure reading.
Zero Elevation
Zero elevation is a condition in which zero value of the measured variable is more than the lower range value. The
example of zero elevation is in DP transmitter c/w diaphragm seal and capillary tube installed above the lower
process tap in measuring atmospheric tank level, one port is connected to process while the other port is exposed to
the atmosphere. In this condition, the fluid in capillary gives negative pressure on the transmitter which cause the
the DP transmitter provides negative pressure reading at lower range value.
Common P&ID symbols used in Developing Instrumentation Diagrams

The symbols used in piping and Instrumentation diagrams or drawings are many and varied. I have dealt with
some of these symbols before but here I have given a comprehensive list of the common P&ID symbols of
process equipment such as valves, flowmeters, piping line connections, and much more. Go through them and
familiarize your self with them. However they are by no means exhaustive. Getting to know these common
P&ID symbols used in developing instrumentation diagrams will ensure that each time you see a P&ID, no
matter how complicated you should be able to identify a symbol or two.
Also know that most piping and instrumentation diagrams will come with their own library of symbols that may
be different from the ones listed and pictured here. The first thing you should do with any P&ID is to check the
legend section where details of every symbol used on the piping and instrumentation diagram is listed to ensure
that you are interpreting the right equipment.
Line types symbols used in P&IDs
Piping connection symbols used in P&IDs
Instrument short hand symbols or bubbles used in P&IDs
Valves symbols used in P&IDs
Note that the generic valve symbol is generally used to represent valves in a P&ID. However when we want to
be specific as to the kind of valve in question, the specific valve symbol is then used.
Valve actuator types used in P&IDs
Valve failure modes symbols used in P&IDs
Flow sensors symbols used in P&IDs
Note that FE is the general symbol for flow sensors in P&IDs. However when we are being specific, then any of
the specific symbol for the particular flow sensor/meter can be used
Process equipment symbols used in P&IDs & PFDs (Process Flow Diagrams)
Like I mentioned before every P&ID is unique in its own way. Most of the symbols pictured here, you will see
on most P&IDs. However, there could be variations. You must always endeavor to check the legend section of a
particular P&ID for any process unit of a plant to get an idea of the library of symbols used to represent various
process equipment. This way, there will be no conflict between what you already know and what is being
presented
Instrument Abbreviations Used in Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID)

These posts provide a good introduction to the subject of P&IDs
Typically instrument abbreviations used in P&IDs consist of two letters: the first indicating the process variable
and the second indicating the instrument/controller function. For example, the instrument abbreviation PI
denotes a Pressure Indicator. Occasionally, a third letter is included in the instrument abbreviation to describe
a simultaneous function or a special function. For example: the abbreviation FRC represents a Flow Recorder
and Controller which describes both the recording and control functions and the abbreviation PAL denotes a
Pressure Alarm Low which describes an alarm used in the event of a low pressure condition.
The table below contains some of the instrument abbreviations used in conjunction with P&ID symbols in
instrumentation diagrams. I have dealt with some of them before but for the purpose of emphasis and
completeness let us go through again. The list here is by no means exhaustive but it is a good starting point for
beginners to P&IDs:
Instrument
Abbreviation
FC
Expansion
Flow controller
LC
Level controller
FE
Flow element
LG
Level gauge
LA
Flow indicator and

controller
Level alarm
FR
Flow recorder
LAH
Level alarm high
FRC
Flow recorder and

controller
LAHH
Level alarm high

high
FT
Flow transmitter
LAL
FA
Level alarm low

Flow alarm
LI
Level indicator
LIC
Level indicator and

controller
FIC
Functions Performed
Flow measurement and control
Level control
Flow sensor
Level measurement
Indicating flow as well as
controlling flow
Indicating level alarm
Recording flow
Indicating high level
Flow recording; controlling
flow
Indicating very high level
Transmitting flow signal
Indicating low level
Indicating flow alarm
Level indication
Indicating level; controlling
level
PC
controlling pressure
TC
Pressure controller
Temperature
controller
PI
Pressure indicator
TI
Temperature
indicator
PIC
Pressure indicator
and controller
TIC
Temperature
indicator and
controller
Indicating temperature;
controlling temperature
PR
Pressure recorder
Recording pressure
TR
Temperature recorder Recording temperature
PRC
Pressure recorder and Recording pressure; controlling

controller
pressure
TRC
PSV
Controlling/regulating
temperature
Indicating pressure
Indicating pressure
Indicating pressure; controlling
pressure
Temperature recorder Recording temperature;

and controller
controlling temperature
Relieving excess pressure in
Pressure safety valve case of high pressure situation
Transmitting measured
temperature signals
TT
Temperature
transmitter
PT
Pressure transmitter
Transmitting measured pressure

signals
Thermowell
Houses temperature sensors
RV
Relief valve
To relieve excess pressure in

case of high pressure
TY
Temperature
relay/transducer
PSH
A pressure switch used to

Pressure switch high indicate high pressure alarm
ZI
Position/limit
indicator
TW
SDV
ZSC
Shut down valve
Converts electrical signals to

pneumatic signals
Indicates whether a valve is

open or close
A valve initiating shutdown
Position/unit switch Limit switch indicating a valve

closed
is closed
ZSO
Limit switch indicating a valve

Position/unit switch
is open
open
SDY
Shutdown relay
USD
A transducer attached to a
shutdown valve
Unit shutdown
Below are some common P&ID symbols used with the instrument abbreviations discussed above for developing
P&ID drawings
Tag Numbers on P&ID Symbols

Numbers on the P&ID symbols in instrumentation diagrams represent instrument tag numbers. Often these
numbers are associated with a particular control loop (e.g., Temperature indicator and controller 123) as shown
in the diagram below:
One easy way to learn how to read P&ID drawings and become proficient in it is to look at a lot of Piping and
instrumentation diagrams; both simple and complex ones! (please dont get scared). By so doing, you will
eventually become good at reading P&IDs. Any good instrumentation textbook should contain one or two
sections dedicated to understanding how to interpret and read P&ID drawings. Check out some download links
at Instrumentation downloads
Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams:Tutorials I

This post will begin a series of tutorials on P&ID to help many people seeking information on the subject to understand
more about piping and instrumentation diagrams.
The P&ID above is that of a typical industrial heat exchanger. You look at the P&ID and you wonder: what is
going on? Well the P&ID looks a little complicated if you are new to Piping and instrumentation diagrams. To
understand what is actually going on, let us first get to understand what the process whose piping and
instrumentation diagrams is depicted above is all about.
The Process
The heat exchanger is a process unit in which steam is used to heat up a liquid material. The material, called
feedstock, is pumped at a specific flow rate with pump P-101 into the pipes passing through the heat exchanger
chamber (called the tube) where heat is transferred from steam to the material in the pipe. It is usually desired to
regulate the temperature of the outlet flow irrespective of the change in the demand (flow rate) of the feedstock
or change in the inlet temperature of the feedstock. The regulation of the outlet temperature is achieved by
automatic control of the steam flow rate to the heat exchanger (E-101). The P&ID diagram utilizes certain
standard symbols to represent the process units, the instrumentation, and the process flow.
The Piping and Instrumentation Diagram:
Instruments on the P&ID
Recall that instruments are represented in P&IDs by bubbles defined by ISA standard 5.1. In this P&ID, there are
two sets of instrument bubbles used: plain circle bubble and a circle bubble with a solid line across it.
As indicated on the P&ID, the plain circle bubbles represent field mounted instruments while circle bubbles with
a solid line across represent control room mounted instruments.
Signals on the P&ID
Two kinds of signals are represented on the P&ID. They are:
Electrical signals
Pneumatic signals
Electrical signals are represented by the dashed lines with red colour on the P&ID. The pneumatic signals are
represented by solid lines with double strip across. They are colored blue on this P&ID
Detailed description of P&ID
FIC 101
Flow Indicator and Controller,
This control room mounted instrument controls the flow of cold feedstock entering the tube side of the heat
exchanger by accurately positioning a control valve (FCV 101) on the cold feedstock flow path. A Flow
transmitter, FT 101, in conjunction with a flow sensor (orifice plate) measures the flow of cold feedstock and
sends a corresponding electrical signal to controller, FIC 101, in the control room. The controller then compares
the measured flow with its set point and sends an electrical signal to a I/P(current to pneumatic) converter, FY
101, which converts the electrical signal to a corresponding pneumatic signal used to accurately position the
control valve FCV 101. Similarly, FT 103 measures the flow of steam into the exchanger using a flow sensor
(orifice plate) and sends a corresponding electrical signal to Flow Recorder, FR 103 to indicate the measured
flow.
FR 103
Flow Recorder. This control room mounted instrument records the steam flow rate. It measures the steam flow
rate in conjunction with a flow transmitter, FT 103 and a flow sensor (orifice plate).
HS 101
Hand Switch, ON/OFF. This hand switch is mounted in the control room .This switch turns on/off cold feedstock
pump P-101. When the switch is in the ON condition, the pump is running. When the switch is in the OFF
condition, the pump is not running.
HV 102
Hand Valve, OPEN/CLOSED.

This valve opens/closes the steam block valve through which steam is routed from the header to the shell side of
the heat exchanger.
PAL 103
Pressure Alarm Low,
This alarm fires should the steam header pressure be less than the pressure required for the heat exchanger to
work accurately. Note that the alarm module is mounted in the control room.
PI 100
Pressure Indicator,
This control room mounted instrument displays the steam pressure at the shell side of the heat exchanger. This
pressure measurement is done using pressure transmitter, PT 100.
PI 103
Pressure Indicator,
This instrument displays the steam header pressure. Pressure measurement is also done using pressure
transmitter, PT 103
TAH/L 102
Temperature Alarm High/Low,
This alarm fires should the temperature of the feedstock at the exchanger outlet goes beyond or falls below
stipulated temperatures for high or low temperature of the feedstock coming out of the exchanger.
TI 103
Temperature Indicator
This control room mounted instrument displays the temperature of the steam entering the shell side of the heat
exchanger.
TT 102
Temperature transmitter,
This is a field mounted instrument that measures the temperature of the outlet feedstock from the heat exchanger.
This measured temperature is converted to electrical signal that is sent to TAH/L 102 for alarming purposes and
TIRC 102 for indication, recording and controlling purposes.
TIRC 102
Temperature Indicator, Recorder, and Controller,
This control room mounted instrument controls the temperature of the feedstock at the exchanger outlet by
accurately positioning the valve TCV 102 that regulates the steam flow to the exchanger. TT 102 measures the
temperature of the feedstock at the exchanger outlet. This measured temperature is sent in the form of electrical
signals to TIRC 102. This controller then sends a corresponding electrical signal to an I/P (current to pneumatic)
converter, TY 102 which converts the electrical signal to pneumatic signal that is then used to accurately position
the temperature control valve, TCV 102. Note also, the electrical signal from TT 102 is also used for alarming
purposes (TAH/L 102)
TR 101
Temperature Recorder,
This control room mounted instrument displays the temperature of the feedstock entering the exchanger. This is
done by using temperature transmitter TT 101, which measures the temperature of the cold feedstock entering
the exchanger in the form of electrical signals and sends it to TR 101.
Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams Tutorials II: Pressure Control

In continuation of my series on piping and instrumentation diagrams tutorials, we shall look at how to develop
and construct a simple piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&ID).
Before we start, I will advise you to go through Tutorials I . If you are completely new to P&ID, I will advise
that you go through my various posts on piping and instrumentation diagrams to ensure that we are on the same
page when we use the information provided to develop our P&ID.
Tutorial Question
Develop the piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) of a gas vessel which has natural gas entering it through
an inlet header and leaving it through an outlet gas header. The gas vessel will show the following
instrumentation:
(a) An inlet valve that is manually controlled on the gas inlet header
(b) A pressure transmitter and pressure indicator to indicate inlet gas pressure
(c) A flow transmitter and flow indicator to measure and indicate inlet flow. Also show
instrumentation for high and low flow rates alarms
(d) A pressure safety valve to relieve excess pressure to a flare system
(e) A hand valve on the gas outlet header
(f) A pressure transmitter, a pressure indicator and controller and control valve for
monitoring and controlling gas vessel pressure
(g) An alarm to indicate high vessel pressure
(h) A check valve on the outlet header
(i) A pressure transmitter and a pressure indicator on the outlet header to indicate
outlet pressure
Developing the Piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID)
To develop this P&ID, the following tips were relied on:
Know the symbols for all kinds of valves
Know how to represent various instruments on P&IDs using ISA 5.1 standard
Know how to construct the various abbreviations for instruments on P&ID
Know the common signals and their representation on P&IDs
Based on the above tips I have developed the piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) below for the gas
vessel instrumentation:
Let us now take a detailed look at the piping and instrumentation diagram developed from the information given
above. Please note that the tag numbers on the P&ID have been arbitrarily added to give the P&ID an orderly
look.
On the developed P&ID, please note that:
The plain instrument bubble without a solid line across represents a field mounted instrument.
The instrument bubble with a solid line across represents an instrument that is mounted in a central control room.
(a) we were told the gas vessel instrumentation should have an inlet valve. On the P&ID, inlet valve HV 107 is
provided to manually regulate gas flow into the vessel.
(b) A pressure transmitter and a pressure indicator is to be provided to indicate inlet pressure. On the developed
piping and instrumentation diagram, PT 101 and PI 101 are provided for this purpose. PT 101 measures the inlet
pressure and sends the measured value via electrical signals to the pressure indicator, PI 101
(c) A flow transmitter and a flow indicator are to be provided to measure and indicate flow. Also, instrument for
alarming high and low flow rates are to be included. On the developed P&ID, FT 102 measures the flow and FI
102 indicates the flow. Also FAH 102 is a flow alarm switch for indicating high flow rates while FAL 102 is for
indicating low flow rates
(d) A pressure safety valve is to be provided in the instrumentation to relieve and vent excess pressure to a flare
system. On the developed P&ID, PSV 104 is provided to relieve excess pressure and protect the gas vessel.
(e) A manually controlled hand valve is to be provided on the gas vessel outlet header. On the developed P&ID,
hand valve, HV 105 is provided.
(f) A pressure transmitter, a pressure indicator and controller and a control valve are to be provided. On the
developed P&ID, PT 103 is the pressure transmitter that measures the gas vessel pressure and sends the signal
(electrical) to PIC 103, a pressure indicator and controller to indicate the measured pressure and at the same time
send a command pneumatic signal depending on its setpoint to actuate the pressure control valve, PCV 103
(g) Instrumentation for alarm to indicate high vessel pressure is to be provided. On the developed P&ID,
pressure alarm switch PAH 103 is used to signal an alarm for high vessel pressure
(h) A check valve on the outlet header is to be provided in the vessel instrumentation. On the developed P&ID,
CV 106 is the check valve provided to prevent back flow into the gas vessel
(i) Lastly, a pressure transmitter and pressure indicator is to be provided to measure and indicate gas outlet
pressure. On the developed P&ID, PT 108 and PI 108 are performing this function.
If after going through this piece you still have some difficulty, I will advise you go through all the introductory
posts on piping and instrumentation diagrams before coming back to study Tutorials II
Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams Tutorials III: Flow and Level Control
In continuation of my series on piping and instrumentation diagram tutorials, we shall continue with the
development of P&IDs when given some information about a process or control system. Let us take a look at the
tutorial question below:
Tutorial Question
It is desirable to have a small control system to control liquid flow and consequently level in an open tank. The
description of the control system is as follows:
(a) A flow control valve will be used to regulate flow. This flow control will be based on flow measurement in
an orifice meter
(b) We want to automatically adjust the setpoint of the flow controller with the aid of a level control loop. As
level is being measured, the set point of the flow control valve is adjusted automatically. If the level goes up, the
set point of the flow control valve should be lowered and vice versa
(c) The Orifice meter should have a secondary device to transmit a 4 20mA signal to the control room. The
secondary device should be able to indicate flow rate locally at the Orifice meter.
(d) The secondary device on the Orifice meter is required to send this 4 - 20mA electronic signal to a controller
in a central control room. The flow rate should be indicated on this controller
(e) The control room will send a 4 20mA signal from the controller to the control valve. At the control valve,
we will use an I/P converter to provide pneumatic signal to control our valve. The flow control loop will have a
loop number 100.
(f) The level of the tank will be measured using a transmitter, with local indication on the transmitter.
(g) We also want to send a 4 20mA level signal to a level controller in the control room. This controller will
display the level of the tank in the control room.
(h) The level control instrumentation in the tank will make provision for activating high and low level alarms
seen in the control room whenever the level goes too high or too low
(i) The tank should have a local sight glass or gauge for indicating level locally for plant operators
(j) The level controller will also send the level signal via wire to the flow controller in the control room, where
the setpoint for the flow control valve will be adjusted. The level control loop will have the loop number 101
From the information provided above, develop the piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) for this control
system
Developing the Piping and instrumentation diagram.
To develop the P&ID from the information given above, you need to be familiar with most of the symbols used
for representing flow and level since we are basically dealing with only flow and level control here. You also
need to be familiar with the various instruments and control functions encountered in most instrumentation
systems. You also need to refresh your mind about the various abbreviations used in denoting instruments and
control functions in piping and instrumentation diagrams. To get useful facts about all I have just mentioned,
Please go through:
Below is the piping and instrumentation diagram I have developed from the all the information provided above
in our tutorial question:
Let us now examine the information we used to develop the piping and instrumentation diagram above in detail:
(a) A flow control valve is required to regulate flow. On the developed P&ID, FV 100 is the control valve
provided to regulate flow
(b) The setpoint of the flow controller is to be adjusted by a level control loop. In the P&ID above, LIT 101 and
LIC 101 make up the level control loop that helps to adjust the setpoint of the flow controller FIC 100
(c) The Orifice meter is required to have a secondary device that can transmit a 4 20mA signal to the control
room and should also indicate flow locally in the plant.
In the above P&ID, the Orifice meter is shown to
have ,FIT 100, which is a flow indicator and transmitter. The indicator indicates flow locally in the plant and the
transmitter transmits the required 4 20mA signal to the control room.
(d) The secondary device on the Orifice meter (in this case, FIT 100) is required to send a 4 20mA electronic
signal to a controller in the control room. In the piping and instrumentation diagram I have developed above, FIT
100 is sending a 4 20mA signal to flow indicator and controller, FIC 100, located in the control room. The
controller has an indicator function to indicate flow in the control room.
(e) The flow controller in the control room is required to send a 4 20mA signal down to the flow control valve.
On the flow control valve, an I/P (current to pneumatic converter) will then provide the pneumatic signal
required to actuate the control valve. In the P&ID developed, the 4 20 mA signal sent to the I/P converter from
FIC 100, is converted into pneumatic signal that is used to control the flow control valve, FV 100.
(f) For level measurement, it is required that the open tank should have a transmitter with a local indication
function. In the piping and instrumentation diagrams that I have developed above, LIT 101 is a level indicator
and transmitter that is measuring the level of the tank and indicating it locally in the plant. The transmitter helps
to transmit the measured level signal to the control room.
(g) A 4 20mA level signal is required to be sent to a level controller in the control room. In the P&ID above,
LIT 101 is sending the required 4 20mA level signal to level controller and indicator , LIC 101. Note that
because it is required that level should be displayed in the control room, LIC 101 has an indicator function.
(h) The level instrumentation is required to have alarms for high and low levels in the tank. In our P&ID, the
level signal from LIT 101 is used for indicating high and low level alarms respectively via LAH 101 (level alarm
high) and LAL 101 (level alarm low).
(i) A level gauge or sight glass is required for rough level indication. This is provided by LG 101 in the above
P&ID
(j) The level controller LIC 101 is required to send a level signal via wire to our flow controller, FIC 100 so as to
adjust the setpoint of this controller. In the P&ID above, LIC 101 is sending the measured level signal to FIC
100. This signal is being used to adjust the setpoint of the flow controller FIC 100. If the level in the tank
becomes too high, the setpoint of FIC 100 is automatically reduced and if it becomes too low, it is increased.
Hope you have found this tutorial useful. Please note that on the P&ID developed, there are arrows on the
electrical signals indicating the direction where they are being sent to. On actual piping and instrumentation
diagrams, this is not often the case. I have done this for the purpose of learning and driving home my point.
Also note that the piping and instrumentation diagram is rather simplistic. This is done to facilitate understanding
of the basic concepts involved in understanding piping and instrumentation diagrams.
Basic Functions of Instruments in a P&ID

The primary functions of instruments and control components are monitoring, display, recording and control of
process variables. Instrument and control symbols consist of an instrument bubble or circle with the instrument
abbreviation lettered inside the bubble. The abbreviation completely describes the function of the
instrument/control component.
Instruments/control elements can be grouped into different categories based on the process variable that the
instrument or the control element is monitoring or controlling. The first letter in the instrument abbreviation
indicates the process variable being monitored or controlled. The four common process variables are:
1) Flow (F)
2) Level (G)
3) Pressure (P)
4) Temperature (T)
Instruments can also be grouped according to the function they perform. The second letter in the instrument
abbreviation commonly indicates the instrument function although sometimes it could be a readout or just a
modifier of the first letter (usually the process variable). Again, a third letter could indicate either a device
function or a modifier. You can get more information on P&ID symbols and lettering system at the ISA Web
site International Society for Automation
Instruments Functions in P&IDs
The common functions performed by instruments and control components are:
(a) Alarms (A): Alarms are devices responsible for alerting plant operators about an upset condition of the
process variable. Alarms typically consist of sound and light outputs that attract the attention of the plant
operators. On P&IDs, the alarm function is used to modify basic process variables such as pressure, temperature,
level and flow
(b) Controllers (C): A controller is a device that receives data from a measurement instrument, compares that
data to a programmed set point, and, if necessary, signals a control element to take corrective action. Controllers
are responsible for the control of the process variable. A typical controller receives input on the status of the
process variable and compares the value with the set point and initiates the appropriate action. Actuators and
control valves execute the control action. In instrument abbreviations used in P&ID, the controller function is
denoted by the letter (C).
(c) Indicators (I): An indicator is a human-readable device that displays information about the process.
Indicators may be as simple as a pressure or temperature gauge or more complex, such as a digital read-out
device. Some indicators simply display the measured variable, while others have control buttons that enable
operators to change settings in the field. Indicators located at the process unit are also known as Gauges. A
Level Gauge (LG) is an indicator used in the measurement of liquid level in process vessels. Again on P&IDs,
the indicator function modifies basic instrumentation variables such as Level, flow, temperature and pressure
(d) Sensors: Sensors are the first element in a process control loop. They are often called the primary element.
Sensors are devices that actually measure the value of the process variable. Examples of sensors are
thermocouples and orifice meters used in temperature and flow measurements respectively. Transducers are used
in converting the analog measurements into digital values. On P&IDs, sensors are represented by different letter
combinations for example FE and TE represent a flow sensor(flow element) and a temperature
sensor(temperature element) respectively
(e) Recorders (R): A recorder is a device that records the output of a measurement device. Different recorders
display the data they collect differently. Some recorders list a set of readings and the times the readings were
taken; others create a chart or graph of the readings. Recorders that create charts or graphs are called chart
recorders. Their information is very useful in monitoring plant performance and in quality control of the
products. On P&IDs, the recorder function is denoted by the letter (R). It signifies an instrument with a recording
function
(f) Transmitters (T): A transmitter is a device that converts a reading from a sensor or transducer into a
standard signal and transmits that signal to a monitor or controller. Transmitter types include:
1) Pressure transmitters
2) Flow transmitters
3) Temperature transmitters
4) Level transmitters
5) Analytic (O2 [oxygen], CO [carbon monoxide], and pH) transmitters.
Transmitters are very common and popular in instrumentation system design. This is because, there is often the
need to transmit data from sensors in the field to a central control room for monitoring or control purposes. On
P&IDs, the transmitter function(T) modifies basic process variables such as pressure, temperature, level and
flow. Typically, on a P&ID, you might have PT, TT, FT and LT. These are all transmitters. PT is a pressure
transmitter; TT is a temperature transmitter; FT is a flow transmitter; and LT is a level transmitter.
How a Pressure Switch Works

What is a Pressure Switch?
This is a device designed to monitor a process pressure and provide an output when a set pressure (setpoint) is
reached. A pressure switch does this by applying the process pressure to a diaphragm or piston to generate a
force which is compared to that of a pre-compressed range spring.
A pressure switch is used to detect the presence of fluid pressure. Most pressure switches use a diaphragm or
bellow as the sensing element. The movement of this sensing element is used to actuate one or more switch
contacts to indicate an alarm or initiate a control action.
Pressure switches have different designs with different sensing elements. One of the most common is the one
with diaphragms or bellows as the sensing elements. The one I will discuss here uses a piston as the pressure
sensing element. In any case, the operating principle for this piston type is the same with a diaphragm or bellow
type pressure switch.
bellow type pressure switch.
Basic Parts of a Pressure Switch

The basic parts of a typical pressure switch are shown in the schematic diagram below:
A sectional view of the pressure switch showing all the basic parts of the switch is shown above.
Also shown below is a pictorial view of the pressure switch:
The following basic parts can be identified on the sectional view of the pressure switch:
Micro-switch
Insulated trip button
Operating pin
Trip setting nut
Range spring
Operating piston
Switch case or housing
Micro-switch
The micro-switch is used to make or break an electrical circuit when the pressure switch operates. The microswitch in the sectional view is a single-pole double-throw (S.P.D.T.) switch. This switch is made up of one
normally close contact (NC) and one normally open contact(NO). When the pressure switch actuates, the NO
contact become close and the NC becomes open.
Micro-switches with gold contacts are normally used on low voltage, low current applications (i.e. on circuits
that are intrinsically safe). For higher voltages/currents silver contacts are used.
Insulated Trip Button
This button causes the NO and NC contacts to switch when the pressure switch actuates
Operating Pin
As shown in the sectional view of the pressure switch above, the operating pin is attached to the operating piston.
When the piston actuates as a result of inlet pressure changes, the operating pin either moves up and make
contact with the trip button or moves down and breaks contact with the trip button
Trip Setting Nut
The trip setting nut(could also be called a range screw) is used to adjust the setpoint of the pressure switch. It
does this by changing the amount of compression on the range spring. The more the range spring is compressed
by the trip setting nut, the higher the pressure set point for the switch. The lesser the compression, the lower the
setpoint for the pressure switch
Range Spring
This is a pre-compressed spring and the force generated by this determines the pressure at which the switch
operates.
Operating Piston
This is the part of the pressure switch in contact with the process. The process pressure acting upon the area of
the operating piston generates the force that opposes that of the range spring. The range of the switch is a
function of the area of the operating piston and the rate of the range spring (measured in lbf/inch, N/mm etc).
Switch Case or Housing
The enclosure containing the micro-switch and other accessories of the pressure switch is called the switch case
or housing. For a pressure switch giving out an electrical output one or more tapped connections are provided to
allow the cable to be brought into the housing via a suitable gland. For switch with a pneumatic output two or
more bulkhead connections are provided for the output connections. Switch housings are usually available in
either aluminium or stainless steel.
Operating Principle of a Pressure Switch
As shown in the sectional view of the pressure switch above, the inlet pressure is applied to the bottom of the
operating piston. This piston is forced upwards by the inlet pressure against the range spring. The tension of
the range spring can be adjusted so that it is compressed at a certain pressure or setpoint. When this pressure is
reached, the operating pin will hit the trip button on the micro-switch and change it over. The normally open
contacts (NO to C) will become closed and the normally closed contacts (NC to C) will open. The pressure at
which the micro-switch changes over is set by adjusting the trip setting nut. This nut adjusts the tension of the
range spring (e.g. if the nut is turned clockwise the trip pressure will be higher).
Basics of Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs)
P&ID stands for Piping and Instrumentation Diagram or Drawing. Alternatively, it could also be called Process
and Instrumentation Diagram or simply P&I diagram or drawing. P&IDs are also known as Engineering Flow
Diagrams or Mechanical Flow Diagrams .P&IDs are often used in the process industry to show the process flow
and other installed equipment and instruments. They show the interconnection of process equipment and the
instrumentation used to control the process.
Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams play a crucial role in the design and engineering of process plants and
piping systems. P&IDs are schematic diagrams that contain engineering and design details of the process plants.
It is a pictorial representation of:
Key Piping and Instrument Details
Control and Shutdown Schemes
Safety and regulatory requirements and
Basic Start-up and Operational Information
A P&ID is a working document that is used by every discipline involved in the design, engineering and
construction of process plants. It is used as a Process Plant Layout and Piping Design reference for checking
engineering and design documents and drawings associated with a project.
P&IDs are also used in material take-off, in generating a Bill of Materials for procurement and construction.
P&IDs typically contain the following information:
1) All the equipment and their specifications, usually presented in the form of a table.
2) All piping and line specifications.
3) All piping system components such as fittings, flanges and valves with
their specifications.
4) All instrumentation and control components.
5) Flow directions.
6) Information on process variables such as pressure and temperature.
7) Material Specifications.
8) Specialty Items such as strainers.
9) Control Input and Output, Interlocks and Alarm System
10)Interconnections References
11) Computer Control System input
12) Identification of Components and Subsystems Delivered To and By Others
P&IDs play very important roles in plant maintenance and modification in that they demonstrate the physical
sequence of equipment and system as well as how they all connect. During the Design stage they provide the
basis for the development of system control schemes, allowing for further safety and operational investigations
like HAZOP (Hazards and Operability Study).
ISA P&ID Symbols:
In the process industry, a standard set of symbols are used to prepare piping and instrumentation diagrams
(P&IDs). Most of the P&ID drawings you may come across have instrument symbols based on ISA standard
S5.1 (ISA stands for Instrumentation Systems and Automation Society). You can download the ISA 5.1 standard
for Piping and instrumentation diagram symbols and identification here
Let us start by understanding the ISA standard symbols for developing P&ID drawings
ISA S5.1 defines four general symbols for identifying instruments on a Piping and instrumentation diagram
(P&ID). They are:
(a) Discrete instruments
(b) Shared control/display
(c) Computer function
(d) Programmable logic controllers
These distinct symbols used in P&IDs are grouped into three location categories namely:
(a) Primary location usually a central control room
(b) Auxiliary location possibly a local panel in the field or process plant
(c) Field mounted
On P&ID drawings, individual instruments are indicated by circular symbols or circle. Shared control/display
elements are circles surrounded by a square. Computer functions are indicated by a hexagon and programmable
logic controller function are shown as a diamond inside a square
Adding a single horizontal bar across any of the four graphical elements indicates the function resides in the
primary location category. A double line indicates an auxiliary location, and no line places the device or
instrument in the field. Devices located behind a panel-board in some other inaccessible location are shown with
a dashed line.
The table below gives a brief description of the four general P&ID symbols used in instrumentation diagrams.
See common P&ID symbols used in developing instrumentation diagrams for details on the various symbols
used in P&ID drawings
Letter and number combinations appear inside each graphical element and letter combinations are defined by the
ISA standard. Numbers are user assigned and schemes vary. while some companies use sequential numbering,
others tie the instrument number to the process line number, and still others adopt unique and sometimes unusual
numbering systems.
The first letter defines the measured or initiating variables such as Analysis (A), Flow (F), Temperature (T), etc.
with succeeding letters defining readout, passive, or output functions such as Indicator (I), Recorder (R),
Transmitter (T), and so forth
The table below gives a breakdown of the various letters used in Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs)
and their functions:
To understand better how various letter combinations are used in constructing instrument letter abbreviations
found on Piping and instrumentation diagram symbols in P&ID drawings, check out:
Instrument Abbreviations used in Instrumentation diagrams
Mechanical Pressure Sensors

Pressure:
Pressure is defined as a force per unit area, and can be measured in units such as psi (pounds per square inch),
inches of water, millimetres of mercury, pascal (Pa, or N/m) or bar. Until the introduction of SI units, the 'bar'
was quite common.
The bar is equivalent to 100,000 N/m, which were the SI units for measurement. To
simplify the units, the N/m was adopted with the name of Pascal, abbreviated to Pa.
Pressure is quite commonly measured in kilopascals (kPa), which is 1000 Pascal and equivalent to 0.145psi.
Absolute, Gauge and Differential Pressure:
Pressure varies depending on altitude above sea level, weather pressure fronts and other conditions. The measure
of pressure is, therefore, relative and pressure measurements are stated as either gauge or absolute.
Gauge pressure is the unit we encounter in everyday work (e.g., tire ratings are in gauge pressure). A gauge
pressure device will indicate zero pressure when bled down to atmospheric pressure (i.e., gauge pressure is
referenced to atmospheric
pressure). Gauge pressure is denoted by a (g) at the end of the pressure unit , e.g., kPa (g)
Absolute pressure includes the effect of atmospheric pressure with the gauge pressure. It is denoted by an (a) at
the end of the pressure unit, e.g., kPa (a). An absolute pressure indicator would indicate atmospheric pressure
when completely vented down to atmosphere - it would not indicate scale zero.
Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure
The majority of pressure measurements in a plant are gauge. Absolute measurements tend to be used where
pressures are below atmosphere. If the gauge is used to measure the difference between two pressures, it then
becomes differential pressure.
Mechanical Pressure Sensors:
The object of pressure sensing is to produce a dial indication, control operation or a standard (4 - 20 mA)
electronic signal that represents the pressure in a process. To accomplish this, most pressure sensors translate
pressure into physical motion that is in proportion to the applied pressure. The most common mechanical
pressure sensors or primary pressure elements are :
1) Bourdon tube
2) Helix and spiral tubes
3) Bellows and capsules
4) Diaphragm
5) Spring and piston
The Bourdon Tube:

Bourdon tubes are circular-shaped tubes with oval cross sections. The Bourdon tube works on a simple principle
that a bent tube will change its shape when exposed to variations of internal and external pressure. As pressure is
applied internally, the
tube straightens and returns to its original form when the pressure is released.
The tip of the tube moves with the internal pressure change and is easily converted with a pointer onto a scale. A
connector link is used to transfer the tip movement to the geared movement sector. The pointer is rotated through
a toothed pinion by the geared sector. The bourdon tube mechanism of pressure sensing is shown below:
The main advantage with the Bourdon tube is that it has a wide operating range (depending on the tube material).
This type of pressure measurement can be used for positive or negative pressure ranges, although the accuracy is
impaired when in a vacuum.
Bourdon tube gauges are the most popular in any process plant. Some advantages of bourdon tube gauges are:
I. Direct pressure measurement
II. Fast response
III. Inexpensive
IV. Wide operating range
V. Good sensitivity
They however suffer from the following disadvantages:
I. Limited life when subject to shock and vibration
II. Primarily intended for indication only
III. Non-linear transducer, linearised by gear mechanism
IV. Hysteresis on cycling
V. Sensitive to temperature variations
Helix and Spiral tubes:

Each provides greater tip travel for a given pressure application. With one end sealed, the pressure exerted on the
tube causes the tube to straighten out. The amount of straightening or uncoiling is determined by the pressure
applied. These two approaches use the Bourdon principle. The uncoiling part of the tube is mechanically linked
to a pointer, which indicates the applied pressure on a scale.
The Spiral tube is suitable for pressure ranges up to 30,000 kPa and the helical tube for ranges up to 500,000
kPa. The pressure sensing elements vary depending on the range of operating pressure and type of process
involved. Helical and spiral elements in helical and spiral tubes gauge elements are shown below:
Bellows and capsules:

A bellows is made of several capsules. The capsule consists of two circular shaped, convoluted membranes
(usually stainless steel) sealed tight around the circumference. Bellows type elements are constructed of tubular
membranes that are convoluted around the circumference (see diagram below). The membrane is attached at one
end to the source and at the other end to an indicating device or instrument. The bellows element can provide a
long range of motion (stroke) in the direction of the arrow when pressure is applied. Bellows and single capsules
are used in many instruments. They are very useful for measuring small pressures.
Diaphragms:
Many pressure sensors depend on the deflection of a diaphragm for measurement. The diaphragm is a flexible
disc, which can be either flat or with concentric corrugations and is made from sheet metal with high tolerance
dimensions.
The diaphragm can be used as a means of isolating the process fluids, or for high-pressure applications. It is also
useful in providing pressure measurement with electrical transducers.
Diaphragms are well developed and proven. Modern designs have negligible hysteresis, friction and calibration
problems when used with smart instrumentation. They are used extensively on air conditioning plants and for
ON/OFF switching applications. Shown below is schematic diagram of a diaphragm pressure sensor system:
Spring and piston:

Here the pressure acts directly on the piston and compresses the spring. The position of the piston is directly
related to the pressure. A window in the outer case allows the pressure to be indicated. This type is usually used
in hydraulics where the ability to withstand shock, vibration and sudden pressure changes is needed (shock proof
gauge).
The piston movement may be connected to a secondary device to convert its movement into an electrical signal.
A piston/spring pressure sensor mechanism is shown below:
Thermocouples
Temperature sensors:
Temperature is the measure of average molecular kinetic energy within a substance. This follows that as the
kinetic energy of the substance increases so does the temperature. Temperature measurement relies on the
transfer of heat energy from the process material to the measuring device. The measuring device therefore needs
to be temperature dependent.
There are two main types of industrial temperature sensors namely:
1) Contact
2) Non-contact
Contact Temperature Sensors are the most common and widely used form of temperature measurement. The
three main types are:
1) Thermocouples
2) Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
3) Thermistors
These types of temperature devices all vary in electrical resistance for temperature change. The rate and
proportion of change is different between the three types, and also different within the type classes.
Non-Contact Temperature Sensors:
Temperature measurement by non-contact means is more specialised and can be performed with the following
technologies:
1) Infrared
2) Acoustics
Thermocouples:
A Thermocouple consists of two wires of dissimilar metals, such as iron and constantan, electrically connected at
one end. Applying heat to the junction of the two metals produces a voltage between the two wires. This voltage
is called an E.M.F. (electromotive force) and is proportional to temperature.
Most thermocouple metals produce a relationship between the two temperatures and the E.M.F. as follows:
e = (1 - 2) + (12 - 22)
e is the e.m.f, a and b are constants for the thermocouple, T1 and T2 are the temperatures. The relationship is
nearly linear over the operating range.
A thermocouple requires a reference junction, placed in series with the sensing junction. As the two junctions are
at different temperatures a thermal E.M.F is generated. The reference junction is used to correct the sensing
junction measurement. A schematic for a thermocouple/instrument connection is shown in the diagram below:
Thermocouples are fusion-welded to form a pure joint, which maintains the integrity of the circuit and also
provides high accuracy. Grounded junctions provide good thermal contact with protection from the environment.
Ungrounded and isolated junctions provide electrical isolation from the sensor sheath.
Thermocouples are usually encased in a protective metal sheath. The sheath material can be stainless steel, which
is good for temperatures up to 870 oC. For temperatures up to 1150 oC Inconel is used. A metallic oxide can be
compacted into the sheath. This provides mechanical support and also electrically insulates the thermocouple
junction. The metal sheathed mineral insulated thermocouple has become the accepted norm in most industries.
They use a variety of temperature and corrosion resistant sheaths and have an extremely high purity (99.4%) of
Magnesium oxide insulation.
Most thermocouples are manufactured with different tip configurations. For maximum sensitivity and fastest
response, the dissimilar-metal junction may be unsheathed (bare). This design, however, makes the
thermocouple more fragile. Sheathed tips are typical for industrial applications, available in either grounded or
ungrounded forms:
Grounded-tip thermocouples exhibit faster response times and greater sensitivity than ungrounded-tip
thermocouples, but they are vulnerable to ground loops: circuitous paths for electric current between the
conductive sheath of the thermocouple and some other point in the thermocouple circuit. In order to avoid this
potentially troublesome effect, most industrial thermocouples are often the ungrounded design.
AdvantagesofThermocoupleSensors:
Lowcost
Smallsize
Robust
Widerangeofoperation
Reasonablystable
Accurateforlargetemperaturechanges
Providefastresponse
DisadvantagesofThermocoupleSensors:
Veryweakoutput,millivolts
Limitedaccuracyforsmallvariationsintemperature
Sensitivetoelectricalnoise
Nonlinear
Complicatedconversionfromemftotemperature
Thermocouple types :
Thermocouples exist in many different types, each with its own color codes for the dissimilar-metal wires. Here
is a table showing the more common thermocouple types and their standardized colors (applicable only in the US
and Canada) along with some distinguishing characteristics of the metal types to aid in polarity identification
when the wire colors are not clearly visible:
Thermocouple problems:
Because thermocouples can be used in high temperature environments, it is possible that the extension wires can
be damaged by excessive heat. If a short circuit develops in the wires, it may not be possible to detect. The
sensing equipment will no longer be measuring the temperature at the sensing junction, but instead will measure
the temperature at the short.
If a new thermocouple has been installed but does not make contact with the thermowell then an air gap is
introduced which affects response time and can have a temperature variation from the actual temperature. A
thermopaste can be used, and should only be applied at the tip where the temperature measurement occurs. The
insertion depth is also a factor, as the deeper the insertion the more accurate the measurement. Thermopaste can
make up for some shortness in length, but is limited if the shortfall is too great.
Replacing thermocouples in thermowells can be very challenging. It is important to check that the bore of the
thermowell is cleaned. During the changeover or just over time, it is possible (and therefore probable!) that
material may accumulate at the bottom of the well, which can insulate the thermocouple from the sheath and
prevent heat transfer.
Another problem is when the new thermocouple is of a different mass to the old one. This can affect the response
time and, although it may not affect the accuracy, it can affect the stability in a closed loop system.
Grounding can be another problem, where the accuracy and response can differ between grounded and
ungrounded devices.
Failure Modes of Thermocouple Sensors:
An open circuit in the thermocouple detector means that there is no path for current flow, thus it will cause a
low (off-scale) temperature reading.
A short circuit in the thermocouple detector will also cause a low temperature reading because it creates a
leakage current path to the ground and a smaller measured voltage.
Instrumentation Basics: Control Signals

In the field of instrumentation, analogue electronic signals and pneumatic signals are typically used for control
purposes to actuate the final control element in a control loop which is usually a control valve.
An analogue electronic signal is a voltage or current whose magnitude represents some physical measurement
or control quantity.
The most popular form of signal transmission used in modern industrial instrumentation systems is the 4-20 mA
DC standard. This is an analog signal standard, meaning that the electric current is used to proportionately
represent measurements or control signals. Typically, a 4 mA current value represents 0% of scale, a 20 mA
current value represents 100% of scale, and any current value in between 4 and 20 mA represents a
commensurate percentage in between 0% and 100%.
In pneumatic systems, a standard signal range of 3 to 15 PSI (Pounds Per Square Inch) is used. Here, a varying
air pressure signal represents some process measurement in an analogue (proportional) fashion. Typically, a 3
PSI pressure value represents 0% of scale, a 15 PSI pressure value represents 100% of scale, and any pressure
value in between 3 and 15 PSI represents a commensurate percentage in between 0% and 100%. It is worthy of
note to state here that pneumatic signals are commonly used in process industries for safety especially when
there is a risk of fire or explosion
Relating 4-20 mA signals to instrument variables:
Calculating the equivalent milliamp value for any given percentage of signal range is quite easy. Given the linear
relationship between signal percentage and milliamps, the equation takes the form of the standard slope-intercept
line equation C = mP + b.
Here, C is the equivalent current in milliamps, P is the desired percentage of signal, m is the span of the 4-20 mA
range (16 mA), and b is the offset value, or 4 mA:
Current = (16mA)(P/100%) + (4mA), P = percentage range of signal
This equation form is identical to the one used to calculate pneumatic instrument signal pressures (the 3 to 15
PSI standard):
Pressure = (12 PSI)(P/100%) + (3 PSI)
The same mathematical relationship holds for any linear measurement range. Given a percentage of range P, the
measured variable is equal to:
Measured variable = (Span)(P/100%) + (LRV)
Practical examples of calculations between milliamp current values and process variable values follow:
(A) An electronic temperature transmitter is ranged 40 to 140 degrees Fahrenheit and has a 4-20 mA
output signal. Calculate the current output by this transmitter if the measured temperature is 60 degrees
Fahrenheit.
Solution:
First, we convert the temperature value of 60 degrees into a percentage of range based on the knowledge of the
temperature range span (140 degrees 40 degrees = 100 degrees) and lower-range value (LRV = 40 degrees).
We may do so by manipulating the general formula:
Measured variable = (Span)(P/100%) + (LRV)
Measured variable (LRV) = (Span)(P/100%)
Therefore, P = [(Measured variable LRV)/(Span)] x 100%
= [(60 40)/(100)] x 100% = 20%
Next, we take this percentage value and translate it into a 4-20 mA current value using the formula:
Current = (16mA)(P/100%) + (4mA)
= (16mA)(20%/100%) + (4mA) = 7.2 mA

Therefore, the transmitter should output a Process Value signal of 7.2mA at a temperature of 60 F.
(B) An electronic loop controller outputs a signal of 8mA to a direct-responding control valve (where 4 mA is
shut and 20 mA is wide open). How far open should the control valve be at this Manipulated Variable signal
level?
Solution:
We must convert the milliamp signal value into a percentage of valve travel. This means determining the
percentage value of the 8mA signal on the 4-20 mA range. First, we need to manipulate the percentage-milliamp
formula to solve for percentage (P):
Current = (16mA)(P/100%) + (4mA)
P/100% = [(Current 4mA )/(16mA)]
P = [(Current 4mA )/(16mA)] x 100%
Next, we plug in the 8mA signal value and solve for P:
Therefore, P = [(8mA 4mA )/(16mA)] x 100% = 25%
Therefore, the control valve should be 25 % open when the MV signal is at a value of 8mA.
Additional learning resources:
Now that you understand basic control signals used in instrumentation. You could also check out this book
measurement and control basics It is a very good book for beginners to instrumentation and control. Established
technicians and engineers could also get the book for their library.
Closely related to the concept of the 4-20mA signal and 3-15psi signal is the art of calibration. Many technicians
and experts in instrumentation and control will agree with me that calibration is a critical aspect of plant
management and process safety.
Instrumentation Basics: Control Signals

Bi-Metallic Temperature Sensors
Solids tend to expand when heated. The amount that a solid sample will expand with increased temperature
depends on the size of the sample, the material it is made of, and the amount of temperature rise. The following
formula relates linear expansion to temperature change:
L = Lo (1 + T)
Where,
L = Length of material after heating
Lo = Original length of material
= Coefficient of linear expansion
T = Change in temperature
For any given metal, the coefficient of expansion is usually very small. To increase the expansion when the
metals are heated, two metals of differing coefficient of expansion are bonded together and used in practical bimetallic temperature sensor applications. The two bonded strips of metal produce a bending motion that greatly
exceeds the linear expansion. This device is called a bi-metal strip. The bending motion of a bi-metal strip is
significant enough to drive a pointer mechanism, activate an electromechanical switch, or perform any number
of other mechanical tasks, making this a very simple and useful primary sensing element for temperature.
In the common bi-metallic strip industrial temperature gauge shown below:
The bi-metal strip is shaped into a helix. The helix is fixed at one end. The otherend of the helix is free to rotate a
shaft which is fixed to it. The heat applied to the bi-metal strip at the fixed end causes the helix to unwind and
turn the pointer on the dial.
The operating ranges vary to cater for different applications, the lower range being from -70 oC to 50 oC, with a
higher range available of up to 100 oC to 550 oC. Bimetallic thermometers can be used in a Thermowell. A
Thermowell has the added advantages of allowing the removal or replacement of the device without opening up
the process tank or piping. They are typically in the helical form when used in thermowells.
Vibration and heat transfer can be a problem with some applications. However, selecting a unit that is
completely sealed can overcome these limitations. A dry gas is generally used in the dial face portion of the
assembly while silicone fluid fills the stem and surrounds the coil. Having fluid around the coil can assist in
mechanical damping and heat transfer.
Advantages of Bimetallic temperature sensors
Inexpensive
Simpleconstruction
Disadvantages of Bimetallic temperature sensors
Limitedaccuracy
Indicationorsimpleswitchingonly
Localisedmeasurementonly
Easilydecalibratedduetomechanicalshock
Hysteresis
Differential Capacitance Sensors

Like the strain gauge, differential capacitance sensors use a change in electrical characteristics to infer pressure.
Here a change in capacitance is used to infer pressure measurement. The capacitor is a device that stores
electrical charge. It consists of two metal plates separated by an electrical insulator. The metal plates are
connected to an external electrical circuit through which electrical charge can be transferred from one metal plate
to the other.
The capacitance of a capacitor is a measure of its ability to store charge. The capacitance of a capacitor is
directly proportional to the area of the metal plates and inversely proportional to the distance between them. It
also depends on a characteristic of the insulating material between them. This characteristic, called permittivity
is a measure of how well the insulating material increases the ability of the capacitor to store charge.
Mathematically this can be put as:
C = A/d,
here C = capacitance, A = area of plates, d = distance between plates of capacitor. = is the permittivity of the
insulator between capacitor plates.
In modern electronic transmitters using the differential capacitance sensor technology, capacitive pressure
measurement involves sensing the change in capacitance that results from the movement of a diaphragm. In this
design, the sensing element is a taut metal diaphragm located equidistant between two stationary metal surfaces,
forming a complementary pair of capacitances. An electrically insulating fill fluid (usually a liquid silicone
compound) transfers motion from the isolating diaphragms to the sensing diaphragm, and also doubles as an
effective dielectric for the two capacitors. The diagram below shows the internal parts of a modern differential
capacitance sensor transmitter from Rosemount:
Any difference in pressure across the cell will cause the diaphragm to flex in the direction of least pressure. This
results in a change of capacitance across the cell. A high frequency capacitance detector circuit connected to this
cell uses a high-frequency AC excitation signal to measure the difference in capacitance between the two halves,
translating that into a 4-20mA DC signal which then becomes the signal output by the instrument representing
pressure. Differential capacitance sensors are highly accurate, stable and rugged. They have a wide operating
range.
Their solid frame bounds the motion of the two isolating diaphragms such that the sensing diaphragm cannot
move past its elastic limit. This gives the differential capacitance sensor excellent resistance to overpressure
damage.
Differential capacitance sensors are widely used for determining the level in a tank or vessel. Rosemount has a
line of electronic pressure transmitters using differential capacitance sensors as the pressure sensing element.
You might check it out here Rosemount pressure transmitters
Troubleshooting Guide for DP Transmitters

Just like every other equipment, DP transmitters can malfunction while in service. The ability to troubleshoot
and locate the possible cause of malfunction of the transmitter is crucial for easy start up of the process the
malfunctioning DP transmitter may have up set.
When troubleshooting DP transmitters, it is always valuable to consult the manufacturers manual for your DP
transmitter. By so doing, you should be able to locate the malfunctioning parts of the transmitter and proffer a
remedy immediately. However there are some problems that are common to most DP transmitters. If you suspect
a malfunction, follow the guidelines below to verify that the transmitter hardware and process connections are in
good working condition. Under each of the five common problems with DP transmitters, you will find specific
guidelines/suggestions for solving the problem. It is wise to always deal with the most likely and easiest
problems first.
Please follow the precautions below before and during troubleshooting of your malfunctioning DP transmitter:
1. Isolate the failed DP transmitter from its pressure source as soon as possible. Pressure that may be
present could cause death or serious injury to technicians or personnel if the transmitter is disassembled
or ruptures under pressure
2. Do not use higher than the specified voltage to check the transmitter loop. This may damage the
transmitter electronics.
3. If there is need to open your DP transmitter while troubleshooting, please follow your manufacturers
specific guidelines for disassembly of your transmitter. If you dont serious injury or death to personnel
may occur or your transmitter may be damaged.
Problems
Potential Cause
Corrective Action
Low output or No output
Primary Element
Check the insulation and condition of primary element
Loop Wiring
Check for adequate voltage to the transmitter

Check the mA rating of the power supply against the total current
being drawn for all transmitters being powered
Check for shorts and multiple grounds.
Check for proper polarity at the signal terminal
Check loop impedance (should not exceed the specification for your
plant)
Check wire insulation to detect possible shorts to ground
Impulse piping
Ensure that the pressure connection is correct

Check for leaks or blockage
Check for entrapped gas in liquid service
Check for sediment or debris in the DP transmitter process flange
Ensure that blocking valves are fully open and that bypass valves are
tightly closed.
Ensure that density of fluid in impulse piping is unchanged.
Sensing Element
The sensing element is not field repairable and must be replaced if

found to be defective. Disassemble the transmitter and probe
further(check your manufacturers manual for instructions on how to
disassemble your transmitter; Check for any obvious defects. At this
point you may need to contact your manufacturer if there is any
defects in the sensing element.
Pressure
source/correction
Check for restrictions or leaks

Check for proper levelling or zeroing of the pressure source
Check weights/gauge to ensure proper pressure setting
Determine if your pressure source has sufficient accuracy
Meter
Determine if the meter is functioning properly
Power Supply
Check the power supply output voltage at transmitter
DP transmitter
electronics
Make sure the transmitter connectors are clean.

If the electronics are still suspect, substitute with new electronics
Sensing Element

defects in the sensing element
Primary Element
Check for restrictions at primary element
Impulse piping
Check for leaks or blockage

Check for entrapped gas in liquid service
Check for sediment or debris in the DP transmitter process flange
Ensure that blocking valves are fully open and that bypass valves are
tightly closed.
Ensure that density of fluid in impulse piping is unchanged.
DP transmitter does not calibrate

properly
High Output
Erratic Output
Power Supply
Check the power supply output voltage at transmitter
DP transmitter
electronics

Sensing Element

defects in the sensing element
Loop Wiring
Check for adequate voltage to the transmitter

Check for intermittent shorts, open circuits and multiple grounds
Process Pulsatio
Adjust damping
DP transmitter
electronics

Impulse piping
Check for entrapped gas in liquid lines and for liquid in dry lines.
Applications of DP transmitters
The DP transmitter is a very versatile pressure-measuring device. This one instrument may be used to measure
pressure differences, positive (gauge) pressures, negative (vacuum) pressures, and even absolute pressures, just
by connecting the high and low sensing ports differently.
In every DP transmitter application, there are means of connecting the transmitters pressure-sensing ports to the
points in a process. Metal or plastic tubes (or pipes) are the means used for this purpose, and are commonly
called impulse lines or sensing lines.
Let us now look at a few of the several applications using the versatile DP transmitter:
Measuring Positive Gauge Pressure:
The DP transmitter can be used as a simple pressure gauge if needed. It does this by simply responding to
pressures in excess of atmospheric pressure. If we simply connect the high side of the DP transmitter to a
process vessel using an impulse tube, while leaving the low side vented to atmosphere, the DP transmitter will
interpret any positive pressure in the vessel as a positive pressure difference between the vessel and atmosphere
as shown below:
Measuring Absolute Pressure:

The DP transmitter could also be adapted to measure absolute pressure. Absolute pressure is defined as the
difference between a given fluid pressure and a perfect vacuum. In an absolute pressure sensing DP transmitter,
the low side of its pressure-sensing element is connected to a vacuum chamber, while the high side is
connected to the process vessel. This way, any pressure greater than a perfect vacuum will register as a positive
pressure difference:
Measuring Vacuum:
We can use the same principle of connecting one port of a DP transmitter to a process and venting the other port
to the atmosphere to measure vacuum (pressures below that of atmosphere). All we need to do is connect the
low side to the vacuum process and vent the high side to atmosphere. Any pressure in the process vessel less
than atmospheric pressure will register to the DP transmitter as a positive pressure difference (with PH>PL).
Thus the stronger the vacuum in the process vessel, the greater the signal output by the DP transmitter:
Measuring Liquid Level:

One of the greatest versatility of DP transmitters is their use in inferring many other process variables. One of
such variable is level measurement.
From our elementary physics, we know that Liquids generate pressure proportional to height (depth) due to their
weight. The pressure generated by a vertical column of liquid is proportional to the column height (h), and
liquids mass density(), and the acceleration of gravity (g). Mathematically, this can be put as:
P = gh
With this simple relation above, we may use a DP transmitter as a liquid level-sensing device if the density of the
liquid remains fairly constant.
As the liquid level in the vessel increases, the amount of hydrostatic pressure applied to the DP transmitters
high port increases in direct proportion. Thus, the DP transmitters increasing signal represents the height of
liquid inside the vessel since:
h = (P/g)
The diagrams below represent two variants of the application of DP transmitters in level measurement
applications:
Measuring Gas and Liquid Flow:

Another very common inferential measurement using DP transmitters is the measurement of fluid flow through a
pipe. Pressure dropped across a constriction in the pipe varies in relation to flow rate and fluid density. If the
fluid density remains fairly constant, we can measure pressure drop across a piping constriction and use that
measurement to infer flow rate.
The most common form of constriction used for inferring flow in most industrial applications is the orifice plate.
The orifice plate is a metal plate with a precisely machined hole in the center. As fluid passes through this hole,
its velocity changes, causing a pressure drop. It is this pressure drop across the orifice plate that is then used to
infer the flow rate in the pipe:
As seen in the diagram above, in using the orifice plate to measure flow, one port of the DP transmitter is
connected to the upstream side of the pipe while the other port is connected to the downstream side of the pipe.
Differences of pressure between the upstream and downstream sides of the constriction (orifice plate) will cause
the DP transmitter to register flow.
Measuring Vessel Clogging:
In many industrial plants, it is common to find DP transmitters connected across process vessels especially those
with the tendency to be clogged or become dirty. The DP transmitter is used here to indicate when the process
vessel will become dirty and be due for cleaning.
In these applications, the DP transmitter is used to measure the difference in pressure across the process vessel
e.g a filter, a heat exchanger, or a chemical reactor. The diagram below shows a common scheme for this kind of
application:
From the diagram above, the high side of the DP transmitter connects to the upstream side of the filter, and the
low side of the transmitter to the downstream side of the filter. This way, increased filter clogging will result in
an increased transmitter output.
Linear Variable differential Transformer (LVDT)

A pressure sensor can be created using the motion of a high permeability core in a magnetic field created by the
coils of a transformer. This principle is what is used in a Linear variable differential transformer. The movement
of the core is transferred from the process medium to the core by the use of a diaphragm, bellows or bourdon
tube.
The LVDT operates on the inductance ratio between the transformer coils. Three coils are wound onto the same
insulating tube containing the high permeability iron core. The primary coil is located between the two
secondary coils(S1,S2 in the diagram below) and is energised with an alternating current.
Equal voltages are induced in the secondary coils (S1,S2) if the core is in the centre. The voltages are induced by
the magnetic flux. When the core is moved from the centre position, the result of the voltages in the secondary
windings will be different. The secondary coils are usually wired in series. LVDTs are sensitive to vibration and
are subject to mechanical wear.
LVDT sensors can also be used as a position sensor. They can measure movements as small as 0.01 microns (0.4
micro-inch), up to several millimeters, but are also capable of measuring positions up to 200 mm (4 inch).
The diagram below shows a basic arrangement for an LVDT sensor for pressure measurement.
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Vibrating Wire Sensors

It is a well known fact that the natural frequency of a tensioned string increases with tension. Mathematically, the
relationship between the resonant frequency of a string and the tension applied on the string is given by:
Where,
F = Fundamental resonant frequency of string (Hertz)
L = String length (meters)
T = String tension (newtons)
= Unit mass of string (kilograms per meter).
This implies that a string can be used as a force sensor. In this type of sensor design, an electronic
oscillator circuit, is used to keep a wire vibrating at its natural frequency when under tension. The
principle is similar to that of a guitar string.
The vibrating wire is located in a diaphragm. As the pressure changes on the diaphragm so does the
tension on the wire, which affects the frequency that the wire vibrates or resonates at. These
frequency changes are a direct consequence of pressure changes and as such are detected and
shown as pressure.
The frequency can be sensed as digital pulses from an electromagnetic pickup or sensing coil. An
electronic transmitter would then convert this into an electrical signal suitable for transmission.
This type of pressure measurement can be used for differential, absolute or gauge installations.
Below is a simplified diagram of this type of sensor arrangement:
Temperature variations within this sensor require temperature compensation . This problem limits the sensitivity
of the device. The output generated is non-linear which can cause continuous control problems.
Improvement in technology has led to the production of more linear sensors using a resonating wire. The
Foxboro company pioneered this concept of a vibrating wire sensor in an early resonant wire design of pressure
transmitters. The Yokogawa Corporation of Japan still produces a line of sensors using this technology. The
Yokogawa DPharp EJA pressure transmitter series uses the resonating wire technology. Learn more about this
pressure transmitter here: EJA series of differential pressure transmitters
Filled Bulb Temperature Sensors

Filled-bulb systems use the principle of fluid expansion to measure temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in a sealed
system and then heated, the molecules in that fluid will exert a greater pressure on the walls of the enclosing
vessel. By measuring this pressure, and/or by allowing the fluid to expand under constant pressure, we may infer
the temperature of the fluid.
There are basically four types of filled bulb temperature sensors in use in industrial applications. They are:
a) Liquid Filled (Class I A,B)
b) Vapor filled (Class II A,B,C,D)
c) Gas Filled (Class III A,B)
d) Mercury Filled (Class V A,B)
Class
Class l
Class ll
Class lll
Class V
Temperature range
-125 F to + 600 F
-40 to 32 or 32 to 600 F
-450 F to +1400 F
-40 F to +1200 F
Response
Slowest
Fastest
Fast
Fast
Liquid Filled Systems Temperature Sensors (Class I):

Class I systems use a liquid fill fluid. Here, the volumetric expansion of the liquid drives an indicating
mechanism to show temperature as shown below:
The steel bulb, stem and indicator (Bourdon tube) are completely filled under pressure with a liquid. The system
is totally filled to provide a constant volume. Expansion of the fluid in the tube is converted to a pressure. This
pressure expands the Bourdon tube which moves the pointer on the scale.
Liquid expansion systems have narrow spans, small sensors and give high accuracy. They also have the ability to
provide temperature compensation using either an auxiliary capillary or bimetallic techniques. Fully
compensated liquid expansion systems are expensive and complex. Liquid filled systems have the advantage
over Mercury in that the expansion of the fluid is about six times that of a Mercury system. These also have the
added advantage of using smaller bulbs.
The normal operating minimum for this type of sensing is from -75 oC to -210 oC, with the maximum being up
to 315 oC. Over range protection is of particular concern in liquid filled systems, and is typically 100% over the
normal operating range.
Vapor Filled Systems Temperature Sensors (Class II):
The vapour filled system uses a volatile liquid/vapor combination to generate a temperature-dependent fluid
expansion. The mechanism of operation of the vapour filled system is shown below:
Vapour pressure systems are quite accurate and reliable. They also do not require any compensation for
temperature effects. This form of measurement is based on the vapour-pressure curves of the fluid and
measurement occurs at the transition between the liquid and vapour phases.
This transition occurs in the bulb, and will move slightly with temperature, but it is the pressure that is affected
and causes the measurement. If the temperature is raised, more liquid will vaporise and the pressure will
increase. A decrease in temperature will result in condensation of some of the vapour, and the pressure will
decrease.
Different materials have different vapour pressure-temperature characteristics. Methyl chloride is quite
commonly used in this type of sensor. Ethane is used for low temperature operation, typically from about -70 oC
to 30 oC. Whereas for high temperature applications, Ethyl Chloride can be used, with an effective operating
range from 40 oC to 175 oC. Vapour filled thermal systems are non-linear, and are generally more sensitive at
the higher end of the scale. Selecting and sizing the application so that the range of operation is at the higher end
can prove advantageous and provide better measurements. Over range protection may become a problem as
vapour filled systems have a low over range limit.
Gas Filled Systems Temperature Sensors (Class III):
Here, the change in pressure with temperature (as described by the Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT) allows us to sense
the bulbs temperature. As the volume is kept constant, the pressure varies in direct proportion to the absolute
temperature.
This type of measurement is quite simple and low cost. A basic construction of the gas filled system is shown
below:
Nitrogen is quite commonly used with gas filled systems. It doesnt react easily and is inexpensive, although it
does have temperature limitations. At low temperatures and above 400 oC, helium should be considered. The
range of operation is determined by the initial filling pressure.
Gas filled systems do provide a faster response than other filled devices, and as it converts temperature directly
into pressure it is particularly useful in pneumatic systems. This type of measurement also has the advantage that
there are no moving parts and no electrical stimulation. The size of the bulb is not critical and in fact can be sized
quite large for averaging measurements in large volumes such as dryers and ovens.
Mercury Filled Systems Temperature Sensors (Class V):
Mercury expansion systems are different from other liquid filled systems because of the properties of the metal.
Mercury is toxic and can affect some industrial processes and for this reason is used less in filled systems. The
high liquid density also limits on the elevation difference between the sensor and instrument. The diagram below
shows the mercury liquid-in-glass thermometer:
Mercury filled systems provides the widest range of operation, which ranges from the freezing to boiling point of
the metal, ie from -40 oC to 650 oC.
Systems using this technology are simple, inexpensive and have fast responses. Typically they also have good
over range protection.
Instrumentation Basics: Measurement Terminology

Instrumentation is the science of automated measurement and control. Applications of this science abound in
modern research, industry, and everyday living. From automobile engine control systems to home thermostats to
aircraft autopilots to the manufacture of pharmaceutical drugs, automation is everywhere around us. This piece
will focus on the fundamental principle of measurement terminology.
The objective of any measurement endeavour is to be able to measure a given process variable in order to
possibly control it. Hence what you cannot measure, you cannot control.
Instruments are used to measure and control the condition of process streams as they pass through a Plant.
Instruments are used to measure and control process variables such as: Temperature; Flow; Level; Pressure;
Quality. Automatic instrument control systems are most commonly used to continually monitor these process
conditions and correct them, without operator intervention, if there is a deviation from the process value
required. The main reason
for using automatic controls is that production is achieved more economically and
safely. In fact, some of our processes could not be controlled in a stable condition
without automatic control systems.
Although I have laid out the basic foundation for measurement and control here, you might check out:
Measurement and control basics This book is very good for learning the basics of measurement and control.
Common Measurement Terminology:
Measured Variable:
Is the physical quantity or condition, which is to be measured. Common measured
variables are: Temperature, pressure, rate of flow, level, speed, etc
Measured Signal:
Is the electrical, mechanical, pneumatic, or other variable applied to the input of a device. In a thermocouple, the
measured signal is an E.M.F, which is the electrical analogue of the temperature applied to the thermocouple. A
measured signal is normally produced by the primary element (sensing element) of an instrument.
Input Signal:
Is a signal applied to a device element, or system. The pressure applied to the input connection of a pressure
transmitter is an input signal.
Output Signal:
Is a signal delivered by a device, element, or system. The signal (3 to 15 psig, 4 to 20 mA dc, etc) produced at
the output connections of a transmitter is an output signal.
Range
Is the region between the limits within which a quantity is measured, received or
transmitted, expressed by stating the lower and upper range-value.
-20 to + 2000C ; 20 to 1500C ; 4mA to 20mA
Span
Is the algebraic difference between the upper and lower range-values.
Range: -20 to 2000C, Span is 2200C; Range: 20 to 1500C, Span is 1300C.
Suppressed zero, is used when lower range-values is greater than zero
Range = 20 to 1500C
Elevated zero, is used when lower range-values is less than zero
Range = -20 to 2000C
Rangeability or turndown
Ratio of the maximum adjustable span / the minimum adjustable span for a given
instrument, R = 100 bars / 10 bars = 10
Repeatability
Ability of an instrument to give identical indications or responses for repeated
applications of the same value of the quantity measured under the same conditions of used. Good repeatability
does not guarantee accuracy.
Uncertainty
Range of values within which the true value lies with a specified probability
Uncertainty of +/-1 % at 95 % confidence means the instrument will give the user a
range of +/-1 % for 95 readings out of 100.
Sensitivity
Is the ratio of the change in transducer output to the corresponding change in the
measured value, i.e. sensitivity = (change of output signal) / (change of input signal). For example: A pressureto-current converter could have a sensitivity of 0.1 mA / mbar.
Accuracy
Accuracy is the conformity of an indicated value to an accepted standard value, or
true value. It is usually measured in terms of inaccuracy and expressed as accuracy.
It is a number or quantity, which defines the limit that errors will not exceed, when the device is used under
reference operating conditions. The units to be used must be stated explicitly. It is preferred that a + and - sign
precede the number or quantity.
The absence of a sign infers both signs ().
Accuracy can be expressed in a number of forms:
Accuracy expressed in terms of the measured variable

Accuracy = 1Degree F.
Accuracy expressed in percent of span.
Accuracy = 1/2 %
Accuracy expressed in percent of the upper range-value
Accuracy = 1/2 % of URV.
Accuracy expressed in percent of actual reading
Accuracy = 1% of actual output reading
Accuracy for an instrument loop:
For an instrument loop including three
elements:
A sensor with an accuracy of 1 %
A transmitter with an accuracy of 0.5 %
An indicator with an accuracy of 1 %
Absolute accuracy: +or-1+ or -0.5+ or -1 = + or -2.5 %
Most likely accuracy (Root Mean Square) = SQRT[(1)2 (0.5)2(1)2] = 1.5 %
Absolute Error
Algebraic difference between the indication and the true value of a quantity to be
measured. Absolute Error = indication - true value. X = X X
Relative Error
Ratio between the absolute error and the true value of the quantity to be measured.
Expressed in percent: x = (X/X) x 100
Hysteresis
Hysteresis is the difference in the output for given input when the input is increasing and output for same input
when input is decreasing. When input of any instrument is slowly varied from zero to full scale and then back to
zero, its output varies as shown in the diagram below
This is where the accuracy of the device is dependent on the previous value and the direction of variation.
Hysteresis causes a device to show an inaccuracy from the correct value, as it is affected by the previous
measurement.
Linearity
Linearity expresses the deviation of the actual reading from a straight line. If all outputs are in the same
proportion to corresponding inputs over a span of values, then input output plot is straight line else it will be non
linear (see diagram below) For continuous control applications, the problems arise due to the changes in the rate
the output differs from the instrument. The gain of a non-linear device changes as the change in output over input
varies. In a closed loop system changes in gain affect the loop dynamics. In such an
application, the linearity needs to be assessed. If a problem does exist, then the signal needs to be linearised.
Response
When the output of a device is expressed as a function of time (due to an applied input) the time taken to respond
can provide critical information about the suitability of the device. A slow responding device may not be suitable
for an application. This typically applies to continuous control applications where the response of the device
becomes a dynamic response characteristic of the overall control loop. However in critical alarming applications
where devices are used for point measurement, the response may be just as important. The diagram below shows
response of the system to a step input.
Ambient
The surrounding or environment in reference to a particular point or object.
Attenuation
A decrease in signal magnitude over a period of time.
Calibration
The procedure of comparing and determining the performance accuracy is called calibration. To configure a
device so that the required output represents (to a defined degree of accuracy) the respective input.
Closed loop
Relates to a control loop where the process variable is used to calculate the controller output. In a closed loop
system the control action is independent on desired output.
Controller
A device, which operates automatically to regulate the control of a process with a control variable.
Gain
This is the ratio of the change of the output to the change in the applied input. Gain is a special case of
sensitivity, where the units for the input and output are identical and the gain
is unitless.
Hunting
Generally an undesirable oscillation at or near the required setpoint is called hunting.
Hunting typically occurs when the demands on the system performance are high and possibly exceed the system
capabilities. The output of the controller can be over controlled due to the resolution of accuracy limitations.
Ramp
Defines the delayed and accumulated response of the output for a sudden change in the input.
Reliability
The probability that a device will perform within its specifications for the number of operations or time period
specified.
Reproducibility
The similarity of one measurement to another over time, where the operating conditions have varied within the
time span, but the input is restored.
Resolution
The smallest interval that can be identified as a measurement varies.
Resonance
The frequency of oscillation is maintained due to the natural dynamics of the system.
Sensitivity
This defines how much the output changes, for a specified change in the input to the device.
Setpoint
Used in closed loop control, the setpoint is the ideal process variable. It is represented in the units of the process
variable and is used by the controller to determine the output to the process.
Span Adjustment
The difference between the maximum and minimum range values. When provided in an instrument, this changes
the slope of the input-output curve.
Steady state
Used in closed loop control where the process no longer oscillates or changes and settles at some defined value.
Time constant
The time constant of a first order system is defined as the time taken for the output to reach 63.2% of the total
change, when subjected to a step input change.
Transducer
An element or device that converts information from one form (usually physical, such as temperature or
pressure) and converts it to another ( (usually electrical, such as volts or millivolts or resistance change). A
transducer can be considered to comprise a sensor at the front end (at the process) and a transmitter.
Transient
A sudden change in a variable, which is neither a controlled response, nor long lasting.
Transmitter
A device that converts one form of energy to another. Usually from mechanical to electrical for the purpose of
signal integrity for transmission over longer distances and for suitability with control equipment.
Variable
Generally, this is some quantity of the system or process. The two main types of variables that exist in the
system are the measured variable and the controlled variable. The measured variable is the measured quantity
and is also referred to as the process variable as it measures process information. The controlled variable is the
controller output which controls the process.
Vibration
This is the periodic motion (mechanical) or oscillation of an object.
Zero adjustment
The zero in an instrument is the output provided when no, or zero input is applied. The zero adjustment produces
a parallel shift in the input-output curve.
Converting RTD Resistance Values to Temperature Using Temperature/Resistance Charts of

RTDs
An RTD resistance can be converted into temperature using standard tables that gives values of temperatures for any given resistance value of the
RTD.
The table below shows temperature versus resistance data in degree celsius with temperature coefficient of resistance of: 0.003916 ohm/ohm/C.
FundamentalInterval39.16ohms
0
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
An example of RTD temperature/resistance determination from the standard tables:

Question 1:
Calculate the resistance of an RTD thermometer when the temperature is:
a) 0 degree Celsius
b) 100 degree Celsius
c) 50 degree Celsius
d) 75 degree Celsius
Solution:
(a) From the Temperature vs Resistance data tables,
0.
At 0 degree Celsius, Resistance = 100 ohms

(b) At 100 degree Celsius, Resistance = 139.16 ohms
(c) At 50 degree Celsius, Resistance = 119.73 ohms
(d) At 700C, resistance = 127.54ohms
At 800C, resistance = 131.42ohms
At 750C, let resistance = X
Using interpolation method, we have:
(70 - 80)/(75 - 80) = (127.54 - 131.42)/(X - 131.42)
-10/-5 = -3.88/(X - 131.42)
-10(X - 131.42) = 19.4
X = 131.42 - 1.94 = 129.48
Question 2:
An RTD with a temperature coefficient of resistance of 0.390 has a resistance of 100 at 00C and a
resistance of 139.16 at 1000C . If the RTD is used to measure the temperature of water in a water
bath heater, what is the temperature of the water bath if the resistance of the RTD is 120?
Solution:
At
00C , RTD resistance = 100
1000C, RTD resistance = 139.16
Let X be the temperature of the water when RTD resistance is 120
Using interpolation, we have:
(X - 0)/(100 - 0) = (120 - 100)/(139.16 - 100)
X/100 = 20/39.16
X = (20 X 100)/(39.16)
X = 51.07250C
Hence temperature of the water bath is 510C
How to Specify an RTD Sensor: A specification Guide

When a Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) is required for a given application, many parameters need to
be accurately documented for the particular RTD to be procured from the manufacturers. Since there are many
different manufacturers of RTDs, there will be several different styles of RTDs in the market. Each manufacturer
has their own way of specifying their product. In any case, when specifying an RTD you will always be required
to select the following:
Sensor element to meet your operating/ process conditions and specifications
Sensor tolerance/accuracy
Lead wire configuration. This should correspond with the number of leads your application requires
RTD sensor sheath material and size
Termination style of RTD
Mounting configuration/connection
Sheath length and much more depending on the manufacturer of your RTD sensor. To specify your RTD
sensor correctly, you need to follow the checklist below and marry it with what your manufacturer
requires of you
Checklist for Specifying RTD Sensors Correctly
RTD sensors specification is broken down into the following:

RTD Element Specifications:
In the RTD sensor element specifications, you will be required to specify the following:
Element material
Reference resistance (100 ohms resistance is usually common)
Number of lead wires per sensor element
RTD sensor temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR)
Element configuration (usually either single or double)
Operating temperature range of sensor:
Here you specify the temperature range the RTD sensor is expected to sense while in operation in the particular
process in 0F or 0C
RTD sheath/probe Specifications:
Most RTDs in actual process application come in the form of probes which in conjunction with a thermowell
that goes into the process of interest. Here you will specify:
sheath/probe configuration. This is usually of the penetration type
sheath/probe diameter in inches
sheath/probe sensitive length (This is the length that goes into the actual process
required to be measured)
sheath/probe material e.g 316SST, 304SST etc.
whose temperature is
Process connections(Sensor mounting connections):
Most RTD sensor assembly come with threaded NPT fittings that are either brazed, welded or soldered. Specify:
NPT size for conduit connection
NPT size for process or instrument connection
Sensor termination type:
Specify whether the RTD sensor termination will be bare or insulated lead wires
Application environment:
specify whether the RTD sensor is to be weather proof or is to be explosion proof which ever is applicable.
Vibration Survivability:
Is your RTD sensor being used in an environment where there is a lot of vibration? How much vibration can your
RTD sensor withstand without being damaged in the particular environment? Specify the vibration survivability
of the RTD sensor in grams (g)
Special process conditions/Application:
Is the RTD sensor you require to be used in special process conditions or application environment? You should
let your RTD manufacturer know this to enable them give you the right RTD sensor. Therefore specify any
special process condition or application environment your RTD sensor is required to be used.
Electrical characteristics:
The RTD sensor requires an external power source. So you need to specify:
Theratedvoltageofthesensor(ACorDC)
RatedCurrentinAmps
RatedfrequencyinHertz
The above checklist for RTD specification is by no means exhaustive but could serve as a general specification
guide for ordering an RTD sensor from any manufacturer. Most manufacturers have their own specification
guide and ordering code. To be able to specify and order an RTD sensor correctly, consider the checklist above
in conjunction with what your manufacturer requires. By so doing, you wont miss anything out in the RTD
sensor specification.
Resistance Temperature Detectors(RTDs): Application limitations, Comparison of types and

Failure mode
Application Limitations of RTDs:
RTDs can be quite bulky, which can inhibit their use in applications.Self heating can be a problem with RTDs. In
order to measure the resistance of an RTD device, we must pass an electric current through it. Unfortunately, this
results in the generation of heat at the resistance according to Joules Law:
2
P = I R
This dissipated power causes the RTD to increase in temperature beyond its surrounding environment,
introducing a positive measurement error. The effect may be minimized by limiting excitation current to a bare
minimum, but this results in less voltage dropped across the device. The smaller the developed voltage, the more
sensitive the voltage-measuring instrument must be to accurately sense the condition of the resistive element.
The magnitude of the errors generated by self heating effects vary, but are dependent on the size and the
resistance of the RTD. These errors can be reduced by heat transfer and by minimising the excitation current.
The response time of RTDs is typically anywhere from 0.5 sec to 5 seconds. The slowness of response is due
primarily to the slowness of the thermal conductivity in bringing the device to the same temperature as that of its
environment. The response time increases for increased sensor size, also the use of thermowells can double the
response time.
Comparison of RTD Types
Platinum
RTD
1000
thin
film
Nickel
RT
D
10
00
wir
e
wo
un
d
Balco RTD
2000
wire
wound
Low
Medium
Medium
Temperature range
Wide
-400
to
120
0F
(240
to
649
C)
Wide
-320
to
100
0F
(196
to
538
C)
Medium
35
0
to
60
0
F
(21
2
to
31
6
C)
Short
-100 to
400F
(-73 to
204C)
Interchangeability
Excellent
Excellent
Fair
Fair
Long term stability
Good
Good
Fair
Fair
Acurracy
High
High
Medium
Low
Evaluationcriteria
Platinum
RTD
100
wire
wou
nd
and
thin
film
Cost
High
Repeatability
Excellent
Excellent
Good
Fair
Sensitivity (output)
Medium
High
High
Very high
Response
Medium
Medium
to
fast
Medium
Medium
Linearity
Good
Good
Fair
Fair
Self-heating
Very low
to
low
Medium
Medium
Medium
Point (end) sensitivity
Fair
Good
Poor
Poor
Lead effect
Medium
low
low
low
Physical
size(packaging)
Small to
med
ium
Small to
larg
e
Large
Large
Failure Modes of RTD Sensors:

An open circuit in the RTD or in the wiring between the RTD and the electronic control circuit will
cause a high temperature reading. Loss of power or a short within the RTD will cause a low
temperature reading.
RTD Construction and Lead Wire Configurations
Platinum RTD elements are available in two types of constructions:

Thin film and
Wire wound.
Thin Film
Thin-film RTD elements are produced by depositing a thin layer of platinum onto a substrate. A pattern is then
created that provides an electrical circuit that is trimmed to provide a specific resistance. Lead wires are then
attached and the element coated to protect the platinum film and wire connections.
Thin film elements are available in the European standard (0.00385 //C), and in a special version, used
primarily in the appliance industry, that has a temperature coefficient of 0.00375 //C. Thin film elements are
not available in the American standard.
Wire Wound:
RTD elements also come in wire-wound constructions. There are two types of wire-wound elements:
Thosewithcoilsofwirepackagedinsideaceramicorglasstube(themostcommonlyusedwirewoundconstruction),
and
Thosewoundaroundaglassorceramiccoreandcoveredwithadditionalglassorceramicmaterial(usedinmore
specializedapplications)
Wiring Arrangement of RTDs:

In order to measure temperature, the RTD element must be connected to some sort of monitoring or control
equipment. Since the temperature measurement is based on the element resistance, any other resistance (lead
wire resistance, connections, etc.) added to the circuit will result in measurement error. The four basic RTD
element wiring methods according to the IEC/ASTM color codes are:
2Wireconfiguration
3Wireconfiguration
4Wireconfiguration
2Wireconfigurationwithcompensatingloop.
2 Wire configuration RTD:

This wire configuration provides one connection to each end of the RTD sensor. This construction is suitable
where the resistance of the run of lead wire may be considered as an additive constant in the circuit, and
particularly where the changes in lead resistance due to ambient temperature changes can be ignored. This wire
configuration is shown below:
Note that the resistance of probe and extension is added to the RTD resistance and will increase the measured
value. This could be a source of error in applications where high accuracy is required.
3 Wire Configuration RTD:
This is the standard wire configuration for most RTDs. It provides one connection to one end and two to the
other end of the RTD sensor. Connected to an instrument designed to accept three-wire input, compensation is
achieved for lead resistance and temperature change in lead resistance. This is the most commonly used
configuration.
4 Wire Configuration RTD:

This wire configuration provides two connections to each end of the RTD sensor. This construction is used for
measurements of the highest precision.
2 Wire Configuration RTD with Compensating Loop:

This is similar to 4 wire configuration RTD except that a separate pair of wires is provided as a loop to provide
compensation for lead resistance and ambient temperature changes in lead resistance
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

These work on the principle that the electrical resistance of a conductor change with temperature. If a constant
voltage is applied to the conductor then the current flowing through it will change with temperature. The
resistivity of the conductor change with temperature. This usually means the resistance gets bigger as the
conductor gets hotter. A basic construction of an RTD is shown below:
The resistance temperature detector (RTD) measures the electrical conductivity as it varies with temperature. The
electrical resistance generally increases with temperature, and the device is defined as having a positive
temperature coefficient. The magnitude of the temperature coefficient determines the sensitivity of the RTD.
Apart from Platinum, other metals are used for RTDs such as Copper and Nickel. Platinum is the most common
and has the best linear characteristics of the three, although Nickel has a higher temperature coefficient giving it
greater sensitivity
The following law relates the resistance and temperature of an RTD
R = R0(1 + T),
Is the temperature coefficient of resistance. R0 is the resistance at 0oC. T is the temperature change. RTD
sensors are usually manufactured to have a resistance of 100 at 0oC and the value of is 0.00385 to 0.00390
There are two common types of RTDs:
1) PT100
2) PT1000
PT100
The PT defines that the metal is Platinum and the 100 is the resistance in ohms at ice point (or 0oC). These
are generally wire wound and are quite common.
PT1000
Again, the PT defines a Platinum metal as the sensing element, but a resistance of 1000 ohms can be measured
at 0 oC. These are generally thin film devices and are more expensive. 200 and 500 ohm Platinum RTDs are
available, but are more expensive and less common.
Platinum is most popular for RTDs, it has good calibrated accuracy, is quite stable and has good repeatability,
but is quite expensive. They are, however, not as sensitive as the Nickel and Balco devices. Nickel is not quite as
repeatable, but is less expensive
RTDs are manufactured in two-wire, three-wire and four wire-configurations.
The two-wire RTD is the most basic type of connection for an RTD device. It is used in very simple, cheap
applications. They minimise cost at the expense of accuracy. The main problem with two wire measurement is
that there is no accounting for the resistance, or even change of resistance in the sensing leads..
The 3 wire system is used to cancel out unwanted changes in resistance. These can be caused by temperature
changes in the air around the connecting leads. This is called ambient temperature compensation.
One of the limitations with the three-wire measurement is that, if the lead resistance is not the same, the
measurement will be erroneous. The four-wire measurement takes both sensing leads into account
Two-wire RTDs are generally used in HVAC applications, whereas three-wire RTDs are commonly found in
industrial situations. Four-wire RTDs are used in high-precision services requiring extremely good accuracy.
Advantages of RTDs:
Good accuracy (better than thermocouples)
Long term stability
Good interchangeability
A wide temperature range (-200 to 850C)
Disadvantages of RTDs
Bulkyinsizeandfragile
Slowthermalresponsetimeduetobulksize
Selfheatingproblems
Moresusceptibletoelectricalnoise
More expensive to test and diagnose

With a temperature range up to 850C, RTDs can be used in all but the highest-temperature industrial processes.
When made using metals such as platinum, they are very stable and are not affected by corrosion or oxidation.
Other materials such as nickel, copper, and nickel-iron alloy have also been used for RTDs. However, these
materials are not commonly used since they have lower temperature capabilities and are not as stable or
repeatable as platinum.
RTD standards:
There are two standards for platinum RTDs:
(a) The European standard (also known as the DIN or IEC standard) and .
(b) The American standard
The DIN or IEC standard is considered the world-wide standard for platinum RTDs. This standard, DIN/IEC
60751 (or simply IEC751), requires the RTD to have an electrical resistance of 100.00 at 0C and a
temperature coefficient of resistance
(TCR) of 0.00385 //C between 0 and 100C.
There are two resistance tolerances specified in DIN/IEC751:
Class A = (0.15 + 0.002*t)C or 100.00 0.06 at 0C
Class B = (0.3 + 0.005*t)C or 100.00 0.12 at 0C
Two resistance tolerances used in industry are:
13 DIN = 13* (0.3 + 0.005*t)C or 100.00 0.10 at 0C
110 DIN = 110* (0.3 + 0.005*t)C or 100.00 0.03 at 0C
The combination of resistance tolerance and temperature coefficient define the resistance vs. temperature
characteristics for the RTD sensor. The larger the element tolerance, the more the sensor will deviate from a
generalized curve, and the more variation there will be from sensor to sensor (interchangeability). This is
important to users who need to change or replace sensors and want to minimize interchangeability errors.
The American standard, used mostly in North America, has a resistance of 100.00 0.10 at 0C and a
temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) of 0.00392 //C nominal (between 0 and 100C).
Strain Gauge
Several different technologies exist for the conversion of fluid pressure into an electrical signal response. These
technologies form the basis of todays electronic pressure transmitters. One of such technology is the strain
gauge discussed here.
A strain gauge is what may be described as a piezoresistive element. This means its resistance changes with
changes in applied pressure. Basically, a strain gauge uses the change of electrical resistance of a material (wire,
foil or film), under strain to measure pressure. The electrical resistance of any conductor is proportional to the
ratio of length over cross-sectional area (R L/A), which means that tensile deformation (stretching) will
increase electrical resistance by simultaneously increasing length and decreasing cross-sectional area while
compressive deformation will decrease electrical resistance by simultaneously decreasing length and increasing
cross-sectional area.
The complete strain gauge pressure-measuring device includes:
A sensing element (Bourdons tube, bellows or diaphragm)

A strain gauge attached to the element
A stable power source and a readout device
In practical devices using the strain gauge technology, the strain gauge is attached to a diaphragm (technology
differ for different manufacturers). This results in a device that changes resistance with applied pressure.
Pressure forces the diaphragm to deform, which in turn causes the strain gauge to change resistance. By
measuring this change in resistance, we can infer the amount of pressure applied to the diaphragm.
In earlier manufactured brands, metals were used as the strain gauge element. Within their elastic limits, many
metals exhibit good spring characteristics. Metals, however, are subject to fatigue over repeated cycles of strain
(tension and compression), and they will begin to "flow (plastic deformation)" if strained beyond their elastic
limit. This is a common source of error in metallic based strain gauges.
Modern manufacturing techniques have it made possible for the construction of strain gauges made of silicon
instead of metal. Silicon exhibits very linear spring characteristics over its narrow range of motion, and a high
resistance to fatigue. This characteristic is desirable in actual applications as a failed sensor will necessitate the
need for its replacement (whereas a metallic strain sensor may give the false impression of continued function
after an over-stress operation).
A simplified diagram of a diaphragm / strain gauge pressure sensor arrangement is shown below:
Foxboro manufactures a line of pressure transmitters using the strain gauge as the pressure sensing element. You
might check it out here Foxboro pressure transmitter
One major disadvantage of the strain gauge is that all their applications require regulated power supplies for the
excitation voltage, although this is commonly internal with the sensing circuits.
You can also learn more about the evolution of the strain gauge from www.omega.com/literature/volume3/strain
Thermistors
Thermistors are devices made of metal oxide semi-conductor material which either increase in resistance with
increasing temperature (a positive temperature coefficient) or decrease in resistance with increasing temperature
(a negative temperature coefficient). Their resistance changes a lot for a small change in temperature and so they
can be made into a small sensor and they cost less than platinum wire RTDs. The major difference between
thermistors and RTDs is linearity: thermistors are highly sensitive and nonlinear, whereas RTDs are relatively
insensitive but very linear. For this reason, thermistors are typically used where high accuracy is unimportant.
Many consumer-grade devices use thermistors for temperature sensors. The temperature range of thermistors is
limited. They are only used for a typical range of -200C to 1000C and are commonly used in small hand held
thermometers.
Due to their low cost, thermistors are used in many applications requiring information about process equipment
for alarming and indication purposes. Such information, for example, would be the winding temperature of
motors, or the temperature of bearings, or even the temperature of transformer windings. In such applications,
the actual temperature may not be of as much concern as the change or rapid increase in temperature. It is for this
reason that thermistors give vital alarming information about the state of equipment in motion. In the examples
of motor winding and bearings, both show a significant increase in temperature at the onset of the failure due to
insulation breakdown in the windings or excessive friction in the bearings. Because of their non-linearity and
instability, thermistors are seldom used in continuous control applications.
Advantages of Thermistors:
Small sizes and fast response
Low cost
Suitability for narrow spans
Disadvantages of Thermistors:
More susceptible to permanent decalibration at high temperatures.
Use is limited to a few hundred degrees Celsius.
Respond quickly to temperature changes, especially susceptible to self-heating errors.
Very fragile
Factors to Consider When Selecting a Thermocouple for Temperature measurement

Application.
There are many different types of thermocouples. Each has its advantages and disadvantages over other types of
thermocouples that you may find in the market. Some of the factors to guide your selection of thermocouple for
any given applications are discussed below.
Cost
There are cost differences among the various types of thermocouples. These differences are depend largely on
the type of materials used in making the particular thermocouple.
Low cost thermocouples are those made from common metals or so called base metals. The base metal
thermocouples include types: E, K, J, N,T. Type K and J are the most popular base metal thermocouples. They
are inexpensive and accurate and therefore mainly used in most industrial applications that require a
thermocouple.
There are also thermocouples made from the noble metals. These thermocouples are very expensive. The noble
metal thermocouples include types B, R and S. These thermocouples are based on the platinum-rhodium alloy
and are many times more expensive than base metal thermocouples. This is because Platinum and Rhodium are
very rare and expensive metals. The obvious advantage of using noble metal thermocouples in any industrial
application is that they can be used at a higher temperature and they have better accuracy than the base metal
thermocouples.
Temperature Range
The maximum temperature anticipated in the application where the thermocouple is to be used will determine the
type of thermocouple required. The higher this temperature the more costly the thermocouple required might be.
Accuracy
Every measuring instrument is expected give a certain band of accuracy. The thermocouple is not an exception.
Accuracy here may be defined as the error which exists in a given temperature measurement. It indicates how
close measured values are to the actual temperature value. This is also referred to as tolerance or error. In
thermocouple applications, initial calibration tolerance tables tell us what tolerance or accuracy we can get from
a given thermocouple. The more accuracy is required for a given application, the more expensive the
thermocouple required for this particular application could be. Often there is a compromise between accuracy
and cost.
Life Expectancy
How long can a thermocouple last before it fails? It depends on a lot of factors which are many and varied. For
thermocouple applications, life denotes accuracy of the device over time. How long can it continue to guarantee
its initial calibration tolerance? Some factors which affect thermocouple life include:
Operating temperature
Thermocouple wire size
Thermocouple protection
Operating environment
Accuracy required etc
As time goes on, a thermocouple gets more inaccurate. At some point in its life, the accuracy of the
thermocouple becomes so unreliable that we consider the thermocouple to have failed. This is often manifested
in the form of drifting milivolts signal of the thermocouple. For a given thermocouple application, the more drift
in milivolts signal that can be tolerated, the longer the thermocouple can last.
As a maintenance strategy, in most plants, the life of thermocouples can be prolonged by recalibrating it at
periodic intervals. Calibrating a thermocouple entails measuring the accuracy of the milivolt signal and adjusting
the controller to compensate for any errors. In most plants calibration is usually done at determined intervals say
every 3 months or even 6 months.
Other factors to consider when selecting a thermocouple include:
Chemical resistance of the thermocouple or sheath material. This is especially useful if the thermocouple is
to be used in a corrosive environment. Common sheath materials include stainless steel and Inconel. Inconel
supports higher temperature ranges than stainless steel, however, stainless steel is often preferred because of its
broad chemical compatibility.
Abrasion and vibration resistance These are critical factors to be considered when selecting a thermocouple.
Installation Requirements
Many plants have their own peculiar installation requirements. Your plants installation requirement needs to be
considered when selecting any thermocouple for any application. This need to be compatible with existing
equipment e.g existing holes may determine thermocouple probe diameter.
Converting Thermocouple Milivolts to Temperature Values

Thevoltagegeneratedbythermocouplesisverysmall.Theyareintheorderofmilivolts.Intheapplicationof
thermocouplestomeasuretemperature,itisoftenrequiredtoconvertthemilivoltssignalsofthermocouplesto
temperaturevalues.Toaidthisconversion,severalmilivoltsvoltagesforthedifferenttypesofthermocouplesare
tabulatedagainstknownstandardtemperatures.Withthesethermocouplereferencetables,itistheneasytodetermine
anygiventemperatureforknownmilivoltsvalues.
Thermocouplereferencetablesarebasedonareferencejunctionof00C.Ifthereferencejunctionisnotat00C,thena
correctionfactormustbeapplied.
CalculatingTemperaturefromVoltage(referencejunction=00C)
Thestepsinvolvedare:
Selectthecorrectreferencetableforthethermocoupletypeinuse.e.g.J,S,Tetc
Locatethemilivoltreadinginthebodyofthetable,andreadfromthemarginsthetemperaturevalue.
Notethatthetemperaturedeterminedfromaparticularthermocouplereferencetableonlygivesaccuracytothatofthe
incrementsonthescaleinthetable.Formoreaccuratemeasurement,astraightlineapproximation(orinterpolation)
canbemadebetweentwovalues.
Interpolationtakesintoaccounttheproportionatepartofthedifferencebetweenthetwovaluesreadfromthetable.
Thelittlesketchbelowillustrateshowtheinterpolationmethod,whichismoreaccurate,isusedtoarriveattemperature
values.
From the little sketch above, suppose we are given the milivolts reading of a particular type of thermocouple to
be VH and VL and the corresponding temperatures are TH and TL , the temperature TM corresponding to the
measured voltage, VM is given by:
(VM - VL)/(VH - VL) = (TM TL)/(TH - TL)
This simplifies to:
TM = TL + [(VM VL)/(VH VL)](TH TL)
Where:
VM
is the measured voltage
VH
is the higher voltage read from the table
VL
is the lower voltage read from the table
TM
is the calculated temperature
TH
is the higher temperature read from the table (corresponding to VH)
TL
is the lower temperature read from the table (corresponding to VL)
The values of VH, VL, TH and TL are read from the thermocouple reference tables. Interpolation is then done
using the formula above to determine the more precise temperature.
Milivolts to Temperature Calculations of Thermocouples
To calculate milivolts values, we use the thermoelectric voltage in milivolts for type J thermocouple reference
table shown below:
Problem A
A voltage of 14.82mV is measured with a type J thermocouple with a 00C reference temperature. Find the
temperature of the sensing junction.
Solution
From the reference table for J-type thermocouples above, it is found that VM = 14.82mV is between VL =
14.67mV and VH = 14.94mV. These voltages have corresponding temperatures of TL = 2700C and TH = 2750C.
Using our interpolation formula, we determine the temperature to be:
TM = TL + [(VM VL)/(VH VL)](TH TL)
TM = 270 + [(14.82 14.67)/(14.94 14.67)](275 270) = 272.80C
Calculating Temperature From Voltage If Reference Junction Temperature Is Greater Than Zero
Select the correct reference table for the thermocouple type in use, i.e. J,S,T etc.
Locate the milivolt reading for the reference junction in the body of the table, and read from the margins the
temperature value.
Add this milivolt reading to that measured by the instrument.
This corrected milivolt reading can then be converted, using the thermocouple reference table, into measured
temperature.
Problem B
A voltage of 3.444 mV is measured with a type J thermocouple with a 250C reference temperature. Find the
temperature of the sensing junction.
Solution
The voltage of the reference junction at 250C, from the J-type reference table is 1.277mV.
The measured voltage needs to be corrected such that the actual sensing voltage is the sum of the two:
1.277 + 3.444 = 4.721mV
From the J-type thermocouple reference table above, VM = 4.721mV is between VH = 4.726mV and VL =
4.672mV corresponding to TH = 900C and TL = 890C.
TM = 89 + [(4.721 4.672)/(4.726 4.672)](90 89) = 89.9070C
Reducing Noise In Thermocouple Applications
As you may already know, a thermocouple is formed by joining two different metal alloys at a point called a
junction. This junction is called the measuring or hot junction. The thermocouple leads are usually attached to a
temperature indicator or controller. This connection point is called the reference or cold junction.
When the measuring junction is heated, a small DC voltage is generated in the thermocouple wires. The
temperature controller measures the small voltage signal and converts it to a temperature reading. However, the
voltage generated in the thermocouple is so small that it is measured in milivolts. This small thermocouple signal
presents one major application difficulty: Susceptibility to electrical noise prevalent in most industrial
environment.
As you already know, the voltages that are generated in a thermocouple is in the order of a few milivolts. In an
industrial environment, voltages of higher magnitude than the thermocouple milivolts are generated by higher
power electrical equipment. This highly noisy industrial environment induces noise voltage in the thermocouple.
Also, a thermocouple makes for an excellent antenna, as it picks up high frequency electromagnetic radiation.
Noise Reduction Techniques
Twist and shield (grounded foil sheath) the extension or lead wires from the thermocouple to the measurement
system.
Ground the measurement junction at the point of measurement. The grounding is typically to the inside of the
stainless steel sheath that covers the actual thermocouple. The advantage of grounding the measurement junction
is that the electrical noise is distributed equally on each wire of the thermocouple.
Use a transmitter with very good common mode voltage rejection, and locate as close to the thermocouple as
possible.
Thermowells
The process environment where temperature monitoring is required is often not only hot, but also pressurized and possibly chemically corrosive or radioactive. To
facilitate removal of the temperature sensors (RTD and Thermocouple), for examination or replacement and to provide mechanical protection, the sensors are
usually mounted inside thermal wells widely referred to as a thermowell in the industrial environment
What is a Thermowell?
A thermowell is basically a hollow metal tube with one end sealed. It is usually mounted permanently in a vessel
or pipe work. The sensor is inserted into it and makes contact with the sealed end.
A simple diagram showing a thermowell in use with a temperature gauge is shown below:
A major disadvantage of thermowells is their long response time because heat must be transferred through the
well to the sensor; Minimizing the air space between the sensor and the well, can however decrease this thermal
lag.
A thermowell acts as a barrier between a process medium and the sensing element of a temperature measuring
device. It protects against corrosive process media, as well as media contained under pressure or flowing at a
high velocity. A thermowell also allows the sensing element to be removed from the application while
maintaining a closed system. Thermowells may be made out of any material that is thermally conductive,
pressure-tight, and not chemically reactive with the process.
A Thermowell must satisfy the following functions while in service:
position the temperature sensitive sensor tip in the process
protect the temperature sensor and
seal the process areas from the environment.
Thermowells are principally used with Thermocouples, RTDs(Resistance Temperature Detectors) and Bimetallic
Thermometers in applications where it is necessary to measure temperature at high pressure (above 75 psig) or in
hostile environments. Thermowells are machined from solid barstock. Safe working pressures depend on the
well material, operating temperature and the velocity of the flowing medium.
Thermowells are commonly used in two installation formats: tapered thermowells and straight thermowells.
Tapered and straight thermowells are shown below:
Tapered thermowells are used in many process applications and provide greater strength, faster response times
and more resistance to vibration than straight wells. The taper provides a higher natural frequency which permits
use at higher fluid velocities. The reduced tip on a straight well improves response time when it is used with a
length sensitive sensor such as an RTD or Bimetallic Thermometer.
Thermowells are more likely to fail from vibratory stress than from the effects of temperature and pressure.
ASME calculations can be used to determine if the selected thermowell dimensions are adequate to withstand the
specified service conditions of temperature, pressure, velocity and vibration.
How to Calibrate and Adjust a Pressure Switch

Before we get down to the nitty-gritty of how to calibrate and adjust a pressure switch, let us get to understand
some basic concepts with pressure switch calibration:
Setpoint:
This is the pressure at which the pressure switch is required to operate. A pressure switch may be set to operate
on either a rising pressure (high level alarm) or a falling pressure (low level alarm). Most switches are designed
to operate at a 'gauge' pressure setpoint i.e. relative to atmospheric pressure. Some applications require an
'absolute' pressure setpoint i.e. relative to absolute zero pressure, and an absolute pressure switch is required for
these. Ideally the range of the switch should be chosen such that the setpoint is between 25% to 75% of this
range.
Dead-band or Reset:
This is a setting that determines the amount of pressure change required to re-set the switch to its normal state
after it has tripped. The dead-band or reset or switching differential is the difference in the rising and falling
pressures at which the pressure switch operates. For a fixed differential output switch this is typically about 1%
to 3% of the switch range. For an adjustable differential output switch it may be adjusted from about 5% to 12%
of the switch range.
The pressure switch is a ubiquitous device. It is practically everywhere in your plant. But how do you calibrate
this simple device? The answer is here. Just follow the simple steps that I have outlined below.
Before you calibrate your pressure switch, confirm the following:
The setpoint of the pressure switch

The dead-band of the switch
Also depressurize and isolate the pressure switch from the process. If opening the switch exposes voltages or
energy that is not intrinsically safe, please follow the specified procedure for your plant. For example, if in an
explosive environment, use a continuously monitoring gas detector to monitor for the presence of explosive
gasses.
Calibration Procedure of the Pressure Switch
Step 1:
Connect the pressure switch to a pressure source e.g air supply via a hand pressure regulator and test gauge, as
shown in the diagram above.
Step 2:
Use an Ohmmeter or a Digital Multimeter (DMM) set to the continuity range to check and verify that the switch
contacts are as indicated: NO (Normally open) and NC (Normally close).
Step 3:
Connect the Ohmmeter or DMM between the normally open contacts(NO) and the common terminal (C) of the
switch. The meter should read "open circuit". Adjust the hand pressure regulator to increase the pressure to the
setpoint of the pressure switch until the contacts change over. The meter should now read "short circuit". Note
the pressure reading and write it down. This pressure is the switch setpoint for a "rising" pressure.
Step 4:
Increase the pressure to the switch to its maximum rating. Slowly reduce the pressure to the switch until the
switch changes over from closed to normally open again. Note and write down this pressure reading. This
pressure is the switch setting for a "falling" pressure.
Step 5:
From the readings you have taken work out the pressure difference between the rising and falling pressure
settings. This is called the "dead-band" of the switch. The dead-band calculated should be equal to or less than
the manufacturers dead-band.
The maximum dead-band is usually stated by the manufacturer. The switch is unserviceable if the maximum
dead-band is more than the manufacturer's recommendation (dead-band on the nameplate of the switch)
To calibrate the switch for a low pressure, go through the steps in this order:
Step 1 to Step 2 to Step 4 to Step 3 to Step 5
How to Read and Interpret Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID)

Let us consider some P&IDs in order to learn how to read and interpret them.
P&ID Drawing 1:
As shown in the P&ID, FT 501 is a field mounted flow transmitter connected via electrical signals (dotted lines)
to a flow indicator and controller, FIC 501 located in the control room. Please note that a square root extraction
of the input signal is applied as part of the functionality of FIC 501. This is because flow is proportional to the
square root of the differential pressure being measured by the flow transmitter. To make flow proportional to
differential pressure, the square root has to be extracted.
The output of FIC 501 is an electrical signal to TY 501 (an I/P converter) mounted in the field. The output of TY
501 is a pneumatic signal which acts on the control valve connected to it.
TT 501 and TIC 501 are respectively temperature transmitter and temperature indicator and controller
measuring, indicating and controlling temperature. The output of TIC 501 is connected through an internal
software or data link (lines with bubbles) to the set point of FIC 501
The YIC 501 arrangement is typical of most on/off valves. Here, the YIC is an on/off valve being controlled by a
solenoid valve and is fitted with limit switches ZSH and ZSL. ZSH indicates that the valve is open while ZSL
indicates that the valve is in closed position or closed. All inputs and outputs are wired to a PLC thats accessible
to the operator (diamond in a square with a solid horizontal line).
P&ID Drawing 2:
Firstly let us get an idea of the simple process: The above loop controls the temperature of a process fluid (green
lines) by passing the fluid and the cooling medium water into a heat exchanger. The process fluid passes through
the tube of the exchanger while water passes through the shell.
In the P&ID, TW is a field mounted temperature sensor located inside a thermowell (TW). The signal from the
sensor is transmitted via a field mounted temperature transmitter TT101 to a temperature indicator and controller
TIC 101 located in the control room by electrical signals (shown by dotted lines). Based on the set point in TIC
101, TIC 101 then sends an electrical signal to TY 101 located in the field or plant. TY 101 is an I/P (I to P)
converter i.e current to pneumatic signal converter. This is because TY 101 receives an electrical signal from
TIC 101 and then converts it to a pneumatic signal which then acts on the control valve shown in the P&ID
above. The control valve then opens or closes to increase or decrease water flow into the heater exchanger.
The key to understanding Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs) is to familiarize yourself with the ISA
P&ID symbols for most process plant instruments and equipment and then try to read as many Piping and
instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs) you can lay your hands on. In no distant time, you will be amazed at how
well you will be able to read and interpret Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs).
Next time we shall take a look at another simple Piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID). If you are still
confused about the P&ID above, please go back and read:
Basics of Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs)
More Lessons on how to Read and Interpret P&IDs

In continuation of our lessons on how to read and interpret P&IDs, let us look at the piping and instrumentation
diagram below:
At first this P&ID looks complicated, but on closer examination, it is actually a simple P&ID. For easier
understanding the P&ID is broken into:
(a) Sensors/Measuring or Sensing elements:TE 03 is a field mounted thermocouple that senses the change in the outlet temperature of the process liquid and
converts the change in temperature to a milivolt signal. The milivolt signal(electric) then goes to TT 03, a
temperature transmitter, which then converts the milivolt signal to a standard 4-20mA signal for transmission to
TIC 03
LT 01 is a level transmitter which senses and measures changes in the level of the process liquid in the
vessel(exchanger). The level measurement is converted into a standard 4-20mA signal for transmission to LIC
01
PT 02 is a pressure transmitter that measures the process pressure in the vessel. This measurement is then
converted into a 4-20mA signal for transmission to PIC 02
(b) Controllers/Controlling Elements:
Also in the above P&ID are devices we call controllers. They receive the standard signals from the
transmitters/sensing elements (TT 01, PT 02 and (LT 01)
TIC 03 is a control room mounted, Temperature Indicator and Controller. It receives the 4-20mA signal from TT
03 and compares it to a preset temperature set point and then initiates a control action by sending a
corresponding electric signal to TCV 03 via TY 03
LIC 01 is a control room mounted (as per ISA S5.1, you can download it here) Level Indicator and Controller. It
receives a 4-20mA from LT 01 and compares it to a preset level set point within the controller. Based on this
comparison, LIC 01 initiates a control action and sends a corresponding signal to the final control element LCV
01 via LY
Lastly, PIC 02 is a control room mounted, Pressure Indicator and Controller. It gets a 4-20mA signal from PT
02, compares it to a preset pressure set point and initiates a control action by sending a corresponding signal to
final control element PCV 02 via PY
(c) Final Control Elements:
TCV 03, is a field mounted Temperature Control Valve which receives its control signal from TIC 03 (located in
the control room) to either open or close to drain condensate in order to control the temperature of the process
liquid
On TCV 03 is TY 03. TY 03 is an I/P converter which converts the electric signal it receives from TIC 03 to a
pneumatic signal.
Similarly, LCV 01 (a level control valve) and PCV 02 (pressure control valve) get signals from LIC 01 and PIC
02 to either open or close, thereby controlling level and pressure respectively.
TY 03, LY 01 and PY 02 are called transducers. They convert electrical signals to pneumatic signals.
Having understood the P&ID above, it is important to note that:
There are three control loops in the P&ID namely temperature control (TE 03-TT 03- TIC 03 TCV 03), level
control (LT 01-LIC 01-LCV 01) and pressure control (PT 02-PIC 02-PCV 02)
The next time you see a P&ID, dont get scared! The complexity of the P&ID is not important rather what is
important is the individual control loops that make up the P&ID. Understand the P&ID, you understand the
process!
Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams 5: Piping Line Number Identification

Piping on a piping and instrumentation diagram(P&ID) is indicated by:
1) Usage: For example, process, drain, nitrogen, blowdown, etc.
2) Line Number: The identification number of the line on the plant.
3) Size: Usually in inches.
4) Piping Class: The piping specification, both material and pressure rating
5) The insulation class
The specification is usually given using American standards e.g. American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) or American Petroleum Institute (API).
Each installation uses slightly different methods to do this but the end result is the same. A typical example is
given below:
3-P-12007-A11A-H30
Here:
3 - Signifies the line size in inches, i.e the line size here is 3 inches
P - Signifies fluid service
12007 12 here Signifies unit or facility number while 007 denotes the serial
number
A11A - denotes the piping service class

H - denotes the insulation type
30 - denotes the insulation thickness
If we further break the piping service class A11A down, we see that:
A - denotes the flange rating
11 - denotes the piping material
A - a suffix qualifying the piping material
The designation here may be a little different from the ones you may come across but the basic components of:
Usage
Line number
Size
Piping class and
Insulation classs
will always be part of the piping designation in a piping and instrumentation diagram
Interpreting Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams [Part 1 of 5]

Part 1 Introduction
Engineers love to draw. Not necessarily in an artistic sense of the

word, although beauty is, as they say, in the eye of the beholder. As for me, well, Ive never been accused of
having a particular gift in the arts, or photography for that matter (see bio mug shot taken in my natural habitat),
but I have done a few process drawings in my 25 years as a process engineer. I guess thats earned me my vice,
VP of Engineering and Technology Development to be precise.
Hi there. Im Bob Cook and Im glad to have you along for my premier entry here on ChEnected.com where we
explore the interpretation of Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams, or P&IDs for those in the know. This is a
topic that can benefit process, project and design engineers, business developers, operators, safety, maintenance
and even management. Wow, that a lot of folks!
However, consider this all of the members listed above will either come across P&IDs intermittently or have to
work with them as a core aspect of their job. And if I still have your attention then, yes, you too should have a
solid understanding of how to read them!
Hey you hiding the backdont be bashful. You say that you are two, threefive years out of school and
still not sure you really have a good handle on P&IDs? Youre not alone. Having worked for many
companies and provided services to a variety of industries over the years, I find it curious how P&IDs are often
poorly understood by those who should know them better. In some cases, they exude this aura of intimidating,
complex documents that only ChE geeks (and the like) really know how to read.
I believe this is simply due to a dearth of formal training. Folks are just expected to pick it up on the fly. Given
the variability in career direction our backgrounds in the best engineering field afford us, this works well for
some but leaves others playing catch-up later on. So even experienced engineers and operators may one day
discover their lack of knowledge on the topic puts them at a disadvantage. So lets just put a stop to all that by
taking P&IDs apart in this multi-part series.
Regardless of experience level, you will find many of the symbols are obvious. Others
need a bit more explanation. In much the same way ancient Egyptians used hieroglyphics thousands of years
ago, we process folks (in conjunction with our peers in the electrical, controls and other departments) just come
up with our own set of symbols to represent the various equipment, devices and control concepts that go into our
plants. When you look at it that way, one could argue that not much has changed in a few thousand years. I
suppose thats true. Hey, if it isnt broke, why fix it?
Enough of my bantering, lets get started already. I look forward to a healthy exchange. Part 2 will dig into
P&IDs The Fundamentals. Ill include a few example drawings that we can use as we venture forth down that
path of process knowledge.
Interpreting Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams [Part 2 of 5]

Part 2 The Fundamentals
In Part 1 of this series, I talked about why a solid understanding of P&ID interpretation is important to virtually
every discipline involved in a process plant from process engineering and detail design through construction,
commissioning/start-up, operations and management. Im glad to see I sold you on that point and welcome you
back to part two of this saga.
Things are starting to heat up and soon we will be weeding out the true process engineers from the causal posers
who would rather go off and waste time browsing reddit or digg (which I never do by the way). We still have a
bit of the academic stuff to cover before we really dig in but its important stuff so sit up straight and pay
attention!
Lets kick things off by defining what P&IDs are and the types of information they illustrate. Afterwards, well
cover some of their limitations. Its important to know the limitations of a tool so that you dont apply it in the
wrong way.
At the end of Part 1, I provided a link to some example drawings that I put together to help illustrate some of the
concepts I plan to discuss in this series. If you havent downloaded it yet, please do so now. The file contains:
Two typical P&ID Lead Sheets, and

A few example P&ID drawings
A Word about Lead Sheets

We will talk more about the lead sheets (sometimes referred to as legend sheets) in Part 3 Symbology. If
youve never encountered lead sheets before, for now, just know that lead sheets are used to define the
equipment and device symbols, tags and other notations, abbreviations and sometimes esoteric conventions that
companies use to develop P&IDs for any project they execute. If you compare lead sheets from a few dozen
companies, you will find that 90% of them are pretty much Copy | Paste. For that last 10%, there can be distinct
differences and company-specific conventions used that are not obvious on P&IDs. Therefore, it is good to
know where the lead sheets are in your company so you can quickly track down the meaning of that pipe
service label or some other obscure symbol.
The Example P&IDs

The last three drawings in the download link include some fairly typical P&IDs. I plan to use these in some
upcoming videos to illustrate how the symbols from the lead sheets are applied to a real drawing and then
compare that drawing to actual pictures of real-world plants. This will help forge the cognitive connection from
the abstract realm of cubicle dwellers at CAD stations to the real world of process plants in action!
Even if you are completely new to P&IDs, Im sure there are some aspects that are obvious to you in these
example drawings things like the equipment and valve symbols, tags, etc. If not, thats OK too because we will
get into the details later but for now, just look them over and familiarize yourself with whats there.
What are P&IDs?

A P&ID (or engineering flow drawing, EFD) is a type of process engineering drawing that describes all process
design aspects of a plant. In this context, Process Design means all the stuff that makes up a plant, including:
Major and minor equipment the distinction between what is major vs. what is minor equipment
is subjective
Valves, including vents, bleeders, safety relief, sample (all of them!)

Instrumentation, including devices that are used to continuously measure pressure, flowrate, massrate,
temperature or some analyzed parameter such as pH, concentration, viscositythe list goes on.
Stand-alone controllers that may function independently to perform a particular function, like a PID
controller or relay timer.
Buttons used to control motors and devices, be they pushbutton, toggle, or some other type.
Motors and drives many motors are single speed, non-reversing but there are other kinds that have
variable speed drives, and can operate in both directions.
Limit and point devices including devices that only reveal a discrete state, e.g., if a tank is at a certain
level (point level), or a valve or actuator is in a particular position (a limit switch)
Thats itjust kidding.
Piping (of course!). All the pipes, tubes and even overflows in the plant. Not just the main process pipes
inherent to the particular process, but even the utilities (steam, air, fuel, etc.).
Virtual devices on computer control screens (often as graphical representations real-world objects) that
are used to interact with the plant from the control room/panel. This includes things like clickable
buttons used to start/stop equipment, operate valves, adjust controller settings, setpoint sliders and dials,
evaluate alarms, etc. Computer functions and software links are generally limited because it is difficult
to convey complete control meaning using just symbols. However, it doesnt matter if the process is
running on a home-brew Excel VBA project with Dick-and-Jane graphics or a state-of-the-art Honeywell
DCS the symbology used to represent the control interface will be shown.
I probably forgot some stuff in the list above but you get the idea. Clearly there can be a lot of information to
show on a P&ID. And for this reason, there are various degrees of detail that a particular company will generally
choose to show. There is no formal standard for the various amounts of information a P&ID must include.
Rather, it is left to the discretion of the engineers involved.
In terms of detail provided, my opinion is that a good P&ID will strike a balance of clarity without confusion.
If you cant see the process for all the symbols, then its probably overdone. On the other hand, if you cant even
discern how a pump may be operated or what interlocks may exist, then you probably need to embellish it a bit.
P&ID Support Documents
For those things that are deliberately left off P&IDs for the sake of clarity, other
documents are used to provide the details. Common documents that serve vital support functions to P&IDs
include:
1. Process Flow Drawings (PFDs) are simple flow drawings that illustrate the general plant streams, major
equipment and key control loops. They also provide detailed mass/energy balance data along with stream
composition and physical properties. P&IDs originate from PFDs.
2. Piping and material specifications. Here, you can dig into all the gory details about materials of
construction, gaskets, bolts, fittings, etc. for each of the services. (I will talk about this more in a future
post.)
3. Equipment and instrumentation specifications. Modern CAD software used to produce P&IDs are
sometimes called smart because they can incorporate specifications, standards and details that go into
the design. Yea, they are cool but just as you cant fix stupid, you cant see smart. Thus, its good to
have tangible documents that folks can access and digest outside the masters of CAD.
4. Functional/process control documents that describe in detail, how the plant operates. A good one will
include preferred standards for use on control screens/displays. Folks involved in programming the
computers used to operate the plant need these.
How Should P&IDs be Organized?

Now you know what a P&ID is and what goes on them but youre not quite ready for the corner office. At this
point its worth considering how a set of P&IDs can (and should) be organized for a particular process.
There is no single good answer to this question and most companies will have a defined
precedent or standard that they follow but if you find yourself at File | New with nothing to go on, because you
just started your own company and (whoadude I just realized there is no mechanical group anymore) my
advice is to keep in mind that when you set out to develop a set of P&IDs you are essentially writing a structured
document, not unlike a book or report with chapters/sections and a logical progression. OK, a really boring book
with no plot or characters, but you get the idea! My point is, you should plan the structure and break the task
down into manageable sections based on area in the plant, function and other criteria that might be of importance
to the project/process.
Heres a quick example. Consider a process plant with that receives raw feedstock in a storage area, feeds them
into some reactor train(s) to make some product and then includes a storage and packaging back end. This
particular process might be sitting inside a larger complex and leveraging existing utility infrastructure and tank
farms. In this case, you might elect to break the P&IDs down as such:
Raw material receiving and storage

Process trains for product manufacture
Product storage and packaging
Tie-ins to facility utilities and distribution
Environmental controsl and specialty unit operations/vendor packages such as thermal fluid, complex
unit operations, etc.
Breaking a set of P&IDs down into logical sections makes the drawing set easier to develop, digest and, perhaps
most importantly change. Any of you that have tampered with object-oriented programming should be nodding
in agreement at this point. Once you have the categorical areas broken down, the drawing set is then linked
together via arrows and notations. Ultimately, it all fits together to like a puzzle to yield a continuous
masterpiece.
Some companies like to develop their P&IDs so that if you had a huge wall, you could
tape them together and all of the various interconnecting arrows would line up as the parts of a jigsaw puzzle. I
have found that such an approach places unreasonable restrictions on the convenient location of equipment and
arrows and generally doesnt afford any greater understanding of the holistic process. Its not uncommon for
even relatively simple processes to have a dozen or more P&IDs so you would need a really big wall and then
you wouldnt be able to read anything without getting close.
My advice is to make efficient use of the space provided, use the interconnect arrows as required to link them
together and not get caught up on how well they align with the god of geometric continuity (I think that was a
Greek god, not sure).
What are P&IDs Used For?

P&IDs really do have vital roles. In fact, if I had to pare it down to the top two, this is my list:
Act as the definition of the process from which all engineering, fabrication, construction and operation is
based.
Serve as reference for Process Safety Information (PSI) in Process Safety Management (PSM).
To effectively accomplish these objectives, a good set of P&IDs should do the following:
1. Provide a clear and concise illustration of all equipment, pipes, valves, instruments, sensors, etc. so that
anyone involved has a solid understanding of the process.
2. Provide information to assist in analyzing process hazards, safeguards and potential faults so that all
kinds of errors (design, human/operation, etc.) are minimized, ideally eliminated.
3. Support development of operating and maintenance procedures.
4. Serve as an as-built record of the process so that changes can be planned safely and effectively using
Management of Change (MOC).
So its pretty clear that the P&IDs define the process at a root level. They serve as the foundation upon which the
system is designed, built and operated. Anyone who tells you that they can design a plant without first generating
P&IDs either is a Deity or has endless funds that they enjoy throwing at poorly executed projects during the
construction+ phases.
P&ID Limitations
At this point, you might be wondering what P&IDs cant do. After all, so far weve painted a picture that they
have seeming supernatural powers. Well, there are a few things that P&IDs dont do well and its important that
you know what these are so that nobody makes any false assumptions because we all know what happens when
one assumes.
Despite their illustrious superhero status in the process engineering world, there are a couple things P&IDs dont
do well. Lets get it out in the open now:
They dont reveal scale or geometry,

They dont serve as a true model for how things are oriented and placed in the real world.
Like I said in the intro to this series, Ive been doing process engineering for 150 years (in the snow, uphill to
work both ways) and I still run into instances where somebody will base a decision on how to make a change or
try to find something in the plant based on where or how it looks on the P&ID. Heres a ProTip a better way to
get a handle on where things really are at in the field is to use the P&IDs as a guide and do a walk-down or find
other scale drawings.
Good examples of true scale drawings are the ones used by contractors to build the plant. These include civil and
piping plans, sections and/or isometrics, skid/equipment fabrication drawings, instrument location plans, etc. If
you just assume that a pipe is located somewhere because it looks that way on the P&ID, you might be
disappointed!
Since were exposing the superman P&IDs to a bit of kryptonite, lets review some other weaknesses of P&IDs
just to make sure weve covered all the key points:
1. Not to Scale as stated above, P&IDs cant be relied on as a scale guide for where pipes, equipment or
other items are in proximity to equipment in the real world. Yes, Im repeating that again because it will
be on the quiz.
2. Not Geometrically Accurate P&IDs dont illustrate geometry. The level of detail that goes into
symbols for equipment will vary, but is almost never geometrically correct!
3.
Color Blind P&IDs are not good at using color to convey meaning. While the
folks who draw them often use color to help spot things on a monitor, dont try too hard to glean meaning
from color printouts or you may just end up seeing stars
4. Not Definitive P&IDs do not include complete specs for all of the equipment in the process. They are,
after all drawings, not documents. If you need details, grab the pertinent data sheets or vendor specs. Or
ask someone for some help.
5. Not Drawn Consistently Sadly, P&IDs seldom look consistent between companies. Thats because
there is a lot of flexibility in how one can go about drawing a P&ID (due to various standards, CAD
systems, etc.) and that leaves them open to company and/or personal preferences. As a result, P&IDs
often take on a different look and feel from company-to-company or even from job-to-job inside the
same company. This can be a point of confusion when you get used to a certain way of seeing them. But
dont sweat it; just reorient yourself to the ways and means used by the process tribe in your group. Did
you just think about lead sheets! Bonus point for you!
OK, so now you have a solid feel for what P&IDs are, the purposes they serve and their limitations. Hopefully,
youve taken the time to at least glance at the example drawings provided. Great, in Part 3 of this series we will
dig into the symbology used so we can interpret the geek speak of process engineers!
Interpreting Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams-Symbology [Part 3

of 5]
Part 3 Symbology Primer
Welcome back to Part 3 folks! Let me apologize at the outset for the delay in getting this posted sooner but we
had our Labor Day holiday here in the USA last week and oddly enough, we tend NOT to work on Labor Day.
Go figure I suppose it should be called slacker day because I really didnt do much the whole weekend. In any
event, Im back in the saddle so lets recap the last two parts before we hit the trail again. We have a lot of
ground to cover before sunset.
Part 1 talked about why the interpretation of P&IDs is important to everyone involved in the planning,
design, and construction through operation of a process plant.
Part 2 described the various functions P&IDs serve and highlighted the kinds of information they
convey, along with the support documents that are commonly associated with them. We also talked about
some of their weaknesses.
With the requisite academics out of the way, its time to focus on the exciting
stuff P&ID symbology interpretation. Thats the goal I had when I started this series and by golly, Im sticking
to it. However, Im going to warn you up front this is a big part in the series, figuratively and literally
speaking.
I might even be pushing the limits of Chenected.coms server capacity but I did my best to balance breadth of
content with depth of detail. If you think I short-changed any areas and would like more detail on any topic,
please let me know via the comment system. Ill do my best to oblige.
Lead Sheets Define Symbology

As I mentioned in Part 2, the meanings of the various symbols used on P&IDs (aka, symbology) are defined on
separate drawings called Lead Sheets (or Legend Sheets). These are your secret decoder rings to P&ID
symbology interpretation. Every company that builds process plants should have a set of lead sheets customized
to their particular ways and means.
Having seen a number of lead sheets over the years, I can tell you that most of them are just variations on a core
set of generally accepted symbols and notations that engineers and industry organizations have settled on as
defacto standards over the years.
The lead sheets I provide in the supporting file download to this series include the following;
D001 Instrumentation and Valves

D002 Codes, Tags, and Labels
Heres the good news these lead sheets include 90.000.05% of what you need to know. Seriously, the
significant digits are right here, I checked them. Yeah, I realize some companies have more than two lead sheets,
four or five even.
Probably even a few with six or seven just to prove a point I suppose, but the number of lead sheets isnt
important. What is important is that they are logically organized so that the symbols and tags can be located
easily. Poorly organized and/or incomplete lead sheets will just frustrate folks who turn to them for help so its
important to keep them neat, concise and logical. And the two I present here should be up-front-and-center in
your set.
Related to the content I include on the example lead sheets, you might have noticed a conspicuous absence of
lead sheets for major equipment, i.e., tanks, pumps, and sundry items typically included in process plants, etc.
Its good to have lead sheets for that kind of stuff; Im not going to say otherwise. However, I have generally
stopped using them in my group because;
1. It is almost always self-evident what a symbol represents for major equipment, and
2. Even if its not apparent, the major equipment is always tagged and named with some general
specifications provided along one edge of the drawing. I underline always because thats the way it
should be. I dont want to debate it. Just make it so!
Aside from these reasons, its tough to keep an equipment lead sheet updated when new or custom equipment
that doesnt really have an industry standard symbol is added to a drawing for a particular job.
I could go on regarding the topic of symbols for major equipment but this is a topic I decided not to expand on in
the interest of focusing more on the instrumentation and controls side of symbology. Shoot me a note if you want
to discuss this more.
Caveat Emptor
Before we move on, I want to address the operations folks here in attendance: Keep in mind that reading and
understanding P&IDs is a core topic of operator training. And that training happens long before you step on-site.
In fact, you should know this stuff before you enter the room as a team member on a Process Hazards Analysis.
As a process engineer at heart, I view operations as my #1 client and work hard to make sure that they fully
understand the plant and its procedures so that it can safely and efficiently meet its objectives. If you are in an
operations group, you are not expected to have it all figured out just from reading this series alone. However, the
following sections should serve as a solid primer.
And I will make you a simple promise so long as you dont get bored and start daydreaming about whether
Brock Lesner will remain the UFC heavyweight champion for the next five years (I dont even), you will
definitely walk away from this series with a solid, functional understanding of P&IDs! If you dont, call me and I
will refund your money, no questions asked.
Instrumentation and Controls Symbology

Well kick things off with what has traditionally been viewed as the hardest part of P&ID interpretation, that
of course being instrumentation and controls. In my experience, this is the area that gives newcomers the most
grief. Trust me, its not that hard and once you have this area conquered, everything after that is stupid simple
and the learning curve will skyrocket.
The main symbols used for Instrumentation and Control (I&C) are shown in the table above. When you spot one
of these on a P&ID, you will be able to glean three things from it, including:
1. What is that device?
2. Where is it located?
3. Why is it there?
The what and where aspects can be determined from the symbol shape. The why part comes from text
placed inside the symbol that is made up of two parts that form the tag number. This includes:
1. An abbreviation for what the device is (based on ISA S5.1), combined with a
2. Loop number based on your companys preferred numbering system
Before I dig into this topic more heavily, its worth providing a couple simple tag number examples as a lead-in.
Pressure indicators have the abbreviation PI and temperature indicators use the abbreviation TI. It follows
logically that flow and level indicators use the abbreviations FI and LI, respectively. Since most plants can have
many instruments of the same type, a unique number is applied so that each one can be individually identified.
This number is often referred to as the loop number. Thus, the device abbreviation + loop number become the
unique tag number. While the device abbreviations are largely based on accepted standards (ISA S5.1), the
loop numbering system is company specific.
My group happens to use a four digit numbering system. In this case, typical tag numbers for pressure and
temperature indicators in our plants will be PI0134 and TI4348, respectively. You could even reuse the loop
number 0134 to define other types of devices, such as a level indicator, LI0134 or flow indicator, FI0134. The
same holds true for loop number 4348; it may be used for PI4348, LI4348 and HS4348 (where HS stands for
Hand Switch).
The key point is that the abbreviation + loop number must be unique for each device otherwise, it cannot be
uniquely identified. You can get creative and apply special prefixes (or suffix) numbers to the tag number when
you want to reuse the same tag (like in cases where you have redundant devices but you dont want them to have
different loop numbers). I will get into those when we look at the example P&IDs. But that is detail stuff.
What is that control symbol?
Refer to the first row in the table above. A circle symbol is quite simply any physical instrument or
device in the field or on a panel. It doesnt matter if it is a level transmitter, a flow meter, a pressure gauge or
some other type of indicator. If it is a physical device that measures or displays something, it will be illustrated
by the use of a circle on a P&ID.
Notice also how I placed the tag number PI0134 inside the symbol. The common practice is to place the device
function abbreviation on the top line, with the loop number at the bottom. When the device is ordered and a
stamped tag is requested, it should match the tag number placed inside the symbol on the P&ID.
Aside: Sometimes, you will hear folks refer to the symbols as instrument bubbles. This is just jargon that is
commonly used. When you hear it, they are simply referring categorically to the symbol shapes I am talking
about in this part. Just act like youve been calling them bubbles for years and show now sign of confusion!
Move down to the symbols on the second row of the table the ones that show a circle inside of a
square. These are used to represent a graphic on a computer screen or control panel that you can see and possibly
interface with via touch panel or a computer mouse. It might be used to show the level in a tank (as the tab
number in the bubble shown here suggests) or represent a hand switch that you can click on with the mouse to
start a pump (or a million other things!). The point is if you can see it on a control screen, it will be represented
as a circle inside a square on P&IDs. Dont ask me who decided this, it wasnt me!
The last two rows are for symbols that let the reader know a computer is used to do some sort of complex
processing. In the case of the hexagon, it means a computer is used. Thats a pretty vague description dont
you think? I mean, is your plant a PC or a Mac? I dont want to get into that debate (my wife uses a Mac,
otherwise I would) but my point is that some of these symbols begin to show their quaint age.
In the case of a square with a diamond in it, that means a programmable logic controller (PLC) is
used. Ah yes, the venerable PLC still hanging tough after all these years. Even if you are not familiar with
control computers or PLCs, dont sweat it. Just know that these symbols really represent software instructions
that engineers write to define the automated behavior of the plant.
For example, code that tells a pump to automatically stop when the tank it is pumping from runs low. That would
be a so-called low level interlock type function that would exist as instructions inside a PLC. In this instance, a
level element provides the input and the computer runs a set of instructions that say stop the pump if tank level
is low.
These symbols are often left off of P&IDs because they really dont provide any usable information that you
could get out of just looking at the symbol. For example, in the simple example that I just provided, how could
you describe the low level interlock using a symbol that looks like a square with a diamond in it? You couldnt!
You would need to supplement the P&ID with a written description of what the plant is supposed to do with all
of the input it receives. So the symbols would just take up space and clutter the drawing for no good reason other
than perhaps provide some pointer via a tag number to coded instructions. But the P&IDs serve the process, not
the programmer so we cant have that!
Symbology Star Power!

This brings me to the arbitrary star rating I gave all of the symbols in the table (see Bobs Review key at
bottom of table). Folks, this isnt published by the ISA (as if I had to qualify this) but weve been together
long enough for you to know that this is how I roll. Its my way of explaining the frequency and importance of
these symbols in most cases. Here goes.
For each symbol, I rate it based on how often it typically shows up on drawings that I have worked on over the
years. Every plant is different but there is a general theme here. I view symbols with only one star as pretty much
useless because the abstract concept they are trying to illustrate simply cant be done effectively with just
symbology.
Two star symbols have value but may not show up very often or at all in many cases, depending on the type of
plant and its design. Anything at or above three stars is a celebrity in our P&ID feature presentations. Were
talking Arnold Schwarzenegger, whereas the one star symbol is akin to the nondescript ensign killed off in the
first five minutes of a Star Trek episode.
So what about those quizzical computer symbols that I poke fun of? Well, you can still use them if you want but
they need heavy support from a document that describes all of the functional requirements of a plant and that is
typically called a Functional [Control] Description. Maybe in a future series (if youre good), we will cover
functional control aspects. Oh Goody! I can almost sense your joy at the thought! Hey, pay attention and no
smart remarks. We still have work to do here!
Where is the device located?

If you glance back at the table, you will see that there are four columns that provide the Where part of a
symbol. Now, as we discussed in Part 2 of this series, P&IDs generally arent good at showing you where
something is located in the field. We arent talking about that kind of where. In this case, we are using where as
a relative reference. Relative location is indicated via the presence of a centered, horizontal line (or lack thereof),
a dual centered horizontal line, or a dashed centered horizontal line placed inside the symbol;
1. Single horizontal line located on a main control panel near the control room or some computer screen
in the main control room,
2. No horizontal line located somewhere in the field, probably close to the general area shown on the
P&ID,
3. Double horizontal line on some secondary (satellite) local panel in the field.
4. Single dashed horizontal line inaccessible or not generally located where it can be easily accessed or
viewed. May also be used for hidden or password protected areas of a control system.
Notice in the above items, no specific location information is provided, only that the device or graphic is
associated with a relative, general location. In many cases, its not hard to figure out where something is just
from where the symbol is at on the drawing. But there are limits to what the symbol can convey.
More on the Dashes
I have found that the dashed line symbols can cause confusion so I want to speak on those a bit more.
When you see a symbol such as the one shown at left, that simply means that you cant normally see it or work
with that device it in the field. It might be installed behind or inside of a panel so that it is normally not in view
(inaccessible to the operator).
So in the symbols shown here, a circle with a dashed line in the middle means it is an instrument or device that
you cant normally see or get to. If you are an operator, it is probably something you do not need to get to but it
might still be vitally important to the plant control system, so we show it this way on a P&ID.
In a similar fashion, a graphic display symbol with a dashed line in the middle simply means that this portion of
the control system is password protected or hidden from normal view on a screen or operating panel so you cant
get to it unless you know the secret access code. Its not that people are keeping secrets from you (or maybe they
arehmmmm); its just that it might contain important settings that nobody should ever need to mess with.
Why is that device here?

Youve come a long way towards understanding control symbology. You can now identify what a control
symbol represents and its relative location in the plant. But you still dont know why its there. Its not helpful to
know how to identify a control symbol type if you cannot explain what purpose it serves in the plant. That is the
point of the textual abbreviations placed inside the symbols.
We touched on this a bit above so now lets cover the essence of what you need to know and keep in mind,
come of this is the way I like to do things, which doesnt necessarily mean it is the best or only way.
Refer to the figure below entitled Instrument Symbol Tag Identification. A control symbol will typically
contain two lines inside it, as follows:
1. Upper Line an abbreviation for the functionality it provides (based on the ISA 5.1 standard), and
2. Lower Line a loop number that corresponds to the equipment or area it is associated with (or based on
your companys preferred standard).
The upper line text abbreviation, along with the lower line tag number makes up the unique symbol
identification tag. It is important that each symbol have a unique tag so that it can be individually identified. In
this example, the symbol would be referred to as PDIT1703 in a process document or operating procedure.
There may be a bunch of other symbols with 1703 in them, but they must have a different text abbreviation
before the 1703 or you wont be able to uniquely identify it. Part 4 of this series will talk more about typical
device tagging protocols but for now; consider this your Introduction to Tagging 101.
The letters on the first line are in accordance with ISA standard 5.1, as described in the upper left corner of lead
sheet D001. Each letter provides unique information. We can use the table in D001 to determine that this symbol
represents:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
P First Letter stands for Pressure

D Second letter is a modifier for the first and stands for Differential
I Third letter stands for Indicating
T Fourth letter stands for Transmitter
1703 is the loop number (the Electrical Engineering eggheads need loop numbers too)
I like to base loop numbers off the associated major equipment. Thats just me, and I think it makes good sense.
But if your company uses a different technique, roll with it. Now is not the time to be a renegade creator of new
tagging systems. Fight your battles but win your wars!
So in this case, we have a pressure differential indicating transmitter installed on equipment 1703. You might see
such a device across a strainer inlet and outlet to let you know what the pressure drop is across it so that you can
clean it when it gets high.
Common Instrument Abbreviations

There are a number of instrument letter combinations that you are likely to come across a lot. A few of these are
listed in the figure titled Common Primary Device Symbols. These examples will help you get some practice
understanding the abbreviations used for control symbols. You can compare the examples to the table on D001
to get the hang of it. These examples all represent field-mounted devices. We know that because they are all
simple circle symbols with no horizontal lines. I told you this was pretty straight forward!
The hardest part in deciphering the abbreviations inside control symbols is figuring out what the letters designate
when there are three or more letters used. Here are a couple rules of thumb:
In the case of abbreviations with four letters, the second letter is a modifier to the first.
When only three letters are used, the second letter probably is not a modifier.
As with any rule of thumb, you mileage may vary, so if in doubt, look it up using the table on D001 (or your
own company lead sheets).
Symbol Attributes
Depending on the symbol purpose, various other attributes may be placed near control symbols in supporting
role. The section called Instrument Abbreviations on lead sheet D001 defines some of the more common ones
you might run into. These are simply helpful bits that provide further clarification for the situation at hand.
In many cases, it is helpful to know at a glance that a valve is FC (Fail Closed) or that DI is a (Digital Input).
Refer to this table when you encounter abbreviations used around control symbols.
Instrument Input-Output (I/O)
Despite major advances in computer technology and

communications protocols, many instruments still transmit their signals using a trusty analog signal (via a 420ma, 24V). For switched devices, the input is typically a switch that simply provides a voltage input.
While it is not a common practice to show the type of signal a particular device sends to and/or receives from the
control system (collectively referred to as the I/O), in my company I like to employ simple triangular symbols
along the interconnecting lines to help illustrate the I/O flow (if you will) on a P&ID. This is illustrated using the
symbols shown in the figure below.
The important point to remember when you see these symbols is that the I/O flow is always from the control
computers perspective. Thus, all outputs (DO, AO) come out of a output module and go to some field device.
Conversely, all inputs (DI, AI) are signals from field devices that flow into some input module.
Other types of I/O that may require specialized transducer cards or network protocols are sometimes used. For
example, the KT signal is a common type of signal that a thermocouple employs. You may have also heard of
RTD temperature sensors. There are a myriad of transmission protocols used today and as process engineers, we
dont need to get caught up in that. But it is helpful to understand the flow of I/O in a plant and using these
symbols is a cheap, easy way of showing that with no penalty on the complexity of the drawing!
All of the I/O symbols invariably link to the software line type (described below), as this is used to illustrate
software processing within a computer or PLC. You dont know what is taking place just by looking at a line,
but you can be sure that whatever it is, the Functional Control Description is the place to look to find out.
Line Symbols
The key line types are highlighted in the figure at right. By far,
the most common line type is the solid line, which is used to represent a pipe. Although not shown, a process
line with long dashes means the pipe is existing or is outside the battery limits (OSBL) of the plant.
Other common line types that you should be able to identify are electrical signal (anywhere wires are employed),
instrument air to control valves/devices (labeled as pneumatic signal) and software or data link which includes
virtual communication such as what occurs inside a computer program or PLC ladder logic.
The software can include anything that happens inside a computer, but you need a functional description to
actually know what that is, as we discussed earlier in this brief. Just know that when you see a software line, it
means computers are at work linking the devices in some meaningful way that relates to the system controls.
Computing Functions
These symbols describe the types of functions that run inside a computer program. A problem with applying
these symbols is that they do not really provide solid insights into how the plant is controlled in complex
instances. For this reason, most P&IDs will make limited use of computing function symbols.
You can safely ignore these and not miss out on much because the functional control description is really
intended to describe control details that these symbols try to illustrate.
Valve Symbols
The figures below show the key symbols for the various types of manually-operated valves and actuator details
for automated valves. Note the attributed stems on the actuators to indicate fail state. This is a good example of
using attributes to provide key information that is valuable to operations.
Connection Types
Regarding connections, the symbology shown in the figure below is standard. One point I will make is that in
plastic piping systems (PVC, CPVC and ABS), everything is generally glued using a connection type called
socket weld. However, socket weld can also be applied to metallic piping systems where a welded connection
is employed using socketed (versus butt weld) fittings.
There is no specific designation between glued or welded socket connections. Nor is there a symbol for threaded
connections.
When you start getting into what type of connection should be used in a particular
pipe, this is not really something that is based on personal preference or simply what you might have on hand in
the maintenance trailer. This is something that is based on things like the line service (whats in the line),
conditions (temperature, pressure), and other factors (like supporting requirements).
This kind of stuff is defined in a Material and Line Specification Standard. We wont cover that in detail here but
you know what? I just got an idea! This is great topic for a future series. The fun never ends does it?
What about pipe fittings?

In case you are wondering (and I know you were), P&IDs generally do not show pipe fittings (elbows, tees,
unions, o-lets, etc.). Nor will they include all the various flanged connections
that might
actually exist in the plant. These are details that show up on piping plans/sections, isometrics and fabrication
drawings. So, unless it is important to the process design for some reason, fittings and extraneous flanged
connection are generally not shown. If you need to get a fitting take-off, look elsewhere!
Transducer Functions
This is an area that defines signal conversion. Only electrical engineers get excited about this stuff, and you
really dont need to focus too much on this. In fact, I almost skipped it but I just know that if I did someone
would ask, so lets get this out of the way because this electrical stuff is starting to get a tad boring
A transducer is something that takes a signal in one form and converts in into another form so that it can be used
by a downstream device. For example, a control valve may need air to actuate but receive an electrical signal to
tell it to do that. Somehow, you have to get the electric signal converted into an equivalent air signal so the valve
can move. Hello signal transducer.
In this particular example, an I/P (current to pneumatic) transducer is

necessary so that the valve can be positioned to any desired opening point with just an electrical signal. This is
the most common transducer function used in many plants; the others listed are comparatively rare.
So, understand what I/P means when you see it and dont worry too much about the rest of them for now. When
you graduate to Master Ninja P&ID interpreter, then we will focus on these details.
Primary Flow Elements

These symbols are nothing more than graphic illustrations that complement the control bubbles to help readers of
the drawing more easily identify the type of flow element being employed. The most common types are shown
in this table on D001.
These symbols are not really critical towards an understanding of the instrumentation or controls. Level elements
dont have an equivalent. Nor do other common instrument types.
Codes,TagsandLabelsInterpretingPipingandInstrumentationDiagrams[Part
4of5]
Part 4 Codes, Tags and Labels

So you are back for more in Part 4? After all we went through in Part 3, those still standing probably deserve a
medal or something. That said, unlike Part 3 where we really covered a lot of detailed nuts-and-bolts, this part
will be a comparative piece of cake. Kind of like the last day of school where you know you still need to go and
it might even be kind of fun, but you dont have to do any real work and the stuff you do take home will be
memories not homework. Thats the frame of mind you need to have for Part 4, ok?
But before you take this as a cue to start shooting spitballs at your host, sit up straight because this part is vital to
your understanding and development of clean, clear, odor-free P&IDs.
Since this series is kind of long (hey, who snorted!?), lets get the requisite recap out of the way for those who
missed the previous parts and need to circle back:
Part1talkedaboutwhytheinterpretationofP&IDsisimportanttoeveryoneinvolvedintheplanning,design,
andconstructionthroughoperationofaprocessplant.
Part2describedthevariousfunctionsP&IDsserveandhighlightedthekindsofinformationtheyconvey,along
withthesupportdocumentsthatarecommonlyassociatedwiththem.Wealsotalkedaboutsomeoftheir
weaknesses.
Part3coveredthenittygrittyaspectsofinstrumentationandcontrolsymbology.Alongwiththat,wedissected
tagabbreviationsandhowloopnumbersuniquelyidentifydevices.Sincewewereonaroll,weclosedoutthis
partwithalltheancillaryI/Osymbols,linetypes,pipingconnectionsandothervarioussundryitemsperipheralto
themaintheme.
Up till now, we have spent a great deal of our time focusing on the first lead sheet, D001 Instrumentation and
Valves, provided along with other drawings in the supporting file download to this series. In this Part 4, we will
turn our attention to the remaining lead sheet, D002 Codes, Tags, and Labels.
As I have mentioned previously, D002 is an example lead sheet typical of the ones I have used in the past. It may
look different from the ones your company uses and thats OK. Its not as important how a company prefers to
do labeling on a P&ID, only that they do it clearly, consistently and based on a robust system that is amenable to
future change and additions. An extensible tagging system if you will. Thats a concept that may be a bit
unfamiliar to some so I will discuss that as a sort of prerequisite. Hang in there, I see the finish linejust around
the corner!
P&IDs Are Really Databases, Wait..what?

While P&IDs are representations of the process to the casual observer, their underlying structure more closely
resembles a relational database. In fact, for those of you familiar with todays common computer aided drafting
packages, you may realize that a CAD drawing is really a database of objects assembled in a structured manner.
Even if you reuse the same object over and over in a drawing, the CAD system keeps track of it with a unique
identifier. This is very similar to a process plant in that, well for starters, we apply tags to keep track of
equipment, piping, valves, devices, etc.things that we reuse over and over again in any given process design.
So I am here to tell you folks, when you design a process and develop the P&IDs in CAD, you are really
assembling a database along the way. This isnt lunacy with half a bowtie. Im serious and I would urge you to
get familiar with relational database design, if only from an academic standpoint. Like object-oriented
programming, these abstract concepts are extremely valuable towards implementation in our line of work.
Some examples? Ok, behold my exhibitslike a database, a process plant illustrated using CAD on a set
of P&IDs:
Containscollectionsofsimilarobjectswithuniquetagssothatevenidenticalobjects(valves,pumps,
instruments,etc.)canbeuniquelyidentified.
Isassembledinastructuredmannerthatlendsitselftoadditions,deletions,changes,etc.withagranularityas
coarseaswholeunitareas,downtoasinglevalveonapipeanywhereintheplant.
Containslotsofmetadatainthetaggingsystemsthatcaninherentlyprovide(orlinkto)muchmoredetailsuchas
specifications,materialsofconstruction,datasheets,etc.
Theres more than just the above but I will rest my case. I hope you agree that while the tags and labels
themselves are self-evident, the real power is in the underlying tagging system used. And so youre still thinking,
why must a tagging system be so robust and extensible? I mean, come on Bob, arent you making a mountain
out of mole hill?
Well, glad you asked; the answer is quite simply because most plants change over their useful life. Change
comes from a lot of different angles:
OperationalTweaksimprovementsoftencomefromtheoperationsfolks.Inmyexperience,someofthebest
improvementstoaplantdontcomefromtheeggheadengineerssittingintheircubicles,butfromthefolksin
theplantdealingwiththemachineeachandeveryday.Itisintheirinteresttomakeitworkbetter,saferand
cheaper.
Capacity/ProductionChangesoften,aparticularunitoperationneedstobeexpandedtomeetnewproduction
requirementsorchangesinfeedstockorproductrequirementsthatshifttheprocessdesignneeds.Iveseen
instanceswherecompletenewtrainshavetobeaddedtoasystem.
PSMAuditReviewProcessSafetyManagementrequiresthatprocessdocumentationbekeptuptodateand
routineplantauditsandProcessHazardReviewmayrevealchangesthatshouldbeimplementedtoaplantthatis
alreadyinoperation.TheP&IDsarethereferenceuponwhichsuchreviewsarebasedandmustalwaysbeina
currentAsBuiltstate.
The key take-away from the list above is that the P&IDs serve initially as the process definition upon which the
plant is designed. But then they serve operations long after the plant is built. This is why earlier in this series I
espoused the need for engineers to be routinely, actively engaged in ongoing operations. Not only will you learn
a lot about the plant that you yourself may have helped build, the feedback you receive will be invaluable to
maintaining a safe operation. Plus, you can implement the lessons learned on future projects.
Now that Ive driven home the importance of a structured tagging system, lets turn attention to the meat of this
Part 4the actual tagging of equipment and devices.
Equipment Tags
Lots of companies use what appears initially to be an intuitive, simple system to tag equipment. It later reveals
itself not to be very intuitive or robust. Lets pause for fictitious example (that bears no resemblance to my past,
really).
GitRDun Process, Inc. has decided to build a new plant to produce Trimethylkabif, a precursor to a drug that
yields quick weight loss, improved memory and muscle tone while eliminating irritable bowl, gastric reflux and
attention deficit. The process folks start out tagging equipment as follows:
PumpsaresimplytaggedP1,P2,P3(makessenseright?)
AgitatorsaretaggedAG1,AG2,AG3,etc.Dudethisissosimple!
AndofcoursetanksandvesselsaretaggedTK1,TK2,TK3(orV1,V2,V3).Coulddothisinmysleep
And so onLife is good. Later on, though less common equipment starts getting added, and this starts to stress
the intuitive nature of the system.
For example, a centrifuge is initially tagged C-1 but now they need to add a conveyor but C is taken so they
decide to call the conveyor CO-1. Now they think, well, we will just revise the centrifuge tag to CE-1. Crisis
avoidedBut wait, later they need to add a chemical feed package and want to tag that CF-1. OK, thats cool but
then a bunch of cross flow filter modules is added they decide to steal the CF label for those and change the
chemical feed to CE, no waitcant do that, CE is taken by the centrifuge. So they bite the proverbial bullet and
call the chemical feed skid CS-1 where S is intuitive for supply. Right? Try again quiz kid. Nobody is going to
see that as intuitive. And then one day, it hits GitRDuns process engineers that their initially conceived so-called
intuitive tagging system is a heap of broken confusion and nobody knows their CEs from their COs. Cue the
Jackson 5 song A B C, simple as 1 2 3!
ABetterTagNumberingSystem
To avert the problems inherent in the above example, many process industries utilize a numeric-only system for
tagging equipment. This helps simplify the logical categorization of equipment during the process design phase.
Moreover, a structured tag system is more intuitive for the development of design documentation, operating
procedures and training, and general documentation upkeep/maintenance. With that in mind (and considering the
points presented earlier in this Part), the following method is but one example of how to tag process equipment
using an extensible system.
AreaNumber,AN
Most sizable process plants are comprised of multiple areas. An area is a physical, geographical, or logical
grouping determined by the site. It may contain process cells, units, equipment modules, and control modules
(more details can be found at isa.org). To facilitate a hierarchical organization of equipment, equipment tags
should then incorporate area designation.
A small or simple project may have only one area. Conversely, larger more complex
projects may have multiple areas. The assignment of areas is at the discretion of the process engineer and can be
subjective. The only general rule that I like to employ is that common equipment that serves multiple areas, e.g.,
utility and infrastructure system be placed into a Common Resources area rather than be made a part of any
other process area. Once areas have been designated for a particular project type, engineers should strive to
maintain common area designations on future, similar projects. For example, the areas shown in the figure above
may be defined on the lead sheet for a fictitious project.
EquipmentTypes,ET
Equipment can be identified based on its type using a numeric system such as the simple one shown below. In
cases where equipment has multiple functions, user discretion is advised in selecting the most suitable type code.
SequenceNumber,SQ
This is the consecutive numbering of like equipment in a particular area. The sequence begins with 01. All
equipment is to a have its own sequence number. The use of alphabetic or other tag suffixes is to be avoided.
ExampleEquipmentTags
Using the system outlined above, a four-digit system emerges that may not be instantly recognizable in terms of
what the specific equipment is (or where), but it will eventually become very familiar to those who are intimate
with the plant. A few examples using the area numbers defined above are provided below:
1101Thefirstpumpinthetankfarmarea.
1701Thefirsttankinthetankfarmarea.
1405Thefifthmixerinthetankfarmarea.
2901AvendorpackageintheTrain1area.
The equipment tag number should be prominently displayed near the symbol used for the equipment. For
example, the tag number for a centrifuge might appear as follows on a P&ID.
Lastly, all major equipment should be named and provided general specifications in a label placed along the
drawing border. A couple examples for a pump and tank follow.
It is up to your company to decide on the final formatting, location (some companies like to put certain
equipment labels near the top of the border), and which particular specifications should be included along with
each major equipment label. The system presented here is fairly simple and broadly applicable. Irrespective of
these details, I highly recommend that every piece of major equipment receive a label with a similar level of
detail.
Instrument Loop Numbers

A benefit of using four digit equipment numbering system such as the one presented above is that the tags lend
themselves toward application in defining associated instrument loops. This makes grouping equipment and
associated instrumentation devices more logical.
Think back to our friends at GitRDun Process, Inc. Their tagging system consisted of tags like P-1, AG-1, CE-2,
etc. These tags are not amenable for use in defining instrument loops. However, a four digit system does neatly
tuck into instrument bubbles and when you think about it, most instruments and devices serve or are primarily
associated with a piece of equipment. And even when that is not the case, they can readily borrow from the
equipment type code 9 in cases where, for instance, a pressure gauge on an air header serving the entire area
must be defined.
Considering the above points, the following instrument and device tagging system is but one effective way to tag
instruments and devices:
Where;
PXdevicetypeprefix(asperISA5.1)
EQtheassociatedequipmenttag(asdefinedabove)
SXduplicateorredundantdevicesuffix(seedetailsbelow)
DuplicateSuffix,SXRules
A suffix is provided to accommodate instances were many devices of the same type are associated with a given
piece of equipment. For example, a vessel may have many lines connected to it, each having its own actuated
valve. To resolve these instances so that each device has its own unique loop number, there are two suffix tag
methods that can be employed,
1. Ifapieceofequipmenthasredundantdevicesassociatedwithit,analphabeticsuffixmaybeappendedtothe
loopnumber,e.g.,FV1101A,FV1101B,FV1101C,etc.(Note:Redundantmeansservingthesamepurposeas
anotherdeviceinabackupfashion.)
2. Ifapieceofequipmenthasmultipleitemsofthesametype,eachofwhichwithdifferentfunctions(not
redundant)thenanumericsystemshouldbeemployed,e.g.,FV11011,FV11012,etc.
ExampleLoopTags
Based on the above discussion, some example loop tags are provided below. If needed, the reader can visit a
more though discussion in Part 3 regarding instrument abbreviations. (Note: In the examples provided, I use the
example Area Numbers presented as examples above.)
PI1101Apressureindicatoronthedischargeofthefirstpumpinthetankfarmarea.
LT1701Aleveltransmitteronthefirsttankinthetankfarmarea.
IT1405Acurrenttransmitter(forthemotor)onthefifthagitatorinthetankfarmarea.
AE1701AOneofatleasttworedundantanalyzersonthefirsttankinthetankfarm.Hence,onewouldexpectto
seeAE1701B,AE1701Casindicated.
XV17011Anactuatedvalveonthefirsttankinthetankfarmarea.Thesuffix1impliesthereareothervalves
associatedwithtank1701butinanalternateservice(i.e.,notredundant).Forexample,XV17011maybeonthe
inlettothetank,whileXV17012maybeontheoutlet.
Line Numbers
Similar to equipment and instrumentation, every pipe on a P&ID requires a unique tag number so that it can be
uniquely identified during design, or referenced in operating procedures. Since most lines are also affiliated with
a major piece of equipment to which they connect, I like to employ a numbering system similar to that used for
instrument loops whereby the equipment tag is integrated into the line tag in the following manner (Note: D002
provides an alternate method that employs drawing number instead of equipment number but I generally prefer
the method given below.)
XSVCET:SQLS
Where;
Xthenominalsizeofthepipe
SVCtheservicecodeforthematerialthatnormallyflowsintheline(seeexamplesbelowforlist)
ET:SVCauniquelinetagthatincludestwoparts,theequipmenttagfromwhichthelineoriginatesfollowedby
auniquesequentialnumber
LSlinespecificationforthepipe,includingclassandmaterialtype,valvesetc.
ServiceCodes,SVC
Servicecodesareabbreviationsforthefluidthelineprimarilyhandles.
Since some lines can serve many different process fluids, the fluid used to specify the materials for the line
should go here. The list should be available on a lead sheet in a manner similar to that provided in the example
above.
LineSpecifications,LS
Line specifications cover all the details related to the piping system used to handle the fluid for the line. This
should include all details regarding material of construction, valves and trim, gaskets, fittings, T/P limits, and
much more. This is beyond the scope of this series but is such a critical component of plant design that I might
expand on this in a future post.
Hand Valves
Hand valves require a consistent and clear tagging system for reference in operating procedures. There are a
number of techniques that can be used, but one that I generally prefer is as follows.
In the example provided at left, one can discern valve size, spec and tag
number. This might be more information than you want to include on some P&IDs. In cases where you just
want to show the valve tag and allow the spec and size to be derived implicitly from the line tag, the following
method is one option:
V D# SQ
Where;
HVorVAliteralandrequiredpartofallhandvalvetags
D#lasttwodigitsofP&IDdrawingnumber
SQSequenceNumber(01to99)
V0001ThefirsthandvalveonP&IDD100
V1205ThefifthhandvalveonP&IDD102
Example Hand Valve Tags
V0001ThefirsthandvalveonP&IDD100
V1205ThefifthhandvalveonP&IDD102
Wrap-Up
Further to the content in this part, D002 includes a few more examples of common tags and codes applied in
P&IDs, such as insulation, interconnecting arrows, etc. These are important parts but are pretty self-evident.
Aside from that, most companies have very specific ways and means on these items so I wont cover them in
depth here.

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INSTRUMENT DOCUMENTS

Document Number: J-CPP-LST-00-0002

Instrument Data Sheet

See List on Page 2

See List on Page 2

Prod. Separator Gas Press. Tr.1

-20 ~ 120 / 75 ~ 130

Prod. Separator Gas Press. Tr.1

-20 ~ 120 / 75 ~ 130

Prod. Separator Gas Press. Tr.2

-20 ~ 120 / 75 ~ 130

Prod. Separator Gas Press. Tr.2

-20 ~ 120 / 75 ~ 130

Instrument Loop Diagram

Field instrument to control system (or vice versa)

Signal from Control Panel to control system (or vice versa)

Signal from MCC to control system (or vice versa)

Signal form one control system to another system

The purpose of instrument loop diagram

Reference document: Instrument Index / I/O List

Document Number: J-CPP-LST-00-0003

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

SIS MARSHALLING CABINET

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

DIGITAL INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

PCS MARSHALLING CABINET

FLOW INDICATING TRANSMITTER - DP TYPE

ANALOG INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

FLOW TRANSMITTER - TURBINE TYPE

ANALOG INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

LEVEL INDICATING TRANSMITTER - MAGNETOSTRICTIVE

ANALOG INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

ANALOG INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

PRESSURE INDICATING TRANSMITTER

ANALOG INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

ANALOG INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

TEMPERATURE INDICATING TRANSMITTER

ANALOG INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

ANALOG INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

PCS MARSHALLING CABINET

LEVEL INDICATING TRANSMITTER - MAGNETOSTRICTIVE

ANALOG INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

LEVEL INDICATING TRANSMITTER - MAGNETOSTRICTIVE

ANALOG INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

PRESSURE INDICATING TRANSMITTER

ANALOG INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

LEVEL INDICATING TRANSMITTER - MAGNETOSTRICTIVE

ANALOG INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX

ANALOG INSTRUMENT JUNCTION BOX